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LIBRAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 'Received JUL 10 1895 l8 9 
 
 ^Accessions No.(puS^/ . Class No. 
 
Life 
 
 AGRICULTURAL 
 LIBRARY, 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF< 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
GASEOUS FUEL 
 
 INCLUDING WATER GAS 
 ITS PRODUCTION AND APPLICATION 
 
 H Slecture 
 
 DELIVERED AT 
 
 THE ASSOCIATION HALL, PETER STREET, MANCHESTER 
 ON MARCH 29, 1889 
 
 BY 
 
 B. H. THWAITE, C.E. 
 
 A.M. INST. C.E., F.C.S. 
 
 AUTHOR OF "OUR FACTORIES, "WORKSHOPS, AND WAREHOUSES: THEIR SANITARY 
 
 AND FIRE-RESISTING ARRANGEMENTS," 
 
 " LIQUID FUEL, ITS ADVANTAGES FOR STEAM RAISING PURPOSES," 
 " MILL ENGINES," ETC., ETC. 
 
 UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE 
 
 MANCHESTER AND SALFORD NOXIOUS VAPOURS 
 ABATEMENT ASSOCIATION 
 
 HIVBKSITY; 
 
 i ^._-*rv ^>^ 
 
 LONDON 
 
 r HITTAKEH AND COMPANY 
 2 WHITE HART STREET, PATERNOSTER SQUARE 
 
P -3 
 
2>efcfcate& 
 
 MY FRIEND 
 
 M. H. LE CH ATELIER 
 
 INGENIEUK AU CORPS DES MINES 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGfi 
 
 SMOKE POLLUTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE .:..,; 
 
 COMBUSTION OP FUEL 9 
 
 A NATIONAL WASTE . . . 13 
 
 NATURAL GAS 14 
 
 CHEMISTRY OP NATURAL GAS 15 
 
 ORIGIN OP NATURAL GASEOUS FUEL 16 
 
 METHOD OF DRILLING A NATURAL GAS WELL . . . .17 
 
 DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSPORTATION 19 
 
 APPLICATION OF NATURAL GAS ....... 19 
 
 FUEL CALORIMETRY 20 
 
 HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRODUCTION OF GASEOUS 
 
 FUEL 21 
 
 ECONOMY OF GASEOUS FUEL APPLICATIONS . . . . 23 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF CARBONIC OXIDE GASEOUS FUEL . . 24. 
 COMBUSTION OF GASEOUS FUEL FOR GENERATING MOTIVE 
 
 POWER 34 
 
 LIST OP SOME APPLICATIONS OP GASEOUS FUEL . . 35 
 
 PROJECT FOR DISTRIBUTION OF GASEOUS FUEL ... 36 
 
 APPENDIX 40 
 
GASEOUS FUEL: 
 
 ITS PRODUCTION AND APPLICATION. 
 
 THE SMOKE POLLUTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 ALTHOUGH the mighty prime mover, steam, in its wonderful 
 applications, lias been of incalculable value in adding to 
 the well-being and happiness of man, the black pall of 
 smoke that usually accompanies our industrial occupations 
 has desecrated and destroyed, in too many instances, the 
 beautiful work of God, who never intended that grimy 
 walls, streets, and lanes, and a smoke-infested sky, should 
 be the accompaniment of our lives. But He has given us 
 if we only cherished and preserved the gift the flowers, 
 the blue sky qf heaven, the eye-refreshing green of the 
 fields, and the life-endowing and recuperative beams of 
 the solar light. 
 
 What though our art culture and refined civilization 
 prompts and executes dreams of loveliness in stone, if the 
 sombre, depressing, and pall-like hue of smoke hides the 
 lines of beauty in pilaster and fluted column. 
 
 What are our hives of industry but blots of unloveliness 
 on England's fair landscape ? To England Nature has 
 
8 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 indeed been bountiful. Besides the pastoral scenery, if 
 undefiled, of unsurpassing charm, there is below the surface 
 the results of actual organic vegetable life, in the form of 
 coal, oil, and gas, of former periods of the earth's history. 
 If these fuel resources were properly consumed, they would 
 not only be free from the black and objectionable smoke, 
 but they would, in the condition of carbon dioxide, be 
 absorbed by the plant and vegetable life, and be returned 
 to us either as solid food or as a useful structural agent in 
 the condition as timber, wood, or bark. 
 
 The black smoke or carbon, in finely divided condition, 
 and the gaseous carbon monoxide, also the result of the 
 imperfect combustion or oxidation of coal, is not absorbed 
 by the plants, so that the result of imperfect methods of 
 fuel combustion is an incalculable evil, blackening our 
 livelong days and depriving the animal and vegetable world 
 of sustenance.* 
 
 * Have fogs any perceptible effect upon the rate of mortality ? 
 There is no doubt that continued, dense, smoke fogs influence very 
 decidedly the rate of mortality. Mr. E. Hart stated before the Select 
 Committee of the House of Lords on Smoke Abatement and Prevention, 
 that sat in 1887, that in a fortnight of heavy fog which occurred in 
 London in 1886 the mortality rose to 40 per 1000, a rate equal to that 
 of the great cholera year. In 1880, the last few days of January and 
 the first few of February were signalized by a particularly dense fog, 
 and during the week it lasted the number of deaths was 2000 above the 
 average. A glance at the Registrar- General's returns for 1873 show 
 very plainly the influence that foggy weather has upon the death-rate. 
 From the 8th to the I2th of December in that year an extremely 
 dense fog prevailed over London. The mortality in the metropolis 
 for the week ending December 6 was 23 persons per 1000; in the 
 week following, during which the fog occurred, the rate rose to 27 
 per 1000 ; and in the week after that, when its full effects could be 
 estimated, the deaths were found to number 38 in the 1000. In the 
 same three weeks the deaths from consumption and diseases of the 
 respiratory organs were respectively 520, 764, and 1112. This fog 
 occurred during the Cattle Show week, and killed a great many valu- 
 able animals that had been sent for exhibition. 
 
COMBUSTION OF FUEL. 9 
 
 Nature, in her accumulations of carbon and hydro- 
 carbons in the form of coal, oil, &c., has enabled our 
 people to be fed with food from other far off climes. In 
 every way this wonderful gift of Nature to man might be 
 of advantage to his well-being ; but, from our neglect or 
 ignorance of simple scientific facts, these fuel treasures 
 have been so imperfectly utilized as to neutralize their life- 
 sustaining values, surrounding our lives with the gloom of 
 artificial clouds, and subjecting it to a smoke-laden atmo- 
 sphere which hardly permits the passage of the invigorating 
 rays of the sun. 
 
 Science is never more beneficial than when its action 
 brings the agents and processes involved in industry into 
 harmony with the natural laws. And if by scientific 
 applications we can remove the stigma at present attached 
 to the use of our carbonaceous treasures, our land and 
 people would be relieved from a great evil that overshadows 
 all others in its production of misery, ay, and of death, 
 and our industrial centres would then be as bright as 
 unsullied day. 
 
 Before the introduction of coal, in the time of Edward I., 
 wood and charcoal formed the combustible and heat-giving 
 agent, both of which, from their chemical constitution, are 
 not so difficult to completely and smokelessly consume. 
 The introduction of coal brought with it the difficulty of 
 effective combustion, for, although the artificers of London 
 recognized its high heat value, the smoke produced was 
 soon followed by an urgent protest, as our ancestors loved 
 pure air. Edward I. gave effect to the protest in 1 307 by 
 prohibiting the use of sea coal. 
 
 COMBUSTION OF FUEL. 
 
 The combustion of fuel is essentially a process of 
 oxidation. The principal agents, carbon and hydrogen, 
 
io GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 constituting the combustible elements of fuel, are both 
 oxidized. 
 
 To perfectly effect this chemical action of oxidation the 
 best conditions are those in which both the agents are in 
 a gaseous condition, so that not only can the equivalent 
 volumes of the two agents be brought together, but the 
 gaseous condition allows the perfect admixture of the two 
 agents. If one agent, say coal, is solid and the other is 
 gas or air, they cannot, from physical causes, be brought 
 into proper and equivalent contact except there is an 
 enormous excess of the oxygen agent, air, over that really 
 or equivalently necessary. 
 
