IRLF THE PRACTICAL IRRIGATOR AND DRAINER. BY GEORGE STEPHENS, H LAND-DRAINER, AND MEMBER OF THE NERICIAN AND WERMLANDSKA AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES, SWEDEN. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH; AND T. CADELL, STRAND, LONDON. MDCCCXXXIY. PETER BROWN, PRINTER, LADY STAIR'S CLOSE, EDINBURGH. PREFACE. THE following treatise on irrigation was drawn up and published at the request of those for whom the author has had the honour of converting land into irrigated meadow, in order to point out, in a practical manner, the different methods of their formation, and, more parti- cularly, what was necessary to be attended to in their management, as well as to shew the result of experi- ments made in Scotland in this useful branch of agri- culture. It having gone through two editions, which are now exhausted, he is encouraged, by the success which has attended them, and the work having been frequently asked for since it was out of print, to bring forward a third edition, which he hopes will not be unacceptable. An account of several other experiments has been added in this edition, with letters from pro- prietors and tenants, shewing the expense of the opera- tions and the results which have attended them, which will clearly prove the great advantages to be derived IV . PREFACE. from an improvement that has now become much more generally known and appreciated, and is daily gaining ground, not only in this country but in others indeed there can be no doubt that, in a few years, it will be put in practice in all situations where it is. eligible. Although draining is quite a distinct branch of hus- bandry, yet it is .so closely allied to irrigation, that the success of the latter depends altogether on the previous proper application of the former ; it has, therefore, often been complained of to the author that no work on this subject was to be had, as the report of Johnston on Elkington's system is now out of print* and, being little known among agriculturists, many spurious and super- ficial systems of draining land have been adopted, with- out any regard to a knowledge of the principles necessary for such undertakings. To supply this desideratum, the author has been induced to add to this edition a short practical treatise on draining, as practised by Elk- ington, which has been proved to be the only system that is uniformly successful on land of every description. The more fully to illustrate this subject, there is further added a translation of a report to the Royal Nerician Agricultural Society atOrebro,in Sweden, drawn up by its secretary, the Right Reverend and Honourable Charles von Rosenstein, Archbishop of Sweden, which contains an account of several experiments in draining land in that country, conducted under the direction of the author of this work. It is to be hoped that the appearance of these treatises at this time, when so many antiquated PREFACE. and spurious systems of draining are resuscitated and brought forward as new, will have the effect of awaken- ing agriculturists to their true interests, by shewing them the superiority of Elkington's principles, which have now stood the test of more than half a century. Although the author has been engaged in several extensive operations of straightening water-courses, pro- tecting river banks, and embanking low lands, since the publication of the last edition, yet he does not con- sider it necessary to make any great alteration on the treatise on these subjects, as enough is stated in it to give a clear view of the principles on which such under- takings must be conducted. In the following pages the author lays before the reader the result of his experience in the practice of irrigation and draining, during thirty years, in England, Scotland, and Sweden. Could he have used the pen with the same good effect as the level and the spade, this work might have appeared before the public clothed in superior diction. Having, however, been successful in establishing many useful and profitable improvements on land in those countries, he trusts that, with long practice and experience as his guides, he has been able to give a simple detail of them in such plain language as may be easily understood, and which may be the means of promoting them still more extensively. In his progress through those countries, he has found them peculiarly adapted to such improvements, from their abounding in mountains and hills, with their accompanying streams, lakes, val- VI PREFACE. leys, and marshes ; the greater proportion of the valleys offer an extensive scope for the formation of water meadows with facility, the crops of which would afford ample provision for their numerous flocks, and a plentiful supply of hay against winter storms ; while, on the other hand, the draining of the marshes and other wet lands would produce immense resources for the cultivation of grain. The author begs leave further to state, that whatever may be the faults of the style, he pledges himself to the correctness of the statements throughout the work, and trusts that his labours to disseminate the true and rational principles on which such undertakings should be conducted, will meet with the approbation of every well-wisher of his country. 21, GARDNER'S CRESCENT, EDINBURGH. February 1834. CONTENTS. Page General Principles of Irrigation ' . . . . 1 Formation of Water Meadows V* . . .'..". 6 Catch- Work Irrigation . ' 15 Management . ; . 1 20 The Advantages of Irrigated Meadows .... 31 Irrigation in Scotland . ..'".. 36 Draining . Vv.'' ** * * * I - '' * V. '* V 83 General Principles of Draining . > '; ;. , ^ 84 Draining Bogs and Marshes . . * . . '.' . 87 Draining Hilly and Sloping Grounds , ' . ..'. 89 Draining Clay Soils Injured by Subterraneous Water , 93 Drainage of Soils Composed of alternate Beds of Clay and Sand Ridges . fc ^ - - .97 Drainage of Clay Soils Injured by Surface Water . ., 1 00 Construction of Drains . . . . ." . . 107 Straightening Water-Courses . _ . ' * .-.. . * ,. <> 120 Protecting River Banks ... . . . . .129 Embanking Lands ... ... 141 Report of the Royal Agricultural Society at Orebro . . 149 Draining Afraby Moss ^ 169 Unger's Moss .... . . . 174 Runnaby Meadow . * * -ij, -*, '-- 180 Djurskog's Moss . : * JAMES KENNEDY." IRRIGATION IN SCOTLAND. 75 according to expectation, which made the proprietor think something must be wrong in the management. He therefore took the charge of changing and regulat- ing the water himself, which completely confirmed his opinion that the fault lay altogether in the manager, for he has had no reason to complain ever since. The crops of grass and hay are constantly equal to his most sanguine expectations, being generally from three hun- dred and fifty to four hundred stone of hay, of the best quality, per acre. Edinburgh has many advantages over the most of her sister cities ; the large supply of excellent spring water is one of the greatest blessings to her numerous inhabitants, both in respect to household purposes and keeping the streets clean, as well as irrigating the exten- sive meadows situated below the town, by the rich stuff which it carries along in a state of semi-solution, where the art of man, with the common sewer water, has made sand hillocks produce riches far superior to anything of the kind in the kingdom, or in any other country. By this water, about two hundred acres of grass land, for the most part laid into catch-work meadow, are irrigated ; whereof one hundred and thirty belong to W. H. Miller, Esq. of Craigintinny, and the remainder to the Earls of Haddington and Moray, and other proprietors. The meadows belonging to these noble- men, and part of the Craigintinny meadows, or what is called the old meadows, contain about fifty acres, and have been irrigated for nearly a century. They are by far the most valuable, on account of the long and con- tinual accumulation of the rich sediment left by the water ; indeed the water is so very rich, that the tenants of the meadows lying nearest the town have found it 76 IRRIGATION IN SCOTLAND. advisable to carry the common sewer water through deep ponds, into which the water deposits part of the superfluous manure before it runs over the ground. Although the formation of these meadows is irregular, and the management very imperfect, the effects of the water are astonishing ; they produce crops of grass not to be equalled, being cut from four to six times a-year, and the grass given green to milch cows. The grass is let every year by public sale, in small patches of a quarter of an acre and upwards, and generally brings from 24 to 30 per acre per annum. In 1826, part of the Earl of Moray's meadow fetched 57 per acre per annum. About forty acres of the Craigintinny lands were formed into catch-work water meadow before the year 1800, which comprises what is called Fillieside Bank old meadows, and is generally let at from 20 to 30 per acre per annum. In the spring of 1821, thirty acres of waste land, called the Freegate Whins, and ten acres of poor sandy soil, were levelled and formed into irrigated meadow, at an expense of 1000. The pasture of the Freegate Whins was let, previously to this improvement, for 40 per annum, and the ten acres for 60. They now bring from 15 to 20 per acre per annum, but may be much improved by judiciously laying out 200 more in better levelling that part next the sea, and carrying a larger supply of water to it, which might be easily done without prejudice to the other meadows. This, perhaps, is one of the most beneficial agricul- tural improvements ever undertaken ; for the whole of the Freegate Whins is composed of nothing but sand, deposited from time to time by the action of the waves IRRIGATION IN SCOTLAND. 77 of the sea. Never was 1000 more happily spent in agriculture ; it not only required a common sewer to bring about this great change, but a resolution in the proprietor to launch out his capital on an experiment upon a soil of such a nature. Since the making of the Freegate Whins into water meadows, Mr Miller has levelled and formed forty acres more of his arable land into irrigated meadow, worth, before the formation, 9 per acre per annum. It will only require a few years before these meadows will be as productive as the former ; for it is evident that the longer water is suffered to run over the surface of grass land, the greater quantity of fertilizing substance will be collected : therefore, as the water is so very superior in quality to all other water, a speedy return for the capital laid out may be expected. The expense of keeping these meadows in repair is from 10s. to 15s. per acre per annum, which is more than double the expense of keeping water meadows in repair in general, for the watering of them is not only through the winter season, but the water is put on them for one or two days together, immediately after every cutting of the grass, through the whole of the season. One hundred and ten acres of Mr Miller's meadows, in 1827, gave a clear profit of 2300. Such specimens, one should imagine, will carry sufficient weight with them to turn the scale against any objection to the practice of irrigation, arising from a fear of expense, inferiority of soil, or poorness of water ; which have always been the principal charges against the system, and, I am sorry to say, have prevented many proprietors from making the experiment. But it is sufficiently proven, that land of the worst quality, with 78 IRRIGATION IN SCOTLAND. the poorest water, under good management, in the high- est districts of Tweeddale, after deducting the expense of keeping in repair, brings nearly 7 per acre per annum. In 1828, a water meadow, consisting of nearly thirty acres, was commenced at Bertha, on the north side of the river Almond, for the Right Honourable Lord Lynedoch, and was completed the following year. The soil is partly alluvial, and partly gravel and sand, laid into natural ridges by the action of water. Previous to its being irrigated, the alluvial part produced tolerable good pasture, but the gravel and sand ridges were mostly covered with broom. The inequality of the surface would not permit its being formed into regular beds of either catch or bed-work irrigation ; it is, consequently, made into a continued succession of both. It commands the whole of the water of the Almond after the manu- factories and town of Perth are supplied, which, in droughty seasons, intercepts the whole ; but although so situated, and the water running through a poor country, yet it contains a considerable quantity of enriching substance, whereby the land has already been improved three times its former value, and there is every reason to believe the value will still be increased considerably. Further particulars will be found in the annexed letter from the factor on the estate.