BEING Notes on various Subjects connected with China BY J. DYER BALL M.R.A.S. //.J/. Civil Service, Hongkong. AUTHOR OF 1 CANTONESE MADE EASY,' J-fow TO SPEAK CANTONESE,' j-iow TO WI^ITE CHINESE,' Xon&on : SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, AND COMPANY, LIMITED. & HOXGKOSG, SHANGHAI, YOKOHAMA AXD SINGAPORE. 1892. (All Uights Registered in accordance with the provisions of Ordinance No. 10 of 1888, at the office of the registrar General, Supreme Court ffoifse, Hongkong. PREFACE ON the appearance of ' Things Japanese,' it was suggested to the Author that he should prepare a book on similar lines with regard to Chinese subjects, and the present volume is the result. His thanks are due to B. H. CHAMBERLAIN, Esquire, for the courtesy and kindness which accorded him a ready assent to the request that the classification and plan of arrangement used in 4 Things Japanese ' might be copied in ' Things Chinese ' as far as was compatible with the subject matter of the latter. The book is neither a glossary nor an encyclopedia ; and while therefore containing more than could be found in a mere word-book, yet, on the other hand, it would be impossible in the limits of such a small work to treat exhaustively of the different things touched upon. At the same time it is hoped that sufficient has been written under each heading to give a good idea, as well as a fair one, to the reader. Thirty years in China have given the Author many opportunities of observing and studying the Chinese in almost every aspect of their life and character : and he has largely availed himself of his personal experience of them and of their curious habits and customs in the production of this book. He is, however, also indebted to many writers on China, whose opinions on certain subjects are well worth reproducing, and who are competent to give information. Where quotations have been made, many of them will be found to be extracted from the books recommended at the end of the articles : in such cases it seemed unnecessary to acknowledge explicitly in each instance the source from which the quotation was derived, and such acknowledgment would have unduly encumbered the pages with foot notes ; it has been thought sufficient to indicate other quoted matter simply by inverted commas. The advice of CHARLES FORD, Esquire, F.L.S., was sought on several points connected with the short article on Botany ; and to any others English or Chinese from whom a suggestion may have been received or a fact gleaned, the Author desires to express his best thanks. J. DYER BALL. Honykony, lltlt December, 1801. OTHER WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. PRICE. $ -/. ' CANTONESE MADE EASY.' 2nd Edition - - - - - - 3.00 'How TO SPEAK CANTONESE' 3.00 'THE CANTONESE MADE EASY Vocabulary' 1.00 'AN EXGLISH-CANTONESE Pocket Vocabulary ' .... 75 'EASY SENTENCE IN THE CANTONESE DIALECT with a Vocabulary,' being the first part of ' Cantonese Made Easy ' and ' The Cantonese Made Easy Vocabulary' bound in one volume - - - 2.00 'EASY SENTENCES is THE HAKKA DIALECT, with a Vocabulary ' 1.00 'How TO WRITE THE RADICALS' 75 'How TO WRITE CHINESE,' Parti. - - - .- - - 2.00 'THE SAN-WUI DIALECT' ........ f,o THE TUXG-KWUN DIALECT' -------- 50 THE ENGLISH-CHINESE COOKERY BOOK' 2.00 THINGS CHINESE. ABACUS. The abacus or counting-board is as much a necessity in a merchant's office, or shroff's counting-room, as his account-books; without the abacus he would be at a complete loss to make up his accounts, and his books would therefore be unnecessary. Arithmetic forms no part of a .school-boy's work; no little heathen Chinee ever has to sing ' The rule of three it bothers me, And fractions drive me mad,' as both the one and the other are utterly unknown to him. Not even the simplest knowledge of arithmetic will ever be learned by him as a lesson, unless he is destined for a mercantile life, or to be a tradesman, or hawker, &c. What little idea of casting up figures he possesses, he picks up when bargaining for food or toys, or when staking a few cash for sweetmeats at the wayside stall. The ordinary Celestial is content to get through life with as little ' knowledge of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division as would serve an English youngster of six or eight years of age.' A very little goes a long Avay with him, but nearly every man can finger the abacus to a greater or less extent ; and those who have much to do Avith accounts get very dexterous in the use of it, going through the calculations most rapidly. We had once the curiosity to time a Chinese accountant from a native shipping office when turning different items expressed in taels and their decimals items of four, five and six figures into dollars and cents, and we found he worked these sums out in from ten to fifteen seconds. The modus operandi is as follows: Putting his abacus down on the table before him, and his books a trifle more to 2 77//.\Vr'N C the left, tho accountant commences his calculations, using the thumb and forefinger of his right hand to flick the little balls up or down as he requires, only using the backs of his other three fingers, when, his sum done, he sweeps the upper balls to the top of the board, and the lower ones down to tin- bottom the positions they occupy when not in actual use. The principle is simply that of the framework of wires M'ith coloured beads used in England to teach children to count. With the Chinese, however, it is like an oblong tray M'ith bars running from top to bottom, and a transverse bar running from one side to the other, thus dividing the board into two unequal divisions. On each bar in the upper ilivision are two balls, while on the same bars in the loAver division arc five balls, the latter each stand for one, the fi >rmer each for five ; so. if one is to be represented, one of the lower ones is pushed up against the cross-bar, if two, two are pushed up, and so on till four, after Avhich. all the lower halls are pushed back again, and one of the upper balls is pushed down to the transverse bar to stand for five. If .six is to be represented, one of the lower balls is pushed up to the cross-bar, on the other side of which is the upper ball, for five and one make six. The other lower balls arc added one after the other to represent seven, eight, and nine respec- tively, and for ten one on the next bar to the left is used, and the calculation goe> on in the same way as before. The operator fixing then on one of the upright bars a-> representing units, the next bar to the left stands for tens. the next one for hundreds, the next for thousands, and BO on, while in the oppo>itc direction, to the right hand, the decimals tenths, liundredths. thousandths, and so on are represented on the consecutive bars, in the same way as with our figures. The great defect of the abacus is. that it simply represents the process of calculation as it proceeds, for, as can readily be understood, each step in the calculation calls , ' . of !>;il!s into play, and has the effect of obliterating the previous step: so that, if a mistake has been . be _;. .iie i >\ ':' again. ABATEMENT. 3 It is amusing to see the utter helplessness the Chinese often display in trying to add two simple numbers together, if without an abacus. When the shutters are taken down at daylight from the shop-fronts in Canton, the shopman ensures, as he thinks, good luck for the day by shaking the balls of the abacus back and forward; at first slowly, but gradually increasing in speed until finally a continuous sharp clicking sound is produced. ABATEMENT. Nearly every Chinese tradesman or merchant states the price of his goods with a view to an abatement being made. The only exceptions amongst purely native shops are Tea-dealers, Cake-shops, and Druggists. At such places there is no need for haggling over prices. Exception must also be made in favour of the shops dealing almost exclusively with Europeans, where many are beginning to conform to foreign customs and have a fixed price. A Chinese will take as much as he can get, but as a general rule it is quite safe to suppose that he is asking a quarter or a third more than he expects to receive; conse- quently offer him half of what lie asks, then Avhilc he gradually falls in his price, as gradually rise in the offer made to him until neutral ground is reached, when split the difference, and he will probably be glad to take Avhat you give him. But this must all be done with a perfect nonchalance : no eagerness to obtain the object must be shown; no words of praise must fall from your lips; any little defects in it must be pointed out: 'It is naught, it is naught, saith the buyer: but when he is gone his way then he boastcth.' When in doubt as to the value of anything, a very good plan is to go about beating down the price in several different shops. A pretty shrewd guess may then be made- as to what is a fair price for the article; for when a shopman sees a customer on the point of leaving his shop, he will come down to nearly as low a figure as he is prepared to accept. A Chinaman dearly loves a bargain, and there is a positive pleasure t<.>.lum in chaffering over the price, which the foreigner (to whom time is money) can scarcely appreciate. 4 THINGS CHINESE. Looked at from a Western standpoint, it is simply appalling to think of the hours, days, weeks, months, and years, which must be wasted in the aggregate in China over the carrying out of this eastern trait of character. There is an amusing skit, translated by Giles in his * Historic China and other Sketches,' which is an admirable parody on the language of the market and the shop, and holds up this custom of the Chinese to ridicule. It is styled ' The Country of Gentlemen,' and represents an ideal state of society where the tables are turned the buyer cracking up the goods he is purchasing, and offering and insisting on the seller taking a higher price than is demanded for them, Avhile the latter depreciates his wares, asking far too little for them, the two haggling over the price at great length as in the every-day world in China the only difference being that buyer and seller have changed places. ABORIGINAL TRIBES.Thc present race of Chinese is supposed to have come into the country some four thousand years ago. They were not the first occupiers however, and it has been only very gradually that they have succeeded in driving out the Aborigines. They are still slowly doing this in some parts of the Empire, as for instance in Formosa, but large tracts of country in the south and south-west of the eighteen provinces are still possessed by the former inhabitants, Avho hold their own against the Chinese, and are reported in some parts to even have thousands of Chinese as slaves in their inaccessible fastnesses, thus retaliating on the Chinese, who some centuries since exposed them to the same treatment. The provinces in which these representatives of former races are found, arc Kwei-chau, Sz-chuen, Yun-nan, Kwang- tung, and Kwang-si, and the Islands of Formosa and Hal-nan. In Sz-chuen a considerable portion of the west and south- west of the province is sparsely inhabited by some forty or fifty native tribes, of which little is known : some are very warlike, and constant depredations are committed by them. They have their own chiefs, languages, customs, and manners. The late Mr. Colborne Baber, of the Consular ABORIGINAL TRIBES, 5 Service, obtained a specimen of the written language of the Lolos one of these tribes it is a most peculiar sort of caligraphy, and presents no point of resemblance to Chinese, or anything else that one is familiar with. In Kwei-chau province they appear to be scattered all over the province; and the same in Yuri-nan, where about two-thirds of the 'inhabitants consist of various tribes of Lo-lo, Li-su, Mu-su, Man-tzu, and Miao-tzu.' In Kwang-tung they are located in the north-west of the province, and in Kwang-si in the north-east. The eastern half of the large island of Formosa is occupied by numerous tribes of more or less savage natives, whose country is almost inaccessible, and who are con- tinually making sorties on the settled Chinese from their mountain recesses, where they are secure from molestation. The object of many of these raids is head-hunting. They speak different, but allied languages, tattoo their bodies, and are called Che-whan. Besides these, there are the ancient inhabitants of the western half, who were driven from the rich coast lands by the Chinese about two hundred years ago, and are now scattered through the length of the island, generally settled on the hilly land at the foot of the mountain ranges. Some even, annoyed by the attacks of the wild tribes mentioned above, as well as by the oppression of the Chinese, have settled in the eastern part of the island. These civilized Aborigines are called Pepo-whan, some who still speak their native language are called Sek-whan, Avhile the others speak Chinese. 'The Pepo-whan are a large and well- formed race.' With the exception of the women, they now dress nearly like the Chinese, and their dialects have been dropped for Chinese. Their language is similar to that of the savage inhabitants, and would appear ' to be connected with the aboriginal languages of the Philippines ' and the Malay. As amongst so many primitive races, drink is doing its deadly Avork in their midst, one tribe having completely disappeared, owing in a great measure to it. In the Island of Hai-nan, the aboriginal Le tribes have maintained their independence against the Chinese for nearly <> 77//AT/N (7/AVA'N/-:. two thousand years, having, like the Formosan savage tribes, been driven from the coast into the mountains in the interior. They are divided into civilised and uncivilised Les, and are physically strong and well developed. They have the art of writing, which is described by the Chinese as 'like the wriggling of worms.' There is so great a difference in some of the languages spoken by the different tribes, that the natives converse with each other in Chinese. The women arc 4 tattooed and wear skirts. There are also some of the -Miao-ts/ amongst them; these 3Iiao-ts/ being found largely in other parts of China. To show the number and extent of these remnants of a former race and civilization in China, it may be pointed out that in the provinces of Hu-nan. Kwci-chau, Kwang-si, Yun- nan, and Sz-chucn. the aboriginal tribes Miau-tsz and others occupy an area of country equal to that of France, and are some millions in number, representing numerous tribes ; as many as one hundred and eighty being mentioned, though perhaps not so many are in existence now. They are supposed to have come through Burmah into China. As with most of these aboriginal inhabitants of China, the dress of the women is more distinctive than that of the men. In the Lin-chau prefecture of the Kwang-tung province and the south of the Hu-nan province are to be found the lu tribes, who were brought in the twelfth century from the Kwang-si province, and settled on the mountains. Their hair is worn long; they arc short in stature; and have scanty beards. They, as well as other aboriginal tribes, wear cloths bound round their legs from the knee to the ankle. No foreigner is allowed by the Chinese to penetrate into their haunts, which an- now restricted in extent to what they were originally, for the more civilised Chinese have confined them within recent times to the high and inaccessible mountains. They have no written language, and their speech is quite distinct from the Chinese. Their number is perhaps .-)0.()00. It has been suggested that the Japanese arc descendants of the Man or Mian tribes, Avho crossed over from the south of China to their future island home. At the time of their emi- gration they were the only inhabitants of the south of China. So little is known about many of these communities of primitive man scattered here and there throughout China, their mountain homes are so inaccessible, the accounts of their curious customs, simplicity, origin, and peculiar written languages -when they have such the harsh and cruel treatment they have received from the Chinese, their patriotic stand for hearth and home against these invaders : such, and many other reasons, all combine to make these people objects of interest to the man of science, the traveller, the philanthropist, and the missionary. JitKikx rrrtriitmr/tflrrf. 'Travels and Researches in Western China,' by K. Colborne Baber, chapters 4 and 5. ' Lin. -4 Xam.' by 15. C. Henry, chapters *.). 20-25, contain interesting notices of them. Missionary Success in the Island of Formosa." by W. Campbell. F.R.G.8., deals with the history <>f them under the Dutch occupation of Formosa. Several articles have also sippeaml in the 'China It .--.view.' and Essays in the ; Records of the Missionary conference held at Shanghai 1890.' In a paper in the 'Chinese depository,' re-published in the 'Chinese and Japanese depository' for October. 1888, a lot of tribes and customs are noticed. A very interesthu work is extant in manuscript in Chinese, profusely illustrated with coloured pictures showing the costumes, etc. ACUPUNCTURE. Acupuncture is one of the nine branches of practice recognixed in medical science among the Chinese, and of most ancient origin, having been carried over 'from China to Japan before the dawn of history.' Scarification and Acupuncture are the peculiar forte of these two nations. The latter is extensively treated of in the medical works of the Chinese. 31 any directions are given as to the manner of its use, and the user is cautioned against wounding the arteries, for which purpose he should know the position of the blood vessels. Dr. Lockhart says that Acupuncture ' is very dexterously performed by the Chinese. It is largely resorted to for rheumatism, deep-seated pains of all kinds, sprains, swelling of the joints, etc.' It was introduced into Europe from China by a Dutch surgeon named Teii-Rhync in the 17th Century. Jioolix rffiommended. A long account is niven of the practice in Romusat's ' Xonveanx Melanges Asiatiqiies.' Tome 1. pp. 358-I5SO. On page 22U of 'The Chinese As They Are.' by Tradescant Lay. woodcuts are given of the instruments used for this purpose by the Chinese. 8 ADOPTION. It is a matter of the first importance that a man should have a son to offer sacrifices at the Ancestral Hall and worship at his tomb. The cry with a Chinese is not, * Give me children, or else I die,' but, ' Give me a son, or I cannot die in peace,' and, failing a son of his own, he adopts one. It is impossible, with our ideas on such subjects. to understand what a matter of prime importance this is with a Chinese. To show how it enters into the very essence of family life in China, we quote from the learned and interesting brochure by Parker on ' Comparative Chinese Family Law,' as follows : ' The Chinese adoption of agnates, is * * * not a matter of choice * * but of compulsion. The brother, when living, may demand a nephew, and, when dead, a nephew is given to him unasked. It is not only in his interest, but in that of the whole family, that the succession should be continued. So unfortunate are those considered who have no heirs, that in each town there is a public l-iii-iinii dedicated to orbate persons deceased, and the officials sacrifice periodically to their manes. Again, there is absolutely no distinction between such adopted son and a natural-born son. He cannot be disinherited, at least for any reason not equally applicable to a natural son; he mourns for his adoptive father as a natural son would mourn, and for his natural father as a nephew." Once adopted, he cannot be adopted by another. ' It is a family arrangement, and needs no magisterial authority.' What seems a curious feature in it, to our ideas, is, that 'it may be made without the knowledge of the deceased aduptor, whether he is married or not (provided he is over sixteen years .of age 1 ) and even after his death': but this curious feature is explained when we remember that the adoption does not take place for the individual adopter in China, but for the benefit of the family the family beinu' the unit of society, and the individual no one, except a fractional part of the smallest integer of society the famih . 1 A Chinese is of ajrt- m M ADOPTION. 9- * In treating of adoption in China, it is important to distinguish between the adoption of persons bearing the same surname and those bearing a different surname. If a Chinese has no son, he adopts, if possible, a nephew, who is the son of one of his brothers. If there are no nephews, then he adopts the grandson of one of his uncles, or the great-grandson of one of his grandimcles. In other words, he endeavours to obtain a pure agnate. If there are no agnates of a suitable generation ; or if there are agnates of a suitable generation, but not of a suitable age; he next looks to the children of his sisters, or the grandchildren of his aunts. It is generally only when neither agnates nor cognates of suitable age and generation are accessible that he adopts a perfect stranger, and, even then, he endeavours to find one of the same surname * * *. Adoption of an agnate is generally effected during the lifetime of the adoptor, Avho is considered entitled to choose any nephew (except the eldest son of the next brother), before an assembly of agnates, and an entry is made in the genealo- gical register of the family. A rich man, of course, in practice, finds it easier to obtain the object of his choice than a poor one, and the handsome son of a rich brother is similarly less easy to secure as an heir than the plain son of a poor brother * * *. Each elder brother can continue to adopt the sons of his younger brethren until he finds an heir who will live; and elder brothers are in duty bound to give a son in posthumous adoption to a younger brother who has died childless * * *. An adopted agnate or cognate takes his place before natural sons subsequently born to the same father. An adopted stranger is liable * * to exclusion by the agnates of his deceased adoptive father.'* About 5 per cent, of Chinese families, it is considered, adopt children, 70 per cent, of them being males. In some provinces and districts, strangers are frequently adopted, and in Amoy the traders have a peculiar custom of adopting a son to act for them as a commerical asent abroad. w In adopting strangers, the child is generally purchased, the parents being too poor to keep their own child, while 10 77//.VC/N <'/ir\/-:s/-:. sometimes kidnappers make a profit by the sale of the poor innocent victims they have inveigled into their toils. There is a secondary species of what might be called pseudo adoption. As true adoption amongst the Chinese is uvne rally due to a certain amount of superstition connected with ancestral worship, so the spurious adoption, as a rule, is even more dependent upon the superstitious beliefs of this credulous people. There are different varieties of this, the parties to one kind being sometimes called godparents and godchildren by Europeans* The custom has its foundation in the superstition that it is possible to cheat the malignant spirits to whose evil machinations arc due the death or illness of children. If the parents then are afraid that they will not be able to bring up a child, or that falling short of that, disease, &e. may attack it, they hit upon the expedient sometimes suggested by the fortune-teller of this semi-adoption. Presents are made by the child's parents to the so-called adoptor, and return presents are received. The adoptive parent takes a consider- able interest in his or her adopted child, presents and visits being made by both parties on the respective birthdays of the primarily interested parties, and at feasts, &c., but beyond this, there are no definite duties incumbent on the so-called godparent. The child still remains in its natural parents' . and. in the event of its parents dying, the so-called god- parent is not bound to take the child into his, or her, keeping, ven if left, destitute, On the other hand, the child, if it 'ailed godparent dies, is bound to wear mourning, not deep is in the case of its own parents, but only half-mourn ing. It is supposed that the >pirits will be deceived into the belief that the child has really been adopted into the new family, and the- disease, d.-ath, disaster, or ill-luck thai would otherwise ensue are effectually prevented, while at the same time the boy's or girl's family retain their child, and, if an eldest son. will ha\e an h'ir to sacrifice to them after death. Sometimes this spurious adoption takes place between families that are friendly merely with the object of drawing AT) OP TT OX. 11 them nearer to each other, but it is oftener the result of the superstitious bolief already mentioned. This superstition gives rise to other varieties of this false adoption, such as giving a child in adoption to a banyan tree, or bamboo, or to a bridge, or idol, or stone lion in front of a 7 CJ ' temple. In all these cases it is believed that the spirits inhabiting these several objects their guardian deities will take the child under their protection, and ensure it immunity from the -ills that flesh is heir to.' On a small piece of red paper is written : Given in adoption (male or female), then follows the surname and name of the child. This is pasted upon the object which is selected, and three incense sticks, joss paper, wine, pork, chicken, and cooked rice are offered ; and offerings are also made at the end of the year for protection rendered, as well as at the New Year, and, in the case .!' idols, on their birthdays. The piece of red paper once put up is not renewed, as the spirit is thus supposed to bo sufficiently informed. The mother of the child, or sometimes a ' praying women,' as she is called, performs the ceremony, offering up a prayer informing the spirit that the child is placed under its protection. These proceedings are sometimes undertaken at the instigation of the fortune-teller. When some idol is selected, it is generally that of some favourite god, such as Kwim Yam The Goddess of Merry or Kwan Tai- The God of War or T'in Hau The Goddess of J leaven or Man Ch'o'ng The God of Literature or The Tutelary Spirit of the Bridge, or The Tutelary Spirits placed at the two entrances to a village not those of the house. In the case of a god being selected, one of the characters forming part of the name of the god is combined with the child's name, forming a new name for the child, but this name is only used by the parents. The god selected is worshipped on his birthday, and styled 'the adopted father.' The Bamboo is preferred to the other trees, as it is a prince amongst trees, and is so useful. Barren women pray to the stone lions mentioned above in order to obtain off- spring, and so perhaps there is some connection in the idea. Were no other proof available of the slight esteem in which 12 THINGS CHINESE. girls are held by the Chinese, it would be shewn by the- difference in the estimated percentage of those of each sex. who are the subjects of this false adoption; for in the extreme south of China it is believed that oO per cent, of boys are thus subjected to adoption, and only 10 per cent, of the girls. AMUSEMENTS. Ike Chinese, though a hard-working and industrious people, are not behind other nations in their love of amusements ; and enter with great xest and gusto into the enjoyment of them. It needs but a saunter through the crowded and busy streets of a Chinese city to see that, though there is much bustle and unceasing toil, there is on the other hand an unfailing provision for the relaxation of the tired workers, and the delectation of the younger members of society. Theatres are crowded, though the performances last for long weary hours, if not days : and the various birthdays of the gods, or religious festivals are hailed with delight, for then the streets are matted over, and hung with puppets gorgeously dressed in medireval costume, representing historical scenes, while glittering chandeliers ablaxe witli light, transform the ore-while gloomy streets into a bright blaze. All these illuminated streets converge to one centre where, in front of the temple in honour of whose god the exhibition is being held, a grand temporary structure, towering in height above all the other surrounding buildings, is erected, gorgeous with painted scenes in many coloured hues, brilliant with clusters of crystal lights, and all the magnificence of ceremonial worship and gaudy show, and the paraphernalia of he;ithen worship. Here all the grandeur is centred, radiating out through all the surrounding streets, and here it is that tin- crowd is at its thickest, a compact mass, open-mouthed, ga/ing to their heart's content, enjoying to the full all the entrancing sights, the celestial music of clashing r\ mbals, twanging guitars, harsh flageolets and shrill flutes. The annual Regattas throughout China of the Dragon Boat Feast give au outing to many a child and lady, who. attired in their holiday best, line the banks of the rivers, and AMUSEMENTS, 13 watch the narrow snake-like boats, dashing up and down in impromptu races and spurts with their rivals from neighbouring villages. Another great outing is that on the day for 'Ascending on High,' when every one, who can afford the time, goes to the summit of sonic high mountain or lofty hill in remembrance of the deliverance of a family in olden times from destruction by a similar action. The Full Moon. Festival, when indigestible moon cakes are seen at every confectioner's stall and shop, is kept gaily. Every boat hangs out one or more tasteful paper lanterns, which, suspended from bamboo poles, make a general illumina- tion over the dark waters of the deep and murky river, and overhead the full-orbed moon in harvest splendour shines down from the clear sky on a scene of tropic oriental beauty. The faint glinmer of the tiny craft is eclipsed anon by boats all -abla/e with one glow of light from innumerable lamps. These larger vessels slowly float down the stream in the distance. "\ isits to flower gardens give a variety to the monotony of every day life, and even the sombre worship at the graves. after the prescribed ceremonials are through, is transformed into pleasant picnics, and happy family reunions. Besides theso out-door entertainments, there are different games of cards, dominoes, chess, and nine-men's morice, the two former being almost invariably accompanied with gambling. Numerous other games are played, whose whole cud and object is gambling pure and simple ; amongst whir] i may be noted games with dice, fighting, cricket- matchcs. and quail matches. The jet iiwsse dorec of a literary or artistic taste also amuse themselves, and while away the passing hours by Mine parties, at which capping of verses takes place. Their leisure moments are sometimes beguiled by pen and ink sketches on fans, by inscriptions on the same articles of necessity for a Avarin climate, or by the composition <>f antithetical sentences, which are inscribed on scrolls, and presented as souvenirs to friends. Out-door sports are not in vogue with the Chinaman. When one sees anything approaching the kind going on, there II 77//.\Y,'X C1IIXKSE. is almo-,t always sure to be some utilitarian object in view, a.- in archery, which is practised as a t raining for the military examinations. With the same object are the gymnastic exercises undertaken with heavy weights. Very rarely, in Canton, one may see a few young Celestial swells paddling together in a canoe, but it is uncommon enough not to be a typical sight. As to out-door games, the most violent in which adults engage is shuttlecock. The shuttlecock is made of several round layers of snake's skin, with three or four feathers stuck into it. No battledores are used, but the shuttlecock is kept up in the air. and most dexterously kicked with the flat bottom eing occasionally brought into play to keep it from falling to the ground. Several different strokes or rather kicks arc given; one a backward one, which must require a considerable amount of practice to attain proficiency in. A more sedentary pastime is that of flying kites, in which grown up men indulge, while youngsters stand by and look on. Very ingenious are the different forms and shapes . .1" kites made, and some, like birds, are so well manipulated. \\hen in tlxe air, as to deceive at first sight. Blind singing girls perambulate the streets at night, ready tn accompany their song with the pei'-pa, or guitar: and itinerant ballad-singers of the other sex can be hired by the da\. Story-tellers are pretty sure to get a good crowd round them while interesting episodes in Chinese history are recounted in their listeners. In any open apace* or lining the broader street-, are peep-shows, the more crude native production bring replaced in many cases, during the last twenty or thirt\ . by stcreo.-copir views. Jugglers, and Punch and Judy shows, as well as gymnast-, are al\\ay- certain of a circle of admiring spectator-. The ladies join in a few of these amusements, a- h;i> already been pointed out. but are debarred iVom the | uhich cannot be - in the prixa* their dwellings. They kill time by playing cards, domu uu\ and ANCESTRAL W011K11IP. 1 ' Avhen they arc quickly carried in closed chairs through the narrow streets invisible to everyone, and everyone and every- thing equally invisible to them. As to childrens' toys and sports, though one writer in an English periodical very sapiently (?) remarks that there an- no toys in China, yet it needs but a few steps in a Chinese- city, in the South at all events, to show the absurdity of the statement. Besides taking their share in the enjoyments of their elders, they have more especially for their benefit top-spinning, paper lanterns in the shape of fish, iron marbles, toy cannon and weapons, and a thousand and one different games and toys with which the ingenuity of the caterers for their amusement fills the toy-shops, and covers the stalls at the street corners. AXCESTRAL WORSHIP. Ancestral worship is filial piety gone mad. True to their practice of retaining customs and habits for centuries and milleniums, the Chinese nation has not given up this most ancient form of worship, and the original worship of ancestors, like the older formation of rocks on the earth's surface, is strong as the everlasting hills, and though overlaid by other cults, as the primary rocks are by other strata, is still at the foundation of all, nearly all the other methods of worship being later additions and accretions : the worshipping of ancestors thus underlies all their worship, and many of their every day acts and deeds. ' Social customs, judicial decisions, appointments to the office of prime minister, and even the succession to the throne are influenced bv it.' A magistrate. o for instance, will punish a criminal much lighter if he is the eldest or only son, in case one or both of his parents have recently died, than he otherwise would, for fear of preventing him sacrificing to the dead. An emperor on accession to the throne must be younger than his predecessor, in order to worship him. Ancestral worship has been defined as including 'not only the direct worship of the dead, but also whatever is done directly 7;. decision is, In tho matter of the estate of Tso Wing Yum; (Jittbrt.)' reported in ; China Mail' of 6th May 1891. liiin/.'K rrcinnwi-iidrd. ' An Essay nn Ancestral Worahip,' by Krvd. M.'l. Yati's.D.D., dealing with it jjcnerally. :ind another ' The attitude of Christian it} ti. \vanl Ancestral Worship," dealing with it historically. AItCHJ.TKCrrRE. r Fhc Chinese have made but small advances in architecture: they have not proceeded beyond the first steps of architectural construction. The first principle which they have acted upon appears to be that of raising two side-walls to support .the beams of the- reof. The length of these beams, in buildings of any sixe. necessitates the adoption of rows of pillars to support them. To obviate the too great multiplicity of these pillars, what has been described as ' n very pretty system of "' king " and "queen" posts have been contrived, by which the pressure of several beams is transmitted to a single pillar.' These are often beautifully carved, and there is much scope fur \ariet \ . Tradcscant Lay, from whom we have already quoted, further says, 'a lack of .science and of conception is seen hut fancy seems to have free license to gambol at pleasure, and Avhat the architect wants in developing a scheme, he makes up by a redundancy of imagination.' Williams says. In lighter edifices, in pavilions, rest-houses, kiosks and arbours. there is. however, a degree of taste and adaptation that is unusual in other buildings, and quite in keeping with their fondness for tinsel and gilding rather than solidity and grandeur.' Another sinologue says, 'their ornamen- tation is often beautiful. But. even in their ornamentation, the Chinese, rarely, if ever, exhibit congruity of detail. The details are often perfect, but they are seldom in such full harmony with other details as to present to the spectator the pleasing aspect of a harmonious work of art.' Their construction is bad: very little regard is paid to outline. c\i-ept in pagoda > roof- of temples, and bridges hut the ornamentation is the pleasantest feature, on which the greatesl are is ben the ground, but they are not highly polished. If there are first floors, they are usually under one or more of the inner roofs. In some of the houses, more especially the hongs and godowns fronting the river in Canton, there are as many as f their reds and greens and gilding, to the picturesqueness of the business streets, and relieve the sameness which would otherwise result from the want of architectural decoration. These sign-boards are broad boards, ten or more feet in length, suspended at each side of the shop front : some are set in .stone bases, while others hang over the entrances, or in the shop itself. A glance down one of these streets with its scores or hundreds of many-coloured sign-boards is quite kaleidoscopic, as the glare of the tropical sun flashes on their vatiegated hues; while in the softer shades of the covered-over streets, they serve to lighten up the semi-religious gloom. In the construction of the temples and public building*. where space is not so restricted, the main structures two or three in number stand isolated, with stone-paved paths and stone steps leading up to the stone terraces on which they are built, venerable trees shadingthe otherwise open spaces. The dwellings of the abbots and monks, or the subsidiary buildings, are at the sides or behind, with numerous corridors leading to the different apartments or suites < >f r< turns. 31 < >-t - >f what has been written above applies to Canton and its neigh- bourhood, for of the. different inhabitants of China, it may be said with truth to a greater or lesser extent, lii <>nni<'* lui ,-init, and their dwellings, though on the main constructed on the same general outlines, have peculiarities of their own in different parts of the country; for instance in Amoy many of the houses have an upward curve at each end of the top of the roof, quite foreign to the extreme south of China. There is nothing more incomprehensible to a foreigner than an official residence, with its gates, folding doors, halls, -ide-rooin.s, balconies, carved and frescoed pillars, lattices and matted ceilings * * *. The frescoes are gaudy, and represent every conceivable subject, from genii walking among clouds to a moth upon a peach. The roof is a tangled mass of Asiatic glory. The Sx-chuanese houses excel in their exterior decorations ; the ridges, gateways, and corners, aro beautifully trimmed with broken bits of blue and white porcelain. Avhich at a distance have a most pleasing effect * *. The houses, except in the large cities, are flimsy affairs, Avith Avails of pounded earth, and roofs thatched with straw.' The roof has been considered the chief feature of Chinese architecture; and there is no doubt that a great amount of decorative art is expended on the massive roofs of the larger and finer temples, and public buildings. ' The lightness and grace of the curve of these heavy roofs is worthy of all praise : ' they are sometimes constructed double, or in such a manner as to give the appearance of two roofs. 'The object in this is to lend an air of greater richness and dignity.' The roof, it Avill thus be seen, does not occupy, in public buildings and temples, the subsidiary position that such a part of the structure takes in the West. It is the most striking object in this class of buildings, and Avith the numerous varnished timbers and posts, the green glazed tiles and glazed dragons, pearly. \'c.. and unhidden by plastered ceilings, they look most picturesque, On the other hand, the roofs of private dwellings are simply for use. In ancient China it Avould naturally be expected that the whole land Avould be full of old ruins. Such is, hoAvever. not the case: even the Great Wall has been re-constructed once or twice. There are some structures still standing that have >n>od for more than a thousand years: but to find older ones than this, it is necessary to excavate the mounds I lie tombs of ancient cities Avhere a few stone buildings may be found : one. built seventeen centuries ago, AA*as recently dis- covered. Cave and rock chvellmgs are also to be seen in some parts. The great majority of buildings are modern, in the sense that that word has Avhen applied to anything in China : for many things that are classed under that category would be considered to be mediaeval, or ancient in the West. The reason for this paucity of relics of antiquity is not far to seek. Much of the material employed is not fitted to withstand the ravages of ages. and. when it is. the flimsy style of construction does not ensure that durability Avhich it might otherwise hope to attain : added to AA'hich, the humidity of the climate, and 21 TW.Yf/N r///.VA',s7-:. the insidious attacks of insects, all militate against handing down to posterity the works of its forefathers ; furthermore, the glance of the Chinese has always been a retrospective one back to the hoary ages and the tendency has not been to build for future times. It is a curious feature in Chinese building construction, that so little stone has been employed. The streets arc paved with it; the city walls arc partially built of it ; so are the foundations of houses ; and the end counters in shops ; as well as some of the outer columns in temples : but otherwise it is a rare thing to find it entirely used in the building of any structure, except commemorative arches and bridges. 'The Chinese have been acquainted with the arch from very early times, though they make comparatively little use of it.' Many elegant bridges have been constructed in different parts of the empire, some of great length. Commemorative arches, as these peculiar quaint portals may be styled, are generally put up by imperial command or permission, to commemorate the virtuous and brave. They consist of a largo centre and two smaller side gateways, the material employed in the South of China being generally granite, in the West soft grey sandstone. There is generally a considerable amount of ornamentation about them in the way of carving, and, 'in the West of China the flowers and figures carved in relief are of marble delicately fitted and highly polished.' In the streets over which they are erected. they at all times form a pleasant contrast to the otherwise- common lack of architectural adornment. Inscriptions are cut on them setting forth the virtues of the individuals who-,- deeds are immortalised by their erection. The pagoda is one of the most graceful specimens of Chinese architecture. Its form is supposed to be derived from tin- spire on the top of the Hindoo dagoba. In the extreme >outh of China they depart more from the Indian prototype, and are tall, slender, hollow towers, built of brick, generally >r\eii or nine stories in height, and often octagonal in shap.-. tapering to the top; each story having a roof projecting from the body of the pagoda all round. About the neighbourhood of Ainov they are not so graceful in >hape, while in the North 25 some of them more nearly resemble the Indian dagoba. The finest in China was the celebrated Nanking porcelain tower, which was destroyed by the Tai-ping rebels. The cupola, or dome, is almost entirely unknown, Mohammedan architecture deserves some mention, and it is possible that the superiority of the Ming architecture may be traced to it. Jionkn rr<'iHHirH(lf(/. l T}\e Chinese as they Are,' by Tradesrant Lay. chapter on architecture. Journal of ('. Br. K.A.S. New Series. Vol. XXIV.. No. 3. article on Chinese architecture,' by Revel. J)r. Edkins, and article in same number on 'The Tent Theory of Chinese architecture' ' by S. H. von Fries, and discussions in the same number on the two papers. 1/Arr Chinois,' heading of architecture, by M. I'alelogue. Same subject in William'* ' Middle Kingdom." and in most Text books dealing with China. An account of cave dwellings is found in Williamson'^ 'Travels in N'orth China.' AU.\fY. The military elements, which may be grouped together under the general term of the Chinese army, are various in number and different in composition. The three main, but quite distinct, divisions are : (1) The eight banners, comprising 'all living Manchoos and descendants of the Mongolian and Chinese soldiery of the conquest.' These furnish guards for the palace and garrisons in different principal cities and other places. (2) The Chinese provincial army of the ''Green Standard.' comprising the land and marine forces. The former numbers 400,000 or 500.000. and is ' an effete organization discharging the duties of sedentarv garrisons, and local constabulary.' v O * (3) The braves or irregulars, enlisted or disbanded as required, and used for actual warfare : no approxi- mate guess can be made of their numbers. Bodies of the troops are being trained, in the European style of warfare, at Peking and other important centres; the bugle-call is now heard in the north at Ticn-tsin, as well as in the heart of the empire at Hankow, and in the south it is also making itself familiar to ears Avhich a few years since only knew the sound of the gong and drum : but the numbers so drilled, form, as yet, but a small proportion of the whole 26 77/M7/N r///.Y/-;,s*/;. armed force of China. ^Matchlocks, gingals, bows and arrows, spears and lances, are still the weapons of many. Sometimes foreign arms are put into the hands of the soldiers without proper instruction, and at other times costly weapons rust and 'are completely useless from neglect/ The Chinese is not a fighting animal. Pitted n^ain-t Europeans, his tactics have been often like those of the native dog much bluster, but little done, and easily drivon off. It is said Chinese soldiers are brave in flight, for 'brave' is written on the back of their jackets, but it is al-o written in front, and when properly drilled, armed and led, they arc not wanting in courage, as the Ever Victorious Army under General Gordon gave proof. Besides, their history is as full of brave deeds and desperate valour on the field of battle, as that of any other nation. linn/.-x rmiiiiiiirnilril . Ma\ crs' 'Chinese Government 'and ' An -mint of tin- Army of thr Chiiiesf Kiii]iir.-' 1>\ Sir Tin is. W:nlc in M'liinrsr Hi-]iusi:or\ ," Vol. XX.. ]!.. L'.Vi. .".(in ami 'MX. A I IT. Painting is still in its mediirval stage in China: the laws of perspective, and light and shade, arc almost unknown, though the former is occasionally, to a slight extent. honoured with a recognition. Height usually represents distance in a Chinese painting, that is to say. distant objects arc put at the top of the picture, and near ones down below them, while but little difference is made in the sixe. As regards light, and shade, it is amusing to sec how the Chinese cannot understand the shadow in a photograph, and no shading is put into landscapes, though M. I'alclogue Mates that the rhinese have sometimes attuned to the expression of themost artistic and delicate effects of light and shade, instancing the irrand landscape school of the T'ang dynasty as producing perfect, works under this class. The arrangement of objects, and tin- grouping of person* in natural attitudes, would appear not to be taught according to our ideas on the subject. Symmetry is the object aimed at; the subsidiary parts are treated with a* much care as the principal: the smallest detail* are elaborated with as much minuteness as the most important. Figures are nearly always represented full-faced: ART. 27 nnd the heads are often stuck on at a forward angle of forty- five degrees to the rest of the body: this being the scholar's habitual attitude, and indicative of much study. An inane look often rests on the countenance: if any expression is shown on the lips, it is a combination of a supercilious smile and a lifeless composure. The true expression of the lips and mouth is most difficult for the Chinese artist to catch. Ivory miniatures, perfect in the fidelity of their copy of the original photograph supplied to the artist, are here deficient an imbecile simper often replacing the natural expression. What the Chinese delineator considers of prime importance is the representation of the status occupied by the subject : as to his rank in the official service, or grade in the literary corps, or social position. The presentation of a living, feeling soul revealed in its index, the face, sinks into utter insignificance in comparison with the exposition of the external advantages of rank and fortune, or of the tattered rags of the old beggar fluttering in the brecxe. Rough outline sketches in ink of figures and landscapes are much admired. In these, impos- sible mountains, chaotic masses of rock, flowers, trees, and boats, are depicted in such a manner as to call forth but little enthusiasm from the Western observer. 'As draftsmen their /<>//<' lies in taking the portrait of some single portion of nature's handiwork. 3Iany of these they have analysed with great care, and so well studied as to hit off a likeness with a very few strokes of the pencil * * *. There is a peculiarity -among the Chinese which has risen from the command they have over the pencil. They hold it in nearly a perpendicular direction to the paper, and arc therefore able, from the delicacy of its point, to draw lines of the greatest fineness, and, at the same time, from the elastic nature of the hairs, to make them of any breadth they please. The broad-strokes for the eye lash and the beard are alike executed by a single effort of the pencil.' It has been pointed out, that the exigencies of Chinese writing demand an education of the eye and hand, analogous to that required in designing. The handling of the camel's hair brush the Chinese pen every day, gives a facility and readiness of touch and expression. 28 The Chinese artist has learned a lesson, which has only within the last few years been understood by us in our natural history museums. He copies all the parts of a bird in detail, and then, it has been aptly said, He studies ' the- attitudes, and the peculiar passions of which attitudes are the signs, and thus represents birds as they are in real life, * * * though they may be rudely executed in some of their details. Nor is this fidelity confined to birds alone, neither is it a new advance in their art. as we find it recorded of Ts'a< > Fuh-hir.g, a famous painter of the third century, that, having painted a screen for the Sovereign, lie added the representation of a fly so perfect to nature that the emperor raised his hand to brush the fly off.' We ourselves have seen a cat go up tr\ of a horse trying to eat a sheaf of corn on the canvas. With equally minute care they faithfully copy flowers, bamboos, and trees, noting carefully the minute ramifications of branches, as well as the action of each particular kind of wind on the objects painted ; while, however, all these point> are being attended to with a patience worthy of the highest commendation, as it produces a fidelity true to nature, yet at the same time 'the whole perchance is .vastly deficient in correspondence and proportion.' This entering into the mysteries of nature and the reproduction of some of them with an approach almost to photographic fidelity, scarcely to be expected from them, judging by some of the other productions of their pencils, is of interest and use to the botanical student, since the illustrations in such a native work, for instance, as the great Mati-ria Medica. the Pen t'sao, give a far better idea from, their, in many instances, great truthfulness than the mere letter press would convey to the foreign student. Their attempts at depicting animal life result in rude, uncouth forms, and the conventionality of the attitudes of the human figure does away with the charm which ART. 29 attaches to many of their products. The proportion and grouping together of the different parts of an object are defined by a conventional canon, to the rigid adherence of which is due much of the unreality so conspicuous in their attempts at portraying the human form divine, and they have remained at the same imperfect development of this branch of their art for the last nineteen centuries. This stage has been compared to that of Italian painting in the time of Giotto and Simone Memmi, added to which is their entire ignorance of anatomy, the result of this ignorance being often a caricature of the human body. Where the interior framework of the bones gives a fullness to the contour, there is depicted a fatal flatness or even a caving in : where the rounded muscles give lines of beauty, instead of a curve is drawn a .straight line. The crude contrast of much of their colouring is also offensive to the Western eye. trained to the harmonious from childhood. At the same time all praise must be given to the richness and delicacy of their colouring, which, without any scientific laws to guide them, they seem intuitively to know how to apply. They arc very fond of their works of art, and the mansions of the wealthy are hung with scrolls depicting landscape and sprays of flowers, with birds, insect life, etc. Even the poorer classes adorn their humbler dwell- ings with cheaper specimens of pictorial art. and scarcely a boat of any pretensions on the Canton river but is ornamented with a few pictures, while the sellers of sketches in black and white find a ready sale for their wares in the streets. Religion, nature, history, and literature, have all inspired the Chinese artist with a more or less varying degree of success. If implicit credence were to be given to the accounts of the Chinese themselves, painting was first practiced B.C. 2,600, but the art in China has quite a venerable enough antiquity without ascribing to it such a hoary one. .Mural decoration appears to have been the first application of it, and the Chinese emperors frequently had the walls of their palaces so adorned. In the third century before the Christian era paintings were made on bamboo and silk, whether pen 30 Tiitxas r///.v />/;. and ink sketches or iu colour it is difficult to say; but a groat impetus was given to the art, when, in the first century of our era, paper was invented. The second epoch commences sometime after the intro- duction of Buddhism into China. It exerted a beneficent effect on the stagnant state of ancient art with its new vistas, which it opened out, and its new fields for fresh achievements. Buddhism was vigorous in those days, and its monasteries were multiplied to an enormous extent, so that in A.D. 845 there were more than four millions of them. They were .schools of literature and art, and many paintings were executed on long rolls of silk, illustrative of the life and death of the founder of Buddhism and Buddhistic subjects. Other schools arose which also devoted themselves to- religious art, as well as other kinds. Between A.D. 265 and A.D. 618, Chinese authors mention about five hundred painters of celebrity, in addition to those belonging to the religious school. Besides the subjects belonging more (specially to the latter school, animals, the delineation of the human face, of the animal creation, and of landscape, engaged the attention of the artist. The high position that art took at that period may be seen from one example alone out of others : during the reign of Moti A.D. 5 02 -5 50, one of the members of his privy council was appointed to adorn the imperial temples with paintings. The third epoch of Chinese art commences with the T'ang dynasty (A.D. 618-960) and ends with that of the Sung. At the beginning of this period Chinese painting divides itself into the Northern and Southern schools, so named tV>m the n->pective parts of the country in which those belonging to them resided, the chief distinction between the two schools being that the Southern was less trammeled by the canons of art to which the Northern -<-hool rigidly adhered. To the former -rhc.nl belonged < htau Mo-kie, described as one of the most original artists of China. Like many of China's artists. lie wa- not painter alone, but poet and musician too, for the beauties of nature's landx-apes. which were his special fort'-. were not only interpreted by his brush, but sung by his musu ART. 31 as well. He reduced his methods to writing; and for two- centuries afterwards, viz.: the eighth and ninth, they led the artistic world to go direct to nature as their mistress and model. 'The most brilliant painter of this epoch is Au To-huan/ Mountains with pagodas, convents, and Buddhistic scenes Avere what he delighted to paint. During the ninth and tenth centuries, the painting, in all their various movements, of animals and flowers, occupied the attention of all the artists, but at the same time the Buddhist school still pursued its course, and produced works of great merit. In the tenth century, two artists of the first rank deserve mention King Hao and Hoang Tsuan. There are two specimens of the- latter's style in the British Museum. The fourth epoch is that of the Sung dynasty, and is marked by a rejuvenescence of literature and art after the troubled periods which immediately preceded it; but owing to the disfavour under which Buddhism fell, the religious school of art also fell into a state of decadence in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, though a few artists of great ability still are to be found in this branch. The school of landscape artists, .started on the right track under the former epoch, rose to the 'highest point of art.' The beauties of spring-time with its joyous bursting of bud. leaf, and flower, the sweets of summer, the sadder traits of autumn, and the snow-clad beauties of winter, all engaged their brushes. Amongst the masters of this style may be mentioned the two Li-cheng, one the chief of the Northern School, and the other belonging to the Southern : the former was followed by numerous artists during the eleventh, twelfth, and part of the thirteenth centuries, but unfortunately in the devotion to their master, they began to copy the style of the man rather than to follow him in his sincere adoration of Nature herself. In conjunction with ' a new tendency," which ' manifested itself, each school, each studio/ took as a speciality the production of a certain picturesque detail, and ceased to see landscape in its whole." As examples of this tendency may be instanced the two brothers Ma Yuan and Ma K'on, who confined themselves to 'pines, cypresses, cedars, and steep rocks;' another only cared :i2 77//.Y<;,s CIIIXKSE. to reproduce 'the effects of snow; ' others confined their atten- tion to the feathery bamboo with its stiff stems, tender green. leaves, and the graceful curves of the topmost boughs : another speciality was 'clusters of flowers in the spaces between glazed tiles on a roof,' surely a singular taste; 'bull-finches, bamboos, and rocks' are named as the objects on which Li-ti exercised his brush; snow-laden pines and clumps of trees were what another artist loved to reproduce; while 'plum trees and flowers' were what Chong-jen singled out as worthy of his skill: other painters had the good sense not to confine themselves to one speciality. Some wonderful productions of birds, lifelike and natural, were painted during this period. The fifth epoch is that of the Yuan, or Mongol dynasty. The Mongol conquest of China stirred up the comparatively stagnant pool of Chinese native life, and introduced a stream of vivifying influence from the more Western nations. ( )ther styles of art were introduced to the Chinese, who had for some centuries seen but little from outer lands to inspire their genius, or spur on their adaptive efforts. These influences from abroad, more felt in other branches of art, did not make such an impress mi painting, as one might suppose, though some tracc-s of such influence are to be found. Coupled with this, there was also ;i renaissance of Buddhism, which the tide of .Mongol rule brought in with it, and which made itself felt in the artistic world, as well as elsewhere. The divisions, which we have noted in the Sung period, still continued. The characteristic of the painters under the Yuan dynasty is ; the taste for bright and brilliant colours.' A tiger and cubs, executed by one of the artists of this dynasty, is to he seen in the British .Museum. The sixth epoch is that of the .Ming dynasty iA.1). Ki(JS- Ifil.'J). Painting benefited in the first, years . .1' this dynasty !>y the improvements in technical art which took place, though again not to such an extent as in some of the other branches of art. and it. during this epoch, began to decline from about, the middle of the dynasty. Consequently, it is convenient to divide this epoch into two periods, lasting respectively from A.D. 1368 to 1 1-88, and from 1488 to ART. 33 Tho style of this first period of Ming dynasty art may be characterised as without much originality, but with other characteristics of first importance : a style of art ' without great eminence, but without decay.' In the second period of this epoch ' begins the decline of Chinese painting.' The causes of this decadence commenced centuries previously, when, for a study of nature at first hand, was substituted a servile imitation of some master-hand, whoso inspiration was derived from the faithful communion with nature herself, which his disciples neglected. That snare of the Chinese in so many branches of their learning and knowledge, the blind following of set rules and canons, again showed itself in their reproduction of the phases and aspects i f nature in her revelations to man. for instead of lifting up their eyes and seeing the fields ripe for a harvest, ready for those who would go to reap it, they contented themselves with the achievements of the past, and let the golden opportunities slip. The difference between these two periods, the first and second halves of the Ming dynasty, is marked, and the beginning of a new style is seen, which prevailed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The seventh epoch is that of the present dynasty, and under it. the decadence, previously foreshadowed, and com- menced in the preceding dynasty, becomes >m ft/It nij>li. The absence of inspiration is seen, and for it is substituted the use of certain illustrated works, which serve as dictionaries to the aspirant for fame, from which the painter copies the different figures or objects, already prepared for his use in all possible situations of ordinary Chinese life: he lias degene- rated into a copyist; for it only remains for him to group them, ruder the third emperor, Yung Clung (A.D. 1723-173(5 1. there was a tendency towards improvement, but the bounds of tradition were not burst : it* stopped short of a renovation of the whole art. The Jesuit missionaries at Peking attempted to introduce the principles of Western art as applied to painting, but, though they executed numerous works, the Chinese were not far enough advanced to adopt such a C complete re\ersal of all their preconceived ideas and canon-; of art. In the South. Chinen . an English artist, who painted many >cenes of Cliinese life, exerted, in the first half of the present century, some influence on the miniature painters for foreign residents of Canton and Macao : and the copying b\ these of foreign portraits has doubtless modified their modes of expression and improved their style to some extent, but the body of Chinese painters has not been affected thereby. Jiimlix recommended. The chapter on art in Trailt-scant Lay's -Tli" Chinese as they An-.' Most of tin- Trxt Hooks contain articlrs more or lr>- meritorious Imt OIK- of tin- most interesting and appreciative account.- i> ! !. found in I. 'Art Chinois.' 1>\ M. l'a (cologne, to which \\i-aiv indebted for iinicli of tin- information ,nivrn above. ASIATIC KOCIKTY (C///.\A ]li;A\cn OF), AV:I> started in Hongkong in 1818. and continued in existence until 1859. Before it was defunct, a 'Shanghai Literary and Scientific. Society' was commenced in 18,")7. which was shortly after changed into the 'North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society;' a few years since the word 'North' \\a^ drop[ed out of the Title. These two societies have published a number of ; Transactions/ form ing. when complete, a set of some score^ of thick and thin //*///' full of most interesting and \aluable information on China, and Chinese subjects, the result of much research, and study. The present China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society has its meetings in Shanghai: the membership is considerable: the subscription i- Fi\e l>.'H;ir> a \ear. whidi may be commuted by a payment of Fifty Dollars, entitling the subscriber to be a life member. Those \\lio \\ish to belong to the Society should apply to the Sei-retary in Shanghai. Membi-rs recei\'e the "Journal of the <'hina Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society' free, and ha\e the privilege of purchasing back numbers at a reduction of 10 / on the published prices, while the public are allowed a discount of 10 / if a complete set of the 'Journal.' as far a- can be supplied, is purchased. "The annual snb.xcript ion to the latter, for the Journal.' i> -.">. A cla itied index to the articles in the 'Journal' of the X. < '. l!r. of the 11. A. S. iVom the formation of that x.eitty to the 31st December 1^71. be fouiul in the ''Journal.' New S^rie^. N... 1\. AVDIENCE. 3,5 AUDIENCE. During 1 recent years the audience by the Chinese sovereign of foreign ambassadors, envoys, &c. has been one of the burning questions of the day in the Far East. As a writer in the 'Times' well says: 'Perhaps in course of time, they [the Chinese] Avill begin to see the absurdity of shutting up their Emperor from the foreign ministers accredited to him. There may have been good and substantial reasons, from the Chinese point of view, in refusing to present for- eigners to the Empress Dowager when she acted as Regent : but there is no reason whatever even a Chinese reason for persisting in keeping the Emperor and the foreign ministers apart. In the last century the Emperor of the present dynasty received foreigners, and condescended to be instructed by them. The present Emperor receives his own ministers in audience every day, and is not treated as a semi-divine being, on whose face ordinary mortals may not look, as the Mikado of Japan was in former times. There is no reason iu principle or Chinese practice why the sovereign should not receive the ministers at his Court, and. not to speak of earlier Emperors, there is the precedent of T ; ung Chi. his predecessor, who granted an audience to the <'<>rj>s /)//>/<>- j,/f!f Kastern Asia for many centuries past, while the rest of the Avorld was comparatively unknown : all surrounding nations have been their inferiors. who have looked np to the Middle Kingdom as the centre from which their letters, literature, knowledge, art. and science? have all originated and emanated. It is on all these reasons and causes that the, tons, preposterous claim of the Chinese has been founded. The receiving of all their envoys and ambassadors at the Courts of Europe, to which they have been accredited for the last fifteen years, has not been sufficient, in face of all these antiquated views, to move them from their position : for. judged from the same standpoint, it is only what is to be expected that China's en\o\s should be received with every mark of respect and honour-- nay more, for their theories would naturally lead them to expect that they should be received with that homage accorded to them by their neighbours, such. for instance, as by Corea a homage rendered to them as representatives of the Sou of Heaven a homage gi\en by virtue of the claim of the latter to universal sovereignty. Whatever may be the private opinion of the handful of enlightened officials, the belief held by the majority of them, namely, the theory already enunciated above, must be upheld at e\ery cost : for such beliefs die hard in China. And if the pressure of foreign opinion renders necessan some >how of alteration, plausible excuses are put forward, or subterfuges resorted to : and eventually we find the representatives of the most powerful nations on the earth received twice long ago once, and again this \ear. after \ ears of a refusal to grant it in an Audience Hall especially reserved for the audience of tributary nations, \\ith only a statement that such shall not be the casea gain. For the interests and v\ ell-being of all concerned, it is earnestly to be hoped that the promise of a more fitting hall being provided for the next occasion. \\ ill bo reali-ed: one specially intended for ihe purpo M - is being. /;/./.'7>',S NEXT SOUP. 37 or is about to be, built. The future only will reveal whether the reservations, equivocations, and evasions of the past will be resorted to again d tuiusonn. At the same time it is worthy of note, as a sign of progress, that the humiliating- ceremony of ''kow-toAv ' at these last receptions has not been demanded, for the very good reason doubtless that the Chinese are well aware it would not be performed. And as a straw showing a slight change in the current of the stupid pride and arrogance of the past, it is pleasing to see that the C/arewitch, on his recent visit to the high officials in Canton, had an imperial-yellow sedan chair provided for him an honour never previously granted to a European, and an hdnour only reserved in China for the reigning family. JIIIWH A7<;,ST XOI 'P. Bird's nest soup is a luxury in China, like turtle soup in England, or even more so. The nests from which the soup are made are not like an ordinary nest made up of sticks and twigs, hay and grass, but of a gelatinous substance, secreted by the bird itself for the purpose ; as Darwin puts it in plain English : The Chinese make soup of dried saliva ;' in scientific language, from the ' inspissated mucus from the salivary glands ; ' or as it has been wittily put ' all out of its own head." These nests are constructed in caves on the seashore, the swiftlet which makes them being a native of Malaya and Ceylon. The nests are gathered at considerable risk, and the best quality commands a high price, ranging from three to thirty dollars a pound, while the inferior grades arc mixed more or less with twigs, &c. The Chinese consider it strengthening and stimulating, and it forms the first dish at all grand dinners. Here is a receipt for preparing Pot /;. This is a most clear and pure article, and thick (Or oily) substances should not be added to it. It should be boiled for a long time ; for if not boiled till tender, it will cause diarrh. /}t)0/\S OX <'///.\.l. The books written on China nre numerous (See last article). Nearly every one that has taken any interest in the country or people lias Avritten about one or both. Missionaries, merchants, military and naval men. scholars, professors, teachers, interpreters, consuls and vice-consuls, ambassadors and diplomats, travellers and globe-trotters, the literary man. reviewers, novelists and poets, as well as the Chinese themselves, have all contributed their fn the subject for many years to come. (2) Archdeacon Gray's China/' A book in two volumes, profusely illustrated by Chinese drawings, and giving much information, not in the style of a text-book, but a great deal of it consisting of a personal narrative of what the author himself saw during his long residence in China. (3) ' Historic China and other Sketches.' by H. A. Giles, of H. 13. M's. Consular Service, an octavo volume of 400 pages, containing short sketches of the different historical periods, and essays. &c.. all written in a light and pleasant style, and containing much information. (4) Doolittle's 'Social Life of the Chinese.' A book full of all the curious superstitions, strange ceremonies, and customs of the Chinese, as more particularly seen at Foochow. (5) 'Ling-nam,' by Rev. B. C. Henry. A pleasant brightly written book of travels in the Canton Province, with descriptions of its beautiful scenery, fine rivers, and thickly populated districts. (G) Miss Gordon Cumming's 'Wanderings in China.' is li<_!;ht pleasant reading, and gives the general reader a ffood O , X p ' . O O o idea of the coast ports. (7) ' Journeys in North China,' by the late Dr. Williamson, containing an immense amount of reliable information, prin- cipally about that portion of China. (8) 'China Review." A bi-monthly maga/ine. published in Hongkong, dealing with all subjects interesting to students, now in its 19th volume. (9) 'Journals of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.' See article on Asiatic Society. (10) Professor Legge's 'Chinese Classics' contain the Bible of the Chinese nation, which every school-boy is taught to learn by heart, and on which the government of the whole empire and the fabric of Chinese society is based. The above books misfht be increased to ten times ten O easily enough, nor, by placing these first, do we intend to 40 T films CHL\ />/;. imply that many of the rest "would not equally claim to be- mentioned with them. With such an em&arroi /' /// ^rx- it is difficult to know where to begin. Of books of travel, we- may instance 'Old Highways in China,' by Mrs. Williamson, as a light and readable book, containing a good deal about the women and children. ' Life among the Mongols ' is v true picture of these nomads. Of Western China, quite a literature is springing up: Mrs. Bry son's 'Child Life in China,' treats of Han-kow and the neighbourhood of the Yang-tsz; E. Colbornc Saber's 'Travels and Researches in Western China,' published as a supplemental paper of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 1, pt. 1, 1882; Hosie's. Travels in Western China,' and Rev. V. Hart's ' Western China,' are all most interesting books, and well worthy of perusal, hi this connection there is also Mr. Little's ' Yaug- t>/ Gorges/ Still treating -of particular parts of China is Baron Richthofen's splendid work, which deals with, the northern part of the empire, and contains much valuable information 1>\ ; i traveller 'of great scientific ability.' whose explorations have been described as ' at once the most extensive and the most scientific of our age.' It is written in German. Concerning Canton, one may read Archdeacon Gray's Walks about Canton,' which, besides giving much informa- tion, is also useful as a guide book. Mrs. Gray's 'Fourteen Months in Canton," consists of a series of letters to friends MI home, describing what she saw during that time. Mention should also be made of the Rev. Hilderic Friend's ' Willow Pattern.' written by one who lived amongst the people, and t".)k the greatest interest in all their habits and customs; it is consequently a very truthful picture of Chinese life, told in the guise of a tali-. The few chapters contained in 'When I was a Boy in China,' are good as far a^ they go; it is \\ ritten by a Chinex-. Maeao ha- been treated of in a book, now rare and out of print, vi/.: Sir Andrew Lungstedt's Maeao and China.' over the production of which the author spent much labour and research. HOOKS OX CHINA. 41 The transition from these to a lighter class of reminis- cences of olden days, may be made by the reading of an old resident's recollections of earlier days, under the names of ' Bits of old China,' and ' The Ean-kwai in Canton.' A vast amount of learning, erudition, and research are shewn in many of the books published on China, especially in the 'China Review' and 'Transactions of N. C. Br. of R. A. S./ already mentioned, and in the twenty volumes of the ' Chinese Repository.' Any one who will take the trouble to make himself acquainted with most of the Articles and Notes contained in these three periodicals, to say nothing of ' Xotes and Queries on China and Japan,' and 'The Chinese Journal and Missionary Recorder,' and 'Journals of the Peking Oriental Society,' will find that there is scarcely a subject connected with China that has not been most learnedly discussed in these pages. To those who are fond of the marvellous, treated in ;t sober manner, let us recommend 'Mythical Monsters/ by Charles Gould, son of the gifted and renowned ornithologist. From myths to worship is an easy transition, and here we have a whole host of books, especially if under this category we include books dealing with the philosophical systems. "The Dragon, Image, and Demon, or the Three Religions." will give an idea of the multiplicity of objects of worship ; it deals primarily with the neighbourhood of Soochow. though much is applicable to all parts of China. EclkinV 'Religion in China,'' and his 'Chinese Buddhism,' Legge's 'The Religions of China,' and Seal's 'Buddhistic Literature in China,' treat fully of these subjects. To those who arc content with comparatively short essays, there is Douglas's. *' Confucianism and Taouism/ containing two admirable monographs on these two religions, or philosophies. Then there are the admirable works of Dr. Faber, noted for sound scholarship: 'The Mind of Mencius, or Political Economy, founded upon Moral Philosophy,' and A systematic Digest of the Doctrines of Confucius,' besides his other works in both German and English. The Bible of the Ta< mists. * The Tao Teh King/ is translated by the learned sinalogue- 12 77//A7/N r///.\ />/;. Dr. Chalmers: there arc besides two translations of the Tuouist philosopher by Balfour and Giles respectively. There are numbers of volumes containing- short papers or essays, amongst which \\-e may mention the admirable ' Hanlin Papers, or Essays on tlic Intellectual Life of the Chinese/ by I >r. Martin. Balfour's Leaves from my Chinese Scrapbook," and Sir Walter Mx'dhurst's 'The Foreigner in Far Cathay.' For the Historical student there are Boulder's 'History of China' in three large volumes, Ross's 'History of the .Manchus,' and the same author's ' Cores/ which necessarily deal largely with China. There is also Dr. Hirth's learned /n-or/inr<> "China and the Roman Orient: Researches into their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as repres(>nted in old Chinese Records.' A pleasant taste of Chinese literature may be obtained from .Mr. 