 So perfect and colourless is combustion when effected 
 under conditions that ensure a perfect volumetric admixture 
 of the two agents in similar gaseous condition, that the 
 resultant products of combustion are colourless, and it may 
 be flameless, a fact first demonstrated by the masterly 
 series of experiments initiated by one of our illustrious 
 dead, Sir Humphrey Davy. This nameless and colourless 
 or invisible combustion is instanced in the incandescent 
 gas lights, such as the Welsbach and Clamond, and 
 partially so by the burner we owe to that great heat 
 experimentalist, Baron Bunsen. Whether combustion 
 is flameless or not, given that it is perfect, the sum 
 of the heat units evolved is the same. In the instance 
 of the colourless or invisible combustion, the oxidation 
 of the combustible is effected instanter, or at a periodic 
 rate too great to leave a sensible impression on the optic 
 nerve. 
 
 The oxidation of hydrogen with carbon, if effected more 
 slowly, permits the eye to observe the incandescence of the 
 carbon particles or atoms as they escape from the zone of 
 the oxidation of the hydrogen prior to their oxidation to> 
 C0 2 , a colourless gas. 
 
COMBUSTION OF FUEL. . ir 
 
 The phenomena of oxidation of the ordinary combustible- 
 may be expressed as follows : 
 
 The hydrogen having a greater affinity for the oxygen 
 than has the carbon, it is first oxidized to water vapour,. 
 thusH 2 4-0 = H 2 0. 
 
 The heat resulting from this oxidation by the hydrogen 
 raises the carbon, which separates from combination with 
 the hydrogen, into a condition or temperature of incan- 
 descence. In this condition the remaining oxygen combines 
 with the carbon to form one of two compound gases. If 
 there is sufficient oxygen the result will be carbonic acid, 
 or carbon dioxide ; if there is an insufficient volume of 
 oxygen the carbon will be oxidized to carbonic oxide or 
 carbon monoxide (CO). The respective reactions are as 
 follows: C + O 3 = C0 2 andC-fO==CO. 
 
 If the carbon, when separating from the hydrogen 011 
 the oxidation of the latter, is allowed to cool below a 
 temperature of visible incandescence, the oxygen cannot 
 combine to oxidize the solid carbon atoms to C0 2 , and the 
 carbon atoms are consequently deposited as soot or smoke*. 
 
 The oxygen of the atmosphere is enveloped or accom- 
 panied with a volume of a diluent and inert gas nitrogen. 
 This gas moderates the intense energy, or vis viva, of the- 
 oxygen molecules ; but for this gas, all forms of animal and 
 vegetable life would be so enormously accelerated that the- 
 dynamic elements or structures of both forms of life would 
 be soon worn out, and life would become extinct from super 
 or excessive action. 
 
 This diluent gas, nitrogen, plays an important part in the 
 action of oxidation or combustion, and is no unimportant 
 factor in the difficulty in obtaining any approach to proper 
 combustion of fuel in a solid condition. Assuming the fuel 
 is in a solid condition, the lumps of coal simply allow the 
 air to pass through their interstices, the lower or sub-layer- 
 
12 . GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 of fuel being in flame. The carbonic oxide due to partial 
 combustion, along with the water vapour due to the 
 oxidation of hydrogen and the inert gas nitrogen, flow 
 through the interstices of the fuel along with the volume of 
 -air intended to oxidize the superincumbent layers of fuel. 
 The result is, that the incombustible gases and nitrogen 
 prevent the contact of the oxygen of the air with all the 
 carbon, the hydrogen attracting what oxygen there is 
 -available. The carbon excluded or separated, is either 
 only partially oxidized to the colourless carbonic oxide, or 
 is unoxidised and flows to the chimney in a solid but 
 finely divided condition, as smoke, along with the 
 nitrogen, watery vapour, and carbonic acid, or carbon 
 dioxide (C0 2 ). 
 
 Although with an excess of air it is possible, when coke 
 or anthracite is used in a solid condition, to produce a 
 combustion that shall have colourless products ; when coal 
 is used the conditions are entirely changed. Coal contains 
 varying percentages of rich hydro-carbons that are highly 
 volatile, and at a temperature of from, say, 500 to 900 degrees 
 Fahr., these hydro-carbon constituents are volatilized. Now, 
 when a new supply of coal is added to the fuel in an 
 incandescent condition, the temperature of volatilization is 
 almost immediately attained, and the rich hydro-carbon 
 . gases are evolved, and, although there may be sufficient air 
 to more or less completely oxidize the coal if freed from its 
 rich hydro-carbons, nevertheless the supply is inadequate 
 to oxidize these rich hydro-carbon gases, that constitute, 
 in their ensemble, the ordinary coal gas. 
 
 Hence, each time the fresh fuel is charged, these rich 
 and powerfully thermic gases escape to the chimney more 
 or less incompletely oxidized or burnt. 
 
 Another disadvantage in solid fuel firing is the fact that 
 if the slack coal is very small or dusty it is liable to be 
 
A NATIONAL WASTE. 13. 
 
 carried forward into the chimney flues. The method 
 usually adopted to prevent this is to damp the dust slack, 
 but the application of wet fuel involves the loss of heat due 
 to the water which has to be evaporated, and represents so- 
 many heat units entirely lost. 
 
 As if to reproach us for a flagrant and inexcusable abuse- 
 of the wealth of solid fuel we possess, Nature has provided 
 us with a wonderful example of the advantages of perfect 
 fuel combustion by supplying vast subterraneous stores of 
 natural gas. 
 
 This natural gas has, in the instance of its discovery 
 and application in Pennsylvania, transformed a black and 
 smoky region of manufacturing industry, into one almost 
 as pure as that accompanying rural pursuits. This natural 
 gas will be referred to more fully further on. We will 
 now endeavour to ascertain some idea of the national 
 financial loss by our wasteful methods of use of the 
 national carbonaceous treasures. 
 
 A NATIONAL WASTE. 
 
 If we take the average annual coal consumption of the 
 United Kingdom between the years 1850 and 1890 at 
 75 millions of tons, and assume an actual calorific efficiency 
 of 50 per cent, to have been obtained and this figure is- 
 much above the mark the net loss in the forty years will 
 be 1400 millions of tons. If the value of the coals is taken 
 at 55. per ton, the net loss to the country will attain the 
 colossal figure of 350 million pounds sterling,' or nearly 
 half the National Debt. 
 
 If the figures relating to the period of exhaustion of our 
 coalfields by Mr. Price Williams are to be taken au serieux, 
 we are within a living periodic distance when coal by its 
 scarcity will when, perhaps, too late force users to 
 
i 4 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 employ means of utilization that shall give them a near 
 approach to the full thermic value of the fuel they use. It 
 behoves us, therefore, from every reason, financial, hygienic, 
 and patriotic, to at once apply ourselves to the work of 
 popularizing means of effecting fuel economy in our 
 industries and our homes. . 
 
 NATURAL GAS. 
 
 In the Aspheron Peninsula, known to fame as the Land 
 of Eternal Fire,* gaseous fuel has issued from the earth in 
 powerful streams, which have burnt and illumined the 
 country for unknown centuries, and have, up to quite a 
 recent date, been worshipped with reverence by a curious 
 sect known as the Fire Worshippers, whose priests have 
 watched through night and day unceasingly these wonderful 
 streams of fire. The Chinese, pioneers in many of the arts 
 .and industries, have, as far back as 3000 years ago, con- 
 veyed the natural gas found in their salt mines to the 
 surface by means of bamboo canes, and utilized the fuel for 
 evaporating the salt brine. In the year 1658 a communi- 
 cation to the Royal Society by Mr. Shirley described some 
 experiments with natural gas that issued from a well near 
 Wigan, and in 1733 Sir James Lowther communicated to 
 the same society particulars of a discovery of natural gas 
 issuing from his coalpits at Whitehaven. This gas was 
 conveyed by pipes to the surface, and it burnt vigorously 
 with a flame six feet high, and continued to do so 
 without intermission for two years. I suggested some 
 two years ago in Engineering, that as this gas was the 
 dangerous marsh gas, if coalfields were drilled to a 
 sufficient depth at various and well-distributed locations, 
 this deadly gas might be drawn from the substrata and 
 
 * Vide " Baku : The Petrolia of Europe," by Charles Marvin, 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OF NATURAL GAS. 15 
 
 utilized, and thus remove the source of danger to the coal 
 workers, and in a manner that might give a good return 
 for the expenditure. This proposition has been carried out 
 at the Hebburn Colliery, near Newcastle. A blower found 
 in the workings has been utilized by connecting the source 
 of gas exudation with the surface by means of six-inch 
 pipes, and the gas has been utilized for firing steam boilers 
 with great success, and a considerable saving, stated to be 
 ^3000 per annum, has been realized. Possibly this gas may 
 be derived from the volatile hydro-carbons of the coal, which 
 may have been driven off by inter-terrestrial heat, or it may 
 be that, similar to the Pennsylvania coalfields, there is a sub- 
 stratum of oil rock and its accompanying strata of natural 
 gas. Whatever the source, it will be accepted, nemine 
 contradiccnte, that it would^ be a humane and probably 
 economic action on the part of the great colliery owners if, 
 by a series of well drillings, the deadly sting of these black 
 hives of industry could be extracted. 
 