* * " Lynedoch, 29th February 1832. " DEAR SIR, I had intended to send you a short account of Lord Lynedoch's water meadow last week, but several unforeseen occurrences have prevented me from doing so till now. " The formation of this meadow was completed early in May 1829, and for the eight preceding years it was let for pasture at the average rent of 30 : 1 1 : 3. The total cost of its formation was IRRIGATION IN SCOTLAND. 79 During the period last mentioned, a catch-work meadow was made for the Honourable Lord Corehouse, consisting of a little more than five acres, partly by means of lifting the turf, levelling and pulverizing the 320 : 10 : 7> and the average annual expense of managing it for the last three years has been ,17 : 17-5. " It is unnecessary to say anything of the produce of this meadow in 1829,, as those parts where cutting or forcing was necessary to bring it into form, were but imperfectly swarded when the crop was cut, and yielded nothing ; but, upon the whole, I reckoned the crop worth double the average rent which the field produced while let for pasture. " The crop of 1830 was put up in twenty-one ricks, nineteen of which were sold by auction on the 21st of December of that year for 89 : 16 : 6. One of these ricks was selected as an average of the whole, and weighed, and from this I estimated the produce of the meadow at three thousand nine hundred stones tron, and the price at which it sold 6d. a stone. We had rather unfavourable weather for making the hay that year, and it was not of the best quality. The aftermath was let for pasture, from the 22d August to the 15th October, for 12, so that the total produce of the meadow in 1830 was 109. " In 1831, from a scarcity of water in the spring and early part of the summer, the crop was, as nearly as I could estimate it, about one-third less than that of the preceding year, or not exceeding two thousand seven hundred stones ; but the quality of the hay was so much superior, that in value I do not consider it above one-fifth inferior to crop 1830. " Our own sheep were turned into the meadow after the crops of 1829 and 1831 were carried, but I kept no account of their number, nor the time they were upon it, in either year. " I do not think the meadow has yet come to its full bearing ; on the contrary, it may reasonably be expected to produce considerably more than it has yet done ; but even if it should continue to yield only at the rate it has done for the two last years, it must be held to be a profitable undertaking. I am, dear Sir, Yours sincerely, WILLIAM GOODSMAN." 80 IRRIGATION IN SCOTLAND. soil, and laying down the turf again ; and partly by ploughing and levelling the surface, and sowing it with natural grasses. The water used is of good quality, but rather scarce in droughty seasons. The grass of the meadow is cut twice a-year ; the first crop being generally made into hay, and the second given green to cattle. The produce of hay this year was nineteen hundred stones. Another catch-work meadow was made in 1829 and 1830 at Dalquharran, the property of T. F. Kennedy, Esq., M.P. Its extent is about eight acres, of a gravelly sub-soil, and was prepared in the same manner as the last mentioned, at an expense from 4 to 9 per acre. It is formed into four parts, two on each side of the burn which runs through it ; the water, after running over the two upper parts, is caught and carried over the two lower, and the whole being so arranged that any portion can be irrigated separately. No expense has been spared to make this meadow as complete a specimen as the nature and situation of the land would admit. In a letter from the proprietor just received, (Nov. 7> 1833,) he says, the part first irrigated produces three hundred, and the second two hundred stones of hay per acre, worth, in general, 6d. per stone, and the after- grass is worth 20s. per acre annually, and that he has not the least doubt but that within two years the latter will produce an equal quantity with the first. Since the publication of the second edition of this work, I have been employed in making many other water meadows in this country, and in taking levels and making plans for the irrigation of several hundred acres belonging to different noblemen and gentlemen in Sweden; but from the numerous cases already mentioned, IRRIGATION IN SCOTLAND. 81 I consider it unnecessary to give any more examples, as from them the reader must be convinced of the great value of these improvements ; I shall, therefore, con- clude this essay with a short summary of the advantages to be derived from irrigation. The crops on water meadows are produced at the least expense, and with the greatest certainty of an early return. On water meadows that are well managed, the grass is the earliest and of a superior quality, well adapted for the feeding of ewes and lambs ;* and the hay, when properly made, is equal to the best clover hay, and superior to any other kind for milch cows. When the herbage of dry porous soils is impoverished for the want of moisture, and the rich spungy land by its remaining too long stagnant, both of these evils are remedied. Another great advantage attending irriga- tion, is the extra supply of manure it yields to the arable part of a farm, especially when the lands are lying (which is often the case) at so great a distance, that it is almost impossible to procure it for money. The success of improving land by irrigation, perfectly warrants an experiment in the most unfavourable situ- ation. The result will invariably triumph over every prejudice. I will conclude this interesting subject with the fol- * If the late Sir George Montgomery, Bart, of Magbiehill, had not had recourse to his water meadows in the cold backward spring of 1826, his numerous flocks would undoubtedly have starved ; but by putting them on the water meadows from the middle of April to the first of May, he not only preserved the most of his lambs from perishing, but, in the same year, cut nearly three hundred stone of hay per acre. G 82 IRRIGATION IN SCOTLAND. lowing extract from Mr Walter Blith's Survey of Hus- bandry Surveyed. London, 1653. 4to. (Page 25.) " Thou hast also another great advantage hereby having water drawne over thy land, thou art in such a capacity that, in case of drought in time of summer, thou needest not to feare it. Thou mayest now and then wet over thy land in the heat thereof, where grasse, if it have but moysture, will grow far faster in so hot a time than any ; but be sure not to soake thy ground too much : keepe thy land rather in a thirsting condi- tion, not glutted ready to spew it up again, so mayest thou preserve thy land greene and fruitfull, when others are scorched all away, then may a weeke's grasse or a load of hay possibly be worth three or four. " I myselfe, by these opportunities, have cut twenty- four load in a meadow, where I cut but five or six the year before, when hay sold at a great value. The directions exactly followed, I will lose my credit if thou faile of the effect promised." ed Jet :v\jhh hr DRAINING. THE importance of draining, previous to the commence- ment of any other improvement in agriculture, being acknowledged by every cultivator of the soil, it is of the greatest consequence that these undertakings should be conducted on principles which will insure complete and permanent success. The full advantages of this pri- mary improvement can only be obtained when it is well done. It is, indeed, the mother of all other improve- ments in land ; and, to make it effectual, it is necessary that the qualities of the soil, the nature of the stratifi- cation, and the laws that govern the rising and running of water, should all be taken into consideration. Any drainage, not conducted with due regard to these, however apparently successful at first, will, in the end, turn out a complete failure. If the work is executed in an insufficient manner, it will often be attended with more expense to remedy the evil than the first outlay ; and the operations being concealed under ground, the defects cannot be discovered until a great loss has been sustained. If landed proprietors were alive to their own interest, they would assist their tenants, to any reasonable ex- 84 DRAINING. tent, in draining on the best principles and in the most substantial manner ; for, when properly executed, it is equally as advantageous to the proprietor as to the tenant ; and it must be of the highest importance that the interest of both parties should be combined, by performing the work in a complete and permanent manner, as land that is imperfectly drained can never produce crops, either in quantity or quality, equal to land that has been properly dried. There are few agriculturists or people employed in draining land that pay proper attention to the stratifi- cation of the earth, to which, and the want of a know- ledge of hydraulics, may chiefly be ascribed the many mistakes that happen. The stratification of many districts, more especially in North Britain, is so much broken by volcanic or some other eruptions, that a person unaccustomed to the investigation of the causes from which wetness in land proceeds, has very little chance of discovering it, or of drying the land, without a much greater number of drains than is necessary. It is not my intention in this essay to enter upon an elaborate detail of the various systems of draining land which are at present practised in this country; but I shall only endeavour to state, in as plain and concise a manner as the nature of the subject will allow, the necessary rules to be attended to in draining the dif- ferent kinds of soil, and which I have always found, during the course of my practice, to be uniformly suc- cessful. DRAINING. 85 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DRAINING. Wetness in land proceeds either from rain water lodging on the surface or from subterraneous water confined in the bowels of the earth, which, by its own pressure, forces itself to the surface in the form of springs. On tenacious clays that are nearly level, wetness is often produced by the first of these causes, but it much more frequently proceeds from the latter. It is necessary to be able to distinguish from which of these causes the wetness proceeds, to insure success, (for surface draining, when the water is subterraneous, can only alleviate the effect, in place of removing the cause,) to accomplish which, requires no small extent of knowledge of the nature and source of springs. The earth is composed of strata of very various kinds, which, when applied to draining, may, without regard to their other characteristics, be divided into two classes, viz., porous and impervious. All those kinds of strata whose less coherent essential parts receive water freely, and through which it runs with ease, such as rotten rock, gravel, sand, and loamy clays, are called porous. On the other hand, tenacious clays, and a certain kind of gravel, having a proportion of clay in its composition which, by binding the small stones together, renders it equally as impervious as clay itself, and such rock as is of a close and compact nature, without any fissures in it, are the principal strata that resist the reception of water, and are therefore called im- pervious. Springs undoubtedly originate from the rain and snow water subsiding through porous strata, till it meets an impervious stratum that prevents an obstruo 86 DRAINING. tion to its further descent, and here forming a reservoir or considerable collection of water, it is thus forced either to filtrate along such a substance or rise to the surface, where it oozes out in those different ways that are so frequently met with. When the stratum which contains the water composes part of a hill or rising ground from which the water has descended, it will force its way to the surface wherever it finds the easiest passage ; this is sometimes by a natural outlet, but often this is not apparent, and it is confined so near the sur- face as to injure it by constant moisture, or by oozing imperceptibly through any small pores in the soil. The great object, therefore, in draining is to cut off entirely the source of the springs or subterraneous water, which causes the wetness, by flowing over the surface or being confined beneath it. This was discovered by Mr Elking- ton, whose leading principles are,^rs, to find out where the water lies in different soils and situations, and under what circumstances ; second, to lay out the drains so as most effectually to remove the water ; third, to make the drains the most perfect for this purpose, either by digging alone, or by digging and afterwards boring in their bottoms with an auger the chief object being to dry the ground effectually and at the least expense. When the subterraneous water lies at such a depth that the level of the outlet will not admit of a drain being cut so deep, or where the expense would be too great, the auger is used to make bore-holes in the bottom of the drain, through which the water rises by its own pressure. The truth of the principles of this system of draining has been proved by the extraordinary results which have attended it, not only in this country, but in others, as will be seen by the annexed account of draining in DRAINING. 