'iiles' ''(Jems of Chinese Literature,' beiiiir gleanings 7 O O from all times and periods. Those fond of poetry will find it treated of in Sir John Davis's monograph on the 4 Poetry of the Chinese' : and tho-e delighting in rhymes, will find Stout's 'Entombed Alive. and other Songs and Ballads from the Chinese.' a lively book Jo beguile a pleasant half-hour. ' Pidgin-Knglish Sing-Sou^" by Clias. (i. Leland. is amusing. Freemasons and those interested in Secret Societies will find Schlegel's Thian Tin llwui' of great inti'ivst. *A collection of Chinese Proverbs' by \\ . Scarborough, will suit another class of readers. Philologists have their tastes pro\ ided for in Kdkin's China's Plac<- in Philology.' and 'The Languages of China iiefore the Chinese.' by Professor Terrien de Lacouperie. The Collector of China lia> had some aids pro\ided in l>r. llirth's Ancient Porcelain : A Study in Chinese Medheval Industry and Trade.' and Dr. Hushell's -Chinese 1'orcelain '"tMi-e the Pi-e-ent D\na. & (). F. von Mollcndorrt'. Coiieetanea Bibliographica, 1 appearing of late years in tin- -China l!e\iew.' HOOK* FOll L/-:A/i\/\(,' r///.Y/;,S A,'. Beginners .ire often at a loss to know what books to get to learn the different so-called dialects, or rather spoken languages of < 'hina; and we often have enquiries made on this subject. We therefore give some directions as to the books to c;ct : o o AMOY. - For a phrase-book, get Macgowan's 'Manual of the Amoy Dialect,' and for Dictionaries, English-Amoy, the same author's "English-Chinese Dictionary in the Amoy Dialect,' price $ 1 0. For Amoy-English Dictionary, ' Chinese- F.nglish Dictionary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language ot Amoy, with the principal variations of the Chang Chew and Chin Chew Dialects, by Rev. Carstairs Douglas. M.A., L.I..]).' Besides these books, there is a large assortment the largest, O O in the country of romani/ed colloquial books prepared by the missionaries. CAXTOXS8E. For learning the language properly, get 'Cantonese Made Easy.' 2nd edition, price s3. 'The 44 TJIIXGS CHINESE. Cantonese-Made-Easy Vocabulary,' price $1. and 'How to- speak Cantonese/ price $3. The two varieties of Dictionaries required, are Eitel's Cantonese-English Dictionary, price $10. and Chalmer's 'English-Cantonese Dictionary,' price $3. For a mere smattering for the acquisition of a few phrases., there is a small book specially prepared, freed as much as possible from all difficulties; it is 'An English and Cantonese Pocket Vocabulary/ by the present author, price 75 cents. root 'iio H . Maclay's ' Manual of the Foochow Dialect " and Maclay and Baldwin's 'Chinese-English Dictionary.' //lAA.l. The present author's 'Easy Sentences iit Hakka Dialect M ith a Vocabulary,' price $1 ; and the roman- i/ed coloquial books prepared by the German missionaries. .1/1 \n.\iti.\ (/'A'A/.v <;/;,>/;). Sir Thomas Wade's 'T/u- Krh-Chi Colloquial Series, price $15. Balfour's 'Idiomatic Sentences.' Giles' 'Chinese without a Teacher," price $1. Kdkin's 'Mandarin Grammar,' price $3. A new book, highly recommended, is Dr. Mateer's 'Mandarin Lessons;' also one by a Japanese, Goh called the 'Kuan II ua Chih Nan.' translated by L. C. Hopkins, and called 'The Guide to Kuan Hua,' price $2. J)!<'fiono. Morrison's 'Anglo-Chinese Vocabulary of the Ningpo Dialect;' and many romani/ed books. N// I.W/7/.I7. -Dr. Edkin's 'Grammar of the Shanghai Dialect,' price $2, and also his Vocabulary in Knglish-Chinese. price $2. Hooniow. Lyon's 'Introductory Lessons in the Soo- chow Dialect,' price 50 cents. S'li \'i'(i\\. The simplest is Giles* Kasy Sentences in Swatow.' price $1. A very good phrase-hook is Lim's Iland-bnuk nt' tin- SwatoAv.' For an English-Chinese Voca- bulary gei 'English-Chinese \'<>cabulary >t' the N'ernaculai- n- sjh.keii Language of S\\ato\\.' by Rev. W. Dufi'us. f l'ln- only Chincse-l'hiulUh Dietionary i> Miss Field's, but unfor- tunately the English spelling of the Chinese words is, not the HOOKS FOR LEARNING <7lfXESL\ 15 same as in the other books. For a combination, of phrase- book and grammar, there is 'Primary Lessons in Swatow Grammar, (Colloquial) ' by Rev. W. Ashmorc, D.D. To rend Chinese. A good knowledge of the colloquial should precede all attempts to learn the book language, except for scholars in America or Europe, who simply learn Chinese as they would Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Sanscrit, or any other language for which they have no colloquial need. A very good book to start on is William's 'Easy Lessons in Chinese.' Another aid to beginners will be found in the - Chinese Chrcstomathy,' an old book, which, Avith all its faults, is an excellent one in many respects. Both these books are out of print. An admirable Avay to learn the book language is to follow the plan of Chinese school-boys by going through the school- books, commencing with such as the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Character Classics, reading aloud after the teacher so often that whole pages of the books can be repeated off by heart. A translation of the two first-named is to be had by Mr. Giles. If there is time for it, some knowledge might be acquired of the ' Four Books ' and ' Five Classics.' The Four Books ' at all events, learned in the same manner as the simple school-books mentioned above. Legge's ' Chinese Classics ' should be used here. Those published with Chinese text, English translation, and notes, &c.. are 5 volumes in number, and cost $4-5. An extra 2 volumes, 'The Li-Ki,' without the Chinese text, costs >S. To those who are to be connected with the Consular Ser- vice, nothing can be better than a thorough mastery of Wade's 'Txfi Krh Chi.' Documentary Series, price $4. For those in the Imperial Maritime Service, there is, further, the admirable scries of papers and documents collected by Dr. Hirth, entitled ' Text Book of Documentary Chinese.' price $4. After going through the whole, or a portion of the books, mentioned above, the learner will know pretty well what is best adapted for his requirements should he intend to proceed further. \YliiTi.\(f. To learn how to form the Character in the correct way, .there is the present author's ' How to Write? Chinese.' Part I., price $2. 46 77//.\V,'.s' r///.\7->7-:. BOTAXY. There is still a great deal for Botanists to do in China, in the way of collecting, examining, and making- known to the Avorld the result of their labours, for then- aiv vet vast regions unexplored. The Chinese flora is extremely rich. Forests, in the European sense, are rare: but evergreens, flowering 8krubs> and especially resinous plants, are found in great variety. Proceeding- southwards, the transition is very gradual from the Xanchurian to the tropical flora of Indo-China. Hence in some of the central districts there is a remarkable inter- mingling of species belonging to different /ones, the bamboo flourishing by the side of the oak, while M heat and mai/e- crops are interspersed with paddy-fields, sugar and cotton plantations. In general, the cultivated species are everywhere encroaching on the wild flora.' We quote the above from A. H. Keane's 'Asia.' edited by Sir Richard Temple. Owing to the monsoons, there is 'a more regular O distribution of the rainfall.' and a rainy season in spring: tin- result is an extremely regular succesMon of seasons, which * * * is favourable to a careful garden-like agriculture.' In the North, wheat and millet are cultivated, while in the South, rice, sugar-cane, mulberries, the tea-plant, and oranges. Cotton, and indigo are also produced in China. One of the most marked differences, noticeable to the new arrival in China, especially in the 1 South, is the absence of meado\\s and pasture lands. Hongkong, in its more sheltered valleys and ra\ines. presents an extraordinary varied flora.' closely connected with that of Sikkim. Aam. Khasia. and North-Kast India, 'and will probably hereafter prove to bi- connected with it by a gradual transition aero South China'. Many other species are more tropical, like tli"-' of the Indian Archipelago, Malayan Peninsula, and e\en Ceylon and Al'ric i. N'orthu ards of Hongkong the it ion appears to change- much more rapidly. \ cry feu of the species known to range across from the |[imala\a t<> Japan are believed to come much further South than Amo\. where, with a difference of latitude <>f onl\ t\\-> degrees, th-- tropical features of the Hongkong flora ha\e (as far as \\ e BOTANY. know) almost entirely disappeared.' It is quite wonderful what a ' very la rye total amount of species are crowded upon so small an island.' There are over 1.000 species, and .),">(> genera of phaenogamic plants described in Bentham 'a 'Flora Hongkongensis.' In a new Avork. only half completed, entitled 4 Index Florir Sinensis/ consisting of an 'enumeration of all the plants known from China proper. Formosa. Hainan, the Corea.' the Luchu Archipelago, and the Island of Hongkong/ by F. B. Forbes, b'.L.s., &c.. and W. B. Hemsley. F.K.S.. A.L.S.. &<. there are under 101) orders nearly 1)00 genera and over l.OOO species. The book, when completed. Avill probably contain some 7,000 or 8,000 species, representing the whole number of plants at present known to exist in China. The number is being constantly added to by xealons botanists in different parts of the country, as many as a thousand, or even more. Inning been discovered during the last five years. \Ve give a short list of some of the genera most numerous in species : Clematis, 3!. Anemone, 16. Ranunculus, 15. Nasturtium, 9. Stcllaria, 16. Camellia, 14 or more. Ilex, 20. Kuonymus, 19. Yitis, 24. Acer, 15. Crotalaria, 14. Indigofera, 14. Astragalus, 21. Desmodium, 25. Primus, 2 1 . Spiraea, 19. Rubus, 41. Potentilla, 26. Rosa, 17. Pyrus, 14. Saxifraga, 20. Seclum, 28. Eugenia, 14. Viburnum, 27. Loniccra, 34. Hedytois, 21. Vernnnia, 12. Aster, 31. Artemisia, 22. Senecio, 35. Saussurca, 28. Lactuca, 21. Rhododendron, 65. Primula. 43. Lysimachia, 35. Ardisia, 18. Symplocos, 1 8. Jasminum, 15. Ligustrum, 14. Cynanchum, 24, Gentiana, 57. Ipomcea, 26. Solanum, 13. Veronica, 14. Pedicularis, 94. Plcctranthus, 18. Scutellaria. i 7. is TIIIXGS r///.\ />/;. of tlie Orders numerous in species are Ranunculaccjc, 107. Leguminosie, 301. Saxifragacca?, 70. Umbclliferac, 56. CaprifoliacciE, 78. Rubiacece, 106. Composite*:, 325. Ericaceae, 79. Oleacese, 52. Asclepiadeae, 59. (JentianaceJE, 81. Convolvulacca?, 49. Scrophularinea?, 200. Acanthacerc, 51. Yerbenaccne, 56. Labiatoc, 136. Primulacea?, 97. Besides these, there arc many species of Solunacca\ Amaryllidir, Liliacea?, Aroidea.*, Orchidea?, Labiate, and Coni- fenv. ]\Iany gramineous and alliaceous plants, and Rumicinfc, arc cultivated for food, but we must stop, for if we once enter on the food products of China, volumes might be written on its extensive economic botany. We cannot pass from Chinese plants without a notice of the bamboo in its many varieties, useful for food, for dress, for furniture, for boat and ship- building, for the erection of houses, and for almost everything that man needs or human ingenuity can apply it to. Chinese botany, if the thing is worthy of such a scien- tific name, is quite unscientific in its methods. Some of the i [lustrations in botanical works are so truthful that if the genera are known, they afford a means of ready identification, bnt.no pains are taken to specially represent the seed-vessels and flowers, so that it is well nigh impossible to tell what speeies a plant so depicted belongs to, unless it is already known. The plants are not divided according to their orders, genera, or species. Itiit the classification is more of this style: Five Divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom, vi/.:- Herbs. < irains O O ' Vegetables. lYuits. and Tree>. which are sub-divided into families, though the plants grouped under a family are very dissimilar. The same word is used for the lo\\est division, and at times might signify a genus, a sprcio. or even a variety. Herbs are divided into nine families: 'Hill-plants, odoriferous, noxious, scandent or climbing, aquatic, stony and mos>y plants, and plants not used in medicine.' This will give some idea of their mode of classification, for we cannot follow them through their other four grand divisions. /i/fOXZE. 4-9 E. The Chinese appear to have possessed the art of both making and ornamenting broii/e-work from a high antiquity ; for even at the time of the Shang dynasty (B. C. 1783-1134) the work bore evidence of having arrived .at an advanced stage. It was intimately connected with their ancient beliefs, for bronze vases and other vessels were in use in those most primitive of cults, which have still full sway over the Chinese mind ; the worship of nature in its visible manifestations of heaven and earth, the stars, winds, streams, and mountains, formed the official religion of the Chinese, and was confined to the governing classes ; the lower orders supplemented this worship, in their own individual cases, by the worship of ancestors. Unfortunately the rigid cast of the Chinese worship of antiquity and of set forms, has so bound them down to a faithful copy of all that has been done by their predecessors, that these bronxc vessels are copied to the most minute particular at the present day, and have been for a score or more centuries. The artistic mind was thus hampered and confined to a reproduction of what have been considered the masterpieces of antiquity ; play of individual taste and fancy has been restricted and shut up within its own country, with but little, if any, inspiration from external sources : Chinese art thus remained till the first century, when a new influence exerted a beneficial effect on it. But before passing on to a consideration of the influence of Buddhism, it is interesting to notice the presence of a decorative design, which in the West has been styled 'the Greek,' on account of its being found in Greek and Etruscan art. The questions naturally present themselves as to whether: (1st.) This design has been copied by the Chinese from the Greeks ; and the answer is that this seems improbable. (2nd.) Whether the design has been arrived at independently by both nations, and the answer is that this is not improbable ; for the design of the Chinese seems slightly different from that of the Greeks, and it has been svujfjested * OO that it lias arisen from the representation of the two pervading principles of nature, the Yin and the Yang. (3rd.) Whether the design is of such remote antiquity that it may D .50 77//.W/N r///.\7->7-;. have been carried from some cradle of the human race, and thus been common originally to both: it would appear in our present state of knowledge, that this question must be left unans\\ ered. At first, animal forms were tlie original models for tin- Chinese in their sacrificial M-ssols but they were not confined to the representation of animals, I'm- vases of curious and antique forms are found, and libation vessels like a re\er>ed casque mounted on three feet. Ancient bron/e work was made for other purposes beside the two already named, being u-ed by the Emperor for bestowal as presents. Buddhism, which we have already referred to, introduced. in its train, objects of virtu and art for the native Chinese \.> copy : and it served as an incentive to art in presenting a broader field for the Chinese art-worker to roam over. le-s fettered than the narrow limits confined him to. Many of tin- treasures of art. which owe their origin to its inspiration, have doubtless perished in the iconoclastic persecutions, which thi< religion has met more than once since its establishment in China: for the human figure formed a subject now for tin- Chinese artist, and gods and goddesses innumerable Men- depicted, and it is here that the best samples of Chinese art are to be found : the finest specimens being produced about A.l>. 1 12 ( and frmn A.D. HEM to IGI.'J. reaching their higlu-t point of excellence under the reign of Ivang Hi A.l>. Kifi'J. Taouist idols and symbols have had their share in guing objects of art to the Chinese bron/c-worker. Arabian or Persian art has also, in the time of tin- Mongol rulers of <'hina. everted some influence on Chinese bron/e art. by gi\ ing certain beauties of form which it had not previously ]i<.--e-se(l. a- \\ ell as new decorative and ornamental designs ; and in this connection one must mention the bron/e O a>troiimical instruments in Peking, made tor the ObservatOT] there, for Kublai Khan, under the suponiMou of Arabian astronomers. We can only refer < ,/ j"i.<.<-nn' to the incrustations f gold, or the beautiful ornamentation with delicate scroll- and flowers in niello work of -iher or gold \\in-, inserted into cut in the metal* on bron/e \\ork. ^hich greatly BITDDHISM. 51 enhances its beauty, nor can we do more than call attention to the damascene work, probably introduced from India, as well as the gilded bron/e, due to Buddhistic influence on Chinese art. }><>ok rccontiiiuulcd : 'L'Art Cliinois,' l>y M. Jif Dhll IX.\F. China presents the unique spectacle of three powerful so-called religions, holding .sway concurrently over the teeming millions of its inhabitants : and though strong opposition has been shown to the younger members of this trinity of religions by the older one Confucianism -yet there is now an outward IHI.I-. Each of them is a complement of the other, and attempts to meet a different want in human nature: Confucianism appeals to morality and conduct: Taouism is materialistic: and Buddhism metaphysical. Two only are indigenous : Buddhism is foreign, introduced A.D. 61. for the Emperor dreamt of a gigantic image of gold, and sent ti > India in search of the new religion ; but some believe it was known in China before that. The first centuries of its arrival were marked by the translation into Chinese of numerous Buddhistic works ; and there was considerable progress in making proselytes, for in the fourth century nine-tenths of the inhabitants of China were Buddhists. It is impossible to give an estimate of the number at the present day. as every Chinaman, who is not a Mahommedan or Christian. is a Buddhist, as well as a Taouist and a Confucianist, often at one and the same time. The eclectic nature of the Chinese. and the mutual adaptation of these systems a give and take- to one another, in the course of centuries of combined occupation of the Chinese religious mind, have rendered the outcome more of a tripartite amalgamation, or rather a mechanical combination of the three; for their partnership is not of that intimate character that it can be compared to a chemical union, where the different elements combine to produce a new substance. All three are likewise established faiths in China : their sages and divinities arc admitted into the state pantheon and honoured by state patronage. Buddhism is divided into two great branches : the North- ern and Southern. The Buddhism of China, Nepaul, Tibet. Mongolia, Corea, Japan, and Cochin China belong to the Northern ; that of Ceylon, Burma h. and Siam to the Southern. There are several points of difference between them: the sacred books amongst the Northern Buddhists are either in Sanscrit, or translated from it: while among the Southern, Pali is the sac-red language. The Northern Buddhists have the story of the Western Paradise, perhaps evolved from the human mind as the result of longings for some tangible residence for future bliss, which the doctrine of Nirvana does not satisfy with its absorption into a passionless state. In this ' pure land of the West ' the saints are l exempt from suffering, death and sexual distinction.' surrounded by the most beautiful scenery, and ' live for irons in a state of absolute bliss.' The Goddess of Mercy, who takes very much the place of the Virgin Mary amongst Roman Catholics, belongs to this branch of Buddhism. * In the Southern branch the Hindoo traditions in respect to cosmogony and mythology are adhered to more rigidly; while in the Northern branch a completely new and far more extensive universe, with divinities to correspond,' is believed in. Though these three, especially Taouism and Buddhism, arc so blended and mixed together, the latter obtrudes itself more to the view than the other two. Its temples. as well as its priests, are more numerous. It is very interest ing to notice the various phases which this wide-spread form of religion has developed in different lands. In China it is polytheistic, and has borrowed and adopted deities Iroiu Tiouism. In fact Buddhism has adapted itself to circum- stances. and finding certain beliefs pre\alent amongst the Chinese, instead of combating them, lias taken them under its wing, and thus gained by accretion. not only beliefs, but, numbers. The Buddhism < f the first few centuries of the Christian era in China was a vigorous immigrant, fre-li and lusty with life: eager to attempt gn-at things in its new chosen homo; with strength and vigour, prepared to spread its priuciplo ; and ready to endure the fiery baptisms of ]><]- -cufi< ,n through which it had later on to pass. \ very different thing to the emasculated descendant that now occupies the land with its drones of priests, and its temples in which scarce a worthy disciple of the learned patriarchs of ancient days is to found. Received with open arms, persecuted, patronised, smiled upon, tolerated, it, with the last phase of its existence, has reached, not the halycon days of peace and rest, but its final stage, foreshadowing its decay from rottenness and corruption ; for it has long passed its meridian : it was at the xonith of its power in the tenth and twelfth centuries, not only being popular, but exerting great literary influence. It excites but little enthusiasm at the present day in China; its priests are ignorant, low, and immoral : addicted to opium ; despised by the people : held up to contempt and ridicule : and the gibe and joke of the populace. The nuns likewise hold a very low position in the public estimation. The belief in the transmigration of souls ; the desire for the merit of good works in charity bestowed tt ou priests, and gifts to the large monasteries, so frequent throughout the length and breadth of the land; as well as the superstitious beliefs in charms and masses for the dead ; faith in the worship of the Goddess of Mercy, and a. trust in the efficacy of other gods : all these may be looked upon as the strong supports of Buddhism in China at the present day : but the scoff of the infidel, and the sneer of the atheist is slowly undermining some parts of this religious structure : and a better religion and a purer, which will stand true to its colours, will have more chance of success in future than Buddhism has had in the past. 'The Light of Asia' is setting in obscure darkness, while the first glimmering rays of 'The Light of the World' are chasing that darkness away : and " The Sun of Righteousness ' is arising ; with healing in his wings.' JiimJtx recommended. Kliys David's Buddhism.' published by th>- Society fur Promoting Christian Knowledge, gives the best account for the general reader of Buddhism, as a religion. Kitcl's ' Three Lectures on Buddhism, ' give, in a popular form, and in :i few pages, an account of Chinese Buddhism, which is more lengthily treated of in Kdkin's 'Chinese Buddhism while the same author's Keligion in China' is between the two. Real's |- Buddhist Literature' treats of works translated into Chinese. Kitel's ' Hand-book for the student of Chinese Buddhism ' is ;i dictionary of the Sanscrit terms used in Chinese, their translations into the latter, with an account of their meanings. 54- '////.Yf/N '7// A />'/;. CAPITAL f7 '/'//;>'. Tin' omnt.ry now included in China has been the scone of so many different states in ancient times, due to the vicissitudes incident to conquest and war, &e. that numerous cities have been the capital of the empire at different periods of its existence. Hangchow is one of the most famous of these. Marco Polo waxes eloquent in his praise of it: 'The noble and magnificent city of Kin-sai, a name that signifies "the celest ial city," and which it merits from its pre-eminence to all others in the world, in point of grandeur and beauty, as well as from its abundant delights, which might lead an inhabitant to imagine himself in paradise.' All writers agree in praising its situation, and the beauty of the surroundings, as well as the richness of the city, though they do not go into the <>; acics of the mediaeval Italian. Hangchow was tin- metropolis during tin- latter part of the Sung dynasty ( \.l>. 1 129-1280), when the northern part of the empire \\as in the hands of the Kin Tartars. Peking is the Northern capital, and has hern so for many centuries, but it, was not the capital of the whole empire until the time of Kublai, in A.D. 1261. On the tall of the Mongol <1\ nasty, the centre of government was transferred to Xanking until A.D. 14-11, when Peking again became the metropolis. ;iii(l has remained so ever since. It is o\\in^ to Peking ln'iii^- the capital that the Xorthern .Mandarin as spoken in I 'eking, otherwise an insignificant dialect, is the Court language of China. Nanking. i.<\. the Southern capital, has been the metro- polis of China several times during long periods of her histnrx. once from A.I). .'517 to .">S2. In the former part of the Ming d\n;My A.I). IMS-l-UKi it \\as here that the seat ,,f government \va- established, though Hung "\Yn, the founder of that d\nast\. intended lluni Cln>\v to he the capital. The famous puivehiin tower \\a> here, and here it was likewise that the T'ai-I'-iug rebels made their head quarters for many years. The Southern Mandarin was the Court language of China. o\vin;.r t,, Nanking being the capital until displaced by the Northern. M. The ancient capital of Shan-tu, rendered famous by Coleridge's exquisite poem: -''In Xanadu did Kubla Khan,' is now in ruins. The chief city of Shan-tung is Tsinan. once the capital of the ancient state of Tsi (B.C. 1100-230). Kai-fung-fu or Pien Liang had the honour of being the metropolis from A.D. 960 to 1129. The After Hans had their capital at the chief city of S/- chuan, where their rule extended over the West of China. liiniJi rri-niniiii'iulril.- -In 'Notes and (Queries on Cliina Mini .I;ip:iii" Vol. 1.. |>. <)0, tlicri; is n list of Capital cities. ( '. I /' I '/.\ r<'I'n\vn in the \\V-t. a- >uch Large quantities of il are made for exportation. The coiieentric balls of ivory have attracted much interot and speculation; there is, ho never, no trickerx in their production, but, like moet things of the kind amongst Chinese. the\ an the result of patient toil, the balls being carved in .<.;ip tone ware of FOOC]I..\V is \\cll known among th<- foreign roidents in China: inodel> of pagoda-. -h'.e-. Chinese gr;i\e-. plate-, memorial arches, and many other things. ;ire produced in it. The hard olive seed is clalioratelv carved in the South into models of 1>. .at-, and other object^. Wood caning is of very ancient origin ,S'. 57 in China, though the influence of Buddhism in the second century gave an artistic life to what had before not been raised much above a mechanical art. No signatures or dates are borne on Chinese carvings: it is therefore difficult, if not impossible, to assign a date to them. l>i> have sixty-four moves, and in the course of that number has touched every square on the board, but were the Chinese equi- valent of the knight, vi/., the horse or cavalry, to go on such a round, he would have nearly half as many moves again, for the intersections of the lines, being the resting places for the- ^pieces, increase tin- numl>rr of such positions to a total of )iinety. The general and his two secretaries arc confined to tour squares, which, unlike the other squares mi the board, ire crossed by diagonal lines: along these Hues, and on them alone, the secretaries move, but only across one square at a time: the general also only moves one square at a time, in :i straight line, but not diagonally. Though these pieces arc confined to the four squares, they have, on account of their positions being placed at the intersections of lines, mure than four places that they can occupy : the general has nine points he can rest on, and the secretaries five. The. elephants, which flank the secretaries mi each side, are also restricted in their movements, being confined to their own side of the board, and not being allowed to cross the river, but have more freedom of motion within such limits, being permitted TO move diagonally through two squares, both back and forward. The horses, which are the next pieces, have the curious combination of movement peculiar to the knight in the Western game, \\/: a straight move, and a diagonal one, but each move is of the same length with the Chinese equivalent of the knight, that is to say. they can move one point forward, sideways, or backward, and one diagonally: but they cannot jump over any other piece. The chariots take the place of the castles in the Knglish game, occupying the same position on the board, having the same moves, and are the most powerful of all the pieces : from the restricted moves of the General i King) ca>tling is impossible. The ennuoniers have the same power of movement as the chariot*. but, curiously enough, take, only when a piece intervenes. leaping, like a*. English knight, over the obstruction. The five soldi. -i- mo\e like the Knglish pa\\ ns. milv for \\ard in The first brunt of battle; they gain increased po \\ er of motion "ii crowing the river into the enemies territory, when they move side way 8 M well ; there i<. however, no merit in their reaching flic extreme of the board, for they can never move back, and there is no changing them for a higher piece. The chessmen are called red ;ui(l black, bet the black are the natural col .mr of the wood white. Thev arc not. < 7/A',SN. :>i) carved to represent what they stand for. but have the name* <-ut into the top of the wood, being otherwise exactly like English draughtsmen. The carved ivory chessmen, made by the Chinese ivory workers, are simply meant for the foreign market. The longitudinal lines are numbered, but not the trans- verse, and Avith the names of the chessmen and the use of tin- expressions forward, backward, and sideways, a game can easily be played from the book, or a game recorded as it is played. In taking pieces, the captured one is removed, and the capturing one is placed on the point the captured occupied, except in the case of the cannonicr. The object, as in the English game, is to 'checkmate.' The general, though Confined to 'head-quarters/ i.e., the four squares already named, is in check if no piece intervenes between him and the opposite general on the same straight line. He cannot be captured, and. like the English king, cannot move into check. The limited power of movement of a number of the pieces, as well as the Avant of a queen, due naturally to the IOAV estimation that Avoman is held in in the East, restrict, it is said, the combinations in Chinese chess more than in the Western game. Notwithstanding all, the Chinese game has its own elements of skill.' The equilibrium of power is not so greatly displaced as at first sight might appear, because, of the sixteen chessmen, eleven are principal pieces. and only five soldiers, though. Avith the exception of the chariots, the power of each chessman is less than in the Western game. Literary men and women often play chess, and it is quite a common subject of Chinese paintings; but it is not the pastime of the common people to the great extent it Appears to be in Japan. Different sorts of chess have been played at different, times in China: and there is still another game in vogue, perhaps of even earlier origin than the common chess, which is called >ni-h't'}. or ''blockade chess.' There an- .'J'Jl- squares or 3(>l positions on the board, and 300 pieces. Avhich (jo 77//AV/N r///.y />/;. are black and white, and stand as in the common chess, mt the crossings of the lines. We have not space to go into a full account of this game, but will content ourselves with saying that the pieces are placed by each player alternately on the board, and the object is to surround the opponent's men and their crossings, 'or neutralise their power over those near them.' There is also 'a three-handed game played upon a three- legued board * * * the '''chess of the three Kingdoms." ' ]}<><>/;. i-i-rnniinrnili-iJ. Journal N. C. Mr. H. A. S.. New Serifs No. III. Art. S. which cont;iiiis a description of the icaine,and t wo printed fjaines. Tlif same Journal. Now Series. No.fi. Art. li. compares the Chinese game with that played by \Vcstcrn nations, (iiles 'Historic China ami other Sketches,' Article on ' Wei clri or the Chinese ' iraine of war.' ( '/f//J>/{/<;.\. China is alive with Children. If France is at one extreme as regards those who will form the future nation, China is at the other, and the whole nation will quite agree with the sacred Hebrew Psalmist when lie sang 'Happy is the mau that hath his quiver full of them.' though multitudes among them would qualify the statement by changing the word 'children' into the word 'boys.' ^ es, the whole land is swarming with them, and not the land alone but the water also. The small boats in Canton, that parth take the place of cabs and carriages in the West, will not only haveapa>t generation, typified by an ancient grandame almost too antiquated to \\ield an oar, and the present generation in the buxom mother, but the future generation i- represented by half a do/en ho\s and girls, of ;dl ages and sixes, from the little pickaninny, who is carried pick-a-back by a sister not much bigger than himself, to the eldest si-ter, \\ ho. being fifteen, is engaged, and at the transition stage between girlhood and \\omanliood. ,\ walk on shore Null bring one. at every village and hamlet, into a swarm of \oungsters .-diiio^t as numernit- as the s\\arms of gnats and iMoMjuitne< o\er one'- head. The wonder is where they come from, and where and how they live. Clothing does not n.>i much; for a number of old rags for swaddling bands is all that is provided for the lieu arrival at first, and then in the CHILDREN. 61 Country side, in summer at all events, a single jacket is enough, or in many cases the nut-brown skin of the little ones is considered sufficient. Clothing is added with added years, being delayed longer in the case of boys than in that of girls. Childhood does not appear so charming to our Western eyes when surrounded by all the squalor and dirt incident to Chinese village and city life ; but. amidst all their filth and wretchedness, children will still be children the wide world over, and they have, even amongst the seemingly stolid Chinese, the faculty of calling forth the better feelings so often found latent. Their prattle delights the fond father, whose pride beams through every line of his countenance, and their quaint and winning ways, and touches of nature, are visible even under the disadvantages of almond eyes and shaven crowns. The relative position of the two sexes, at their start in life, is clearlv shown bv the following v * O well-known ([notation from the classics. ' Sons shall be his, on couches lulled to rest. The little ones, enrobed, with sceptres play ; Their infant cries are loud as stern behest ; Their knees the vermeil covers shall display. As king hereafter one shall be addressed ; The rest, as princes, in our states shall sway. And daughters also to him shall be born. They shall be placed upon the ground to sleep ; Their playthings, tiles ; their dress, the simplest worn ; Their part alike from good and ill to keep. And ne'er their parents' hearts to cause to mourn ; To cook the food, and spirit-malt to steep.' For a month a Chinese baby is nameless; then, emerging from the state of being a mere unit in babydom, it has ;i feast given in its honour, and a tentative name bestowed on it, or rather, in the expressive phraseology of the Chinese. it has its name ' altered' from that of 'Baby' or *Lo\v" to something more distinctive. Its head is shaved, a most wise provision in a country where parasites are accepted as (52 77//.U/X c///\ /:*/:. an infliction of providence to teach patience. Severity is held up as a proper treatment of children; natural affection, however, often carries the day, so that there is, as the outcome. a constant conflict between the two principles, such as the Persians represent as existent between the principles of good and evil, neither, in the case under question, being-, however, an unmitigated good or an unmitigated evil. If the child rries, as a rule everything it wants is given to it. At other times the parents give way to violent fits of temper in their efforts to bring the child to obedience, when it i* beaten witli great cruelty, on the head, or anywhere, with sticks of firewood, or anything that comes handy, but, like a typhoon, these violent outbursts upset everything. Notwithstanding all these trials, as well as the theory that play is a waste of time, the Chinese child has a fair amount of enjoyment, which it fully appreciates, and makes good use of. Marriages galore, and funerals, conducted on the- most approved Salvationist principles, with bands of music, &c.. processions and feasts, toys, primitive in construction, and cheap in material to be sure and what child does not kno\\ hoAV to enjoy toys are all specially provided for its delect ati< n. and how it enters into the spirit of everything with true /est needs only to be seen to be understood. New Years time is the most glorious of all for little John Chinaman! In all his fine toggery lie trudges along at liis father's side to pay his Ne\v Year's calls, his little brain busy at Avork calculating how many cash he \\ill get in presents from his Others' acquaintances, \\hile his father i- thinking of the good bargains that this \ ( -ar A\iU bring. * Kung-hi. fat-tsoi,' here they are. the little man bo\\ ing and scraping and shaking his chubby little fingers in exact imitation of his elder-;. A \erital>le chip of the old Mock. kes his pleasure gravely, bgt evidently, the visits over^ eiijovs the fun to the full, as with lighted j.is ig brother has jiist let oil', to be rewarded b\ half a d)/.en which have mi-sed fire. ( t iiL\A. 6* But bcfi.tre many years the boy's free childhood is over and liis education is commenced; his name is again 'altered* to a new one, though at the same time lie keeps his childhood's name, or 'milk name' as it is expressed sometimes,, through life. (7//.YJ. The origin of the name by which this country and people is known to the nations of the West is not certain. If we arc to take the evidence of some ancient Indian books, such as the laws of Mann, the name China Avas in use in the twelfth century RC. It has also been .supposed to be derived from the family of Tsin, but this Avould give a later origin to it. The chief of this family obtained eventually, after having made history for some centuries, sway over the Avholc of China, and even long .interior to that period, the kingdom subject to this sept, being situated at the north-west portals of China, might have had its name given by strangers to the rest of the land. Cathay is a designation of a much later date, being derived from the Ki-tah, who ruled the North of China in the tenth century. None of these names are used by the natives themselves. The 'Celestial Empire' has some- Chinese excuse for its origin: Teen-Chow. Avhich Williams translates as Heavenly 1 )} nasty/ being used to a slight extent in the sense of the ' Kingdom which the dynasty appointed by heaven rules over/ but not being a term of general application among the common people. The latter nsc several names ( 'litnnj-l\n'<>h\ The Middle Kingdom and it is possible to obtain native maps of the world Avith China not only in the middle, but monopolising nearh the whole of the map, Avhilc England and other lands are represented as small islands lying round its borders. T'omj- Xhn, the hills or country of T'oug : the T'ong (T'ang) dynasty being one of the most celebrated in ancient history, the name in all probability took its rise at that time. From the same source the usual name in Aogue in the South of China, for the people, is 'Pony-Van, the men of Tong. Avhile 7-;. in the North it is Hun-Jin the men of Han, Han again being the name of another ancient dynasty. In literature the following names also appear for the people and country, viz., I ^it-Man or Black-haired race; Chung-W^OrKwok, the Middle Flowery Kingdom, used in contradistinction to Xgoi-tci, or outlying lands. An old name for China is \Yn-lla The Glorious Ha, Ha again being an ancient dynasty, while the most modern name is T one applied to scholars of the Chinese language. Again tin- Seres of the Greeks and Romans are also considered to be the Chinese. /liin/.'.i rt'riiiiiiiir/ii/ri/. Kdkin's 'Buddhism,' \Vi!]i;mis' 'Middle Kingdom,' (iillrspies' I,;iud of Sinim.' For tin- arguments in support of llif Seres brin.;,' tin- Chinese, xrr Antlioii's < .'l:i>si"il I )ictioii;iry ' Article Seres.' \\liere numerous initlioritics are <|iioted. Roman :iiitlioritie. are also j,'i\en in Andrews* ' Latin-English 1'ictionarv.' < 7//.\'/->7-; . 1 Illin. 1 It. How well adapted John China- man is for going abroad, the following ([notation from Sir Walter Medhurst's pen will show: 'The phases of character in which the Chinese possess the most interest to us Western peoples, are those which so peculiarly fit them for competing in the great labour market of the world. They are good agriculturists, mechanics, labourers, and sailors, and they possess all the intelligence, delicacy of touch, and unwearying patience which are necessary to render them fiist rate machinists and manufacturers. They are. moreover, docile, /; AH HO A It. <>:> combined with capital and enterprise, to convert them into the most efficient workmen to bo found on the face of the earth. * * * * Wherever the tide of Chinese emi- gration has set in, there they have proved themselves veritable working bees, and made good their footing to the exclusion <>f less quiet, less exacting, less active, or less intelligent artizans and labourers.' It is not only in recent years that the Chinese have gone abroad : they go now as emigrants, but records show that they were as enterprising and daring in their expeditious in former periods as any Western nations Averc at such times. The use of the mariner's compass enabled the Chinese to put to sea Avith a confidence they Avould otherwise not have possessed; for it came in as a dt'rnii'r r<'**<>rt Avhen fogs obscured the head-lands by day, or mists clouded the stars at night. The compass Avas first used by the geoinanceis 77//.V/;. &>tth and South of China till the steamer traffic dro\e tin- >low and unwieldy junk from the trade. In olden days. hm\- t-ver. not only Ja\a. hut India. Ceylon, the Gulf of Persia and Arabia Mere all visited by the enterprising and commercial Chinese. 'All this was done be fun- the days of Ya-n. do < iuma. and the credit of the first use of the mariner's eompasfl must be awarded to the Chinese. The Arabs borrowed it from them, and it then passed to the Hed Sea and the .Mediterranean.' The strong, unreasoning opposition to the Chinese in America has drawn special attention to them in that quarter of the globe, but. notwithstanding so much talk about them, the numbers that have gone over are not so large as one would naturally have expected, for in the I nited State- in 1880 there were only 105,613; They are found as far north as Alaska. There were, in 1881. -I.;j83 Chinese in Canada. They an pretty numerous* in British Columbia and Vancouver Island. It Mas -with their aid that the western -ection of the great Canadian Pacific Railway Avas constructed, and they ha\e been the pioneers of. or aids to. many valuable Industrie- and enterprises being opened up.' The construction of the railroad aero-- tin- State- \\as also largely due \ their help. In Trinidad there v ere. about twenty \ear- ago. 1.000 or .*>.(MK) Chinese, but. as emigration has not been continued to that neighbourhood of late years, they have decreased t-- probahly about 2.000 or .'U)00. They used to work in >ugar plantations, but uo\\ are ju-incipally shopkeepers, \<-. In British (juiana. b\ th<- census of l.'-Sl. there A\ ! I .oil.'J < 'hiiu'se. In l>emarara there an nioi-c tlian in Trinidad, and in Jamaica about the same a- in the last place: but in both hemarara and Jamaica the numbers ha\e decrea-ed from tlie ion of immigration, from death-, and the return of rich ' one- to their native home-. In Surinam or Dutch (Juiana. A\ ith a population of ."iT.OOO ii.iiabitants. there is a -prinkling of Chim-.e. r///.v />/; A nun A it. <>7 In Cuba and Porto Hie > in 1877 there were 13.811 Chinese. In Chili in 188;") tin- Chinese numbered 1,161. In Peru there are 50,000 Asiatics who are chiefly Cliine.se. In Hawaii in 188 ! then* were I7.D31) Chinese. In Mauritius at the end of 1888 the Chinese Avere reckoned at 3,035, and in January 181)0 they were estimated at 3.7(>5. In India, and Ceylon there are some Chinese to be found, and there is said to be unmistakable evidence of their presence in the Mysore in ancient times. Quite recently, even further evidence of their work, it is considered, lias been discovered, for while sinking a main shaft in the Havnhalli gold mine, a number of mining implements of various kinds were found which had been used by the old workers in their work n thousand years or more ago, and it is supposed that the workings were made bv Chinese. 1 he tools are said to be O like Chinese ones and unlike Hindoo ones. For scores of years they have been pouring into .Malaysia, and all the surrounding islands. In Singapore, in 1881. there \\ere 8(>.7f>(>. while the Malays only numbered 22,000, and the whole population was 139/208. Kvun if all territory under direct British rule be included, they slightly outnumber the children of the soil.' ' In and around the Straits Settlements \\e are supposed to have at least (iOO. ()()() Chinese, not counting those in Borneo, the Dutch colonies, or the Philippines.' In 1889 more than 100,000 lauded in Singapore. In .luhoiv the estimated population is 200.000, of whom 150.000 are Chinese. In "Negri Sonibilan -a group of five, small states, .lohol. Tambin. Sri Mcnanti. Jempol. and Hemban the entire population is probably under 10.000, of whom about 1.000 are Chinese. In Malacca they number 19,7 1 1 : in Penang, (>7.50'2. In Sungei Ujong and Jelebu the Chinese form a large proportion of the population. That of Selaugor was estimated in 1889 as 97, 10(>. of whom 73,155 were (Chinese. In Perak they M'ere roughly estimated, in 1881). ;it !)S,304, while the Malays numbered about 85.103. lu Labuan thev number over 1,000. 'arc the chief traders, and most of 68 77//.W/N r///.YA'N/:. the industries of tho Island arc in their hands.' The Chinese seem destined to be the future Inhabitants of this part of the world; the demand for them is increasing-. They land as coolies, but their industry and superior qualities to those of the natives raise them speedily to the position of planters shopkeepers, and merchants. These Chinese are mostly Hakkas. Cantonese, Hainanese, Swatow. and Anioy men In Burmah they are numerous. Sir L. Griffin considers that the future of Bormah belongs to the Chinese. A great proportion of the 'trade of Rangoon is in their hands. They arc numerous in all the commerical towns np country, such as Mandalay, etc. 'They possess the very qualities, as respectable citizens, which the Burmese lack. They are the best, of all immigrants in the Mast." For centuries past the Western Chinese have had commercial intercourse with Burmah, and a few hundreds were 'settled as merchants in Bhamo. Mandalay, Fangvan, and other places/ but the British annexation of the country has increased their number: so that, there are now probably ,'J.OOO or 1.000 Vim-nan and Sx-cliuan men living in Burmah. who are in the habit of taking Burmese wives, the sons of these unions i^oing to school in Yunnan to learn Chinese, and learning- Burmese in the land of their birth. I'mni South-Eastern China the immigration has lasted many years, but in small numbers until recently when British rule afforded greater security. There are nou probably .>onie _!."). 000 Chinese from the Kastern coast in Burmah. which with t he .'{.000 or 1.000 already mentioned as from the West of China Mould make not far short of ,'JO.OOO Chinese in Burmah. there being 10,000 in Mandalay. while there are probably |<;.Ol)0.,r IS.OOO in Rangoon, though we have seen it Mated that there are In.OOO in the latter city alone. In (he hutch lia-l Indies, in ISSN, the ("liine-e \\ere '2,'52.() iu number. According to the ofli.-ial -(iaccfi' ofllie Philippines. I I .SI I Chinese arrixcd in ih,. 1-hmls in 1S!K) and 'J.'.HT iefl. making an excess of arrivals over depart ures of s.S(J7. \\'e find from the lah-t work on the Islands (-The Philippine r/y/.\/->7'; A/IHOA/). 09 Islands,' b\ J. Foreman), that it is estimated that there are 100.000 Chinese in these Islands, * of which upwards of 40,000 dwell in the capital and its environs.' They have traded with the Islands for many centuries, and have been an inestimable boon to the natives and Spanish residents. There Averc about 1.000 Chinese settled in Haiphong about ten years ago. 'where they have monopolised every pursuit requiring skill, perseverance, and commercial acumen.'' In Haiphong, in 181)0, out of -a population of 15,000, 5,600 were Chinese. In the City of Hue, the capital of the Kingdom of Annam, 800 arc Chinese, the total population being estimated at 100.000: and in Tourane and Quinhon, ports in the provinces of that Kingdom, the trade is chiefly in the hands of the Chinese. The population of Cochin-China, in 1889, was 1. 80 1. 2 11. of which .")(j, 528 were Chinese. In the town of Cholon, four miles from Saigon, there were, in 1889, 11,911 Chinese out of a population of .'57.111. The Chinese in Siam arc estimated at about 1 .300,000. (one estimate is 1,000,000) and the general revenue is farmed out to them. Bangkok is 'occupied by a mixed Siamese and Chinese population, estimated at from 400,000 to 500.000. As in so many other parts of Further India, the Chinese have here almost monopolised the local trade.' The total number of Chinese in Japan, in 1888. was 1,805. In the chief cities of Japan the Chinese residents were a> follows in 1889 Yokohama, 2,993. Osaka, 135. Nagasaki, 692. Hokodate, 33. Kobe. 767. In Corea there were a fe\\ years ago only 100: but immigration has been extensive enough to add very mate- rially to their number, so that there were, in 1890. 1,057 Chinese. In Siberia they ; are swarming along the auriferous banks of the Upper Yenisei River.' In Queensland in 1880 there are said to have been 10,500 Chinese, of whom 50 were females. In 1888 there were 8,211. In 1889 there were 7,091, the women being 22 70 77//.\V/,s' f'///.Y /<>'/;. in number: the proportion of Chinese to tin- total estimated population bein per cent, in 1885. .'i-75 per cent, in IS8(>. 2'87 per cent, in I 887. 2'50 per cent, in 1888. 2'1,'J per cent, and in 1889 as above. In Victoria, in 1881, there Mas a total of 12.128, of whom 25!) were females. In South Australia, in the same year. 2.731. In Xe\v South Wales the total population, in 1881, was 751.4(>8, of which the Chinese formed I .'$(> per cent. They are found in Northern Australia, where, the Marl of Kintore says, they have 'had the ^reatest share in its development so far as it has -rone.' In Tasmania, in the same year, there were 814. In 1881 there were 5,004 Chinese in New Zealand. In 188(> there were 4,5.32 male Chinese and 18 females, making a total of I-.550. being 079 per cent of the whole population, and in 1889, 4,585. 'The number of Chinese who arrived in the Colony in 1889 Mas only 1(J against ;)8 in 1SSS.' In 1881 a poll tax of 10 was imposed on every Chinese ne\\- arrival who intended to be a resident (there is a similar ia\ in most of the Australian Colonies'!, and its effect on Chinese immigration into that colon v nia\ be seen from the followin fiures : 1880 296 1885 !)! 1 SS 1 1.029 I8S(J 2.'59 1 SS2 2.'i ISS7 :r>i I ss;i II isss ;jos 1 SS 1 8|. 1SS9 l(i There' have been 178 Chinese naturalised in Ne\\ Zealand during the ten yean ending in 1889: more than 9 percent of all those naturalised during that time bein^ Chinese, they M-ciipyin^- the fourth place on the list, (iermaiis. Danes, and Swedes taking the lead. It ^^ill thus be seen how they arc scattered over the \\orld. There are numbers of them in .Mexico; Hra/il is <>ne of the latest places mentioned ;is a. field for their CHINESE PEOPLE. 71 operations; and even London has a fluctuating population of them, chiefly sailors and firemen of the steamers trading with China. ' Already many native labourers in Germany have been displaced by Chinese, especially in Hamburg. A Mecklenburg paper regularly advertises contracts for Chinese labour, the prevalent term of agreement being for ten years, a cash payment of 200 marks being made in advance.' ' The coolie traffic of Holland with China is ' nearly * half a million per annum, while that of England is under 50,000; of Portugal a few hundred ; of Germany, Hawaii, and the South American republics hardly as much.' Like the Briton, the Chinese is found nearly everywhere ; like him, the Chinaman has the faculty of making himself at home abroad; and, like the Briton, he looks forward, after making his pile, to return to his home to spend the remainder of his days in ease and comfort; and again, like the Briton, the countries he blesses by his presence owe, in some cases, their salvation, and in others incalculable benefits to him. CHINESE PEOPLE, CHARACTERISTICS OF. With regard to the physical characteristics, the Chinese belong to the Mongolian family, possessing its yellowish skin, lank, coarse, black hair, almost rudimentary beard and whiskers, and scanty hair-growth on the rest of the body, prominent cheek-bones, eyes almost invariably black, lack lustre in expression, and obliquely sloping towards the nose, there being either no bridge to that organ or in other cases scarcely any, and broad nostrils ; there is also ' a small flap of skin of the upper eyelid overlapping just above the inner ' angle of the eye, at least, in South China. The face is round ; they have small hands and feet, and long tapering fingers. The ankles of many of the common boat-women are very neat. ' They are well built and proportioned, but short in stature, especially in the South, where a man of six feet in height is such a rarity as to be nicknamed " giant." : The average of height in the North is a few inches above that in O O the South ; and difference exists as to complexion in the different parts of the empire and between different classes, 72 THINGS CHINESE. owing to exposure to the sun and the weather, which falls to the lot of some, and which others escape. This is most strikingly manifest in the skin of the Cantonese boat-man, which will be well browned all over the body except round his waist, where, being constantly covered by his rolled up trousers, it is of a considerably lighter hue. The Swatow fisherman is often swarthy almost to blackness, nor is there a mid-region round his loins of a lighter shade as he works in the garb of old Adam minus the fig leaves. The faces of some of the ladies are fairer, shielded as they are from all exposure, than those of many of the inhabitants of the South of Europe. With a dark skin one scarcely expects to find soft texture, but that of even the common women is soft. To a stranger newly arrived from Western lands there appears a remarkable sameness in all the people all are black-haired, black-eyed, with clean-shaven heads and faces, except the elders who cultivate their beards, and all exemplifying the same general characteristics they present so much uniformity to one unaccustomed to such a mass of an unknown and distinct type that the question often presents itself: How do those who are brought into intimate relationships with them distinguish one from the other ? And a ready answer presents itself in what seems to the uninitiated the analogous case of a shepherd knowing each sheep under his care. A few months residence and familiarity with the new type shows that amidst the general uniformity there are many points of difference, and a slight appreciation of what constitutes Chinese beauty is occasionally awakened. That these crude opinions of Chinese physical sameness are far from the truth it needs but to instance the similar opinion held by the Chinese as to ourseh. -. In an examination of Chinese for colour-blindness, 1,200 men and women were tested with these results : Colour- blind 20 ; completely green-blind 1 1 ; completely red-blind />, and one partially so. The Chinese are often unable to dis- tiii'4ui -| -Normally bncbycephalic, /.<'., round hori/.ontallv. FACIAL ANCI.K - ! Prognathous, index Nos. 7(> to ( eilhic reil- tiinctrcs. < 'ii I:I:K-I',(INI:S - -| High and prominent. KAI:S - Mm TII Xosi: - ]-;YE - CM IN - XKCK - Large and standing out t'rom the head. Iirgc with thick lip-. 15 road. flat. short, and some- Small, almond-shaped, obi it |ne upwards and outwards, orbits wide apart, iris black. Very small and receding. Short and thick set. K.Af; CATC ASIC TYPE. N'onnally dolicbocepbfllic !.<.. lotij: lioriyxjiitally. Orthognathons, index No- Si to 7li. Uonndcd off and ovsil. 1 .MOO to 1.40(1 cnliir ren- tinic'tres. Ixiw and inconspicuous. Small, well-formed, close to thu head. Small. with hrijilit-red. moderately-thin lips. Lon<;. nsirrow. hi-h. straight or Ktmewhat coinex tip projecting beyond the nostrils. Straight, broad belo\v. I'nllv developed. Large, round, straight: or- bits rather close set ; iris normally bine or gre\ . but very variable. Full and slightly projecting Long, slender, and shapeh . 71 Til I Ml ^ r///.\7->7-;. lOK.VI, M TV I'll. . . . . Squat, angular, heavy. mii-cnlar. inclining to oliesity. HAXDS AXD FI:I-:T - Disproportionately small. I IIKAI. ( '.\i CA8IC \\ IT.. ST.VI i 1:1: - i ' >\ii'i. I:\ION KVI:KKU\VS - - l-iM'liKSSHi.N I 'r.MI'KKA. \IKXT - 15do\v the axcraire -." ft. to .") ft. 4 inch. I'alc-ydloxvish. tawny or olixe. inclining; to a leatherx -liroxvn and cin- nainoii no red or ruddy tinge. Dnll-lilack. Inn--, coarse, still, ami lank, cylindrical in section. \ er\ >caiity or aliscnt. Strain-lit and scanty. lleaxx. inanimate, niuno- tunoiisly nnil'orin. Dull. taciturn, moro-e. lethar-ic. Imt litfnlly xcliemenl. Synimetrieal. slim, active. robtut. Mciliiini-^i/.cd or laruc. Medium or aliove the average .") ft. 4 indi to 5 ft. !l iiu'h. Fair or xxhite. inclinin-- to lii-oxvn and swarthy normally x\ ith nnhiy Huge. I^ini:-. waxy, and normally li^'ht liroxvn. Imt very xarialilc- nlii>s\ jet-hlack. flaxen, red. etc.. dliptica! in section. Full. Inisliy , often xery IO:IL:. Arched and full. Uri^-lit. intetliuciit. inliuitely varii'd. Kner^etie. re>lless, liery. and ]K)etic. Au ethnological study ;mf different juirts ot' Cliina \\nuld aifnnl iinidi iiilfrrst and instruction. \\<- ha\c nut been ublr 1< Hud any slafislics lia\r niadr sonic researches in the matter. Through ihe kindne-s of the Hongkong Governmcnl \\eha\e l)een allo\\ed to inspect the bunks iii \icti.ria iranl. and \\ e find tliat out of 1,000 Chine>c .Male prisoners, the follonin^ is the height f\\c have omitted Jlie tractions of inclio; C illrlles = I ill. -lie lo r///.\v-;,s7-; /'/-;o /'/./;. ::> Wo discarded from our investigations all under the ago of 21 by (Chinese reckoning, which is a year or two less than by Knglish computation, but as maturity is early attained in ;i hot. climate Me do not think we fixed it too low. Neither IVrt l g-i\ eminent are disregarded; the maxims of their classics uttcrls ignored by the generality of their rulers ; rapacity and corruption^ pervade every department of the State. * Absence of truth and uprightness and honour, this is a most appalling void. and. unfortunately, it meets one /// >ill classes din/ fnnftssions (>f t lie people. I do not lel'er to nmiiey matters, for as a rule, they stand \\ell in this respect. * Tip- 1 'hine.-e are not n..tnrally an anti-progressive people. They are peculiarly amenable to reason, have no caste, and no powerful :'ligious bias. Their history shows that they have adopted even manifest improvement, which ha-, presented itself, for these mans centuries. * * * The truth is. the Chines, -have all the mental, moud, and religious instincts of our common nature. ***** r///,\7-;x/<; PEOPLI-:. 77 The fact that they have preceded us in many of the most important discoveries of modern times, such as the compass, gun- powder, printing, the manufacture of paper, silk, porcelain, &c., proves their inventive genius. * They are peaceable and/ciyil to strangers. (Dr. Williamson}. Here arc a few extracts from older writers : Dr. Morrison says: 'Generally speaking, they have all the cunning, deceit and intrigue of the French, without any of their good qualities. 1 ' Such Europeans as settle in China, and arc eyewitnesses of what passes, are not sitprised to hear that mothers kill or expose several of their children ; nor that parents sell their daughters for a f rifle, nor that the empire is full of thieves ; and the spirit of avarice universal. They are rather surprised that greater crimes are not heard of during seasons of scarcity. If we deduct the desires so natural to the unhappy, the innocence of their habits would correspond well enough with their poverty and hard labour.' Preinare. 'The Chinese are so madly prejudiced in favour of their own country, manners, and maxims, that they cannot imagine anything, not Chinese, to deserve the least regard.' Ckavagnac. 'So unwilling are the Chinese to allow themselves to be surpassed, or that any other people possess that of which they cannot boast, that they fancy resemblances where there are none, and, after striving in vain to find them, they still hope that such there are, and that if there should happen to be none, they are of no importance, or surely they would have been there.' Dr. Milne. 'The superiority which the Chinese possess over the other nations of Asia is so decided as scarcely to need the institution of an elaborate comparison. * * It may be considered as one proof of social advancement on the part of the Chinese, that the civil authority is generally superior to tiie military, and that letters always rank above arms. # --.': :' * * * * * * The Chinese are bad political economists. * :.': -f * * * * # * The advantageous features of their character, as mildness -docility, industry, peaceablencss ; subordination and respect for the aged, are accompanied by the vices of specious insincerity, falsehood. with mutual distrust and jealousy * * * * The superior character of the Chinese as colonists in regard to intelligence, industry, and general sobriety, must be derived from their education, and from the jood in their national system. * # * "' ;: * The comparatively low estimation in which vicrc wealth is held, is a considerable moral advantage on the side of the Chinese Poverty is no reproach among them. The peaceful and prudential character of the people may be traced to the influence and authority of age. The Chinese frequently get the better of Europeans in .1 discussion by imperturbable coolness and gravity. TS '/v/Mv/.v en i. \ />'/;. It is the discipline to which they arc subject from earliest childhood, ami the habit of controlling their ruder passions, that rentier crimes of violence so unfrcquent among them. ********* Hereditary rank without merit, is of little merit to the possessor.- - Sir '/W/ Davis. 'As a direct refusal to any request would betray a want of good breeding, every proposal rinds their immediate acquiescence : the> promise without hesitation, but generally disappoint by the invention of some slight pretence or plausible objection: they have no proper sense of the obligations of truth.' tin IT me. 'The Chinese * * are in general of a mild and humane disposition, but violent and vindictive when orTended.' Sir Ct't'cr^*' Cenins and originality arc regarded as hostile and incompatible elements.' And attain sunn- extracts from later 'China is emphatically a sober country.' * * * ' Ingenuity is a gift largely bestowed upon the Chinaman : it i> indeed one of his most marked characteristics, but it is ingenuitv of that peculiar kind \\hich works with very slender materials." * * - 'Almost every Chinaman is, by a kind of natural instinct, good both at cooking and at bargaining '---. Irchdcacon Cobtohi. 'This mysterious race, which with the Anglo-Saxons' and the Russians \\ ill divide the earth a hundred years hence. * * Hard working, frugal ami orderly when their secret societies are kept under due control, they are admirable and trustworthy men of business. while as artisans their industry is only exceeded by their skill and \ ns.itiliu .' Sir I.eptl (jriflin. 'The love of antiquity is inborn in the Chinese, they live in the past To them the past is not a mass of musty records tilled with the MI tToc.it ing odotus of decay, as it appears often to us. but a rich treasure-house fragrant with the aroma of purest \\isdom ;;nd nobles! example. * * * They are exclusive to the extremes! degree. * * * Conservatism has been carried to such an extreme that the whole nation has become fussili/ed. Closely connected \\iththisspiiitofexclusi\eiicss is an o\ erueening pride and absurd conceit in their o\\ n superioi it\ . and an unreasoning hatred of e\ ei\ thing foreign. Taking the people as a whole, their fundamental qualities ol industry, stability and readiness to submit to authority, contain the promise of (heeling results in the futine.' - A', ?-. /'. ('. Henry. 'The Chinaman and the mosquito are the two great mysteries (.1 .' //. .\<-rtiniii. ( )ne of the most remarkable national peculiarities of the Chinese is their extraordinary addiction to letters, the general prevalence ol literary habits an ong the middling and higher orders, and the vei> honourable piccmiiKiKc \\hich from the most i emote period has * HSU .I'EOI'IJ-:. 7!) been universally conceded to that class which is exclusively devoted to literary pursuits. I have left the country with the conviction that the Chinese nation, as a whole, is a much less vicious one than, as a consequence of opinions formed from a limited and unfair field of observation, it lias been customary to represent it : further, that the lower orders of the people generally arc better conducted, more sober and industrious, and, taken altogether, intellectually superior to the corresponding classes of our own countrymen.' Dr. Kciitiic. ' I find here a. steady adherence to the traditions of the past, ;i sober devotion to the calls arising in the various relations of life, an absence of shiftlessness, an honest and, at least, somewhat earnest grappling with the necessities and difficulties which beset men in their humbler stages of progress, a capacity to moralise withal. and an enduring sense of right and wrong. These all form what must be considered an essentially satisfactory basis and groundwork of national character. Among the people there is practical sense, among the gentry, scholarly instincts, the desire for advancement, the disposition to work for it with earnestness and constancy. Amongst the rulers, a sense of dignity, breadth of view, considering their information, and patriotic feeling. Who will say that such a people have not a future more wonderful even than their past.' (/. F, Sewarrf. The moral character of the Chinese is a book written in strange letters, which arc more complex and difficult for one of another race, religion, and language to decipher than their own singularly com- pounded word-symbols. In the same individuals, virtues and vices, Apparently incompatible, are placed side by side. Meekness, gentleness, docility, industry, contentment, cheerfulness, obedience to superiors, dutifulncss to parents, and reverence for the aged, are, in one and the same person, the companions of insincerity, lying, flattery, treachery, cruelty, jealousy, ingratitude, avarice, and distrust of others. The- Chinese are a weak and timid people, and in consequence, like all similarly constituted races, they seek a natural refuge in deceit and fraud. But examples of moral inconsistency are by no means confined to the Chinese, and I fear that sometimes too much emphasis is laid on the dark side of their character, * .is it it had no parallel amongst more enlightened nations. Were a native of the empire with a view of acquiring a thorough knowledge of the English people, to make himself familiar with the records ot our police and other law courts, the transactions that take place in what we call the ''commercial world, 1 ' and the scandals of what we term "society," he would probably give his countrymen at home a very one-sided and depreciatory account of this nation/ Archdeacon Gray. 'I find the Chinese most polite. * * The one thing no man can accuse the Chinese of is love of change/ Mrs. Gray. "The earnest simplicity and seriousness with which an amiable and lettered man in China will sit and propound the most prepos- terous and fantastic theories that ever entered a human brain, and the profound unconsciousness he shows of the nonsense he is talking, affect one very curiously. There are few things in which the Chinese do not claim pre- eminence, and it is this habit of self-complacency which renders them 80 Y7//.\(r'N so very much averse to being enlightened on those points on which they habitually are found wanting. The belief in their oun infallibilit) cannot but be a standing obstacle to the progress of the people in all departments where it prevails, and the difficulty of getting a Chinaman to acknowledge that he is beaten in an argument is but another phase of the same phenomenon. It is a sufficient answer, for him, that, however useless or hurtful a given practice may be, it is the 'custom" of the country ; and the belief that all the customs which have descended from generation to generation are, for that very reason, incapable of improvement, renders him a very hopeless subject to deal with. * * * ' * * There are few things more amusing, and at the same time more exasperating, to a European than the utter confusion of thought which characterises the Chinese as a race. * There seems a looseness of reasoning, a want of consecutiveness, in the mental process of the Chinese which argues an inherent defect in their constitutions.' Balfonr. 'John Chinaman is a most temperate creature * During the whole course of my many years residence in the countr\, 1 do not remember to have seen a dozen instances of actual drunkenness. * They arc a sociable people amongst themselves, and their courtesies are of a most laboured and punctilious character. ******* The Chinese are essentially a reading people. * * * * * ::. The Chinese have not. it is true, that delicate perception of what the claims of truth and good faith demand, which is so highly esteemed among us westerners, but they know and pri/.e both characteristics, and practical illustrations thereof are constanlU . ibservable in their relations one with another, and with foreigner--. * * ;s # * :;: llnne.ty " is by no means ,i rare viitue with the Clu;. & & 9 <* 3 As regards the question of courage, again it must be admitted i hat the Chinese possess more of the quality than they have hitherto had credit for. * Both kindliness and cruelty, gentleness and fer..city. have each its place in the Chinese character, and the sway \\hich either emotion has upon their minds depend-, vcr\ much upon the associations \>\ \\hich they are for the moment surrounded, \\lu-n in their own q.iiet homes, pursuing undisturbed the avo< ations to uhich they have lieen accustomed, tin-re an- no more harmless, well-intentioned, and orderly people. They actually appear to maintain order as if by common consent, independent of all surveillance or interference on the part of the . But let them be brought into contact with bloodshed and rapine, or let them be roused by oppression or fana- ticism, and all that is evil in their disposition \\ill at once assert itself, inciting them to ihe mos't fiendish and atrocious acts of which human nature has been found capable.' -Sir Walter Aftdhurst. 'There is no more intelligent and manageable creature than *hc Chinaman, so long as he is treated with justice and firmness, and liis prejudices are, to a reasonable extent, humoured.' Sir Walter Meitlinrst. 'There exist no more honourable, law abiding and industrious citizens than the Chinese.' Karl of Kintorc. Here are opinions then as diverse as possible. "What more put than the following: 'The Chinese must be a strange people from the varying accounts which are given of them by different observers. They are over-estimated in sonic things and undervalued in others, misunderstood in most.' i ( 'ohhnlil) "What is the truth? We believe it to consist in a, true mean. If a man or woman will view this people with a, mental calmness, not on the one hand carried away with too great an enthusiasm -a fault easily committed, owing io the wonderful antiquity and many good points in their Character and on the other hand, if prejudice is resolutely banished, these g. >od points will be seen, while their failings will also be noticed. <'LA.\. This division of the people is analogous to that of the Scotch clan in many respects, and is productive of feud and disaster to themselves and others, as well as of protection to those belonging to the same clan, as a few generations ago was the case among the Highland clans of Scotland. The nucleus round which the Clan gathers is the ancestral temple and worship, here are the headquarters for all who are descendants of a remote ancestor. Genealogies are kept, often with the greatest care, in which are noted all the migrations of the family ; and so particular are the Chinese, in some parts of China, with regard to this point, that on the tomb-stones, in some places, are put the numbers of the generations, since the family came to that country side. In many villages all belong t;> one clan, just as in the Highlands of Scotland one part of the country will be found almost entirely peopled by one clan alone. As in China, the unit of the population or nation is not the individual, but the family, it may be easily understood of what paramount im- portance the clan is ; and it is one of the greatest disgraces r 82 7V//AY/N <7//.YA'N/-;. po.-siblo for a man to bo disowned or put out of the clan. oven if it be only temporarily. It is \\orse of course to bo punished for ii generation} and worst of all if the punishment is for over. Disputes of'teji take place between members of different clans, and lead to quarrels, reprisals, and fights, into which the whole elan is dragged : and. eventually, the soldiery, after perhaps some lives have been lost on both sides, are sent to put a stop to the internecine strife; in fact these petty \\ars are waged so fiercely that in some instances they make an approach to the vindietiveness displayed in the Italian vendetta. It should, however, be observed that the system of clans is more marked in the South of China : and most especially so in the Kwang-tung and Kwang-si provinces. The secret societies, especially in the Straits Settlements. take their rise in the clan system to a great extent. Honks recommended. Two articles on the comparative history of <-l;iii> hy Kcv. Ililileric Friend in the 'Chinese Recorder .Mini .Missionary .loiirnal.' entitled Txiuty txu/i clii lui ////,' Vol. IX. Xos. 4 and '}. Williains's '.Middle Kingdom,' Vol. 1.. i. 4S2 et scq. Al.-o >ce -rhinoc Kep.^iton .' Vol. 4. p. -41 I. ('1*1 MAT I-'.. In a land of such vast dimensions it may readily be understood that, the climate varies with each part of the country, and almost any variety of climate may be found in different parts of China. The extremes of cold and heat are not only found in the extremes of the North and South, but in the Xorth are oven found together: f ( .r China, like the eastern sea-board of the Northern States of Amori-;i. has a winter in the North approaching an arctic one for >e\erity. while the summer heat is tropic in its intensity. even greater for a short period than it is in many parts far oath. In some place^ the atmosphere is sat urated wil h mois- ture during a largo part of the year, while in other regions. \.-ept in the rainy season, the air is dry and cbar. The Atremes of ran^e in Peking are !()! and /ero Fahrenheit . The rainfall is generally lower than \(\ inches in the year, but Little snow fftlls, and it does not remain on the ground (' LI MATH. 83 more than a few days : the rivers are locked in ice for three months. As the heat increases, sand and dust blow with great force forming dust-storms. Of Ningpo it has been said that the winters may he compared to those in Paris, and the summers, for a short season, to those of Calcutta. The climate is very damp, the ground being marshy, and the extremes are greater than at Shanghai. The range of the thermometer is from 21 (o 107. and a range of 20 in two hours is not unusual. Of the West of China a recent writer says. ''Rains are frequent, and heavy clouds cover the heavens three-fourths of the year ; and. in absence of clouds, a smoky mist veils the earth from tho piercing rays of the sun. The climate is equable, and even the summer, although long and severely hot iu July and August, is modified by frequent showers. * * * The winters are very mild; while frost is seldom seen, and snow is almost unknown, except upon the moun- tains. Experience shows the climate to be fairly ' health}, ' and no more trying than that of Central China.' The climate of Amoy has been described as ''delightful.' But the word 'delightful' must be taken as comparing it with the climate of some other parts of China less fortunately situated. The thermometer ranges from 40 J to 9(>. The author spent three months in that port in the summer of 1889. and experienced what the temperature was at 93 for a day or two : the heat was intense, but fortunately it was a drv heat. This drv heat in Amov is generally moderated / ' ' v by a fresh sea-breeze which springs up nearly every day in the course of the forenoon and dies down in the evening. The heat during the night is very great, until the sea-bree/e rising with the tide slighty cools the atmosphere. The heat at the three cities of Hongkong. Canton, and Macao, is of long continuance, but not of so excessive a character as further up the coast, where its duration is shorter. In Canton the thermometer ranges from about 40 or 50 to 88 or thereabouts. It rarely rises above or falls below. The sea air moderates the climate at Macao and Hongkong. The rainfall of the latter place is greater than at 8J. 77//AV/X <7//.\7->7-;. Macao and Canton, and it lias been known to attain the extra- ordinary figure of iJO inches in 21 hours. The annual mean for 21 years being over 80 inches. The climate in Hongkong in summer is often of a hot muggy nature, and. while it lasts, harder to bear than a dry heat of even higher temperature. In the mountain-sheltered town, and on the lower levels, the thermometer will rarely rise higher than 88 or 89 J , while on the Peak levels, free to the sea-breezes, and cooled by the high elevation of from 1.500 to over 1.800 feet, the mercury falls from 4 to 10 degrees lower according to the season of the year, the greatest difference between the two levels being in .summer. These higher levels are, however, subject to more; of mountain mist and fog. Fogs rarely visit Macao. The Avi ntcr months in these* three ports form the most delightful .season of all the year, especially is this the case in October, November, and December, and even in January. Clear cool weather, with Italian skies, provides the beau ideal of existence. The Peak climate is said to be even finer than that of Chcfoo the sanitarium for foreign residents of the North of China. The climate of China, especially in th North, is said to have moderated considerably to what it was some centuries or thousands of years ago. On the other hand, the n-ckless denudation of the hills of wood and forest, by the inhabitants, doubtless has had a considerable effect in increasing the dryness and parched aspect of summer in China. It has been noticed lhat. in Hongkong, since the extensive tree-planting has been carried on. the summer appears to be somewhat cooler. The iii-rc range of the t hernn under dues not form a fair criterion in this land of the- hea' as it affects the human frame. Humidity and Other Considerations have to 1>" t'iken into a"cuunt. In the Smith of China the climate semis admirably adapted as a ride for children of foreign parents np to the i'eight or t"ii. Imt after tlia' age they are inclined to -h'M>' ii p like IP it-house plants, and require a more bracing air. Me climate in China uets the blame of much that should be ra\77V/r,s' AM> CONFUCIANISM. 