 Accompanying the great natural oil stores in Pennsyl- 
 vania, natural gas has been known to exist for over a 
 century; indeed, as far back as 1821, a little village in the 
 New York States was lighted with natural gas. The oil 
 drillers have almost invariably struck the gas wells when 
 drilling for oil. 
 
 THE CHEMISTRY OF NATURAL GAS. 
 
 It may be asked, What are the chemical characteristics 
 of this natural gas, known by the name of marsh gas or 
 deadly firedamp ? Few miners will fail to recognize it. It 
 is a light, carburetted hydrogen, one of the gaseous 
 paraffmes or methane, its principal formula being chiefly 
 CH 4 . The other constituents are shown in the following 
 analysis by Dr. George Hay : 
 
16 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 VOLUMETRIC COMPOSITION. 
 
 Light carburetted hydrogen (ma"rsh gas) CH 4 95*20 per cent. 
 Heavy hydro-carbons (olefiant gas) . . 0^50 ,, 
 Carbonic oxide ...... I'oo 
 
 Hydrogen . . .. . . . .2*00 ,, 
 
 Oxygen 1*30 ,, 
 
 1 00 '00 
 
 Specific gravity . . . 0^520 
 
 The gas is quite dry as it leaves the well. To form an 
 explosive mixture, it requires 9 volumes of air to I of 
 natural gas. The value of this natural gaseous fuel com- 
 pared with that artificially formed is shown in the accom- 
 panying tables. 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF NATURAL GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 The theories set forth by various scientists explanatory 
 of the origin and formation of natural gas are very varied, 
 and this divergence demonstrates the absurdity of deduc- 
 tions on hypothetical bases. 
 
 No doubt the theory the author holds to be the most 
 reasonable one in explaining the formation of rock oil, or 
 petroleum, is also true, for natural gas ergo, rock oil is 
 the result of the action of sea water on organic marine, 
 animal, and vegetable life, that has, by volcanic and erup- 
 tive agencies, been upheaved, the sand of the oceanic beds 
 forming, in their new position, storage spaces for the sea 
 water and vegetable and animal accumulations. The salt 
 has been deposited either in rock form or become con- 
 densed as brine. 
 
 The action of inter-terrestrial heat has gradually de- 
 composed the organic matter into a hydro-carbon solution 
 of varying character, as oil, and the more volatile gases, 
 being, by the influence of heat, separated in a gaseous 
 
METHOD OF DRILLING. 17 
 
 condition as natural gas, which, owing to the superincum- 
 bent and impermeable strata, has not been able to escape, 
 but has been compressed in many instances to one-fortieth 
 of its volume at atmospheric pressure. 
 
 All the oil rocks are of a sedimentary character, and 
 many thousand feet in thickness, but divided into varying 
 strata by impermeable shale strata. Salt deposits gene- 
 rally accompany oil-storing rocks. 
 
 Occasionally the immense compression of the natural 
 gas forces it into neighbouring and surrounding strata for 
 miles, but the latter stores are, as a rule, very shallow. 
 
 The geographic location of the oil and natural gas fields 
 can hardly be defined. Stores of both oil and gas are 
 found accompanying the salt deposits of China, Burmab, 
 the Caucasus, Roumania, Pennsylvania, Western Ohio, 
 Central Indiana, Venezuela, and Canada ; and I am 
 strongly of opinion that the British and European salt- 
 fields are no exception to the rule, and, had we the enter- 
 prising spirit of the Americans, prospectors would have 
 drilled for oil and gas beneath the saltfields of Cheshire 
 and the Cleveland district and those of Ireland. The salt 
 strata are rarely at a greater depth than 500 feet, whereas 
 the normal depth of the gas strata is about 2000 feet. 
 
 METHOD OF DRILLING A NATURAL GAS WELL. 
 
 The site for the test well having been located, a lofty 
 pyramidical wooden structure is erected some 72 feet high, 
 and with a base measurement of 20 feet and a summit 
 measurement of 3 feet. 
 
 The well is generally six inches in diameter, and is 
 drilled by falling chisel-shaped steel tools suspended from 
 a cable, which is raised by a steam winch ; the tools are 
 allowed to fall into the well from the height of four or five 
 
 B 
 
i8 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 feet, the driller turning the drill as it falls, so that the 
 hole is made circular ; the drill and attached jars are made 
 sufficiently heavy about ij to 2f tons to pierce the 
 hardest rocks. The work of drilling, once started, is pro- 
 ceeded with night and day until the gas is struck. 
 
 Modern wells are lined in such a way that the gas 
 can either be stored or drawn off for distribution at any 
 time. 
 
 In the wells near Pittsburgh the drilling depth is about 
 1500 to 1800 feet; but in shallow and soon exhausted 
 wells gas has been met with at a depth of 500 feet. 
 
 The cost of drilling a gas well varies according to the 
 depth, from 700 to 1200. 
 
 One of the wells in Ohio evolves nearly thirteen million 
 cubic feet per diem of 24 hours, at an initial pressure of 
 500 Ibs. to the square inch. This pressure is reduced by 
 specially designed regulators to a more safely workable 
 limit. The gas evolved from this typical well per diem 
 is thermically equivalent to 400 tons of coal. The an- 
 nual production of natural gas in Western Pennsylvania 
 is estimated to reach two hundred and forty thousands of 
 millions of cubic feet, having a thermic value equivalent 
 to 10,000,000 tons of coal. 
 
 In the Pittsburgh district there are six important 
 Natural Gas companies, having a total of 107 wells, of 
 which the Philadelphia Company owns 68, and from wliich 
 it is estimated they delivered in 1886 no less than sixty 
 thousand millions of cubic feet. Taking 1000 cubic feet 
 as equivalent to 8i|-| Ibs. of coal, the heat value in weight 
 of coals would be 2,500,000. 
 
 The total capital invested in natural gas undertakings 
 in the United States is estimated at ; 10,000,000, a figure 
 that may be justly described as a splendid monument to 
 the enterprise of our Transatlantic cousins. 
 
APPLICATION OF NATURAL GAS. 19 
 
 DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 At the end of 1886 it was estimated that 2300 miles 
 of main distributing pipes had been laid. In Pittsburgh 
 alone there was, at the date mentioned, some 500 miles 
 of pipes, varying from 30 to 40 inches in diameter ; 
 wrought iron pipes being used for sizes up to 1 6-inch, and 
 cast iron pipes for the larger diameters. 
 
 In the pioneer installations the leakage of the gas could 
 not be prevented, owing to the enormous initial pressure, 
 but by well-designed reducing pressure regulators the 
 difficulty has been surmounted. The high initial pressure 
 of the gas has the great advantage of allowing distribution 
 to be effected over great distances, in some instances over 
 60 miles. 
 
 APPLICATION OF NATURAL GAS. 
 