87 Sweden. By it not only the land that was intended to be drained, but also springs, wells, and wet ground at a considerable distance, with which there was no apparent communication, have been made dry.* As, however, the whole depends upon the situation of the ground and the nature and inclination of the strata of the adjacent country, a knowledge of these must be obtained before any of the operations are commenced, which will be fully explained in the following details of the different cases. DRAINING BOGS AND MARSHES. The bogs and marshy grounds injured by springs, which form a very great proportion of the wet land of this country, are thought by many incapable of being drained ; but however impracticable it may appear, the many thousand acres which have been lately brought into cultivation, not only shew that they can be easily drained at little expense, but that when they are made dry, they are, in many instances, more valuable than the lands in their vicinity. It is quite apparent that bogs and marshy grounds originate sometimes from water breaking out of the adjacent heights, in a regular line along their upper side at other times from springs rising promiscuously over the whole surface, forming generally what are called welleyes ; but more fre- quently from both causes conjoined, and forming quagmires, which shake all around, so as to be dan- * The author experienced a case of this kind lately in draining some fields for Lord Willoughby de Eresby, in Lincolnshire, where a well, in the possession of the tenant, about a mile distant from the operations, was completely drained. 88 DRAINING. gerous for a person to walk across :* they are easily distinguished at a distance by the verdure of the grass around the welleyes. Under the peat earth, which varies in depth from five to twenty feet, and, in some instances, more, a bed of clay is sometimes found, and under that a stratum of sand or gravel ; but, in others, the whole of the sub-strata is composed of the same substance as the adjacent eminences. The clay bed between the moss and the porous stratum being, in many places, very thin, the pressure of the water in the high ground forces that with which it is connected under the bog through the more porous part of the clay and moss to the surface, forming the appearances just mentioned. Such are the general features of bogs and marshes ; nevertheless, in every district of the country, much ground still lies waste from the same cause, although containing no peat, on which the same mode of draining ought to be resorted to. In draining boggy or marshy ground, the first thing to be considered is the best direction for the outlet, and to ascertain its level; the next thing is to fix the direction in which the drains are to be cut. When the water breaks out on the upper side of the moss, a drain must be carried along the line of the wetness, sufficiently deep to intercept it, with outlets to the cross drains, which must be cut such a depth as to suit the level of the outlet. If the extent of land to be drained is consider- * During the author's practice he has had several opportunities of seeing this exemplified in the cases of gentlemen who accompanied him,, when surveying bogs, who, notwithstanding his warnings, per- sisted in crossing them, and sunk up to the arm-pits, from which perilous situation they were with difficulty extricated ; he has also known numerous instances of cattle having been lost altogether. DRAINING. 89 able, it is advisable to divide the whole by open drains into fields, according to the position of the ground. The drains must be made from five to six feet deep, and when this depth does not reach the bottom of the moss, or to the stratum containing the water, bore-holes or wells must be made in their bottom, through which the confined water will rise by its own pressure to the bottom of the drain, so that it will be reduced to the same level. The bore-holes are made with an auger about five inches in diameter ; but when the moss or peaty earth is so soft that they will not keep open, wells filled up to the bottom of the drain with small stones must be made. These operations will not only prevent the springs from the adjacent high grounds overflowing the moss, and remove the subterraneous water, but will also, in most cases, completely free it from surface water proceeding from rain or snow ; when, however, any of the latter remains, it must be remedied by wedge or shoulder drains, made from the moss itself, which, if properly executed, and vermin, such as moles and water mice, prevented from injuring them, will last for twenty or thirty years. For a further elucidation of these princi- ples and their details, I beg to refer the reader to the account of the drainages of Afraby and linger mosses. DRAINING HILLY AND SLOPING GROUNDS. Before commencing any operation on land of the above description, it is necessary to examine the quality and inclination of the strata of the adjoining high grounds, and the connection they have with the land to be drained, in order to judge where the water lies. The best way 90 DRAINING. to ascertain the inclination of the strata is, by examining the beds and banks of the nearest rivers, and any old pits and quarries in the neighbourhood, and then sink- ing pits or boring in the ground to be drained. Rushes and other aquatic plants appearing on the surface, may facilitate the investigation, but these being also produced by stagnant water on the surface, where there is no spring, cannot be depended on in cases where more minute precision is necessary. If the impervious stratum immediately under the porous one lies horizontally through the hill or bank, the surface of the ground below the level will be wet on both sides of the hill, and the upper side of the wet surface will be found nearly on a level all the way round. When this is the case, and the hill or bank is composed of gravel or rotten rock, a drain properly conducted along one side of the hill will carry off the water that breaks out and causes the wetness on both sides. But if the stratum of which the hill or bank is composed is a substance of a less porous nature, such as very fine sand, through which the water requires a considerable time to filtrate, the drain must be carried round the hill, near the upper side of the wetness, otherwise a complete drainage will not be obtained in wet seasons, when every part of the porous stratum is full of water. (See plan 3.) It very frequently happens on sides of hills and sloping grounds, that several lines of springs break out and cause wetness to a considerable distance below, with intermediate spaces of dry land between them : in such cases, it is of the greatest consequence to ascertain whether the water causing these lines of wetness pro- ceeds from the same stratum or from several distinct S E C TI O N .V ^ C T I O N DRAINING. 91 strata. If it is from the first of these causes, which is very seldom the case in hilly lands, the greatest quantity of water will issue from the lowest springs, and in dry seasons the upper ones will be dried up ; in this case, the drain should be directed along the lower line of springs, as shewn in plan 3, which must be made of sufficient depth to cut off the water from the land below. When, however, the springs come from different strata, having no communication with each other, which most frequently is the case, a drain must be carried along the upper side of each line of springs, as shewn in plan 4, deep enough to cut through the porous stratum, or to free the land from superfluous moisture to such a depth as will prevent it injuring vegetation. Sometimes the upper line of springs causes the whole of the wetness below, by the water, after having run over the surface for some distance, sinking into the soil and breaking out again farther down the declivity, or where, from the inclination of the ground, it may collect itself. When this happens in a steep bank, and the water gets into the loose earth, it causes the bank to slip, and it there- fore is of the greatest importance that this fact should be ascertained before the commencement of the opera- tions, as, when such is the case, the drain must be made across the slope, farther up than where the water makes its appearance, in the sound ground that has undergone no change ; and, if it is made deep enough, the real spring will be intercepted, and the bank secured from slipping. When the drain has too rapid a descent, and, at the same time, it crosses a vein of fine sand, which is often met with, the stones with which the conduit of the drain has been laid will be undermined by the rapidity of the 92 DRAINING, current, whereby the whole materials with which the drain has been filled will sink and render it useless in a very short time. In such cases where there are no open ditches on the sides of the field to receive the water from the cross drains, the outlet must either be carried obliquely or zigzag down the slope to the under side of the field, or the place best adapted for a watering pond, which ought never to be neglected in situations where there is a scarcity of water. When the land to be drained lies flat, with rising ground on each side, and the breadth of valley is narrow, if the stratum containing the water which rises on its surface forms part of the high ground on both sides, and is continuous below the soil of the valley, a drain carried through the lowest part, deep enough to reach the porous stratum, or, if the depth of the inter- vening strata is too great for a drain to be cut through, bore-holes or wells must be made in its bottom, which will have the same effect of drying the land without the necessity for cross and branch drains ; this case, how- ever, will not hold good if the valley is of any consider- able width. Indeed, there are very few situations of this kind in Scotland,* where the extent of the ground to be drained is more than fifteen or twenty yards wide, but will require a drain carried through the centre or * In many parts of England the stratification lies so regular that a drain carried through a hollow part of a field, deep enough to reach the porous stratum,, (which, in many instances, is composed of gravel, porous limestone, or chalk,) will dry a much larger extent of land than when the strata is so much broken as it is in Scotland ; consequently, a person will have little chance of practising there to advantage without previously acquiring a knowledge of the variable- ness of the sub -strata, although he has had considerable experience and success in laying out drains in England. Plan DRAINING, 93 lowest part, to receive the surface water and any springs which may arise out of the porous soil ; and also another, on both sides, between the wet and dry ground, deep