85 laid to indiscretions in diet, and careless exposure to the sun. or neglect of a fair share of exercise. If all these points arc carefully attended to. with of course some exceptions, a man or woman may, and often does, enjoy very good health. Some constitutions appear unable to stand the climate, while others occasionally thrive better than in their o\vn lands. The Chinese, as a race, are physically weaker than the English, but this should not all be laid to the account of the climate; insanitary surroundings, ignorance of the laws of health, and other causes also having a share in it. Cir* AXD COXFr<'IAXIH..\L- One feels a e.t.'rcf tfiH-f the sage of China. Confucius's father ; was a military officer eminent for his commanding stature, his great bravery, and immense strength.' The birth of the sage has been surrounded by mythical legends. 'From his childhood he showed ritualistic ten- dencies,' and ' delighted to play at the arrangement of sacrificial vessels and at postures of ceremony.' He ''bent his mind to learning.' He married young, his experience of the married state not being a happy one, nor did he appear to bestow much affection on his son. Confucius early took public service in the state, holding different offices at different times, such as Keeper of the Stores of Grain, Guardian of the Public Fields and Lands, Magistrate. Assistant Super- intendent of Works, and Minister of Crime: and applied his principles to the government with the most signal success. These appointments were not all held in succession, but were interspersed and followed by years spent in imparting instruction to disciples (at one time as many as 13.000), in (> 77//.V'/;. gaining knowledge himself, and in the compilation and editing of books, as well as in journeying* amongst the different petty states into which the China of that time was divided, in the hope that the rulers would give him the opportunity of putting his principles of government to the test; when, such confidence had he in them, he was convinced that, instead of anarchy and confusion, peace and harmony Mould reign supreme. He died, feeling that he was unappreciated, at tin- age of seventy-two. His disciples had the highest admiration for him. and exhausted attributes in the expression of this admiration. The best title which has ever been bestowed on him. is that of 'The Throneless King/ 'Probably no man has been so contemned during his life-time, and at the same time so worshipped by posterity, as Confucius. In both extremes there has been sonic exaggeration. His standard of morality was high, and his doctrines were pure. Had he, therefore, had an opportunity of exercising authority, it could but have resulted in good to an age. when the notions of right and wrong were strangely confused, and when both public and private morality were at the lowest ebb. ( >u the other Ir.ind. it is difficult t -> understand the secret of the extraordinary influence he has gained over posterity, and the more the problem is studied the more incomprehensible doe-, it become* when viewed from a Kuropean standpoint. 'His system of philosophy is by no means complete, and it lacks life (if we may venture to say so), in face of the fact that it ha* supplied the guiding principles. Avhich ha\e actuated the performance of all that is great and noble in the life of China for more than twenty centuries.' It is impossible in the short spare \' this article to -i\c a di^v>t .f the doctrines of the sage. \\ < will content oiti-M'|\es \\ith gi\ ing a >nmmary of the essential points as adapted to the requirement! of' modern e\er\-day Chinese life by the great Kmperor Ivan -4- Hi : '1. Ksteem most, highly filial piety and brotherly sub- in i-Mon. in order to give dae prominence to the social relations. 2. Behave \\ith generosit] to the branches of your kindred, in order to illu-trat- harinon\ and benignit \ . CU\7'7T/rN J.V/> CONFUCIANISM. 87 .'. Cultivate peace and concord in your neighbourhoods, in order to prevent quarrels and litigations. 1. Recognise the importance of husbandry and the culture of the, mulberry-tree, in order to ensure a sufficiency of clothing and food. 5. Show that you pri/e moderation and economy, in order to prevent the lavish waste of your means. G. Make much of the colleges and seminaries, in order to make correct the practice of the scholars. 7. Discountenance and banish strange doctrines, in order to exalt the correct doctrine. -.or I'OII^IMS. Professor I .(.Mice's ' Keliifions of Chin:i.' Tin; ssiine ;iiitlior's linperiiil Coiifiiei:iiii>iii,' siml his master-work, ' The Chinese Chissies.' 'The three Keli^ions of Chinn.' l>y Dn Bose. F;il>er"s 'Digest of the Doctrines of Confuclu?, 1 and a review of the hitter in the (.'hiiui. I'eviow.' Vol.. I.. ]\w L'I'.O. * ('onfueiiis. 'I'lie (ire;it Teaeher,' by Major-General < i. < J. Alexnnder. CORMORANT /'7,S7//.VV/.- The journal of tlie friar (A.IX 1286-1331) mentions this strange method of fishing: audit is largely carried on at the present day in some parts of China; so it, will be seen that Chinese have long- used cormorants for fishing purposes. To sho\\- the admirable adaptation of this bird for the pursuit, we quote from a length\ article in 'Encyclopedia Americana' 'The cormorant is most admirall\ adapted for s\\ imming. * * * having the great toe united to the others by a common membrane, * yet they are among the very few web-footed birds capable of perching on the brandies of trees, \\hich they do with great case and security.' There are quite a number of species distributed over the world: they are closely allied to the pelicans in conformation and habits. They 'are very voracious feeders. * * * * They dive with great force. and swim under water with such celerity, that few h'sli can (-ape them. * * * * Should a cormorant seixe a fish in any other wa\ than l>\ the head, he rises to the surface and. tossing the tish into the air, adroit 1\ catches it head foremost as it falls, so that the tins, being properly laid against the fish's sides, cause no injnr\ to the throat of the- bird.' Though M e have seen a small catamaran-like boat, \\ith B< veral cormorants on it. in one of our I rip- into t he interior. \\e ha\e not actually seen them employed; u e therefore cop\ at length from .Miss < iordon-( 'iimming's -Ti-a\els in China" as to tlieir fishing: 'The simplest form of fi>lier\ is when a poor fisherman has constructed for himself a raft Consisting onl\ of from four ti. eight bamboos lashed together. Onthi< CORMO IL I 'X T FlSlUSi /. 85)" he sits poised (crowned with a large straw hat), and before him are perched half-a-do/en of these odd uncanny-looking black birds waiting his command. The cage in which they live and the basket in which he stores his lisli complete his- slender stock-in-trade. The marvel is how he contrives to- avoid overturning his frail raft. Sometimes several fishers form partnership, and start co-operative business. They invest in a shallow punt, and a regiment of perhaps twenty or more of these solemn sombre birds sit on perches at either end of the punt, each having a hempen cord fastened round the throat just below the pouch, to prevent its swallowing any fish it may catch. Then, at a given signal,. all the cormorants glide into the water, apparently well aware of the disadvantage of scaring their prey. Their movements below the surface are very swift and graceful as they dart in pursuit of a fish or an eel, and giving it a nip with their strong hooked beak, swallow it, and continue hunting. Sometimes they do not return to Ihe surface till they have secured several fish, and their capacious pouch is quite distended, and sometimes the tail of a fish protrudes from their gaping bill. Then they return to the surface 1 , and at the bidding of their keepers disgorge their prey, one by one. till the pouch is empty, when, they again receive the signal to dive, and resume- their pursuit. Some birds arc far more expert than others, and rarely fail to secure their pri/e. but sometimes they catch a fish, or more often an eel. so awkwardly that they cannot contrive to swallow it, and in the effort to arrange this difficulty, the victim manages to escape. If one bird catches a large and troublesome fish, t\vo or three of its friends occasionally go to the aid of their comrade, and help him to despatch it. Such brotherly kindness is, however, by no means invariable, and sometimes, when a foolish young bird lias captured a fish, the old hands pursue and rob him of his pri/e. At other times a bird fails in its trick, and after staying under water for a very long period, comes up quite crestfallen without a fish. /;. Wlicn the birds are tired tlio strap is removed from their throat, and they are rewarded with a share of the fish, which they catch as it is thrown to them. It is reckoned a good ver. and the sorrows of education must begin. They are therefore offered for sale, a female bird being valued at from '>.*. to .").-.. and a male bird at double the price 1 . This difference is due to the superior strength of the latter, which enables it to capture, larger fi-h. Thenceforth the professional trainer takes them in hand: and fastening a string to one leg, he drixes them into the wat"r and thro\\> *.mall li\e tithes, which they are expected to (-itch. They are taught to -o and return subject to different calls on a whistle, obedience being enforced by the persuasive strokes of a bamboo- the great educational factor in China! When thoroughly trained, a male bird is \alued at from '20s. to .'JO.--., and its fishing career i- expected to continue for five years, after which it \\ill probably become old and Milky.' Cormorant fishing was practiced in both France and F.nghuid in the seventeenth centur\. :.}/. i yvav. 91 ( 'It KM. I TIOX. Cremation is opposed to Chinese prin- ciples as a rule. They, as a nation, believe that unless the whole b:>dy goes intact into the next world, it will not be in a perfect condition in a future state of existence. It is only Buddhist monks whose, bodies are thus disposed of. , Archdeacon Gray thus describes a cremation at Honam temple: 'As I entered the inner gates my attention was directed to an apartment, the doors of which were crowded by a number of priests arrayed in sackcloth, and wearing white bandages round their foreheads. The corpse, attired in a. cowl, and with the hands fixed in the attitude of prayer, was placed in a bamboo-chair in a sitting posture, and carried to the pyre by six secular monks. All the monks were in attendance, and walked two abreast, immediately behind the remains of the departed friar. As the long procession advanced, the Avails of the monastery echoed with the chanting of prayers and the tinkling of cymbals. When the bearers reached the pyre, they placed the chair contain- ing the corpse upon it. and the fagots were then kindled by the chief priest. Whilst the body was enveloped in flames, the mourners prostrated themselves upon the ground in obeisance to the ashes of one with whom they had been accustomed to join in prayer and praise. When the fire had burned itself out. the attendants collected the charred bones and placed them in a cinerary urn. which was then deposited in a small shrine within the precincts of the monastery. The cinerary urns remain in this shrine until the ninth day of the ninth month, when the ashes which they contain are emptied into bags of red cloth, which are then sewn and thrown into a large ossuary, or species of monastery mau- soleum. These editieies. built of granite, arc called by the Chinese t*oo-toong-tap t and arc* upon an extensive scale. That belonging to the monastery of Honam is a noble piece of masonry, and is divided into compartments, one being for the ashes of monks, and the other for those of nuns. The bags of red cloth with their contents are consigned to these receptacles through small apertures just sufficiently large for their admission. ' < 'I 'III! A'.Vf ')'. China presents the curious .spectacle of an empire without a gold or silver currency. For centuries, with but slight exceptions, t/i" inccliuiu of exchange has been the cash, a small copper coin of the si/e of an English half-penny, but only a half or a third as thick, with a square hole in its centre for convenience in stringing. It has a raised broad rim round the circumference as well as one round the square hole in the centre. In the sunk space- between these two rims are, on the obverse, four Chinese characters, TWO of which are the style of the Emperor's reign, and two arc the equivalent of 'current coin.' At the present day the majority of the coins also have on the reverse two Manchu characters, one denoting the provincial mint at which the coin has been east, and the other the equivalent of the word 'currency.' For some centuries before Christ this has been, in its general features, tluv circulating medium of China. Larger coins of the same general character have also been coined, but as a general rule it may be said that China has had no ^old or silver coinage. A lew attempts to eoin silver have 1 been made once or twice, but they have been failures. Edkins >a\s 'Arabian trade brought to China the use of silver by weight, as European trade at a later period brought the dollar.' 'A thousand \ears ago the people in Central China kept their accounts in copper cash.' It is now the general practice, at all event- iu the South, for account.- to be- kept in silver taels. mace, caii- darins. and //' la decimal system: ten //making one candarin ; ten candanns. one mace: and ten mace, one taeli: there being actually no such coin< in existence. Paper notes have at. different times be^n i-sued by the I Jo\ eminent, and in later times by pri\ate linn-. They have been much in use in certain parts of China. I'oochow for example. .Marco Polo devotes ft whole chapter to an account of the paper-mone\ in use in China in his time. The Chinese readiK use the Mexican, and other dollar- are al>o u-ed. half a century ago Spanish dollar> taking the place that the Mexican now hold. l)ii!. except in the neighbourhood of Hongkong, and often there as \\ell. thc\ al\\a\- weigh them, and they aie generalK CUSTOMS. LWK/iLlL MMtlTLMK. \Y,\ stamped, with the exception above named, as they pass through the hands of merchants and shop-keepers till they fall into pieces and become what is known as broken silver, and have to be weighed as each transaction takes place to know their value. For this purpose a small money scale is a part of the equipment of everyone going shopping. The Japanese. Hongkong, and Straits Settlements subsidiary coins, such as the five ten and twenty cent pieces, are also much in circulation, especially in Hongkong and its neighbourhood. Within the last two or three ^ears a mint has been established at Canton by the late Viceroy, from which copper cash and silver coins the dollar, half dollar, twenty, ten, and five cent pieces- are issued. This mint is a very fine one, and in one respect, that of stamping machines is the largest in the world. It is under the superin- tendence of a Scotchman, but all the other officials and work- men are natives. The ten and twenty cent pieces issued by this mint are coining largely into circulation in Hongkong. CCSTOMS. IMPERIAL .)/. \I11TIMK.- In 18.. owing to the T'ai P'ing rebels capturing Shani>-h:ii, the .< O 1 O O 7 collection of customs duties on foreign bottoms entering that port was pla:-ed in the hands of foreigners, as a temporary measure until order should be restored, but what was intended as a iiKH/nf; t'ii'fiiili for the time being, proved so well adapted for the purpose, that it became a permanency, and has increased with the extension of trade and the opening of new treaty ports until it is now a most important department with a large and efficient staff recruited from most of the European, nations, though the English are in the majority. The following is the personnel of the establishment. The Inspector-General is at the head of all ; immediately below him are the Commissioners, thirty-three in number, who are generally in charge of each Custom-house. They are assisted by Deputy Commissioners, of whom then 1 are twelve; the next ranks being Chief, first, second, third and fourth assistants, of whom there are one hundred and thirty-three: clerks number twenty-one; under the heading of Miscellaneous there are eighteen names; and there arc twenty-one surgeons connected with the Customs, Avho liavc private practice as well, making a total of 218 Indoor-staff, and surge-oils 21. The out-door staff number J51, the ranks being Tidesurveyors. Assistant Tide- surveyors, and Boat officers; Chief Examiners. Examiners, and Assistant Kxaminers ; Titlcwaiters. and "\Vatchers. There is also a Marine Department and a small Educational one. making up a total of Foreigners 711), and Chinese ,'$.181. or a grand total of 3.900 altogether . The Nationality of the In-do,,r staff is as follows: there are about 170 British: French. < iennan and American each number twenty or under: and Italian, Danish. Norwegian, Russian, Portuguese, Austrian. Spanish, Belgian. Dutch, and Hungarian fn.m six downwards. Mr. II. X. Lay Avas the former Inspector-General, but he came to grief in 18(>,'i over the Sherard Osborne fleet, and Avas succeeded by Sir Robert Hart, who has conducted the onerous and multifarious duties connected with his po>iti<>n Avith great tact and ability. Avinning not. only the goul opinion of the Chinese government, but that of the mer- cantile community in China as Avell. The receipts of a most important department are thus, after pa\ing expense-, handed over intact to the Chinese government, and notwith- standing the large salaries necessarily paid to the foreign employees, the Chinese government reaps a larger benefit from it than it would from one in purely native hands, so difficult iv it for money once in the hands of Chinese Mandarins to leave their possession without a large percentage being deducted lor the benefit of each one who has to do with it. This revenue is likewise honesth collected, a thing impossible of accomplishment were nathes eni|il"\ed. a> bribes and presents are in continual use in China. <'Y<'IJ\, From a remote antiquity the Chinese have used a cycle of GO years. This sexagenary cycle is formed of IAVO sets of characters: one s'jt consisting of twelve and the other of ten. Avhich are combined together in sets of two, /.'-.. each year of the sixty is represented by two characters which distinguish it from the other fifty-nine. A sexagenary division also existed in early times in India. >.. ., X.-\ Mayers, who is the great authority <>n all matters connected with Government titles, &c., says most justly that ''Although rewards for distinguished service. or marks of Imperial favour, the conception of which resembles ia some degree that of the European system of Royal or National Orders and Medals of Distinction, arc to be found in China, nothing in the shape of an actual Order of Merit approximating to the European type has been adopted by ihe Chinese Government. Isolated distinctions have indeed been conferred in China on foreigners of various nationalities, principally for services rendered in the command of the drilled troops during the T'ai P'ing rebellion, and subsequently in the collection of the customs' revenue. * * * but as these are bestowed for the most part by provincial authorities, and without the sanction of any established rule or recognised statutes, such as are required to constitute Avhat is commonly known as an Order/' the badges thus conferred can scarcely be regarded as having a real value as authentic marks of distinction.' Almost under the same category would come the newly established order, in its various grades, reserved solely for foreigners, named the Shuang Lung Pao Using, and bestowed 1>\ the Chinese foreign office. The purely native decorations and privileges are main* in number. "We note a few of them below: The Riding Cape or "Yellow Riding Jacket (nui kwu) 1 hough so styled is not necessarily, but at the present day is generally, of that colour. It is only worn when in personal attendance upon, the sovereign, in the field, or upon journeys/ Only two Europeans have been honoured with its bestowal,- - (icneral (Jordon and M. Giquel. Another honorary distinction, conferred upon eminent public functionaries, is the privilege of being allowed to ride <>n horseback 'for some distance within the outer gateways of the palace, when summoned to an audience/ Another class of distinctions is that of the feather. The feathers allowed are those of the peacock and the crow. They are placed in the back of the hat and stick out, sloping - 7V//.V the acacia- family. The Seventh prince, on the accession of the present Kmperor. had this b;-sto\\ed on him. Another honour granted is 'the permission to use scarlet or purple reins A\ hen riding on horseback and to use the same colour for the props of the sedan-chair." These privileges \\ ere believed to be reserved exclusively for the Imperial I'amiK," but the Viceroy Li has had them bestowed on him. In this connection it. may be interesting to riotiee two distinctions conferred on Sir Robert Hart, the distin- iruNied and able head of the Imperial Maritime Customs in DEMONIACAL POSSESSION* 97 c case i< that of those M ho. thus possessed, yield to the demon, the consequence b. in- that on their worship of him riches flow in. but. notxvith- t-tanding all. ill-luck in the way of retributive justice. & . follows such: and the-ill gotten gains take to themselves A\ings and flee away. There are besides *i\c\ il-daiiccr- ' or spiritual media, \\lio profess to be possessed, going into *a sort of ecstatic fivn/\ . and. when in thU state, they ausuer quest iii- a< t.. the di^'a-e and remedies to be applied for the relief of those on wh-^e behalf they are onisulted.' They also believe in demons, \\lio to all out- Mard appearance are mortals, anil who are mis>i.mari'.-s from the nether world to \\arn mankind among>t \\lioin they li\e of the e\ il con. ' Chinese and Japanene Repository.' Sep- tember 3rd lS(i:{. Doolittl.-'s Social Life of the. rhinese.' Giles's Strange Stories from a Chinese Stuilio,' Vol. 1, pp. 2."., 'Jit. 1CX ; Vol. 2. p. 300. 7>/JA/',V7'N. When one travels on the Continent of Europe one expects, every few hundred miles, to find a different language spoken, but because an extent of count r\ larger than Europe is all part of one empire, it is gene- rally supposed that one language (the Chinese) is spoken throughout its length and breadth. It is quite true that it is Chinese that is spoken in Peking, as well as in Canton, and it is equally true that the inhabitants of Shanghai. Foochow, and Amoy as well, all speak Chinese, but it is also true that not one of the inhabitants from any of those places could understand those from the others any more than a Londoner could a Berliner, or a Parisian a Dutchman, or a Spaniard an Italian. It might convey a livelier sense of the difference to suppose that the speech in Liverpool was as different from that in London as one European language is from another, so that any merchants from .London, who settled in Liverpool, would have to learn the language of the people of that city, and would be strangers in a strange land as far as the speech was concerned. Again, suppose that Gaelic was the speech in Edinburgh or Glasgow, a native of those cities settling in London would find that to be understood he had to pick up the language of the South of England. Again, let Welsh be the only language spoken in the principality, a Welshman would then not be understood in York, or anywhere else in England or Scotland. Such, then, represents the position of the Chinaman in his own land, for different so-called dialects are spoken in it. It is a pity that they have received this name, for it gives such a wrong impression as to their range, the number of people that speak them, and the very great difference that exists between them. ioo As the lamented and talented Carstairs Douglas says in speaking of one of them :' But such words a* "Dialect'" <>r "Colloquial" give an erroneous conception of its nature. It is not a mere colloquial dialect or /'//.-: it is spoken by the highest ranks just as by the common people, by the most learned just as by the most ignorant; learned men indeed add a few polite or pedantic phrases, but these are mere excrescences (and even they are pronounced according to the' so-called dialect of that part of the country) ''while the main body and staple of the spoken language of the most refined and learned classes is the same as that of coolies, labourers, and boatmen. Nor does the term "'dialect '' convey any thing like a correct idea of its distinctive character: it is no mere dialectic variety of some other language; it is a distinct language, one of the many and widely (littering languages which divide among them the soil of China. They are cognate languages bearing to each a relation similar to that which subsists between the Arabic, the Hebrew, the Syriac, the Ethiopie. and the other members of the Semitic family: or again between English, (Jerman. Dutch, Danish, Swedish, &<-.' To generalise then, there are throughout China the following m-iin divisions of speech, or languages, generally called dialects. \Ye arrange them with some attempt at relative age, or the greater or less remains of age contained in them. 1. The Canton.' 2. ,. Hakkn. J. ., Amoy. I. ., S \vatow. .5. .. Hainan. (5. .. Shanhai. S. .. .Mandarin. Mandarin and its cognate branches being the yonn;_ will thus bo seen that another fallacy, vi/. : ihat .Mandarin is the language of China, and the others dialects of it, is untenable. DIALECT*. 101 Cantonese being more akin to the ancient language ot China (spoken about 3,000 years ago) than the Mandarin, while the Ilakka also contains traces of a high antiquity, and is supposed to mark a period long anterior to that represented by Mandarin, but. in some respects, subsequent to that period of which the Cantonese contains remains, although, in other points it has traces of as high, or nearly as high, an antiquity. This is true also to some extent of Swatow. Amoy, and Shanghai, as well probably as of others; so that it may rather be said that the languages spoken in the South-East of China have traces of the ancient speech, where- as the Mandarin is modern; in fact, one appears to have elements in it which seem to be remnants of a dialect of greater antiquity than even the' Cantonese ' can boast of.' Having thus spoken, of the grand divisions, we have further to draw attention to the fact that, besides these main divisions, there are lesser ones, into which they are sub-divided, for which, if we give the main divisions the name of languages, we have the more fitting term of dialects; for to adapt what Ave Avrotc some years since in * Cantonese made Kasy.' they have their real dialects, some of which arc spoken by tens of thousands or hundreds of thousands of natives, and which, if they were spoken by the inhabitants of some insignificant group of Islands in the Pacific with only a tithe of the population, would be honoured by the name of languages. We quote again from a monograph by ourselves (on the San-wiif Dialect) : At thesame time, however, there are wheels within wheels in the matter of these Chinese dialects: that is to say. the dialect of one district is not one homo- geneous whole, though the district may be so small as geogra- phically to equal in square miles a few English counties only. It will readily be understood that there is scope for a considerable variation, without this variation being so marked as to become a separate dialect or sub-dialect. Considerable changes can thus be rung, while yet the changes are not so great as to put the dialect or sub-dialect out of harmony with the general characteristics of the particular dialect, or language, of which it is a branch. Every now and 102 77//AV/X r///.v />/;. then one comes across villages and towns, which seem almost a law to thc'iusclves as to their speech : for all the peculiarities of the district are so accentuated, and so many new varieties of pronunciation introduced, new idioms and words used, as well as a difference in the tones employed, as to result in a lingo more or less unintelligible, even to inhabitants of the Bailie district, and a perfect, jargon of unmeaning .-ounds to a stranger to that part of the country. It will thus be seen that the ramifications are numerous, lor after the division of dialects proper, are the lesser divisions <>f sub-dialects, variations, and local imtnin. The most minute divisions of all are those which present a curious spectacle \\hen found to exist in a city itself, as. for instanc-e. there are two or three of these minute sub-divisions found in the City of Canton, with a population estimated sometimes at a million. It is as if about half-a-do/en, or more, different minute divisions of English Mere to be found in London : the inhabitants of that city south of the Thames having Certain peculiarities Avhich would mark them out as different to those in other parts of London. Avhile the \Vc-t Lnd. the City itself, tie- La-t Knd, and. not to carry the comparison any further, half-a-do/en other district- of London \\oiild oacli ha\e >ome few local peculiarities of pronunciation distinguishing them from the re-t of London. 'The above will help to explode another fallacy, that if a man knows one of the so-called dialects, such for in.stance as Caiitonc-e. he then is perfect master of all that may be -aid by people speaking that language. The real facts of the Case will be better understood if one instances the bewilder- ment of a cockney, if landed anioii^-t a croud of N nrkshire- men speaking the ^irkshire dialect in it* bi'oade-t. So many are the changes in the language in China that it ma\ be -aid that e\ery hundred miles the language differ-- to a more or lc>s material extent, in some place- ,-\ er\ tuentx miles ; and a rough estimate has been made that there are a> many dialects in China as there are da\ .s in the \ear. China, when applied geographically, covers -udi an aggregate of country, that practically a knowledge of one of the languages DJALKCTS. 103 of China is sufficient to carry one over hundreds and thousands of miles, though when it comes to a minute 1 and accurate knowledge of all that is said, much is left to be ilesired. and ludicrous mistakes occur. It may be of interest to have some general idea, imperfect though it must necessarily be, of the range of the different languages, and some of the more important dialects. To begin then with Mandarin as being the most wide-spread. It is the speech, in one form or another, in fourteen or fifteen out of the eighteen provinces into which China is divided. Mandarin is divided into the northern and southern. The standard dialect of the former being Pekingese, owing to the accident of Peking being the seat o * ~ o o <>f the Central Government, while Nankingese holds the same position with regard to the southern division. A third marked variety is that of Western China, which lias its centre in Ching-tu in the Sz-chuan province. Besides ;h"se. there are a number of smaller divisions, such as ihe Hankow, but, amidst all these varieties, there appears to be a better chance of one being understood through a much wider extent of country in that part of the empire where Mandarin is spoken as the language of the people, than is the case in other parts of China. Taking the? population of China as 360,000,000, say 300,000,000 are Mandarin speaking. This is of course a mere rough < -sinuate, and, to be accurate, would require a considerable amount of adjustment, as there are large Hakka speaking communities amongst them, while on the other hand, there arc Mandarin speaking people amongst some of the other provinces. In the City of Canton alone there are 100,000. All high officials require to speak Mandarin, those AV!H are not already Mandarin speakers have therefore to learn it, and the consequence is that almost all who aspire to office, or to come in contact with official lite, learn it to a greater or lesser extent. Many of the pl,i\s put on the stage are in Southern Mandarin, consequently ardent play-goers have a moro or less smattering of that variety of it. 101. The oilier languages of China arc spoken by smaller populations, but by still large enough ones to command respect. For example, the people who speak Cantonese, in some form or another, number 20,000,000, a population falling not far short of that of Italy. This language is in uso throughout the larger part of the Kwang-tung, or Canton province; one authority considers that 12,000,000 .speak it there. It has been estimated that about one-third of the province speak Hakka, while in the North East of the province there is a considerable population speaking the Swatow and its variations. The Cantonese speakers then are in the majority, but they are not confined to this province, for in the next, the Kwong-si, it is also largely spoken, especially in the South, some of it being of a comparatively pure type, while in other parts it is mixed with Mandarin. It is impossible, without writing a book specially dealing with the subject, to give an account of all the dia- cuming under each separate language. The following 1 short notice of some of them in Cantonese may give an idea of what may be expected to be found under each grand division. The Cantonese has numerous dialects and groups <>t dialects. One group consists of the San-wiii, San-ning, ^i an-ping and Hoi-ping, a most, peculiar class of dialects containing much that is very different from the pure Cantonese, and any one 1 of which, \\hen spoken in all its liroadne-s. is to a great extent difficult of comprehension. Another group consists of the Tung-kwun. San-on, Pok-lo, and Tsang-sheng dialects. Besides these, there are a number of Other dialects SUCh aa the IIong-sh:m, or Ma<-ao. the Shun-tuk, theShiii-hing.andothers too numerous to mention, each district having more or less differences which se^ie^ate it and its inhabitants to a great' T or le.-ser extent from the neighbouring districts. It must be remembered that each of the>e dialects have, as has already been said, smaller divisions or sub- divisions. For example, the San-wiii dialect, may be divided into three, whilst besides this three-fold division there are numerous smaller divisions still. The ramifications are mo-i. minute; not onl\ are there several slight variations in one DIALECTS. 10.5 city or even one town; not only docs the speech of the boat- people (lifter from those on the land; not only is there baby-talk ; but there arc even certain words, which arc used by women and never by men in. fact the men would be laughed at if they used them. With regard to the Hakka, there do not appear to- be such differences between the speech of those living in different parts of the country, in Kwong-tung at least, as there is among the Cantonese. To mention some of these Hakka dialects, there are the Ka-ying-chau, the Sun-on, the Chb'ng-lok, and others. Again, with regard to this language, we have constantly been met with the supposition that a knowledge of Hakka means a thorough knowledge of Hakka in all its dialects. The difference is still sufficiently marked to confuse one considerably, until familiarity with speakers from different parts of the country overcomes the difficulty. In the Canton Province alone not a few millions speak this language, roughly estimated at say about the population of Portugal and all her Colonies combined, perhaps about four millions says one authority, but this same curious people are found in other provinces as well: at present there is no- accurate knowledge of their number as a whole. O The next, so-called dialect up the coast is that of the; Swatow and neighbouring districts, which is spoken by some millions, perhaps three, in one or other of its variations or dialects, such for example as the Hoi-fung, ix<-. Next after this comes the Ainoy, which has about the same affinity to the Swatow that Spanish bears to Portuguese. There are numerous dialects of it, and it is spoken by a large population, of say 9,000.000. or so- a larger population than that of Belgium and Ireland combined. Again, further up the coast, but still in the same province, is the Foochow; it is spoken throughout an extent of country of approximately 130 miles by 270, and by a population of .5,000,000, consider- ably more than that of Sweden spread over a, larger extent of country than Wales. Like all the others, it has variations. Of it, as spoken a few hundred miles inland, a writer says: But what a Babel of tongues, and dialects there is among .106 ihesc wild mountaineers! A native can hardly pass the .-limits of liis own village but his speech will betray him.' This is of course what one would expect in such a moun- tainous district; the country which the Mandarin occupies i-. much of it. of a more level type. Besides these, there arc the languages of Shanghai and Ningpo, and others less well known to the foreigner, and consequently whose divisions into dialects have been less studied. The Hainanese is spoken in the island of Hainan, where numerous other speeches are in use. Hainanese bring, however the /!ttariatioiis between thi< and that dialect are often great IT than the differences between Portuguese and 1'ivnrli ia< one e\t renie I. and no greater than between rienii-h and Dutch (a> another extreme). \ et the riirid ad- lierence of all to theoretical standards i> mire perfect than in the Km-opean languages or dialects.' The s.i-called dial"-ts are in many respects as diH'ernu .is r instaneed those li.v K. II. I'arker. by J)on. and liy tlir pivsenl writer. DIVORCE.- There are seven reasons for which, according to Chinese law, a man may divorce his wife: they are barrenness, lascivionsness, jealousy, talkativeness thievery, disobedience to her husband's parents, and leprosy. These seem sweeping enough in .ill conscience : and to tho>e unacquainted with the inner life of the Chinese, it would seem simple enough for a man to bring his wife to book under one or other of these, and rid himself of an uncongenial companion, but such is not the case in practice. The wife's relations have to b:: considered in the matter ; and again, if she have no parents, she cannot be put away, as they arc not. living to receive her back again : further, for the lesser offences. lie cannot put her away if he be in mourning for a parent; and. yet again, it is much simpler for a Chines;-, and causes much less ill-feeling to all parties concerned, for him. in case no sou is born 1o him, to take a concubine or secondary wife (not a second wife except by courtesy, for a Chinese has only one legal wife, see Article on Marriage) and increase the number, one after the other, until he obtains the longed-for heir or future worshipper at the family tombs or failing this, lie m;:y adopt a SOU, (See Article on Adoption.) All these different expedients and restrictions nullif\, or render unnecessary, the provisions as to divorce, which, like every- thing Chinese, theoretically is ea^y of accomplishment, bin iii practice is something very different. Statiatics are difficult to obtain in China, and. when obtained, are \ery unreliable. owing to the inexactitude of the Chinese mind one of their most common characteristics. No statistics, as far as the author is aware, are obtainable on this particular subject : DIVORCE. 10!) but, judging 1 from a long residence amongst the people, lie should say that divorce is not any of'tener resorted to than in England, if as often. Besides what has been said above, a married couple may mutually agree to separate ; again, by law a husband is liable to be punished if his wife is convicted of adultery, and he as to bring disgrace on them. The case is quite different with the so-called secondaiy wives. They are not a man's wives in the sight of the law, that is to say they do not stand on a footing of equality, though rccogni/ed as concubines, as there is only one first legitimate wife ; and a man is free to dismiss these concubines from his bed and board in a way he would not dare to treat his first wife (though a man may be cruel enough to her in China as well as in England if he choose). This treatment may be modified more or less by the prospective counter-action of the so-called wife's relations and her social position, presuming she has any. If she lias none, or if her position is -of no account, as is more than likely often to be the case with a secondary wife, beggary or prostitution stares her in the face, unless she is fortunate enough to enter another family in a similar position. JiiwJtx ivroiiiHieniJrrf. ; The Shit us of Women in Chin;i.' by IIi-v. A,'. Fiihrr, J)r. 'J'/irnl. Most books on Cliinii :i ] so contain notices; sue. for example. William's 'Middle Kingdom' :ind Unix's. 'China.' 110 77//.W/.S' r///.\/-;.s/-:. . The dragon is the imperial emblem of < 'hina, and is symbolical of what pertains to the Emperor : liis person is called ; the dragon's person ;' his countenance, * the dragon's face;' his eye, 'the dragon's eye : ' his throne is 'the dragon's seat;' his bed, 'the dragon's bedstead;' his decease is euphemistically termed 'the Emperor ascended upon the dragon to be a guest on high;' and his ancestral tablet is railed ' the dragon tablet.' The dragon which is reserved for imperial use in designs on furniture, porcelain, Jid clothing, is depicted with five claws: that in use by the common people lias four. A Chinese author thus describes the dragon :- ' Its head is like a camel's, its horns like a deer's, its eyes like a hare's, its cars like a hull's, its neck like a snake's, its belly like an iguanodon's, its scales like a carp's, its claws like an eagle's, and its pa\\* like a tiger's. Its scales number eighty-one, being nine by nine, the extreme (odd or) lucky number. Its voice resembles the beating of ;i gong. On each side of its month are whiskers, under its chin is a bright pearl, under its throat the scales are reversed, on the top of its head is the- j>/i .-//"/<, which others call the wooden foot -rule. A dragon without a foot-rule cannot ascend the skies. When its breath escape-, it forms clouds, sometimes changing into rain, at other time* into tire.' lla\ing thus given an accurate description of thi- \vonderful creature (one of the four supernatural [or spiritually endowed 1 creatun >. according to the Chinese, the other* heinu I he Tortoise, the Liu and the Fengi. it only remain* to li, said that 'it wields the- power of transformation and the gift of rendering itself visible or invisible at pleasure.' Another ('hine*e authority informs us that 'the dragon becomes at will reduced to the -i/e of a silkworm. or swollen till it fill- ihe space of Heaven and Karth. It desires to mount and it 'ill it affirontS the clouds; to sink -and it descend* until hidden below the fount'iin* of the deep.' The Chinese nio*t thoroughly believe in the existence of this m\sterioiis marvellous creature : it appears in their ancient hi*tory; the legend- of Buddhism abound \vith it; Ta>ni>t talcs contain DRAG OX, lir circumstantial accounts of its doings; the whole country- side is filled with stories of its hidden abodes, its terrific appearances; while it holds a prominent part in the pseudo- science of geomancy; its portrait appears in houses and temples, and serves even more than the grotesque lion as an- ornament in architecture, art designs, and fabrics. There are numerous dragons too numerous to enter even into a succinct account of them in the space of a short article. Volumes might be filled with a history of this wonderful antideluvian creature, embalmed in Chinese literature and memory. Among other roles that the dragon fills is that of ;v modern Neptune to the Chinese. In this character h> occupies a palace made of pearls at the bottom of the sea, sends rain, and waters the thirsty land. Many years ago, in England, the writer came across an- old gentleman, interested in China, who was firmly of the be- lief that the Chinese worshipped the devil because they paid divine honours to the dragon. Only another instance, out of many, of the fallacy of reasoning on Chinese subjects from European premises. They worship the dragon, but it dees not follow that their dragon is 'that old dragon,' the devil. Another dragon is the stub-tailed dragon, which causes whirlwinds; a frightfully destructive one in Canton city a number of years ago was believed to be due to his agency. The district of country on the mainland immediately opposite the English colony of Hongkong is called Kan-lung (generally, but erroneously written, Kowloong), or the Nim .Dragons, probably so named from the numerous ranges of hills, which like gigantic monsters spread their sinuous course along the coast, the nine dragons being a favourite- number with the Chinese, and represented in sonic of their ancient works on standards. The national flag of China adopted with, and by, the navy of foreign-built ships, is a triangular yellow flag with a dragon on it. The conventional representations of the dragon as seen in pictures, &c. are commonly divisible into two. On Imperial china we see a snake-like body mounted on four legs, the feet of which arc 112 77//A77N ('///. \/:SE. five clawed, and with an enormous head. This is sprawled over the dish, or whatever it may be, and covers the greater part of it. On vases used by the people as ornaments, a scope is given for ingenuity by the introduction of a number of similar saurians (but only with four claws) in different positions on the vase front views being Driven as A\cll. in which the two horns arc seen. On mural paintings and in paintings on wood, inserted above doorways, the rain dragon is usually represented. Here what is seen of the hideous monster < nveys more the impression of an enormous python, as folds of a very thick and large snake-like body arc visible amongst masses of clouds, the half suggestive revelation of what is seen increasing, if anything, the impression of si/.e, while a frightful head fronts one, full- faced, Avith all its gigantic repulsiveness. In books printed under imperial sanction or auspices, two dragons encircle the title, striving, not like the lion and the unicorn for the crown, but for a pearl. There are again two kinds of drag- ons carried in some of the processions of which the Chines- arc so fond. They are a* such times represented as long serpentine creatures of great girth, and !.">() or 200 feet lonir. made of lengths of gay bright colo-red doth. Kvery yard or so a couple of human feet baskined in g - silk are visible, the head and shoulders of the men being invisible. The whole is fronted by an enormous head of 1'erociotis aspect, before the gaping ja\\s of which a man maim a large pearl which the dragon prances and wriggles after. The difference between the two kinds is that the one is res- plendent with gold BCali . while the other gleams \\ith >il\rr ones. That this different \\u\ of representation is not due to simple faii'-y. appears from 'the f.i'-t that in India they distinguish throe varieties of dragon: one of whidi liv. d in the mountains and had golden and the othvr in cavefl or flat country and had sihe'- scales: while the third dwelt in mar-hcs and fens and \\as !' a black colour. The r.iin in mural . appears more like the h-t. We give the folio wi mt of the supposed origin of the dragon from tli L of Mr. Charles Gould : - BRAQON-BOATS, w\ 113 'It [the dragon] is more likely to have once had a real existence than to be a mere offspring of fancy * * * \Vc may infer that it was a long terrestrial lizard, hiber- nating and carnivorous, with the power of constricting with its snake-like body and tail; possibly furnished with wing like expansions of its integument, after the fashion of J )/<><> 'o/'dts, and capable of occasional progress on its hind legs alone, when excited in attacks. It appears to have been protected by armour and projecting spikes, like those found in Moloch horr!rig>'<>. and was possibly more nearly allied to this last form than to any other which has yet come to our knowledge. Probably it preferred sandy. pen country to forest land, its habitat was the highlands of < VulTal Asia, and the time of -its disappearance about that, of the Biblical Deluge. * * Although terrestrial, it probably, in common with most reptiles, enjoyed frequent bathing, and when not so engaged, or basking in the sun, secluded itself under some overhanging bank or cavern. The idea of its fondness for swallows, and power of attracting them, mentioned in some traditions, may not impossibly have been derived from these birds hawking round and through its open jaws in the pursuit of the flies attracted by the viscid humours of its mouth.' Jiook.s rri-itmnvH-tlf.il. ' Mythical Mongton,' liy C,. (Jould, it. \. ; Scraps from < 'liincso Mythology,' in '('himi Review/ Yl. l.'l, 1>\ Kov. Dyer Ball, .M.A..M.P., jinnohitotl l'\ J. Dyer Ball. />/,'. l(/OA-/;aj'/'N AM) T1IK ])ll.\<;<>X-l'>O.\T FJESI'IVAI/.Tbis festival is the nearest, approach to an annual regatta that the Chinese possess. It is held on the fifth day of the fifth moon, but the preceding days shadow forth the feast day as well. It took its origin in the commemoration of a virtuous minister of state whose remonstrances were unheeded b\ his unworthy sovereign, and whose only reward was degra- dation and dismissal some 150 years B.C. He committed suicide, and on the first anniversary of his death the ceremony of looking for his body was commenced, and li lit 77/W/N r///.Y />'/:. lias been continued on .succeeding 1 anniversaries ever since. and has resulted in this festival. Little packages of boiled rice, done up m bamboo leaves, are eaten at this time, as such offerings were cast into the river by the fishermen who tried to recover the body. The dragon-boats are long narrow boats from fifty to one hundred feet in length, broad enough to seat two men abreast, the craft is propelled rapidly with paddles, accompanied by the sound of a drum and gongs placed in the centre of the boat. Impromptu races are got. up. often not unattended by accidents, as the boats arc slight and dangerous when paddled by nigh a hundred excited Chinamen, wild \\ith enthusiasm and unsteady with spirits. Large crowds of spectators line every \antage ground on the banks of the rivers; and pri/cs of no intrinsic value are often offered hy them. which arc eagerly contested for. for the bare honour of winning. For hours and days nothing is heard but the unceasing monotonous clang of the gongs, and the boom of the deep-toned drums in the numerous boats. Occasionally the crews an* treated by wealthy hongs on the banks. This Dragon-Boat Festival is one of the four festivals at which settlements of accounts take place amongst the Chinese : the others being New Tear's Eve. occurring sometime in our January or February : the Moon Festival on the loth day of the Sth moon, in September or Oetober: and the Winter Solstice Festival, a variable festival in the llth moim. November or December. The Dragon-Boat Festival is the second of the >eries occurring on the .">th da\ of the ."ith moon, in June or Juh. Html;* ri'i-iniiiiiiiiil/il. Arrliili-iicoii (Jr:i\'s 'Cliin:i.' Vol. I.. |>. :i.V-rt M'-I. 1 ..... link's ' Surinl I .iff ft" tin- Chiiii-.'.' Vi.l. i. p. .V> .-i eq. /'///>'N. The foundation, or starting point, of all Chinese div-- i> the Loose pair of t miners and the almost equally loo-e filling jacket: \\ith these t\\> articles on a Chinese is completely dressed: all the re-t are not necessaries. but luxuries The fundamental idea is >impl\ displayed in these two: the other articles uhirh are piled on in a greater or lesser deirrce. o\\in-'- to the \\eather. oi- the length of the DRESS. 115 owner's purse, are merely, with the exception of the head- gear, and that for the feet, an elaboration of that simple idea. Take any article of male attire. The long gaberdine or robe is only the jacket which has overgrown to the ankles, instead of stopping short a little below the middle of the body: it has not an entirely different shape, as with our different coats and jackets, or what difference there is, is but slight, and even, what, for want, of a better term, one calls a waist- coat, is not quite a different style of article, but simply a short straight jacket without sleeves, buttoning up as the common, close fitting, sleeveless one, worn occasionally by the labouring classes, does. There are two varieties of it : one so buttoning: and one fastened at. the side. A riding jacket has wide sleeves, but is still a jacket. The jackets of the women are of a different shape to that of the men,, being longer, reaching well towards the knees, and having much wider sleeves. If one proceeds to the lower extremities, there are, as said above, the loose fitting trousers. These sometimes are tucked into long stockings, which are neatly bound with garters below the knee, and presto our boy or waiter is in knicker- bockers the same pair of trousers doing duty for both styles of dress. Is the weather cold? Then a pair of leggings is put on. These are simply single legs of peg-top trousers diminishing gradually in calibre, as they proceed downwards till their extremities are tied round the ankles. They are fastened up to the girdle at the waist; but there is a void space behind, where they do not meet, and where the inner white jacket hangs in folds, presenting a most untidy appearance unless a long robe is worn over all to hide it. A. woman's trousers are exactly the same shape as a man's. They do not wear knickerbockers, but the middle and upper classes often wear, especially Avhen dressed up, what, for want of a better name, are called skirts. These are the very embodiment of the divided skirt, for the simple reason that their different component parts have never been united, and, at the same time, they have a trace of the trousers still about them; trousers unfinished, as it were, one piece 116 hangs in front down to the ankles, as an apron, and another piece hangs behind the same A\ay ; they are buttoned up at one side, and open at the other, -while embroidery and nume- rous pleats in vertical lines adorn them. There arc several varieties besides those named above, adapted to different uses, as well as changes of weather. For instance, nature's garb appears to be all sufficient for the Swatow fisherman. In other parts of China the savage state is not so nearly approached except in the rase of young children iders himself sufficiently attired for his work in hot weather, with a loin cloth and a pair of straw sandals, but the latter are optional. Others make shift with a pair of short trousers, only reaching half-May down the thighs, or roll the longer trousers up that length, or as far as they will go. In the pure native dress nothing in the form of a shirt or cinglet is worn, though, from contact with foreigners, tin- latter are being somewhat adopted by a few. and must be much more comfortable in cold weather than the loose rifting jacket. <', iaN. jaekeu. and trousers, varied only by robes, and leggings. are piled one on the top of the other a< the \\eather gets Bolder. The upper garments are readily east off in the middle of the day, or in a warm room, thus uttering a great advan- tage, in this one particular, to our .-tyle of dress, where a top- coat is the only thing one ran throw off on entering :i hu>e. The women's innermost garment is of thin stuff. -lose fitting, and closely buttoned up the front, but above this, the usual piling on of jackets takes place, if the weather requires it. The women wear n long robes. I. M .IT i- taken of the le_r- with 1> >ili m-jn and women, and fewer thii-knes-es appear to sati>fy them there. There is a considerable variety displayed in sandals, boots, and shoes. N. 117 Besides the straw ones, already mentioned as worn by men, simple soles of leather, with a loop for one of the toes, and strings to tie them round the ankles, are worn by those of both sexes, who labour out-of-doors in carrying burdens, &c. 3Tcns' and womens' shoes are quite different. One of the most marked differences being in the thickness of the sole. The large footed women are perched up on a thick white sole, two or three inches in height. Common shoes are made of cloth, but. silk and satin and embroidery are also largely employed. The crampcd-up little feet are enclosed, after being wound up in long bandages, in small shoes of from three to four or five inches in length, coming to a point at the toe. No stockings can be put on with such feet, but they are worn on the natural feet by women as well as by men, or rather to be correct, socks ' and stockings are both worn by men, the former principally in summer, and socks arc generally used bv women, though stockings are also put on. Those of foreign manufacture are coming into vogue at treaty ports. &c., the native ones consist of pieces of calico sewn together. It may be mentioned that both sexes wear a girdle of cord round the waist to fasten their trousers up, by hitching them over it. There are no openings in the trousers, except for the legs and waist. A collar or rather stock, made of satin, is worn round the neck by men in winter, and when in dress.' The ladies wear no bonnets or hats, neither do the common women as a rule, their hair is combed and plastered with a gum. and. thus made up, forms a sufficient head covering in a hot climate. The boat-girls in Macao, and some iu Hongkong, go with a handkerchief over their heads. tied under their chins. In winter a broad band, either plain or embroidered, is often bound across the forehead by women, and prevents that cold aching feeling which intense cold produces. The men wear a skull-cap of satin with a cord button of red or black on the top in winter, but go bareheaded iu summer. Felt hats are likewise seen: they have a turned up brim, and some of the better kind have gold thread on the edge; their use is restricted to the lower classes. In very 118 THINGS CHINESE. cold weather a peculiar headgear is worn by some. It consists of a pointed cap. which, with a flap falling down behind and buttoning under the chin, covers up the whole head with the exception of the face. Little boys are often seen with these on, as well as some men and a few women. Large bamboo hats, nearly a yard in diameter, effectually shed the rain off, and as effectually protect the head from the rays of the sun. Several other varieties of bamboo hats are worn, some by men alone; others by women alone; while others are patronised irrespective of the sex of the wearer. Jn rainy weather the lower classes put on a cloak made of bamboo leaves sewn together, presenting a veritable Robinson Crusoe appearance* InSwatowa similar one made of coir fibre is substituted. At such time.* labourers go bare-footed, as for that matter they do at nearly all times. Shop-keepers and others splash about through the mud and rain on shoes with wooden soles a couple of inches thick (the usual felt sole acting as a sponge in wet weather), a poorer style consists of a ruder chump of wood with a network of string for the toes. A still better class, such as official underlings, and some gentlemen, put on boots made especially for damp and wet. reaching half way, or further, up towards the knees. \\ muL-ii clogs, with leather uppers, are used by women and girls. We have already spoken of jackets, robes, waistcoats or sleeveless jackets, and close fitting ones. There an- 1) '-ides, double jackets or lined ones, and fur jackets. A dress- suit consists of a robe opening at the bottom of the centre line, both before and behind, and the slee\es are shaped like a hone's hoofs, a jacket is worn over this: and satin hoofs with thick white soles, a sash round the \\ai-t. and an otlicial hat with a button at the top. are put on. KaiTiii-x are quite a part .f Chim-se female dress: every \\oman and girl wears them ; ami BO accustomed docs one get to see them in a toman's ears, that it, looks almost as queer to see a Chinese woman without thes.- imlispriisables. as it would to see an Kuglish lady going barefoot : and a Chinese woman would feel as ashamed to appear in the one Condition, as an Knglish lady \\ould in the other. I he DRESS. 119 earrings differ in style in different parts of China, and there is as great a dissimilarity between them as there is between those of different countries. Fashions in dress do change in China, but so slight and gradual are the changes except when some dynastic over- throw revolutionises everything that to the foreigner no difference is visible, but to the initiated into these mysteries an extremely gradual change is perceptible, so that, say in the course of forty or fifty years, ladies' sleeves are noticed to be wider than before, and, in the course of a quarter of a century, quite a different style of dressing ladies' hair is seen. The style of dress, it should be noticed, differs in different parts of China. What has been written above applies primarily to the South of China, in the neighbourhood of Hongkong. Macao, and Canton : even in these neighbour- hoods the dress of the Hakkas is different (See Article on Hakkas). The mode of doing up the hair by the women, the kind of earrings Avorn by them, as well as the dress itself, are so distinct as to mark anyone, at the first glance, as coming from a different part of China. The men's dress has but little or nothing to differentiate it in different parts, the greatest exception being in the case of the Swatow and Hokkien men who often Avear a turban, Avhercas other Chinese are seldom seen Avith them. The short jackets of these same men are longer than those in the extreme South. The colour of the clothing worn, also differs. White is never seen as an outer garment on Avomen in Canton or Hongkong, except to please Europeans, white being resened alone for undergarments, in Avhich. of course, a Avoman would be ashamed to appear in public. In Amoy, however, this does not seem to be the rule, for in that part of the country- bright red. and other colours are worn by young ladies, a thing which is never seen in Canton amongst respectable women. These instances may be taken as specimens of Avhat differences may be seen in different places. Though the Chinese men go often in a state of semi- nudity, the women make up for it by a severe modesty in their dress. There is no exposure of their person, as there is 120 THINGS <7//A7;,s7-;. in the evening dress amongst European ladies; neither is tight-lacing a vice amongst the Chinese. They sedulously hide all the contours of the figure, and in fact (it- down the breasts. EARTHQUAKES* An earthquake is not a phenome- non often experienced by the foreign resident in China. A ery slight shocks have been felt a few times in Hongkong. but so insignificant have they been as to be unknown to the majority till the next day's papers contained a notice of them : but in some other parts of China they arc not such a trivial matter. They are recorded as of frequent occurrence in Hainan: earthquakes, in conjunction with storms, famine, and pestilence, have materially decreased the population at one time; but as a general rule earthquake-shocks Mould appear to be infrequent in China, and not of serious import. We give a short, but unfortunately not a complete. li>i. :i- the subject has not yet received the study and attention it merits. In the early days of the Ming dynasty (this d\nast\ lasted from A.D. l.'MiS to A. P. Uil.'ii. a -terrible earthquake visited the plain of Chien-ch'ang. * * r l lie ..Id city of King-yuan sank bodily into the ground, and ga\e place to the large lake which lies to the south-east of the present city.' A.D. Hi62. One in China, \\lien :MM),(XX) persons were buried in Peking alone. \\>. IT.'il. Another when lOO.OOO were s\\ allowed up at Peking. A.I). IM7. November l.'Jth. earthquake at. Shanghai. A.l>. 1S~>0. The city of }sing-\nan. in western China, already mentioned. \\a> again ruined by an earthquake, A.D. IS") 1 . Shock felt, in Canton, and about the same \ ear at Chin-kiang, where people were throun on their lace.-. A.I). 1ST I. April 1 1th. Sexere earthquake to the west of S/.-chuan. at about 11 a.m.. at Dathan-. when ' government offices, temple*, granario. >t..iv-house<. ,-md fortifications, with all the common dwellings' \\ere o\erthro\\ n, and mo>i EDUCATION. 12 ' of the inmates killed. Flames burst out in four places, which were beaten down on the 16th, but rumbling noises under- ground continued like distant thunder and the earth rocked and rolled. In about ten days the earth quieted. For several days before, the water had overflowed the dykes, the earth cracked, and black foetid -water spurted out. The region affected by this earthquake was over a circuit of four hundred miles, ' occurring- simultaneously over the whole of this region ; ' 2,298 people were killed. In some places steep lulls .split and sank into deep chasms, in others mounds on level plains became precipitous cliffs , and the roads and highways were rendered impassable by obstructions.' 1874. June 2.'J, slight shock in Hongkong. 1891. April 17th, a severe earthquake shock occurred at Fen-chou Fn in Shan-si at half-past six o'clock in the morning. the worst that has happened in that region within thirty years. A number of houses were thrown down in the city and suburbs, and some eight or ten persons were killed. There \\ a- a great destruction of houses in the villages. The shock extended at least 100 // in all directions. "It is somewhat surprising that more damage was not done, as the whole country rocked like a ship on a wave of the sea. The earth- quake lasted one minute only, but some of the houses that were shaken by it fell during the- following afternoon. The people say that earthquakes are caused by a large fish, which wakes up after a sleep of some years and gives a flop.' EDUCATION. ^bs Chinese owe everything to their system of Education. It is this which, amidst all the changes <>t dynasty, has kept them a nation; it is this which has knit together the extremes of this vast land, and has caused the same aspirations to rise, and the same thoughts to course through people differing in vernacular, and in many customs and habits; it is this that has been the conqueror of the conquering hosts that have swept over the land, and set up an alien dynasty more than once in her history. The Chinese child at his start in his educational course is heavily handicapped, for -'the language of the fireside is 122 77/m/N not the language of the books;' nor lias he all the auxiliary -aids which first launch a child on the sea of learning, and make the acquisition of knowledge a pleasure, in happy Western homes, witli the present-day beautifully illustrated bonks, and language simplified to encourage the youthful beginner : thero is no 'Reading Made Easy/ no 'Laugh and I /-am,' no 'Peep of Day/ nor any of the other numerous books, which arc the delight of the little ones amongst us. Though one often sees a bright intelligent infant among the Chinese, the absence of all these aids, mentioned above, must be a terrible want to the poor little Celestial. Were the first book put into youngster's hands named -Reading Made Difficult ' it might then convey some idea, of the nature of its contents; for, barring the fact that it is in rhyme, and in lines of three words each, there is nothing in it to smooth the rough patli for little feet. It commences with a statement that might tax all the mental powers of a philosopher to fathom, to wit : Men at their birth are by nature radically good; ' after this tough introduction, instances are adduced of youthful learning and precocity, all tending to show the necessity of education. Categories of the numerical series, of which the Chinese are so fond, follow, such as the three powers heaven. earl h. and man : the five cardinal virtues; and six kinds of grain. A list of books to be learned is next enumerated, followed by an epitome of Chinese history in the tersest, form possible; and the bonk ends with what, if it were only in an intelligible form for the buy. would be the most interest- ing part of all. vi/.: instances of the pursuit of knowledge under difficulties, which are used to goad the future aspirant for literary lame mi his eoiirsi-. At fir-t -r.trcly anything he reads is understood by him, but he h-ts to learn it off by heart. BO a- to say it without a mistake. The first is. of course, a mi>take; the -e.-ond is not : for experience shows that Midi a method i> the best for learning Chines--. The author, himself, when a boy. learned the first l)o ..k and others in this way. so as to be able to repeat long screeds of them by heart, and later years have only d"i pcucd tin- impression that. -i\en time to do so. this is the EDUCATION. 123 only way to learn Chinese thoroughly. In fact, if we West- erners were not always in such a hurry, and so pressed for time, it would prove an excellent plan in the first stages of learning- a European language; the author has also tried it with French and found it produced excellent results. But to return to our Chinese boy in the midst of his difficulties. These difficulties may perhaps be better appreciated by the. foreign reader from the following illustration : We remember reading of a school for the teaching of Gaelic-speaking boys the English language. The schoolmaster ordered the scholars to read from one of their English lesson-books, which they did beautifully, but when the English visitor began to question them on what they had read, he found blank faces staring at him in ama/ement. and not a single reply could he get. The master then informed him that the boys had only been taught to read English, not to speak it: their pronunci- ation was perfect, but not a word did they understand <>f what, they had read. Our Chinese boy is in pretty much the same plight at first ; for four or five years he learns the names of the Chinese characters, but the great majority of them are meaningless signs to him. Book after book has lie to get up in this wearisome manner, and page after page of copy-book characters has he to trace in a listless round, which knows no Sunday, nor Wednesday nor Saturday halt- holiday : no variety of studies: nothing to break the monotony from daylight till dark, with only time enough to take meals. Verily it is no wonder that the Chinese school-boy appears heavy and dull, grave and dignified, and that lit; has his company manners always at hand, appearing the pink of propriety like all the fossilised youngsters he has read about. At last a little lio-ht is allowed to ^lint into this o o mental darkness, for he is initiated into the mysteries and privileges of knowing what the thousands of seemingly arbitrary signs mean. And here is the reason why, though nearly all Chinese (at least in the more civilised parts of the c'mpire) can read to a greater or lesser extent, so many of them understand but little of what they read: for many of them are unable from poverty to pursue their course of education beyond the initial stage. Many of tliein are in the position of Milton's daughters : the blind poet taught them to read Latin to him simply to read it. without a knowledge >f what it meant ; and the Chinese that is spokon in ever\- day life is nearly as different from much of that contained in the books, as a dead language is from a living one. There is no ela>> system in Chinese schools : each boy forms a class by himself: there are as many cla>-r- a- there are boys. A dull scholar is thus not drawn on faster than he is able to go by the quicker boys, nor do the brighter pupils have a drag <>n their progress in the persons of the dull ones. As each buy learns his lesson he goes up to sa\ it, the long school hours also making it nece^ary for him to learn the greater part, if not all, of his work in school-hoars. A Chinese M-hool makes itself heard long before it is seen : a confused babel of sounds warns yon of your approach to it; for each boy is learning his task off by heart, repeating it over and over again, till fixed in the memory, in a l (for few schools are fortunately much larger than that) all d ing their best to out-vuiee each other in this manner. being better imagined than described, and. once heard. ne\er forgotten. In Knglaml schools are a nuisance to their neigh- bours at play-time : there is no play-time in Chinese schools ihey are. on the contrary, a nuisance when the boys are at their le>s.*n>. If a boy's studies arc continued, lie is taught, a- u. have said, the translation of this wonderful recondite literarx style into more intelligible language. Besides this, the following subjects find a .place in the curriculum: Composi- lion. when- rules of grammar are ei.nspiciioii> l>\ their alence. and position i> e\ entiling, and precedent or aneient usage establishes tlie pn.per c. .11. .cat ion .,t' word-. Intimately connected with thi> is tlie c.instructioii of antithetical .-utence-. \\here meaning. Mord. and phrase, as \\ell a< tone. are matched together with wonderful care, precision, and musical rli\thm. One or two other f,, n us of composition are taught, and the scholar learns tlie art of letter writing. FJiCCATIOX. 125 where almost even* possible idea is already provided for in cut and dry expressions redolent with the flowers of allusion, classic lore, and fable. This is a most important branch f Chinese education. We ourselves were present recently at a meeting, at which a letter was read from a gentleman, expressing his regret at not being able to be present, and containing good wishes for the members and the Society < which they belonged. Such a letter in English would require no explanation to an English audience, but the Chinese secretary of this society considered it necessary t<> explain its contents to the members present, though they were all fairly well educated in Chinese. Belles-lettres take also a place in the more extended course of study. A collection from ancient authors, forming a course of Chinese literature, is placed in the hands of the student: a smattering of Chinese history, valuable tor the sake of allusions it places at a writer's disposal, is acquired ; artificial verse-making claims a share of attention : and the composition of those wonderful essays, where the reason- ing proceeds in a circle, and ends where it began, whirh are valuable a> preparing the student for the Civil Servie.- examinations; this last being the final -tage for which all the preceding has been preparatory : this the goal which has necessitated all the arduous toil, with, in the event of success, its resultant office holding. (See article ou Examinations). In the school and collegiate course, extending over years. it should be stated that the whole of the classics (the Four Books and the Five Classics) are mastered, as well as the commentaries thereon. It will thus be seen that geography, arithmetic, algebra, mathematics, and all branches of scienec. .-ire utterly unknown in a Chinese educational course. What then is the result of the whole thing ? Not the acquisition of knowledge, or the training of the mind, so much as the. turning out of successful essayists: a marvellous training of the memory, and the extraordinary development of the imitative faculty these two at the expense of everything else no originality, no scope for individuality ; the production 12(> 77//AV/X ( ///A7-;,S7<,'. of literary machines, the manufacture of mental type-writers, where the stereotyped forms of antiquity are reproduced with but scant variety. It speaks well for the Chinese nation, that, Avith all this tight lacing of healthy aspirations, with all this binding of the feet of progress, it has been impossible to- entirely curb all individuality, to check all variety. China has no school-boards, nor even anything in the place of the National and British schools in England. .Schools are opened by masters to gain their living, or established by the gentry, or one tutor is employed by several families to conduct a private school for their children. Colleges, or, strictly speaking, higher schools, established on, pretty much the same principles, abound in all cities. We have thus far only mentioned boys, and we might close without any reference to girls ; for the attitude of the nation, as a whole, with regard to the education of this s,>\, is almost that of complete neglect. Notwithstanding this, not a few instances are adduced in Chinese history of blue- stockings, and at the present day. in some parts of China at least, a very small minority of the girls either manage to pick up such a smattering of the character as to be able to read cheap novels, or. very rarely, have the advantage of a teacher provided by their parents, stimulated in some cases by the example of the mission schools. From personal contact with hundreds or thousands of natives in the course of his official duties, the writer is able to say that it is the rarest thing that a woman is able to sign her own name, and when that is laboriously accomplished, it is perh a [s all that she can write. Whereas, on the other hand, a prepondering majority of men in the extreme south of China, in the cities at all events, are able to sign their names. To state it broadly: it is a great exception if a woman can sign her name, while it is an exception if a man cannot. As to the number of men \\lio can not only read, but, mentally understand A\hat they read, it is \er\ hard to form an estimate. The proportion differs in different parts of the empire, and even in the same part, it, will vary greatly in ETIQUETTE. 127 the country and the town. Dr. Martin, of Peking, estimates it at one in twenty. An account of education in China would not be complete without a closing allusion to the dawn of better days. Mission schools and colleges are established at the different centres, and have done a good and appreciable work; there are likewise the schools in Hong- kong, under the fostering care of the British Colonial Government ; and. what is more encouraging still, there are, here and there at several important centres, either schools established, more or less under the auspices of the Chinese Government, such as the T'ung Wan Kwen. at Peking and Canton, where a thoroughly good training is given in English ; or again, such establishments as naval and other colleges, in connection with arsenals, where a. technical education is imparted ; and, lastly, a most significant fact, at one of the provincial examinations in the City of Wu-chang, the examinees were asked to give a comparison between ancient and modern mathematical methods, the former being native, and the latter foreign. Book rccommendi'il. Martin's 'Han Lin Papers.' ETIQUETTE. The Chinese have an elaborate system of etiquette, which is most punctiliously observed on state occasions and at festivals, and on the whole there is more polish and outward politeness than is common with English or Americans: it approaches more to the French style. The suavity of manner and urbanity with which common street coolies address one another, and even the beggars, on the street, is most noticeable, and the graciousness with which, the boat-women accost each other when shouting orders and requests to different craft in the intricate navigation of the crowded rivers, is most pleasant to hear. The like is never, or but rarely, seen in the West, though, at the same time, the choicest ' Billingsgate ' and a rare collection of obscene epithets is employed should a quarrel arise; these latter taking the place of profane oaths in the West . We cannot call it mock, because it is with real, solem- nity that young John Chinaman copies his elders in his 128 77//AV/X r7//.\7-;S7-;. ceremonious observances, especially his bows at New Year's time, performed with all the gravity of an old man with the weight of many years on his shoulders, and the full sense of the responsibility of a duo and right performance of all the rules of etiquette. Chinese etiquette has many points quite different from English, as the following examples will show: S<-, if. A breakfast table at which is seated a new arrival who has not yet spent a winter in Hongkong. Enter the boy. his shaven pate graced with the usual Chinese winter skull-cap. Tlic fr>'!