 Natural gas is utilized for almost every conceivable 
 Industry requiring the application of heat glass-works, 
 iron and steel works, oil stills, salt pans, brick kilns, and 
 drying floors, raising steam, horticulture, and floriculture. 
 It is only some four or five years since it was introduced to 
 Pittsburgh in supplies of any importance, but to-day, in 
 the words of Mr. Weeks, of Pittsburgh, than whom there 
 is no one more interested or better versed in this wonderful 
 agent, " it cooks the food of thirty thousand families ; 
 warms as many houses ; it puddles the iron and rolls the 
 steel ; it melts the glass ; it burns the pottery ; it drills 
 the wells, and pumps the oil, and refines it ; it furnishes 
 carbon for ink, for paint, and for electric lamps ; it raises 
 the steam in many industrial works ; in a word, it is the 
 fuel for domestic purposes, and for use in the arts whenever 
 it can be obtained ; and so much superior, that cities with 
 
20 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 coal at their very doors pipe the gas sixty or seventy miles 
 for use in their houses and workshops." The experience of 
 users of natural gaseous fuel has shown that the absolute 
 control of the supply (although the chemical quality 
 varies) of the gas allowed the staple industries to be 
 produced with greater perfection, uniformity, and with 
 reduced cost in fuel and labour. Steam with an even 
 pressure could easily be maintained, and in warming houses 
 and for floriculture and horticulture any required tempera- 
 ture is attainable. 
 
 It has promoted health and happiness and made clean- 
 liness possible in the household. The lesson impressed 
 on every user of natural gas leaves no doubt in his mind 
 that gaseous fuel is immeasurably superior to the solid 
 form. An American authority states that, as the feasibility 
 of successfully manufacturing gaseous fuel is already an 
 established fact, and its advantages are so great compared 
 with coal, surely its manufacture should proceed at once 
 in every locality where natural gas cannot be found in 
 abundance. 
 
 Pittsburgh and Alleghany are incontestable examples- 
 of the wonderful metamorphosis on the atmosphere and 
 general cleanliness of towns. 
 
 In wintry nights, when the aqueous vapour of the 
 atmosphere is frozen, the region of the oil wells occasionally 
 presents a most remarkable phenomenon. The reflection 
 by the particles of ice suspended in the atmosphere of the 
 roarers from the natural gas wells appear in meteor-like 
 streaks of light of marvellous beauty. 
 
 FUEL CALORIMETRY. 
 
 / 
 
 The extraordinary fuel resources of this country and the 
 comparative cheapness of coal have been responsible for the 
 
HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT OF PRODUCTION. 21 
 
 treatment of the fuel value of different costs as a factor of 
 no importance. 
 
 Investigation will, however, show that a knowledge of 
 the thermic or heat value of a fuel is of the highest 
 importance, and can be accurately measured by a simple 
 process without any scientific skill. 
 
 Lavoisier, the brilliant French savant, may be said to 
 have designed the first reliable instrument for the measure- 
 ment of the heat value of fuel. 
 
 Favre and Silbermann, Berthelot and Lewis Thomson 
 have designed calorimeters of varying degrees of efficiency, 
 but one of the best instruments for practical use, now that 
 l)y the Brin process oxygen can be cheaply and conveniently 
 obtained, is that designed by my friend, Mr. William 
 Thompson. F.R.S.Ed., of Manchester. By means of this 
 instrument any steam user can ascertain the exact heat 
 value of the fuel he proposes to contract for, and the test 
 would be unerring in its reliability for all practical purposes. 
 The coal giving the greatest number of heat units per unit 
 of value being chosen, the next desideratum is the proper 
 means of utilizing this fuel, and from the arguments 
 already advanced I think it will be clearly seen that the 
 only way to properly use the solid coal is to imitate 
 Nature and convert the combustible fuel into a gaseous 
 condition. This principle has been acknowledged to be 
 tke carrect one by the greatest scientists. 
 
 THE HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRODUCTION OF 
 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 The practical application of the principle of the conver- 
 sion of solid fuel into a gaseous condition was initiated by 
 one of a group of three men, whose united labours have 
 .had more influence on the development of civilization and in 
 
22 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 procuring the greatest happiness for the greatest number 
 than all the efforts of our heroes of war and statecraft. I 
 allude to James Watt and his partner, that fine old type 
 of the English gentleman, Matthew Boulton, and their 
 once employe, Willie Murdoch. It may here be stated 
 that these two latter famous men of Soho, Birmingham^ 
 deserve a special recognition from the enlightened towns- 
 men of that famous industrial centre. This might be 
 fittingly accomplished by the foundation of scholarships, 
 bearing the names of Murdoch and Boulton, in the 
 Midland Institute, as well as a memorial tablet or statue- 
 in the hall of that admirable institution. 
 
 The procedure of Murdoch's system consisted in simply 
 heating the coal in a closed retort until the temperature of 
 volatilization of the volatile hydro-carbons was attained. 
 The rich hydro-carbon gases burnt with a highly luminous 
 Hame, and Murdoch's gas system became for an era the 
 aigent of artificial lighting. The coke or carbon is simply 
 withdrawn from the retort, hence only a part of the 
 thermic value of the coal is abstracted by Murdoch's 
 system, with the result that the cost of production 
 prevented the general extension of the application of the 
 gas for heating purposes. About half a century ago 
 Herr Bischof, of Magdeburg, introduced an apparatus for 
 generating gas for fuel or heating purposes. This appa- 
 ratus was said to have given excellent results, and it is 
 surprising that the system did not have more extended 
 application, although there were several systems of produc- 
 ing gaseous fuel at work before 1850. But the conversion 
 of solid fuel, such as coal or coke, into a gaseous condition 
 for heating purposes received an impetus from the labours 
 of two members of the remarkable Siemens family, 
 Frederick and Charles Wilhelm. The original specifica- 
 tion of the patent for the furnace in which the great 
 
ECONOMY OF GASEOUS FUEL APPLICATIONS. 23 
 
 advantages of gaseous fuel were more fully realizable 
 bears the name of Frederick. This furnace embodies the 
 principle named by the inventors as regeneration, and is 
 curiously the outcome of his brother Wilhelm's experi- 
 ments in a development of the Kev. R. Stirling's famous 
 regenerative engine, which was intended to obtain the 
 greatest possible thermo-dynamic efficiency from an engine 
 measured according to Sadi Carnot's law. Regeneration, 
 or, by the more correct definition, recuperation, signifies 
 that in this Siemens furnace the sensible heat of the 
 waste gases is by a reversible cycle, utilized to heat the 
 combustible gases and the air for combustion. By this 
 means not only is a very much higher temperature attain- 
 able, but also the highest possible economy. 
 
 ECONOMY OF GASEOUS FUEL APPLICATIONS. 
 
 The practical development of Frederick's invention is 
 due to the late Sir William Siemens, who possessed the 
 rare characteristic of great business talents and a cultured 
 and inventive mind, and the advantages of a thorough 
 knowledge of thermo-dynamic, thermo-chemical, and 
 physical science. This masterly invention of the Siemens 
 Brothers has revolutionized the art of manufacturing 
 structural steel and glass : it has enabled the former 
 structural agent to be produced by a mixture of scrap, 
 wrought iron, and pig, or by a mixture of iron oxide and 
 pig at a cost in fuel equal to from 9 to 10 cwts. per ton of 
 steel ingots, whereas fuel used in the laborious puddling 
 process, in which solid fuel firing is employed, per ton of 
 wrought iron bars varies from 2 to 3 tons. 
 
 This Siemens gas-fired recuperative furnace allows the 
 highest temperature to be used without producing a par- 
 ticle of smoke, and, with the exception of the white and 
 
24 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 almost colourless vapour, there need be no visible sign 
 that one of our great national pursuits is being carried on. 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF CARBONIC OXIDE GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 The gaseous fuel required for these furnaces is produced 
 as follows : 
 
 Large chambers of brickwork, rectangular in plane 
 shape and placed side by side, are erected with three 
 vertical sides and an inclined one, the fuel resting on the 
 latter, and into which it is charged by special feeding 
 hoppers, arranged so as to prevent the escape of the gases 
 during the feeding of the fuel. 
 
 The chemical action of gasification is in this gas gene- 
 rator as follows : 
 
 The air, either blown or flowing by natural draught 
 through the lowest layers of fuel, ignites them, and main- 
 tains an active combustion ; the resulting carbon dioxide, 
 in ascending through the superincumbent fuel, is converted 
 into carbonmonoxide by the reaction C0 2 + C = 200. This 
 latter gas, or carbonmonoxide, along with the volatile 
 hydro-carbons distilled from the upper fuel layers, ascends 
 the vertical uptake, rising some twelve feet above the 
 ground, passes for a short distance along a horizontal 
 tube, in which the gases are condensed, and the tar is 
 deposited. The cooled gases descend the downtake to 
 the distributing flues, through which the gas flows to the 
 furnace. 
 