enough to cut off the water oozing out of the high ground, as shewn in plan 5. If the surface water that flows into the hollow is considerable, the drain in the middle should be open, but covered in all other cases. In many instances, in draining the sides of hills or sloping ground, it is necessary, on account of keeping the level and to save making more outlets than one, to carry the drain in some places below where the water first makes its appearance, or breaks out from the tail of rocks or other porous strata, and from it to make offsets the same depth as the drain, to the upper side of the wetness, (as shewn in plan 6,) in order to dry the small spaces on the upper side of the drain, on which, from its locality, it can have no effect. Bore- holes would be useless in such a situation, where the sub-stratum is clay, and where there is no under water ; and also if the drain was cut above or in a line with the upper springs, the depth of cutting would be too great to get hold of the water that injures the land below. These offsets are sometimes made in the form of the letter T, and sometimes they are carried all round the small wet spaces, but more frequently they are made as shewn in the plan. DRAINING CLAY SOILS INJURED BY SUBTERRANEOUS WATER. Although the wetness of this kind of land originates in many instances from the same cause as bogs, and the same principles are necessary for their drainage, 94 DRAINING. yet there are other considerations required in order to effect a complete and cheap drainage of them. In bogs, the water either breaks out in the high ground, or rises in the moss in the form of welleyes^ which is easily discovered ; but before a drainage can be effected in clayey soils, it must be looked for in the bowels of the earth. To ascertain, therefore, the exact depth where the water lies, and the quality and inclina- tion of the strata, pits or bore-holes must be made ; and if the water is found in all of them to be nearly of the same level, it is a sure sign that it comes from the same source, but if the level of the water varies in the different pits and bore-holes, it evidently proceeds from different strata. When the wetness originates from the first of these causes, two drains carried across a field, the one near the upper side, and the other half way down, will, in most cases, dry it, if the extent is not more than fifteen or twenty acres ; but if the drains do not reach the water, bore-holes will require to be made in their bottom. When, however, the stratum which contains the water is composed of fine sand, or any other substance which does not allow it to pass through freely, more drains will be required, and also a greater number of bore-holes in their bottom. If the porous stratum does not lie far below the bottom of the drain, and the clay is soft, it is advisable to sink small pits instead of bore-holes, and fill them with small stones, before the conduit is laid ; but if the clay is of considerable thickness and very hard, bore-holes may with safety be resorted to, as no apprehension need be entertained of their being filled up, for such is often the force of the spring, that it will throw up whatever earth or sludge may accidentally get Shoulder Drain Fig. 3 Co vere d T> rti in DRAINING. 95 into them, and they can only be injured by the sudden admission of surface or flood water. When water shews itself in the furrows, and, at the same time, is standing in the small holes on the top of the ridges, it is a sure symptom of its coming from a considerable depth ; and in this case, the drain, where the land has the least declivity, should be carried along the upper side of the wetness, following all its windings, and cut to such a depth as will intercept the water from the land below ; but if the land is flat, it must be taken through the middle, or where the springs appear to be strongest, and made four, six, or even eight feet deep, according to the situation of the water and other circumstances, such as the level or direction in which the water has to be carried ; and if the above depth does not reach the porous bed, the auger must be used. When the water shews itself prominent in several places in the same field, and proceeds from different sources, a drain, with bore-holes if necessary, must be carried through ; or, if the ground slopes near the upper side of such parts, the depth of it must be entirely regulated by the circum- stances of the case. In all cases of draining, it is expedient to have as few outlets as possible, and, consequently, it is of great importance, in laying out drains, this should be parti- cularly attended to ; more especially where the water is scarce, it is of great advantage that it should be directed to the most convenient place, which will answer both for an outlet and a watering pond. It frequently happens that springs (or spouts, as they are commonly called) rise in the middle of a field at such a distance from any open ditch where the water may be discharged, that a covered drain brought from 96 DRAINING. the nearest outlet would have to pass so far through dry ground as to render the expense greater than the injury done by it ; this may be remedied, in some cases, by boring or sinking pits through the impervious bed of clay that lies immediately below, into the porous stratum, or by cutting a drain from the spout into a porous bank or shattry rock, through which the water will subside. But when the stratum, which the water is let down to, tails out anywhere below or farther down in the declivity, the water will again break out, and cause a similar spout or wet place in the field ; this, however, will seldom take place, and may be easily remedied by means of another short drain. Before, however, any drainage is commenced on this principle, it is necessary to discover, in the first place, whether the porous strata immediately under the clay is dry and will absorb the water, or whether, being already full of water, it may, instead of receiving more, throw up a greater quantity to the surface, and thus increase the evil. The sub- strata may sometimes contain water, although, owing to the thickness of the clay, it makes no appearance on the surface, but which being connected with some higher water, will flow up when a passage is given to it by the auger, and having no outlet through the circumjacent bank, it will render the land much more wet than before. I could produce many instances of land being drained in this country agreeable to the above principles, but I consider this would be superfluous in this place, as the reader will find, in the account of the draining of Runnaby meadow, the principles so ably explained, and in such a practical manner as to give the most clear and satisfactory explanation of the cause of wet- DUAIMNG. ness in land, and the best method of removing it. In- deed, the success of this drainage, in a practical view of the subject, cannot be surpassed by any other that I could select from the many hundred cases of the same kind with which I have been engaged in this country. DRAINAGE OF SOILS COMPOSED OF ALTERNATE BEDS OF CLAY AND SAND RIDGES. Soils composed of an intermixed variety, and when clay predominates, are attended with much greater diffi- culty in draining than those in which both the surface and internal strata are more regularly disposed. In such soils where every reservoir of water is unconnected with one another, being separated by means of clay beds or dykes, the partial collections of water which they contain are so much augmented in rainy seasons, as to be filled to the level of the surface of the surround- ing clay, which it overflows, and renders it so wet and sour, that all kinds of crops are stinted in their growth. As these sand ridges have no communication with each other, a separate drain is required from each in order to reduce the water in them. The outlet drain A must be made from the lowest part of the field to the sand ridge situated at the highest and most distant part, and to be carried in such a direction as to touch, if possible, some of the intermediate sand ridges, (as shewn in plan 7>) whereby a considerable extent of drain will be saved. From the outlet drain A, branches must be carried to each of the sand ridges B, which, when made sufficiently deep, will draw the water from them, and prevent it wetting the adjacent surface. H 98 DRAINING. Although the water oozes out all the way round the sand ridges, a sufficiently deep drain on the lower side will, in many cases, extract the water from both sides ; but when the ridges are of considerable extent, and the sand of a very fine quality, so as not to allow the water to pass through it freely, the drain must be continued all the way round, as is shewn at C. In many cases, the whole of the wetness proceeds from the water in the upper sand ridge passing over the intermediate spaces of clay, and through the different ridges below. When this happens, the drainage of the whole field may be accomplished with much less diffi- culty than in the former instance. After the outlet drain A has been made, the upper drain D must be cut, which will intercept the water, and may, by this means, render the lower drains, C, E, F, G, H, unnecessary. It is evident from this, that the water breaking out of the sand ridge in the highest part of a field, may be the sole cause of injury to a considerable extent below ; it is, therefore, expedient, in draining land of this description, that the water in the upper side of the field should be first cut off, and its effect ascertained before any more drains are made in the lower part. There are other soils of a similar nature, the drain- age of which is easier accomplished, on account of their alternate beds of clay and fine sand lying much more regular. Under the alternate beds of clay and fine sand, which are often almost parallel to one another, is generally found an impervious body of clay, which keeps the veins of sand full of water, moistening the adjacent clay and running over it. As the main body of clay is seldom more than four or five feet below the surface, a drain must be cut to that depth through the middle of DRAINING. 99 the field, if it has a descent from both sides; and if the ground declines all to one side, two drains will be required, the one near the upper side, to cut off the water coming from the ground above, and the other near the lower extremity or lowest part, where the water in the different beds of sand will easily discharge itself. This, no doubt, will answer the purpose effectually as the drains cross the different beds that contain the water, they will draw it from each, unless the field is of consider- able extent, or have more hollows than one, in which case a drain must be made through every hollow. In draining land of this kind, there is seldom any need for using the auger, as the necessary depth of the drains reaches the impervious body of clay, the thickness of which being so great, that any water that is confined below will do no injury to the crop. Another description of land to which nearly the same treatment may be applied, is when the soil and sub-soil, to the depth of three or four feet, is entirely porous, having under that a strong body of retentive clay ; the rain water falling on the surface subsides till it meets with the clay, and then being obstructed from farther descent, the whole mass of porous soil above is filled with stagnant water, which not only retards the opera- tions of agriculture, but also vegetation. To remedy this, it requires only one or more drains, according to the situation of the field ; and these require to be made no deeper than to reach a few inches into the clay, between which and the porous soil the greatest part of the water remains stagnant, although it does not appear on the surface. * If the land has a small descent from * In the course of practice, I have met with many cases of this de- scription, but one,, in particular, was at Lennoxlove, near Haddington. H2 100 DRAINING. both sides, a drain cut through the porous soil into the clay in the hollow will effectually draw off the water ; but if the surface is undulating, as is often the case, it is necessary to make a drain winding through all the lowest places, and when it is almost level, or inclining to one side, the drains must be made across the slope, to some convenient outlet in the side of the field, taking care, in running them, to give as much fall as that the water will run without standing still in their bottom. A par- ticular account of the general dimensions and method of making drains adapted to such soils, will be found under the head of rumbling drains. Much land of the above description, in various districts of this country, may be completely drained in the same manner, at a very moderate expense, by a proper atten- tion being paid to the situation of the ground and cause of the wetness. Such land remains so long wet in spring before it can be sown, that the crop is either obliged to be cut green, or, in some instances, is lost altogether. DRAINAGE OF CLAY SOIL INJURED BY SURFACE WATER. Owing to a considerable portion of the ploughable land in this country being injured by surface water, or water lodged between the soil and sub-soil, systems as The surface of the land had every appearance of wetness, although not a single drop of water was to be seen on it, but, upon sinking pits eighteen inches deep, the whole porous soil, to the depth of four feet, (where a stratum of strong impervious clay was found,) was full of water, which had no way of making its escape but by evapo- ration through the pores of the soil. DRAINING. 