<(i i- loquitur: A-sam! What foh you puttee on that piccee cap come waitec table ? That no Viong plopah ; no b'long polite ! Axuwer by A-*canQ\ that b'long numbah one plopah, numbah one polite, s'pose you see Mistah "s boy he hab got cap all same same. .More than forty years ago a party of six young Englishmen Avcnt out for an excursion in the country in the neighbourhood of one of the Treat v Ports. Entirely ignorant JO f the narrow paths at the side <>t' :i paddyfield, they met an old man earn ing a load, whom they thought very rudely insisted on the path bring given up to him and his burden, until he had parsed with if. They pushed him out of the wa\. and >truck him with their sticks t>r liis rudene>s. entirely unaware that they were the offenders, and gross offenders too. The path being narrow, and no room for the encumbered and the unencumbered to pa .allow the burden-bearer ilie riirht if way. while the unencum- bered, who ran easily step out of the way. dues so ; the more lightly encumbered gives way fur the more heavily loaded, a- for instance one man bearing a burden will step out of the way for two men carrying a sedan-chair. In this case the foreigners were farther guilty of disrespect to an old man. whom the Chinese reverence the old man in this case being an elder of the neighbouring village, further increased the ETIQUETTE. 129 offence. The villagers, indignant at the insult, rose, took the young Englishmen into custody, and avenged their wrongs by putting them to death, after some days of imprisonment. The Chinese are very fond of sending presents as acknowledgments of favours received. They often consist of a multitude of different articles of tasty food, fruit, or tea, &c.. and when received from a native, who knows nothing of foreign customs, a selection is only intended to be made by the receiver. An acquaintance of ours was in the habit of keeping the whole assortment, no doubt to the disgust of the sender, who also, doubtless, formed a very low opinion of the greed and rudeness of foreigners. We here give a few unwritten rules of Chinese etiquette, uhich will serve to give an insight into the subject: Standing. In standing, stand at attention with or without the heels touching each other, and the hands down at the sides. Do not stand at ease with one foot placed at, right angles to the other; nor with arms akimbo. In talking to a man in a position superior to yours (such as a high official, while you are a lower one), do not keep your eyes fixed on his, but let them rest on the button on the lapel of his ( ; i tat his left breast, only occasionally raising them to his face. /-.'///f T. before your guest : and if either should get up, or even rise slightly, the other must follow suit at once. It is most amusing to sec how Chinese visitors bob up and down at the least movement of their foreign host. Another important rule is never to sit while any one else who is your equal is standing. I KJO 7V//.W/N r///.v />/:. S to Questions, Like Iho l-Yench. the Chinese d<> not eonsider it always polite to simply answer 'yes' or -no * to a question, but often turn the interrogative form of ;i question into the affirmative, using the same uords. .-is far as possible, in the- reply that have been used in the questions. Foreigners are apt to think that Chinese are boorish \\hen they answer in tliis manner, but they are only acting in accordance \\ith their code of politeness, /,'./"///'.> 'f* (<> v. It is not considered rude for a Chinese to make most particular enquiries as to a st ranger's personal affairs. In fact, the making of such enquiries often evinces great, politeness. 'How old are you?' 'Are M>II married?' 'How much mom-\ do yon make a year .'' 'Where are you going? ' * What are you going to do ? ' I low much did you pay for lhi>?' These questions ;md others are constantly on a Chinaman's lips. JtinniiiKj. [t is not considered polite to ask a man \\hom you may meet in the street, tor a debt due by him to \on. One of the most polite forms in which to request repayment is to ask him for a loan of money for you to u-e. Xoitfs. oi'-v (iuttural sounds, hauking. clearing the throat, spitting, using the finger* to blow the nose, and eructations, are not necessarily considered impolite b\ the Chinese. It must, be remembered that they look upon .such things in quite a different \\a\ to \\hal M e do m>\v-a-da\s. We say uou-a-da\s. for it, j s not more than a few centuries ..M ! ! ..... A was published in England containing, among other things, direct i. . us ho\\ to blou th<- nose neail\ with the lingers. Jml \\ e \\ill not offer au\ more reiu;:rk >. on idi a nau-ealiiig subject. I! i/it! <>l' ili-i-f.-i. \ Chinese oflieial uill not. allo\\- his rhair bearers to carry him in the halt-naked manner \\hieh ihe (Chinese coolie so delights in. The mercantile classic and others are not particular in this roped. !i i- eoii-idered impolite lo wear speetacles a -iie-t or .superior. \ sbori I-lied man must !> ready to submit, to any amount of aukua. rdness rather than infringe this rule of etiquette. ll K vrv aniiisiug to ET1QUKTTE. 131 sec a witness in a, Court of Justice looking at some document which he is unable to sec properly, not daring to put on his glasses lest it should be construed into a sign of disrespect to the judge, perhaps mildly saying he is short-sighted, but in other cases never giving a hint that he cannot see properly without putting them on. If it is absolutely necessary that something should be looked at, and an apology having been offered, or permission having been given to put them on, they must be taken off as soon as possible afterwards. Some even hesitate to put them on when told to do so. Jlats. There are great differences in Chinese hats, some may, or rather, must, be tolerated in a room or house, and others under no consideration whatever. The common skull- cap with a red or black knotted knob (or blue if the wearer is in mourning) is an fait. It should be worn in winter, in-doors or out, and is only dispensed with in summer for the same reason that Indian judges do not wear wigs in that country. The official hat. with the button indicative of the rank of the wearer, is dress, and is hastily donned to receive a visitor; neither do the official hats of the mandarins' servants need to be removed on entering a house ; but the case differs in toto when we come to the ordinary rain and sun-hats, whether they are as large in size as an umbrella, or only about the size of a gong, or the small conical ones worn by the native soldiers and coolies, like those provided for the Chinese policemen in Hongkong. The same holds good of the felt hats used in winter by coolies and tradesmen, &c. Hoods also should not be kept on inside one's house. If the hat is only of the right kind, it is politeness for a Chinese gentleman to put it on to receive his .guest ; to appear bareheaded before a visitor is considered impolite. Queue. Unless the nature of his work, such- as carrying a chair or washing the floor, requires his queue to be wound in a coil round his neck or shoulders, or done up in any fashion in a bunch at the top or back of his head, no Chinese servant or inferior ought ever to appear so before his master or superior, but the queue should always hang down behind. 132 THINGS CllIXESE. Flnye.r Xmh. Long finger nails arc not considered a sign of dirtiness but of respectability, and of being above manual labour, which, if necessary, would, of course, prevent them from growing. They sometimes grow to the length of an inch and a half, or two inches, or even longer, though it is seldom one sees them all of equal length on all the ringers. It is well that such is the case, as two or three on one or both hands give such a claw-like appearance to the fingers as to make them sufficiently repulsive; fortunately hand- shaking is not in vogue in China, as it would be extremely unpleasant to feel the long talons gripping one's hand. Shaking hands. A Chinese clasps his two hands together and moves them up and down a few inches in front of himself several times. When excessively polite they are raised up as high as his forehead, while he makes a profound bow. I .adies do not do this, but clutch the left hand sleeve with the right hand, and imitate the same motion. JfiiHi/Iit'i //liiitfK. Both hands are used to pass any- thing, therefore a Chinese is not to be considered cluinsx who hands any small articles, such as a cup of tea, in this manner: it would be thought the height of rudeness t.> do otherwise, for it would evince an unwillingness to take the little trouble necessary. The same rule of etiquette is observed in receiving anything from anyone. M'.il*. At meals men and women never eat together. unless the women are bad characters, even a husband and a wife should take their meals separately. 'The children wait till the grown-up people arc seated, the latter nod an as~n,r io 'a show of asking permission to eat." l!aeh one lias his own bowl of rice, and he picks up piece- ..t' meat and vegetables. i\;c. from the common dishes in the centre of tin- table, but it is considered polite only to pick from the side of the dish nearest to one. After each meal it is the i-nstom to Avipe the face and hands with a wet cloth wrung out of hot. water. In the family circle each one will leave the table and do this wash- ing; but at a dinner party tin; servants will bring a cloth so wrung out to each diner, a separate one being given to ETIQUETTE. 133 each if not very familiar, otherwise the same cloth may be used. In Chit-kong province (where Soochow is) the same basin and cloth are used, as it shows that they are brotherly. One done, may ask the others to i eat leisurely,' which is the equivalent of saying ' excuse me.' and he is then at liberty to leave the table. It is etiquette to remain sitting at meals till all have finished, but in the event of urgent business, &c. demanding one's attention, a guest may, before the others have finished, lay his chopsticks across his empty bowl, this being an indication of his desire to leave ; the host on observing it, lifts them down, places them on the table and says * ho hang ' (which is equivalent to our *' good bye.' though it really has the meaning of ' be Careful how you walk'), to the guost, who is then free to depart. The above takes place with strangers, or when every body is on their best behaviour; for though it is incumbent on all to sit down together to their meals, it is unnecessary in unceremonious intercourse, that all should rise at the same time. At formal dinners or meals, however, the host cannot leave the table till he sees that all his guests have finished, and wisli to do so. r/>777.\Yr'. Tea (Irinkiny.-- There is some curious etiquette about tea-drinking in connection with paying visits. When paying a visit to an official if a servant should bring in a cup of tea there is no necessity to take any particular notice of it; allow the servant to put it down where he likes near you; but continue your conversation with the man- darin. Should, however, he consider you a good friend, or, even in the case of a first call, should he desire to treat you with great respect, or evince his great pleasure at seeing you, he may hand you the cup of tea with his own hands. In such circumstances it is incumbent upon you to rise to your feet and take it from his two hands with both of yours. A cup of tea in an official call (be you either a civilian calling on an official, on even if you are both officials) is destined to play an important part. Your business over, or 131 77//AV/S r7//.\7>V:. your conversation done, you invite your host to drink tea (ts'ing eh'a), which lie thereupon proceeds to do with yu. and the visit is over. Should, however, you be taxing the patience of your host by overstaying your welcome, or should a pressure of business make it incumbent on him to shorten the call as much as possible, he begins to touch the cup with his fingers, expecting you to take the hint. Are you such an obtuse individual that hints are entirely lost upon you ? Then he may sometimes though it is not quite the correct thing for him to do so give you the invitation to take tea with him, when you will have to retire, feeling mortified at having tran-grossed the rules of politeness, and at being treated with rudeness in return. It must be remembered, however, that this tea is never to be touched until it is time to go. These rules as to the // of friendKnCM. When .-eeing a mandarin in his hall for transacting business, should he invite you into his private apartments, then any subjects can be di^cus-ed. and any amount of freedom, consistent of course with self respect, may be enjoyed ; coats even may be thrown off till a state approaching nearly to the /'// y /,/.- //ition midway between a clenched fist and an open hand. The ends of the h'nger> are put close up to the mouth, or touching the lips, thus muffling the sound. This muflling is intensified if it is fold weather, and a number of sleeves conic over the hand. /*'/"/ reversed, the fingers hanging down and the \\hole hand is used to beckon towards one with a sweeping motion, in a most energetic manner. EURAKfAXX. AT/,'. [, S7.LV,S. The children of European fathers by Asiatie mothers or vice ?v/v/., are, by a union of the first syllables of botli words, called Eurasians. Some dress in the In reign style and some in the native: the former look more like their Chinese mothers than their fathers; the latter look very white and foreign-like. Their eyes are generally- black, though the results of the second and third generations of such alliances are often very fair, have brownish hair, and occasionally lighter-coloured eyes. The union of the two bloods seems, as far as the men are concerned, to produce :t more sprightly race than the Chinese, and one whose organs of speecli arc better adapted to pronounce English than those .{' pure Chinese breed; for it is a very rare thing that a Chinese can speak English accurately, as rare almost. as for an Englishman to speak Chinese like a native, though he may have resided for \ears in China in the one case, or in England in the other. Some of the girls who ha\e a preponderance of English blood in them are very pretty and fair. Unfortunately the majority of the daughters are brought up to lead an immoral life, and sold like .slaves into it. There is a Eurasian school i;i Shanghai, a great number of the children in the Diocesan Home and Orphanage in. i [ongkong belong to the .same class, and there are a very large number of them in the (iovernment Central School in the same Colony. They are drafted from these establishments into the lawyer's and other offices, Avhere they make M-ry useful clerks and interpreters, from their knowledge of both Chinese and English. O It is not all the half-casts that come under this clasv. as numbers of them are swallowed up under the name of Portuguese, which, in the Far East, is not restricted alone 1o those worthy of that name, but is used to designate all. who, having some drops of foreign blood in their vein>. elect to call themselves such, dress in foreign clothes, and talk a smattering of the jmto'tn glorified with the name of Portuguese, but -which, in reality, is a sort of pidgin- Portuguese, and not understood by new arrivals from Portugal, who require an interpreter to explain it to them. Maeanese would be a better term, as the majority of them are cither born in Macao or have descended from residents in that eit\ They are of all shades of colour, and their complexions show traces of Indian (Goa), Chinese. Japanese, and European, ancestry in all degrees of proportion. The mercantile offices are full of them. They act as clerks and write a good hand. but seldom rise to any position of great trust and confidence. They work as a rule for a mere pittance, and the poorer classes herd together after the manner of Chinese. A very few are engaged as merchants in business. A'.Y.I I//.Y. I'/VaYN. -We have treated of the end and aim of education in China in a former article (See Artiele >n Education). It no\v falls to our lot to treat more full\ of the final step to this goal, namely, the system of Civil Service examinations in China. In the matter of competitive examinations the Chinese present one of those unique spectacles which are alike the wonder, as well as the admiration, of those who understand them. In this strange land there has been in vogue for centui ! -. nnd even millenniums, a system of examinations, which, originally started with testing the ability of those alreadx in office, lias gradually widened in scope till at this time it is all-embracing in point of geographical extent, and is tin- test of ability which all have to undergo who de-sire admU>im: into the Civil Service of this immense empire \\ith it- thousands of official-: with this end in view. b are incited 'o learn their lessons and be diligent; with this aim. men ;>uisue their weary e. >nrpur on to renewed trials, until, after many times ha\in;_; forim-d a unit amongst the annual two millions that pa-- ih rough one or other of the ordeals of their gigantic EXAMINATIONS. 1.37 examination scheme, the old man of seventy or eighty, who has been unfortunate enough not to appear among the small percentage of one or two out of a hundred that are allowed to pass, finally attracts imperial notice, and as an honour, and the meed of his untiring perseverance and indefatigable toil, receives the coveted reward. The scheme is widespread as the empire : every petty district city even has its Examination Hall, where the initial trials are conducted under the supervision of the Imperial Chancellor, a sub-chancellor being in residence, who subjects the candidates to a preliminary examination. Out of the two thousand or so, only twenty of the best receive the degree which the Chinese term ' siu-ts'ai,' meaning ' budding genius,' but which for convenience is generally termed by foreigners the B.A., though, except for the analogy of being the first degree obtained in both East and West, there is scarce any point of similarity, and so it is throughout the whole series. An original poem and one or two essays by I'uch candidate on the subjects assigned to them are the exercises of this examination. A night and a day are spent in their production. The results to the successful student are as follows : -no office or appointment, but admission is granted him into the charmed circle of those who .'in- entitled to wear the lowest grade of gold button on the tops of their hats, and who arc protected 'from corporal punishment; it raises him above the common people, renders him a conspicuous man in his native place, and eligible to enter the triennial examination for the second degree/ which is held in the provincial capital, the successful candidates at which take the second degree, styled the chii-jin,' or ' promoted scholar,' or M.A. This examination lasts through 'three sessions of nearly three days each.' The examiners are the the Imperial Commissioner and ten provincial officers. Some six thousand, more or less, according to the size of the province, enter for this examina- tion. Essays in prose and verse are required, but of course there is much more given to be done, and a higher style is required, than in the former, and much strictness is exercised 138 THIXGS CHINESE. with regard to the slightest errors in the essays. The small percentage that pass still get no appointment, nor office, but rise higher in the public estimation, wear a higher grade of gilt button, when in dress, and put a board over the front -doors of their houses with the mystic characters of 'Promoted men,' as well as the date of attaining it. One step more entitles the scholar to eventually obtain office. This next higher degree is taken at Poking. It is termed -Tsiin-s/,' or L.L.D. Lots are drawn for vacant posts, and tin- successful candidate may begin his official career as a district magistrate perchance. Another degree may. however, bo taken, success in the examination for Avhich entitles to admission to the Hanliu College. The members of this College are * constituted poets and historians to the Celestial Court, or deputed to act as Chancellors and Examiners in the several provinces.' The highest on the list, after two special examinations in the Emperor's palace and in the presence of the Kmperor himself, is styled the ' Chuang-yuen ' or " Laureate.' This then is a rough sketch of this wonderful system: the details of which, as regards the subsidiary examinations, might be filled in at great length. Enough has been \\ritten to convey some idea of the system as a whole, but it is difficult to describe the enthusiasm which pervades the whole country with regard to the examinations. Congratulations arc showered "ii the successful students : they dine with the highest officials after the event, and the Emperor him-elf entertains the most celebrated of all. It is naturally to be expected that the family of the successful candidate should feel honoured, but those who take the highest honours are looked upon as conferring distinction on their native places; and it is \<\ the decree or de-Tees taken by the inmates, separate boards being u-ed for those who ha\e taken the higher positions, such as senior tripo-. \c.. \c. in each respective examination. On the blank walls of the fronts of the huu-e> will often also be seen large vclknv EXAMINATIONS. 139 or red papers Avith yellow or red letters on them; for it is customary when any one has been successful at an exami- nation to send a large poster with inch-large characters on it announcing to all one's friends and relatives the fact. For examinations at which one has been successful in the provinces, red paper is used with yellow characters, but for those held in Peking yellow paper with red characters is used. Besides the legitimate interest taken in these literary contests, they form the Goodwoods and Dcrbys, &c., of China, for not only is the news of success spread far and wide as fast as swift, messengers, rapid boats, and fleet couriers, can carry it to waiting friends and expectant relatives, but the news of success is as eagerly received by utter strangers, who. having staked on the issue, arc in excitement to know the result. Like everything Chinese, these trials of literary skill of the future governors of the people are held in far different surroundings from what a Westerner would expect. The buildings cover a large extent of ground; that in Canton occupies sixteen acres. After the main entrance (which is within the entrance of the outside wall) is passed, a broad avenue leads up to a congeries of buildings for the use of the examiners and others connected with them and their work. On each side of this main avenue arc narrow lanes, giving access to the 8,653 cells in which the students are confined. These cells are 5 feet 9 inches by 3 feet 8 inches wide, their height being a trifle over that of a man. There are two grooves in the wall by which two planks are slid in; one to form a table, the other a seat for the solitary student shut up in each cell. It is 'a species of imprisonment: no -communication being allowed with the candidates under penalty of severe punishment. They enter them with pro- visions, fuel, candles, bedding, and writing materials, being searched to see that no ''cribs/ or other means of assist ing their labour, are smuggled in, it being the constant practice for some to do this; a specially small miniature edition of the classics being printed for the purpose and secreted about the person. The confinement must be irksome and 140 THINGS CHINESE. disagreeable in the extreme; deaths occasionally occur from excitement, the privations and exposure being greater than old age can endure. The Chinese have been wise in thus giving the people a share in their own government, nor is it in the way of pandering to the democracy; but it is bestowed as a right on those who are fitted for it by an education, which, though not on a par with a modern western course of study? is by no means to be despised when compared with that in vogue in Europe not a few centuries since. Thus ambitious spirits have a career open before them, which may lead them up to the very foot of the throne itself; the extra exuberance of youth is toned down by a course of study which must have a great effect in producing the grave and reverend seniors, which Chinese mandarins are. It produces likewise a conservative element, as it is to the interest of the whole body of literati to conserve the existing polity, and resist all violent change which may overthrow their position and prospects. For this reason, if for no other, progress in China will be comparatively slow, and probably none the less sure on account of its slowness. China has also by this admirable plan. admirable, taken as a whole, alike in its conception, development, and working prevented herself from being overburdened by an aristocracy, with all its concomitant evils, which, had it existed, would, as in most European countries, have monopolised nil that was worth having in the government until driven inch by inch from its unfair position, a work long in operation. and difficult of accomplishment, Here then is a mighty system complete in all its details, ivady as soon as western science tako a fair grasp of the nation to be used as a meazu of disseminating scientific knowledge and methods throughoul the length ami breadth of the land, as well as literary style and polish. Some lain!, indications that such may eventually be its function have already been ^hm. Me.-ides the literary examinations, military examinations for officers of the army are held, in which skill in gymnastic exercises, such as lifting heavy weights and shooting with EXTERRITORIALITY. 141 bows and arrows, are the tests required. But the Chinese have shown their wisdom in considering warlike exercises as far inferior to literary ability : military officers, as compared with civil functionaries, are despised, and under the heading of military officers are included naval officers as well. KXTK/tHTTORIALITY.As the laws and judicial system in force in China partake more of the character of those in operation in Europe in the middle ages, Europeans and Americans in China, as well as in other Asiatic countries, have insisted on being amenable to their own laws, and exempted from the legal process of the country in which they dwell. Till recently there was a Supreme Court with a Chief Justice, and other officers under the Foreign Office, which sat in Shanghai, and proceeded in circuit to the different treaty ports when cases arose demanding its attendance amongst British subjects or in which one party was British. The Consular Courts presided over by the British consuls, took cognisance of the smaller cases, or held a preliminary enquiry in the more important ones. But the Supreme Court has now been abolished, and the consul at Shanghai, in addition to his other duties, performs those of Chief Justice. On the other hand, if a Chinese is sued by an Englishman the trial takes place in a Chinese court, at the instance of the English consul. In Hongkong, of course, this rule does not hold good, for. being an English colony, it is an integral part of the British Empire. It is, however, a common thing for Chinese criminals to escape from the mainland to this island. Before, their rendition to the Chinese authorities, an inquiry has to be held by a police magistrate, who, on prim f<-i<>. proof of the crime, sends up the case to the Governor of the Colony, who decides as to whether the criminals are to be handed over to the Chinese or not. Applications arc often made to the Supreme Court of the Colony on a writ of hftln'// //- for a release of the prisoners on some alleged technical i!;n\ . These rarely succeed. Nevertheless, the Chinese authorities at Canton feel very sore on the subject, as it is difficult for 142 77//.V(/N them to understand (with their system of torture of prisoners ;ind witnesses, and the forced confessions extorted from the former) the importance of unshaken, truthful evidence and >f genuine eye witnesses. The uncertainty of English la\\, and the jealous care exercised over the prisoner in cas- he should be innocent, are incomprehensible to them. FMRY TALES. There are many fairy tales to bo found in Chinese literature, but different in detail to those of the West. The animal world, like the wolf in Red Hiding Hood, comes in. but in a more artistic form than in the old nursery talc, as the foxes assume human shape at will, not being detected till well on in the story, and they arc beneficent as well as malignant. ' Our Chinese foxes, which are represented as the frequenters of the ancient sepulchres, turn into the Elves of the Forest, and by moonlight imbibe the ethereal essence of heaven and earth. They dig up the graves of the dead and place their skulls on their foreheads. They then look up to the North Pole and bow to the Starry Host. If the skulls do not fall off while they perform this rite, they change into lovely and fascinating females.' Love often plays an important part in some of these storie-. showing that, though not considered proper by the ceremonial Chinese, human nature and the ruling passion will yet reveal themselves even under the most repressive circumstances. Besides this class of fairy talcs, much of the Taouist mythology might be classed under this category, when the marvellous and miraculous doings of the gods, demi-gods, and genii, are told at garrulous length and with tedious detail. In China it is not only the children that believe in sprites, fairies, dryads, nymphs, demons, and goblins, but the children I' an older growth nearly all firmly believe in them ; for the whole universe to the average Chinaman is peopled A\ ith un.-een deni/.ens, who occasionally appear to the good or evil, and reward or punish them in quite the orthodox story-book st\ le. Book* recommended. -tini-s from :i inr<,. -tmlio.' trans- |:itrd arid aiiiiMtutrd l;\ llnKrrt A. Mir,. L' \<>!s. I>c la Ilui: fc Co. 'Tin' Fairy .' jmMisli'- id Walsh, Ld. ' Scrap* from Chinese M\ tlioldtiy,' in diUVrrtit mmiliiTs ( I In- ' China Il'jviow," l>y K<.-\ . Ihrr I'-ail, M.A., M.I)., annotated by J. Dyer Hall. /J.YN. H;J: 1-\ LYX. There can scarcely be any other nation on partli that uses such quantities of fans : amongst us the use. of the fan is confined to the gentler sex, and it would be considered effeminate, or at all events singular, for a gentle- O " O man to sport one. With the Chinese, fans are used as much by the ono sex as by the other, and particular makes or forms are confined in their use to the male sex. All sorts of materials are employed in their construction, the palm leaf, which nature seems almost to have designed as an >l>jeet lesson and a hint, being one of the most common; silk, paper, bamboo, feathers, and other things, are also used. The largest si/e of palm leaf, nearly a yard in diameter, of art orbicular shape, has a neat rim braided round it, and the stalk forms the natural handle. This gigantic size is placed in the hands of slave-girls, and other female domestics, to perform the duty which the poet inveighed against so strongly in the well-known lines: ' I would not have a slave to till my ground, To carry me, to fan me while I sleep, And tremble when I wake, for all the wealth That sinews bought and sold have ever earned.' The smaller kind of the same shape, and of which sucli largo quantities arc exported to America the common palm leaf fan is used by the lower classes, and it is curious to notice ilic variety of uses to which this fan is put in China: it serves 1o blow up the wooden or charcoal fire in the earthenware furnaces instead of a pair of bellows ; old torn douu looking seamstresses pin it on the top of their hair to servo as a. hat; it is used, in common with other fans, as a duster to fan or flap away the dust off a seat or to cool the chair before offering it to a visitor; to drive out the mosquitoes out of the mosquito net; to fan the restless baby to sleep; also as a sunshade; and it comes in handy for many another purpose. There is a great variety of fans, and the following classification embraces many, though not all of them, viz.: Feather fans, folding fans, and screen fans; the latter are 144 THINGS CHINESE. of a variety of shapes, ' round, octagonal, scxagonal or polygonal.' The young Chinese exquisite in his robes of silk and satin, generally carries, at the proper seasons, one of them in his hand, the gift perchance of some artistic and literary friend, Avho has embellished it with a landscape in black and white, and/or a few lines from his pen in either prose or poetry. We give an inscription on one of these fans .sent to a European with whom the presenter of the fan had met. It not only gives an idea of what such inscriptions may be, but also shows what a Chinese complimentary letter is like. We have changed the names from what they were in the original. 'The noteworthy visit you paid me some time ago has filled my humble cottage with glory. I believe you are a virtuous man whose object is to benefit the world with your kind heart, which is ready to afford free services to the distressed it comes in sight of. This being its policy, many a poor sufferer has had his chronic disease removed and got immediate relief from great difficulties. How greatly in need is this class of people ! Furthermore, our unexpected meeting has quickly made us bosom friends. That a man so forsaken by the world as myself can gain so true a friend as you is rare. It has given me great consolation to hear of your promotion to the post of Chief Medical Officer. Your success is the result of your repeated good deeds which always multiply one's blessings : The Eye of Heaven clearly sees our human actions. Though I am not worthy of your friendship, I sincerely hope you will not forget me after you have left here for your new appointment.. Send me advice and instruction to amend my defects. True affection forbids me to forget you or to cease thinking of you. May then still be a time for our future meeting and companionship is my earnest prayer. Kwong-sui, l6th year, gth moon in autumn. Written in the Tsing Ming Tai Tak Fort, Kwong-tung province for the use of Dr. Cheung-lei. Scribbled by Chau Yau alias Sik Ting.' The silk of which sonic >{' these fans arc made is actually -pun by the silkworm on the bamboo frame which sur- rounds the fan. Thi- max >eem incredible, but the writer has in his possession a small disc of silk, of a few inches in diameter, spun in the lid of a tin canister. .-UK! given to him by a foreigner in whose house it had actually been produced. It therefore requires no credulity to believe that a Ian somewhat larger could be thus made. The folding fan is universal throughout China, from the heap affair, of cour.-e bamboo splints and black paper with FANS. 145 '/;. speaker's periods ; it adds grace to the faultless get-up of the ;. ,.,/,, ,!<,,,',' : while the youthful bride is sheltered from the too inquisitive stare of the crowd by her attendant's fan ; the over-heated coolie cools himself with it as he rests a moment or two from his arduous toil; and the sweltering half-naked blacksmith has his apprentice fan him when engaged before the glowing forge; the mandarin has a huge imitation screen- fan of wood carried in his retinue, which comes in useful when he meets a fellow official Avith whom he has not time to A\ aste in salutations by the way, for their attendants interpose these wooden fans, and neither official has seen the other, thus obviating the necessity of stopping the processions and descending from the sedan-chairs. Fans are used in decorative art : open-work spaces are left in walls, &c. of that shape ; papers for fans are painted, mounted, and framed as pictures ; and even the gods and genii are sometimes represented with these indispen^ab! a hot climate, some of them being capable of all sorts of magic. A deserted wife is, by that happy periphrasis so con- stantly employed by the Chinese, known a- an autumn fan ' from the inscription written on a fan, and sent to her royal master, by a lady of the Court, who found herself in tin-; Unenviable position two thousand years ago. The pathetic lines written on this memorable fan have been rendered into English by Dr. Martin, as follows : LINKS I\SCKIl!i:i> OX A FAX. (Written l>>i P"n Tx'nli YH. /'"'// of the Court, uiul jin st.n'i'1 / tits ('III IllJ-ti I'/ (III IIll:' . Of fresh new silk, all snowy whit-.-. And round as harvest moon, A pledge of purity and love. A small, but welcome boon \Vhile summer lasts, borne in the hand, Or folded on the breast, 'Twill gently soothe thy burning brow, And charm thee to thy rest. FILIAL PIETY. 147 But ah ! when autumn frosts descend, And autumn winds blow cold, No longer sought, no longer loved, 'Twill lie in dust and mould. This silken fan, then deign accept, Sad emblem of my lot. Caressed and cherished for an hour, Then speedily forgot. Book* recommended. An article 'On Chinese Fans 'that origiimlly appeared in 'Eraser's Maira/ine' and also in Historic China, and other Sketches' by II. A. Giles, published by DC hi Hue Co., p. 294. For an amusing skit on the fickleness of the female sex and on marriage, one is referred to Davis' > China and the Chinese,' Vol. '2. p. 119 et seq. FILIAL PIETY. Filial piety is the greatest of all virtues in the Chinese eyes, while disobedience is the greatest of all crimes. From his early childhood the child is trained up, as far as books are concerned, in this idea, while at the same time he is spoiled by the doting love of fond parents, mixed with such a portion, however, of severity, that the compound of bitter-sweet treatment produces on the whole better results than might reasonably be expected ; the bitter, generally coming after the sweets of spoiled infancy, has some effect in toning down the over-indulgence so lavishly acted on. Filial piety is very wide-reaching in its application among the Chinese. It concerns itself with a proper care of their bodies, as these being received perfect from th^ir parents, it is their duty to preserve them. As regards one's parents, it is, according to our Western ideas, most exacting, though at the same time there is no doubt that if the Chinese have erred too much in going to one extreme, we have likewise erred in going to the other. Confucius said, 'while a man's father is alive, look at. the bent of his will; when his father is dead, look at his conduct. If for three years lie does not alter from the way of his father, then he may be considered to be filial.' He also taught that filial piety should be accompanied by reverence, and that its duties should be performed with a cheerful countenance. It is thought to militate against rebellion, and is considered to be the source of loyalty to the Sovereign. 148 THINGS CHINESE. The way in which it works is thus expressed in the 'Classic of Filial Piety ':- 'Filial duty is the root of virtue, and the stem from which instruction in the moral principle springs. * * * *. The first thing which filial duty requires of us is, that we carefully preserve from all in- jury, and in a perfect state, the bodies which we have received from our parents. And when we acquire for ourselves a station in the world, we should regulate our conduct by correct principles so as to transmit our name to future generations, and reflect glory on our parents. This is the ultimate aim of filial duty. Thus it commences in attention to parents, is continued through a course of services rendered to the prince, and is completed by the elevation of ourselves.' As Archdeacon Gray remarks in his book, 'China': 'The Chinese Government is only to be understood through the relation whicli exists between a father and his son.' Instances of extraordinary self-denial are constantly occurring amongst the Chinese on the part of children towards their parents. They undergo imprisonment at times in their stead, but, what is still more common, they cut out pieces of their own flesh, cook it, and give it to them to eat, M'hen seriously ill and when other remedies have failed; it seems to be a never failing cure to judge from the constant accounts that appear in the native news- papers concerning it. The youths are incited to these and other acts of devotion by the recital of instances of self-denial on behalf of parents. There are twenty-four of these stories of paragons of filial piety. One thawed through the ice on a pond, by lying naked on it, and then caught carp, of which 'li- mother was fond. Another went into tin- bed at night to let the mosquitoes have their fill on him before his parents should retire to rest. Another, though seventy years old, played like a child to amuse his aged father and niothe-r. As .-in instance of the great length- to which the Chinese go in this respect, a father was preparing to bury alive his only child of rhree years of age. as po\erty \\as >< pressing that, there A\a- a dilliculty in supporting his mother; Heaven intervened, however, for when digging, he came across a pot. of gold. One sees in ancestral \vor>hip the full development of filial piety when the parents and ancestors are deified and FLOWERS. divine honours arc paid to them, with, however, it must be confessed, a very selfish feeling for the great part, for the raison d'etre of ancestral worship is founded mainly iipon a desire to propitiate the departed spirits, and thus ensure prosperity to themselves. (See article on Ancestral Worship). A great deal of filial piety is mere ceremonial obser- vance with but little real heart at the bottom of it, and there are as unfilial sons to be found in China as in our own land, still, at the same time, it must be good for the youth of this vast empire, teeming with, future men and women, to have such a high standard, on the whole, held up for their guidance. liini/.'.t reeomwe&ded. Legge's * Sacred Books of China.' Part I. The ' Sliii K'nuj Religious Portions of the S/t!b A'i/it/.' the ' llx'mn Kintj ' (Classic of Filial Piety). 'Chinese Repository' Vol. X., p. 164. Doollttle's ' Social Life of the Chinese.' Vol. I., p. 4.">2 et seq. *.-- The inhabitants of the 'Flowery Land/ as China is called, are fond of flowers. No lady is dressed without sweet-scented beautiful flowers stuck in her gloss}' black hair, and the lower classes are glad to copy their superiors whenever a holiday, or any event out of the common, gives them the chance to bloom forth in Nature's own adornments. Failing the natural, they have recourse to artificial, flowers some of which are very well made, especially the pith flowers at Amoy. for which the place is famous. In most houses, and even shops, a vase or two is found, if no- where else, at least in front of the idol's shrine, where some lovely chrysanthemums, white, yellow, or red. add a touch of colour or beauty to the formal primness of the set and stiff furniture. At China New Year, flowers are all the rage. The beautiful white and yellow narcissus with its long lance- shaped stiff green leaves is pr at the doors, and diffuse a grateful odour through the heated apartments on a warm summer's day. They are largely employed at weddings, as well as at other times, nor are the designs confined only to flower baskets. Then- a iv no window plants, so esteemed by the better olass of artisans amongst u-. as \\vll as by others high' the social scale, but their plaiv i- > mi. -times taken by a solitary plant, often some woody non-flowering shrub, which has been dwarfed with much ingenuity, and is tended with < instant <-are the whole object only some .six im-hes in height, but a perfect little tree in its \\ ay. This idea is further develop. -d it times, and a little rockery is produced, frightful in its ruggedness. on projecting points of which t >y arbours in earthenware are perched, little path* meander from one to the other, crooing the lilliputian gorges and ravines on equally -mall earthenware bridges, while helow, and in front <_.f all. lies a tiny piece of water, in which gorgeous and grotesque g >ld- tish swim about. The heights ab"\v are covered at e\erv \antage point with small clumps of dwarf bamboo, and numerous other equally small trees and shrubs clothe with FLOWERS. greenness the bare masses of the dry rugged rock, all in proportion with the minuteness of this morsel of quaint imitation of Nature's beauties looked at from a Chinese stand- point the whole affair only being a foot or two in height. Infinite care and tender pains are taken in planting, watering, and tending, this microcosm of a landscape, thus revealing that the Chinese are not wanting in a love of Xature as seen through their goggle-like spectacles. Amongst flowers the tree-peony is highly esteemed, being called ' the King of Flowers.' The skill of the Chinese lias been exercised in producing many varieties. Another tl.ru er much thought of is the lotus. There is a white, as well as a red. variety, and they are so highly cultivated as to cause the petals to spring from the seed-holes even. They arc magnificent flowers with their delicately veined petals, quaint-shaped seed repositories, and curious peltate leaves. They are much used in Chinese decorative art. and form a fine throne for a god or goddess to sit on in a state of ecstatic and nirvana-like contemplation. It is impossible to even enumerate all the beautiful flowers in which the Chinese delight : the white tube-roses laden at the evening hour with heavy perfume, roses with but little scent, beautiful dahlias, lovely sweet-smelling magnolias, pure white lilies, superb camelias, chrysanthe- mums of different shades, and many others with no English names, a mere list of these would fill pages, and the use of .such terms as Tabernaejnowtcona Corona,-i their food. Many of the respectable Chinese would feel as much (li-uu^t at the idea of eating dogs, cats, rats, and n:i/<,-- i>iiii'il'i. Roast Chicken and Ham. 7. Pigeons' Kggs. 5. Promotion ' (J-.oiled Quail, ice.) U. 'Fried Marine .Delicacies. 10. Roast Turkey and Ham (a I'Anglaise). II. Fish dills. \-2. Larded Quails. 13. Sliced Teal. ] 4. Peking Mushrooms. 1."). Koast Pheasant (a I'Anglaise). Hi. Winter Mushrooms. 17. Roast Fowl and Ham. I'-'. !'..'die-de-Mer. III. Sliced Pigeon. UO. Snipe, (a I'Anglaise). i'l. .Macaroni (a la Peking). SI1)E DJSHKS. CoW lioast Sucking 1'i.u'. Cold Roast Fowl. Cold Koast Duck. Cold ]{oast Mutton. Prawns. T.M'.LK IMS! IKS. Cold San SMB.'S, Preserved Iv^gs. kc., &c., &e. Livers. FRUITS. Preserved Apples. Citrons. Tientsin Pears. Pomegranates. Caramholas. Greengages. Pine Apples. &c.. e.. \c. PASTRY. Sweet Lotus Soup. Almond Costard. Rice. &c.. &e., &e. WINES. Champagne (Krng). Claret. Orange Wine. Rice Wine. Rose Dim. ' Optimus ' Wine. Pear Wine. 156 THLVGS CHINES/:. We give a few Chinese receipts which we have trans- lated from a Chinese Cookery Book : STEAMED SHARKS' FINS. 'The manner of washing sun-dried sharks' fins is [as follows]: First take the fins [as bought] and place in a cooking pan, add wood- ashes and boil in several waters. Then take out and scrape away the roughness [on the fins]. If not clean, boil again, and scrape again, until properly clean. Then change the water and boil again. Take- out, take away the flesh, and keep only the fins. Then boil once again. Put in spring water. Be careful in changing water, and thoroughly soak it, for it is necessary that the lime-taste should be- taken out of it. Then put the fins into soup, stew three times till quite tender. Dish in a bowl, placing below it crab meat, and add a little ham on the top. The taste is clear and churty (i.e. neither tender nor tough, something like pomelocs taste at times). CHICKEN WITH THE LIQUOR OF FERMENTED RICE. Take the bones out of a chicken and steam till just ready. Take out and let it cool, cut into thin slices. Take gelatinous rice, which has been fermented with yeast and water added, and cook with this for two hours, afterwards add the juice expressed from fresh ginger, soy, sesamum, and oil, of each a little. Mix together with boiled peanut oil. Dish and add fragrant herbs. GENII DUCK. Take a fat duck, open and clean. Take two mace of salt, and rub over it both outside and in. Put into an earthen dish and take <>t fan spirits one cup, and put the cup with the spirits inside the duck. Do not let the spirits spill on to the duck ; only the vapour of tin- spirit is wanted. Steam over water till quite tender. Lift out the wine- cup into a bowl. Done in this way, there is no need of minor vegetables. FOIf /'/: /TS. -The Chinese have a noisy game of forfeits often played at the dinner-table at fe;i-t times. It consists in the player Hinging out one or more fingers of the hand, and shouting out a number, when the other, who is playing with him, must instantly fling out as many of his ringers as will, if added to the number mentioned by his opponent, make up the total to ten. and while doing this he also shouts out the number of his fingers that he throws out. FRUIT. 157 If a mistake is made, the one who makes it has to drink a cup of spirits as a forfeit. As they proceed, the party of six, oight, or ten, at table, get more and more excited and boisterous, and the shouting at the top of their voices proves very exasperating to any Europeans who may unfortunately have their residences near to those of the Chinese. Such a nuisance is this noisy game, that the playing of it after 1 1 o'clock at night is prohibited in Hongkong by Ordinance. Looking at it from another point of view, this game of tehdi-mui (chai mooec) is a most interesting one, as the Italians have a similar game, which they call morra, and in France it is known as mourre, while the ancient Egyptians had some corresponding game as represented on their sculptures, and the Romans had their m'tcare digltts over which butchers and their customers gambled for bits of meat, from which game descended the Italian one already mentioned. FRUIT. One of the advantages of living in a hot climate is the quantity of fruit that one gets. After a long residence in the East, one notices on a return to Europe, unless it be in a plentiful strawberry season, how much more readily one can get fruit morning, noon, and night in the- J O O^ O East than in the West. There is quantity in the East, but, quality in the West; for there is nothing, take it all in all, to compare with hot-house fruit in England. This is, however, not so much the fault of the fruit, as the fault or misfortune of the cultivator; for it is often due to circumstances over which he has no control, such as his surroundings. As a rule, unless the fruit is plucked before it is ripe, it would spoil with the heat before the slow means of locomotion available would allow of its being conveyed to its destination. One can try to imagine what Avould become of our vaunted hot-house productions were they all ] ducked while green pears picked while hard, strawberries gathered before they were ripe, and a Avcek taken in carrying them to the market. In the South of China, at Hongkong, Canton, and 3Eacao (for in some other places, such as Amoy. fruits are scarcer) 158 TIirXGS CHINESE. there is a succession of f<>l*lii a different idea in China to what it does in the Wehades. the massing of foliage. the parterres, the trim gravel walks, the gra-s lauii-. and the /"/ ///.//// to make up the idea represented by the word garden amongst us. must be prepared to be disappointed. In their place are fantastic ina-es of artificial rockwork, or pools filled >\ith the rich green large disc-like leaves of the lotus, while the formal but lovely red llowers give '/-:eope would necessitate an account of all the petty states into which, at times, China was divided. Suffice it to say. that for many centuries China did not extend beyond the great River, the fang-tsz-kiang. Eventually an offshoot was sent south into the Kastern portion ( ,f the present Kiang-nan. and. like the rootlets from the banian tree, grew and formed finally another trunk to support the tree of empire, which was destined to gradually cover the whole land. For a long period the extreme south of China \\as not embraced in the realm except with spasmodic attempts at government or a> a tributary state, but at last the bonds which united it with the northern portion were strengthened until it formed an integral portion itself of China. The prc-ent dynasty has recovered much uf the territory that A\as lost under the la-t. the Minn', till now it is nearly equal to what it was under Kublai Khan, \\hen Marc.. l'til write- of him 'in roped to nnniber of subjects, extent of territory, and amount of revenue, he surpasses every sovereign that has heretofore been or that no\\ is in the world.' In 1810 it was estimated that the Chinese Kmporor ruled over ;>.:;<>< MX i<) ..[iiarc miles, from lat IS 10' X. to long- GEOGRAPHY. 163 14-4' 50' E. in the X.E. part of the empire, to the island of Hainan in the south, in hit. 18 10' N. and on the extreme west to long. 74 E. It has since lost about half a million square miles, which have gone to add to the dominions of the other colossal empire of the world, Russia, which is China's neighbour in the north; England and France in their colonial empires also touch her territories in the south. In shape the Chinese empire approaches a rectangle, whose circuit is 14.000 miles more than half the circumference of the world: her coast line is roughly stated to be 4,400 miles. This vast empire naturally divides itself into the three following divisions: 1 . China proper. '2. Manchuria. 3. The Colonial possessions. China proper embraces the whole of the eighteen provinces, as well as the large islands of Formosa and Hainan : Manchuria lies to the north of Corea and part of China proper; and the Colonial possessions include Mongolia, Hi, Kokonor, and Tibet. These eighteen provinces cover about 2,000.000 square miles. It would take seven Frances or fifteen Great Britain and Irelands to cover the same extent of ground. It is surrounded by different mountain chains, forming a Avail almost all round it, with their different ranges, such as the Altai, the Stanovai. Tien-shan. and others, also four large chains occur inside the boundaries, assisting in delimiting territory, the highest peaks of some of which are snow-clad the whole year through: some of the mountains in Yun-nan. in the south-west of the empire, are the same. The whole of China is divided into three great basins, drained respectively by the Yellow River, say 2.,")00 miles long, the Yang-tsx-kiang, 3,000 miles long. Avhilc the Canton River and its numerous tributaries drain 130.000 square miles. We cannot mention the other rivers, though they are by no means insignificant nor few. for ' the rivers of China are her glory, and no country can compare witlv her for natural facilities of inland navigation.' ir>4- 77//.\v;N /;. Among the lakes may be mentioned the Tung-ting, about 220 miles in circumference, and the picturesque Po-yang, -with its numerous islands. 90 miles long by 20 in breadth. Besides the three basins drained by the three great rivers, there is the Great Plain of 700 miles in length, varying in width from 150 to 400 miles, having the same area as the plain of Bengal, drained by the (lunges. It supports an enormous population: in 1812. the number was 177.000.000. that is two-thirds of that of Europe, being the most densely settled portion 'of any part of the world of the same si/e." China may likewise be 'divided into the mountainous and hilly country and the Great Plain.' The mountainous is in \\V-tern China, the hilly in the south-east, another Grea T Plain is in the north-cast. From the Yang-ts/ to Hainan, the whole coast is studded with numerous islands and rocky islets. The most important Channels are that of Formosa _ between the Island of Formosa and the mainland, and the .Straits of Lui-chau. between the Island of Hainan and the Promontory of Lui-chau. Tli*- most noteworthy (iult's or Hays arc the Gulf of Liang-tnng in .Manchuria, the Gulf of Cheh-li in the province of the same name, and the Gulf of Tonquin in the extreme south. Among the principal promontories may be named that of Liang-tung. forming the Gulf of the same name, the Shan- tung promontory, and the Lui-chau promontory. already named. The principal seafl :nv the Yellow, be; \vivn Corca and China: tli-- Eastern, between Japan and the I/'u-chi \\ Nlands and Chiiri: and the China Sea t.. the South. In p oliti'- .ijihy. China proper is divided into th" eighteen provinces, tlie-e again are >ubdi\ided into Prefec- ture-, formed of different kinds of l>i,tricts. which may be compar* d to the counties in I'.n_]and. It is not an uncommon thing to group t\\o of the provinces bher such a* the two Kwang K \\ang-tung and Kw;c the two IIu compri-ing Hu-jeh and Hu-nan. Of the principal cities, it is impossible to give an enumeration, so numerous are they. The capital of each of the eighteen provinces would come under this category, some of them boasting of a million of inhabitants, such as Peking. Canton, and others, while every province lias numbers of important centres of commerce and government, such as the District Cities and Marts: the former taking the place of count}' towns and often having tens or hundreds of thousand- <>f inhabitants, the latter forming centres of commercial activity and distributing centres for agricultural produce. &c., to the surrounding country districts. GEOLOGY. The geology of the Chinese empire has not been fully investigated. When it is remembered that vast tracts of country have not yet been trodden by the man of science, it will be seen how much remains to be done towards the acquisition of a full knowledge of the geological conditions of the large portion of the globe ruled over by the Chinese. In the centre of China is the great alluvial plain pro- duced by the large rivers, the Yang-tsz-kiang and the Yellow River, as Kgypt has been created by the Nile. The great quantities of silt brought down by the Yellow River, combined with other causes, such as deforestation. &c.. produce the periodical floods and cause 'China's Sorrow.' as it has been aptly termed, to seek new means of reaching the sea. The Yang-tsz-kiang, which has been styled 'The Girdle of China,' carries its silt more out to sea than the Yellow River does. The land it lias made during its existence must have been enormous, for it lias been estimated that it discharges 770.397 cubic feet of water per second into the sea. and the 'amount of suspended material carried down every year to the sea at (>. 128.858.2,")") cubic feet.' An island 32 miles long by 10 broad has been formed since the fourteenth century in the estuary of the Yang-ts/. This mighty river takes the third place in the list of the largest rivers in the world, the Amazon and the Congo heading it, and the Mississippi comincr fifth. It has been calculated that the Yanr-ts/. the Yellow River, and the Pci Ho. would in sixty-six days firm an island a mile square in the sea. and in IW 000 years the < mils of Pe-chih-li and Lian-tnng. the Yello\v Sea. and the Hasteru Sea as far south as about half way between Xing-po and \Ycn-ehow, and as far east as about mid-way between the coast of China and Japan, would become solid ground. Passing from the future to the past it lias been reckoned! that it has taken 20,000 years for the delta of this gigantic river to be formed. The oscillations of land level do not appear to have had much share in its forma- tion, as they, in this portion of China. .-eem to have been of the slightest, during this period at all events. liven during the historical period the changes appear to have been great, for the Shii King, which contains the most ancient account of Chinex- uv .-Tnphy. mentions three mouths of the Yang-tsx. but only one now remains. \; the lime of Christ a 'great par; of the Shanghai plain was !;t yer reclaimed from the sea : and the \Yo..->uug River or So i-dio\v Creek was als > anciently a large river twenty //' idor 7 miles) broad at what is no\v the city of Shanghai.' The land has extended further out into what wa> then the -ea by fifty miles. With regard to the underlying stratum or strata. Dr. Macgowan says: Whether it rests immediately upon granite, which forms the basis of the nearest mountains : or immediately Upon ne\v red .sandstone, of \\hich some of the adjacent hills are compos-d: .r upon limestone, which is found protruding at the (Jreat Lake iTai-hii). it is imp.sible tor us without more information to determine.' In A.D. ISIi.") an artesian \vell revealed at a depth <>f 2 IS feet gray -and beneath 10 feet of loam, and a feu feet lower pebble-: at, 210 ieet a fragment of lime-tone. At one time the Slian-t uiiir promontory with the -n- tiguuus mountainous portion of the pri\ince was an island, and the province of Kianir-soo had no existence. The -teppe-like plains of Pe-chili-li >how their recent elevation above the sea. On the other hand, there are evidenc, the encroachment^ .f the >ea on the land to a no less remarkable extent. The ea-tern border .if the continent lias experienced a slight depression, and the real eastern border included Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippines, .Formosa, the Liu Chiu Islands. Japan, and the Kuriles. to Kamtschatka. Among the most interesting features of the geology of North China is the loess. It covers a vast extent of country, and is a brownish-coloured earth; it is split up into numerous dcl'ts : is of a terrace formation, and steppe-like contour; but admirably adapted for agricultural purposes: and lends itself to the picturesque most effectively. % lt is a sub-aerial d'-posit, dating from a geological era of great dryness before the existence of the Yellow and other rivers of the northern provinces.' In Southern China, between Canton and Hankow, the succession of rocks is first, granite; second, grits and slates; these are covered by old limestones, on which rest another series of limestone strata, and over some coal-beds lies red sandstone. 'The whole country is divided into several isolated basins, any one of which can bo studied by itself, whilst in most instances, the lines of demarcation follow roughly the political divisions of the empire. Amongst these natural divisions of the country, we may adduce the j n-ovinces f the two Kwang, Kiang-si, Fuh-kien and Che-kiang. Xgan-whui, Kwei-chau, Kiang-su, &c. all forming separate districts, divided by ranges of mountains and distinguished caeli by geological characteristics.' 'The central and eastern portions of Kwang-tung, contain, within a limited area, a connected sequence of formations, ranging upwards from the early paleozoic rocks of Hongkong and the adjacent coast and islands, to the new red sandstone of Canton and the delta of the Pearl River, intermixed with some traces of still later formations, and being accompanied il)v masses of rocks of igneous origin extending probably over > o o * a still more prolonged epoch.' 'From the neighbourhood of Canton to the sea, the rocks are composed of red sandstone resting on granite, until, on reaching the clusters of islands that line the coast, these are found to consist of a coarse granite only, crossed by perpendicular veins of quart/, over 108 77//.NV/S' r///.\/-;.s7-;. the irregular surfaces of the islands, and at the summits of the- highest, arc strewn immense rounded blocks of the same rock. They are generally imbedded in the coarse earth, which is a disintegration of the general substance of the islands, and. as this i> \\ashcd from under them, roll down the steep declivities until they reach a level space, and commonly stud the sandy margin of the islands with a belt of piled rocks, some of them many tons in A\ eight. The scenery of these islands ha- often been compared to that of the Hebride-. and is quite as barren.' Trap is found in Hongkong. The island of Kulangsu (Amoy) is typical of the coast formation of Southern China: granite is its principal feature. and it seems to be a general, but by no means unexcep- tional, rule that along the coast, from South to Xorth. the granite becomes coarser grained, less micaceous and more felspathic.' From a geological point of \ie\\. Slian-tnng is a most interesting pro\i nee. Limestone is found in abundance. The pro\ ince of Shan-si is rugged. The southern part presents a geological formation of great simplicity '' There are coal formations and limestone.' and a plateau of later rock> sandstone-, shales and conglomerates of green, red, ycllou. lilac, and brown colours. Some* granite peak- rise to a height of 8.000 feet. 'On the eastern side ' rocks are made up of ancient formations or deposits of the Silurian There are most c\ten-i\e coal fields in China. ' Most of the- rocks belong to the paleo/oic m- early secondary ,, the later deposit! in the central and seaboard pro\in< :itined to a few >andstoiie> and da\ s.' The givat coalfields nf China stretch from -near Peking along the frontiers of IV-chi-li and Shan-si, and thence through Ilo-nan and Hu-peh into the great coal and iron district of Hu-nan." The le-s important field- arc- those of Kiang-si. Hu-peh. \uan-\\ hni. Kiang-sii. Chch-kiang. Fuh-kienand Ivwang-tung." 'I'hey all belong *to the true - c. -al mi-asiires *' of the carboniferous system.' vrr. nu rr.\( All kinds of minerals and precious stones are found in China. Jioalix i-i-nniiini'infi'if. There an- numerous articles CD tin- geology of certain districts and coal formation.-. \c.. Xc.. in the '(.'hiiio'' Recorder and Missionary Journal/ tin- Journals of tin- N. ('. Branch of K.A.S." and Not' 1 - and Queries on ( 'hina and Japan : ' as well as notices on geology in AVilliams'.- Middle Kingdom.' For North China, the jrreat work l>y Ha run von Uichthoven, 'China.' is the standard work, but it is written in German. ).}/. 1. \ry. Oil n-.\<;-SllUL This superstition in connection with the worship < >f ancestors has the greatest hold on the Chinese mind. To them the whole of Nature is alive with influences for good or evil, revealed to those who have made their indications a study: the course of a stream. the trend of a mountain, the position of a clump of bamboos. the curve of a road, the site of a grave, and a number of other things too numerous to mention, all form the visible manifestations to the initiated eye of Nature's future actions. or the good and evil intentions of the departed dead. The rudiments of this magic art are to be found in ancient China, but it was not till the twelfth century that it was elaborated into the system of science, falsely so-called. that has now such a hold on the Chinese. Adopting what was popular and attractive in the modern school of Confucianism, and being already in consonance with the Taouistic and Buddhistic philosophies, this system, based to some degree on the rudiments of natural science, has subtly laid hold of the whole being and existence of the Chinese people. They believe not only that the comfortable sepulchre of their ancestors will redound to their own comfort, but that if the union of the elements, the nature of the soil, the configuration of the ground, and all the other things which enter into this farrago of nonsense are such as to produce a felicitous combination, that riches, honour, and posterity will be vouchsafed to them. It is these beliefs that cause the << >tiih to be so often kept for months or years unburied. for a site i> being searched for which shall combine all that is productive of good to the children and grandchildren. Even when the eldest .son has discovered such a site, and is confident that happiness and prosperity will be his lot, it may be that another s< m 170 77/Mv/x r///.v/->7-;. lias found d to him. but of evil; consequently the whole sctircli will have to be gone over again till one favourable to all parties can be discovered. There are so many different dements come in. in determining the lucky sites, that the professors of geomaucy are easily able to make a living out of the gullibility of their employers. When it is added that. in building a house, in fixing on a site for an ancestral hall, in commencing a temple, and in numerous other projects and businesses demanding the attention of the Chinese, these doctors of geomancy have to be consulted, it may readily be >cen that in the hands of clover and designing men. much room is open for earning an hornet I'M penny. The composes exposed for .sale in such numbers in the -treets in Chinese cities are not mariner's compasses, which Idom to be met with, but geoinancer's oompasse-. -\\hich contain the elements of their mystic art. by the aid of \vhich they largely determine their judgments on sites and localities. Ir is this fatal art which has so strenuously opp. .>ed the introduction of railways, telegraph lines, and foreign innovations, but it i> no! ;;n insuperable obstruction, for whenever the Chinese ( mvernment. has made up its mind to the introduction of any of the invention-- of Western rience. Ftttlff-shllt is not allowed to be an obstacle, for while pandering to its absurd ideas, a- far as is practicable \\itln.nt hindering the feasibility of their scheme, yet the populace, if obstructixe. iv soon made to i'^d that the Mill of the rulers has to be obeyed. IS.mlix r, rininiiriiilfil. Fiiiix-slmi : m- the l.'iidhneiitsnf X:itnr;il Science iii rjiina' l,\ Uev. K. .!. Kitel. M.A.. I'll. \). The ch:i].t'T ,,n 'Ancestral SVonbip' in lle\. !',.(' l|em-\'> -The ( 'r'>~> .-md the l>r:i^i>n.' :nnl ilitl'i-ri-nt l-:ii;es under tlie beading of geomancr and .iti-oniiuii -er in l!ev. II. < '. J)n 1',..-. - The |)r:iirM. linage. :i ml 1 lei mm.' Willi;iins'< Midi lie Kin.u'dinii.' .\ri-lnle:n-iin n the sovereigns of China, who feel that on the one hand they arc dependent upon high heaven for the retention of their throne, and who humbly and publicly confess their shortcomings in times of floods and drought. On the other hand, though there is no House of Commons to exercise a check on the unrestrained power of the Sovereign, there is the general public opinion of the people, who. being educated in the principles that underlie all true Government, are ready to apply thorn to their rulers Avhen they forget, or act grossly in opposition to, them. To see the system of patriarchal Government carried out in its entirety, one must come to China. The Emperor and his officers stand in lo<-<> jHiwitftx to the common people. The principles which have formed the frame-work of Government for millenniums among these ancient, stable, and peace-loving people, may be found in a study of the rule of the ancient kings. Yuen and Shun, and their successors, and in the precepts inculcated by Confucius and ^Icncius. With all its defects, their system appears to be better adapted for the punishment of the criminal clashes and the prevention of fraudulent bankruptcies than our ^y^tems, which are the outgrowth of centuries of civilisation not yet passed through by the Chinese, who consequently are not yet educated up to our standpoint. The unit in China is not the individual but the family, therefore it is impossible for a fraudulent bankrupt to settle his goods on his wife or family, as the family must make good his losses: in the same way a family is responsible for the good behaviour of its members: a neighbourhood for its inhabitants: and an official for those governed by him. Thus results a system of ' mutual responsibility among all classes.' This acts as a 7-;. the Chinese tliat such a system could not have been carried nut. with such modifications as to free it from its defects. instead of introducing a new system foreign entirely to their feelings and understanding. The right of succession t< the throne in China is hereditary in the male line, but it is always in the power of the Sovereign to nominate his successor from among his nwn children.' This nomination, most wisely, is not made public during the lifetime of the reigning Sovereign, thus preventing intrigue and obviating all necessity for those bloody scene- which disgrace the accession of so many Eastern potentates to their thrones. The Emperor lias two councils to advise him and t<> consult with. One is the Cabinet, or Imperial Chancery (the Nui Koh). A more influential body is the Council of State, or ( icncral Council, approaching more to the Ministries of Western nations, though necessarily quite unlike them. It meets in the Emperor's palace daily. Under these two councils an- the Six Boards -Luk Po their names give a pretty good idea of their functions : I. The Board of Civil Office. ' 1. The Board of War. - .. .. .. Revenue. ."). .. .. .. Punishment . '} .. Rite>. (5 Works. And a naval board has been added in recent years. There are other departments of government, one of \\hieh. the Censorate, deserves more than paini^ notice. On account of it- peculiar duties it has attracted much attention from \Ve-teiu\\riters. In conjunction with some of the other Boards it forms a Court of Appeal: and \\ith other departments of -<. \erninent it deliberates on important, affair- of State: it exercises an oversight over all criminal Cases; and superintend- the affairs of the metropolis. These duties call for but little remark, but it is the extraordinary powers that are \ested in its members of censuring not only the manner in vthich other officials ha\e performed or neglected their duties but even the conduct of the KXr. 173 Emperor himself, powers that are often availed of in the interests of justice, with a boldness and courage most unusual under a despotic rule, that at times meet with their reward and at other times call forth overwhelming censure and punish- ment from the Sovereign himself. When rightly used by a. high-minded and conscientious official (for such are to bo found in China) in the consciousness of right, and with the best interests of the country at heart, these extraordinary powers must, be productive of good, though many must be loath to use these privileges of outspoken speech for fear of the consequences which may recoil on their own. heads, often indeed so serious, as to make the best intentioned hesitate before committing himself. For the government of the provinces there is a perfect ramification of officials from superior to inferior, from the ten or twelve Viceroys of one or two provinces each, down to the petty officials. One very curious feature in Chinese official life is the manner in which judicial, military, naval, and fiscal duties arc performed by one and the same official at different stage* < f his official life. He is transferred from one post to the other irrespective of former experience in the particular duties of his appointment. With the introduction of Western naval vessels and military armaments this eclectic system of rilling offices is bound in the long run to give way. Were bribery and corruption absent from official ranks, this .complete system of officialdom, with all its business-like methods of accomplishing work, M'ould produce much more beneficent results; but a premium is put on 'squeezing,' as no official is paid a sufficient salary to meet his nece>.>ary expenses. Notwithstanding this, there are noble exceptions to the general rule of corruption, and these honest mandarins meet with the honour of the people who justly appreciate such conduct. They have no other rewards but this, and that of their own self-approving conscience, for such noble conduct brings no pecuniary benefits in its train, indeed it often lands the noble man in the lowest depths of poverty. 171 77//.W/N r///.\7>7-;. //. I A'A'. IN. \VhotlieIIakkas are is a question of some- interest. Wo remember, when a boy. travelling in the interior of China, coming across a village -where the people spoke quite a different speech to that of the other inhabitants: and it is like this that the Hakkas are situated in the midst of a different population quite distinct from them in language, differing in customs, to a slight extent in dress, and even in M line of the idols w< >rshipped. Those found in the South of China were not originally of that region, but their family genealogies show that they have come from the North. M-ttlins; in some cases in different places till they have finally established themselves in their present surroundings. In rertain districts they have monopolised the whole country- side. a< in the prefecture of Ka-ying-chow. in the Canton produce. ; which is entirely peopled by Hakka.' while in other places they form a half, a third, or more, of the population, being interspersed among the Pun-tef. as the older Chinese inhabitants are termed. In some places, partly peopled l>v them, they have settled on the higher land, leaving the Pun- ti'-i to the low lying lands, and from this circumstance the\ have been called Chinese Highlanders by some, but the name is n misnomer, as it is only capable of local application, for in other places they are spread over the plain- as \\ell as the hillv ground. They are not confined to the Canton province, where they are considered to form a third of the inhabitants. but are found in different parts of China in K\\ amr-si. in 1'uh-kien. in Che-kiang. and in 1'onuosa : it ha- also been said that "the chief part of the population of the Kiaug i province' were Hakkas. and that the language spoken in the capital. Xam-chang-fu. i- llakka. Their language is more akin t .Mandarin, being a half- wav house bet \\ecn Cantonese and .Mandarin: 'the Hakka dialect is the remnant of a phase of transition through which the common Chine-e language paed in developing it-elf from Cantonese to Mandarin.' It i- perhaps .spoken 1>\ about four million- of people in the Canton province alone: but for more about their speech \\e must refer the reader t.. our article on 1 >ialcets in this book. The German missionaries and English Presbyterians have some most successful missions among this interesting people. The sexes are not so strictly separated in domestic life as is the case with some of the other Chinese ; nor do the- tvomen bind their feet. Perhaps this last might be taken as an indication that they left their original home before- foot-binding came into vogue, and. not having practised it at first, never took to it. Taken as a whole they are a poor people, having to work hard for their living, though there are rich men among them, as well as literary graduates even. In dress the women differ somewhat from the Cantonese, their jackets being longer and reaching down nearly to their knees; their shoes have scpiarer toes : they also wear a peculiar hat consisting of a broad brim with a curtain of cloth round it : the bunch of hair, done up on the top of the head, goes through the open crown. The women's ornaments are also different, such as their bangles, which are made of thick silver, and of different patterns to those in use among the Puntei population. The earrings are also of curious construction: one kind, of silver, hooking through the car and thickening up to the other end. while every short distance they are surrounded by rings of silver; another kind of earring is formed of tassels of silk. The Hakka children often have a ring of .silver round their neck : Cantonese children do not wear the same, but one or two of the attendants of the Chinese idols have such a ring. The Hakkas are a simple people, but very contentious, and they show a litigious disposition in the few cases which occur in the English Courts in Hongkong : for there are ;i great number of them in this Colony : the barbers, stone- cutters, and foreign ladies' tailors being mostly Hakkas. The Avord Hakka means ''strangers,' and refers to their origin. In the Straits they are known as Khek. so called from the Swatow and Amoy pronunciation of the word Hak. We give a short summary of the history of this curious people as far as is at present known about them : 17G Y7//.W/N Clll.\ />'/;. The North of China is * the original home of the Hakkas ' where, about the third century before Christ, they Avere located in Shan-tung principally, as well as to a slight extent in Shan-si, and Xgan-hwui. They were subjected to a bloody persecution in the time of the Ts'in dynasty (B.C. 249-209), and this started them off on their travels. Settling in Ho-nan, Ngan-hwui. and Kiang-si, sonic changed their names, but a more prosperous time followed. Another persecution under another Ts'in dynasty f A.D. 419) finally scattered them entirely from that part of China. This resulted in a general stampede ' which . carried some of them even into the mountainous regions in the south-east of Kiang-si and to the very borders of the Fuh-kien province." At the beginning of the T'ang dynasty (A.D. CIS) they were compelled to move again, the majority took 'refuge in the mountains of Fuh-kicn, whilst a few hovered on the high mountain chains which -eparate the Kiang-si and Kwang-tung f Canton) provinces.' t'nder the Sung dynasties ( A J). 