 Although the furnace has a high thermic efficiency, 
 and satisfies most requirements, this character cannot be 
 given to the gas generator. This apparatus is clumsy, 
 and occupies far too much space for the volume of gas it 
 produces, and requires too much laborious work in its 
 management. It is obvious that, as the gas leaves the 
 
CHEMISTRY OF GASEOUS FUEL. 25 
 
 generator at a temperature varying from 500 to 900 deg. 
 Fahr., this sensible heat is lost by the gas in passing 
 through the overhead tubes. Moreover, the condensation 
 of the volatile gases in tar form is a double evil ; it clogs 
 and arrests the passage of the gas, and involves cleaning 
 operations, and also reduces the thermic or heat value of 
 the gas ; and, although the apparatus has done good service, 
 it may, I think, be considered in the light of a pioneer 
 but obsolete arrangement. The type of gas-producing or 
 generating apparatus now usually employed is a decided 
 improvement on the old Siemens type. For the most 
 modern form the gaseous fuel generating apparatus is 
 either cylindrical or cupola shaped, and is enclosed in a 
 sheet iron casing. 
 
 The air is injected into the fuel by means of a steam jet 
 injector. The steam jet aspires or induces, and then forces 
 the air forward into the fuel direct by means of special 
 shaped tuyeres, or under fire bars, that, by the action of 
 the steam and air, are kept cool. 
 
 The steam and air ascending through the mass of fuej 
 (piled up on the solid hearth or on the fire grate, as the 
 case may be) converts the fuel into a gaseous condition. 
 
 The volatile hydro-carbons distilled from the upper 
 layers of the fuel in well-devised gas generators are com- 
 pelled to flow through the hottest part of the fuel, and in 
 their contact with the incandescent carbon the rich gases 
 are rendered less condensable ; and, if the gaseous fuel is 
 led .by brickwork flues immediately into the furnace, the 
 only loss of heat due to conversion of fuel into a gaseous 
 condition will be that radiated from the side of the gas- 
 generating vessel. 
 
 In the Thwaite gas producer this radiant heat is utilized 
 to heat the air required for generating the gaseous fuel, 
 and where the gaseous fuel is intended for generating 
 
26 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 steam the side heat radiation from the gas producer may 
 be utilized for heating the feed water. 
 
 If the flues for conveying the gaseous fuel are not too* 
 long, the loss of sensible heat of the gas is insignificant. 
 Once the gas has arrived at its destination, or where it 
 is required to be used, it has the following primd facie 
 advantages over fuel in a solid condition : 
 
 1. The supply is entirely under control, arid can 
 therefore be turned on or off instanter. 
 
 2. The exact temperature required can be attained 
 and maintained uniformly. 
 
 3. The chemical nature of combustion is entirely 
 under control ; it can be made oxidizing, deoxidizing^ 
 or reducing and neutral at will. 
 
 4. Perfect and smokeless combustion can be 
 effected with very little over the theoretical volume 
 of air. 
 
 5. Entire prevention of smoke. 
 
 6. Higher ranges of temperature are attainable. 
 
 7. The furnaces are not subjected to such inter- 
 mittent changes of temperature, and the walls of the 
 furnaces are more durable. 
 
 8. The flue plates of steam generators have a far 
 longer life, and there is a more uniform temperature 
 throughout the length of the flues, which are not ex- 
 posed to the action of violent combustion. 
 
 9. Steam raising is more uniform, and the engines 
 run steadier. 
 
 10. A commoner quality of fuel is available. 
 
 The one disadvantage is that, with gaseous fuel firing 
 applied to ordinary Lancashire or Cornish boilers, it is 
 difficult to attain the evaporation obtained with hand fired] 
 solid fuel. 
 
CHEMISTRY OF GASEOUS FUEL. 27 
 
 The generation of heat and the production of steam can 
 be effected so uniformly that the pressure gauges can be 
 practically kept stationary, and the regular running of the 
 engines consequent on this advantage is alone of consider- 
 able importance. It may, however, again be stated that 
 when gaseous fuel replaces a hard fired boiler, the con- 
 ditions are not at all satisfactory for obtaining the best 
 results. 
 
 The ordinary carbonmonoxide gaseous fuel produced 
 from coal other than anthracite is, however, not available 
 for purposes where heat of concentrated intensity is 
 required, or where the gas is required to pass through 
 small-bore pipes, or for purposes where it is required to be 
 quite clear from tar. Keferring to the table of analyses 
 {vide p. 29), it will be seen that the carbonmonoxide gas 
 contains, first, a small proportion of the olefiant or volatile 
 hydro-carbon series ; and, secondly, also a large volume of 
 the inert gas nitrogen. The first characteristic prevents 
 the gas from being used for gas-motor cylinders, as the 
 particles of condensed hydro-carbons may clog the 
 ignition slides of the cylinder. The second characteristic 
 prevents the gas from being conveyed through small pipes, 
 because the large percentage of nitrogen would prevent 
 continuous ignition of gas issuing from a small orifice. 
 
 These defects of carbonmonoxide gaseous fuel do not 
 affect its use in the direction I have named, or for general 
 furnace and steam raising work ; but for gas-motor pur- 
 poses, for gasing yarns, singeing, and for domestic work, 
 the characteristics named are insuperable objections. For 
 these purposes, or when a clean and more highly combus- 
 tible gaseous fuel is required, other combustible agents 
 and cycles of operation are employed. The combustible 
 agent is of a kind that does not possess any of the rich 
 hydro-carbons, such as anthracite, principally found in 
 
28 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 South. Wales. Anthracite is almost pure carbon. If 
 nthracite is not attainable, coke is used. This latter 
 form of fuel is produced by subjecting coal to heat in a 
 closed retort, by which the volatile or rich hydro-carbons 
 are driven off, leaving the almost pure carbon behind. 
 
 Either anthracite or coke, if employed in the carbon- 
 monoxide gas apparatus, should produce a gas suitable for 
 all ordinary heating purposes if large delivery pipes are 
 used, but the gas is too largely diluted with the inert 
 nitrogen to pass through very small pipes. 
 
 Another method of production employed to overcome 
 these defects is to convert coal into what is absurdly 
 named \vater gas. The misconception derivable from this 
 ridiculous cognomen was forcibly, if amusingly, impressed 
 upon me some two years ago, when I received a letter from 
 a gentleman in Algiers, inquiring if I could provide him 
 with an apparatus that would supply the town with water 
 gas. He added that, although there was no coal, there was 
 abundance, of water near Algiers. Evidently the title 
 had left him with the impression that the gas was an 
 inflammable water vapour, such as that from dissociated 
 water. The expression, no doubt, originated from the fact 
 that steam plays a part in the production of the gas. 
 The cycle of operation of this water gas generating system 
 may be said to have been originated by two Americans, 
 Messrs. Strong and Lowe, some seventeen years ago, 
 although a M. Gillard introduced a system in 1849 for 
 producing water gas, which had one application at Vauxhall 
 Gardens, but with what success I do not know. 
 
 Carbonaceous fuel, preferably free from volatile hydro- 
 carbons, such as coke or anthracite, is raised to a high, 
 temperature of bright incandescence by the passage of air 
 through it; the air is then turned off, and the fuel is 
 subjected to contact with superheated steam. The result 
 
CHEMISTRY OF GASEOUS FUEL. 31 
 
 as the dissociation of the steam according to the following 
 reactions : 
 
 4H 2 + 4C = 8H + 2C0 2 + 2C = 8H + 4 CO. 
 
 An alternate equation is 
 
 C + H 2 O = CO + H 2 . 
 
 This gas possesses a high thermic character. 
 
 Its disadvantage is the fact that, during the blowing up 
 of the fuel with air period, the carbonic oxide produced is 
 .generally wasted, and there is also the disadvantage that 
 either coke, which occupies a relatively large cubic space 
 in relation to its value, or anthracite, which is very ex- 
 pensive, have to be resorted to. 
 