101 various as the effects they produce have of late been applied to drain such, and it therefore becomes a matter of the greatest importance that some definite rule be laid down, whereby a complete and permanent drainage may be effected in such land, and which, at the same time, will be attended with the least expense. Tenacious soils are much more expensive to drain than any other, as the drains must be more numerous, in consequence of having to be laid out in such a manner as to collect all the water from the surface, which, from the imperviability of the clay, must, in many cases, discharge itself into them from above ; and where there is any irregularity on the ground, the water will remain standing in the hollows if a drain is not carried through each of them. Drains for removing surface water from such land, when it lies flat, should therefore go through the hollowest parts of the field, without any respect to straightness or regularity, and at such a distance from each other as will keep the sur- face of the land dry. When the soil and sub-soil are composed of strong clay, twenty feet between the drains may be fixed on as a general rule at which they will act ; but when the clay is mixed with thin veins of very fine sand, which is very often the case, thirty feet will answer completely. When the ground, however, has the least declivity, the drains should always be directed obliquely across the slope, or as directly across it as the nature of the surface and outlet will allow ; the distance of one drain from another, in this case, depends on the declivity, the proportion of sandy substance mixed with the clay, and the depth of the drain. Where the soil is very tenacious and the declivity considerable, the drains will not act more than twenty or thirty feet ; but where it is- 102 DRAINING. mixed with thin strata of fine sand, although the sand is hardly perceivable, the same depth of drain will act several times that distance. The necessary dimensions of drains for removing sur- face water is found, from experience, to be from two and a half to three feet deep, sixteen inches wide at top, and twelve inches at bottom ; and they should be filled with stones, broken to the size of road metal, in arable land, to within twelve inches of the surface of the ground ; and in permanent pasture, such as lawn and pleasure ground, to within two or three inches of the surface of the ground. In all cases, after having covered the stones with some straw or turf, the remaining space should be filled with porous earth or sand, which, if it cannot be found near the drain, should be carted to it, as they will be rendered useless if the impervious clay is again thrown into them.* In carse lands, where the ridges are generally very high and winding, the furrows between them, during a great part of the year, are mostly full of stagnant water, which, in many instances, destroy the crop half way up the ridges, the declivity of the surface of the land being insufficient to carry away the water. In such cases, drains are required in almost every furrow, according to the breadth of the ridges. They must be made about * One of the greatest errors in draining is, in filling the drains above the tiles or stones with the same clay which has been taken out of them, and which, in two or three years, becomes as impervious as the adjacent land. On the Marquis of Abercorn's estate at Paisley, an extensive drainage is carrying on under my direction ; and there the drains are filled above the tiles or stones with peat moss or coal ashes, which are found to be among the best materials adapted to this purpose. DRAINING. 103 twenty inches deep, and the breadth of a common garden spade, and filled up with small stones or coarse gravel to within four inches of the bottom of the furrow ; and if the land is very tenacious, the remaining space must be filled with porous soil. This practice, however, can only be recommended on carse and other land of a similar nature ; for it is evident that water within the earth, or on the surface, seeks a level where the fall through the porous soil is greatest ; therefore a drain made across the slope or declivity of a field, or any piece of land, will undoubtedly intercept more water than when it is carried straight up the bank or rising ground ; this principle holds good in every case, whether the drain be made to receive surface or subterraneous water. Drains winding across the slope or declivity of a field, whatever their number or depth may be, their effect upon tenacious or impervious sub-strata will be much greater than if they were made straight up and down the slope ; and when the soil is mixed with thin strata of fine sand, which is the case nine times out of ten, the effect will be increased in proportion, and, accordingly, a much less number will answer the purpose, the expense will be greatly lessened, and the land and occupier much more benefited in every respect. The great error in the many systems of draining land now brought forward, is their universal adoption of running the drains straight up and down the slope in the furrows, instead of carrying them across it, and also in the smallness of their dimensions, without paying the least attention to the quality of the soil and sub-soil, and whether the wetness proceeds from surface or subter- raneous water. It is quite impossible for drains that are only two or three inches wide at the bottom, and filled only ten inches high with broken stones or gravel, 104 DRAINING. or laid with tiles covered with the impervious clay that has been taken out of them, more especially if they are made straight up and down the declivity, can have the same effect of drying the land as when they are car- ried across the slope and made of larger dimensions ; neither can such drains be so durable, as they are much more apt to blow, owing to their small dimensions, when made up and down the slope, than when they are made the reverse way. This assertion is founded on facts and practical knowledge; and I am convinced that nine-tenths of the land that is attempted to be drained by furrow drains, would be much more effectually and permanently drained at half the expense, if proper means were employed. I have lately had many oppor- tunities of seeing this verified ; but one, in particular, drew my attention in a field near Glasgow, which had been furrow drained in the summer of 1832. I observed, in passing it in the following spring, that many of the drains were already blown. The soil is of a sandy nature, and the ground has a considerable declivity to the south ; which circumstances ought to have pointed out the ne- cessity of deep drains, and having them carried across the slope, by which means a complete drainage would have been effected, and the permanency of the drains secured at a much less expense. Among many other instances of this kind which have come under my imme- diate observation, is a field of nine acres belonging to Lord Strathallan, in Perthshire, which was attempted to be drained some years ago. The soil and sub-soil were a somewhat stiff tenacious clay, mixed with thin veins of fine sand. No less than three hundred and ninety- six roods of drains, averaging from two and a half to three and a half feet deep, were run in straight lines up and down the slope, and filled promiscuously with stones, DRAINING. 105 from the size of a man's hand to that of the largest ox's head. The first three or four years after they were made, the ground appeared tolerably dry, and produced a few middling crops ; but, in a very few years, the drains were choked and blown, and the land became much less productive than it was even in its natural state, on account of the blown drains having formed springs where the land was perfectly dry before the draining was attempted. The failure of this ill-judged and ill- executed drainage, obliged the proprietor, in the autumn of 1830, to lift the whole of the old drains, as stated by the factor in the annexed note,* and renew the * Castle Strathallan, 29th April 1831. " SIR, The drains you lined off in November last are now exe- cuted, and the land appears completely dry. The expense of lifting the old drains, which were quite useless by being stopped and bursted, was as follows : For lifting three hundred and ninety-six roods of old drains, at 9d. per rood, . . < . ^ 1417 For filling in the earth, at Id. per rood, . . 1 13 16 10 The expense of the new drains which you lined out were For cutting forty-four roods, five feet deep and coupled, at Is. 3Jd. per rood, . .- . . 21610 For cutting one hundred and fifty roods, four feet deep, at Is. 0|d. per rood, . . . . 7 16 7 For cutting forty-eight roods, four feet deep and built, at Is. Id. per rood, . . J J . . 2 14 For cutting level for said new drains, . . 068 13 14 1 The field is all ploughed and sown with oats. I am, &c. PETER THOMSON, Factor." To Mr G. Stephens. 106 DRAINING. operations, by running the drains across the declivity, whereby not only one hundred and fifty-three and a half roods of drains have been saved, but a perfect drainage of the field has been accomplished at less expense than the lifting of the original drains. Many other examples of the failures of drainages from the same cause might be adduced, but, from their similarity, I consider it unnecessary in this place ; I have not, however, met with any case that has not been success- ful when the drains were carried across the slope and made of sufficient dimensions, and, amongst numerous others with which I have been engaged, I shall only mention one, which not only realized every expectation that could have been formed of it, but also was drained at one-third of the expense it would have cost if it had been done by the system of furrow draining. This case was at Cleland, in Lanarkshire, the pro- perty of North Dalrymple, Esq. The field is of con- siderable extent, having a general slope to the south, and the soil is of a tenacious nature, intermixed with veins of fine sand. The drains are made across the slope, at the distance of twenty yards from each other, averaging three feet deep, and the breadth at the bottom is twelve inches : they are filled with stones, broken to the size of coarse road metal, to within ten inches of the surface, and the remaining space with porous soil. The outlets are made winding through the lowest places, and intersecting the cross drains. These operations were finished in the spring of 1832, and have not only given satisfaction, but may be recommended as a complete specimen of shallow draining. It is evident, from the above statements, that the practice of putting a drain in every furrow, without dis- DRAINING. 