960-1278) many became soldiers, and thousands of them perished with the last Chimv-r prince of the Southern Sung in A.D. 1279, west of Macao, when the Mongols were coming into power. I nder tlie-e la-t the\ made their first appearance Avithin the borders of the Canton province,' but not settling down permanently here, or in large' numbers, until the beginning of the Ming dynasty (A.D. l.'WSj when the Fuh-kien Hakkas. after centuries of residence there, were, compelled by dist urbances to seek a new home. They came in such overwhelming numbers that they drove everything before them' in thel\a-\ing- chau prefecture. Avhich has remained their head quarters since. About the same time others came from Kiang-si and settled f<> the inirth-i\evt ,,f the Fuh-kienese Hakkas. From the >e places they have spread more or les-; ..\er ditl'erent paris of the ince. The change oi'ty Avhich resulted in the present lior.se ibli>hed on the throne ca;;-ed i hem to spread to the and soiitli-v,e-t of Canton. The nudi'ii-, of the great. T'ai-P;:i;j- rebellion \\ a^ forme;! of Hakka- from the Canton HISTORY. 177 province, and it was among them that it started. During the present dynasty many have become soldiers and have been employed by government, gaining admission to the competitive examinations for both literary and military degrees. A dreadful internecine strife, in which 150.000, at least, perished, took place between the Hakkas and Pun-teis in the south- western districts of the Canton province, from A.D. 1861- to 1 866, and arms and even armed steamers, were procured from Hongkong by both parties. Finally, the Chinese Government took vigorous measures, the half-hearted schemes hitherto O * pursued having proved ineffectual, and. with the aid of money to assist immigration of the Hakkas to waste lands, succeeded in getting some of them to move to the province of Kwang-si, the Island of Hai-nan, and other parts of the country. linnltK i-craniinrudi-d. A Series of Articles appeared in the Hoiirkon;j 'Daily Press' for 18(5(5. dealing with the customs of the Hakkas from a native pen for the most part : there is also a. more interesting set in -Notes and Queries on China and Japan.' Vol. 1., written by llev. E. J. Kitel. M.A., 1'h. IX. anil another article on their history by the same author in 'The China Review." Vol. II.. p. 1(50. also see an article by Rev. Ch. Piton. in same vol.. p. L'L'2. IIIXT011Y. Chinese history deserves more attention than it has received from Western scholars ; it has both been unduly lauded and depreciated. Like all histories, it may be divided into the mythological, ancient, and modern. The line of demarcation between the first and second is blurred and indistinct. The mythological period covers from 15,000 to 500.000 years, and commences with 'the opening of heaven and earth/ as the Chinese say. Different accounts have been given of the creation, one of the most popular is that of P\van-ku, who is represented with hammer and chisel bringing the rude masses of chaotic matter into shape and form. His labours lasted for 18,000 years, and day by day he increased in stature six feet, while the heavens rose, and the earth expanded and thickened. His task completed, and the earth roughly fitted for its future inhabitants, Pwan-ku by his death benefited the world as much as by his life, for 'his head became mountains, his breath wind and clouds, and his voice thunder; his limbs were changed into the four poles, his veins into rivers, his sinews into the undulations of the M 178 77//AY/N r///.y />/;. earth's surface, and his flesh into fields: his beard, like- Berenice's hair, Mas turned into stars, his skin and hair into herbs and trees, and his teeth, bones, and marrow, into metals, rocks, and precious stones; his dropping sweat increased to rain, and lastly n.cifni' ri'/ii-nlii* JHH*) the insects which stuck to his body were transformed into people! ' The Chinese believe that there were giants in the earth in those days, for Pwan-ku was followed by three sovereigns named the Celestial, the Terrestrial, and the Human, who were of gigantic form. Another 18.000 years Avas occupied by their reigns, during which numerous inventions and improvements' were effected for the good of mankind, such as good govern- ment, the union of the sexes, and, what must have been of paramount importance 'men learned to eat and drink ' and 'sleep was invented.' '.I 1 wo more Sovereigns succeeded these, Vu-cliau and Sui-jin: the latter brought fire down from heaven, and mankind had the blessing of cooked dishes. The ancient or legendary history commences with Fuh-hi ; In- and his four successors are called 'The Five Sovereigns.' Now begins the '"highest antiquity* of the Chinese 1 . B.C 28.">2 or B.C. 3322. according to different authorities, which is about the same time as the commencement of the Assyrian Monarchy. Amongst other blessings conferred at this period was marriage; the bounds of the kingdom were extended to the eastern sea : and Fuh-hi's capital A\as in the present province of Ho-nan. His successor was Shin-nung. AV!IO .shortly changed his capital to Shan-tung. Fuh-hi and his seven successors reigned 717 \ears. or an average oi'JKi years each. This period has. of course, much of the mythical about it. Standing out very prominently is the reign of 11 \\ang-t i. lie triumphed over his several rivals, and divided hi- territory according to the decimal system, as follows: 10 towns 1 district. 10 departments I province. 10 districts I department. 10 provinces the Empire. Weights and measures were also fixed on the same principal. He is credited with having regulated the calendar, and having introduced in the sixty-first year of his rcigir IIIXTOHY. 170 the cycle of sixty years, which in its sexagenary periods bridges over the thousands of years from that time B.C. 2G37 till the present, namely: seventy-five revolutions of sixty years and more. He made roads; and built vessels for inland waters, as well as for the open sea. He is looked up to as the founder of the great empire; and his dominions are said to have extended from Sha-chow on the west, to the sea. and from the modern Pe-chih-li on the north, to the Yang-ts/- kiang on the south. He was succeeded by his sou. and the latter by his nepheu;. who is said to have widened the borders of his empire to Tonquin in the south, and to Man- churia in the north. Two hundred and forty years, three reigns, intervened between the periods of Hwang-ti and a galaxy of China's greatest worthies, the Emperor Yao, his successor Shun r and Yu, his successor. Confucius and Mencius have held up to all future time the perfect character and virtues of Yao and Shun : they are two of China's greatest sages. During this period occurred the great deluge in China, which the best authorities concur in considering to be an overflow of the Yellow River, possibly when changing its channel. Years were spent in coping with this great disaster, which must have wrought terrible havoc and destruction, and unremitting toil and energy were expended in remedying it. It is about this time that the first Chinese settlers arrived in their future home, namely, B.C. 2200 driving out the earlier settlers into more remote parts of the country where some of them arc now still to be found as aboriginal tribes (see article on Aboriginal Tribes). The history preceding the time of Yao. it has been %i L O suggested, must then be considered either as that of the previous inhabitants of the land incorporated into Chinese history, or their own previous history brought over with them to their new home : for though much, if not a great portion, of what is narrated of the present period under review is mythical, unsubstantial, and unreal, we cannot help considering it the height of folly to agree with the sceptical school of Chinese .sinalogucs, who reject everything because the greatest 180 THINGS CHINESE. proportion is incredible. It seems wiser, in our eyes, to believe that amidst all the chaff, some grains of wheat are to be found. The great Yu was the founder of the Hia dynasty ; and with this period the throne becomes hereditary having hitherto been more or less elective seventeen rulers belonged to the same family : one Avas dethroned by the people, and another by a minister, but the heir apparent was preserved alive in a massacre that ensued in an attempt to recover the throne, and. after many vicissitudes, ascended the throne of his ancestors. His son was worthy of such a sire, but the succeeding nine monarchs were of so little account that but little record is left of their doings. In B.C. 1818, Kieh-kwei and his consort spent all they extorted in unbridled voluptuousness. A pond of wine was formed, able to float a boat, at which .'$.000 men could drink at once: when drunk they wore allowed to attack the pyramids of delicate viands surrounding the lake: and the vilest orgies were held in the palace. Public opinion was outraged, and one of the ministers, a descendant of Hwang-ti assumed the throne, and founded the new dynasty of Shang in B.C. 176(5. which lasted for (>14 years. The Shu King contains fragments of the annals of this time, which show the high standard aimed at by China's rulers. Twenty-eight sovereigns ascended the throne, good and bad. the fortunes of the Stat? fluctuating in region-" to the hand that held the helm, the wickedness culminating in ihe person of Chau-sin. the Ia4 of the line. Two in-tauces of his wanton cruelty may be noted: Several women who were gathering shell-fish, barelegged, on a river's bank, one Avinter's morning, had their legs cut off, that the inhuman monarch might sec the marrow of those AV)IO were so insusceptible to cold: and lie like\visr had the heart, of a bold minister, who reproved him, brought, thai he might see the difference between it and thai of ;i couardly minister. Such conduct in China naturally produced its ine\ it.-ible result, the passing a\vay of the d\ nasty ; and the founders of the Chau dynasty were the agents in establishing a better order of things. Some sinalogues Avould blot out all that precedes this dynasty and make this the starting point of HISTORY. 181 Chinese history. We have already expressed our opinion on the subject. The founders of the Chau dynasty, Wan Wang. Wu Wang, and Chau Kung, 'are among the most distinguished men of antiquity for their erudition, integrity, patriotism, and inventions.' Wan Wong united the principal men against the reign of misrule, but, dying, left to his son the completion of the work lie had begun, while the uncle of Wu Wong, Duke Chau, advised the actual sovereign. These men were praised and held in the highest esteem by Confucius. Not- withstanding all his ability and reverence for the Supreme lluler, Wu Wong committed a grand political blunder by dividing the Empire into petty states ; and, harrassed by attacks of the Tartars, a. later sovereign. Ping Wong, committed an equally grave error of judgment in abandoning his eastern capital to one of his nobles, to form a buttress against the incursions of these nomads, while he retired to the western capital, thus dividing it into the Eastern and Western Chau. These fatal mistakes paved the way for the weakening of the central authority, and the result, of the first especially, was a multiplicity of feudal states, little kingdoms in themselves, engaged in internecine strife, the weaker succumbing to the stronger, and all belittleing the authority of the ruling sovereign. The number of these States varied at different times, 125, 41. and 52 arc numbers that are given. Begun so auspiciously, this dynasty, like its predecessors, reached a period of decadence, though it has the honour of having lasted for 873 years, with 35 rulers, the longest time known in history. This period is, however, glorious for having given birth to t\vo of the most remarkable men the world has ever seen. Lao-tsz and Confucius. Dissimilar as two men could possibly be the one to his contemporaries a wild visionary, the other a man who occupied himself with ceremonies and moral precepts they were both destined to exercise an important influence on the country. Nor must we forget that Mencius lived during this time. Some foreign writers are inclined to reject as incredible the greater part of this period, but when archteologic.il 182 researches arc carried on in a systematic manner in China U-, of blotting out all records of a former China, and wishing to p,.e. >uch a crime \\a* n:-\er to be forgotten, nor was it to be foririven. Mi a complete survey of all the facts of the case, the Kmpcror, though the a--t was cruel, was not so much to blame as the Chinese make out. for the intetrritv of the HISTORY. 183 empire was jeopardised by the literati. His son reigned but seven years, and was unable to cope with the feudal chieftains. With this period closes the ancient history of China. \ tidier of fortune, a commander of the forces of one of the chiefs, captured the capital, and started the Han dynasty and the modern history of China. In the North of China. Han-jin, or men of Han. Han-txu. or Sons of Han. arc still the names by which a Chinese is known, thus perpetuating this glorious epoch, whether looked at from a literary, historical, military, commercial, or artistic point of view. Many public works were under- taken, prominent among which were bridges. The capital being difficult of approach, had roads cut through mountains, valleys filled up, and suspension bridges built to it. It wa<. the 'formative period of Chinese polity and institution-, official and formal.' The present competitive examinations for which China lias b;vn s... famous were started (see article on Examinations)! A penal Code was drawn up. which has formed the model for subsequent Codes in China. This dynasty is famous for the introduction of Buddhism; it -was 'one of the popular which ever ruled the Chinese:' 'year< of peace. luring which the nation prospered, alternated with incursions by the restless Tartars. The modern Fuh-kien. Yun-nan, and Canton. eve., and the greater part of Sz-chuen became Chinese provinces, other territory was incorporated with that of the empire, and tribute bearers came from remote countries. Chinese armies marched acr \-: i. and China occupied a foremost position among the nations ..t the world. The short reign of a usurper, who tried to found a dynasty of his own. under the name of Sin. divides the Han dynasty into the Western and Eastern Han. Commercial relations are supposed to have been established with the Roman Empire at this period. The two Han lasted MiT years with a total of 28 monarchs. Contemporaneous with the latter part of the Han, and extending to a later period, vix.. from A.D. 1DO to 317. is om- 184 TH/XGS CHINESE. of the most interesting periods of Chinese history, and it lias been immortalised and a halo of romance thrown over it by the famous historical novel called The History of the 'ITirec States/ Were any instance needed of the utility of works of fiction, it might be found in this entertaining work, which has spread a knowledge of what took place in those troublous times in a May in which no cut and dried history, though it might have proved more veracious, could possibly have done. The Tsin and Eastern Tsin dynasties ruled for loo years under lo monarchs a time big with disasters and Mars. A General then succeeded to the throne, and started the dynasty of the northern Sung, but. as at former times, the country was divided among separate 1 States, and it did not always happen that the house which the historians have considered as the legitimate one was the most powerful. This observation also holds good with regard to some of the succeeding periods as well. This dynasty ended in a series of crimes, and the Tsi followed it. Both of them were uninteresting and inglorious, and this house Ma- again extinguished in murders. This brings us to the year A.D. 502. Three small dynasties succeeded, thus making live between the Han and T"'ang. We come, in the T'ang dynasty to another t' tho-e mtoriansj. HISTORY. 185 It was during this dynasty that after a century of struggle and hard-bought victory Corea became a possession of China ; and even Persia solicited aid from the Middle Kingdom. We find at this time what Avould be considered an ano- molous position for China to be placed in, namely, under the rule of a woman; this, however, was not so very uncommon, especially in ancient times, but the most notable instance of it was the Empress Wu, who ruled with a masculine hand, and whose reign, notwithstanding her cruelties, was one of benefit to the people for more than forty years. The siege of Tai-yuen claims notice from the use of cannon for its defence, which threw twelve-pound stone shot to the distance of three hundred paces. Civil wars and troubles with Tibet and other neighbouring nations wars which lasted for two centuries dimmed the lustre of the earlier reigns, and the vigorous hands which held the sceptre were succeeded by weaker ones unable to grasp the kingly power with regal grip, and pass it on intact to their successors. The eunuchs arrogated to themselves the character of king-makers, and took far too much on themselves, as has often becni the case in the course of Chinese history. The dosing chapters of this period arc melancholy a desolate country, ruined towns, and the capital in ashes. It had lasted for 259 years, and 20 emperors sat on the throne. The people of the South of China immortalised this dynasty, and marked the time of their civilisation and incorporation into the Chinese rule, by calling themselves T'ong-yan, or men of T'ong. In contrast to the dark ages of Europe, China pre- sented the brighest spectacle to the nations of the world. Mohammedanism was introducad; the Greek Emperor The<>- dosius sent an envoy in A.D. 613 with presents of precious stones; as also did the Persians. We next come to a series of petty dynasties The Five Dynasties.' as the Chinese call them: the centre of the empire on the Yellow River formed their arena, while the rest of the country was held by different Generals. The whole time occupied by them is less than sixty years ; the most noteworthy =186 T/IL\r;s r///.\7-;.s7;. -thing was the invention of printing. The Sung is another of tho groat dynasties of Chinese history. It is divided into two. the Sung and the Southern Sung. There was a greater centralisation of power in the Supremo Government, the -almost autocratic power of the governors of the provinces being curtailed, and more peaceful times succeeded, though fierce wars were still waged with the Tartars. The empire wa^ however, reunited, and literature and the arts of peace \\ere cultivated. Chinese history contains the record of many great name's as shedding lustre on this period. The Sung dynasty, however, lacked the military prowess to hold its own against the warlike ancestors of the modern Manchu-Tartars, the Kins. who. iirst acted as treacherous allies, then showed their true colours, and eventually founded a kingdom which was more powerful than that of the Sung: and the two held concurrent sway in China. The rise of the .Mongol power prevented what might perhaps have happened five centuries sooner, namely, tin* establishment of a Manchu dynasty over the 1 South as well as the North of China. Cons; an) wars took place between the Chinese and the Kins, the latter compelling the conquered people to shave their heads, as at the present day. until their waning power sank before the rising glory of ihe Mongols, who overthrew them, though they offered a stubborn roi-tanre. The Sung ruler allied himself with the Mongols out of hatred to the Kins, but no sooner Mere the latter conquered, than it became evident that the Chinese and Mongols could not rule together in China. After a war carried on for many \ears |7(M. during \\hich part- of China were subdued, the Mongols, under different leaders, but finally under Kublai Khan, gradually conquered China. Among many memorable battles the siege if Sian-\ang. which was defended for four years, is worthy ('note. After the conquest . ,f I lankou and its neighbouring cities, the conquerors proceeded in their victorious conr-e. subdued the country and gained possession of the Vang- -/-kiang. while tin- Court retreated to t In- South of China. .Mementoes of the last Kmperor's (light, are to he found in British territory on the mainland opposite Hongkong. HISTORY. 187 while the last scenes of his life were enacted in one of the estuaries of the Canton river to the West of Macao, where, after a disastrous naval encounter, one of his courtiers sprang into the sea with him in his arms. Thus ended, after a. possession of the legitimate throne for a space of 309 years, the Sung dynasty in its two divisions of Northern and Southern. This House was not equal to that of T ; ang. One very interesting feature was the trial of socialistic principles after long discussion and opposition. They, however, were not of such a nature as to be adapted for a successful issue, and proved a failure. The Mongol sway was a foreign one to the Chinese, and the latter being the superiors of the former in civilisation. though not in military prowess, the Mono-, ,1s very naturally allowed the Chinese laws to remain in force, and retained all the advantages of the superior state of the Chinese. To those who arc anxious to learn fuller particulars of the 'vigorous and magnificent' sovereign Kublai Khan, the gossipy pages of the mcdiieval Venetian traveller will afford many details of interest, both of the vast domains and the splendour of the Court of the great Khan at Peking: this city was first made the capital, which, with the Court, was at that time the most splendid in the world. Not content with all his victories on the mainland, this born conqueror resolved to win Japan, but his efforts only met with disaster and defeat: his armies, though encountering a similar fate in Annam, A\ ere successful in Bimnah. He evinced a toleration of all creeds. The rule of the invader, (the Mongol dynasty was named the Yuen) was not popular witli the Chinese, but his grandson Timur, who succeeded him. endeavoured, with some success, to make it more popular. A number of princes of the same house succeeded to the throne, whose reigns were of short duration; Mongols were put into office in disregard of the Chinese rule of that event following upon literary distinction. This innovation caused disgust to the natives; abortive insurrections fol- lowed one another, gaining strength and force with each renewed effort, until at length the heaven-sent man 188 TJ/rxvx r///.\7->7-;. arose, and the Mongols were finally expelled in A.D. 13GK after a sway of 89 years over China. The dynasty had become effete and powerless through luxury, misrule, and weakness, and had to give way to one more vigorous and powerful a native dynasty that changed its capital to Nan-king. The founder of the Ming dynasty, having been left an orphan at seventeen, and Avithout any means of support, became a Buddhist priest. He afterwards joined one of the rebel forces as a soldier, and was soon in a forward position in the strife between the Chinese and Mongols. In A.I). 13o6 he made himself master uf Nan-king, and continuing to extend his authority for some ten years, he finally, in A.D. 13G(J, commenced 'the Mar for the expulsion of the- foreign rulers.* \ ery little opposition was experienced, and in a short time Peking was captured, and the last of the Mongol emperors fled, though wars, necessary for the con- solidation of the power of the empire, lasted for some years long.-!-, the Mongols still giving trouble by their continued raids. Hung-wu, as the first -Ming ruler A\as called. Mas a man of ability and prudence, wisdom and moderation: a man of peace, he promoted literature, which the Mongol rulers. with the exception of Kublai Khan, had foolishly Blighted. Among many other deeds conducive to this end. he caused libraries to be placed in all the large cities : not thi- act alone. but many others, not least of which was the distribution of -alt, showed he had the welfare of his people at heart. Hung-wu was succeeded by his grandson. \\ h. after a short reign, wa* displaced by one of his uncles, who readied the throne after a protracted and frightful civil war. His -"ii was Kinperor fur a feu month- only \\ hen the Ming d\ na>t.\ ua- morefinnlj established on thethronc: and envoys bearing presents came from Bengal and Malacca. The son of the la-t Kinpcro:- sin-reeded, and during his reign Tonquin. which had Keen a Chinese province fur ten \e,ir-. \v;i- iriven up, owing to the difficult) uf its administration. The next sovereign's reign bn: one gaNe another forcible illustration of the ill effect^ of allouing a eunuch \<> hold the reins of power, HISTORY. 189 for, owing to the incapacity of one of this class, the Emperor was well nigh brought to the verge of ruin, he even being taken captive by the Tartars. Periods of incessant Avarfare succeeded wars with the Tartars, insurrections, seditions, movements, and disturbances. One of the Emperors was foolish enough to start a Council of Eunuchs a species of Chinese star-chamber but the public outcry against it was so loud that it was suspended after five years. Another bad measure by the same Emperor was grants of lands to several members of his family, thus tending to build up Feudal States. This was one of the chief causes that operated towards effecting the overthrow and destruction of the Mings." The Court Avas extravagant, and O O ' orders were given to Avork the gold mines in Central China, but the result Avas next to nothing. Undertakings that were of use must be noted, amongst Avhich was the repair of the Great Wall. The difficulties that surrounded the Ming dynasty were increasing: troubles in Cochin-China, further Avars Avith the Tartars, and raids by the Japanese, all kept them occupied, and the misfortunes culminated in the long reign of "\Van-lieh. Avhen the troubles began with the Manchus. though several Emperors succeeded to the throne before the final overthrow of the native dynasty. The Portuguese arrived in China in the reign of Kiah-tsing. and Jesuit missionaries in that of Wan-Heli. A small Tartar tribe, presided over by a chief of ability, gathered strength and amalgamated its pOAver Avith other branches, until, after a long and desultory Avarfare. the opportunity arose in the success of a rebel chieftain Avho ascended the Chinese throne, and the last of the Ming Emperors committed suicide. Xg San-kwai. a renoAvned General, called in the aid of the Manchus to expel the usurper. and they, in their turn, after a long contest of forty years, succeeded in conquering the Avhole empire, notwithstanding that several Ming princes Avcrc proclaimed Emperors and fought against the conquerors. Numerous uprisings also took place, but the Manchus Averc victorious over all. A great part of the reign of the first Emperor (A.D. 164-1) of the Manchu "V Ts ; ing dynasty was occupied by these wars; and it is interesting as being the time when se\eral embassies from t IK- West arrived in China. He was succeeded by tho renowned Kang-hi. These two reigns were also famous for the exploits of the semi-piratical and naval hero Koshinga, who expelled the Dutch from Formosa. The Jesuit missionaries held high positions on account of their mathematical and astronomical knowledge. A bold rebellion headed by the redoubtable \g San-kwai, complicated amongst other things by a threat of the Mongols to attack China, was quelled by the Mam-hus. and as a result Manchu garrisons were placed in the cities, where they are maintained at the present day. Formosa was conquered, and a protracted struggle took place with the Eleuths under (jaldan. but the Chinese army met with success. This was followed by much trouble with the Cen- tral Asian question; and Chinese authority was rendered paramount in Tibet. Kang-hi reigned for sixty-one years, during which period the Man elm rule over China and the neighbouring States was firmly established. 'The public ;icts and magnificent exploits of his reign * * * show him wise, courageous, magnanimous and sagacious.' 'In the smallest affairs he seems to have been truly great.' His son Yung-ching followed him. but his reign was short compared to that of his father. He was ;i man who cared not for military glory and aggrandisement; his reign is noted for the restrictions placed on the growing power and influence of the Jesuit iniionaries. and after Kieii-lnn-- succeeded to the throne they suffered persecution. The first few }ears of this latter monarch's reign were tranquil, but wore succeeded by a I'-n-- \\-.\r in Central Asia, where his authority was set up amongst the turbulent tribes, and for nearly a century and a half the wisdom of Kien-lnng's able and far-seoing poli<-\ has been \i>iblein peaceful frontier-. \Yars were al-<> carried on au r ain-t the Burmese and tho Miao-tsx with success, and also against the braved of the Indian tribes, the Goorkhas in Xepaul. -who had attacked Tibet. An insurrection in Formo-a was put down as well as some others. This long reign of /,'}\ 191! the close relations that were entered into between China and the nations of Europe. We cannot leave our short summary of some of the principal events of this period without adding our tribute to the universal voice of praise of the energy and thoroughness of this Emperor, and the assiduity with which he devoted himself to the subjects requiring his attention. The Manchu power was brought to the xenitli of its glory, and had as able rulers always sat on the throne as Kang-hi and Kien-lung, much of the misery of later days might have been prevented. The succeeding reign, that of Rift-king was not one of peace and quiet : there were secret combinations against, the Government, and insurrections and piracies abounded ; a. formidable force of pirates infested the coast of Kwang- tung for some years : the Portuguese assisted the Chinese in attacking them, but the two piratical leaders quarrelled, and finally submitted themselves to the Imperial Government. Kia-king ? s son Tau-kwang was a more energetic and just ruler than his father. Many local insurrections and disasters took place, among which. Avas the first Avar Avith England, which. hoAvcver. resulted in one good thing, the- opening of China to foreign trade. The frightful T ; ai Ping rebellion broke out at the close of this Sovereign's reimi. O o and demanded the prowess of a Kang-hi or Kien-lung to subdue it. but Hien-fung. who succeeded Tau-kwang. Avas not cast in the same mould as his grandfather or great great grandfather. A second Avar Avith England took place, and resulted iii the country being still further opened to Western nations. In the next reign, that of T'ung-chi, the great T'ai- ping rebellion Avas subdued. Chinese Gordon having a very great share in the matter; a Mohammedan rising A\as also quelled; and diplomatic intercourse A\as started Avith the Treaty PoAvers. His cousin succeeded T'img-chi, under the style of KAvang-sii. As far as can be judged by the imperfect light of the historic past, China is better governed now under the present dynasty than she has ever been. 192 THINGS r///.Y />/;. We liavc thus traced in the shortest manner possible the history of the Chinese nation from a mythological period to a mythical and semi-mythical one, until, under the House of Chau the facts of Chinese history are more reliable. We have seen the ebb and flow of dynastic changes : how. with the new vigour of a fresh dynasty, the power of China was extended for a few centuries, to be .succeeded, when effete rulers followed, by an ebb of dominion and influence. until, with each successive change, a higher tide of power reclaimed what weak hands had lost, and the boundaries of the empire were again expanded with c;i"h rise of fortune to a greater extent; how the Feudal States of China, with a nominal paramount lord, were suc- ceeded by ' the foundations of a coherent empire ' under the first Emperor of Tsin ; next, we have seen ' the stately house of Han " ; making vast strides towards a more settled state of prosperity and civilisation;' succeeded by the troublous times of the Three States and other dynasties from which China rose in the brilliant epoch of the T'ang : another ebb and transition period of the Five Dynasties, when the recurring tide of prosperity came in with the SUHL; to be followed by an efflux, and another stormy wave of conquest under the Mongols, which quickly retired to return, with renewed force, with the great Ming dynasty \\ its crest again, to retire, and with fresh energy, to airain return with the Conquering Manchu. There have since been signs of a change of the tide, and affairs seemed to be at a low ebb, but matters have improved of late years. and whether the present dynasty will last for many \ ear- with a renewed vigour, or be replaced by a new one of more energetic character is still to be determined by the future. With this >h.rt r^0um4 l Cliine-e ]ii>tf which will be found treated of under different headings in this book. ]lk* ri,-<>i>niii ' Hi-tory r.f < 'hina.' 3 v.-ls. Historic China and other Sketches,* bj II. A. <;!!*. William*'* . Middle Kingdom.' ROM'I nul tin- sum' iiMtlnir's llistury nf tin- Main-liiis.' t<> all nf which we arc i! ii IP- or !<>; indebted in the jirejiaratinn of this jia per. N'line- r"us sketches of different epochi f Chiip-se History wfll be found treated of in ditl'crcnt articles in the 'China Kcview.' aii'l '.Mi-siunary l!e--onler.' IXFASTICIDE. 193 JfOK-LO. This word is applied to the inhabitants of certain parts of the north-eastern portion of the Canton province, who differ in speech, manners, and customs, from the rest of the population. Their language (see article on Dialects, under the word Swatow) is near akin to the Fuh- kienese, but has several dialects. The Swatow is spoken at that port and Hoi-fung in that district of country, and some other dialects would probably be discovered were the subject fully examined. They occupy the whole of some districts, and arc scattered through other parts, having originally migrated from the Fuhkien province. It is estimated that within the Canton province there are about three million Hoklo speakers. There are some traces of a very ancient origin in this speech ; and it is not so soft and musical as the Cantonese, having many nasal twangs. In dress they differ slightly from the Cantonese, the jackets of the men are rather longer, and they often wear turbans in common with the Fuhkienesc. They are a rougher, wilder set of men than the Cantonese. There are other points of difference between them, into which we cannot enter. There arc a number of Hoklo in Hongkong, many of the chair coolies belonging to that part of the country. They make good bearers, being physically stronger than the natives further South. Many Hoklo have gone abroad, and arc to be found in different parts of the world. The American Baptist and English Presbyterian missions have many stations in the Hoklo country. I .\l-\\.\TiriltK. The longer one lives in China the more one feels the necessity for caution in saying what docs and what does not exist here. In our younger days we have; b^en guilty of dogmatically asserting that such and such things were not done in China, to be sometimes confuted in later years by the evidence of our own eyes and ears: nor are we singular in this respect, as doubtless many other old residents in China could testify. Some authors have been egregious sinners in thus writing about a small portion of N \GS CUL\ 7-;.sv-;. China in which they have resided: they have judged of th.> whole of this vast empire, with its diverse inhabitants, manners, and customs, from a small part of it, reversing the mathematical axiom that the whole contains its parts, into one small part contains the whole.' About no subject is this perhaps more strikingly true than that of infant iciele, for what holds perfectly good of one small district is entirely false when applied to other large tracts. Also what happens at one time, an exceptional period possibly, may not happen again, even in the same district, for years. To form an approximately correct estimate of this evil and crime in China, a systematically carried out investigation, extending over a number of years, all over the land, would be necessary. To premise, as a general statement it may be said that in certain parts of the empire, and/or at certain times, this crime is only too alarmingly practised. One writer says, 'thousands of female babies are destroyed even year/ That it is prevalent in some regions it is useless to- deny. There is a /""-'' sanction given to it under certain circumstances by the talc of one who had not sufficient to- Mipport his aged parent and his own family, and thereupon <-amc to the resolve, with his wife, that the infant should be sacrificed in order to have enough for its grandparent. Taking the child for the purpose of burying it alive, the misguided and wicked parent- -but, according to Chinese ideas. most dutiful son was rewarded by heaven, and restrained from this act of filial piety by discovering a pot of golel in the hole he had dug for his own offspring. And this is lirld up as an example, it being one of the t \venl \-foiir moral (.') tales to encourage others lo a performance of filial duties. \Vhat \\onder if some follow the example thus held up to them. Were it not also a known fact that infanticide-, take place, proof of it might be found in the proclamations \\hich are sometimes issued against it by the officials. And e\en another corroboration of its practice max be found in IXFAXTICIDE. 195 the Chinese mothers, who have acknowledged putting their own children out of the way. On the other hand, it must not be supposed that all the dead bodies of children, that float down the rivers are the victims of infanticide, nor that those which arc found exposed at the roadside or on the hills are necessarily thrown there by heartless hands, for the Chinese do not go to the trouble of burying little children Avith the same care that they do older people, and the dead children are often thrown into the river, or cast out in the country. One of the great causes of infanticide is poverty : .mother is the low estimation in which girls are held, and all the evils which necessarily ensue from such an inferior position in the social status, for it is seldom, indeed rarely, that boys are killed ; and that brings us to another reason, for if a boy is made away with, it is probably due to some physical defect, this reason also causing the death of some girls. In his pamphlet on "The Diseases of China." Dr. Dudgeon says (on p. 56) : "'One thing is certain, infanticide does not prevail to the extent so generally believed among us ; and in the North, whence Europe derived her ideas chiefly from the Jesuits of the last century, it does not exist at all." These remarks do not apply to Shan-si, where the practice is quite common. The teachers deny that female infants are thus killed, but the common people readily admit that they destroy many of their girl babies. There are comparatively few old women of the poorer classes who have not been guilty >f this crime. The writer himself is aware of some instances of the kind.' In the neighbourhood of Hankow there arc many case.- of it among the poor and rural population. It is also said to be prevalent among the Hakka. It is practised in Canton, but is much rarer there than in some places. It seems t< > prevail in certain parts of the Fuh-kicn province. From enquiries made in some villages in that part of the country, it was ascertained that an average of 40 per cent, of the girls were thus murdered, as we call it, but neither Chinese law nor opinion seem to consider it as such. 196 TJfLVGS /A 'SKCTS. Insect life is rampant in China. To one who is accustomed to its abundance in the East, it appears as if man had to look for it in the West, the opposite being the case in the East, for here the insects find out the man : hide as he may from their advances, they follow him every- where, and all his subterfuges to avoid them are often unavailing. There is no need for the enthusiastic entomo- logist to turn up stones for beetles, for beetles abound everywhere ; nor need he sally forth at night to catch moths, the moths come, attracted by his lamp, into the room to him : and when the white ants are in full flight, they fly in at the open window in such quantities that the table is soon littered with the wings which the pupa-like insects drop without the least reluctance, at the slightest hint : they come oft* in the hands, they arc shed on the lamp-globes, anywhere and everywhere, while the wretched little creatures crawl over your book or paper, and, if the lamp is not too attractive, they proceed to explore the genus linmo with a persistency worthy of a better cause. A grand tiling is to set the lamps into large basins of water, when hundreds of tin-sl- ants lose their lives in the moats which surround the lights. And these same v/liite ants, when in another stage of their existence, arc a worse nuisance than ever, for they are not simply an annoyance then but a pesl. Nothing is -(cure i'r<>m their depredations. Have you ;i trunk full of valuable documents? You may. after keeping them for years iiit.-ict. suddenly discover, on opening the Inmk. that the paper* and pamphlets have been transformed into trash. "hied together into one mass, and riddled \\itli the tunnelled O road* ofthe>e indefatigable \\orkers in tin- dark. \ re you fond of books, and if your Collection a valuable and priceless- ,,n<- of old editions.' With all \..nreare.\.mma\ discover .sunn- day that the> ( - re>perter> \' nothing have eaten up through one of the le^ s ni'your bookease. and run riot here and there throughout all the aeeumulated treasur- f being heard. But the day is not, silent cither. It is sufficient to mention the cicada, an insect about an inch and a half to two inches long. The outline oi' its shape is somewhat like that of the shot of a new breechloading cannon. for its head is nearly straight across, and its alxlomen tapers to a point. In colour it is black, touched \\ith brownish orange, especially on its under sin face, with lour transparent. jy SECTS gauze M ing?, two long, and two short, and absurdly small an ton noc for an insect its size; as to its voice well, to put if mildly, it is not pleasant, though we read in a recent book of travels in Africa a charming account of its angelic notes! Solitude must have had a soothing effect on the family of cicadas which settled in that dark land, and perhaps the cruel treatment they receive from the Chinese boys has produced an irritating one on those in the Celestial Land; for young John Chinaman delights, with a long bamboo pole, some sticky substance having been placed on the end, to poke among the upper branches of the trees and capture the insect ; he then does duty as a rattle, protesting with his ' sz-sz-sz-sz ' when lie is fingered ; but it is when he is at liberty 'on the tree-top * that he is in full voice no other insect approaches him in that respect and, as if apparently rejoicing in a knowledge of what his voice is capable of, ho starts off with a preliminary flourish, and then settles down to business. This car-deafening din is kept up for several minutes, and its distressing nature is intensified if half a dozen cicadas are within earshot, then after a short rest lie starts oft' again with a wearying iteration through the hot hours of the day. But time, as well as space, would fail us to bring all the insect creation found in China before our readers : the useful silkworms ; atlas moths, nearly as large as two palms of the hand joined together ; smaller moths, quaint in contrasts of colours unusual in the West in such insects; tinv mites of 9 ones like little pieces of marbled paper flying about ; lovely butterrlies like bits of rainbow floating in the breeze, and fluttering over the flowers: gorgeous beetles of all shapes and sizes ; and the ubiquitous mosquito, the plague of one's nights what aggravated torture and torment it is capable of inflicting !- -then the hosts of grasshoppers of all sizes and modification of shape and habits, some tiny morsels about a quarter of an inch in length and which walk sideways, whai myriads there are of them all! Where do all these insects come from, and where do they all go ? Is it any wonder with their ingenious habits, their wonderful adaptation t their surroundings, their marvellous instinct, their wondrous 200 77//.W/X r///.\/-;.s7-;. beauty, is it any wonder, we repeat, with all these, that the- Oriental has endowed them with immortality, and has given T IR-IU a place in future stages of existence ? As to the insects which it is not considered polite to mention in respectable society, they abound, and the Chinese .-ippear to have no scruples in speaking of them, or in allowing them board and lodging free of expense, though they try to keep down over-population by a judicious thinning-out. The means employed to this end are not .tlways pleasant to a squeamish taste, as the operation is carried on, especially by coolies and beggars, in the open street, the lowest classes using their teeth as the executioner^ for the Chinese do not feel any shame at their persons being inhabited. U to the Westerner in China. personal contact with these parasites is perhaps, if anything, less common even than in England, where a ride in a London 'bus may introduce one to a stray member of their community, "/ //< S. Though not used in the purely native parts of China, yet these convenient vehicles arc largely employed in several of the Treaty Ports, as uell as in Hongkong, not only by Europeans but also by Chine-e. They appear to have been introduced into the Shanghai foreign settlements from Japan, and some years later into Hongkong. The streets of native cities are not of such a < haraeter as to suit vehicular traffic of any kind. The- Chinese arc not such good rick-ha coolies as the Japanese, but still ihe\. though not such swift runners or po-se^m^ such powers of endurance, make very fair our-. To those who ha\e not ,-een it. the ricksha may be described as a small two-\\ heeled vehicle capable of seating ne. or sometime.- t\so, persons, with a pair of shafts, in which a coolie runs, and drags the vehicle. Private ones have .-oinetimes two or three coolies, the other one or two pushing from behind. They are fitted Avith ho. .(U which can be raised -r lowered at pleasure, and waterproofs to cover the legs are LACQUER-WAIU:. 201 part of the outfit. The rates of hire in Hongkong are quarter hour, 5 cents; halt-hour, 10 cents; and one hour, 15 cents. In Macao the fares are even less. LAC'QUER-WARKH.. Paleologue, in his admirable work on L'art Chinois,' while giving full credit to the perfection to which the Japanese, originally the scholars of the Chinese, have carried this art *'unc perfection que les Chinois n'ont jamais egalue,' says further: 'Mais, pour relever d'un art moins eleve et d'une technique moins parfaite, les laques chinois comptent quelques specimens qui sont remarquables par la qualitc de la matiure, par la douceur des tons, par la puissance dc la composition, par la largeur et la severite du style.' The lacquer is originally a resinous gum obtained from the varnish tree (Rhna vemitifera), cultivated both in China and Japan for the purpose. Its foliage and bark resemble the ash; it grows to a height of fifteen or twenty feet; and at the age of seven years furnishes the sap, which is collected in July and August from incisions made in the trunk of the tree near the foot. These incisions arc made at night, the sap being collected in the morning. Twenty pounds from one thousand trees in the course of a night is a good yield. The lacquer sap is of a very irritating nature, especially to some constitutions, the writer himself, when a boy, having suffered from it by passing through a wood where varnish trees were growing; and the Chinese, when preparing it in cakes to- enclose in tubs to send to the market, take the precaution to cover up their faces and hands to prevent contact with it. Lacquer 'in any stage, except when perfectly dry, is capable of producing' the following symptoms: ' Blood to the head, swelling, violent itching and burning, and occa- sionally small festering boils.' The best kind of sap is of a tawny or dark-brown colour when in its inspissated state, and tarred paper is used to protect it from the air, but all lacquer turns jet-black on exposure to the light. Other ingredients are added, as wood- oils obtained from plants such as Anyla sincnsla and 202 THIXGS others. These, combined with the JRhtts rcrnlcifera, form th^ 'different qualities of lacquer-ware. S/-chuen, Hu-nan, and Kwang-si, produce the finest. The preparation, of the best qualities especially, takes a long time, and one reason assigned for the deterioration in quality supplied to the foreign market in China is due. it is said, to the ignorance or ignoring of this fact by Europeans. Avho, when giving orders, would not wait the necessary timo for producing a first-class article, and the Chinese manu- facturer, from being forced to supply the articles required at short notice, got into the way of producing inferior work- manship, which met with as ready a sale amongst the uneducated in the mysteries of lacquer as the better specimens did. The varnish is prepared, before being used, by the addition of oil of the i'ei')ti<-! in the case of the same art in Japan. In China it is not the individual that is to be noted but the schools differentiated by different styles, traditions, and tendencies. At present, at all events, but little has been discovered of tin- history of the art. Carved lacquer was known during the early part of the Christian era. No very ancient specimens are extant, the oldest being of the comparatively modern date of the end of the Kith century (Ming dynasty). ' Lcs laque.s sculptes de eette epoqne sont fort rares, et les Chinois les estiment a tn-s haut prix : le vernis en e>t tn-s cpais. lo travail en est ferine, (fun style sobre et severe.' Great improvement \\as etfeetrd in tho reign of the r.mperor Kang-lli (A.I). 1W2) of t lie promt dynasty, both in quality of material and decoration ; and in Kien-lung's time (A.D. 17'J(>-17JMi) some tine called lae([iier was produced, as also some exqui>itr specimens of other lacquer, the best of these being made in the imperial manufacturics. We cannot resist the temptation to quote once more from M. Pah'ologue's interesting work 'I/art Chinois' a^ to t lie last :- 'M. de Semalle i">-scde line di/aine de pieces ;i\ant, >;ins aucun doute, cette origine: ee Mint de> coupes fonnulces en caliees lobes, legcres ;i ii main et delie.atement modeh-es : 1'une est d'un bleu paon a reflets verts, chatoyant et intense comme nn email; une antreest d'un rose trcs p^le que rehausse un rose de corail, et. LAXGUAGE. 205 1'ensemble cst d'unc douceur de tons incomparable ; une autre encore cst d'un noir uni et profond, de ce beau noir si apprecie dcs Japonais ; signalons enfin, dans la menu' collection, un laquc avcnturinc, u incrustations d'or et d'argcnt figurant des lotus, qui est une merveille de gout et de finesse. Ces pieces comptent u nos ycux parmi les rares objets de laque chinoise })einte qui meriteraicnt de figurer dans la collection d'un amateur an Japon.' I'A<~!E. We remember some twenty years or s<> ago, trying to elicit from a lecturer on languages and literature his idea of the position held by the Chinese language amongst that of others. After a considerable humming and hawing, lie said that it held one of its own. outside of the general scheme of languages as elaborated by philologists. This position is practically the same that it holds to this day amongst many of those who delight to classify language. As the Chinese have been outside the comity of nations, so their language has been relegated to a position of its own with no certain relationship to the other speeches of mankind; and as the exclusivencss of the nation, as a nation, is being slowly dissolved, so it is to be hoped that before long, in response to the toil of not a few scholars, the affinity of Chiue.se with that of other languages in the world will be more clearly established. Most divergent views have been held on the subject in the past, and clearly proved to the satisfaction of those who held and advanced them, but not to the equal satisfaction of their readers. There would appear to be some connection between Chinese and the so-called Aryan languages; to prove this Kdkins, Schlegel, and others have laboured. The latest idea. that of Professor Terrien de Lacoupcric. and his co-laboui-ers in the same field, is that of an affinity between the languages of China and Babylon. These views still wait general accept- ance, the feeling of many being one of suspense : a waiting till convincing proofs arc produced before acquiescing in any of the theories put forth ; and there are still immense fields for the patient worker to explore. 206 77/LVr/X C7//;V/-;.s7-:. The connection between Chinese and the languages of some of the surrounding nations is deserving of further attention in order to fix -with .some amount of certainty, it' such be possible, the relationships which exist between them relationships which doubtless exist in some cases. It will readily be seen from the above that the word resemblance is not to be used when speaking of English and Chinese. Some people go so far as to say that Chinese has no grammar. If grammar only consisted in declension and inflection, such a statement might be true; but the Chinese most cleverly use the relative position of words to express what we, to a great extent, and some continental nations t'> a greater, and the dead languages of Europe to the greatest extent, show by case, mood, tense, number, and person: position is everything in the construction of Chinese sentences and does away with those troubles of school-boys, carried to- such an excess in the cla>>iral languages. In addition to position, the use of auxiliary characters i.s employed, and, in the written language especially, a general symmetry of construction, and use of words in sentences and clauses which are either in antithesis or juxtaposition to each other, assists materially in the correct development of ideas. Chinese if one of the simplest, while at the same time one of the most difficult, languages in the world: most simple from the almost entire absence of these inflexional f. TIM-: most difficult from the combination of different language.^ under the one heading of Chinese ; such for instance a> the hook language in its two or three different, forms, the ('lli-tjnial or spoken language in its different vernaculars, and in its tunes, the bugbear and ruin of most Kuropran speakers of it. The Chinese have spent much time and labour in the cultivation of their wonderful and interesting language. The Shu-king mentions writing as being practised in the time of Shun (B.C. '2'2~>~t 220.") |. Some doubt has Keen cast on the genuineness of these passages in the Shu however. 207 There is no doubt that, a little later, writing was in use in connection with Government matters, and in the Chan dynasty it was in common nse among the official class. Colleges and schools existed, books were made and libraries formed. Writing was a laborious task, the language at this early period not having attained the rich collection of written characters it now possesses. The nucleus or prototype of the first Chinese dictionary,. the I rh-ya, is referable to this period. The violent attempt of the execrated monarch Tsin Chi I luang Ti to introduce one language throughout China by destroying all trace of the past was unsuccessful. It was about this time that the transition from the mainly pictorial or symbolic representation of the language took place, and more attention was paid to sound. The period of the Han dynasty (B.C. 205 A.D. 200) witnessed the commencement of the study of the language, its exciting cause being the elucidation and determination of the characters of the books which had escaped the whole- sale destruction. Many of the works of the renowned scholars of these ancient times have disappeared in the lapse of ages. Amongst two to be noted as still extant are the Fang-yen, a comparative vocabulary of dialectic varieties, and the Shuo- wf;n, an etymological dictionary (A.l). 121) which dealt with the writing of the character. The language at this period acquired a considerable degree of exactness and polish/ and many additions were made to the characters in use. The Buddhist missionaries about this time also assisted in bringing into general future use the spelling now in vogue to explain the pronunciation of words. During the troublous times even of the Three States some sensible men busied themselves with the cultivation of their native tongue. An epoch is marked in this cultivation in the period known as the Northern and Southern Dynasties (A.D. 479 to 557) ; and the study of etymology began to flourish. The four tones were first noticed in published works, though doubtless previously known to scholars. The Sui dynasty (A.D. 589 to 618) still -208 THINGS CHINESE. saw much attention paid to tones and the sounds of charac- ters. The 'Pang dynasty (A.D. 618 to 906) gave mi impetus to this study so congenial to the Chinese nature. The Emperors encouraged learning, and even cultivated it them- selves. Renewed enthusiasm was shown in the study of the -classics: much learning and ability were- displayed; the tones and sounds of characters received much attention; and -acquaintance with such subjects was required from the competitors for literary employment. Books were also written on Sanscrit Grammar and its alphabet by Indian Buddhist missionaries, or Chinese "monks who had studied the language in India, and the knowledge thus acquired was of use to native authors in the study of their own language. ~In several respects the period of the T'ang dynasty forms an era of great importance in the history of the cultivation of the language. It was the time in Avhich China began to have a popular literature. * * * Plays also now began to be written and performed, and romances to be it> j n Init /iff/, ,-< inoi'i'i/ from tlmt <>f every day con- ri',-f'ifin.' This fixed the style and made fashionable the dialect the ^Mandarin in which they were written. Printing was first invented at this time in China, though it was not till succeeding dynasties that it exerted its full power. It is under the Sung dynasty that the language is supposed to have reached its acme: to have become complete in all its formal and material equipment, Inning even thing needful to make it an effect i\e instrument for expressing the national mind:' and works on philology of ^reat and permanent value were produced. About the time that the Mongols prevailed, a book was published which has been rendered into Knglish under the title of -The Six Scripts.' The founder of the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1WS-|:)<)<)> was a patron of all kinds of learning, and promoted efforts to recover and preserve the valuable nvati-es which had been lost, or become very rare.' One of the most widely used works, and the .standard dictionary of the present time, is LANGUAGE. 200 the Kang-hi dictionary, prepared by direction of the Emperor of that name. A revived interest has been taken during- the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in the philological works of antiquity. The Chinese, as far as at present has been ascertained, have confined their studies nearly entirely to ' sounds, meanings, composition, and history of the written characters ; ' and the study is not generally pursued for its own sake, but for the purpose of elucidating the 'orthodox canonical literature.' 'The Chinese language is very rich in * nature sounds and " vocal-gestures ; " while the inter- jectional clement appears to have had its full share in the formation of some portion of the language. Many of the words and terms in use arc imitative of sounds in nature, of noises of falling objects. c., of calls and cries of animals, birds, and insects ; and of actions by man himself: these have all had their share, and still have, in forming the language. On the whole the Chinese, however, take comparatively little interest in such researches. The Buddhist missionaries, Avho introduced Buddhism, did a good work, first, in interesting the Chinese in Sanscrit with its alphabet and grammatical forms, and, secondly, in inducing a study among the Chinese of their own language, leading them to examine it and appreciate it. The Chinese consider the faculty of speech to be man's natural endowment: expressive sounds are uttered by the promptings of nature; but for the development of speech they believe that the most highly endowed men have been its nursing fathers. It would be highlv instructive and interesting were a O v O history of the rise, development, and progress of the Chinese language down to the present time possible. The materials seem at present to be fragmentary. Doubtless with the combined study of numerous scholars much more may be known of it than at present. The Chinese language retains, to a great extent, the primitive simplicity of early speech ; o 210 TJILWS (U1LSKSE. and this is one of the advantages that the attempt to peer into its past depths, and a study of its present state, affords to the student. The Manchu, Mongolian, and Turkish speech are descended from one source, and this parent language ma\ likewise have been the progenitor of the Chinese in common with that of these other languages as well. The speech of the Chinese was preceded in China by numerous dialects and speeches of what are termed the Aborigines. It seems impossible not to suppose that the-- fi inner speeches must have had some effect on the language of the new comers, though if a policy of extermination \\a> adopted towards the former inhabitants that effect would not be much. Traces arc now found in some of the so-called Chinese dialects of relics of some of the>e former languages. In the Amoy language a few words are instanced as being remnants of a previous race, and in Cantonese also a word or two is spoken of as being thus taken over into the present language. The Chinese language would appear at first to be like the Chinese themselves, separated from the rest of the Avorld and self contained ; but though this is true to a great extent as regards their communication Avith Western nation-. it must not be forgotten that there has been considerable intercourse between China and the pc< iples \vhose borders arc coterminous with her own: and so. instead of the language having no admixture of foreign words in it, some such \\ordsare to be found. These wnns of foivi-'n O origin are generally of a technical character: names of countries, oilicial de.siu x-c. ; reminiscences of foreign ii. and commerce. The, use of lhe-e \\<>nU ha- n-it In- .1 ci.niiued to modern times, but i. i in the I :.d a few fossil remains of ancient, foreign relations or v.a:>. n.u well-known matters of history. r i'h"-- words are mci with here and there in bonks and in c .11: for example, to take a modern one, II" , <>r Holland \\ater Soda \\ ater, because it was first introduced by the Dutch. LAXGUAGK. 211 Buddhism lias introduced in its train many words into Chinese. They consist of Sanscrit words brought into the language, translations into Chinese of such Sanscrit words, and new phrases in Chinese due to Buddhism, but not transla- tions of Sanscrit words or terms. This religion has also given new meanings to words and phrases which were in use before. The Han, the T'ang, and the present dynasties, have especially increased China's knowledge of the outside world, while other periods even bore their share, though a smaller one, in the exchange of the arts of peace, and at times of the horrors of war, with the neighbouring states of Japan and India : and oven distant Persia, as well as many other kingdoms, too numerous to mention, all being known to a greater or lesser extent; and, latterly especially, the countries of Europe have come within the horizon of Chinese ken. It is not surprising- therefore to find a small amount of terms derived from the languages of some of these countries. 'Certain terms even in a comparatively early period of the Chinese language * * * seem to have at least a common origin Avith their equivalents in Greek and Latin ; ' Spanish, English. Malay, Persian, Arabic. Turkish, Manchu, and Mongolian. Tibetan, as well as Sanscrit and other Indian languages, have each assisted in giving new words in the past, while with the advance of science and learning this must be more especially the case in time to come. But after all that can be said these foreign words form but a very small proportion of the language. The language of China may be divided as follows : 1. The ancient style in which the classics are written: sententious, concise, vague, and often unintelligible, without explanation. 2. The literary style : more diffuse, and consequently more intelligible : it might be described as poetry written in prose on account of a ' rkythmu9 f ' as it has been termed, in which it is written, the ancient language having less of this both forms having a number of particles either difficult or impossible of translation into English. The essays written by candidates at the literary examinations are composed in this style. 212 THINGS CHINESE. 3. The business style which, is plain enough to be intelligible: it is prose without, or with but little of, the poetry element, and few, if any, of the troublesome particles. It is in general use for commercial purposes, legal documents, official and business correspondence, and governmental, statistical, and legal works are written in it. 4. The Colloquial is the spoken language : it is divided into numerous dialects ; but unfortunately it is despised, and there is scarcely even one book written in it in the South of China, though it is impossible to speak in any other language ; and. to the great majority of the lower classes, no other language is intelligible in its entirety. In nearly all Western languages when wo learn to speak them, we learn consequently to read them ; but a knowledge of Chinese, as spoken, only places one on the threshold of the Chinese of books. This has not inaptly been compared to a man who knows French fluently, but who. if he wishes to read Latin, has, after his knowledge of French, to apply himself to latin; the French in this instance being the colloquial, and the Latin, the language of the book. Again, the ancient language as compared with the business style, might be likened to the English of Chaucer as compared with that of the modern writer. The difference between the book style and the colloquial might be likened perhaps to the difference between a common English book and some highly scientific or technical work so bristling with scientific terms, or technical expressions, or mathematical formuLr. that it would be entirely, or nearly entirely. Incomprehensible, except to one who had been educated for years, and had made such a Mibjcct a >p:-ciality. This way of putting the matter may throw some light on what seems such a mysterious matter to English people, and show how difficult < if comprehension the book laniruaire i^ to all except tho-r who have received a special and sufficient training. Writers on the Chinese ha\e differed as to the richnex. or otherwise, of the language, Putting a-ide all prejudiced statements, it may fairly be affirmed that in some respects it- vocabulary is very full, where some of our languages LAW*. 213 arc poor, and tvy T. \V:itt< % rs. mid clniptcrs f Vao i I5.C. 'J '}.")( 5 j and his successor Shun, though according to their account of that sovereign (Yao), th'Te \\onld appear to have been but little need of any repre--ive legislation; lor his rule was the l><-l.>er\ed than in a system where sentiment i- apt to get the upper hand. The English principles of a man being considered innocent till proved guilty, and of no man criminating himself, arc unknown: but on the other hand, a prisoner i< required to confess before he can be punished. Unfortunately, however, the utility of this safeguard is somewhat, if not LAWS. 217 entirely, nullified by the introduction of torture to induce confession. The application of this must necessarily depend a, good deal upon the character of the official within whose power the criminal chances to be. A cursory examination of the penal code might lead one to infer that corporal punishment, and. as a consequence, torture was universal; but, before arriving at such a hasty conclusion, several things which have a tendency to modify such a decision have to bo considered: In the first place, the Chinese should be compared with other Asiatic nations, whose punishments will be found often to be of a most ferocious character. Viewed under such circumstances, the use of torture to extract the truth, does not seem so awful for an Eastern people; it must also be remembered that it is only a few centuries since torture was in use in our enlightened lands in the West : and finally, there are so many exceptions and grounds of mitigation, that universality of corporal punishments, and consequently of torture, \vill be found to be much affected thereby. The law in China likewise interferes with many acts Avhich in Europe arc without its pale; on this point it has been remarked that : ' In a country in which the laws have 1 not in any considerable degree the active concurrence either of a sense of honour, or of a sense of religion, it may perhaps be absolutely requisite that they should take so wide a range. Experience may have dictated the necessity of their interfering in this direct manner in the enforcement of all those national habits and usages, whose preservation, as far as they are of a moral or prudential tendency, must undoubtedly be of essential importance botli to the security of the government and to the happiness of the people.' We quote again from Staunton's ' Penal Code of China ' (Introduction) Another object which seems to have been very generally consulted is that of as much as possible combining, in the construction and adaptation of the scale of crimes and punishments throughout the Code, the opposite advantages of severity in denunciation and lenity in execution.' The laws are divided into the hit, or fundamental laws, and Itti, supplementary laws: the former are permanent; the 218 THINGS CHINESE. latter, which arc liable to revision every five years, are the ' modifications, extensions and restrictions of the fundamental laws.' Each article of the fundamental laws has been like- Avisc further explained or paraphrased by the Emperor Yung Ching, ' and the whole of the text is further illustrated by cxtracts from the works of various commentators. These appear to have been expressly written for the use and instruction of magistrates, and accordingly form a body of legal reference directly sanctioned for that purpose by government.' The laws are classified as follows: 'General, Civil Fiscal. Ritual. Military and Criminal Laws, and those relating to Public Works ' comprised in 436 sections of the original laws, and a more numerous quantity of the supplemental laws, or 'Xovolhr. which bear the same relation to the code as the judiciary law and subsequent enactments in France, and the new laws and authoritative interpretations in Prussia, respectively do to the Code Napoleon and Code Frederic.' Staunton characterises the Penal Code as remarkable for the conciseness and simplicity of its style of language, at. the same time lie calls attention to the difficulty, without, various references and considerable research.' of ascertaining the punishment which a criminal -is actually liable to suffer." He proceeds to say 'that the sections of the Chinese Code may thus, perhaps, not unaptly be compared to a collection of consc- -utive mathematical problems with this additional circumstance of perplexity that a just and entire comprehen- sion of each section individually requires a general knowledge of those that follow, no less than of those which precede it.' ' By far the mo>t remarkable thing in this code is its great reasonableness, clearness, and < . >n^is{rni -\ -. the business-like brevity and directness ,,(' the various provisions, and the plainness and moderation in which they are e\pr< There is nothing here of the monstrous /v/7W/r of nio-t other . \-iati>- productions none of tin- superstitions deliration, the miserable incoherence, the tremendous ii<>i<-.<]tr repeated acts of injustice do, in point of fact, often, in any rank or station, ultimately escape with impunity.' 'Besides these laws and their numerous clauses, every high provincial officer has the right to issue edicts upon such public matters as require regulation, some of them even affecting life and death, either reviving some old law or giving it an application to the case before him. with such modifications as seem to be necessary. He must report these to the proper board at Peking. Xo such order, which 220 THINGS for the time has the force of law, is formally repealed, but gradually falls into oblivion, until circumstances again require its reiteration. This mode of publishing statute gives rise to a sort of common and unwritten law in villages. t'> which a coiur-il <>t' elders sometimes compels individuals to submit ; long usage is also another ground for enforcing them.' The Cliine.se customary law * * * undoubtedly . as did the Roman Law before the publication of the Twelve Tables, upon the more* ni-'jn,-nni. " that is." as I, >ru the Chines;- mind. AYe mean by fundamental principles, those such as the Patriarchal Principle * * * and the Fraternal Principle * * *, which, especially the former, apparently the progenitor of the others, pervade the Law and Customs of the Chiii'-se as completely a-, the rut, -in Puii-*tw, /.-//'./// threatened in the event of disobedience." The principle of /,!>!<>, \\hich. in its hroadee. \\e think we may take to include friendship. .-/u to higher Courts. The magistrate or judge sends for the witnesses him-eH': for they an -ulpu-naed as Avith u>: and then- arc no lawyers in our sense of ihe term, though there is a class of men wl,. the pa unknown to the judge, by prep itnes.ses and drawing up petit; ! 6 I-'lll'.(l:i: i.:i\v- ii'i'l a , -:!|ijilfiin'Mt:i: - y Sl;itnir- ol ill-- lV:i::l (\\<- of Chiiui'' i StMiiiiion. iiildlf ' .ili'.-'.! ||]-t(>ri<- Ciiinii :m ! |>. 12f i < .:,ipar:iti\i- < \i\\:- -ill of which LEPHOSY. LEPROSY One of the most loathsome diseases to be met with in China is leprosy ; and one that the civilised world has had prominently brought before its notice of recent years. China is not a land where statistics are available; the Chinese mind needs a considerable tonic of western science and ideas before it will be braced up to that definite and precise form of statement which will prepare the way for this useful branch of knowledge. At present the Chinese delights in a vague statement of even facts well known to himself. He calls certain of his relations brothers, which term includes real brothers, cousins of more than one degree, and clansmen. He tells you a thing took place between 2 and 3 o'clock, when he might as well say 2.15 p.m. ; he says there were between ten and twenty present, when he might as well say fifteen or sixteen. Statistics from such an individual, it can be readily understood, are well-nigh impossible, else China would present a splendid field for an array of facts on leprosy, for not only is it found in the North to some extent, but it is distributed over the south of China, especially in the Canton province, where cases are very numerous in the silk districts: and the Government has Leper Asylums at different centres of population for the purpose of segregation. These are badly managed, as unfortunately most native charitable institutions are. The village for lepers at Canton is situated about two or three miles north of the City ; there is accommodation there for 400 or 500, but it is not sufficient, and they arc allowed in boats at several anchorages on the river as well, and outside the east gate of the City. The lepers in the leper village occupy themselves in making rope of cocoa-nut fibre, and brooms, &c., which, though the inhabitants of the city are in mortal dread of the afflicted inmates, yet find a ready sale, and females, who have lost the outward symptoms of the disease, sell them in the market. Lepers also waylay funerals and demand alms, which is given, for fear that leper ghosts may torment the departed. The sums demanded are on a varying scale and fixed by the lepers according to their idea of the rank and wealth of the deceased. Such exorbitant sums arc asked that 221- THINGS CHINESE. they arc sometimes refused, and then the lepers leap into the grave and prevent the interment. They accept promises of payment, but if not fulfilled exhume the corpse and retain possession of it until their demands are met. These demands of the lepers always form an item in the funeral expenses. In the leper boats a single leper often resides who paddles about seeking charity; in such c?ises the boats are tiny little canoes with a mat-covering over the centre. They sometimes strip the dead bodies that float down the river, and if they find a respectable one, occasionally advertise it for the reward that they hope to obtain. In the silk districts there would appear to be no asylums on land, but the lepers are restricted to the boats, from which they solicit cash by means of a long bamboo pole with a bag at the end. In some of the districts they occupy certain shrines on the river bank, and beg alms with rod and bag. The Chinese will have nothing to do with lepers; and if a family of a rich man who has taken the disease tries to hide it, the neighbours soon compel his segregation. They are unable to cure it; and ascribe it to different, causes : one reason given is the rain-water dr< >pping from a certain kind of tree on anyone: another is, that the drop- pings from spiders cause it. They suppose it to Avork itself out in three or four generations. Lepers in China marry amongst themselves, but not with others. When the disease is \vell developed, the sight is sickening; the parts affected, such as the face, cars, hands, and feet seem enlarged, red. smooth, and glossy. At certain stages of the disease spon- taneous amputation of the fingers and toes takes place, for they rot and drop off. An Improvement in diet, and tonics, better the condition of the patient, but there is still much to be learned as to the cau-r and treatment of this dreadful scourge. In two-and-a-half years 12.") lepers presented them- selves at the Alice Memorial Hospital in Hongkong. //.H//.-.V n 'fiini iiiinilril. -Tiif Import-; of (lillercnt. Medical Missionary Hospitals in South-eastern China have o c;isioii;illy contained notes on N-jiro.-y ami account* of treatments with more or I6M li'-nelieial results. Leprosy in Hon^koni;.' !>y ,). '.'antlie. M.A.. M.H.. I'.U.e.s.. also contains notes Oicaiei and treatment at the Alice Memorial Hospital in HoriLjKoir-; attached to a monoirrajih on th'' subject, (jfftj'.s 'China,' Vol. 2. p. ~>\. LITERATURE. 225 LIGHTHOUSES. The light-house system in Chinese waters is under a department of the Imperial Maritime Customs, and is only one of the many advantages which have resulted from a foreign staff being in the employ of the Chinese Government. From New-chwang, in the north, to Canton in the south, and along the Yang-tsz River, there arc no less than eighty-three lights. They are mostly on land, though a few are lightships ; and they are either fixed, fixed and flashing, revolving, or occulting; the illuminating apparatus is cither catoptric or dioptric. Besides these, there are a number of buoys and beacons. These are being constantly added to six new lights have been added during as many years. The staff required for their maintenance is composed of both foreigners and natives : the former numbering sixty, and the latter one hundred and sixty. Besides these there arc three lighthouses in the British Colony of Hongkong, and one in the Portuguese Colony of Macau. LITERATURE. 