 In other respects the cycle of operations of this method 
 of generating gaseous fuel leaves little to be desired. The 
 gas has many important characteristics. As a reducing 
 agent, some experiments instigated by me appear to show 
 that it is more powerful than carbonmonoxide.* For many 
 purposes, such as welding boiler tubes, flanging, rivet 
 heating, lighting by incandescence, and even metallurgic 
 operations, the intense thermic character of combustion of 
 this so-called water gas is well adapted. There are many 
 towns and villages in the United States that are supplied 
 with water gas. A few nervous individuals made a strong 
 objection to its use during the early stages of its applica- 
 tion. It was decided by .the Massachusetts luminaries 
 that no gas should be supplied having a greater percentage 
 than 10 per cent, of CO. This legal definition, had it been 
 respected, would have prevented the gas from being used 
 .at all. 
 
 The disadvantages of inodorousness can of course be 
 
 * Vide Engineering, January 15, 1886. The summary of the experi- 
 ments appear to show that water gas is a more powerful reducing agent 
 
 than carbonic oxide gas, in the ratio as 4-21 : 672, or 4^i x iop_^ 2< y^ 
 
32 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 overcome by adding to the gas an odorous inflammable 
 vapour, such as the spirit of naphthaline, or by an admix- 
 ture of the ordinary illuminating gas, or by an admixture 
 of the ordinary carbonmonoxide gas that has its own 
 generic odour. For further information respecting water 
 gas, see Appendix. 
 
 The third system of producing gaseous fuel is that intro- 
 duced by me, and effected in the Duplex Gas Generator. 
 
 In this system there are two cycles of reactions, one 
 resembling that involved in the production of water gas ? 
 in the other the reaction produces carbonmonoxide gas, 
 both gases being intermixed, and leaving the generator 
 together. The following is the formula of reactions : 
 
 In this Duplex Gas Generator the volatile hydro- 
 carbons are compelled to descend through the incan- 
 descent fuel, by which they become thoroughly fixed and 
 permanent. 
 
 The ordinary carbonmonoxide gaseous fuel is available 
 for all kinds of ordinary furnace work, and for steam raising 
 its production entails very little labour, and when used 
 for metallurgic and chemical operations the exact control 
 over the chemical nature of combustion is an immense 
 advantage, and has enabled the beautiful process known 
 as Bower-Bar fling to be performed, which consists funda- 
 mentally of an alternate process of oxidation and dioxida- 
 tion of iron, by which the black and stable magnetic oxide 
 of iron is produced. 
 
 For annealing processes, the control over the tempera- 
 ture and uniformity of heat maintenance are advantages 
 of the highest importance, and by gas firing there need be 
 no danger of overheating. 
 
 For steel manufacture 011 the open hearth process, the 
 very elevated temperature available, up to 3500 deg. Fahr., 
 
CHEMISTRY OF GASEOUS FUEL. 33 
 
 allows steel to be manufactured at one-sixth of the cost 
 in fuel of the production of one ton of puddled bars. (See 
 Addenda.) 
 
 I have successfully introduced gaseous fuel for drying 
 clay for the semi-plastic brick process. This system has 
 the advantage of rapidity of operation, and requires very 
 little space. 
 
 For drying clay of the aluminous kind, such as China 
 clay, gaseous fuel has been applied with great success. 
 
 For baking pottery, the uniformity of heating and high 
 temperature available by the use of gaseous fuel are 
 primd facie advantages. 
 
 The system of drying China clay on the old process is 
 most unhealthy, and is really a process that would be 
 fatal to any but very strong workmen, who are bound to 
 succumb in the long run to the fatal influences of the 
 operation. I have applied gaseous fuel to this process, 
 along with a special furnace, with the greatest success, 
 the process being effected automatically, and requiring 
 hardly any manual labour. In this process, although the 
 flame of gaseous fuel is brought into contact with the 
 -clay, so perfectly pure is combustion that the white clay 
 is unsullied. 
 
 For mineralogic purposes, such as roasting ores, the 
 uniformity of temperature attainable is a great advantage. 
 I have erected mineral roasting gas furnaces of a length 
 of nearly 40 feet by 4 feet in width, with about 250 feet of 
 heating surface, and the temperature throughout is almost 
 -exactly uniform, and the process of manufacture has been 
 reduced to an almost exact science. 
 
 For the calcination of cement, gaseous fuel is also 
 applicable, and in combination with a revolving furnace 
 this process of manufacture can be carried ^r^ with much 
 .greater rapidity than in the old proqoas^ 
 
 A^OFTH* 
 
 'UHI7BRSIT7! 
 
34 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 THE COMBUSTION OF GASEOUS FUEL FOR GENERATING 
 MOTIVE POWER. 
 
 Gaseous fuel is also applicable for a direct production of 
 motive power. This is now patent to every observer. 
 Few in this country have not seen the famous Otto gas 
 engine, the invention of which may be placed alongside 
 that of the steam engine by James Watt. 
 
 This remarkable instrument (the Otto gas engine) for 
 the conversion of heat into work we owe to two German 
 scientists, Dr. Otto and Herr Langen, who, like the Siemens 
 Brothers, are an example of the advantages to inventors of 
 scientific knowledge. Prior to the date of this invention,, 
 gas engines had a comparatively limited application, but, 
 thanks to applied science, this instrument of industry has 
 been raised to a high pitch of efficiency, and the enormous 
 sale of this engine, some 26,000, is a magnificent proof of 
 its utility and excellence. 
 
 The principle of the development of motive power by 
 the instantaneous combustion of gaseous fuel rests in the- 
 laws of Charles Gay Lussac and Boyle ergo, that the 
 pressure exerted by a gas varies directly as its volume, 
 and as the combustion of a gas in a cylinder with only one 
 movable end, generates heat and expands the gases, the 
 pressure produced by the tendency to expansion forces 
 forward the movable end or piston, with a pressure 
 corresponding to the temperature produced by combustion 
 and the expansion due to that temperature. 
 
 By means of the cycle of operations of a compression 
 gas engine or in which the combustible mixture is com- 
 pressed before ignition, one indicated horse-power can be 
 produced at an expenditure varying from I to I J Ibs. of 
 coke or anthracite. I am now experimenting with a gas 
 generating apparatus by which it is anticipated that the 
 
LIST OF SOME APPLICATIONS. 35 
 
 same amount of dynamic power will be produced with an 
 expenditure of I J Ibs. of washed slack coal, equivalent to 
 33 h.p. per hour at a cost of one penny. 
 
 Besides the Otto gas engine there are many excellent 
 motors in the market ; one especially, Atkinson's cycle 
 engine, has given "a remarkably high thermo-dynamic 
 efficiency at a recent trial instituted by the Society of 
 Arts, another simple and excellent motor is that known as 
 the Campbell gas engine. 
 
 The following list, although far from, complete, showing 
 the numerous applications of gaseous fuel to industrial 
 purposes, demonstrates that this principle of fuel combus- 
 tion is becoming recognized as the true one, and it may 
 be stated, nemine contradicente, that the days of solid fuel 
 are numbered. 
 
 LIST OF SOME APPLICATIONS OF GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 Steel, zincj and glass melting. 
 Roasting ores. 
 
 Annealing steel, wire castings, &c. 
 Ee-heating steel and iron blooms. 
 Calcining Portland cement. 
 
 ,, aluminous clay. 
 Burning pottery, terra cotta, and bricks. 
 Eaising steam. 
 Generating motive power. 
 Boiling and evaporating liquids. 
 Singeing and gassing yarns. 
 Welding and forging purposes. 
 Cremating and destroying organic matter. 
 Core drying. 
 Baking. 
 
 Salt cake manufacture ; and 
 Chemical processes. 
 
36 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 PROJECT FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF GASEOUS FUEL PRODUCED 
 AT THE COALFIELDS. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that the natural gas 
 from the wells in Pennsylvania is conveyed through pipes 
 to distances of 60, and even more miles, before its general 
 distribution, and that there are 2300 miles of distributing 
 pipes. 
 
 On the basis of the distribution of natural gas in Penn- 
 sylvania the author has elaborated three projects of pro- 
 duction and distribution of gaseous fuel in this country, 
 the source of generation being situated in the centre of 
 the coalfields. 
 