107 crimination as to the circumstances of the ground, is often a misapplication of labour and loss of capital ; indeed, in many instances, where it can with propriety be used, the end would be much better attained by the proper formation of ridges and furrows, combined with deep ploughing, so that no water can remain dead. I have often seen large tracts of clayey land inter- mixed with whitish travelled stones, lying in sub-soils per- fectly impervious, effectually drained by means of trench ploughing, and keeping the furrows regularly deep from one end of the ridge to the other. If farmers occupy- ing clayey soils would pay more attention to the forma- tion of the ridges and furrows, and to keeping the open ditches and water gaas, or cross furrows, suffi- ciently deep to clear the surface of all stagnant water in the hollow parts of the fields, there would be much less necessity for making drains for removing surface water. CONSTRUCTION OF DRAINS. After the cause of the wetness has been discovered, and the most convenient place for discharging the water ascertained, the lines of the drains must be fixed, accord- ing to the principles already laid down, by means of pins, small pits, or plough furrows. If the work is to be done immediately, pins or small pits will be suffi- cient marks to direct the workmen ; but, in case of its being delayed any length of time, a furrow should be drawn with the plough in the line of each drain, which will shew itself two or three years ; indeed, to prevent mistakes, from the marks being removed or trampled 108 DRAINING. down by cattle, plough furrows are preferable to all other marks. Open Drains. In draining bogs or moss where the drains do not reach the hard bottom, ditches are pre- ferable to covered drains, for should stones be used when the bottom is very soft, they would sink, whereby the drains would become useless : indeed, in all situa- tions where the ground will allow it, the principal drains should be open ; and when they can become the division of fields, which, in many instances, is practicable, that should never be neglected. It would be unnecessary to give any particular directions for their depth or wide- ness, as that must depend on the quantity of water they are to convey, and on the nature of the soil and situa- tion in which they are made : one rule, however, may be general, that the width at the bottom should be one third of that at the top, which gives a sufficient slope to the sides, and the fall or declivity should be such as the water may run off without stagnation. In very soft soils, a greater degree of slope on the sides may be necessary ; and in all cases where it is meant to receive surface water only, none of the earth thrown out should remain upon the sides, but should be removed to the nearest hollows ; for when this is not done, their use is in a great measure counteracted. The earth, when left on the sides, prevents the surface water from getting into the drain its weight causes the sides to fall in makes it more difficult to scour or clean it and adds much to its disagreeable appearance in the middle of a field. In cases where the auger or wells are obliged to be resorted to in open drains, they should never be made in the bottom, but on one side, with the outlet DRAINING. eight or ten inches above, (as shewn in plan 6, figure 2,) which will prevent surface or flood water depositing any sand or sediment in the bore-holes, whereby they might be injured. Shoulder Drains. Any surface water or partial springs in moss and marshy ground, on which the large drains have no effect, and where stones cannot be used on account of the softness of the soil, is most effectually removed by means of shoulder drains. The method of making them, is by digging a trench from fourteen to sixteen inches wide, the sides perpendicular to the depth of two or three feet, and then by taking out the last spit with a spade, the breadth of which is three inches at the bottom, and four or five at the upper part. A shoulder is left on each side, on which the sod that was first taken up is carefully laid with the grass side downwards, or if it is not strong enough, others must be cut in the vicinity, and the remaining space filled with the loose earth a few inches above the level of the surface of the adjacent ground. (See plan 6, figure 1.) Drains of this description, when properly executed and moles kept out of them, will operate for a great number of years. Covered Drains. In every instance where covered drains are used, their dimensions depend on the depth, the quantity of water they have to carry, and the kind of materials they are filled with. When the depth does not exceed five feet, two feet wide at top will be suffi- cient ; but whenever it is more, the width should be increased four inches for every foot in depth, and the width at the bottom should be twenty inches, which will give a sufficient space to build a substantial conduit. 110 DRAINING. When this is not attended to, and the bottom of the drain is made so narrow that the stones of which the sides of the conduit are formed are obliged to be set on their edges, and the covers laid on them in this insecure state, they, in many instances, fall down before the drain is half finished, causing it to burst in a very few years, and often forming springs in the driest part of the field. In digging drains, there are several circumstances which, if attended to, will greatly facilitate the execu- tion of the operations, such as having the stones laid down by the upper side of the lines of the drains before the work is commenced, to be ready in case the sides should slip or fall in, which often happens in mixed soils, as, when this precaution is not attended to, the expense is not only considerably increased, but the work is done in a less accurate manner. Particular care must also be taken that the bottoms of the drains are made with a regular descent, so that the water runs from the one end to the other without standing dead ; and where bore-holes or wells are necessary, they must be made before the conduit is laid, in order that the sand may be removed which the water may throw up from the stratum below, and would otherwise be de- posited in the bottom of the drain, which would thereby be rendered useless.* The dimensions of the conduit * This is often the case, for example, in draining Runnaby meadow, the drain B was completely filled with sand, to the same level with the surface of the ground, within twenty-four hours after the bore- holes were made, which not only surprised many who went to see the operations, but even the proprietor believed that the drainage of that part of the field could not be accomplished; however, by persevering in removing the sand, and the strength of the springs diminishing in a few weeks, that part of the field was first dry. DRAINING. Ill depends upon the quantity of water it has to carry; thus, in an outlet drain, it requires to be larger than in a cross drain, which has only the water collected in itself to discharge. In general cases, therefore, the conduit in an outlet should be made from nine to twelve inches square, and, in cross drains, from four to six inches square. When the bottom of the drain is very soft, it must be laid with flag stones, to prevent the materials from sink- ing ; and the stones forming the side walls of the conduit must all be laid on their flat beds, and covered with strong covers well joined together and packed at their ends; the space above, in clayey soils, must be filled with stones, broken to the size of a man's clenched hand, to within twelve inches of the surface of the ground, which remaining space must be filled with porous earth. Before the earth is put into the drains, the stones must be covered with straw, rushes, or turf with the green side downwards, to prevent the loose particles from subsiding into the crevices among the stones. In cases where all the water comes from bore- holes, or rises in the bottom of the drain, eighteen inches of small stones above the covers is sufficient ; but when it comes from the sides of the drain, it is necessary to fill the drain above the covers with some kind of porous substance, six inches higher than where the water breaks out ; the neglect of this precaution is the reason why so many drains have so little effect in drying land. Figure 3, plan 6, represents a covered drain filled agreeable to the above principles, and which is well adapted in all cases when the drains are of a consider- able length and depth, and have a great quantity of water to discharge. In making covered drains, particular attention must 112 DRAINING. be paid that they are not carried into the outlet at right angles, as their ends should be turned down in the direction the water is to run a short space before they join it, to prevent the water in the outlet depositing any sand or sludge in their mouths, which will be the case if this is not attended to ; indeed it often happens, on almost every estate, that the drains are stopped and rendered useless from this precaution being neglected. The mouths of the drains ought also to be well built and secured with iron gratings, to prevent vermin from getting into them ; and it must be examined from time to time, to see that it is in proper repair, and the outlet kept a sufficient depth, so that the water coming from the drains may run away freely, otherwise it will remain stagnant in them, to the great injury of the land. To obviate this, it is advisable that a person should be appointed on every estate, under the superintendence of the factor or land-steward, to go through every field that has been drained, at least once a-year, to examine the mouths and outlets of all the drains, and make any necessary repairs as he proceeds. Such an arrange- ment, I am convinced, would be very beneficial, and is highly necessary, as I have often found drains com- pletely stopped in a year or two after they were made, and the land beginning to be wet again from this cause alone. Managers of landed property ought to be very particular in this department of rural economy ; indeed a clause ought to be inserted in every lease, binding both proprietor and tenant to keep the mouths and out- lets of drains in proper order at their mutual expense. Rumbling Drains. These are well adapted for removing water from alternate beds of clay and sand DRAINING. 113 ridges, and also water confined in porous soils with an impervious bottom, as well as for receiving surface water from clayey soils. Their depth, in the two former cases, is generally about four feet, and in the latter from two to three feet, and twelve inches wide at the bottom ; they are filled with stones, broken to the size of coarse road metal, to within ten or twelve inches of the surface of the ground, and, in clayey soils, the remaining space with porous earth. Wood is sometimes used in drains of this description instead of stones ; but, as it is liable to decay soon, and the drains will consequently be destroyed, it cannot be recommended when stones, gravel, smithy danders, or even coarse sand can be procured. Indeed, whenever my opinion has been asked with regard to making drains with wood, my uniform answer has been against such a practice, having had experience of so many instances in which wood had been employed, although stones might have been pro- cured in the same field, of the land having to be drained again within a few years ; and, consequently, I could not consider myself acting candidly towards my employers in advising it. An instance of this occurred at Wall- house, Linlithgowshire, a few years ago, in which I was called on to make a plan to drain the grounds immediately around the mansion-house, and having examined it, I found that the whole had been drained some years before, and the drains filled with thorns and other brushwood, which had decayed, and, the clay having fallen in, springs were formed in many places in the lines of all the drains. What surprised me was to find them laid off in such a manner that there was no occasion to alter any of the old lines ; and having inquired who was the engineer, I was answered, your 114 DRAINING. late brother. Being, however, aware that he never recommended drains to be filled with wood, if stones could possibly be procured, and more especially that he would not have done so in draining pleasure ground, where, in most cases, no expense is spared to do the work in the most substantial manner, I suspected that the work had not been executed according to his plan, and, upon making further inquiry, I found that my suspicions were correct, his specification having directed them not only to be made with stones, but also to have been from two to three feet deeper, which was exactly what I caused to be done, whereby a complete drainage was obtained. Tile Drains. These are best calculated for remov- ing surface water, and are made just wide enough to let the tiles be put easily into them ; they are, in most cases, about twenty inches deep, but tiles may be used at any depth, provided the drain is filled with broken stones, or other open materials, to nearly the surface of the ground. The tiles should always be well burnt, and laid on soles, as whenever this is neglected, which is too often the case where tile draining is now practised, their duration will unquestionably be very short, whereas hard burnt tiles will last for almost any length of time without mouldering down.