'Untold treasures lie hidden in the rich lodes of Chinese literature.' This may be considered a sufficient answer to those who question if there is anything worth seeking for in what has been termed by another equally learned sinalogue the barren wilderness of Chinese literature. Numbers of books of great antiquity have left no remembrance behind them but that of their names, or, at the best, but little else. Some fragments are reputed to have survived from before the time of Confucius (B.C. 550). The sage said of himself that he was a transmitter, not an originator, and, as such, he utilised material, that was in existence to a great extent previously, in the production of the works which are attributed to his hand. From the time of Confucius onward, for some centuries, the numerous writings produced by the different philosophers give evidence of mental vigour, as well as mental activity. The power ot' the literary class, backed up by their arsenals of learning, and their muniments of classical lore, were forces that threatened 77/m/N to thwart, l>y their conservative and other tendencies, the iron will of the monarch, who rendered himself infamous in Chinese history by his despotic and cruel attempt to sweep the obstructive literati and their books out of his path of progress. Works on medicines, divination, and husbandly, were the only ones that were exempt from the storm of destruction that swept over the land with the exception of those, not a few in number, that surreptitiously weathered the tempest buried in mountain holes and hidden behind walls, or stored up in the memory of some who pri/ed them better than life itself. After the night of desolation rose the brighter dawn of the Han dynasty, when every effort was made to recover the lost treasures, and with such success, that considerably over ten thousand volumes or sections of books, the work of some hundreds of authors, were gathered together. But unfortunately this library, collected with such arc 1 , was destroyed by fire at the close of the dynasty, and other destructions of valuable imperial collections have taken j.la'-e more than once since. It has. however, been the pride of succeeding dynasties to follow the example of the llaii. and every encouragement has been given to literature. The T ; ang dynasty especially deserves notice for its patronage of letters. The classification now extant was then adopted, vix.: the four divisions of Classics, Hisfr\. Philosophy, and Belles Lettres; but these are so numerousl\ .subdivided, that a mere list of them would occupy a page and a half. It will thus be seen that except in a work especially devoted to that purpose, it Avould be impossible to give even a ri'finur of the vast h'eld thus covered. We must content ourselves with the indication of a few of the more salient points. The Cla.-Mcal writings occupy the foremost position not only as regards antiquity, but they are also regarded as the foundation of all learning by the Chinese: and they ha\e been the cause of the production of not a small proportion f Chinese books. The 'Four Books' and the 'Five Classics' are the chief amongst the classical works of the Chinese. The Four LITERATURE. 227 Books ' consist of ' The Confucian Analects.' ' The Great Learning 1 / ' The Doctrine of the Mean,' and ' The Works of ]\Iencius.' The -Five Classics' consist of 'The Book of Changes/ ' The Book of History/ The Book of Odes.' < The Book of Rites/ and ' The Spring and Autumn Annals.' The last is the only one of which Confucius is actually the author, though he compiled ' The Book of History ' and ' The Odes.' The Book of Changes' is regarded with almost universal reverence, both on account of its antiquity, and also for the unfathomable wisdom which is supposed to be concealed under its mysterious symbols. 'The Four Books/ which rank next after "The Five Classics/ arc, for the most part, the words, conversations, and opinions of Confucius and Mencius, as recorded by their disciples. Around these, and a few other works, has gathered an immense collection of commentaries and works O elucidative of the Classics: among these the Chinese class dictionaries, over the production of which much labour has been spent by eminent Chinese scholars in order to conserve the purity of the language. Historical works, or dynastic histories, are sub-divided into a number of divisions. These -have been compiled dynasty after dynasty on a general plan, dealing first with the Imperial Records, then the Arts and Sciences, followed by a Biographical Section. The latest compilation of them is called The Twenty-four Histories/ comprised in 3,261- books by over twenty different authors, commencing with S/-ma Tsin, the Herodotus of China. HISTORICAL ANXALS. This class of histories contains a concise narrative of events on the plan of 'The Spring and Autumn Annals.' Among the most celebrated of these is the Tsz Chi Tung Kin. of the famous historian Sx-ma Kwang. in 291' books, which occupied the author nineteen years in writing. Another division of historical Avorks is that of 'The Complete Records ' in which a general view of a particular subject is taken, 'The Historical Classic' being taken as the example. 228 THINGS CHINESE. Besides these, there arc several other divisions of Historical Works, such as ' Separate Histories,' 'Miscellaneous Histories,' 'Official Documents,' and 'Biographies,' -which last are very numerous and some ancient, one being more than two thousand years old. Added to these, are 'Historical Excerpta,' 'Contemporary Records,' which deal with other co-existant states, and Chronography,' this last heading comprising a small category. 'The Complete Antiquarian Researches of Mii Twan-lin,' A.I). 1275. is 'a most extensive and profound Avork.' Another division is that of Geographical and Topo- graphical Works. Among these is the famous 'Hill and River Classic,' containing wonderful accounts of countries inhabited by pigmies and giants : of men with a hole through the middle of their bodies, who when going out for an airing have a pole thrust through it and are thus hoisted on the shoulders of two men and carried along: of one-sided people, who have only one arm and one leg, and who, when going out for a walk have to go in couples: with numerous wonderful and strange objects in the animal creation as well; fish and snakes with many heads, and fish with many bodies to one head. It is very amusing to look through an illustrated edition of this book, and though it contains many strange vagaries, it was probably originally a bona fide attempt at an account of what was actually considered to exist ; it is a work of great antiquity. Every small division of the empire has its topographical work dealing with its own history, antiquities, towns, curiosities, and anything of interest connected with it ; one on Kwang-tung, being a historical and statistical account of that priivinec is in I problems. The illu-t rat ions have unfor- tunately been lo>t. I nder the heading of Divination are not a few works; books on dreams coining under the same section. the counterparts of 'The Napoleon Dream-Book' and -The \ptian Dream-Boole ' in Knglish. \- to books on Art-. \V\lie remarks: -However the Chinese may differ from Western nations in matters of mere convention, the fact that they ha\e methodical treatise-. ,,f more than a thousand \ear- -landing, on Painting. Writing. Music, Engraving. Archery. Drawing, and kindred subjects. ought surely to secure a candid examination of the state <>l LITERATURE. 231 such matters among them, before subjecting them to an indiscriminate condemnation.' Under Repertories of Science are Cyclopaedias. The most remarkable under this heading is that prepared by direction of the second Emperor of the Ming dynasty; two thousand two hundred scholars were employed in the work, which was to include the ' substance of all the classical, historical, philosophical and literary works hitherto published, embracing astronomy, geography, the occult sciences, medicine. Bud- dhism, Taouism. and the arts.' It was published in 22,877 books, and the table of contents filled GO books. Wholesale selections were made of some books : in this way - '385 ancient and rare works have been preserved, which would otherwise have been irrecoverably lost.' ESSAYISTS. Works of fiction arc despised, as a rule, by the Chinese literati, but they form a most interesting and valuable portion of the vast body of literature which has, for more than twenty centuries past, been in ever increasing volume seeing the light of day. The most popular is the historical romance. -The San Kwok Chi,' dealing with the period from A.I). 1(58 to 265. The plot 'is wrought out with a. most elaborate complication of details,' it abounds with the marvellous and supernatural, and is laid amidst the stirring scenes after the fall of the Han dynasty. 'The Dream of the Red Chamber' is another popular novel dealing with domestic life. Another holding the highest estimation, in the opinion of all classes, from the purity of its style is 'The Pastimes of the Study/ full of tales of wonder and mystery. This has been translated into English by Mr. (jiles under the title ' Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio,' in two volumes. O * Chinese novels contain much that would be considered tedious by an English reader. Minute details are entered into about the characters and the localities ; trifling particulars and lengthy conversations arc given: long digressions, prolix descriptions, and sermonising arc all indulged in ; but the '' authors render their characters interesting and natural/ The characters are well sustained at times : there is < f course a plot, and much of what goes to make up the 232 THINGS CHINESE. main portion of a tale in Western lands is also introduced, .showing that human nature is alike the wide world over, the surroundings of course having an Eastern cast in the one case ; the troubles of the hero and heroine, complicated by the evil machinations of the villain, and all the accessories of plot and counterplot, and at last the grand finale arrives in a happy marriage. There is, however, a large class of this literature which cannot be commended. BUDDHIST LITERATURE. Buddhist books include many translations of Buddhistic works from the Sanscrit, as well as original compositions. TAOUIST LITERATURE. The Tao Teh King is the only work known to be produced by Lo-tsz. The aspect of Taouism has changed since its early days : its votaries, who believed in alchemy, and the subduing of animal propensities, have been succeeded by a set of even worse charlatans (see article < >n Taouism). Books dealing with the gods and genii arc found under this heading. One of the most popular of all Taouist works is 'The Book of Recompenses and Rewards' (of a future state), which has gone through innumerable editions, and is .sometimes issued embellished with anecdotes and illustrated with woodcuts. It is thought a great act of merit to distribute it. BF.U.KS Li: TTUKS. in which are included Polite Literature, P< )Ctry, and Analytical Works. There are numbers of di\ isi< >ns. amongst which is the class of ' Individual Collections :' 'one of the most prolific branches of Chinese literature.' but short- lived, amongst which may be noted the collections of the two celebrated poets of the T'ang and Sung dynasties, Li Tai-peh and Su Tung-po, comprised in ,'JO and 1 !."> books, and that of the celebrated historian and statesman Bz-md-Kwang in SO books. Most of the emperors of the present dynasty have contributed their share to this branch of Chinese literature. Under the heading of General Collections' are classed selections of choice specimens of acknowledged merit from the pens of variou> authors. One of the greatest enterprises in the history of book-making* may he noted in this connect ion. made in the time of the Sung d\ nasty, and contained in LITERATURE. 233 1 .000 volumes, being an ' extensive collection of all specimens of polite literature subsequent to the Leang dynasty. * * * *. Nine-tenths of the whole were made up of the writing- of the T'ang scholars.' RHYMES AND SOXGS (see article on Poetry). DRAMA. The Drama is not included in native book catalogues, though considerable works are found of that nature. It was developed at a comparatively late date the latter end of the T ; ang dynasty saw its origin. It continued to improve until the time of the Yuan dynasty, when the best collection of plays was published as ' The Hundred Plays of the Yuan Dynasty ' (see article on Theatre). Professor Douglas thus writes of their literature as a whole : ' In the countless volumes which have appeared and are appearing from the many publishing centres, we see- mirrored the temperament of the people, their excellences, their deficiencies, and their peculiarities. Abundant evidence is to be found of their activity in research and diligence in compilation, nor are signs wanting which point to the absence of the faculty of imagination, and to an inability to rise beyond a certain degree of excellence or knowledge, while at the same time we have seen displayed the characteristics both of matter and manner, which most highly commend themselves to the national taste. As ;i consequence of the very unplastic nature of the language, there is wanting in the literature that grace of diction and varying force of expression which are found in languages capable of inflexion and of syntactical motion. The stiff angularity of the written language, composed as it is of isolated, unassimilating characters, robs eloquence of its charm, poetry of its musical rhythm, and works of fancy of half their power: but in no way interferes with the relation of facts, nor the statement of a philosophical argument. And hence to all but the Chinese mind, which knows 110 other model of excellence, the poetical and fanciful works of Chinese authors offer fewer attractions than their writings on history, science, and philosophy. Unlike the literatures 234 TILINGS CHINESE. of other countries, one criticism applies to the whole career of Chinese letters. It is difficult to imagine a nation of busy writers pursuing a course of literature for more than 3.000 years, and yet failing to display greater progress in thought and style than Chinese authors have done. That their works vary in quality no one who lias read two Chinese books can doubt ; but the variations arc within limits, and * * the width of thought and power of expression have in no wise increased, at least, since the revival of letters under the Han dynasty. B.C. 206-AD. 25.' It is unfortunate that many of the finest passages of Chinese literature lose, when translated, their epigrammatic force, the play of words lose their sparkle, the glittering poetry is transformed into prosy periods, and what is full of life and spirit falls flat and tame on the foreign car. The freshness of the flowers of speech is gone when the ideas of the original are plucked and transferred into the Englishman's receptacle of thought. In other words. jusi as the Chinese himself looks best in his native coslumc. the thoughts of his mind appear in their best when clothed in his native language -the foreign dress often fits them badly : and, in short, many of the productions of a Chinese pen have to be read in the original, if the reader would appreciate to the full the brilliancy of some of these jewels of the first water; for not a few stray passages ripe with the |o\c of the beautiful, are to be found scattered through the pages of Chinese literature instinct with true poetic genius glowing with the deep feeling caught from a communion with the hills and mountains, rivers, streams and babbling brook-, woods and forests, sunshine and storm, in solitudes away from the busy haunts of men. These ecstatic raptures of the true child of nature strike; a responsive chord in the breast of tin- Western barbarian. So charming are they in their simplicity, so in unison \\itli every touch of natun-. that one feels that the ardent lovers of the beauties of < iod's beautiful world speak but one language, equally understood by all who have revelled in such simple delights, and that there is no place round LITERATURE. 235 this wide wide world 'where their voice is not heard,' Avhethcr it be in the confines of the Middle Kingdom, or in what was the ritime conferred on this ancient and conservative empire, will be the knowledge that true wisdom consists in the publication of books in the language of the people, and not in the book -tyle u style as remote from that of the former almost as Latin is from that of English. Then knowledge and learning Avould be the property of everyone instead of being confined to the lettered masses. J!i>t>li* rfcinnini'/iili'il . II. A. Giles's Mienis of Chinese Literature." contains ;i selection of Chinese literature made from all times and all elates. Notes on Chinese Literature.' l>y the lateKev. A. Wylie. I..I..D. i> a list of hundreds of Chinese hooks, classified according ti> their subject matter with notes of great interest on them, and a preface giving an account of Chinese literature. We cannot give a list here <>f the native works which have been translated into English and the other Kuropea.ii landmines : they are legion. 236 THUGS CHL\i;*i:. MANCHOOS. The family that now occupies the throne in China is not a native one, but one of Manchoo Tartars. Their original habitat was in the neighbourhood of the Long White Mountain, being a small branch of the Tungusic nomads. Transplanted from thence by the ambition of a capable leader, they have flourished in the wider are:t of China, which has given greater scope to their abilities than the narrow confines of Manchuria. The history of the whole of the region is a long one. and is blended with that of China through many generations and dynasties. Repeated waves of incursions have swept into the North of China, or beaten against its borders to be driven back, and. losing their power for a period, have finally gathered strength and united their forces for another effort which, perhap> proving more successful than the last, has resulted in a partial or complete s\\ay over the Middle Kingdom, which, with its riches, has ever proved a tempting prey for its nomadic neighbours. The Mancho( >s have been known by various names: in their quiescent periods by that of Sishiin, Sooshfm orNiijin. as well as by their numerous dynastic titles assumed when, under the vigorous guidance of a skilful chieftain, their power was consolidated and a simple tribal rule was developed int<> that of an incipient Mate, having within its comparative!} small bounds the potentialities of mighty empires and kingdoms: for hi>tory has only repeated itself in their ea-r. as in that of man\ others: for the incursions of the \\\\\\< arc only the historic movements in Europe of the same species of tribes \vli> originated from the same neighbour- hood, and who. on account of their >ele<-tion of modern Kurope as their >tage in the one case, brought thcmselve.- more prominently before the eyes of the Western historian than the Manchu Tartars did when they overthrew the native Chinese dynasty in the other case. Thai o\errun of Europe is more- akin to the partial conquest of China that part of it lying to the North of the Yellow River by the Niijin or Sooshun, the ancestors of the present Mancliu-. MANCUOOS. 237 where they ruled as the Kin dynasty for more than a century, A.D. 1118 to 1235 contemporaneously with a native dynasty in the South of China, until both were deposed by another foreign dynasty, that of the Mongols under Genghis Khan. In common with the other nomadic neighbours of China <>n her Northern frontier, the ancestors of the Manchu Tartars play a conspicuous part in the history of ancient China. Wars, intrigues, subterfuges, plots and counterplots, treachery, cruelty, and lies, fill up the pages of this history ns much as they do those of the West, and except to those specially interested in such incidents, prove but dry reading to the majority. The Manchu power enlarged its realms, swallowing up neighbouring states, until it extended between the Gulf of Liao-tung and the Amoor : and Manchuria was more populous than at any subsequent period, though the immigration into it now bids fair to raise it to an equally populous condition. Nor at this time could it have been in a low state of civilisation, as we are told that learning flourished and literature abounded.' This strong and extensive kingdom Avas battered to pieces by the Khitans ; and broke up into a number of small independent dans under separate chieftains, which, it would appear, relapsed again into a nomadic, rude, and primitive style of life. Consolidating again under the name of Niijin, they commenced activity once more and became a force and factor in the ceaseless wars with, and against, the divided states of China, as Avell as the neighbouring kingdoms, and. in passing, we may notice that such seems to be the history of ail the Mongolia tribes, vi/.: first, a nomadic primitive .state, followed by increase of numbers and power, and a settled and highly civilised condition, to be followed, on final defeat and overthrow, by an abandonment of literature, cities, and agriculture, and a return to the primitive nomadic condition. But to return to the Niijin, who were rapidly developing into the second condition when their chief took the word Oold, Kin, for the title of his dynasty in contradistinction to 238 TflLVGS that of the Lino, or Iron dynasty, the Khitans or Mongols, then ruling in Northern China, and whom he had defeated in battle, 'for iron, if strong, rusted; while gold always remained bright.' By the combination of the Sung and the Kin, the Lia< > dynasty was driven from the throne out of Northern China. and the Kin .substituted for it. The Yellow River had been the boundary between the Liao and Sung, whereas the Yang-ts/ Avas the boundary between the Kin and the Southern Sung, which succeeded the broken-down Sun-. The Amoor was the northern boundary of the Kin. They 'established themselves at Peking in A.D. 11 18. whence they were driven in A.D. 1235 by Genghis Khan, and fled back to the ancestral haunts, on the Songari and Liati Rher-.' Their modern descendants again, after some centuries. established themselves at Peking, and have reigned longer than their ancestors, from A.D. 1(>11 to the present day. and over a larger extent of country, for the whole of the China of the present day is subject to them. We refer our readers t<> our article on History whore, under the Ts'ing dynasty, the name they have elected to rule under, some short account will be found of their doings. Amongst the modern Manchus Buddhism is in vogue. and spiritualism is believed in in the shape of the fox, the stoat or the tiger. They seem more religiously disposed than the Chinese, and Christian missions have al.-o met with success am.ng.st them. They are not so opposed to Western innovations as the Chinese. Their peaceful life and dependence upon charity has eaten much of the hardihood and bravery out of the in a nation ; but the rulers arc still able men. They do not bind the feet of the women. JionJix rri-iiiii>ni leriei of articles appeared in 'The I'lm-nK. 71. entitled -Tin- Origin <>f tin- .Manchiis.' by II. II. II<>\vartli. 1 Ili-tory of <',>r< a.' l>v llcv. -I. I!..-- 'i>nt:iiii< :i '-'""I !' :il :il>ut the early hi.-t>ry of the Manclm.-: ami 'The Main-lms or tin- Itei^nin:,' Dyna- Miina.' by the MUne atlthor, give* B full account of their nimli-ni lii.-tor\ I IP -:iinc author has \\rittdi a .-ln>rt r-ay on ili.'in cntitlc-1 ''I'lii- Maiichii-.' |nilili.~lii il in t!i-' Reeordfl of t lie Mi--ionary Conference held at Shan.L'liai I'l.e Ma-iel-n-i in China' in 'China lU-vit-w.' Vol. i:,, [,. L'f,:;. Lv J-I. II. I'ar: 23<> MANC1IU LANGUAGE. The Manchu language be- longs to the Turanian stock of languages, and is entirely unlike Chinese. It is polysyllabic. It has been inferred that all the languages of Mongolia, Manchuria and Corea, were originally one language, at all events they were polysyllabic 2.000 years ago. This language then boasts a considerable antiquity, but knots in strings and notches in sticks and such like devices of unlettered people were their only means of record. They, when they felt pressing need of a more intelligible mode of perpetuating their speech by visible signs, turned to the Chinese and studied Chinese letters and literature in the time of the T'ang dynasty ; but a desire to have a writing of their own arose amongst them, the Khitans being the first to adopt .some of the Chinese characters to stand for the syllables of their own language. This was in A.D. 920. Two kinds of characters were employed, but though it is not a thousand years ago, not a trace of them as far as is known, has been left behind. It would appear, however, that the Khitans only perfected former attempts made by others. The ancestors of the present Manchus used both this Khitan and Chinese writing, but, after conquering half of the Khitan empire, the Emperor ordered a new style of writing to be devised, and pretty much in the same way as before, parts of Chinese characters were used to express the sounds. In A.D. 1119 and 1135, two different styles were invented, and, as with the Khitans' former essay, Averc extensively used. This second written, language was again forgotten and disused; and the modern Manchus only learned from Chinese history that their ancestors possessed a written language of their own. Unfor- tunately it also appears to be irretrievably lost. These two first written languages were written horizontally. The M< mgols. successors of these ancient Manchus, (Churchens or Niichen) used Uigur writing for governmental matters. Avhich is very like the ancient Syriac, or Sabiean, but whether it was introduced to this part of the world by the Nestoriau missionaries (see article on Missions) or earlier, is not known : and the Churchens or Manchus who were subject to the Mongols used this Uigur writing. They also used the Mongol "240 THINGS CHINESE. language until the foundations of the Manchu empire wore laid, when they discarded it, still using the Mongol alphabet to write the Manchu language; but when many Chinese works had been translated into Manchu, it was found that it, the Mongol alphabet, was not a suitable medium to employ iu writing Manchu. Improvements were then introduced by which the ' Manchu writing acquired an alphabet distinct from Mongol; and, although for two hundred years no further radical changes have been introduced, it has during that time, in the course of long and extensive use. developed a roundness, elegance, and grace which still further distinguish it from its rude parent.' The alphabet is syllabic. Every effort was made by the Manchu Government to foster the acquisition of their own language by Manchus : books were translated from the Chinese, for they had no literature of their own, and every means taken to make the Manchus a literary race, but all to no purpose, for the conquered race, the Chinese, have vanquished their conquerors. Though numbering five millions in 184-8, they live scattered in garrisons amongst the Chinese, and having to learn Chinese, and possessing no indigenous native literature, they have turned to Chinese books. Not only with the common people, but with the Manchu Government itself, Chinese was of more importance, for what are five millions of people compared with three or four hundred millions ; so the consequence lias been that Manchu is being rapidly forgotten, and is becoming an extinct language in China, though probably spoken in the wilds of Manchuria. Modern Manchu is like Chinese, written in vertical columns. Jtooks i-' coirnni mlcil. 'History of the Manchn lan^ua^e. from the. Preface tn Professor I. /:n-li:irot}'s Mucha-Ruwiaii Dictionary, isr.">, translated from the Russian l>y M. F. A. I-Yas.-r.' U-iiii: two articles in tin- March and April, 1891. imiiihers of The fliinese Recorder.' Translation of the I'-sinu' wen K'ennij: a Chinese < irammir oi' tin- Manehn Tartar lan^iiiiuc. \\ith iiitro.luetory nutes on Manehn literature.' by the late A. Wylie. Ks.j. I..I..D. M All III AUK. Marriage is the one end and aim set. forth for a girl: this is the goal to which she is taught to look forward, or to which her parents look forward for her, for it matters little about the girl herself. She is almost a MARRIAGE. 211 nonentity in the matter : her wishes are not consulted ; she has often never seen her future husband ; she is even some- times hypothetically betrothed to a contingent husband, that is to say, two married couples sometimes agree that if one should have a son and the other a daughter they shall be married when they grow up. From the last, it will be seen that the man is not much better off. It is not the parties themselves that arc considered so much for the individual is nothing in China it is the respective families that are taken into account. A man in China does not marry so much for his own benefit as for that of the family : to continue the family name; to provide descendants to keep up the ancestral worship ; and to give a daughteraaraiw to his mother to wait on her, and be, in generalf-aaaughter to her. So far are these ideas carried th>t^if her future husband die before marriage, his intended wife, if a model girl, will leave her own family and go and live with that of her deceased betrothed, and perform all the services which her position then requires of her. Nearly all the fun of life, and very little she has at the best, is gone as soon as a the Chinese customs with regard to men are different from those with regard to women, he is free to marry again. The >"ung lady does n-.t name the day, as with us but the father of the bridegroom does that. Her trousseau is sent to her future home before her marriage, and is made the occasion for a procession, the bearers of the various objects being clad in red jackets, and parading through the streets. For some days preceding the wedding, the girl, with her sisters and friends, 'bewails and MARRIAGE. 241* laments her intended removal from the home of her fathers.' The bridal chair, which we have already mentioned, is carried last in the wedding- procession ; many carved wooden pavilions (carved open wooden stands with, or without, covers over them, as the case may be) with sweetmeats, and the inevitable music, lanterns, and other objects which go to make up a Chinese procession are not absent. It wends its way to the bride's home, where the friend of the bridegroom presents a letter to her, written on red paper tinged with gold, urging the bride to come. This letter is carefully kept by the bride, and is somewhat the equivalent of 'marriage lines' in England. After certain ceremonials are gone through, the bride makes her appearance, but her features are concealed effectually, not by a white veil (white is for mourning), but by a piece of red silk. After saluting the friend of the bridegroom, she enters the chair and is borne with the clashing of gongs and the playing of the Chinese Wedding- March to the bridegroom's house. Preceding her are the only equivalents of bridesmaids, female attendants ; and her younger brother follows in an ordinary chair. Arrived at her future home, the chair is set down. The bridegroom is at the door with his fan, with which lie knocks at the door of the chair, which the bridesmaids open, and the red-veiled bride, still with face unseen, steps out. She is placed on the back of a female servant, and carried over a slow charcoal fire. * * * \b >ve her head, as she is conveyed over the charcoal fire, another female servant raises a tray containing several pairs of chop-sticks, some rice, and betel-nuts. By this time the bridegroom has taken his place on a high stool, on which he stands to receive his bride, who prostrates herself at the foot, and docs obeisance to her lord. This high stool is intended to indicate the great superiority of the husband over the wife. Descending from his elevated position, the bridegroom removes the veil of red silk. Now for the first time he catches a glimpse of his wife's face. It is still, however, more or less hidden by the strings of pearls which hang from her bridal coronet. The bridal pair are conducted to the ancestral hall, where they prostrate themselves before the altar on which the 244 THINGS CHINESE. ancestral tablets are arranged. Heaven and Earth, and the gods of the principal doors of the house, and the parents of the bride are the next objects of their worship. A further act of homage, which consists in pouring out drink-offerings to the ancestors of the family, having been duly performed by the bridegroom only, the happy couple are escorted to the bridal chamber, where, they find the orange-tree with its strings of cash, emblems of fruitfulness and wealth, and the burning tapers, which formed a part of the procession, placed on the nuptial couch. From the top of the bed are suspended three long strips of red paper,' containing good wishes : one being, May you have a hundred sons and a thousand grandsons/ The bridegroom having now saluted the bride, they sit down and partake of tea and cake.' The bride tries hard at this time to get a piece of her husband's dress under her when she sits down, for, if she does, it will ensure her having the upper hand of him, while he tries to prevent her and to do the same himself. The strings of pearls which hang from her coronet are now ' drawn aside by the maids in attendance, in order that the bridegroom may have an opportunity of seeing the features of his bride, who, that he may receive a correct impression of them, has carefully omitted the use of rouge in her toilet operations. * * * * While the bridal pair are thus engaged, many of the relatives and friends assembled to celebrate the wedding, enter the chamber, and freely remark on the personal appearance of the bride.' This must, be a trying ordeal to a modest retiring girl, as the observations are loud enough for all to hear. Her new relatives and friends wish her many children; and the bridegroom soon lea\es ln-r to mix with his guests. * At seven o'clock in the evening a banquet in honour of her parents-in-law is prepared by the bride. When all things are ready, the parents eater the banqueting-hall, where the bride, after bringing the principal dish, or : tho-e who are suffering from sores; and, last but not least, blind beggars. The demarcations between these different e],is<"s are not always strongly accentuated, as the one class may merge into the ot her. A business like this requires preparation; it is com- menced by some in early life, the youngsters generally MENDICANTS. 217 being found leading the strings of three or four blind beggars, otherwise it is a case of the blind leading the blind, and, all things considered, they appear to get on very well. It is not an unknown thing by any means for mothers to deprive their children of eyesight in order that they may earn their living as blind singing girls ; and some of the beggars may owe their blindness to the same cause. No doubt many others have lost their eyesight from disease; for different affections of the eyes arc very common in China, where there is no proper knowledge of preventives, nor of curatives ; the hot sun, bad air, poor living, and the reprehen- sible practice of the barbers of scraping and cleaning the socket of the eye must induce blindness in others. Next to blindness, open and festering sores and wounds, and deformi- ties of limbs, of any and every kind, either form a good capital to start on, or, shutting out all other means of gaining a livelihood, reduce the sufferer to beggary of position and beggary as a calling. Failing genuine wounds, and armed with a knife, a sturdy impudent vagabond, with strength of limb and body and good eyesight, may cut himself in a shop, with noisy and wild yells, and gather a wide-mouthed crowd, which, nocking in and obstructing trade, draws a cash or two from the accountant, the Chinese horror of blood bein: also a o sufficient ready-drawer of alms. The next shop, or one a few doors further on. forms another stage for the repetition of the performance. These nuisances, for whom one feels no sympathy, but disgust, are fortunately not so common as some of the other varieties of the genus beggar. One of the most common is the string-beggar. Almost always blind, this class goes about in small bands of three or four, sometimes five, mostly females, but one or two males arc not uncommonly found in the string, each with a slender long bamboo, the equivalent of the foreign beggar's stick. They make their way, tapping with short quick taps, now uncertainly feeling with their bamboos, Avhich serve as antennae, lifting their sightless orbs in vain appeals for light, raising their faces with that pathetic helplessness, though possibly in the exercise of that facial perception with which 218 THINGS CHINESE. those borne blind are accredited (a new sense vouchsafed to those deprived of sight -which enables them 'by some singular insight' to tell when they are opposite some object, as to its dimensions and characteristics, such as height, breadth, &c.). Happy are these Bartimscuscs with their sisters, wives, nnd cousins, if some bright-eyed youngster, not smitten with the darkness of night in broad mid-day, is found to lead their devious course through the crowded streets. Such an one is also better able to see the white fan kwi, whose pockets are filled with gold, or, at least, who has not hoarded up a store of bad cash to pass off on the beggar-tribe as their countrymen have. As soon as he appears in sight, their monotonous whine is exchanged for more vigorous appeals, and higher titles of respect follow each other in rapid suc- cession in the hope >f loosing the purse-strings of the young clerk who has instant brevet rank of Taipan. Cap-i-tan (Captain), Worship, Honour, Lordship, and every tiling else worth having. Let us watch their modux <>i>< i-d by a commuted sum paid to the 'Lord of All the Beggar-.' Should the shopkeeper be a good natured one, a cash <>r two may be flung to the string, who may get it without even the trouble of going further than the door-step, but as often as n<>t. if not more often than not. more pat ient toil is necessary to earn '\en a broken cash. Then the whole .string tile in, each holding on to the back of the other, and the monotonous, whining, sing- song appeal begins; the shopmen turn a deaf ear to everything, titles are thrown away the pearls are cast before the swim-. who, in this one case, dare not turn to rend th'-m, perhaps for fear of vengeance though al< > is not one string of beggars for half an hour better than half a do/en strings of them in the same time? And. as long 88 one String ifl in possession of the place, the others pass by. Wearied, some of the band, if not all of them, crouch down on the tiled floor waiting for their opportunity, for it is bound to come sooner MENDICANTS. 249 or later; and here it is at last, for several customers of another sort step in purchasers, at sound of whom the din and clatter of the beggars begin with renewed energy, and the surly shopmen, whom no amount of pity could move, hasten, for fear of losing a good customer, and to get rid of the wearisome noise, to. toss a "few coins into the shallow basket of the mendicants, who renew the same tactics at each shop in the street. Better when the round happens at meal time, for then the beggar will get some broken victuals to fill his empty stomach, receiving them in the first place in his shallow basket, or in his bowl, which latter Shakyamuni Buddha has sanctified, mid his numerous priest followers have hallowed by the use of centuries. The solitary beggar wends his way though the mazy street, picking up an odd cash, here and there, from those more charitably disposed than the rest, or from those who seek immunity from the pest that the beggar is to the whole of the respectable world. Some select a space in a busy spot, and with a written- out appeal, setting forth that, natives of other provinces, they are stranded in what is, to all intents, almost a strange land to them, sit down and wait for alms : others select some quieter spot, but where the stream of passers-by is still sufficient to give a hope of an occasional dole from unwilling hands, the donors hoping that merit for the deed, though performed unwillingly, may mitigate the horrors of a future hell. One feels a pity for some of these beggars stranded wayfarers; broken-down tradesmen; ruined gamblers, roue*; with the punishment of all their profligacy on them: and, saddest of all, some poor old woman whose undutiful son has turned her out on the street, penniless, and with no- shelter for her gray hairs, to depend on the uncertain charity of her neighbours, who, though virtuous in their indignation, give 110, or but little, practical proof of their sorrow, and who are in constant dread lest the old dame should give up the ghost on their doorsteps; harsh words and angry rebuffs, therefore, forbid her sheltering herself 250 TIIIXGH under what were crewhile friendly roofs ; for would not the economy of Chinese social life, as well as its judicial system, render the tender-hearted, who should overstep the limits of prudence and on whose premises she might die, liable, at least, to the expense of a coffin and funeral ; the presence of a ghost haunting the house would follow: and, even worse still, some trumped-up charge of having caused her death might bring the charitably disposed within the clutches of the law a law hard to escape from, with all its concomitants of torture and prc-Howard-day prisons. It is curious how very polite the chair-coolies are to the blind beggars in the street, addressing them as 'Sir,' when requesting them to get out of the way a nice trait in Chinese character, due to their innate politeness, and perhaps ;ilso to self interest, as a want of it might lead to bad language. These beggars are not always most polite: the writer was once knocked, with not a light hand, by a woman in the streets of Canton, but there was some excuse for her. as she seemed to be crazy. Many of thp beggars in Canton sleep in an asylum in the east of the City, and go out by day to ply their trade. .J//XN/OA',s'. ANUF.NT MISSIONS. Tradition points to an early proclamation of Christianity in China. The apostle Thomas has been mentioned as the first missionary to this Kmpire; at all e\enis. if seems that some of the first teachen of the new faith must have selected China as their mission field. It would bo most interesting to have had some particulars of this enterprise, but we must be content witli rumours and detached notice- in ancient ecclesiastical writings. which give but a vague and mist \ idea of the extent of the work and its results. , OKIAN MISSIONS. The next solid ground that we have to rest upon is the historical fact of the Nestorians having earned oil missions in China. A thousand questions present themselves to one'.-, mind as to the work done by these men, the <>\r,'iit of country they travelled over, the numbers that came to China, their in<"ln.< / r>. gathering, burst in the next reign, when, in A.D. 1721. an edict was issued against them prohibiting the propagation of Roman Catholicism, and only retaining the few missionaries required for scientific purposes in Peking: all the others \\eiv required to leave the country. Some obeyed the edict while others remained in secret. Many of the Chinese converts remained iirm, notwithstanding the persecutions which arose now and then. Matters remained in this state for about a ccntnr\, when in A.D. 1 8 12 Christianity was tolerated by treaty. There are now numbers of priests and numerous bodies of Roman Catholics in the country. When the priests care to use a Bible, the translation they employ is said to be that of the first Protestant missionary, Dr. Morrison ; for though translations of portions have been made by them, yet like the Church of Rome they seem never to have printed the whole Bible and given it to the people ; they have, however quite a literature, barring the Bible, of their own in Chinese. They do not seem to practice any public preaching ; but retain hold of the communities of converts already made. In one point they are very aggressive, and that is in the baptizing of infants, and every one so sprinkled becomes a unit in their grand total of Christians. The Roman Catholic Register,' a paper published a few years since in Hongkong, gave the following as the statistics of Romish missions in China : Bishops, 41 ; European priests, 66 1' ; native priests, 559; colleges, 34; convents, 34; native converts, 1,092,818. One well-known writer speaks thus of their work: 'Had they adhered to religious teaching, their converts would doubtless have been legion ; but the usual rash meddling with politics soon aroused fear of foreign aggression, leading to violent opposition and terrible persecu- tion, which have been repeated with every fresh scare of undue political influence * It is this arrogation of temporal authority which has so incensed the Chinese, and accounts for much of the hostility to missionaries and converts of all Christian churches and denominations, as the ignorant masses naturally could not discriminate between Protestants and Roman Catholics. Hence, in the Edict of Toleration proclaimed in 1886, the Imperial Government deem it necessary to state that men who may embrace Christianity do not cease to be Chinese, but as such are entitled to all protection from their own government, to which alone they owe obedience. The promulgation of this Edict followed immediately on the decision of the Pope to send a Papal Legate to the Court of Peking, to represent him as the sole foreign power interested in the Chinese Roman Catholics, thereby totally disclaiming all political protection from France/ -256 THIXGS CHINESE. PROTESTANTS. The first Protestant Missionary to China was the Rev. Robert Morrison, who arrived in A.D. 1807. There Avas such a strong feeling against all Europeans at that time that he was unable to preach in public or carry on direct evangelistic work, but he engaged in some literary undertakings, which not only redounded to his credit, but prepared the way for future labourers. A gigantic dictionary of the language and the translation of the whole Bible, have made his name famous, and it is a marvel how, confined within the foreign factories (as the European settlement in Canton was called) in a godown, and assisted by a teacher who was in terror of being discovered, this wonderful man, nearly single-handed, accomplished such tasks. It is true he had a former translation of a part of the New Testament which he used as a basis, and he had the help of Dr. Milne in translating part of the old Testament. but with all these aids the labour must have been herculean. ' It was prin ted from wood blocks and published in 21 volumes in 1823.' Thus Protestant missions in China took their start 011 the Bible, and it is to this reliance on the word of God it their inception that their wonderful success is due. Of his other herculean task it has well been said: 'There is no finer monument of human perseverance than the dictionary of Dr. Morrison.' Unable to penetrate into China, a number of missionaries settled in the Straits, and, learning the language, were ready, when their opportunity came, to land fitted ti>n premises, but an' used by the- natives themselves to a limited extent for the production of their own IxM.ks. In addition to the English missionaries sun.,. American ones came to Macao. Alter the Nanking Treaty of 1M-2. by which Hongkong was ceded to Great Britain and fixe treaty ports opened, the missionaries came up from the Straits and more armed from home. Better translations of the Bible were made, schools established, dispensaries opened, and books printed. There were at that time only several Chinese 257 converts all told. Since that time more ports have been opened, and residence in the interior has been possible in many places, till now there are forty different societies at work, and a few independent workers unconnected with any society. There are 589 men, 391 married women and 316 single iladies, making a total of 1 .296 : these are British. American, German, and Canadian. Of native helpers there are 1,657. There are 522 organized native churches, (but this number .may be stated as more than a thousand if each company of 'believers is termed a Church) of which 94 are self-supporting, and nearly 50 partially so. These native churches are a sufficient answer as to whether missions have been a success in China or not, for a Chinese Avill not pay away money for Christianity unless he is convinced of its truth. There are also 38 churches which are under a general endowment scheme, the money being contributed by natives alone ; besides this there is a group of sixty congregations which arc to support themselves; there are other cases also which might be included, so that the numbers of self-supporting churches given above fall short of the reality. The amount contributed in money is $36,884.54, but ' no account is taken of the value of houses and land given by natives to the churches to which they belong.' Extra to these are the concomitants of mission work, such as schools, with 16,836 pupils, and medical work of hospitals there are 61, of dispensaries 44, with hundreds of thousands of patients passing through them annually. There are 12 religious journals published by missionaries, and hosts of books are being annually issued from the mission press, not only religious ones, but scientific manuals as well, of every kind and character. Had Protestant missionaries done nothing olse in China than prepare and publish the books issued by them in Chinese ; start the schools ; written the books in English, containing narratives of their own travels, and accounts of the natives, and of their religious customs and manners : translated native works : instructed the youth of both sexes ; and founded hospitals and dispensaries had these, we say. been the only things accomplished by Protestant s 258 THINGS CHIXEXK. missionaries, they would have done a noble work: but added to all these more secular labours is the directly religious work of preaching the gospel, tract and Bible distribution, visiting, gathering together the converts, &c., &c., all of which, though less appreciated by the general mercantile community of China, has been as signally successful as the other class of undertakings. It is less than eighty-five years since Protestant missions were started in China, and at first the missionaries were but a handful in number, restricted in their operations, and routined to a few localities. They have had up-hill work, prejudice and ignorance opposing them, a difficult language to learn Avhich requires several years hard study before a sufficient knowledge of it can be acquired for general use. but little sympathy from their fellow countrymen, and yet the following statistics will show what has been the result of one phase, and one phase alone, of their labours: In 1842 there were 6 communicants. 1 865 1876 1886 2889 2,000 13,035 28,000 37,287 If Christian missions advance in the next thirty-five \ ears in the same ratio as in the past thirty-five years, there will be at the end of that time twenty-six million- <>nj;.i rrftiiH'/i(/i"//. -'Christianity in China: Xestorianism Roman Catholicism, Protestantism,' by Professor Le.yjje. of Oxford University. Christum Progress in Chiiui,' by Ht:v. A. Foster. B.A. There are numerous other works dealing with dill'erent sections of the mission liehl. which arc good as far as they ^o. Some idea also of what has been done, and is cluing, mav be gathered from a study of ; Records of the Missionary Conference, held at Shanghai 18DU/ Also see 'China. Review,' Vol. XVIII.. p. i:>2. MONGOLS. The Mongols arc another of those nomadic races bordering China, who have forced themselves into relationships with that Empire. The Huns or Hwing-noo were the ancestors of the present Mongols. As Attila, with his hordes of savage Huns, was styled the 'Scourge of God.' and proved to be veritably the ' Terror of the West ' in the fifth century : so early during the time of the Han dynasty (B.C. 202 to A.D. 190), the Hwing-noo proved entitled to a similar appellation as regards the China of that period, for they oftimes became * virtual masters of the Empire.' The Heabi, another Mongolia tribe, made themselves famous in Chinese history during the Han dynasty for about a hundred years. They also proved an annoyance to suc- ceeding dynasties, becoming a formidable State ranging over northern China and engulfing parts of it. A number of these Mongols, as well probably as some of the Huns and other Mongolia tribes, were settled in North China; and so not only were there foes without, but foes 260 mixes within ; and in preparation for a war with the external foes, the Emperor ordered a Chinese ' St Bartholomew's Day ' of all the nomadic tribes within his borders, so that 200,000 families were slain. To prevent them turning traitors many Chinese also suffered in the indiscriminate slaughter, but. even after such treatment, Tibetan and Hunnish families collected in China, and harsh laws were enacted against them, which drove large numbers of them out ; before that Hienbi Mongols had returned to China, and they continued to do so afterwards. There was a Hunnish Kingdom, one of the rnost powerful < >f the many rival ones into which China was divided, in A.D. 435. Mongols, under the name of Too-kiie. assisted the first Hmperor of the T ; ang dynasty to gain the throne of China. These same Turks, as they were called, plundered the north- western, and northern borders of China during the whole f the T'ang dynasty. The Khitans, another Mongolic tribe originally, have also made for themselves a chapter in Chinese history. Harrying the frontiers and plundering the country, defeated by the Chinese, who employed 1.800.000 men to build a great Avail to protect the Empire from their ravages in the rime of the Chi dynasty : eclipsed by the so-called Turks, they rose, to be again defeated. After acknowledging the supremacy of the Chinese, they again fought with them, and threatened the North of China after the T'ang dynasty had rippled it- -trench in its exhausting and foolish \varairain-i ancient Corea; t\v<> expeditions \\ere-eut airain-t them, which proved ineffectual, and it \\as found impossible to oust them from the new territories they had ae<|uiml. It is impossible. however, to follow the fortnne> of the Khitans through all the intricacies of the history of Chinese dealings with their nomadic neighbour-. Suffice it to .-ay. that eventually in \.D. i>!2<5. the Khitans. after Kastern Mongolia had been formed into a Kingdom, began to lay the foundations of that Empire under Abdoji 'one of the great conquerors of mankind.' Under his successors they assumed the Imperial po\ver as the Liao, or Iron dynasty, overthrowing the Tsin MONGOLS. 261 Emperor. They carried on incessant wars with the Sung, and reigned over the country north of the Yellow River. their dominion extending as far north as the Songari and Hoorha rivers. The Khitans are said to have had a curious custom, that of drinking human blood, which the husbands drank from the living bodies of their wives by cutting a small slit in the wife's back. Their higher civilisation in other matters would almost appear to throw some doubt on this strange propensity, as they were painters, and had a literature comprising thousands of volumes, including medical works, at the time when they entered China : they were hospitable, and fond of drink. It may be hero proper to remark, that 'Huns,' 'Turks,' and ''Mongols' 'differ only as the Han, T'ang. and Sung of China differ. They are but dynastic titles of the same people.' They were finally driven out of Northern China by the help of the ancestors of the present Manchus, who succeeded them as the Kin dynasty, after a reign by the Liao dynasty of 210 years. It is interesting to note that Peking was first made a capital during their time. We next find the Kins, as well as the native Chinese dynasty in the south, swept oft' their thrones by the Mongols. The name, Kin, is said by Ross to mean 'silver.' Genghis Khan had gathered together the numerous bands ''of restless cavalry on the north of Shamo and the west of the Hinganlin." Defeated tribes swelled his numbers, and he entered on a career of conquest; his sons completed his work as far as China Avas concerned, the Yuen dynasty, as it was called, reigning over the whole of China for a period of eighty-eight years, until the Ming, a native dynasty, was founded on the ruins of the destroyed and hated power of the Mongols (see article on Chinese History). MONGOLS, CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS OF. The distinguishing features of the Mongols are described, by the late celebrated Russian traveller, Col. Prejevalsky. as 'a broad fiat face, with high cheek-bones, wide nostrils, small narrow eyes, large prominent ears, coarse black hair, scanty whiskers* and beard, a dark sunburnt complexion, and lastly, a stout 77//.V(/N tliick-set figure, rather above the average lieight.' Th" Chinese face is 'cast in' a 'more regular mould/ The men sha\e their heads like the Chinese, but the women plait their hair "in two braids decorated with ribbons, strings of coral, or gla-s beads, which hang down on either side of the bosom.' The Mongols live in felt huts or tents, and are very dirty, never washing their bodies and faces, and their hands but seldom. They drink givaf quantities of tea and 'milk prepared in various ways, either as butter-curds, whey, or kumiss,' and are much addicted to drunkenness. Mult >n is eaten in great quantities. 'Their only occupation and source of wealth is cattle-breeding, and their riches are counted by the numb-r of their live-stock.' They are very fond of their animals, and lay themselves out completely for them, being very considerate of them. Their cattle. &c., are bartered for manufactured goods. They are very la/y, ir-ver walking, but always riding on horseback, and are givat cowards, but are fond of hunting- They are kind and simple-minded. A Mongol can only have one lawful wife, but he can keep concubines,' the children of the latter 'arc illegitimate, and have no share in the inheritance.' "'Bribery and corruption are as prevalent as in China.' ''Religious services are performed in Tibetan.' Htntl'x recommended. ('<>]. Prejevalsky'g ' Mongolia. 1 Tli' l:it- \\>~\ . -I. (Mlmour'fl Amontc tin 1 Mongols." Fur :i il. |>n-it!'- Mon-ol Ion- ' on their history. X<-., tlnT<- :iiv the |HIL;C volumes n|' 1 |(.\\..i-th's ' If istury nf tin- Mongols.' MO Mi 01. LANGUAGE, Th<- Mongol language is rich in words and .v \vral forms and dialects, which, however, are not very distinct, except, as be! ween Northern and Southern Mongolian, where the difference is str-.ngly marked/ where 'even'the construction of the sentence changes." They read from left, to right in vertical columns. 'There an- il good many printed books, the Chinoe ty!es of blue shoes. In the North of China, however, white- is the only mourning used. There arc indications also on the visiting cards to show mourning. The whole nation goes into mourning to a certain extent on the deatli of the sovereign. No one is allowed to shave for 100 days after it U proclaimed. The poor barbers must have a sad time of it. The discomfort and distress are minimised by the natives getting a clean shave before the decree enforcing mourning i- promulgated. The writer chanced to be in Shanghai on the death of the Emperor T ; ung-chi, and it was curious to sec all the wheel-barrows come out with blue cloths on their seats (for wheel-barrows arc the cabs of the natives of Shanghai) instead of the red ones. A Chinese wears mourning for his superiors and equal- in relationship; he does not require to put on mourning (' <\ his wife, but an affectionate husband, as the author himself lias seen, will sometimes put on white at his wife's funeral. though it is not incumbent on him to do so, or even to attend the corpse to the grave; in the same way, some abstain from red cord in the queue and bright colours, though it is not obligatory to do so. As some who profess horrible creeds are often better than their beliefs: so there are Chinese who are better than their heartless ceremonials, which take no, or -but little, account of women or children. MOURNING. A period of seven times seven days is observed in mourning, funeral rites being performed on each seventh day up till the forty-ninth. There are five degrees of mourning, as follows: mourn- ing for parents ; for grandparents and great-grandparents ; for brothers, sisters, &c. ; for uncles, aunts, &c.; and for distant relatives in line of descent or ascent. In the first, sackcloth without hem or border; in the second, sackcloth with hem or border; in the third, fourth, and fifth, pieces of sackcloth are on certain parts of the dress. When sackcloth is worn, after the third interval of seven days is over the mourners can cast it oft', and then wear plain colours, such as white, gray, black, and blue. For a parent the period of mourning is nominally three years, but really twenty-seven months, and during all this time no silk can be worn; during these twenty-seven months officials have to resign their appointments, and retire from public life. There is an immense 1 amount of ceremonial connected with Chinese mourning, and different duties to be performed, certain of them devolving on the chief mourner, such, as carrying a certain mourning staff in the procession. The whole subject is one that much might be written upon, as there are many curious customs connected with deaths, such. for example, as the chief mourner, supported on each side and accompanied by friends, going out with a musician playing a discordant flageolet, till they come to a well or pool, when a cash or two is flung into the water, and some dipped up in a basin they have brought witli them, taken home, and the corpse washed in it. There is, however, such an amount of tedious minutiio about the whole subject, that we believe enough has been written to give the reader some idea of the practices at such times. linnltx reeomwendfd. Archdeacon Gray's China/ for Cantonew customs ; Rev. J. Doolittle's Social Customs of the Chinese ' for those at Foot-how ; and one or two articles in * The Hongkong Daily Tress,' for 18(>1. forsome account of those of the Hakkas. Also see the ' Li-Ki ' as to the ancient mourning customs on which the modern ones an' based, mollified by local usages and practice. -The China Review,' Vol. XVII., pp. 47 and 48, contains a list of Days of Official Mourning in China. For a short account of some of the funeral rites performed once every seven day* until the forty-ninth day, see 'China Review.' Vol. XVII., p. 38. THIXGS CHINESE. Olusic in China has undoubtedly been known since the remotest antiquity. It is said to have been invented by the Emperor Fu-hsi (B.C. 2852). ****** It is. say the Chinese, the essence of the harmony existing between heaven, earth, and man. ****** ^hc first invaders of China certainly brought with them certain notions of music. The Aborigines themselves had also some kind of musical system, which their conquerors admired and probably mixed with their own.' Different systems seem to have been evolved by different Emperors and were differently styled, but it assumed its * characteristic form ' with the Emperor Huang-ti (B.C. 2697) when, amidst other innovations, names were given to the sounds, and one fixed upon as a base note. Theoretically, music holds a position of paramount importance in the good go\ eminent of a State. Either this ancient music wa- !' an extraordinary character, for Confucius was so ravished on hearing a piece, composed by the great Shun 1.600 year- before his time, that he did not taste meat for three year- : or the Chinese were sensitively responsive to certain com- binations of sounds in a manner unknown to Europeans. Unfortunately we have no means of testing which is true, for the knowledge of this ancient music is lost. If the descriptions of it are true to the reality, no one who lias heard Chine.-e music of the present day will have any hesitation in accepting the statement of its being unknown no\\ . Some nio-t abstru-e theories are all that remain for us to form an opinion about it. At the great destruction of books, those on music. :i- well as musical instrument-. >hared 'the same fate as every object which could give rise to any remembrance of past times.' it efforts were made to resuscitate the lost art: some of the books and instruments \\ere recovered from their hiding places: but the times wore not favourable for the -cultivation of peaceful arts: the memory of the great music- master, in whose family the office, had been hereditary, was not sufficient to bridge over the chasm which the great- catastrophe had occasioned; different authors disagreed in MUSIC. 267 their theories, and a confusion of the different systems has resulted. Two Emperors of the present dynasty, Kang-hsi and Clricn-lung, used their best efforts ' to bring music back to its old splcnd nir,' but without much success. Mr. Van Aal.st divides Chinese music into two kinds ' 'ritual or sacred music, which is passably sweet, and generally of a minor character; and the theatrical or popular music. * * The present Chinese theoretically admit seven sounds in the scale, but practically they only u.se five, and that as well in ritual music as in popular tunes/ Chinese music cannot be exactly represented on our Western musical instruments, as the intervals between the notes are not the same as ours. Ritual Music is used in the acts of worship in which the. Emperor either takes part himself or is represented by a deputy, such as the worship of Heaven and Earth, of Ancestors, of the Sun and Moon, &c., and of Confucius. The popular music includes all other kinds, and there are not a few. Xot a profession of any importance winds its meander- ing course through the busy narrow lanes, that do duty for streets in a great part of China, but has bands of musicians, sometimes scores of bands, having small drums and clashing cymbals. &c. That music should take a prominent part in a marriage is naturally to be expected, but it takes an equally prominent part in funerals, the poorest of which has at least one musician, and the better ones more, playing a dirge on shrill clarionets, in the latter case also bands of performers on instruments are seen as well. No officer of a high grade proceeds on an official visit without the deep-toned boom of the sonorous gong proclaiming by the number of beats the rank of the ' great man,' while its other uses are not a few. In evening worship on board ship, it and the drum provide the music. Much of the attraction of the theatre to the natives consists in the music and singing attractive to the native, but ear-splitting and headache-producing to the foreigner. The singing on the stage ' is not unfrequently in the *' recitative" style, and the way the orchestra accompanies, in 268 THINGS CHINESE. broken, sudden chords or in long notes, bears a strikinn- resemblance to our European recitative.' Ballad singing is much appreciated ; blind men play one species of guitar, while blind singing girls accompany themselves on another. The courtesans are given a musical education according to Chinese ideas ; and scarcely a boy or coolie but delights in singing to his h cart's content from a book of songs of one kind or another, or screeches a song in imitation of some theatrical character. Grass cutters and field labourers beguile the time by singing responsive songs, the men and boys singing one verse and the girls the other. The Buddhist priests chant iu their services; while the Taouists also chime their instruments and sing their liturgies. There is quite a variety of musical instruments in use. some being confined to the Chinese sacred music in t heir- ritual ceremonies, and others to popular music. One of the most ancient, is called the ; stone chimes,' consisting of a series of sonorous stones of varying thickness, hung in a frame. There is also the 'single sonorous stone,' and ;i marble flute. This employment of stone for musical instruments is peculiar to China. A 'conch,' a large shell. is used by soldiers, watchmen, and bands of pirates. Bells of different shapes square and round, and of all weights, from over fifty tons downwards are much used, e\ery temple of any M/e having one large one at least. a< \\eli as a large drum. Amongst curious ancient Chinese musical instruments may be noted the chimes of small hells suspended in a framework; and the chimes of gongs, ten in a frame: while another ontri- object is a wooden mortar struck with a wooden hammer. The cymbals in use are said to have come originally from India. Some of the stringed instruments are also most ancient there are a number of lutes, guitars, and \iolins, some of tin- latter with the bow passing between the strings. Of wind instruments, there are flutes and clarionets. Wooden instruments are also made; one of the most common is the wooden fish, it is shaped somewhat like a MUSIC. 269 skull, and hollowed out : it is struck with a piece of wood, and is much used by priests. Of drums there are not a few varieties. ' The sht-ng is one of the most important of Chinese musical instruments. * * * No other instrument is nearly so perfect, either for sweetness of tone or delicacy of construction. The principles embodied in it are substantially the same as those of our grand organs. Indeed, according to various writers, the introduction of the sheng into Europe Jed to the invention of the accordion and the harmonium. Kratzenstein, an organ-builder of St. Petersburg, having become the possessor of a sheng, conceived the idea of applying the principle to organ stops.' Chinese music as looked upon from a foreign standpoint has been thus described: 'The intervals of the Chinese scale not being tempered, some of the notes sound to foreign ears utterly false and discordant. The instruments not being constructed with the rigorous precision which characterises our European instruments, there is no exact justness of intonation, and the Chinese must content themselves with an a pcu prcs. The melodies being always in unison, always in the same key, always equally loud and unchangeable in movement, they cannot fail to appear wearisome and monotonous in comparison with our complicated melodies. Chinese melodies are never definitely major nor minor ; they are constantly floating between the two, and the natural result is that they lack the vigour, the majesty, the tender lamentations of our minor mode; and the charming effects resulting from the alternation of the two modes.' The Chinese do not appreciate our music any more than we do theirs. A Chinese standing listening to the military band playing in Hongkong was asked his opinion of it, and he said the music lacked harmony. That they fully appreciate their own music needs but a glance at the crowd round a Chinese band performing. And their writings equally show this appreciation, for example, take the following from l Gems of Chinese literature ' : ' Softly, as the murmur of whispered words ; now loud and soft together, like the patter of pearls and pcarlets dropping upon a marble dish. Or liquid, like the warbling of the mango-bird in the bush ; trickling like the streamlet on its downward course. And then like the torrent, stilled by the grip of frost, so for a moment was the music lulled, in a passion too deep for words.' 270 THINGS C/I I. \ /:$!<:. Who will say after that, that the Chinese have no soul for music ? Jioal'x ircinHHH'iidi'tf. ; Chinese .Music.' by J. A. Van Aalst published as Xo. (> of the 'Special Series' of the publications of the Imperial Maritime Customs, 1S84 is a nn>st interesting and learned monograph on tin' subject. See -China Keview' for August 1SS2 on the Slit'-nir. by K. VT. Kastlake ; also see same mat" Chinese Music,' by Kev. E. Kaber. Tli. l>. X.I .1/7','X. The different names that a Chinese has are- a perfect pu//le to a European; for nearly every Chinese lias several names. He keeps his surname through life, of course, as we do, but at every memorable event in his life, such as first going to school, getting married. &c., &c., lie takes another name. It must not therefore be supposed that because a native gives you different names for himself he is attempting to palm himself off as someone else, though this system of a plurality of names offers facilities to one who is inclined to be tricky. A Chinaman's surname then is unchangeable, and generally consists of one syllable, though there arc 1 a few of two or three. The surname comes first, and the other names after- wards in fact the Chinese follow the convenient order u>ed in our directories, A remembrance of this would preTonttbe foreign, resident from prefixing our 'Mr.' to the personal name of a Chinese. It sounds incongruous enough to prefix .Mi-.' to a Chinese surnamean attempt to mix two civili- sations which will not blend 1* Aether in harmony, but it- sounds ten times worse to call a perfect stranger by his personal name and then prefix a ''Mr.' to it. To illustrate: Say a Chinese bears the euphonious designation of Clrun Wa ftlk. Now the first, Clrun. i- hi* surname, and \Vafuk is what he elects to be called by, his Christian name in fact. If the Oil'.' must be used, then he is MY. Clrun or Mr. Clrun Wii fuk, but not Mr. \Va fuk or Mr. Fuk any more than Mr. John Harry Jones is Mr. John Harry, or Mr. Harry, to a stranger. About a month after birth a feast is given, and the boy gets his 'milk name' as it is called. This name clings to him through life, as in fact all his names do after they are XAME8. 271 once bestowed. This milk name is, if anything, more especially distinctive, as it is used by his relatives and neighbours, and in official matters if he has no ''book name.' This name of infancy often consists of but one character, and in that case has, in the extreme South, the prefix Ah put before it, so that a boy named Ch'un Luk will commonly be called Ch'un Ah Ink, though the Ah is not really a part of his name. In theFuh-keen so-called dialects, this Ah is not used. On first going to school the boy has another name given to him, the "'book name.' It ' generally consists of two characters, selected with reference to the boy's condition, prospects, studies, or some other event connected with him.' This name is used by his master and school fellows, in official matters, and in any matters connected with literature. On marriage the young man takes still another name, his style or 'great name,' and this his father and mother and relations use as well as the 'milk name.' Another name called 'another style' may be assumed, which is employed by acquaintances and friends, not by relatives and parents. The latter have a right to use the milk name.' but with well-to-do people who have more than one name, it is not considered the proper thing for outsiders to call a man by his 'milk name,' of course it is different with farmers, labourers, and others who only own one name. On taking a degree, on entering official life, or on having official distinction or rank conferred on him, a man takes yet another name, known as the 'official name.' After death he is known by his posthumous name in the Hull of Ancestors. Besides all these, we may notice one or two other designations. It is a very common thing for the Southern Chinese to give a name to any one who may have some personal defect or personal characteristic, a suggestive soubriquet ; and the euphonic syllable, Ah, is often used before these, leading foreigners to think that such a nickname is a real name; it is at the same time tantamount to a real name, as everyone speaks of the person so-called as such, and calls him or her ^272 THINGS CHISEXK. such, for girls also are so dubbed. The individual bears it complacently, knowing that he must accept the inevitable. Such names are called 'flowery names.' When they consist of more than one syllable the Ah is dropped : they are used in combination with the man's personal name or not; as instances of this class are such names as Giant Ah Yong. (here Ah Yong, of course, is the man's right name) other terms of a similar kind are Dwarfy, Fatty. &c. .A very common one, used alone, without any name with it, is Ah Pin = flat, meaning a flat nose, and there arc not a few others. To cheat the evil spirits which may wish to rob a man of his son, the boy may be called by some name that v/ill ronvey the idea of vilifying the young child, such as 'Puppy,' or his head may be shaved and he be called 'Buddhist priest.' It is not at all uncommon to call the children in a family Primus, Secundus, Tertius, &c.. &c. There is also yet another name, which is a very important one. it is the t'ony name. It is difficult to convey its import by an English translation, but it may be rendered, by ancestral name,' or 'family name,' or 'house name,' remem- bering that all these terms must bear a restricted meaning if applied to the Chinese A man of means, having a house of his own, is sure to possess such a name, and lie has, in all probability,' inherited it from his father or ancestors, unless he has risen from the lowest ranks of society, and has to select such a name for himself. This name will generally be found up at his door on a small board. It represents himself and it also represents his family in a way. If he dies, his sons (if they continue to live together, as the Chinese so often do. in the same family house) retain the name. and together, or separately, make use of it. This f'n : f name is often used in business, some partners appearing under such names, while others appear under some of their other names. In such a case the t-ou7-;. Girls arc left out in the cold as far as names are concerned. They have to be content with a milk name, a marriage name, and nicknames. They retain their own surnames when married : that is to say. a married women considers her maiden surname as her own. and gives it as such : by courtesy she is addressed by her husband's surname, being the equivalent of our Mrs. So and So. In official documents her two surnames are given one after the other, and the combination serves as her name; for example, a woman's maiden surname may be Lei, her married .surname Ch'an. She would then be known as Ch'an Lei Shi. the Shi denoting that she belongs to the Lei famih by birth, equivalent, in fact, to the French word // Emperors in China also rejoice in a multiplicity of names which are very confusing to the foreign student of Chinese history. After his death the Emperor is known by his posthumous title, such for example, as 'The Great Ancestor.' The Martial Ancestor,' &c., &c.. &c. While he i- <.u the throne, the years of his reign have a designation which >cr\e a- the equivalent of his name. This "year style' is composed of two characters, which, in combination. Mill sound well, such for example, as -Compliant Rule." Fortunately, in this present reigning d\ nasty, the one designai -es for the whole reign, but it \i;\< not always been so. and confnsi..n E worse confounded when every few years in one sovereign's ivigu the -year style' is changed, owing possibly to - untoward event having happened. Such changes have taken place half a do/en or more times. It will thus be seen that t he- name by which an Emperor is known is not One of his OWD personal name-. a> in in- ! Victoria <-r any of our Western sovereigns. In fact, a ("'hin>->e Kinperor'.