 For the supply of the Midland towns and the Metropolis 
 there would be arranged three gaseous fuel-producing 
 installations, one in South Wales, one in Staffordshire, and 
 one in South Yorkshire. 
 
 The gas produced would be conveyed in as direct a line 
 as possible from the neighbourhood of Barnsley to the 
 Stafford installation, and from thence, through the Midland 
 towns, to which by branch lines the gas would be supplied, 
 to where the junction with the South Wales pipe line 
 would be effected. 
 
 The mains would be four in number from Staffordshire 
 for a length of 120 miles. The South Wales branch main 
 would consist of two pipes 100 miles in length, and the 
 South Yorkshire branch pipe line of 70 miles in length. 
 
 The coal would be converted into gas a.t the coalfields, 
 and delivered to the distributing mains under great 
 pressure by means of compression engines, and could be 
 distributed in the towns in the day time for heating 
 purposes by the ordinary mains, and by means of special 
 incandescent burners the gas could be utilized for illu- 
 minating. The saving in cost of fuel by this system in its 
 
PROJECT FOR THE DISTRIBUTION. 37 
 
 application to /the Metropolis will be understood from the 
 fact that in the year 1887, 12,055,000 tons of coal were 
 delivered into the London district. The total cost of 
 this coal at the coalfields would be fairly estimated at 
 ,3,013,750; the amount paid by the London populace 
 for this coal would be about ^12,657,750 per annum. 
 The difference between cost of fuel at the source of 
 supply and at the place of use is therefore "9,644,000. 
 This amount is absorbed in cartage, merchants' profits, 
 railway carriage, and London Corporation dues. As- 
 suming one third of this amount represents the reduc- 
 tion in price of fuel to the consumers, this would leave a 
 balance of "6,429,324 to pay for cost of generating gas 
 and interest on capital invested on plant and pipe lines 
 and maintenance. There is little doubt but that the net 
 profit would justify an expenditure of fifty millions 
 sterling in gaseous fuel installations and distributing pipe 
 lines. 
 
 The advantage to the Metropolis by the general distri- 
 bution and application of gaseous fuel would be a colossal 
 one. The increasingly heavy and dangerous fogs, which 
 are greatly due to the condensation of the aqueous vapour 
 on the atoms of unburnt carbon and sulphur, would dis- 
 appear. The splendid architectural monuments of modern 
 Babylon could be relieved from their dirty covering, and 
 London would be metamorphosised, and might rival Paris 
 in the clearness of its atmosphere, after allowing for the 
 different climatic conditions. 
 
 Birmingham and the other Midland industrial centres 
 could also join in the economic and sanitary advantages 
 of a cheap and abundant supply of gaseous fuel for all 
 purposes. 
 
 The Lancashire project consists in the establishment of 
 a gaseous fuel-producing installation in the neighbourhood 
 
38 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 of Wigan. The pipe lines would distribute the gas to 
 Manchester and Salford, and along the Rossendale Valley 
 to Bacup, Accrington, Bury, Blackburn, Preston, and 
 Bolton, and another branch would lead the gas to Stock- 
 port, Oldham, and Ashton. 
 
 The West Riding project consists in the establishment 
 of a gaseous fuel installation at Barnsley. The pipe lines 
 could convey the gas to Sheffield and to Wakefield, where 
 one pipe would branch off to Batley, Dewsbury, Mirfield, 
 Huddersfield, Slaithwaite, Brighouse, Halifax, and Tod- 
 morden ; the other branch w r ould convey the gas to 
 Cleckheaton, Bradford, and the other towns en route to 
 Leeds. 
 
 By this arrangement manufacturers and other steam 
 users could have an abundant supply of gaseous fuel, 
 costing merely a fraction above that of the cost at the pit, 
 and enabling the user to obtain the fullest practical thermic 
 efficiency of the fuel. 
 
 This project of distributing one of the great natural 
 agents would, if carried out even on a smaller scale than 
 that proposed, be as great an improvement over the costly, 
 wasteful, and unhealthy present system as the present 
 system of distribution of water by pipes from one great 
 source of supply is to the isolated wells and bucket or 
 cart distribution of water. 
 
 Another advantage that would accrue from a national 
 and central fuel distribution system would be the facility 
 for collecting the nitrogenous constituents of coal. The 
 value of these nitrogen compounds to the agriculture of 
 this country and to our industrial operations could hardly 
 be over-estimated, as it would render our farmers almost, 
 if not altogether, independent of foreign supplies. 
 
 Such a central gaseous fuel producing and distribution 
 system, even if confined to the generation of the gas at 
 
PROJECT FOR THE DISTRIBUTION. 39 
 
 locations near to each of the large industrial centres, would 
 be of an immense economic and hygienic advantage, and 
 would enable gas motors to be used for generating elec- 
 tricity, which could be produced at a cost that would 
 permit this surpassingly beautiful and hygienic means of 
 illumination, to be obtained at a very moderate cost, and 
 enable it to be within the reach of all. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 RECOVERY OF AMMONIA. 
 
 Taking the internal or home consumption of fuel to be> 
 75 millions per annum, and estimating that each ton of coal 
 would produce 20 Ibs. of ammonia sulphate, this would, if 
 abstracted, represent some 670,000 tons of ammonium sulphate- 
 per annum. If we take this agent as worth n 15$. per 
 ton, this output alone would have a value of .7,872,500 ; by 
 the conversion of the fuel into gas a great part of this valuable- 
 manurial agent could be easily recovered. 
 
 ANALYSES OF CHIMNEY GASES. 
 SOLID FUEL. 
 
 Date of trial, 1884. Test conducted by B. H. Thwaite. 
 Gases analysed by G. J. Norman Tate, F.C.S. 
 
 Description of Boiler Vertical Millitubular, partially gas- 
 fired. Fuel slack coal. Carefully fired. 
 
 Nitrogen .. 80*08 
 
 CO i -io 
 
 C0 2 1277 
 
 0, by difference 6*05 
 
 lOO'OO 
 SOLID FUEL. 
 
 Date of trial, 1887. Test conducted by Sir F. BramwelE 
 and W. Anderson. 
 
APPENDIX. 41 
 
 Ordinary Steam Coal. Average of n tests. Very care- 
 fully hand -fired. 
 
 Nitrogen 80*360 
 
 CO 00-186 
 
 C0 2 10*900 
 
 O, by difference 8*842 
 
 100-288 
 Solid carbon percentage by weight of &mcke, 4* 1 8 per cent. 
 
 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 Date of trial, April 1889. Test conducted by R. Forbes 
 Carpenter, H.M.'s Inspector of Alkali Works. Instigated by 
 A. E. Fletcher, Esq., H.M.'s Chief Inspector of Alkali Works. 
 
 Gas-fired Lancashire Boiler Thwaite's System. Ordinary 
 Steam Coal. 
 
 Sample i. Sample 2. Sample 3. 
 
 N . . . 80-60 ... 8o-00 ... 79-80 
 
 O . . . 11-15 1 3' : 37o 
 
 CO 2 . . 8-25 ... 7-00 ... 6-50 
 
 CO . . o-oo ... o-oo ... o-oo 
 
 CH 4 . . o'oo ... o'oo ... o'oo 
 
 H . o-oo o'oo ... o-oo 
 
 lOO'OO ... lOO'OO ... lOO'OO 
 
 These analyses show absolute immunity from combustible- 
 or unburnt gases and smoke. 
 
 NOTES ON METALLURGIC OPERATIONS. 
 
 The excess of air required to produce a near approach to 
 perfect combustion of fuel cannot be attained in the instance 
 when combustion is required to be of a deoxidizing or reducing 
 nature. 
 
 In order to avoid waste of metal by oxidation, the forge- 
 furnace man is compelled to produce a state of combustion 
 involving the evolution of an enormous excess of unburnt 
 
42 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 combustible gases, and this explains why his furnace chimney 
 belches forth great streams of thick smoke. 
 
 With gaseous fuel firing, the furnace man has perfect con- 
 trol over the chemical nature of combustion, and he can, with 
 a trivial excess of combustible gases, obtain a deoxidizing 
 flame, and even this excess of combustible gases can be burnt 
 in the recuperative chambers, and the heat restored for com- 
 bustion, so that there need be no loss of thermic units. 
 