* The expediency of using tiles instead of stones depends entirely on circumstances; for, if stones are to be found, whether by collecting on * In draining the park at Grimsthorpe, Lincolnshire, about three years ago, some drains made with tiles were found eight feet below the surface of the ground ; the tiles were similar to what are now used, and in as good a state of preservation as when first laid., although they must have remained there above one hundred years. DRAINING. 115 the surface or quarrying within the lands that are to be improved, or even if they can be procured within a mile of the operations, tiles should never be used. Stones are preferable to tiles in making drains in all kinds of soils, provided a sufficient quantity are used, but where only a few inches of broken stones are used in a drain, well burnt tiles laid on thick soles, and covered with turf or any other porous substance, would answer the purpose better ; and in porous soils, where the water is found at or near the bottom of the drain, if six or eight inches of broken stones were used in packing and covering them, a more substantial drain would be formed. In clayey or mixed soils, where the water enters the drain at different depths, stones, gravel, or smithy danders, are the only materials that can be used with advantage ; in any case, however, where tiles are used, the space above them must be filled to the surface of the ground with some porous material, otherwise the drains will be useless, and the undertaking will prove a complete failure. In the preceding pages, I have endeavoured to set before the reader, in as plain a manner as the nature of the subject would allow, a short practical detail of the principles required to be applied in draining the different descriptions of land, in all its diversified variety of soils, strata, and inequalities of surface* and I hope it will, in some measure, convince landed proprietors and those engaged in agriculture of the folly of supposing that any single rule can be applicable to every case, without being modified to the particular circumstances to which it is to be applied. To drain land effectually, and at the least expense, i 2 116 DRAINING. must surely be the desired object of those who engage in it ; but how can they ever expect to attain this, if the work is executed without any consideration of the cause from which the wetness proceeds, as is too often the practice in this country. Thus, when a field is injured by wetness, no matter from whence it comes, all that is thought necessary to dry it, is to make drains straight to the wettest place, and through the hollowest part of it, and if these have not the desired effect, others are added, and the work-people are bound to make them a fixed depth, and, after cutting and carving in all directions, the land is partially dried, and, in some instances, com- pletely, but at three times the expense it would have been if they had been properly directed. The person engaged in this arduous undertaking believes himself a complete drainer, and tells his master that there is no occasion for employing a professional man to lay off the drains, for he can do it as well as any man, and at half the expense ; the master believes him, and being glad he has such a clever person in his employment, gives orders to commence operations, which are carried on for two or three years, when, after having spent a considerable sum of money to little or no purpose, a professional man has to be sent for to investigate the cause of the bad success and provide a remedy, which has generally to be a complete renewal of the operations upon other principles. Besides the instance at Castle Strathallan, already mentioned, of land having to be drained anew, another case occurred in which I was employed near Lanark, where the person acting as land-steward having prevailed on the proprietor to let him drain two fields with a number of small drains, the result was, after spending considerable time and DRAINING. 117 capital, the land still continued very wet. When I was called upon, I found that not only much deeper drains were necessary to remove the evil, but also con- siderable alterations were required in their directions ; which being executed, has proved completely effective in drying the land. A similar case occurred at Dargill, in Perthshire, the property of Lord Willoughby de Eresby ; the soil of the field is of a light nature, with a sub-soil composed of a mixture of gravel and clay, from four to seven feet deep, under which lies the stratum, composed of sand and gravel, which contained the water. The former tenant spent a great deal of money in attempting to drain it, but with no effect, as the drains were not deep enough to reach the cause of the wetness, on which account the field lay nearly waste for several years. His lordship being anxious to bring it into cultivation, I was desired to get it drained ; and, accordingly, I found it necessary to deepen the outlet, and to have it covered, on account of its great depth : the conduit was made twelve inches wide and two feet high, which not only gave the necessary fall for the drains in this field, but also for others connected with it. It was also necessary to make three new drains in this field, instead of the numerous small drains which were made by the former tenant, one four feet, one five feet, and the other seven feet deep, which completely answered the purpose, and made it nearly as valuable as any other part of the farm. I could point out many other such instances, but I consider that those already stated are sufficient to put it beyond doubt, that if any drainage is executed without due attention to the quality of the soil and the nature and inclination of the strata, a failure will most probably be 118 DRAINING. the result. Accordingly, every precaution ought to be taken before any operations are commenced in an undertaking on which the whole success of every other branch of agriculture depends ; and, therefore, every circumstance of the art must be weighed and strictly observed, otherwise landed proprietors will most assur- edly be led into serious mistakes. To obviate this as far as lies in my power, I have been induced to draw up this practical essay, with the view of its being the means of introducing a more perfect knowledge of the principles necessary to be applied in draining every kind of land ; and which I have found, during thirty years' practice,* to be uniformly successful in every case where the plans and specification were strictly attended to. This will not, however, be the case if alterations are made, as is frequently done, with the plans of pro- fessional men, and which I have sometimes experienced myself, in the drains not being made either the depth nor filled with the same quantity or quality of materials as prescribed, and even, in some instances, the lines of the drains have been altered, consequently the land has been imperfectly drained, whereby the system has come into disrepute, as not answering the soil, or on some other frivolous pretence. Too much cannot be said in favour of draining, which, particularly when conducted on proper principles, must be beneficial to all parties concerned. Whatever, therefore, may be the defects of this essay, I hope it * During the above period,, many hundred miles of covered drains, averaging five feet deep, have been made, under my direction, in this country and Sweden. On the Perth estate alone, ten miles have been made annually for several years past, which, in every instance, has been attended with success. DRAINING. 119 will call the attention of agriculturists to this system, as first practised by Elkington, and which has proved so useful, not only in our own country, but also in others, as will be seen by the report of the Archbishop of Sweden to the Royal Agricultural Society at Orebro, which will be found in another part of this work ; and I trust that what I have said will shew that it ought to be vindicated and encouraged by every one who has the welfare of agriculture at heart, until another shall be produced superior to it, which, assuredly, has not yet been done. STRAIGHTENING WATER-COURSES, PROTECTING RIVER BANKS, &c. THIS is a subject of the greatest importance and of the highest interest to landed proprietors. The natural licence of mountainous streams is not only destructive to landed property, but frequently to lands of the best quality ; and is often the cause of disputes, and not unfrequently of legal contentions be- tween neighbouring proprietors. A river is the most unfortunate boundary line of an estate, unless where the water is unfordable ; but a river or a rapid stream which is liable to high floods is con- tinually making devastations. Yet this subject, so important and interesting to landholders in general, has had less attention paid to it and is certainly less understood than any other branch of equal importance within the circle of rural economy. It has never, I believe, been treated of in detail as a distinct subject as it ought to have been ; and in prac- tice, I have too generally found it in the hands of men who have not paid that attention to it which they ought to have done, or have left it to ignorant workmen, whose aim, for the most part, is to get through the work in the easiest way, without considering the consequences. STRAIGHTENING WATER-COURSES, &C. 121 The great mischief which is constantly going on, and the very expensive attempts that are ineffectually made to apply a remedy, are equally to be lamented.* In all mountainous districts of this island, the haugh lands are peculiarly liable to the ravages of floods. They have evidently been formed by strong currents, and the alluvial deposits of water in a state of extreme agitation. They are generally composed of soil, gravel, sand, and stones of considerable size. In many in- stances, these substances are deposited pretty regularly, according to their several specific gravities. The surface, however, is often covered with earthy matter, deposited by the overflowing of water since their formation, the soil in many instances being very deep and of the most valuable description. Through these valleys the rivers are found to flow in devious courses. In some instances they are confined in deep channels, whose banks they seldom overflow ; but more frequently their channels are very shallow, * To prove this assertion, I could produce several instances which have come within my knowledge within these few years, but need only mention two. The one happened in draining some bogs near Peebles, where a considerable sum of money was thrown away on account of one rivulet being carried into another at right angles, instead of being carried obliquely into it further down the stream, which every engineer acquainted with the impetuosity of mountain streams would have done. The other instance was in straightening the Lyne river, imme- diately below the village of West Linton. A labouring man was both engineer and contractor for the work, which was executed ac- cording to his plan, with stone walls built on each side of the new cut, and banks raised half-way up the walls, to prevent the water at high floods from finding its way through them into the haughs ; but, alas ! the first flood swept nearly the whole before it, for the dimensions of the new cut were only half of what it ought to have been. 122 STRAIGHTENING WATER-COURSES. little below the general surface of the lands they pass through. Hence, in high floods, their immediate banks are generally the victims of their rage. There are instances in almost every valley, but more especially where they are much contracted, of the tor- rents rushing out of their confined channels into flat haughs, and ravaging several acres of the best land in a single flood. I hope the following short treatise will be found serviceable, and be the means of preventing those landowners whose properties are situated on the banks of rivers from allowing their most valuable alluvial soil to be washed away, when, most likely, if a few pounds had been judiciously applied in time, it would not only have saved the lands on the one side of the river, but would have protected those on the other side at the same time. To simplify the subject, I have divided it into three branches : first, straightening water-courses ; secondly, protecting river banks ; and, thirdly, embanking haugh and other lands. STRAIGHTENING WATER-COURSES. The difficulties and expense attending the alteration of the course of a river, depend on the particular cir- cumstances belonging to it. If the river is the boundary line between the pro- perties of different proprietors, the first step is to obtain the whole of the proprietors' consent to the alteration. Secondly, it must be considered whether the ground will admit of the proposed line to be straight, or whe- STRAIGHTENING WATER-COURSES. 