- |.er>. .nal name i> i ! to be n-ed by the general public, no one emitted to utter it. or e\ni write it. as Ion- a- the same family remain- on the throne, even though the Kniperor \\h" bore it is dead: and to prevent this difficulty, the characters composing it are changed by the alteration or addition of parts of the character. Nor i- it proper for a child t' his father's own name: it is considered disrespectful. Hi- father's name is tab ,.>cd. so i- a husband'- name to a wife. T.irr. 275 .V. 1 VY. 'We have a very fine coat, but there is no man inside it.' such was the estimate of the Chinese Navy by a Chinese naval officer of the Northern Fleet, and probably a very just estimate, not only of that portion of the navy, but of the whole of the modern Chinese fleet made on Western lines ; for very fine vessels they are. but the Chinese cannot yet. with all their inexperience be proper masters of their own vessels r added to which as further telling against the efficiency of the fleet is the bribery and corruption, so universal in China. When we turn to the native junks, which were all the navy she had till of late, we find that, for conflict with Western powers. China is as ill-prepared as a soldier of the time of the Norman conquest would be at the present day. A fleet of vessels, eleven in number, built on the foreign model. Avere sunk or destroyed by the French in August 1881. at * . O FoochoAv, by a fleet immensely their superiors. At present there are t\vo squadrons of foreign-built ships, the Northern and Southern, containing some powerful ironclads built in Germany and England. The matt' rid of the Northern Squadron consists of six ironclads (the Ting Yuen. King Yuen. Chen Yuen, Lai Yuen. Ching Yuen, and Ping- Yuen): one steel cruiser, the Chao Yuen; one torpedo cruiser, the Chi Yuen: and four cruisers, the Yang Wei. Tsi Yuen. Wei Yuen, and Ivang Chi. That of the Southern Squadron consists of six vessels, the Kai Chi. Huan Ti. Nan Shin. Nan Shin. Ching Ching. and Pan Ming. The former is more formid- able than the latter, as most of the principal officers are foreign trained. Admiral Ting, who is in command, lias not had such a training, being a purely native untrained Mandarin, his substantive appointment being that of a General of Cavalry: the Chinese have not yet learned with regard to government officials, in the words of Herbert Spencer, that 'the transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous, is that in which progress essentially consists.' Co.- a Mandarin is considered to be in a general way competent to undertake any duties, whether civil, military naval, judicial, fiscal, or civil engineering; the more progressive officials see that this plan will not do with regard to a navy on foreign 27G THINGS CHINESE. lines, and consequently the inferior officers have been educated in Europe as well as at different places in China where naval colleges and arsenals have been established of late years. There has been an arsenal at Foochow for a number of years past, where Chinese youths are trained; besides this there are naval colleges at Wei-hai-wei, Tientsin, and Canton (Whampoa) ; and a new Naval College was opened at Nanking at the end of 1890 with a full complement of 120 cadets, which have been since reduced to 80. It started with 1 (> instructors, two of whom were English. There are two departments : one for navigation and one for engineering, the cadets being divided between the two. The course of study is to take five years, then four years are to be spent on board ship, after which will come the rank of midshipman. The Southern Squadron has its head-quarters at Foochow. and its officers have a slight acquaintance with foreign methods. The slights thrown on Admiral Lang, the English naval officer lately in nominal command of the Northern Squadron, and his subsequent resignation, arc matters of history: and only show one of the inherent defects in the Chinese system, where nepotism, or rather the favouring of all from one district of country, prevails. The immediate result has been the prevention by the English Admiralty of other of its officers joining the Chinese service. A number of small gunboats arc found at different port-; in connection with ihe revenue s'-rvice, the Imperial Maritime Custom*) as well as others, uhich are under the control of the high provincial authoriti The purely native craft are uncouth looking objects, and utterly unfit to cope for a moment with foreign vessels. /Ai"/'.< i-K'oiiniiriulnl. For an :ir<-<>mit oi' tli" --tniction of tin- ( 'liinr<.- tl- 't :it Foorlmu. MT Tlir Fiviii-h iii Finir-li.i\\.' l-v .1. I-'. Hoc!- I.. !.. ( 'o\\>-n. ( B.N. A7-; i r.sv. i /'/;/,. s- j.v/> y /;/// o/>/r.i/,,s'. At of the Treaty ports there aiv foreign newspapers. In Shanghai two dailies are published in llngli^h, vi/.: 'Tin- North China Daily News/ in the morning, and the ''Shanghai NEWSPAPERS AXD PERIODICALS. 277 Mercury/ in the evening; and there are also three weeklies: 'The North China Herald.' 'The Celestial Empire/ and * The Temperance Union.' In Amoy a small shipping sheet is printed called 'The Amoy Ga/ette/ and a weekly appears named 'The Amoy Times and Shipping Gazette.' The ' Foochow Echo ' is the one paper that that city boasts of. In Hongkong there are three dailies; 'The Hongkong Daily Press/ a morning paper, and 'The China Mail/ and ' The Hongkong Telegraph/ both evening papers. There is one weekly, 'The Overland China Mail.' There is also 'The China Overland Trade Report/ issued fortnightly. The clientele of these are principally foreigners, but a few natives who know English subscribe to them. In Macao there are several Portuguese papers pub- lished. Of periodicals in English there are 'The China Review/ a bi-monthly magazine, published in Hongkong. In Shanghai The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal/ issued monthly, and ' Woman's Work in The Far East.' published half-yearly. Besides these, there are two or three journals of different societies, and 'The China Medical Missionary Journal ' issued quarterly. As regards papers published in Chinese as commercial ventures, which many of them, published in connection with Europeans are, there are in Shanghai 'The Shun- pao ' and ' The Hu-pao/ sold at the price of ten and eight cash each : these have a very large circulation. There are five Chinese daily papers in Hongkong : ' The Chung Ngoi San Po/ issued from the ' Daily Press ' office ; ' The Wa Tsx Yat Po ' or ' Chinese Mail, ' published at the 'China Mail' office: 'The Tsun Wan Yat Po/ 'The Yat Po/ and -The Wai San Yat Po.' In Canton there is 'The Kwong-po'; and a new one, 'The Han-pao/ is to be started at Hankow. ' It is to be edited by '' experienced native scholars and foreigners versed in the Chinese language" notwithstanding which '' it will be sold at a lower price than any other Chinese paper.'" It remains to be seen whether this will be a successful venture or not. 278 T/IfXGS C7/AY />/:. All these native papers mentioned are the direct result of foreign influence, as, before the arrival of foreigners in China, the Chinese had no newspapers according to our idea of the term. The Chinese have one newspaper, and the only one they had till recent years, that is the oldest in the world. It is The Peking Gazette.' and is published daily, being more of the nature of a Government Gazette than an ordinary newspaper. 'It is simply a record of official acts, promotions, decrees, and sentences, without any editorial comments or explanations: aud, as such, of great value in understanding the policy "f Government. It is very generally read and discussed by educated people in cities, and tends to keep them more acquainted with the character and proceedings of their rulers than ever the Romans were of their sovereigns and Senate. In the provinces, thousands of persons find employment by copying and abridging the "Gazette" for readers who cannot afford to purchase the complete edition.' The printing is effected by means of wooden moveable types, which, to judge from some specimens examined, are cut in willow or poplar wood, a cheap if not highly durable material. # * * * An average Ga/ette consists of 10 O or 12 leaves of thin, brownish paper, measuring 7.1 1 inches, and endowed between leaves, front and back, ot bright yellow paper to form a species of binding. The whole is roughly attached or "stitched" by means of two short pieces of pap.-r rolled into a substitute for twine, the ends of which, passing through holes pundied in the rear margin <>f the sheets, are loosely twisted together. [This being the usual m-.nner of 'stitching' small pamphlets in China. * * * * The inside leaves, being folded double in the usual Chinese la-hiou. -i\e .-ome twenty or more small pages of matter, ea -h page? divided 1>\ red line- into >evui columns Kadi column contains 1 ! characters from (op to !ii, with a blank spare equal to four characters i:; height at the top.' Several \r.-\\ spapers and periodicals are likewise published by the mi--ioiianes in different pails of China, partaking XOIUIJTY. 27!) more or loss of a scientific and religious character, as well as detailing news. To sum up. there are thirty-one newspapers and periodicals published in Chinese, of which 'fifteen are religious and sixteen secular.' There can be no doubt that the modern newspaper is destined to be an important factor for good in China, if it falls into judicious hands. Unfortunately, a tendency very occasionally reveals itself to pander to depraved tastes in .articles not conducive to public morality, and a rabid hatred of the foreigner is sometimes visible in some distorted account of them and their doings, but on the whole, the 'tendency s towards morality. &C." Jliii'l;* n:'iriinni-ii(lril. 'List of JVrimlirals in (he ('hiii'S'- Lan^iKiu'' 1 / .\iM'ii(li\ F. to K'Tonls of tin- .Missionary ('onlVivtire held in Shanghai IS'.IM. -Tin- 1'ekinic Gazette:' bein? ;iu article in 'The C!iin;i l\evie\\ ' vol. III. ].. ]>. .\OI'>! 1/iTV. There is no real nobility in China. Mayers, in his invaluable work on Government Titles, says: The existing Chinese system of conferring patents of nobility, and honorary titles is linked by an unbroken chain of descent with the history of the feudal spates of the sixth century before Christ, perpetuating in its nomenclature, on the one hand, the titles of the semi-independent Princes of that era, and. on the other, the names of official degrees which have ceased for many centuries to exist in practical operation. * * * The titles now conferred are not to be regarded as other than official distinctions of a peculiar class, and cannot rightly be considered as bestowing aristocratic position or privilege in the European sense. The nine degrees of nobility, indeed, which are conferred -at the present day. and which are either heritable within certain limits. : " * * or hereditary for ever, :X * * are granted exclusively as rewards for military services.' The rive highest ranks of hereditary nobility then are Kung (Koong), Hau (How). Pak. Tsx, and Nam, generally rendered into English as Duke. Marquis, Earl, Viscount, and Baron. Each of these is subdivided into classes or decrees. 'To the -280 THINGS CHINESE. titles of the first, second, and third ranks laudatory' titles or terms * are appended, significant of the special services by which the rank has been earned.' We are not aware whether it has ever been attempted to render the four lower ranks into an English equivalent. Any such attempt would probably be even less successful than that already made as regards the five higher ranks. These lower titles have occasionally the degree next above them "annexed" * * * the bearer being thus enabled to rank <; with, but after," possessors of the title immediately preceding.' All the* different ranks, except the lowest, arc ' hereditary during a specified number of lives, ranging from twenty-six for* a J)ukc of the first class, to one for the eighth rank, the next but. lowest of all. Any of them also become hereditary by being 'conferred posthumously * * * on officers killed in battle." Meritorious public servants are also rewarded by having hereditary official rank bestowed upon their sons, grandsons, younger brothers, or nephews. The whole principle it will thus be seen is against perpetuating hereditary rank, the son with but few exceptions so few as to be scarcely worthy of notice taking a lower title until at length the status of ;i commoner is reached. The most noticeable exception* are tin- following: the lineal descendant of Confucius who is a Duke: and the descendants of Mencins and Koxinga (the Conquer..! of Formosa) each of whom is a Marquis. The son of ,-i man of exceptional renown, such as of the first Marqui> T-eiiu-. who>e son. the well-known minister to Kngland. has the title continued: but it goes no farther unless the s. .n'> deeds have been such as to merit its be.-towal on the grand-on. Titles of honour ;in . also (-.inferred as regards ' for merit or sen ice. or of Imperial bounty on occasions of rejoicing.' These are conferred upon the oHicial him>elf, hi- vui-'. parents, or grandparents while they are living, or ( OS a posthumous distinction * ' to his deceased progenitors." 1'hex.- tith - differ for each of the nine degrees of official rank and their subdivisons, making in all eighteen, while the wives have nine. Military officials al-o recei\e honorary titles of a martial character. NUMERICAL CATEGORIES. 281 Posthumous titles of honour may be bestowed upon officials losing 'their lives at sea or on any of the inner waters. whilst engaged in the public service/ and their eldest sons are given official rank. Most sensibly the Chinese have- put before them merit as the cause of their nobility, and not the mere circumstance of blue blood. The class which in European lands would form the aristocracy, is in a very, comparatively, inferior position in China. There are certain classes who own titles on account of kinship with the Emperor; but here again heredity is the exception, and extinction of the title (which decreases in degree from father to son) happens in the case of descendants of a prince- in about twelve generations. The only exceptions to this rule amongst these classes are the 8 ' Iron-Capped Princes,'" Avho are descendants of the Chieftains who immediately preceded the Sovereigns. Another, is the Prince of I, a descendant of the thirteenth son of K'ang-hi, the second Emperor of this dynasty. These all retain the title in perpetuity. N I 'Ml-: If ICAL C.\ T /:(,' ORIES.- -' Number has long exercised a peculiar fascination over the Far-Eastern mind. Europeans, no doubt, sometimes use such expressions as "The Four Cardinal Virtues" and ''The Seven Deadly Sins," but it is not part of our mental disposition to divide up and parcel out almost all things visible and invisible into numerical categories fixed by unchanging custom, as is the case among the nations from India eastward,' so writes Mr. Chamberlain in 'Things Japanese.' The Chinese have; thus grouped together any and everything into such classes, beginning with two and ending with ten thousand. The fact that Mayers 'Chinese Reader's Manual' has a second part. consisting of sixty-seven pages, devoted to this portion of Chinese literature, will show its importance, and even it is not an exhaustive list; to it we refer the curious reader, while we only give a dozen of the most common : THE Two EMPERORS of Antiquity, Yao and Shun, who reigned B.C. 2357 and 2287 respectively. Tin: THREE LIGHTS : The Sun, Moon and Stars. Tin: THREE POWERS OF NATURE: Heaven. Farth. and Man. which taken together are used in the sense of the universe or creation in general. THE FOUR CARDINAL POINTS: North. South, East and West. When the centre is included, they arc called The Five Points. THE FOUR BOOKS, which with THE FIVE CLASSH s may be called the Bible of the Confucianist. See article on Literature. THE FIVE BLESSINGS: Longevity, Riches. Peacefulness and Serenity, the Love of Virtue, and An End crowning the Life. THE FIVE ELEMENT* OR PRIMORDIAL ESSENCES: Water. Fire, "\\ood. Metal, and Earth. I'poii these five elements or perpetually active principles of nature the whole scheme of ( 'hinese philosophy * * * is based.' Tin: FIVE METALS: Gold. Silver, Copper. Lead and Tin, and Iron. Tin: FIVE ESCULENTS OR GRAINS: Hem]), Millet. Rice, Corn, and Pulse. THE FIVE COLOURS: Black. Red. A/ure ((Jiven. Blue, or Black), White, and Yellow. THE FIGHT GENII, on -EIGHT IMMORTALS, venerated by the Taouist sect': each celebrated for possessing some imstic power or owning some wonderful magic working instrument. One, if not two of them, were females. One went about with one shoe O^F and One >hoe on: another, having gone up to heaven, and left injunctions that his body \\a> to be preserve:! tor seven days for his return, found on his soul desiring to re-enter it after -i\ days, that his dUciple. who had been left to watch it. had been called away to his mother's death-bed, and consequently his master had no vitalis-d bod\ of his own. but was forced to enter that of a hegirarju-t expired: another had a white nude, by which he wa< carried thousands of miles in a single day. and which \\as folded away ar.d put into his wallet at niirht. and iv-u-citated in the morning by his master -purting water from his mouth on him. OPIUM. 283 THK Kn;nTi-:i-;;\ AunAx : Eighteen of Bucldhas im- mediate disciples, which are found in Buddhist temples. Besides these, there are THE FIVE HUNDRED DISCIPLES of BUDDHA, also found in some temples. OPIUM. The poppy seems to have been cultivated in China as an ornamental flower in the Sung dynasty or before, and the healing virtues of its seeds were commended, while ' the medical use of the capsules was of course early known/ Opium was used for medicinal purposes, and it was a highly esteemed drug, being imported overland from Burmah and through Central Asia. There would appear not to be sufficient warranty for the opinion that the poppy wa-; ^ro\\n in China at an early date for other than ornamental purp >ses; everything points to a contrary conclusion. It was an article of trade at Canton in the middle of the last Century.' but, up to nearly the close of that century, it was a limited trade. We quote from Dr. Dudgeon, of Peking, a short summary of the origin of that destructive vice, opium-smoking: 'Opium-smoking was introduced from Java by the Chinese from Chiep-chieii and Chang-chow in the early years of the iSth O'jntury and towards the end of the reign of Kanghi 1662 1723 The first edict issued against it was in 1729, and was directed against the practice in Formosa, and was the result of a report of an official sent by Kanghi to inquire into the unseemly proceedings in the island. Kanghi died, and his successor was some six or seven years on the throne before steps were considered necessary to take measures 10 stop the c\ il there. It had been introduced by people from the above t\vo prefectures on the mainland. From Formosa and these southern ports, the practice spread gradually and very slowly. As late as the end of the century, the import and consumption of opium, both for medicine and smoking, was comparatively trifling. The use of opium, first as capsules and then as an extract, is of older origin and was used solely as a medicine. Part came by land through Central Asia by the Mohammedan merchants and travellers, part by sea to Canton and part also overland from LJurmah and India. The opium which came overland was for the most part as tribute, and \ve read in the Ming history of as much as 200 catties for the Emperor and 100 catties for the Empress being presented as tribute. Other drugs were likewise presented. At the 284- TUTXGS C7/LY/->7v. time when smoking began, a short bamboo tube filled with coir, opium, and tobacco was the regular mode of insufflation. The present pipe is more modern, and is said to have been invented in the province of Canton. The native growth is of still more recent origin. The cultivation of the poppy, for tin- sake of its extract, began about 70 years ago. Since that time it has been gradually making its way over the Empire, until now there is not a province where it is not grown. The native growth and consumption of the native drug having thus largely increased in the North, it has, year by year, been driving the Indian article out of the market. This process bids fair to continue to increase, and at no distant day in all likelihood the foreign import will cease, unless it can compete with the native in price. Its superior quality and freedom from adulteration would in these circumstances always command a sale. The great dimensions to which the native growth is reported latterly to have grown is only, it is evident, within the past few years. T In- native growth has been stimulated by the growing demand for opium and its profitable nature, the poppy not being taxed as a cereal. ''' The increase of the native growth is accounted for by the fact that it is profitable to admix with the Indian, and the proportion given is native -j\j with foreign , 7 ,,. The consumption of opium, where it was formerly strictly forbidden, has greatly increased since the relaxation caused by the late agreement, by which the Imperial Government collects both Import and Lekin duties at the ports, and opium is allowed to pass freely throughout the Empire.' When the liking for it began the English, to their eternal shame, he it said, continued to bring the fatal drug to administer to the depraved tastes of the Chinese. \\h->r rulers made most piteous attempts to prevent its introduction. And the feeling of dislike to the English, and. through them, to the hated and despised foreigner in general, partially due to this cans", is not confined solely to the upper classes, as ;my one may find uho kno\vs the language and mixes M-ith the people; for it i not an unfrequeut question: \Vliy do yon foreigners hring opium to China'.'' And tin only reply that can lie gi\en is: There are had people (there is no USC combating the idea of the badness of the people who do such a thing it is a foregone conclusion in a Chinaman's mind ) in e\ cry nat ion as well as good: and it you Chinese would not smoke it. they would not hring it. OPIUM. 285 It is impossible to say what proportion of Chinese smoke opium, but immense numbers of all classes of the community do so ; in some parts of the country the proportion is larger than in others. From the Imperial Palace down to the lowest hovel every class has its smokers, even women and children are, in some places, preys'to this insidious vice. Many smoke it at the present day. and the number is increasing. In the City of Foochow alone, there are said to be 1,000 registered opium dens, they ' being more numerous than tea or rice shops.' The habit is easily begun : the offering of it, as a glass -of wine amongst many classes of Englishmen, easily leads the fashionable votary into the practice; the fast man takes it sometimes as an aphrodisiac; the prostitutes take it because their visitors do; others take it first to ease pain, or disease; while others are led into it by their friends and acquaintances. Once formed, the habit is very difficult to break some try, over and over again, to wean themselves from the pipe. One man actually came to a hospital no less than five times for that purpose. Five hundred smokers in the course of one year were desirous of entering a refuge, which was opened in Foochow, in order to cure themselves. Opium is the most common means of committing suicide at present in China, and China is said to have the unenviable notoriety of being the country in which suicides arc most frequent. The evils which arise from opium-smoking are many. It injures the health and physical powers, especially of the working and poorer classes, whose wages are only sufficient to meet their necessities, and who curtail the amount spent on food and clothing to gratify their craving for the vice, and, consequently, are less able to resist its inroads on their system : whereas the wealthy buy ^ovt-in foods with the purpose of nourishing and strengthening their systems against it. All these factors, and others, have to be taken into account ; and it must also be remembered that there are some men who have such a resolute will (though like many other vices, the opium habit Aveakens the will power) that, having fixed upon a certain amount as the limit of their indulgence, they 280 TIIIXGS C///\/-:SE. do not overstep it. and thus stave off some of the worst effects of opium-smoking. Those who have yielded, to it for \ cars, and who are slaves to the pipe, are miserable if circumstances should arise to debar them from their accus- tomed whiffs: it is extraordinary to see how perfectly wretched they are: every attitude, every feature of the face. every sentence, is a living witness that they arc in agony till the craving is satisfied. The opium sots or 'opium devil-.' a- the natives term them, are pitiable objects emaciated almost to a skeleton, until they finally succumb to their vice. As to wealth, it often melts away when the pipe is indulged in. The author remembers especially one case where a man smoked away a valuable property consisting of a number of houses advantageously situated in the Ci; Canton, and eventually smoked himself into his grave. It is a great waste of time, as the process of smoking is a slow one and requires long preparation, and. as the habit increases. more has to be smoked to produce an effect, and consequently lunger time spent over it: from a quarter, or half an hour, at first it increases till hours are required, and a gr-.-at part of the night is wa-ted in it instead of being spent in sl'-ep. The smokers lie down in couples across a wide couch with a small stool-like table between them containing the opium-tra\. which are the pipe and pipe bowls, opium lamp, and the different instruments used in connection with the pip* . Taking up the pipe one of the smokers lifts up a small quant;' opium on the end "fa Long needle-like instrument. Tin.- Ix. \\1 of the pipe is held over the lamp, and the drug, which has been already prepared so as to be of the consistency of treacle. i- \\orked by him in the heat of the flame into the .-mail orifice of the pipe-bowl. This takes .-Mine time, and v. hen all is ready, a few whiffs c\han>t it. and the whole ju to be gone over again, each smok'-r often taking the preparation of the pipe in turn. Opium-smoking induces laziness, idle habits, and unwillingness to exertion, shoi life, and diminishes vitality. 'Among the \\ell-to-do, with healthy constitutions. 1. comfortable surroundings, and e>peeially if there PHILOSOPHY. 287 b3 pressing business to attend to, the drug may be used for a lengthened period without any apparent deleterious results, but at the same time it will be observed that any indulgence in the vice, even under the most favourable circumstances, diminishes functional activity in the nervous system, impairs and arrests the process of secretion, and ultimately produces structural changes in important organs, and a general undermining of the constitution all round. Although the effects are more gradual, they are none the less sure. Vital resistance to its evil effects is soon diminished as the smokers become poor, thus depriving the victims, not of opium, for the supply must increase with the craving, but of the necessary sustenance, thus enfeebling the system, and render- ing it more susceptible to its evil influence. ****** Sooner or later retribution overtakes them, and they are suddenly cut off. * * That there is no more harm in its continuous use than smoking the mildest cigarettes is an utterly absurd statement. It is pernicious in itself apart from its too frequent conjunction with other well-known social evils. In such cases opium tells with redoubled violence. * * * * * * The reasons for believing the habit to be harmless and that it can be abandoned without suffering, have been made by some to depend upon the body- weight of the smokers when admitted to gaol and once a week afterwards. The weight is not much affected, provided the habit is not great, nor of great duration, and the material surroundings are good.' o ~ Hook rccommendtil. 'The Evils of the use of Opium,' by J. Dudgeon, M.D. PHILOSOPHY. We do not propose, to enter on a long dissertation on Chinese Philosophy, whether it be ethical as applied to every-day morals, with their five virtues: or cosmogonal, as applied to the evolution of the finite from the infinite, the conditioned from the unconditioned, and the production ui ngnt and darkness. Here one appears to be on solid ground, but when one follows out the reasoning and state- ments of the ancient philosophy, and comes on stalks of milfoil, and the carapax of a tortoise, the eight diagrams, the eight 288 TlflXGS CHINESE. trignuns notwithstanding the assurance that *' it is very pro- bable that there is underlying' them, the trigrams, 'a definite system of natural philosophy' it all appears to the foreign reader, who has not imbibed the true Chinese spirit which sees *' good in everything ' Chinese, to the uncivilised barbarians that the most of us are outsicle the pale of the Micldlo Kingdom, a system of hocus pocus, and the feeling is but little modified though one is assured that the Grand Plan is typified in them, and that the dual principles of nature are working in their midst, and that they 'typify the transformation which the dual principle of Heaven and Earth undergoes in the phenomenal changes of nature.' This is all and resists all the prying efforts of the seekers after knowledge. We might wander amid>t the speculations of different writer- .-'ib-njueiit to the Confucian age, when many were (li-tiniruis]icd for the boldness of their theories and the PIDGIN-ENGLISH. 289 freedom of their utterance/ Avhere, besides the names already mentioned, may be cited those of Licius (Leih Tsz), Mencius, Sun Tsz, and others; nor can we follow the ma/es of the speculative philosophy, which ' sprang suddenly into existence ' under the Sung dynasty. In fact, the whole .subject is a vast one, diverging into many branches, and worthy of an exhaustive treatise dealing with it alone. We refer the reader to our article on Taouism in this book for some notice of Chancius (Chwang Tsz), with his vivacity and delirious fertility of imagination, whose writings have been described as ' a storm of dazzling effects.' Jioiiltx ri'ry Rev. E. Faber. TH. D.. translated from the (ierman by 1*. G. von Moellendorff. 'The Mind of .Mencius, or Political Economy Founded upon Moral Philosophy: A Systematic Digest of the Doctrines of the Chinese Philosopher Mencius, ]>.('. 3i>.">. The Original Text classilied si ml translated, \vitli notes and explanations by JJev. E. Faber. 'I'll, n., translated from the (ierman with notes and emendations by lle,v. A. J'>. 1 1 utcliinson.' 'The Divine, Classic of Nan llua. Ix-ing the works of Chuaun Tsx. Taouist l'hiloso[)her.' hy F. H. Balfour, I'.u.o.s. chuaiii,' T/.u. Mystic. Moralist, and Social Heronuer.' translated by H. A. Giles, contains an interesting note, occupying twenty pai,'es. on the philosophy of ("'haps 1-7. by l!e\. A. Moore. Oxford, pointing out the parallelism* of thought and reasoning between the (ireek philosophy and the Chinese. ' Hemarks on the, Ethical Philosophy of the Chinese,' by Dr. .Martin, in his 'Man Lin Papers.' A paper by Kev. Orifh'th John, in .Journal X. C. I'.r. K. A. S.. Sept. ISiiO. and one by Hev. J. Edkins in same Journal for May. IS.V.i. -The Philosophy. Ft hies, and Religion of Taouism. chieily as (!cve!o]>ed by Chwauir Ts/,' bv \V. P. Mears, .M.A.. M.D., in China licvi"\v.' Vol. XIX. -- l*IDGL\-K.\<;USIL\\ T hcn foreigners settled in China, finding the language difficult to learn, and the Chinese finding English nearly equally difficult for them to acquire, a middle course was struck and the outcome was tin; mongrel talk, called pidgin-English. We say struck a middle course, for the words employed are generally English modified to suit the defective pronunciation of the Chinese. For example, the letter r is dropped and I substituted, while the u 290 TIIIXGS (7//.\/;,S7;. idiom is Chinese, and, in the absence of inflection and declen- sion, the Chinese is again copied. The result has been a most wonderful gibberish, especially when talked in its purity. It is, of course, not at all like Chinese, and is so unlike English, that new-comers require to learn it. The difference between it and proper English was once unconsciously expressed wittily by a Cantonese shtfp-kcepcr, who. finding himself at a loss to understand the correct English spoken by a new arrival, turned to his friend, an American, and said : ; Moli bettah you fien talkee Englishcc talk, my no sabbee Meliean talk.' A very few of the words employed in pidgin-English are Chinese so distorted as to be almost past recognition, while Portuguese, Malay, and Indian have also added a few Avords to the vocabulary. Some residents have occasionally amused a leisure hour by putting some of the gems of English literature into this jargon, with the result that diamonds of the first water have been changed into ashes. The soliloquy in Hamlet commencing, in pidgin-English, 'Can do, no can d<. ho\v fashion.' as well as 'Excelsior/ and many other pieces have shared this fate. We give a specimen at the end of this article, but very few of any of the pieces put into this lingo represent it as it is really spoken, as />.--. s, /,-.-. /* and /.> are used instead. Tlie pidgin-English, as usually written, represents it a- spoken by the foreigner, but not as spoken by the majority of Chinese, and the latter we would maintain is the proper pidgin-English. Fortunately for all concerned, this dialect of English, which has had an existence of more than half a century, seems doomed at, la*t. The extended acquisition of some knowledge of KniilMi on tin- part of the Chinese, is super- seding its use, we are thankful to say. One very curious feature in the employment of pidgin-English, is to find Chinese from different parts of the empire, \\l\<>. on account of the difi'en nee in the language, are unable to converse together, occasionally forced to use it, in order to be able to hold any communication with each other. PIDG1X-ENGLIS1L 291 EXCELSIOR ! That nightey tim begin chop-chop, One young man walkee no can stop. Maskee snow ! maskce ice ! He cally flag with chop so nice Topside Galow ! He too muchey solly, one piecee eye Look-see sharp so all-same my, He talkcy largcy, talkey stlong, Too muchee culio all-same gong Topside Galow '. Inside that house he look-see light, And evely loom got fire all light, He look-see plenty ice more high, Inside he mouth he plenty cly Topside Galow ! Olo man talkce 'No can walk, By'mby lain come welly dark, Hab got water, welly wide.' '.Maskce ! My wantchey go topside.' Topside Galow ! ' Man-man,' one girley talkee he ; ' What for you go topside look-sec ? ' And one tim more he plenty cly, But allo-tim walkee plenty high. Topside Galow ! 'Take care t'hat spoil'uni tlee, young man, 'Take care t'hat ice. He want man-man.' T'hat coolie chin-chin he 'Good night,' He talkce 'My can go all light.' Topside Galow ! Joss-pidgin-man he soon begin, Morning-tim t'hat Joss chin-chin, He no man see he plenty fear, Cos sonic man talkee he can hear Topside Galow ! T'hat young man die, one large dog sec Too muchee bobbely findee he. He hand blong colo all-same ice, Hab got he flag, with chop so nice. Topside Galow ! MORAL. You too muchee laugh ! what for sing ? I tink so you no savvy what ting ! Supposey you no blong clever inside. More betta_y7-;. POETRY.- The East is the land of poetry. Here nature is found in her happiest moods : she lavishes all the tints of her wonderful palette on her gorgeous sunrises and sunsets: she instals her electric lights the bright stars in the blue depths of the unfathomable sky and so pure is the atmosphere, that one can see beyond their clear shining into the illimitable space; her full-orbed moon floods the whole landscape with a silvery light but seldom seen in the We^t : the sun glows with such an intense heat, that, aided by the tropical showers, the earth is clad with a hot-house growth <>f plants and shrubs; nor arc her grander moods unrevealed to man, for towering crag and rugged mountain hem in the meandering river, and the soft lights of sunset play amidst their gloomy rocks and sheltered ravines, while the noon-day clouds cast passing shadows on the lovely scene : anon amidst the thunder of the storm and the vivid flashes of the lightning the God of Nature reveals Himself, while all the latent forces of destruction seem let loose in the howling and whistling wind, the dashing wave, and the fierce battling of the elements of the dreaded typhoon. The Chinese have been the worshippers of nature for centuries and millenniums, botli in the literal and figurative sense of the term : long before we in the \Yeylvan beauties, ages before the ponderous Dr. Johnson saw nothing to admire' iu the wild Hebrides and the rugged mountains of Scotia, the Chinese had sung the praises of similar scenes in their native land : ("11111050 poets manifested a paiouate love of nature thousands of yean before Scot; or Wordsworth.' A surest ion. a reference, a line, or a \\ord points to some aspect of nature, such as 'The white clouds fly across the scene,' to find it- response in the next I'm 'The distant hills arc clothed in green,' while others will revel in some descriptive piece of solitary seen POETRY. 293 But unfortunately much Chinese poetry is incapable of translation : it loses its essence in the transfer into another and barbarian speech, and becomes tame prose, and prosy at the best. As the wild flowers which adorn the hill-sides in this land, with their bright pinks and rich crimsons, soberer mauves and clear pure whites, when gathered by the enthusiastic botanist and treated by his careful hands with the greatest tenderness, fade and wither, lose their fresh bloom and bright tints. turn to a uniform brown and black, and smell musty and dry; so the flowers of Chinese poetry lose their freshness and beauty the sparkle of wit and the point of allusion are lost to unappreciative Western ears, the rhyme and rhythm are gone, and they are interesting alone to the sinologue's ear. Occasionally, however, by a happy chance, the brightness and sparkle of a ballad or song are retained, or even improved upon, as in Stent's translations. The Chinese language lends itself readily to the poetic art harsh consonantal sounds are wanting, and the com- bination of consonants and vowels is often musical. Though largely monosyllabic, the diphthongs give a somewhat dissyllabic character to many of the words. The cadence and modulation required are to be found in the tones of the Chinese language, and every word takes the place occupied by a metrical foot in our Western poetry. One of the classical works of the Chinese, the Shi- king, is a collection of ancient songs, &c. 'The bulk of these curious vestiges of antiquity * * * do not rise beyond the most primitive simplicity, and their style and language, without the minute commentary, would often be unintelligible.' Epics and pastorals arc not found in Chinese poet r\ : but almost every other description is to be seen, as well as poetic effusions of a character unknown in the West, such as proclamations by the ^Magistrates in rhyme. A poem of great repute among native scholars is * The Dissipation of Sorrows,' written by Yuh Yuen (B.C. 314), whose untimely end is commemorated by the annual Dragon Boat Festival (see article under that heading). 291- THINGS CHINESE. Poetry flourished most in. the 'Pang dynasty, in the ninth and tenth centuries, which have been described as the Augustan age in China of poetry and letters. 'The collected poems of the * T'ang dynasty have been published by Imperial authority in nine hundred volumes.' Among the most celebrated poets of this time is Li Tai-po, whose works were published in thirty volumes, an anacreontic poet whoso adventures are famous, as well as his sonnets. He attained high government distinction, but was drowned, falling over- board from a boat when under the influences of his favourite wines. He is thus described by one writer: 'the best known of China's countless host of lyric poets famous for his exquisite imagery, his wealth of words, his telling allusions to the past, and for the musical cadence of his verse.' \h\ Edkins describes Li-Tai-po"s characteristics as a p-M-t. as follows: 'This poet is fond of deep passion, fear and pathos. All his power is devoted to the production of these sentiments in the reader's mind. He loves quick transitions, and one touch is enough for one thought. Another thought crowds after it, and then a third. Burns collected old songs, and infused them with the fire of his genius. That class of Western poets, of whom ] kirns is a shining example, would be the lit companions of Li Tai-po, whose poems arc often filled up with lines gathered from the wide range of early-song literature. Li Tai-po had a con- sciousness of power, and this made him careless in regard to rules, lie uses short lines whenever he pleases, and it is often hard to punctuate his lines. His nation admires him so much, that when lie is irregular in the choice of his words and the length of his lines, they still praise him. His genius was intuitive. No one took less time than he to write. N<> mie made such leaps from one subject to another as he did. This recklessness was a great aid to him, because he did not need to take time to polish, his style and smooth down his roughnesses. He vaulted over difficulties and expected his reader to follow him, without asking: Why this leap? or, Where is my master intending to go ': lie left the reader to fill the gap. and he himself always wrote brilliant sentences, and dealt in the pathetic and tin- sublime. All faults are readily forgiven if a writer can do this, for then- is nothing that readers so much delight in as in having the tender sentiments of the heart stirred from their depths. Our poet wrote verses as hi- travelled, and his poems are a running comment on his visits to various localities in his native country.' The manner in which lie was able 'to find in the sounds of nature the interpreter of his thoughts, and to throw himself into nature is proof of his high character as a poet. Here he si-ems to resemble Words- worth, who, with Coleridge, passionately loved every w ild and sublime POETRY. 295 scene in nature, but was not less moved by quiet landscapes. His heart was open to every suggestion that could be made to spring from wheat field, grove, or sunset glory. But he greatly exceeds Wordsworth in popularity, having a whole nation at his feet, and there is to the present time no diminution of his fame.' We give one or two specimens of Li Tai-po put into English : A VISIT TO THE CLEAR COLD FOUNTAIN. Alas, that day should lose itself in night ! I love this fount so clear, so passing cool ; The western glow pursues its waters flow : The wavelets symbolise my silent thoughts, And murmur forth a wordless hymn of praise, I watch the moon among the clouds so grand, The waving pines, athwart the sky so tall Anon do blend their rustling with my song. A VISIT TO THE RAPIDS OF THE WHITE RIVER. I cross the stream just as it starts to life, From man and all his deeds afar I roam. The isles are clad in nature's living hues, And set in scenes of sweetest beauty rare. The deep-blue sky is mirrored in the stream, Whose broad expanse reflects the passing clouds. 1 watch them as they sail away to sea, My leisured mind next wanders where the stream Is full offish that dart adown its course, The setting sun doth end my day-long songs, ]>y silv'ry moon-lit rays I hie me home To where my humble cot a-field doth lie. Tti Fu was another poet of the T ; ang. and one of some distinction, who lias been described as ' one of China's greatest men in poetic genius.' The Chinese rank him ' as second only to Li Tai-po.' ' He lived in the eighth .century, dying of hunger in A.I). 7(58 * in a temple in which he had been compelled to take refuge.' We give one specimen of Tu Fu's poetry acknowledging our indebtedness; for material assistance in the rendering we give to ' Gems of Chinese Literature ' : THE DESERTED WIFE. Once fair beyond the fairest dame on earth, Within the mountain dell I live perdue ; And scion of a virtuous house I am, Though shrubs and trees are now my sole support. Our troubles came within the walls amain : Not long ago my brothers met their end. Their rank was high. Alas ! it mattered not ; 296 TIIIXGS CllIXKSE. For c'cn their stiff cold clay was lost to us. I care not for the present age, no charms It hath for me. Life flickers like a wick : A passing breath blows all our joys away. A new fair wife, as fair as clearest jade Is now my husband's love in place of me. The libertine hath turned away from me. Th' acacia knows the hour to close its leaves. The turtle-dove without its mate doth pine; He only sees the new wife's witching smile, He heeds not how his former love doth weep. Upon the mountain top the rill is clear; But at its foot the stream is muddy, thick. My maids go out to sell my lustrous pearls: And with a wisp they mend the patched roof. I pluck the wayside flowers, but wear them not ; And then I gather cones from off the firs. My broidcred sleeve is thin for gusty winds, As morn and eve I lean my pensive form Against the tall bamboos with drooping sprays. Another famous poet was Su Tung-po, of the Sung dynasty, which has been described as the Elizabethan age of Chinese letters. His poems are contained in one hundred and fifteen volumes. He was l an official of remarkable talents, a statesman, poet, essayist, and man of letters." who spent many of his latter years under a cloud, being banished to the south of the empire, a punishment he partly brought on himself, owing to his satire. Of him it has been written that 'under his hands, the language of which China is so proud, may be said to have reached perfection of finish, of art concealed. In subtlety of reasoning, in the lucid expression of abstractions, such as in English too often elude the faculty of the tongue, Su Tung-pi > is an unrivalled master." \Vc give alsn a few specimens of Su Tnng-po's poetry. The first we extract from 'Gems of Cliiuoe Literatim'.' THK SONC, OF Till: CRANKS. Away ! away ! My birds, tly westwards now, To wheel on high and ga/.e on all below : To swoop together, pinions closed, to earth : To soar aloft once more among the clouds ; To wander all day long in sedgy vale ; To gather duckweed in the stony marsh. Come back ! Come back ! Beneath the lengthening shades, Your serge-clad master stands, guitar in hand. 'Tis he that feeds you from his slender store: Come back ! Come back '. Nor linger in the west. POETRY. 297 Su Tung-po's eulogies of departed worthies are fine specimens of writing. He 'never failed to clothe his thoughts in beautiful language,' ' with great facility he collects all the meritorious deeds of his heroes, and places them in a very strong light; he then makes some allusion to the ages long gone by, and traces their resemblances to celebrated personages concluding with his own panegyrics. These eloquent pieces were not only printed but also engraved on solid stone.' We give one of these eulogistic inscriptions. IN MEMORIAM : HAN WEN RUNG. High mounted on the dragon's back he rode Aloft to where the dazzling cloudlands lie; The glory of the sky he grasped amai n ; The splendour of the stars, his sparkling robe. The zephyrs' breath him gently wafted on From earth's domain up to the throne of God. On earth his practised hand swept off the chaff, The husks which hid the grains of truth from sight. He roamed the wide world o'er from pole to pole, From east to west his rays so bright were shed, And nature's darkness clothed upon with light. The third amidst the three of genius great. His rivals strove in vain to reach his height, And panted, dazzled by his glory's glare. Buddha was cursed by him ; his priests denounced. His sovereign's wrath was poured upon his head. He journeyed to the distant South afar ; And passed upon his way the grave of Shun ; And wept, wept o'er the daughters of ancient Yao. The spirit of the deep before him went, And stilled the noisy waves tumultuous roar. As 'twere a lamb the monster fierce he drove. f In heaven above the golden harps were still, And God was sad, and called him to his place Beside his throne. I now salute him there, And now present to him my off'rings poor : The red lichee, the yellow plantain fruit. Alas ! Why lingered he not then on earth ; But passed so soon away with flowing locks Into the future world the great unknown ? The other t\\<> wen- Tu KM and J.i Tai-pu. f Referring to the crocodile which he is said to have driven away. "298 THINGS CHINESE. Poetry is held in high estimation by the Chinese. Capping verses is a pastime of scholars; and at the com- petitive examinations the candidates have to try their hands at the composition of verse. This mechanical art they have first to learn at school, as, with us, boys waste their time at public schools and colleges in composing Latin verse. The consequence is, that all the educated men are verse-makers we cannot call such poets. To this cause is partly due the mechanical structure of much of Chinese poetry, but it is also due to the peculiarities of its construction. Nor is the art of poetry confined to men, China has had her burning Sapphos who 'loved and sung' and her lyric Corinnas. The lower classes are passionately fond of the recitations of ballads by men who go from house to house for that purpose. We append a piece translated by the late G. C. Stcnt's i'acilc pen : 'CHANG LIANG'S FLUTE.' 'T\vas night the tired soldiers were peacefully sleeping, The low hum of voices was hushed in repose ; The sentries in silence a strict watch were keeping, 'Gainst surprise, or a sudden attack of their foes. When a mellow note on the night air came stealing, So soothingly over the senses it fell- So touchingly sweet so soft and appealing, Like the musical tones of an aerial bell. Now rising, now falling now fuller and clearer Now liquidly soft now a low wailing cry Now the cadences seem floating nearer and nearer Now dying away in a whispering sigh. Then a burst of sweet music so plaintively thrilling. \V.is caught up by the echoes who sang the refrains In their many-toned voices the atmosphere filling With a chorus of dulcet mysterious strains. The sleepers arouse and with beating hearts listen, In their dreams they had heard that weird music before; It touches each heart with tears their eyes glisten, For it tells them of those they may never sec more. In fancy those notes to their childhood's days brought them, To those far-away scenes they had not seen for years; To those who had loved them, had reared them and taught them, And the i-yes of those stern men became wet with tears. POSTS. 299 Bright visions of home through their mem'ries came thronging, Panorama-like passing in front of their view ; They were home-sick, no power could withstand that strange longing, The longer they listened, the more home-sick they grew. Whence came those sweet sounds ? Who the unseen musician That breathes out his soul which floats on the night-breeze In melodious sighs in strains so clysian As to soften the hearts of rude soldiers like these ? Each looked at the other, but no word was spoken, The music insensibly tempting them on : They must return home : ere the daylight had broken, The enemy looked, and behold, they were gone ! There's a magic in music a witchery in it, Indescribable either with tongue or wiih pen ; The flute of Chang-Liang, in that one little minute, Had stolen the courage of eight thousand men. Jlooltx i-i'i-otiniK'inli'il . -The Poetry of the Chinese.' by Sir. J. F. Davis. P.art. K.C.B.. F.R.s.. &. An article on ' Chinese Poetry.' by tin- lute Sir Walter Medhurst, in The China Review,' Vol. I V., ]>. K'>. 'The Jade Chiiplet,' by C. C. Steiit ; ' Entombed Alive. ;md otlier Verses.' by the s;ime author. For accounts of Sn-Tim^-po. see 'China. Review.' Vol. 1.. ]>. '!:>. where two or three further specimens of his poetry :nv Lciven. and Vol. XII., p. 31. 'The works of Sii-Tmiic-po.' an article in -The Chines- Repository." Vol. XL. p. )32. ' Li-Tai-po as a Poet.' a. short account of Li-'I'ai-pa's poetry in 'The China Review.' Vol. X V 1 1., p. :>."). POSTS. -There is no Post Office department in the Chinese Government similar to our General Post Office and its branches. The Supreme Government sends its despatches by means of couriers, who are under a department of the Board of War, and for whom relays of horses arc provided; the greatest speed attained by these Government couriers is 200 miles a day. This courier service is simply for governmental purposes; the common people do not share in its advantages and conveniences. Commercial enterprise provides for the general community a system of local posts 'entirely indepen- dent of the State.' In most places, of any importance, letters are received by certain shops or agencies, and on payment of a sum, its amount being contingent on the distance the letter or parcel of silver, &c. has to be carried, it will probably have a good chance of reaching its destination. To better secure this result, it is sometimes customary to write on the envelope that a certain further sum will be paid to the postman on delivery, who has thus an incentive to try and THIXGX CHINESE. find tlic addressee. The postage from Hongkong to Cant< >n is twenty cash (2 cents), but from Hongkong to Fat-shan. which is about twelve miles further than Canton, it is double that amount, vi/., forty cash ; this is only an instance of one of the advantages which, would result were foreigners allowed to run steamers on all the inner waters of the Chinese Empire, for there are regular lines of American river steamers running between Hongkong and Canton. Sir Robert Hart, the Inspector-General of the Imperial .Maritime Customs, has established a postal system, between Peking and Shanghai c., which is of great benefit, not only to the Customs service, but to the foreign mercantile community. When the northern ports are ice-bound, a c< mrier carries the letters; and a series of postage stamps arc in use f different denominations, such as one, two. and five candarins, having a dragon in the centre. It is to be hoped that this will be the nucleus from which shall expand a general postage system f< >r the whole of China. Haiti; rti-miiiiniiilrd. A short article in tlif ' ( 'ornliill .M.iirnx.inc." in Tin- China Mail ' of the iOth August 1*11. POIiCKLAIX .\M> /'or/'/:/;)'. The word porcelain. it is said, was introduced by the Portuguese, who first brought such ware in any -quantity to Europe from China. The name 'refers to the exterior appearance resembling the shining white of the < 'n ri -,,.i ,r porcelain shell (Port u_ /<>/<; II, i,,. 1 1.' 'The Chinese from the most ancient times have cultivated the art of welding clay, and they claim the invention of the potter's wheel, like most of the great nations of antiquity.' Like the origin of many Chinese things, the invention of porcc- lain is shrouded in the mist- of antiquity, and no certain date- ran he assigned to it. 'It is generally ascribed by them to the ancient Emperor Shun, who is supposed to have reigned during the third millennium B.C.; but some attribute it to his more famous predecessor Iluang-ti. who is given a hi rector of Pottery' among the officers of his court. Ju a book published in the Chow dynasty 'there is a short section POltCKLALN AXD POTTERY. ,301 on pottery, in which the processes of fashioning on the wheel and moulding arc distinguished. Among the productions we read of coffins, sacrificial wine jars and altar dishes, cooking utensils and measures, all made no doubt of simple pottery, and it is doubted whether this was ever covered by a vitreous glaze, the employment of which is so ancient in Egypt. Different potteries are mentioned in the Wei and following dynasties.' 'The manufacture of articles of pottery for domestic use then was known to the Chinese as early as B.C. 1700.' Unfortunately, the term used for porcelain in -Chinese is one of those words which every language possesses, namely, words which have changed from their original significance this word having first been applied to all pottery affords no sure clue for fixing dates as to the original production of porcelain. St. Julien places the invention of porcelain as early as between B.C. 185 and A.D. 83. 'It has been objected to this, with justice, that the Chinese statements on which he bases his theory are, like those of Marco Polo, very superficial and indefinite, and most probably relate to quite other clay-wares.' Therefore, the .statement that porcelain was produced in the Han dynasty (B.C. 20G to A.D. 220) is unfortunately incapable of proof. Were it possible to discover any indubitable productions of that epoch, all doubt might be set at rest, but at present it is not known that any exist. Were archaeology more of a science among the Chinese than it is, some hope might be entertained that such would be the case. Some have been sceptical enough to suppose that it was not known 'long, if at all, before the Ming dynasty (A.D. 13(>8),' while again on the other hand it is asserted that porcelain was invented when, in the middle of the ninth century, certain pieces were produced of a white colour, like ivory, and giving a clear sound when struck. The cups produced at Ta-i. of this ware have had their praises sung by T ; o-fu, a poet of the T-ang dynasty (see article on Poetry). The decorations were effected before the baking and were not elaborate, being confined to such subjects as fish, flowers. &c. ; This was the time when the cobalt decorations under srlaze were first 302 TIIIXGS CHINES. employed, which from then till now have played such an important part in the ornamentation of Chinese porcelain, especially for domestic use among the Chinese themselves.' ' At whatever period or by whatever happy chain of circumstances, porcelain was invented, we have tangible evidence that the Chinese potters produced wonderful works at a very early period of our era, and have gone on producing them up to our own day. Speaking on this subject .M. Phillippc Burty remarks : "The Chinese ceramists suc- ceeded to a marvellous degree in their manipulation >f porcelain ; in their hands it became a truly magical substitute, receiving every form and gradation of colour that caprice could dictate. In their porcelain productions we have proof that the decorative taste and imitative skill of the Chinese artists are almost faultless. You see, for instance. * a carp and carplings with distended gills slipping amongst a clump of reeds : a garden rat devouring a peach ; a toad crawling up the involuted root of a bamboo ; or a beautiful water-lily in full bloom, forming a cup, of which the tea-pot is so constructed that not only have its concentric, moveable rings been carved out of a solid mass, but they revolve upon each other, causing us to Avonder how adherence could have been prevented in the firing. The origin of the great superiority of the Oriental potters is, that they start, in nearly all instances, with a more or less free or capricious imitatinu of some natural production : and the article, peculiar in outline and treatment, will, however, readily suggest to the mind some afiinity with the real object. All the productions >f the natural world, ami. indeed, the beings and monsters with which they crowd the supernatural world, are alike resorted to for fresh inspiration; and their habits of careful observation of nature >upply them with countle-s delicate subtletic-. 'It is unquestionably to this great appreciation for, and unremitting study of the -works of nature that we arc indebted for the marvellous \ariety of works produced by the of China and Japan. No one can review a collection of Oriental porcelain without being struck with the masterly PORCELAIX AND POTTERY. 303 handling of form and colour it displays. In flower vases, perfume burners, and water vessels, every shape that the mineral, animal, and vegetable kingdoms could suggest has been adopted, and the colouring studiously imitated.' "'The early porcelain of the Chinese appears to have been remarkable for its form, and the beauty of its material. At one time, it is probable, white porcelain only was made: but it is evident that at a very early date the art of covering the pieces with a rich coloured enamel had been invented, and also the mode of producing the crackled appearance in the enamel discovered. Many varieties of white porcelain have been produced by the Chinese potters, and some are of great beauty, not only on account of the perfection of their paste, but likewise from the tasteful manner in which they are decorated. Some have flowers or conventional designs, carefully modelled in relief, while others have designs so engraved that they are visible only when held up to the light.' 'The old Chinese potters do not appear to have worked in grooves, or styles, beyond what a limited demand on the part of their patrons rendered necessary. No sooner had some experiment or accident introduced a new colour. combination of colours, or some peculiar surface decoration, than articles were produced suitable for the display of the same; and we are of opinion that in many cases such essays were never repeated, until attempted in the recent periods of imitation to meet the demand of European collectors. There are, no doubt, such things as unique Chinese porcelain in. the cabinets of collectors in China and Europe, and it is highly probable that they have been unique from the day of their fabrication. Many specimens, now so much prized, may have been spoiled pieces in the eyes of their makers, and, not turning out to be what was desired or expected at the time, were never repeated. This argument applies to the highly curious, and at times extravagant specimens of the splashed or enamelled ware which arc met Avith, and which carry with them evidences, in their distorted shapes and slag-like vitrification, of their accidental decoration.' THINGS CHINESE. The paste of porcelain-ware is prepared usually from two ingredients ; these arc finely mixed and pulverised : the one is known as kaolin, so called it is said from a hill to the east of the Chinese Imperial Porcelain Manufactory, King-teh-chin, kno meaning high in Chinese, and I'm (properly ///>//) a ridge or high peak, ' which hill, however, does not yield the product of decomposition which we in Europe call kaolin (" porcelain or pipe clay ") but a phyllite, whose rhemical composition resembles that of the Swedish Hiille- iiinta (?) ; ' the other ingredient consists of some mineral ' rich in silicic acid, the so-called flux usually felspar or pegmatite, porcelain stone ( these porcelain stones, which are wanting in our pottery industry, contribute greatly to that of China and Japan) or some other white-burning form of quart/, is used in the finer ceramics.' The proportion of the two and the degree of heat in firing depend upon whether porcelain or faience is to be produced. Some of the colours which were used by the Chinese six hundred years ago to decorate their porcelain ' we are not yet able to imitate.' The white Ting porcelain would appear to have been in existence during the seventh century. The Ting-Yao was made at Ting Chau in Chih-li, whence its name. It Mas also known, as white Ting porcelain from its colour bring mostly of a brilliant white. It is probably one of the oldest kinds. There were three varieties of it plain, smooth, and that having ornaments in relief. The sign of its being genuine is that of having marks like tears on it. It is to bo distinguished from the creamy white of another species of porcelain, the Kicii-yiu made in Fuh-kicn. Commencing with the beginning of the seventh century it seems probable thai. the manufacture of porcelain 'began to flourish in various parts of the Empire.' Of the different kinds produced during the T'ang dynasty no specimens, as far as is kno\vn. arc xtant, but those of the Sung period are to be found in the market; these from their age command a good price. Unfortunately, however, many of this period were of such a delicate make as to be unfitted for survival during the centuries that have intervened. Sonic, especially those of an PORCELAIN AND POTTERY. 305 indestructible nature, have been handed down ; the others are only known from the descriptions given of them in books. Amongst the best of them were the Ch'cn and Ju kinds. The Ju was of a pale 'bluish-green.' At the same time as the Ta-i cups, mentioned above, were produced at Yuch-chow for the Emperor's use, the class of porcelain styled Pi-sc was made, the colour described as a hidden colour ' has given rise to some discussion as to its precise meaning. So fine was certain porcelain made here that it was described ' as transparent as jade and so resonant as to be used in sets of twelve to play tunes upon.' But few, if any, specimens of these ancient examples of ceramic art are in existence. No kind of painted decoration appears to have been used before the Sung dynasty, as writers arc silent about anything of the kind. The tenth century is marked by progress, both in the perfected operations and in the art of the decorator, which felt the influence of Buddhism bringing Indian art in its train, and improving the taste of the natives. The Chinese describe the porcelain produced at this epoch (A.D. 960) in the following terms : Blue as the sky, bright as a mirror, fragile as paper, and sonorous as a plaque of jade-stone ; they were lustrous and of a charming delicacy ; the fineness of the crackle and the purity of the colour are distinguishing features of them : they eclipse by their beauty all preceding porcelains.' They were called by the highly poetical name of Yn kwo ti< -n. I. -r. Ilirth describes the specimen seen by him as ' of a peculiar brownish in sort of bronxe colour,' called by the Chini >/ [the ancient celadon crackle] with three gradations in colour constituting their value, via!.: i I i a pale / -A V/? //-green; (2) a fallow white: and (3) gray. The A' /-///- it'in-l- playing into pale scarlet, the shades being -\ery different though: the !><-; ones ha\ ing the "crab's claw pattern," and -a red brim with an iron coloured bottom."' Another division of porcelains was th- fuonryao and A'"-'/"'r. ; the real old celadons' described as of *a green mixed with bluish or grayish tints, neither a decided green n-r anything like blue.' The qualities it possesses PORCELAIN AND POTTERY. 307 are 'thickness, heaviness, rich olive or sea-green enamel, white paste, and a ferruginous ring on the bottom ' the paste which was originally Avhite turned red in the fire. These were produced in the Sung and Yuen dynasties (A.D. 9(50 to 1368) and seem to have been carried by the current of mediaeval Chinese trade into 'Arab possessions and other foreign countries.' The crackled porcelain known as fSHt-fc! in the thir- teenth century was also a product of this first or primitive period of the ceramic art in China. ' The beautiful coloured ground tints, chalcedony, dull violet, yellow and Turkish blue, so much valued by collectors, began to be used in the thirteenth century.' The second period, the Siuen-tih, comprises the reigns of Siuen-tih, Chiug-tung, and King-tai, lasting from A.D. 1420 to 1465. Ceramic art was still in a formative stage at the commencement of this period, notwithstanding the advances made in the last period. Its characteristic type was the decoration of blue flowers under the glaze. This blue was the su-ni-po, and took after the firing a pale blue. This porcelain is highly esteemed by the Chinese. M. Paleoloque describes the pieces thus produced in the following terms : 'Elles out, en cffet, un charme doux dc coloris et de composition, unc purcte*dc ton, unc delicatesse d'aspect qui n'ont jamais ct<' surpasses.' Red was also put into the enamel for the first time before the glaze was applied, being 'painted on the paste, so that the red designs shone through the glaze dazzling the eyes. It is described as obtained by powdering rubies from the West, but this is impossible.' It was a copper silicate; and the red for painting over the glaze was prepared from sulphate of iron and carbonate of lead. 'This mixture produced a fine coral red,' and, to procure a deep enough red, cornelian was employed. Amongst other work produced at this time may be mentioned some pottery known by the Portuguese as boccaro : the fine kind of this ware was formed into teapots and other objects, while the coarser sort was employed as ;J08 TIIISGS CllISESE. ornamcntion on walls, it being used in the famous Porcelain Tower of Nanking, which was built A.D. 1415-1430. The reign of Siuen-tih 'is celebrated for its porcelain, which is held [by some] to be the finest produced during the Ming dynasty ; every production was of the highest artistic value. Cups were made of a bright red or of sky blue. The surface on some cups was granulated like the skin of a fowl or the peel of the sweet orange. There were vases crackled, like glass, or with veins as red as the blood of the eel, rivalling in beauty the porcelain of Jou-chou and the Kuan-yao. The bowls decorated with crickets were of extraordinary beauty.' The most flourishing period of Chinese porcelain making, however, like that of most other branches of its art industry, was during the Ming dynasty, especially in the second halt' of the fifteenth century. During this period its manufacture occupied a new position owing to the employment of many c )lourcd decorations upon glaze, after the article had been baked. This was a new development, and was called "'the five-coloured porcelain,' because more than one colour was employed, but the number was not necessarily confined to five. \Ve shall refer again to these under the Kang-hi period. With this advance the artist proceeded to more difficult subjects for decorative purposes, such as the human figure. historical, legendary, and religious. scenes and landscapes. Por- i-elains in which green predominated were particularly pri/ed. Gold and gold purple were not used till the year !(>!)().' The Third epoch, that of Ching-hwa. includes the reigns of Hung-chi. Ching-tch, Kia-tsing, and Lung-king, and lasted irom.\.I>. 1 KM to 157.'$. JJlu- poivel.-iin \\a->till manufactured, Less pure materials being employed in place of the su-ni-po. At the same time advances are noticeable in other points, such as arrangements of colours and skill in designs, &e. An improved (jiiality of cobalt seems to have been used A.D. 1521 and a new dark blue was produced: the objects made in it commanded a high price. ' In the Ching-hwa period [that of the reign of that Sovereign A.D. 1HJ5-H87] lived several celebrated artists. PORCELAIN .LVD POTTEHY. 309 One made jars which he decorated on the upper part with the monttin [tree peony] in flower, and below a hen and chickens, full of life and movement. There were also cups with handles, painted with grapes ; wine cups, ornamented with figures and the lotus ; others as thin as paper, painted with blue flowers ; others with locusts. The enamelled were especially esteemed. The blue on the ware of this period is inferior to the Siuen-tih. but its paintings and colours surpass any that preceded them.' Gilding which was first employed during the Yuen dynasty, was brought to perfection during the reign of Ching-hwa (A.D. 1465 to 1487). 'In the Kia-tsing period (A.D. 1522-1.566) the dark blue vases were alone in favour.' Immense quantities of porcelain were ordered to be manufactured for Imperial purposes in A.D. 1571 : no less u number than 105.770 pairs of different kinds of things were ordered, and in A.D. 1583 as many as 96.000 pieces, but remonstrances were made by the censors, and in some instances, at all events, the amounts were reduced in number. This wholesale ordering and consequent enormous production has flooded the streets of Peking with porcelain of that date. ' where a street hawker may be seen with sweetmeats piled on dishes over a yard in diameter, or ladling iced syrup out of Ming bowls, and there is hardly a butcher's shop without a large Ming jar.' The Fourth period is styled the Wan-lih period, though it covers the reigns of Tai-chang, Tien-ki, and Chung-clung of the Ming dynasty, as well as that of Shun-chi of the present or T'sing dynasty, and lasted from A.D. 1573 to 1662. Green and the five coloured porcelains * were the chief products. Two drawbacks were experienced at this time : one was the giving out of the clay employed for the fine porcelain; and the other was the cessation of the importation of the blue the Mahommedan blue as the Chinese termed it just as, a century before, the su-ni-po blue had failed. To meet the new condition of affairs and to hide the grayish character ;HO THINGS CHINESE. of the only products procurable with the materials at their disposal, a rich brilliancy of enamel was employed, and the importance attached to the outer surface hid the inferior products below. During the reign of Lung-king, the last Emperor of the last period, as well as during that of Wan-lih, the first of the period now under review, 'the Imperial manufactory produced pieces which showed the greatest artistic skill.' The latter Emperor 'had cups for the altar as white as jade, and of extraordinary beauty. The ^la/c of the vases was / * creamy, "like a layer of congealed fat." The surface was granulated, as if covered with grains of millet, or like the flesh of a fowl; some are said to appear as if covered with buds of the azalea, and others shagreened like the peel of nn orange.' During this same reign there 'lived a celebrated artist of the name of Ou, who excelled in poetry, writing, and painting. * * * * He withdrew from the world and retired to a manufactory, where he produced, in secret, porcelain, remarkable alike for its quality and the beauty of its colours. Among these the most sought after were large cups, ornamented with red clouds, brilliant as vermillion, and egg-shell cups, of dax/ling whiteness, and so fine that some of them did not weigh more than twelve grains.' 'The white pieces of the Wan-lih' reign, 'were very celebrated.' 'The manufacture of porcelain continued at the King-tch-chin Imperial Potteries under the present dynasty (the Ts'ing or Manchu Tartars A.D. 1(>(>2| with equal success.' During Shun-chi's reign, however, a- well as the latter part of the Ming dynasty, 'there seems to have been a irn-at decline in the manufacture of fine porcelain ; therefore little artistic work is found during this period.' ' The monochrome porcelain of the Minir and Kicn-lung periods, the ruby, Mm0 f it was produced during the Kang-hi period. Quite a variety of these decorations was produced, one of which at least is very beautiful. By so:ne means the colouring material was 'blown from the tube and' lighted upon the piece in small bubbles, some remaining as such, while most of them ' broke and formed rinijs. many of the rings, in turn,' broke "at their lower side, the colours running a little, often giving a beautiful agate appearance, in fact, such pieces are called agate specimens. Souffle porcelain \va< also made in the Kien-lung period, but not of so fine a quality as' that just described. The best blacks were made in the reign of Kang-hi, and with their fine enamel some .specimens arc quite beautiful; the black is produced by uranium oxide. Plain PORCELAIN AND POTTERY. 315 reds Averc not much used, it seems, during the time of Kang-hi, but a lovely tint was employed in connection with other colours in the decorations. * * What is known as the five coloured decoration, was introduced during the ]\Iing dynasty, but brought to its greatest degree of perfection during the time of Kang-hi. The five colours are red, yellow, green, blue, and black. These are all produced from metallic oxides or minerals ; no other colouring matter will stand the high degree of heat required to produce underglaze decoration. In using these colours in combination it required a great amount of experience and manipulative skill, and so the range of colours must necessarily be limited, for all material used must be of a character to fuse on the one hand before the fusing point of the paste, and on the other not evaporate and spoil the shade required while enduring the heat necessary for the underglaze firing; and then again, some colours are much more refractory than others; no two fuse at the same temperature. Therefore the most refractory colours must in all cases be applied first, then the piece fired to the fusing point of this colour, then for the shading of this colour more must be added to points requiring the heavy shades, and fused again until this colour and its tints are satisfactory, then the next refractory colour is applied in the same manner, firing to the fusing point, and so on until the last and most easily fusible colour has been applied, whereupon over all an enamel is fused whicli is less refractory than any colour. The fine specimens of the five colours have probably been fired from fifteen to twenty times. Then if the piece comes out at the last, finished, without break, crack, warp, or the colours having run, and possessing all the brilliancy and shading desired, the piece is valuable; many are spoiled during this fiery ordeal. With very limited exceptions the finest artists that over existed in China lived during the Kang-hi period.' During this ' time Chinese porcelain was brought to its highest degree of perfection and artistic beauty, with, perhaps the exception of the beautiful Ming greens. The exquisite sang-de-bqeuf when perfect is of great beauty. To describe 316 THINGS CHINESE. its brilliancy would be most difficult, yet, if attempted, one might say, take a plain, undecorated porcelain vase and immerse it in the freshest arterial blood, and, while dripping, fix the colour with a deep transparent enamel. While one piece is nearly perfect, a thousand are more or less spoiled in the firing. They come out of the kiln from the beautiful colour above described to a much darker red, often badly blotched : from the latter they run through all the shades until lost in an ash colour tinged with only the slightest blush of red. There is a beautiful blue which, seems engraved into a creamy paste over which a liquid enamel is fixed, the enamel often being crackled, and also an exquisite white described as having the appearance of congealed fat. Perhaps with these exceptions, no Ming porcelain or decorations equal, in quality of paste, beauty of form, purity of enamel, brilliancy and happy combination of colours, and high artistic decorative skill, the porcelain made during the reign of Kang-hi.' ' With the exception of the beautiful blue and the creamy tinted white (often crackled), which belong to the Ming dynasty these specimens arc often rare all other fine old blue and white china belongs to the Kang-hi period, often inaccurately marked Ming in Chinese characters on the bottom. Many of the specimens are very beautiful; the\ have a clear white ground and brilliant blue ornamentation, and have this virtue, that in whatever light, and from what- ever distance the colour of the piece is seen, it is always blue. These blues arc formed from cobalt oxide. All the fine yellow with a deep transparent enamel which lights up with ;i delightful brilliancy, was also made in th'e Kang-lii period: these are often decorated ',vith a lively green, usually \vith a dragon,' a lion, 'or some mythical creature.' Yellow is the present Imperial colour. The turquoise variety was probal>l\ first made during this reign, and is among the most highly prized. The colour is derived from a copper oxide, and like the Kting- but inferior to the brilliant Kang-hi specimens, and a very large variety of flambes. Probably this Sambo was at first an accident caused by one colour running into another : evidently the cue was taken from the accident, and a high degree of ornamentation followed. One of the most charming effects perhaps is produced by streaks of whitish blue running down over a dragon's blood red, giving one something of the sensation of delightful minor music. The other coloured enamels are almost countless, an endless variety being obtained by admixture of different tints, by dusting, sprinkling and splashing. These enamels appear to be laid upon the porcelain while it is in a biscuit state, and fused at a great heat ; the firing does really the artist's duty in works of this class, changing the tints, combining and running them over into one another in the most fantastic manner. It seems every attempt was made iu mixing colours to produce new tints ; even new colours were discovered among them, violet and pink. It is probable that the endeavour to get a greater variety of tints by mixing colours was one reason of the Kien-lung decoration falling short in brilliancy of the simple colour decoration of Kang-hi.' The Seventh epoch is the present period commencing with A.D. 1796. It has seen no progress, but is rather a period of decadence, partly due to the excessive demand for Chinese porcelain of any style or character in the West, and also as well to the diminution of artistic judgment in China. On Chinese porcelain the marks chiefly consist of a. date, or rather a reign of an Emperor, or a dynasty, or both combined. The workman's name does not appear, as 'in China every piece passes through the hands of a number of Avorkmen, each contributing his fraction to the decoration. All these decorators being other than the potter who turned the vase, and the workman Avho glazed it, no single specimen could be marked as the work of one man.' With the Chinese collector, age is the first requisite and beauty is a secondary consideration. It is amusing to hear the laughter from a Chinese crowd round a stall when the Chinese -320 THINGS CHINESE. stall-keeper offers an ugly ginger jar of a hideous glaring yellow, with the recommendation of its age, and the European despises it for its ugliness. Jiaoltx recommended. 