 In forge furnaces fired with solid fuel there is loss of heat 
 and time during the scaling of the bars, which is avoided when 
 gaseous fuel is employed. 
 
 If we estimate the fusion point of steel at 2,900 deg. Fahr., 
 and take its specific heat to equal 0*113, the units of heat 
 required to melt i ton of steel would therefore equal the sum 
 of 2900 x 2240 x 0*113. 
 
 Log of 2900 . . . . . . . 3-46240 
 
 2240 
 
 6-81265 
 
 Log of 0-113 ....... 1*05308 
 
 734-307 B.U ....... 5*86573 
 
 Taking the calorific value of i Ib. of coal to equal 14,000 
 B.U., then the weight of fuel required to melt i ton of steel 
 would be represented by the following fraction : 
 
 The usual amount of coal required per ton of puddled bar 
 would exceed 2 tons, but if we take this figure, then the waste 
 or excess of fuel over that theoretically necessary is strikingly 
 demonstrated 
 
 . , 
 52-4 
 
 or about eighty-five times more fuel is used in hand-fired solid 
 
 fuel puddling furnaces than is theoretically necessary. The 
 
 useful calorific efficiency, therefore, hardly exceeds 1*2 per cent. 
 
 With the most modern type of gas-fired recuperative gas 
 
APPENDIX. 43 
 
 furnaces, the weight of fuel per ton of steel ingots should not 
 exceed 8 cwt. This represents an actual efficiency of 5*8 per cent. 
 These efficiencies are only given as relative ones. Berth el ot 
 has shown, by experiments carried out with the most refined 
 precision, that the value of specific heats increases with the 
 temperature ; * but as the increase of the specific heat of iron 
 has not been ascertained, the ordinary specific heat value has 
 been taken. In metallurgical furnace operations, the very 
 elevated temperatures of metallic fusion, are only divided from 
 that of the atmosphere by walls of refractory material, whose 
 inner sides attain the temperature of fusion, of the metal under 
 treatment, and whose outer sides are exposed directly to the 
 atmosphere. The difference of the temperature of the outer 
 side of wall and the air, often exceeds 500 deg. Fahr., so that 
 the relative heat radiation per superficial unit is at least five 
 times greater in metallurgical furnace operations, than in steam 
 generation. 
 
 By a judicious selection of refractory material, and careful 
 building of the furnace walls, there is no doubt but that the 
 loss of heat by outside wall surface radiation may be much 
 reduced. But there will always remain a considerable excess 
 of loss due to this cause over that of the instance of the appli- 
 cation of heat to steam raising, where the highest temperature 
 of initial combustion is surrounded by a jacket of water whose 
 temperature can never exceed that equivalent to the pressure 
 of steam, which rarely exceeds 200 Ibs. to the square inch. 
 
 If the combustion of fuel could be perfectly attained in 
 flues of a steam generator, the latter would be practically a 
 calorimeter, and the fullest possible thermic efficiency of the 
 fuel might be obtained in the actual work of raising steam. 
 
 * Vide Engineer, October 2, 1885 : " The Properties of Gaseous Explo- 
 .sive Mixtures," by Berthelot. Translated and abstracted by B. H. 
 Thwaite, from the Annales de Cldmie et de Physique, January 1885. 
 
44 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 NOTES ON WATER CJ AS. 
 
 For high local temperatures water gas is exceptionally 
 valuable. 
 
 Bessemer steel can be melted with water gas fuel with cold 
 air. 
 
 THE RELATIVE THERMIC VALUE OF PRODUCER GAS AND 
 WATER GAS. 
 
 The entire absence of nitrogen in water gas is in some 
 applications a decided advantage. But, in making a compari- 
 son between the heat of combustion carried off as sensible 
 heat by the products of combustion between ordinary pro- 
 ducer and water gas, we should not forget that there is a 
 considerable loss due to the heat absorbed, and rendered latent 
 by the steam resulting from the reoxidation of the hydrogen, 
 between ranges of temperature of combustion, from 100 Cent. 
 to 400 we shall find the loss is greater than with ordinary 
 producer gas. 
 
 Taking the reaction represented by C + H 2 = CO + H 2 to- 
 produce water gas, and its complete combustion to be repre- 
 sented by 
 
 CO -f- H 2 + 20 + 8N = C0 2 + H 2 + 8N, 
 
 and acknowledging producer gas to be evolved according to the- 
 following sequence of reactions- (Note, for facility of calcula- 
 tion N 4 is taken instead of N 3 . 6 ) let 
 
 2N 4 O + C = 8N + CO, and 8N + C0 2 + C = 8N + 2CO, 
 then the combustion would be effected as follows : 
 8N + 2CO + 2O + 8N = i6N + 2C0 2 . 
 
 Assuming that in each case as an example 1 2 grammes of 
 carbon are used, and are used first to produce water gas, and 
 afterwards the same weight is used to produce carbonic oxide, 
 and assuming that both kinds of gas are consumed and the- 
 
APPENDIX. 45 
 
 products of combustion are allowed to escape at a temperature 
 of 300 Cent., then 
 
 C0 H N 
 
 300 
 
 \[i2 + 32 x 0-219] + [2 + 16 x 0-481] + [112 x 0-244J 
 
 = 1 3 '660 units of sensible heat 
 1 8 x 606 '5 = 10-917 latent heat units of steam 
 
 24-577 units lost. 
 
 Now, taking the combustion of producer gas for the same 
 weight of fuel, then 
 
 / CO 2 N \ 
 
 300 ( r , ) = 1 1 -062 units lost 
 
 V[i2 + 32 x 0-217] + [112 x 0-244]/ 
 
 as sensible heat. The ratio of heat units lost to the total units 
 produced by the combustion of the two gases will be as follows : 
 
 WATER GAS. 
 
 28 grms. CO to CO 2 = 67-284 units 
 2 grms. H to H^O = 57-924 units 
 
 125-208 
 Ratio of loss will therefore be 
 
 PRODUCER GAS. 
 
 28 grms. CO to C0 2 = #7-284 units 
 
 Ratio of loss will therefore be 
 
 11-062 x 100 .. 
 
 = 1 6 -4 per cent. 
 67-284 
 
 Hence the advantage in favour of the producer gas is 3-2 
 per cent. 
 
 The real value of water gas is found in its high thermic 
 character per unit volume; in any given equal volume of 
 producer and water gas the ratio of thermal units is as 60 '8 is 
 to 277 in favour of water gas. 
 
 This higher thermic value of water gas means a greater 
 calorific effect in a given period, and a consequent reduction 
 of loss by radiation. In the instance of the application of 
 water gas to a recuperative open-hearfch steel furnace, 
 
46 GASEOUS FUEL. 
 
 7,392,000 B.U.'s are required per ton of steel ingots, whereas 
 with producer gas the heat units required equal 14,400,000. 
 
 WATER GAS FOR LIGHTING. 
 
 By the introduction of a durable form of refractory material 
 into the zone of combustion, the water gas can be utilized for 
 illuminating purposes. I have applied the Welsbach burner 
 (a zirconium hood) for use with water gas produced in my 
 own apparatus with the most satisfactory results, the light 
 being both beautiful and steady. 
 
 Theoretically, gas lighting by incandescence, if it could be 
 accomplished by recuperation, or the restoration of the sensible 
 heat of the products of combustion, would be most perfect, 
 because the temperature, of incandescence is the result not 
 only of the oxidation of the hydrogen, but of the and 
 almost simultaneous oxidation of the carbonic oxide (CO) 
 to C0 2 as well, whereas, with ordinary illuminating gas, 
 burnt in any ordinary burner other than a Bunsen, the tem- 
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 luminous part of the flame is simply that resulting from the 
 oxidation of the hydrogen. The Fajenhelm comb burner, 
 which consists of suspended magnesian rods, gives, it is said, 
 for a consumption of 5*3 cubic feet per hour, about 20 candles. 
 This photometric value is reduced after an expiration of 
 50 hours to 15 candles, and in 100 hours the value is further 
 reduced to 10 candles. 
 
 : 
 
 FOR MOTOR PURPOSES. 
 
 About 35 cubic feet of water gas required per I.H.P., in 
 comparison with from 70 to 90 of ordinary producer gas. 
 
 The volumetric production of water gas per ton of fuel 
 equals 30,000 cubic feet. 
 
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