'Ancient Porcelain: a Study in Chinese Media-val Industry and Trade.' by I". Ifirth, Ph. 1). An article on 'Chinese Porcelain before the Present Dynasty.' by S. YV. Bushel!, M.D. 'L'Art Chinois,' hy M. PitMologne. 'An Essay on Chinese Porcelain.' by G. O. Rogers, D.D.S. We are indebted to all of these in the above article. No exhaustive book has yet been written on Chinese porcelain, and it is a great want. A new work beautifully illustrated is shortly to be issued, so it is said, by a private collector. PRINTING. The Chinese classics, which form the foundation of a great portion of Chinese literature also gave the first hint to the Chinese for printing. They Avcre ongraved on stone, A.D. 177, and impressions (or possibly rubbings) taken from them. Printing from wooden blocks, the system now in general use throughout the Empire. was known as early as A.D. 581-618, being practised during the course of the next three hundred years in the T ; ang dynasty ; and Avas adopted by Imperial order in reproducing the classics in A.D. 952, thus anticipating Caxton's discovery in Europe by about five centuries. The wood used for the blocks,' as they arc technically called, is generally the pear or plum. It is cut into small slabs about the size of a foolscap sheet of paper and about the thickness of an inch. These arc soaked for some time in water. The book to be printed is written most carefully by a good writer in the square form of the character employed in printing, and then pasted face downwards on the block : the block-cutter with his wetted finger rubs off the paper, leaving the impression : lie then with different graving instruments, and a piece of wood to act as a mallet, cuts away, to the depth of a <|u;irtcr of an inch or so, all the surface of the wood which is not covered by the writing, thus leaving the writing in relief; the block is often cut on the under surface as well. Kn<-'i < iii-face of the block generally contains two pages of the Chinese book to be printed. This done the block is delivered to the printer who, adjusting it on a table in front of him with nails and pads of paper, prepares to print. .Sitting down in front of the block, to his right hand is a PROVERBS. 321 board with a curious shaped circular brush on it, the handle being also round, and thick enough to be grasped comfortably by the hand. The whole brush looks something like a bouquet of flowers turned upside down. An earthen crock with liquid ink is next to the ink-board, and a small brush, something like a diminutive circular carpet broom, with a long handle, lies in it. Beyond the block is a pile of paper cut into the right shape, that is, a little larger than the block. Within convenient reach is a pad made of coir, perfectly smooth on the surface; the brushes are likewise made of the same fibre. These then are the printer's primitive materials. Ready to begin Avork he takes up a quantity of ink on to the ink-board with the small brush; after which he works the ink into the large circular brush and then rubs it all over the surface of the block ; putting down the brush he adroitly takes hold of the two nearest corners of the topmost sheet of paper, lifting it by the thumb and forefinger of each hand, giving it a jerk at the same time in order to keep it from falling limp; judging by his eye how much margin to leave, he lays it neatly on the surface of the block, and lifting the pad or pressing brush, he passes it deftly and lightly over the paper, exerting sufficient pressure for an impression to be taken. Printers get very quick at this work ; it is easily learned. A good block-cutter gets a dollar per thousand characters cut. After about sixteen thousand impressions are taken off the blocks get somewhat worn, but they can be retouched, when another ten thousand can be printed from them. It is a cheaper mode of printing a few small books than by metallic type, as the initial expense is slight compared with that of providing fonts of type and expensive presses, &c. though the blocks for a largo book take up a great deal of room and are very cumbersome and easily destroyed by insects. There is a softness and mellow- ness about the character which is w r anting in the clear cut type. PROVERBS. It has been said that 'a Chinese proverb is something almost, if not utterly, indefinable. Of course it bears, in several features, a strong likeness to other branches of the family in various countries ; but, of " that Y 322 THINGS CHINESE. sententious brevity," which is said to "'constitute the- principal beauty of a proverb" of that brevity, without obscurity, which is said to be the very soul of a proverb, it is often totally lacking. Other features it has which are peculiarly its own, and which impart to it a terseness, beauty, and symmetry, inimitable, at least in the English language.' Proverbs are very numerous in China. We give a few samples below : 'To make a man of yourself you must toil ; if you don't, you won't.' 'Strike a flint, and you'll get fire; strike it not, and you'll not get even smoke.' 'No pains no gains' is represented by 'never was a good work done without much trouble.' 'If an ox won't drink, you can't make him bend down his head.' 'Everything is difficult at first.' 'Done leisurely, done well-' 'It is easier to know how to do a thing than to do it.' 'Cheap things are not good; good things are not cheap.' ' Better take eight hundred than give credit for a thousand cash.' 'All unskilful fools Quarrel with their tools.' 'Two of a trade hate one another.' ' Our daily bread depends on Heaven.' ' There is dew for every blade of grass.' ' A stick's a stick whether short or tall. A man's a man whether great or small.' 'As the twig is bent the mulberry grows.' ' There are pictures in poems, and poems in pictures.' 'Learning is far more precious than gold.' 'You cannot open a book without learning something.' 'You may study to old age and yet have things to learn.' ' No pleasure equals the pleasure of study.' 'Some study shows the need of more.' 'Extensive reading is a priceless treasure.' ' Strike while the iron's hot.' ' To persuade gentlemen not to gamble is to win for them.' 'The two words pure and leisure no money can buy.' 'Man's life is truly a performance.' ' Wine is a discoverer of secrets.' ' Speak irarefully and be slow to speak.' ' He who talks much must err ; he excels who says nothing.' 'True gold fears no fire.' 'He has the mouth of a liuddlia, the heart of a snake.' 'The human heart is bad to fathom.' 'Do good, regardless of consequences.' J{l;x rrriiiiiiiii-iiilrff. 'A Collection of ( 'lli IK-SI- Proverbs' li.V I!(-V. \V. >i-:irtMinni^ii. ciiimv-i- Provi-rKs' b\ i;-'\ . A. Smith. ' Enigmatic Parallelism! of th- Canton l)i:ih-.-t' in 'China Pn-virw,' Vols. XVI. ami XVII.. by \l<-\ . T. \V. I Varo- ami thr Hon. J. II. St. wart-I.ockhtirt. 'Chinese Proverbs in ih.j Aui"V Vernacular ' in 'China Uevi'-w,' Vol. 15, p. 2D8. RA CE.~ RAIL WA YS. 323 RACE. The Chinese as a nation are not of pure blood What nation is ? Doubtless, when the present inhabitants of China poured into the land they absorbed some at least of the original inhabitants, the Miao and the Man, while later, in historic times, ' large immigrations or bands of captives consisting of Tibetans, Huns, and the Mongolic Hienbi,' have each furnished their quota towards the amalgam, to say nothing of Manchu Tartars and others. These and climatic conditions have probably had something to do in differen- tiating the Southern Chinaman from the Northern, the former being well described by Ross as ' short, small, 'cute,' and the latter as ' tall, stout, solid and slow.' This amalgamation of aborigines and Chinese goes on slightly still on the borders of the habitats of the former, as a few Chinese are to be found who have married wives from the different tribes. See Article on Chinese, Physical Characteristics of. RAILWAYS. The railway is in its infancy in China. About thirty years ago Sir R. Stephenson came out in the hope of being able to inaugurate a general railway system. All the foreign community was naturally in favour of such a scheme ; one or two pointed out that the Chinese were not ready for it, and would not be for a long time to come, and. such being the case, of course nothing could be done. About fifteen years ago a short line of railway (twelve or fourteen miles in length, if we remember rightly) was constructed under the auspices of an English firm, and ran between Shanghai and Woo-sung at the mouth of the Shanghai River. There was considerable traffic, but the Chinese Government objected to its being in the hands of foreigners, and bought it, took it up, and transferred rails and rolling stock to the island of Formosa, where they lay rusting for some years. There is now, however, a short line of railway in active operation in the north of Formosa under Chinese officials. Another short lino is in the north of China, reaching from Tien-tsin to the coal mines at Kai-ping, a length of 32 1 THINGS CHINESE. eighty miles, and an extension of a hundred miles is in- tended. It has been prolonged as far as the neighbourhood of Yung-ping-fu. and is to be extended to Shan-hai-kwan, in Manchuria, on the borders of the Chih-li Province ' where the great Avail reaches the sea ; ' for the present it is only to be carried to the distance of sixty //. say twenty miles, but the sea will soon be reached as the Chinese are pushing the work on rapidly, it being a strategic line connecting Tientsin, New-chwang, Port Arthur. Moukden, Kirin, and the Russian frontier of Manchuria. Two millions of taels are being annually set aside for the work. Probably considerations of defence will prove more effective in causing the construction of the railway than anything else. Every new railway project in China appears to have a hard tussle at its inception. There is a progressive party in favour of the iron road ; there is another party opposed to progress, conservative officials who deprecate the introduction of all foreign inventions. Both parties are united apparently in the idea of preventing all foreign intervention. The Chinese, fearful of foreign influence in their country, will not brook any interference in the development of any railway schemes for China. ' China for the Chinese ' is their motto; and for fear that an alien authority may be set up in their midst, they turn a deaf ear to all entreaties for permission to construct lines. So far do they carry these precautions, that they are resolved to smelt their own ore and make their own rails, buying as little as possible in the torei-Mi market. If this resolution is adhered to it will O probably be many years before railway lines of any great magnitude are in running order. Extensive iron-works have been set up in the neighbourhood of Hankow with this -nd in view. Already a small line for the transportation of iron ore has been laid at Hankow : it is called the Ta-ye Railway, and runs to Huang-si-kan a distance of sixty It, (twenty miles). Another proposal is for a line to be constructed from Canton to Sham-shui-j>o near the Cosmopolitan Docks in RELIGION. RICE. 325 British territory, on the mainland opposite Hongkong. Surveys have been made, and it is said that permission has been granted for its construction. It will pass through the important town of Shek-lung, as well as other places, running a total length of 380 II, or about 127 miles. But, like the other railways, no foreigners are to hold shares in it. 7?<>(>/.' ri'cnwmendcd. A leader in 'the Hongkong Daily Press' of Dili September 181U, pivcs an interesting account of the development of the Tientsin Railway from a seven miles tram-line to its present dimensions. RELIGION. To the superficial observer the Chinese appear a very religious people, and yet on closer observation it will be found that there is a great deal of formalism about their worship. They are very superstitious ; and the whole land is full of idols. The women are most devout wor- shippers ; many of the educated men profess scepticism, while giving an outward adhesion to the forms of worship. There are some earnest souls to be found among them who join different sects of Buddhism in order to find some satisfaction for the longings of their hearts ; when the truths of Christianity are presented to such they are sometimes received as a revelation from heaven. See articles on Buddhism, Taouism. and Missions, and the books recommended at the ends of those articles. RICE. Rice is the staple article of diet in the south of China : so much so, that ' to eat rice ' is synonymous with taking a meal; and the equivalent of 'How do you do? ' is Have you eaten your rice yet?' Breakfast is chin-fan, morning rice, and ye-f<~in., evening rice, stands for dinner. With regard to its use as food in the extreme south, we refer our readers to our article on Food in this book. The rice grows in small patches scarcely entitled to be called fields. As the rice grows best in water, these are under a few inches of water the most of the time. There are 110 fences or walls between them, but the mud is piled up all round each little division of ground, and, drying in the sun. forms a narrow footpath only wide enough for one person to walk on. When the rice plant, which has been thickly sown 326 THINGS CHINESE, in one place, is six inches high, it is transplanted into the miniature fields by men and women wading through the mud. and five or six of these sprouts are stuck into one hole. In a very short time the fields present a beautiful sight, being converted from the muddy flats into masses of living delicate green. Two, or sometimes in some places perhaps even three, crops of rice, or other plants, succeed one another a orop of fish is put into the field when they, the fish, are a few inches long, to fatten for the market while the rice is growing. The Chinese prefer their own rice to that grown in foreign countries. There are several varieties of this useful grain, coarse and fine, white and red, glutinous and non- glutinous. At New Year's time popped rice is largely used, and is carried about the streets in large baskets looking like snow iu its whiteness. About Swatow and Amoy more congee is eaten than at Canton and neighbourhood, while, up north, millet takes the place of rice. Book r r -fomii)uli'(?. For an interesting account of rice the world round see Ilhcin's 'Industries of Japan,' p. 37. . The Chinese have acquired an unenviable notoriety of late years for riots directed against foreign residents at different treaty ports and cities. In their intensity and wild outburst they resemble the cyclonic disturbances, the typhoons, which carry death and destruction in their train. As before the typhoona premonitory symptoms are generally observable in a disturbed state of the atmosphere, so before these riots there is a heated state t' silk culture; and with 'the ever-increasing demand for silk t'r exportation abroad ' the industry has revived, and not only lias the demand for exportation been met, but its increased SILK. 333 manufacture has brought more wealth to the people, and, with the foreign silver, they themselves have been able once more to provide themselves with their own costly silks and satins. ' Silk is now produced in every province in China, particularly in Che-kiang, Kwang-tung, Sz-chuen, Ho-nan, Kiang-su, and Kwai-chau. The best silk comes from the province of Che-kiang, especially its north-west corner, though this does not equal Italian or Cevennes silk.' The Chinese name for silk is sz (pronounced by placing the tip of the tongue on the gum, a little above the front teeth, and hissing s-z quickly) ; and our word silk, as well as the other words in the different languages of Europe, are derived from it, through the Greek name o-}/o. The word satin is even supposed to be derived from the Chinese word sz-tun. As the mulberry leaf is the chief food of the silkworm, much labour and the greatest care is expended on the cultivation of the mulberry tree for the purpose. In the neighbourhood of Chin-kiang there are two kinds of mul- berries a wild and a domestic the domestic is grafted on the wild. The young mulberry trees are transplanted in December and are placed at regular distances of five or six feet from one another; they are then cut down to one foot .six inches in height, and two shoots are allowed to grow; with the systematic pruning carried on each year, after five or six years there are only sixteen branches left; the continual cutting oft' of all but two fresh twigs on each branch produces a knobbed appearance of the tree; and finally, from these knobbed-like fists, about fifty to t-ighty branches are preserved. The trees live more than fifty years; but are not allowed to grow higher than five or six feet. The wild mulberry, which grows to a height of fifty or sixty feet, is also used, and there is a smaller kind as well. The silkworm undergoes several changes; but different species would appear to differ in this respect, for it seems that the 'southern silkworm ' has four periods for moulting, as a rule, while the ' northern silkworm ' generally casts its skin three times. 334 THINGS CHINESE. The greatest care is taken to keep the silkworms from noise, which they dislike; but so far do the silkworm carers carry their precautions that they become superstitious, the silkworms at certain places being informed by their keepers of the arrival of travellers, and if this is omitted, any luckless wight, chancing on a village unannounced, will receive but scant: courtesy, and be driven away with curses, if nothing worse. There are ten rules laid down for breeding silk- worms: 'the eggs when on paper must be kept cool; after having been hatched they require to be kept warm; during their period of moulting they must be kept hungry; in the intervals between their sleeps they must be well supplied with food ; they should not be placed too close together nor too far apart; during their sleeps they should be kept dark and warm; after they have cast their skins, cool, and allowed plenty of light ; for a little time after moulting they should be sparsely fed; and when they are full grown ought never to be without food; their eggs should be laid close together, but not heaped upon each other.* Wet, withered, or dusty leaves arc not given to them. Rather less than two ozs. in weight of young worms will eat one ton and 120 Ibs. weight of leaves. 'While the worms are growing, care is taken to keep them ' from ' bright light ; they are often changed from one hurdle to another that they may have roomy and clean places; the utmost attention is paid to their condition and feeding, and noting the right time for preparing them for spinning cocoons. Three days are required for this, and in six it is time to stifle the larvae and reel the silk from the cocoons; but this being ^usually done by other workmen. Those who rear the worms enclose the cocoons in ajar buried in the ground and lined with mats and leaves, interlaying them with salt, which kills the pupoc but keeps the silk supple, strong, and lustrous ; preserved in this manner, they can be transported to any distance, or the reeling of the silk can be delayed until convenient. Another nuxlc of destroying the cocoons is to spread them on trays and expose them by twos to the steam of boiling water, SILK. 335 putting the upper in the place of the lower one according to the degree of heat they are in, taking care that the chry- salides are killed and the silk not injured. After exposure to steam the silk can be reeled off immediately, but if placed in the jars they must be put into warm water to dissolve the glue before the floss can be unwound.' Silk from wild worms of different species is also used in some of the provinces. In Shing-king, in Manchuria, silk is produced from a .species of silkworm, Bombyx Pernyl, or Bombyx Fantoni, of Italy, which feeds on the leaves of a species of oak Quercux Mongolia, or Quercus robur. A small quantity is also produced from the Bombyx Cynthia. The yield of this silk might be quadrupled. The chrysalides are an article of diet with the Chinese. The spinning wheel is similar to that in the West. It requires from 4,000 to 5.000 cocoons to weave a piece of silk, and it takes a man two days to do so. There are no large manufactures for its production, but 'each one spins, weaves, and dyes his own material' in Manchuria, and this is also largely the case throughout China, though not entirely. A black silk is produced from the Bombyx Pernyi due to the worm eating the whole of the leaf, stalk, and everything. For hatching the eggs the women in some places keep them on- their persons for the warmth of their bodies, while in other places they put them under the blankets in the bed. 'A newly hatched silkworm is as fine as a hair. Im- mediately under its head there are four legs, a little beyond on the body there are six more, and again six more near the end at the tail ; their whole length is about one-tenth of an inch and their colour is black.' The greatest care is taken in supplying them with leaves, the men actually washing their hands before touching the leaves. They are fed five or six times a day at first, but after the third day constantly. After one or two days the worms become brown and after five days more a yellowish white. The fifth days seem memorable ones with the silkworm for on the fifth day they stop feed- ing and ' undergo their first moult,' and at intervals of about five days after each waking they again cast their skins, 336 THINGS CHINESE. ceasing eating for periods varying from a day and night to the 'long repose,' the fourth one of, if the weather is cold, two or three days, their colour changing at these different periods from yellow or a yellowish-white from before the stupors to a light yellowish tint or a white colour after. After these moults they will, if in good condition, eat twenty times their weight in leaves. After another five days they attain maturity and are about two inches in length. What look like sheaves of straw are used for the silkworms to construct their cocoons on, each sheaf or bundle being tied round the middle and spread out at the top and bottom; sixty or seventy worms are put on each bundle, care being taken not to crowd them too much together. They then proceed to spin their cocoons amongst the stalks of straw by first attaching themselves with some looser threads, after which they spin the compact ' oblong case,' as the dictionary terms it, but beautifully rounded, working of course from the outside in. They finish spinning in five days, and, if the silk is not spun off, they pierce their yellow shrouds in ten days. 'From two catties of good cocoons nine catties of silk are reeled off. ****** A quick hand with a double reeling machine reels about 1^ catties of silk per day, thus 100 catties of cocoons are about six days work.' A certain number of cocoons are kept for breeding purposes. The female moths die in five days after laying their eggs, which they do within a day or so of coming out. In the Canton province the two principal qualities of silk are Tai-tsam and Lun-yut : the eggs of the former are hatched once or twice a year; the latter seven times. Wild silkworms in the North of China are fed on different kinds of oak and they supply two crops of cocoons annually. The natives hatch them, and, after feeding them themselves, place them on the branches, when the leaves of the trees are fully out, and transfer them to other trees as they eat the leaves of one. They spin their cocoons on the trees, from whence they are gathered. After the female moths have come out, and are ready to lay their eggs, the natives tic them by one leg with fine threads to the branches of the tree, when they lay SILK. 337 their eggs on the leaves. These wild silkworms are 'smaller than the domestic ones and of a grayish black colour.' The silk filaments of the domestic silkworm cocoons are wound into thread by the aid of a primitive reeling machine. For reeling the silk filament oft' the cocoons they are placed in hot water to loosen the ends of the silk, the rough parts are cleared away, and the clean filament taken with the hand and then passed over or through the different parts of the reeling machine. As soon as the cocoon gets thin and the chrysalis is visible a new filament is taken in its place. The best threads are made with six or seven cocoons, ranging from this number to twenty or more for the coarsest. ' A. quick hand can reel in one day * * about 20 taels weight fine or 30 taels coarse silk.' The wild worm cocoons are treated in a different manner. The space of our article will not allow us to go into a (It-tailed statement of the numbers of looms and their output, nor are statistics available for a full statement; but, as an example of what is done, we may say that in 1830 there were in Chin-kiang 1,000 looms employing 4.000 labourers, three men being at one loom: in one day three men can turn out about 12 feet to 16 feet of silk; for plain goods, two men only are required at each loom ; and only one man for weaving- gau/e, there being 200 looms for this with 300 men at Avork. of which 14,000 to 15,000 pieces are annually produced for local consumption within the province, that of Kiang-su. Besides this there are 50 or 60 looms 'engaged in weaving silk ribbons, each attended to by one man; a second is required only in weaving the broader kinds *. On au average, one man can weave about 40 feet per day. There ai % e about 100 men engaged in this branch of the business; and there are about 30 or 40 looms for weaving red plain satin.' For making sewing silk 'two filaments are twisted together into threads.' For crape manufacture there are about 200 looms and 800 men employed. The greatest silk producing province in China is Che- kiang, and Kiang-su comes second/ while 'Hu-chow holds Z 338 TI1IXGS CHINESE. the first place among the departments of the whole Empire of China for the production of silk.' It may therefore be interesting to note the production of this one department. The production then for 1878 was 2,925,232 catties (1,755,139 kilos.) and for 1879, 3,301,196 catties (1,982,517 kilos). There are 4,000 looms, each loom producing about 100 pieces a year. Hang-chiu produces the best kinds of silk piece goods. There arc several silk filature establishments in China where foreign machinery is employed in reeling and weaving the silk. There are three in Macao, one witlx 5 [ steam looms. There is room for several more as the silk is on the spot, there is cheap labour available, and a market. Enormous quantities of silk are not only sent abroad but even larger quantities arc used by the Chinese themselves. Silk is a common article of attire and is not confined to the gentler sex, who delight to array themselves in bright and soft fabrics in the West; in the gorgeous East men arc- clothed in as brilliant robes as women. It is utterly impossible to say how much silk is used in China, but the Chinese consider that their consumption is more than double- the amount exported to foreign countries. In 1890 the amount, in piculs, exported was 158,427, in the previous year. 1889. it was 182,939 piculs, doubling these sums would give 316,85 1 piculs and 365,878 piculs respectively, and no < nr.- who has seen the quantity of silk used by Chinese would doubt that these amounts must be well within the mark of their actual consumption of that useful commodity. Jiin>ltJt n-i-tnnniriiJftl. 'Silk' ln'iiij,' ;i thick brnchm-i . No. 3 of 'Special >rri-s' <>f the publication! of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs. It Miisi.-t-" of a .-erics of reports from the different < 'oiiiiu: ioii< T~ of ( ii.,toin~ mi the silk culture and manufacture in tin- districts in the nci-hnurhood of tli-- port.-* at which th"V were stationed. \W are indebted to this interestiiiL,' and valuable publication for much of tin- information contained in this article. Al-o >!,- sjlk : Statistics. 1^7:'- *>*.' a thin pamphlet of the sam-- >pecial Series' No. lL'. SLA\' I-'.IIY. China, in common with most Asiatic countries where the liberty of the subject is unknown, has the institution of slavery; but slavery as a general rule is milder under the despotic East than where, in direct contra' SLAVERY. 339 vention of all the free instincts of the West, it has been found nestling under the flag of liberty. One would expect the contrary to be the rule, but it is not. Where the right of the individual was generally respected, as in America, if equal justice was not meted out to every man as man, but whereon the contrary the fundamental principles at the foundation of society were not only ignored but persistently transgressed, with respect to one section of the community, it needed but little more, all barriers of law and morality as regards one branch of the human family being swept away, to transform the otherwise mild master into a cruel one, and a few generations, or even less, to develop tyranny which knew no law but that of interest and the almighty dollar. In the East the individual knows no rights as an individual, as we understand such rights in the West. He is but a member of the family; the family is the unit of society; the members of the family are but fractions of the whole; the slave owes his existence as a slave to this patriarchal rule ; and ejected from one family, generally by circumstances over which he has no control, is engulfed in another. Slavery then appears almost to be the normal condition of part of the inhabitants in a country where the rights of the individual, as an individual, are unknown, and where the conservation, preservation, and perpetuation of the family are the aims of human society, and every means has to be employed with these ends in view. To this is due some of the buying and selling of human beings as chattels ; for should no son be born to a man he often purchases one from poor parents and adopts him as his own. Girls are also bought to become daughters ; but these can scarcely be looked upon as .slaves, as they become the children of the family into which they are adopted, and are in no more bondage than the children born in the family itself. A species of domestic slavery exists to a very large extent: there is scarcely a family of good means in Hong- kong, Canton, and Macao but what possesses one or often several slave-girls. It must, in all fairness to the Chinese, be said that this domestic slave-girl system is a very mild form :MO THINGS CH1XESE. of slavery, as we understand that word. The girls arc as a rule purchased from their parents, who probably sell them on account of poverty; they are sold when they are young, at any age, some as young as three years and from that up to fifteen, but seven, eight, or ten, is a common age. It is better to buy them young as they might otherwise run home. The prices range from ten or twenty to a hundred dollars, the larger amounts being given for good-looking ones, as they will bring in a larger number of presents (at their marriage) to the family, and thus possibly recoup the owner with a two or three-fold amount of money on their purchase price; besides having the use of them as domestic servants for ten or more years without Avages, food and clothing being the only outlay on them. As to lodging it is not worth while taking account of that, for Chinese servants, like a dog or cat, can sleep almost anywhere and everywhere. These transactions often take place through go-betweens. It is somewhat safer in such cases to have- a broker of human ilesh.as a charge of kidnapping might be more difficult to bring: tor when there is a go-between the rule is that a deed of sale is drawn up which is held by the purchaser. It sometimes happens, but not often, that the parents stipulate that they shall be at liberty to come and see the girl : but this stipulation, if made, is not reduced to writing, as it would obviously clash with the interests of the purchaser to have the mother coming about interviewing the girl and hearing her complaints, Should such a verbal agreement a> the above have been come to. th,' girl's parents are consulted about her marriage, otherwise for the ten or fifteen years the girl ! virtually and actually the property of her master or mi ilised, under the ordinary circumstances of lit'-', until her marriage, though realisable, but should reverses in bii 'luce the family, it would be in the power of its head to sell herjn-.t a~ ),"r parents originally sold her. At line time this is n..t often iloin-. A lausi- is often inserted in th" :ent that the girl is not to be. sold into prostitution, but should this clause have been omitted the parents are powerless to prevent it in practice. SLAVERY. 341 Arrived at marriageable age the girl is married and thus ends her domestic servitude. If chance has thrown her into the hands of a fairly kind mistress her lot may not be such a dreadful one, but instances occur of brutal mistresses half murdering their poor little slave girls, even in the British Colony of Hongkong. Theoretically, of course, there are no slaves in Hongkong, as it is British territory, but practically there are thousands of them. All the young maid-servants that follow their mistresses' sedan chairs, and that go about with little children, belong to this class. No young unmarried free women go out into service, though old women do. These little slave girls are the most numerous class of slaves in China. While mentioning the female sex, it may be remarked, in passing, that nearly all prostitutes are slaves, the property of their mistresses, the keepers of the houses of ill-fame in which they reside, having often been kidnapped, or deceived by promises of work being found for them as seamstresses, and thus inveigled into the clutches of the old harridans who run these establishments. So completely do they come under the power of these pests of society, and so cowed and frightened arc they by the threats and intimida- tions of their mistresses, that even in Hongkong, where notices arc put up in all the registered houses of that character that all are free, yet, notwithstanding this, and the fact that they are theoretically free to go and see the Registrar-General and Protector of Chinese, whose duty it is, once knowing their wrongs, to have them righted, they but seldom, in proportion to their numbers, avail themselves of their rights, and when brought up before him, before being entered on paper as inmates of the houses, almost invariably say they enter on such a life freely. It seems as if it would take centuries to educate the Chinese people into an idea of what personal freedom is, and what the liberty of the subject means as regards the female sex. The cases of little boys sold to be servants is even worse than that of the servant girls, as they do not have marriage to look forward to, to set them free and end their life of 312 THINGS CHINESE. servitude. They arc slaves for ever, unless they purchase their freedom. 'The Manchu code does not recognise the right of the slave to free himself by his labour, nor punish the master who refuses affranchisement. There is, in short. no regulation on the subject (in practice the 'slave frequently purchases his body with his pecnlixm, which is usually. though not legally, held to be the slave's own property) ***** maiiy Chinese allow their slaves to embark in trade and ransom themselves with the profits.' In ancient times in China there were state slaves, but banishment now takes the place of the Government slavery to a large extent. Priestesses, however, Avho found a new monastery without the sanction of Government, become the slaves of Government. "The wives, children, and relatives in the first degree of rebels are given as slaves to Government officers. * * '* * Slaves are composed of (1) prisoners of war ; (2) tho-e who sell themselves or are sold; (3) the children of slaves." The first are now rare. We have spoken of some already who come under the second heading. 'Though the penal code forbids the sale of free persons, even by a. husband, a father, or a grandfather, the number of persons whom misery forces to sell themselves or be sold is considerable, The punishment varies from SI- to 90 blows. and banishment for 2i years, according to the relation existing between seller and sold. The punishment is one degree less when the person sold consents, but young children arc exempt IV. mi all punishment, though they may have .n-ji'iitrd. on account of the obedience due to their older relations, and must be returned to their families. * * * * Though to keep a tree man or lost child as a slave, or to give or take in hire a wife or daughter, are severely punishable, the adoption of stolen or lost children, and the sale of free children and inferior wives are daily transactions in China. Inundations and famim-s are the chief cause. I. \t-ry slave born in a house belongs to his master or his hi-ir: to detain a runaway slave is punishable. Players and brothel-keepers recruit their numbers from this class, as they are forbidden by the code to purchase free men or women SLAVERY. 34-3 for their professions. * * * * The inferior wife ranks above a slave; she is married with fewer formalities than the first wife, under whose orders she is put. The husband can only dismiss her for certain specified reasons ; but in practice inferior wives are frequently sold.' No property is divisible during the period of mourning, but after that is over, if the different sons of the deceased wish to separate, they are at liberty to do so, and the eldest son then divides the property amongst them equally, whether they be sons of the first wife or of inferior wives or of slaves. We may add that such slaves by the birth of children become in China ipso facto inferior wives.' Slaves are not allowed to be married to free girls. In a general way it may be said that slaves convicted of crime are punished more severely than if they wore free, while crimes committed against slaves meet with a lighter punish- ment than if committed against free men. 'Masters may beat their slaves or hired servants at pleasure.' It is interesting to note that during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries large numbers of black slaves of both sexes from the East Indian Archipelago ' were purchased by the great houses of Canton to serve as gate-keepers.' They were called ' devil slaves " and it is not improbable that the term 'foreign devil,' so freely used by the Chinese for foreigners, may have had this -origin. In the T'ang dynasty even, it is said that they were kept in large numbers by the Chinese. Three pages in a Chinese work 'The Kwang-tung San Yii' are taken up with an .account of them, and other Chinese books notice them as well. There is a curious slang phrase in use for slaves : it is ' two candarins and two lis,' such for example as saying. * they were two candarins and two lis,' equivalent to saying they were slaves.' This strange term is said to have arisen towards the close of the Ming dynasty, during the troublous times, when a Chinese took advantage of his opportunity, and, .representing himself as a General of the Manchus, levied an impost on each inhabitant of the villages of 3 candarins, but finding that the slaves in these warlike times were mostly CJIL\ /:*/:. poor and neglected lie reduced the amount to be paid by them to 2 candarins and 2 lis, hence the name. ri't-i>innicii(fi'ff. 'Memoir on tin- condition of Slave- and Hin-i! Servants in China,' 1-y M. K. Biot in '('hint-so |{i-i>.isitorv,' .Inly, 1S4J'. Mr. Parker give* the pith of this arti'-h- hy M. Riot in 'KxritrMis X". '' Slavc-i' in his ' Comparative Cliinr-;c Family I, aw.' SOCIKTIKX. -The Chinese arc fully aware of the force of the adage that 'union is strength,' and have not a few different forms of associations, societies, and guilds. One of the most common, at all events in the South, is the Money 1/oan Association. Foreigners have considerable difficulty in understanding this form of Association, as we have 1 nothing analogous to it in the West. The arrangements connected with it seem complicated, but when once understood arc simple enough. Then- are several kinds of Money Loan Associations. but the most common is the Yf-wuf (pronounced Ye-wooeci. These associations form a ready and convenient means for Chinese to obtain what is to them a large sum of money when the exigencies of business or their social customs, such as those connected with marriage, make it necessary for them to procure a larger sum of ready cash for nse than can easily be obtained in any other way. Supposing then, by way of example, that A requires a sum of monex . <:iy ^100, he or she then (for women engage more largely in these associations even than men) iiuitcs a number of friends or acquaintances to join with him or her in forming a Money Loan Asoeiation, the\ be.-oming members or shareholders while A is the Head of the Wo.-iation. Should the MUM fixed upon as the amount of the periodical contribution or share be $. r >, then A, having invited twenty (hers to join as members, will get the sum of money lie requires, for twenty times 5 is 0100. A enrols the names of all in a book, with amounts and dates of payments, totals, and particulars of the Association. Sometimes a page of this book is devoted to each meeting of the Asocial ion and tin- accounts conm-cted therewith. Kach member lias likewise i small book, a pa>s-book, supplied by A. who fills them up. Kadi member i- expected to bring his little book with SOCIETIES. 345 him to each meeting so th.it the necessary particulars may be entered in it, in the event of his obtaining the money. These books have printed forms at the beginning, containing a preamble, giving, in rather a vague manner, the origin of these Associations, followed, for the guidance of those entering into them, by the rules, with blanks for the insertion of the amount of the contribution or share, and any other matters incident to each particular Association. A number of blank pages follow for the entries of dates and contributions, or subscriptions as they might be termed, or payments. One of the most common times for the periods of payments is by the month, though fortnightly Associations are not uncommon : quarterly ones are known, and even annual ones are formed by wealthy men for large sums of money. Let it be supposed that the one which A forms is a monthly one. A certain day of the month is fixed upon for the future meetings and no alteration is allowed subsequently. ( no matter how unfavourable the weather may be,' as the Chinese rule puts it. Intercalary months are not counted, though .sometimes an exception is made to the rule. lu that case the rule should be expunged from the book. The members are apprised by notice being sent to them by the Head, requesting them to prepare their share and take it to the meeting for collection. The money is examined in the presence of the members. No set-off of private debts is allowed or anything in the nature of a pledge, but the money must be actually paid. ' Should any of the members be kept back by any important business he must send one of his friends to represent him and pay his share of the money." Each of. the members then pays to A the sum of $o. the nominal amount of their monthly contribution, and for the first month the actual amount. On the first occasion A keeps the money, vi/.. $100, as that is the reason he lias formed the Association, and it is the prerogative of the Head of the Association to have the use of the first monthly amount of money subscribed, or paid in. Also, by virtue of his being the Head, he gets this money without needing to pay any interest on it in short he gets the full amount of $5 :*46 TIIIXGS CHINESE. from each of the twenty members. What follows will explain more fully what is meant here. This privilege is accorded to him as a set off for the work to be dono, and f rouble to be taken, by him, on behalf of the Association. The money is his for any use to which he likes to apply it. In fact it is a loan made to him by all of the twenty members, each contributing his share ($5) to it; but having thus secured the loan, he commences the very next month to repay it, in monthly instalments of $.5. He does not. however, hand this f> separately to a separate creditor each month until he has paid the whole twenty; but he does what is tantamount to the same thing, he pays in $5 each month into the funds of the Association (the funds are, of course, the aggregate of the monthly payments in by the Head and members of the Association, which A. as Head, is responsible for, and holds in trust for the members.) It is equivalent to a personal payment of his debt to each member, because oach member obtains the loan of all the monthly contributions of that month in which he, the member, draws the money. Consequently this $5 goes each month to liquidate in rotation every member for the $;*> originally paid in to A, and which A drew out for his own use; fur each member, as has already hern said, draws out in rotation the monthly sum made up of all the payments in. In other words, when 13 draws out the amount of money in the second month, iu that -urn. made up of the payments in by the other members, is also the Mini of ,."> paid in by the Head, which item of ^.") i- in repayment of the $5 he, B, paid in the first month 1o A, the Head, which, as we have already seen. A drew out for his own use along with all the other items of $T> paid in by the other members. A and B are therefore quits his, B's, loan, has been refunded to him; and the same thing Happens with C the next month, that is the third month. and the same with D the month after, and so on with all the members, till all are repaid; and, in fact, at the end of twenty months A has repaid the whole of the $100. But what makes the matter appear complieated is that B, C, and 1), and all the rest get loans, and on their part SOCIETIES. 347 repay in reality each one, except the Head, lends to everyone else, and each one including the Head borrows from everyone else, and as soon as each one borrows, each one then commences to repay everyone else. This seems confusion worse confounded, and the maze appears too intricate to the European observer, as he sees in his mind's eye each member transformed after the first month, one by one. from a lender into a receiver, a borrower, and a payer-back. It is. however, simple enough ; and the clue to the maze is to bo found in fixing on one member at a time, as we have done Avith the Head, and following this one member through all the intricacies until, with the close of the Association, his accounts are all settled, at the same time resolutely closing our eyes to the action of the Head and other members, except inasmuch as they affect the actions and money of the one member we are following. Let us then take B. How does he get his loan ? He is not the Head: he cannot only draw the money as the Head would: but by virtue of being a member he is entitled to the loan. All the members are. however, equally entitled. What shall decide the respective times at which they are permitted to draw ? The rule is. after the Head has had his, that the drawings of loans every month shall be by tender, and the highest bidder get it. This seems a very fair rule, as the man or woman most in want of money is likely to offer the most for it. These tenders are then put in at every meeting by the members desirous of drawing the money, except at the first and last meetings. At the first, as has already been seen, the Head has it by right, at the last it devolves, as a matter of course, to the residuary member as all the rest have drawn. The tenders for the loan arc written on any kind of paper. If sent by another's hand they are enclosed in an envelope and the name should be written on the paper as well as the price tendered. If the member is present in person he may write it at the time of handing it in. but in that case he need only write the amount on it without his name, and no envelope is required. The Head of the Association opens the tenders, which are placed on the 318 TJIIXGS table before him, in the presence of the members, who see- them. The highest tender is taken, and should two be equal in amount the first opened is considered as the successful one. It is not compulsory on all the members to tender each time, but the tendency is for most to do so, as. if there is a demand for the money, one who is in actual want of it. seeing so many present, will, though he may not know what the others have offered, make a big bid in order to overtop theirs, and thus, though the others may not have cared for the money, yet, by their presence and tendering, they have raised the interest which they will each obtain for that loan. In short, a monthly loan is given by the Association in rotation to each of its members, and this rotation is conditioned by the highest bid offered on each occasion as explained above. In the second month we will suppose then that B writes on a piece of paper 'Offer* interest, 50 cents' and hands this in; we will further suppose that this is the highest amount ottered, consequently 1> obtains the loan. Sometimes three days of grace are allowed for payment in of the money after the tenders have been opened, but it often happens that the contributions have to be paid in immediately after the tendering is over. In this case then B pays nothing in, as he is obtaining a loan: the Head pays \\\* >">. as he does every month after; but all the other members pay, not $5, the nominal amount oi their contributions, but $4.50, that is t> say. they each deduct the fifty cents offered as interest. These amounts an- handed to the Head who. after collecting them, pays them over to B along with his. the Head's. o\\u $5, making a total of $4.50 x 19 + $5 JM).50. This then is the loan that B draws. On cacli occasion after this 13 pays the full amount of the contribution, $o. It will thus he seen that by doing so he pays the interest on his loan; for every .subsequent drawing by a member of course contains, amongsi the different items of which if is made up, one of $5 from B; and as the subsequent drawer, however, only paid into the Association ft 1.50 on the occasion that B drew, he, the subsequent drawer, consequently has got paid back to him ."> SOCIETIES. 319 for the $4.50, />., the 50 cents for interest that B offered, and which was accepted, as his, B's, tender was the highest on that occasion. It will be remembered though that B originally paid $5 to A on the first drawing when A took the drawing by rights. As we have already said A pays $5 every time after the first, consequently B has got his $5 back from A, the exact sum he, as one of the members, had loaned to him through the Association, for as we have already said A, being the Head, pays no intei'est, so it will be seen A's and B's accounts are settled as regards each other. B, again, by paying in $5 every month, subsequent to the one in which he got the loan, virtually pays the other members back the amounts due to them with interest as above, vi/.. nineteen monthly instalments of $5; counting in that he has already paid $5 to A, as we have just pointed out, his whole payments therefore are 5 X 19 + $5 $ 100. that is for the ^90.50 and its use. lie has paid $100, i.e. $9.50 of interest. With regard to C. Let us suppose that C offers 25 cents interest, and his tender, being the highest in the 3rd month, is necessarily accepted. He will receive A's $5. He receives from B $5, as B commences this month (see above) to pay >"> : for after each loan obtained each member pays the full amount of the subscription. From the others, eighteen in number, C rccvivr.s $l-.75 X 18 = $85.50; add to this the $10 above and it makes $95.50, the M'hole amount which the Head of the Association hands to him. His payments are as follows : 1st month to A - $5.00 2nd month toB------- $1.50 3rd month nothing ------- 1th to 21st month, 18 months @ $5, ,$90.00 Total <99.50 He thus pays $99.50 for the use of $95.50, /.<>., $! of interest. Let us now take T's case, the twentieth man, to use an Irishism he repays his loan before obtaining it, or, in other 350 THINGS CHINESE. words, he pays in a varying sum each month, after the first month dependent, as has already been shewn in the cases of B and C, upon the amount of interest offered. Of course the hisrhcr the interest has been the better for T, as well as for O ' all the other members in a varying degree. Suppose the interest deducted averaged 25 cents a month, T's payments would then be $5 to A, the first month, and nineteen pay- ments of $1.75 =90.25. add to this the $5 to A =-$95 .25. He pays that amount and gets $100 for it. In short the other members have been using his money and he gets paid interest, $4.75, for its use. He does not need to tender for the $100. but gets it, as no one else is entitled to it but him, all having previously drawn. The Association ends with him, for it only rims as long as there are members, as soon as these have each had their turn at a loan the Association is finished. The Society has thus a twofold character : that of a borrowing club, and that of a lending club, for there is a regular succession of borrowers, beginning with A, and a regular succession, likewise, of lenders, decreasing in number with each meeting. It will thus be seen that this Mutual Loan Benefit Association is most ingeniously arranged, and that it affords exceptional facilities for obtaining a loan on easy terms, with the chances to the members <>f good interest and easy payments, in small sums distributed over a long period. It needs only to be added that should a member delay his payments the Head ot the Association may pay it lor him, if he likes, or it ma\ stand over if tin; members arc friendly with the defaulting member; should any member die before drawing his loan his wife or children, or, in default of them, nearest of kin, may continue to go On with the Association in the place of the deceased, on condition that the Head of the Association approves of them doing so ; but if the Head is unwilling. then the heirs must wait till the winding up of the whole affair, when, on the .accounts being made up, it will be seen how many payments the dead man had made, and a sum equivalent to an equal number of $5 payments will be made to them; should he already have obtained his drawing before his SOCIETIES. 351 death, his heirs arc required to make the usual monthly payments of $5 to repay the Association ; if they are not able to do so, it is accepted as a misfortune, the Head is not considered liable, as a Head of the Association, and the members only suffer. Should it be written on the top margin of the book that 'should any member abscond the principal is to be refunded but not the interest, any accidents, &c., are to be taken as the will of God,' then the Head of the Association has to conform to this rule, but otherwise a principle of practical equity, much practised by the Chinese, when circumstances over which they have no control occur, is brought into play, and the Head of the Association makes good one-half of what the absconding member ought to have paid ; or rather he makes good half of the principal, the other half being a loss to the members, and this holds good in both the Yi-wui, now written about, and the Tei-p'o-wiu (pronounced Tay po wooee) to be mentioned later on. Whether the above words are written or not the Head is not responsible for the subscriptions of a dead member. In the more important Associations, when the amount of the subscription is $100 or so, the Head of the Association, having asked his friends to join and got their consent, follows it up in the course of a few days with invitation cards to a dinner or wine party at some eating-house, and they are asked to bring their subscription with them. All who respond to the invitations become members ; from five to ten days after their names are all entered by the Head into the books, with rules, amount of subscription, &c., and one is given to each member. The expenses of the first dinner are paid by the Head; and the same individual, on behalf of the members, provides a dinner again, issuing invitation cards the previous day, as before, but on each occasion subsequent to the first it is the member who obtains the loan who pays the expenses of the dinner; the money (a certain sum at the very first being fixed for its cost) for it being deducted out of his loan ; the dinner, however, is ordered by the previous drawer. One who docs not attend the dinner or dinners is not exempted 352 TJIINGS CIIfXKSK. thereby from his share of the expenses, and one who wishes to enjoy the feast must come to it, as no portion will be sent to the absentee. When the dinners are given in connection with these Associations the business is attended to first, and after that the members have their feasting: business first and pleasure afterwards. This feasting. however, does not take place in tho smaller Associations where the shares are only a few dollars each. A member in an Association is not confined to one share, but may have two or more if he chooses. There is another kind called the Tei-p'o-wui 'Spread on the Ground Association,' so called because it is said the original starter was too poor to have any place to receive his friends, and had to spread a mat on the ground to collect the amounts subscribed. The Tef-p'o are slightly different from the Yi'-wrii. though in many of the details they are the same, the differences being so slight that tho same book is used. The chief point of difference is that the Head of the \ssociation is out of it altogether, thai i^ t<> say. In- or she docs not obtain a loan: the position occupied by tho Head is more analogous to that of a paid servant, though no salary is his or her reward ; but he or she gets a commission, as it were, to recoup him or her for his or her trouble, the amount of the coBimUsion being fixed at one-half of the subscription. />., if the periodical subscription paid were $;">. the Head would :2.r>() ; and this is paid to him or her by the person \\\\ obtains the drawing on each occasion. In the Tci-p'o-wm ID dinners nor \\ine parties are given. The Jlead ge- round nally and informs the members of the meetings, which are held in his or her ho'i-c. Some bring written tender^ but the majority, being Women and unable to write, bring ofbaMibo.. ,,{' ditferent I'-ngths with them, to rep' ihe amount ti. -tick* of bamboo an- unburnt ends of incen*e-s! irks and (he women break them into ? . perhaps in a corner of the i \\hen: no . c (hem, the owner telling the Jh ad what each i :ids for: the IOIIL;.T onei, say out- dollar, th . ones may be fifty cents, and the still SOCIETIES, SECRET. 353 shorter ones perhaps ten cents. After all are laid down, and before opening, sometimes the tenderer may say 'I add verbally so many cents to my tender.' SOCIETIES, SECRET. A book dealing with 'Things Chinese ' would scarcely be complete without some reference to secret societies, as these combinations are so common, not only in their own native land, but often obtain a more powerful position and even exert a greater influence at times when transplanted to foreign soil. There seems to be a world- wide similarity between secret societies in many respects. In their fundamental principles there is a wonderful likeness, as well as in many points of practice, ceremonial, and ritual. When we come, however, to examine into them, it seems, as a general rule, to be a family likeness, perhaps the result of heredity, and not a servile imitation of one another during recent times. Especially is this true of some of the Chinese secret societies. Of them it may be said that they are founded upon a spirit of fraternity, devotion, filial piety, and religion. At least this is the case with the most famous, the Sam. Hop Wiii, or Triad Society, though it has shown itself in the terrible rebellion that was carried on for many years under its banners in opposite aspects to these ; but, notwithstanding this, Avar and revolt are not its proper objects. In its 'Words of Exhortation' we find it written 'If people insult you, injure you, revile you, abuse you, how ought you to take it? You ought to bear it, suffer it, endure it, and forgive it.' How then, it may be asked, is revolt and rebellion against the Government compatible with such principles ? They are quite in harmony according to the Chinese idea ; tor it is the duty of the good to upset the government of the bad. In such a case it is not rebellion, but the raising of the standard of righteousness against tyranny and oppression. We must give the leaders of the great T'ai-p'ing rebellion credit for motives of this character at their inception of the rebellion, though some of them may have had their heads turned eventually by lust of power, while the rag-tag and A A 354 THIXGS CHINESE. bobtail which followed in their train had no higher motives than plunder and loot. The origin of the Hung league, one of the names of the Triad Brotherhood, is shrouded in the mists of uncertainty. They claim, like the freemasons, a high antiquity, but it is impossible, as far as researches have been carried at present, to say with any certainty whence they sprang. There would appear to be some slight indications or possibilities of the existence of this society in some form or another in previous times, but it was only during the rule of China by the Tartars that it appeared as a regular political body. The two provinces of Canton and Fuh-kicn, which most energetically resisted the Tartar sway, were the cradles of the Triad Society. In course of time the Triads awoke the displeasure of the Government. Unfortunately the followers of the Society degenerated into a band of rebels and robbers, that seemed O 7 to have lost every notion of the proper spirit of its association.' But a change came over them, for one of their members, Hung Sau-tsun, obtained some knowledge of Christianity, which he engrafted on the old stock ; and it is a matter of recent history, how, the standard of rebellion raised, the forces of the insurgents were increased by ever swelling bands of recruits, while many were forced to join their ranks in the hopes of escaping immediate death ; all hopes of desertion were denied them in some cases by the words T'ai P'ing being branded <>n their checks, a positive proof, if found by the Imperialists, that they Averc rebels. Their leader took the title of 'King r.f the Heavenly Kingdom of Universal Peace.' and had associated with him several co-kings. Under their leacler- >hi[> many uf the finest provinces were overrun; death and dotruction dealt out to the inhabitants; the idol temples demolished, and the idols mutilated: the fair land turned into a desert; Nanking, the ancient capital of China, captured, and the new dynasty started its reign within the old walls of the ' Southern Capital,' for such is the meaning of the name. In fact it looked much as if the Manchu Tartars were doomed. and doubtless they might have been, had not foreign aid SOCIETIES, SECRET. 355 come in the person of General Gordon, whose 'Ever Victorious Army/ as it was called, so effectually assisted the Imperial forces that they gained the day, and. after many a hard fought battle, the rebellion was quelled and the then effete Manchu dynasty bolstered up on the throne. At the same time there was so much of corruption and evil in the ranks of the rebels that it is questionable, had they succeeded, whether their rule would have been any better, or even as good, as that of those they endeavoured to overthrow ; for, with the great mass of their followers, murder, rapine, and plunder were the aims, while the leader developed into a visionary of a curious type: he was possessed by a most extraordinary craze, giving out that he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ, and a number of other blasphemies. These were published in books and pamphlets issued from the press. The author possesses a collection of these books and most wonderful productions they are. The diplomas, or certificates, are curious documents ; they are written on white linen. There is much paraphernalia connected with the Lodges, such as numerous flags, banners, state umbrellas, warrants, working tools, &c. Each Lodge in the society how many there are we are unable to say is governed by a President, two Vice Presidents, one Master, two Introducers, one Fiscal, who is styled ' The Red Stick ' from the red staff with which he punishes offenders, thirteen Councillors, amongst whom are a Treasurer, a Receiver, and an Acting Treasurer; there are also Agents and minor officials who wear flowers in their hair. Some of the brethren, who are styled Horse-leaders, are appointed to act as recruiters of new members. Besides these, four brethren summon the others to the meetings. The officials are appointed by the vote of the Avhole Lodge. After one year a brother can be promoted to be an Introducer; after two, to be a Vanguard; after three, to be a Master, if a vacancy occurs. Ten days notice has to be given, by summons, of each meeting of Lodge, the meetings being generally held on the 25th day of the Chinese month. Contributions, varying in amount, are made at the usual Chinese festivals, &c. Recruits 3oG TIIIXGS CHINESE. for the society are got by persuasion, but, failing that, notices are put into the houses of those they wish to have join them instructing them to go to a certain spot at a given time, and threats arc held out that, if the authorities are informed, destruction will overtake them and their relations and property. Arrived at the / :-vons they are conducted to the Lodge; at other times they are assaulted and decoyed on till, overpowered by numbers, they are put into a sack and carried there. The candidates for Initiation present themselves bare-footed with disheveled hair and with the lappets of their coats hanging open. Five incense sticks are taken in their hands and four quatrains repeated by them, after which they swear to their certificates of birth, while the Introducer, acting as Herald, gives their names so that all the brethren may hear them. Having arrived at the gate an incense stick is taken in both hands and the candidates salute the two Generals. On entering the first gate of the camp their names, surnames, ages, and times of birth are all carefully entered in a book by the Vanguard. An arch of steel is then formed one half of the swords being of copper, however and the candidates are led under it. sometimes a red cloth does duty for the arch of steel. The candidates, holding three red stones in their hands. ha\e to pay, after passing, twenty-one cash as first entry m<>ney. and find themselves before the Hung gate, which is guarded by two Generals; here they kneel thrice. Their names are demanded from the Vanguard, who gives them : the Generals then go in to obtain the Master's permission t.r them to enter, after which they are allowed to pass -.and art- bnni^hr to the Hall of Fidelity and Loyalty.' where two more (!en, rals ore on gUftld who also a^k their names, and the candidates kneel f.ur times. There, at la-:, they are instructed in the tendency ..f the society: and 'are exhorted to he faithful and loyal t.. the league t-> which they are about to be aiiiliated.' The grie-. r dominion are enumerated and promises' made (.. -those \\ho shall accomplish their duties faithfully: whilst fearful threat- are jm.n.muced airainst who should dare to refuse to enter the league." SOCIETIES, SECRET. 357 last enclosure before the Lodge ' is the Heaven and Earth circle, which is again guarded by two Generals. 'After having passed through., and gone across the surrounding moat or ditch, they reach the East-gate of the City of Willows, guarded by Han-phamj." The candidates here kneel twice. They arc led to the Council Room called ' The Lodge of Universal Peace ' where the whole of the council is assembled. 'Two Generals keep guard at the door of this room.' The Vanguard speaks to them and requests per- mission for Tl> 't< ii-un-li I'IKJ (the candidates are supposed to personate him) to enter, which the Master grants. The Vanguard then enters the Council Room, after which a number of questions are asked which he answers, repeating a quatrain or some verses after each statement as a proof. There are 333 questions and they refer to the objects of the society, its different working tools, banners, parts of the L'xlge, historical and legendary history, &c. After the examination is through, the Master is satisfied, and those who wish to proceed with their Initiation have further ceremonies to go through, while those who refuse to join the brotherhood are taken to the West gate and have their heads cut off. The next thing is the cutting off of the queue, the queue being a sign of subjection to the Manchu rule, but this cannot always be carried out, as it would be a sign of rebellion to be seen without one, though it is sometimes done and a false queue braided on again. Next to each candidate stands a member who answers Avhat it is necessary to say for him. The candidates are shaved and their hair done up as under the Ming dynasty, and they would appear to be clothed in sackcloth and mourning. The next ceremony is that of washing the faces of the candidates, emblematical of cleansing traitorous hearts, after which the outer garments are taken off, as they arc cut after the Manchu style. This ceremony of ' undressing ' having been gone through, they are dressed in long white robes and a red handkerchief wrapped round the head, and later on a pair of straw mourning shoes, in place of the ordinary shoes, are put 358 TJITXGS CHINESE. on: during the course of all these ceremonies numerous O quatrains are recited bearing on them. These preliminaries bein^ ended, the candidates are led before the altar. O on which is a censer of white porcelain. The whole of the brethren present take nine blades of grass in their hands to pledge fidelity in commemoration of the manner in whicli the original founders did so ; two quatrains are repeated, the oath, written on large sheets of yellow paper, is next laid on the censer and incense-sticks taken in the hands of all present, verses again being recited; the incense is offered and a blade of grass is put by each member into the ashes of the censer and a verse repeated; a second and third are placed in, in the same way. After this three sticks of fine incense are stuck into the censer, one by one, a verse being repeated with each; * two candles of dry wood are now lighted' and another quatrain recited, followed by the lighting of a red candle in the same manner. All this being through, a silver wine-jug and three jade-stone wine cups are brought in, and the brethren worship Heaven and Earth ' by pledging three cups of wine ' with the usual accompaniment of verses. After the wine has been offered the Seven Starred Lamp is lit, followed by the lighting of the ' Lamp of the Gemmeous Ruler' and the Hung Light, all accompanied by verses. All the lamps being thus lit and the incense giving forth its (Vagrant odours, a solemn prayer, read slowly and solemnly, is offered to the gods Buddhist, Taouist, as well as to the deified spirits of nature and of heroes. After rising from this prayer, eight salutations on bended knee are made to Heaven. Karth, the Sun, the Moon, 'the Five Founders, Wan-yun-lung. the Brethren, and the renowned amongst their companions.' a verse again being recited. One of the members then takes the oath, which has been lying on the censer all this time, and reads it to the candidates 'who remain kneeling f quatrains. The banners are then consecrated, three cups of wine being poured on the ground at the same time, as a libation to the gods, a prayer is offered and another quatrain recited. After this prayer the spear-heads are dipped in the blood of a white horse and a black ox which are slaughtered us offerings to the solar and telluric principles respectively ; 360 THING'S CH1XESE. they are then cooked and a supper eaten, during and after which theatricals take place. As dawn approaches the members reclothe themselves in their present. every-day attire and return home. There is a code of laws and statutes, the articles of law being seventy-two in number, and the regulations twenty-one ; besides these there are ten prohibitory By-laws relating to Meetings of Lodge. All these laws and regulations inculcate brotherly kindness, assisting of brethren in time of need, shielding them from the authorities, and abstaining from giving evidence against them in the Courts of Law; the trial of all cases in which brethren alone are concerned is to be held before the Lodge and not to be brought before the magistrates : letters are to be carried from foreign countries for the brethren, and any brother found purloining money intr usted to him by a brother is severely punished. The infraction of each of the regulations is followed by imprecations or threatened punishments, among which may be noted those of having the head cut off, an ear chopped of, !vc. We cannot, however, give even a short n'^mm'- of all the offences provided for; but amongst these law-. a< can well be imagined, the divulgence of the secrets in any way is a most serious offence. The brethren have besides a perfect system of secret signs adapted for all times and seasons and conditions. We will just instance a few of them: 'If people ;isk you on (In- road "Whence come you?" Answer "'I come from the East." If they ask you "Whither are you going'.'" Answer ' 1 want to go to the place where I can join the myriads of brethren." ' In entering the house of a brother, one is directed to stop for A moment and enter with the left foot first. In sitting down the points of the gra^s shoes arc turned to\vard each other, while the heels are separate: this is a sign that one is a brother. The queue so done up as to have the end hanging down behind the left car denotes business. Another sign in use is the tucking up the right leg of the trousers while the left leg i- allowed to hang down. The brethren have different Mgns. -\vord<. and quatrains for u>e it' attacked by robbers and pirates who may chance to be Triad men : and though they SOCIETIES, SECRET. 361 are not allowed to divulge the secrets to outsiders yet they are permitted to teach their sisters and wives certain verses for their protection under similar circumstances. All contin- gencies appear to be provided for, amongst others, directions are given how to put up a secret sign over one's door in case of a revolt. The author knows that this is not a part >f a mere system, but is of practical use, because a house he once lived in. in a Chinese city, was thus protected when it Avas feared that the T'ai-p'ing rebels would attack the place. Numerous signs and counter-signs, forms of recognition, and Avishcs expressed secretly, are all revealed by the mani- pulation of tea-pots, tea-cups, wine-cups, tobacco and opium pipes, chopsticks, white fans, and betel nuts, by placing them in different positions, holding them in different ways, and presenting them to one another. The Triad Society has brought itself prominently into notice in the English and Dutch colonial possessions, where its members have exerted a great influence, and almost absolute power at times, over their fellow-countrymen. Their membership in some places is enormous : in the Straits Settlements it would appear, if we are to judge by the figures, that at one time, at all events, their number was etpial to that of the Chinese population; for in 1887 the census returns the Chinese population as less than the Triad members, which were 1 56,44-0. There would seem to be no Grand Master of the whole body, but a central government is in existence composed of the five Grand Masters of the five Grand Lodges of Fuh-kien, Kwang-tung, Y mi-nan, Hu-nan, and Che-kiang. This governing body then has some sort of control over millions of Chinese, not only in China itself but throughout the world. One writer says of this organisation: 'These principles, the repudiation of all jurisdiction, and the assumption of their power by an irresponsible tribunal, constitute an iiii]><>riiun in imperlo, the foulest, the bloodiest, the most oppressive of which there is record on such a scale.' Another says : 'The Hung League has carried civil war and murder wherever it has gone.' Yet another says: 'They engage to defend each other against 362 THINGS CHINESE. the police, to hide each other's crimes, to assist detected members in making their escape from justice.' Yet another says that it is a ' combination to carry out private quarrels, and to uphold the interests of the members in spite of law, and lastly to raise money by subscription or by levying fees on brothels or gaming houses.' Here then is sufficient reason for their suppression, and owing to the misuse of their power, and the rioting and murders committed by them in the Straits Settlements, they have been forbidden there. The most recent legislative enactment against them in Hongkong is Ordinance No. 8 of 1887, by which the Triad Society is declared to be unlawful, and the managers and office bearers are liable to a fine of a thousand dollars and to imprisonment for one year; the former Ordinances which related to them were Xos. 1 and 12 of IS to, which meted out more drastic punishment than the last one mentioned above. Some of the prominent members of the Society have been deported by the Hongkong Government, when necessity arose for it, for unfortunately, in this colony, they have degenerated into nests of thieves and bands of robbers. This account of the Triad Society will show what secret societies are capable of in China. They are hundreds in number, but not all of them arc political in their aim : some are merely sects of Buddhists; one in the North forbids the use of tobacco and wine amongst its other tenets and prohibitions. An association which has attracted some attention lately is the Ko-lo-wui, which has its head-quarters in the province of Hu-nan, the army being quite honey-combed by tliis political association which, like the Triad, has for its object the overthrow of the present dynasty. It is said to have its emissaries in every province, who travel under the assumed character of doctors, disseminating news and gathering in members as they go. It is believed by some to l>e answerable for the recent riots directed against foreigners o o in Central China (