123 ther it will be necessary to make one or more bends in it, so as to divide the land equally between the different owners, without being under the necessity of transferring small portions of land from the one to the other, which, in general, is very troublesome, especially where the lands are entailed, in which case it often prevents improvements of the greatest consequence. Thirdly, in a water-course where mills occur, and the fall of the water is not more than from four to six feet in a mile, the dams that are erected across it for supplying the mills with water are, in many instances, of the greatest injury to the improvement of the adjacent lands. This is the case with many of the water-courses in this country ; there are even cases where the mills have not only a dam for throwing the water into the mill-lead, but have other dams farther up the river, for collecting water in droughty seasons in the bed of the river, so that the miller can let it down to the mill at his pleasure. These dams are more injurious to the country than people are in general aware of. In many instances they completely prevent all draining of the surrounding lands.* 1 know cases where the proprie- tors are so blind to their own interest, that, for the sake of a paltry mill, only worth from 40 to 60 per annum, they allow land to be destroyed that would yield ten times the amount of that sum yearly. * For example, the North and South Medwins in Lanarkshire. In the former of these rivers, dams of both descriptions are to be found, and, in the latter, a dam exists which prevents the draining of several hundred acres. The mill, with sixty acres of land, is let for 60 per annum ; the mill, without the land, would not let for 10 per annum. Since the publication of the last edition, the South Medwin has been straightened and made deeper, whereby a sufficient fall for the drainage of five hundred acres has been gained. 124 STRAIGHTENING WATER-COURSES. It is certainly the interest of every landowner to make the most of his property, in such a way as he may find most suitable to his circumstances. Therefore, in cases where a mill-dam cannot be avoided, and it is necessary to straighten and deepen the water-course as a prepara- tive to other improvements, the engineer has only one choice, and that is, to form an embankment on each side of the river, as far up as the water is thrown back, and high enough to free the site of improvement from being overflowed at the highest floods ; and by means of back drains, and, in some cases, an aqueduct laid under the bed of the river to communicate with the drains, the whole of the land (although lying under the level of the water in the mill-lead) might be drained, by carry- ing the outlet drain into the river below the mill-dam. * (Plan 8.) In such cases, it is true, the expense becomes higher, but not so very dear if the site of improvement be extensive, for the whole expense will be repaid in two or three years. In vale districts, and other low land situations, the currents of rivers are generally sluggish. There the cutting of the new channel is merely the work of man- ual labour, being attended with no other difficulty than what may arise from the expense, which will depend on the size of the river, the nature of the ground to be cut through, and the value of the labour in the given dis- trict. This is generally to be ascertained with sufficient accuracy by previous calculations. * An operation of this kind has been executed by me at Dalqu- harran, the property of T. F. Kennedy, Esq., where the river Girvan has been straightened and embanked, and the outlet drain carried by a tunnel under the flower garden into the river below the mill dam. Plant //'/////<>/%? STRAIGHTENING WATER-COURSES. 125 It is to be observed, that the size of the new cut depends on several circumstances ; such as the extent of country it is to drain, whether a flat or mountainous district, and particularly the natural fall of the district the river runs through. One great mistake which is often committed in straightening water-courses is, in not giving the new channel sufficient dimensions, whereby the water is forced over its banks into its former course ; and in not giving the sides sufficient slope, whereby the banks are undermined large pieces tumble down and occupy a portion of the bed of the river, whereby a current is excited between it and the bank, which, in a very short time, widens the breach and forms a new channel. To give particular directions for forming the slopes of river banks, depends on the nature of the soil it goes through ; however, I have generally found from one and a half to two feet on each side, for every foot in depth, to be sufficient. I have always found the greater the slope the better ; and for want of this precaution, many a valuable undertaking has been completely de- stroyed. We even find, where some little attention has been paid, the method used to obviate the evil has been more injurious to the preservation of the banks than of service, for instead of smoothing the inequalities of the banks to let the water pass with the least friction, we often find a quantity of stakes driven into the sides of the river with their heads several feet above the surface of the lowest water-mark ; the consequence is, at floods they collect weeds, sticks, &c., whereby the water is penned up, thereby making a fall, which scoops 126 STRAIGHTENING WATER-COURSES. out a hole in the side of the slope immediately below, and, in many instances, forms a current between the stakes and the solid bank, which, in a few floods, has so widened itself, that we often see the remains of the stakes standing in the middle of the bed of the river. It is true, there are cases where stakes are unavoidable, either from the softness of the bottom or want of other materials ; but, in such cases, the greatest care should be taken to drive their heads down to the level of the lowest water-mark. In soft soils, after having given the sides of a new water-channel the desired slope, I have generally found (if the operations have been done early in the spring) a covering of good turf to be one of the best protections against the agitation of water, especially if the turf has been taken from a place abounding with rushes, and gets time to grow together before the floods come it is then almost impregnable. In particular parts, as at sharp bends, where ordinary sward or pasturable turf is not able to prevent the current from breaking up the soil, the whole angle of the slope should be removed, and the space filled with small stones. (See plan 8.) In situations where stones cannot be pro- cured, ribgrass and the butterbur (tussilago petasites) are singularly well adapted for the protection of river banks. On examining into nature's practice in protect- ing the sides of river banks, we find it carried on with the best effects by those plants. When they gain possession of a river bank, barely above the level of low water, and, of course, exposed to every rise and fall of the water, it becomes, in many instances at least, as securely sheltered from the effects of the current as if it were STRAIGHTENING WATER-COURSES. 127 cased with stone. They appear to be singularly pro- per to be cultivated on the lower margins of grassy slopes a situation in which they seem to delight. To illustrate this subject, let us suppose the river d d (plan 8.) to be the boundary line between the proprie- tors A and B, and the land and mill E belonging to a third proprietor, who has a privilege to a dam across the river h. A and B are desirous to improve the boggy land lying between the rising ground and the river ; but before that can be conveniently done, it will be neces- sary to straighten the water-course from the mill-dam f to A, a distance of a mile. In straightening the river so as to make the new channel the boundary line between the properties, a small bend will be required at g ; and as the fall from g to the top of the mill-dam f is only four feet, it is evident that the descent is insufficient for draining the ground without the assistance of embankments on each side of the river to protect the adjacent land from the injurious effects of unrestrained floods. The fall from the bend g being only four feet, and the water at high floods being known to rise nearly the same height above the dam, it is obvious that the height of the banks should be the same. In this case, it is evident that without making the back drains a a b, immediately behind the embankments, neither A nor B will have an outlet to carry away the water collected in the greater part of the land lying between the river and the high ground. The proprietor A has no difficulty in carrying the back drain into the river below the dam c, whereby he will gain the whole fall of the dam ; but B has no other alternative than by means of an aqueduct laid under 128 STRAIGHTENING WATER-COURSES. the bed of the river at e e to communicate with the back drain a b, for the situation of B is such, that it is impossible to carry the water through the ground of the mill E to the river below. As all the stuff taken out of the new channel has been previously deposited in the old water-course, the stuff taken out of the back drains is generally sufficient to form the embankments. When the old water-course has many crooks, the earth taken out of the new channel is seldom enough to fill the whole of it without levelling down the banks, which have become higher than the adjacent ground, by the water depositing its sediment in time of floods. Without filling the old water-channel, the proprietors cannot derive the advantage from the undertaking they otherwise would ; therefore, in operations of this nature, I have always found it advisable to finish the whole before the men leave the spot, otherwise it too often happens (especially when the filling up is left to the discretion of a tenant) that this part of the work is finished in a very slight manner, which is not only a considerable loss to the occupiers of the land, but throws discredit on all the parties concerned. By shortening the length as well as straightening the course of the river, the force of the current at the bend g will be considerably increased, and the lands in that part will be thereby endangered ; therefore every precau- tion should be taken in securing the slope, for should it once break, it will not only injure the lands of A, but, in a very short time, a bay will be scooped out a little below on the opposite lands of B, and, in the course of a few years, the river will gain its original serpentine form. However, although every precaution has been used by PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. 129 the engineer, breaches will occur for one or two years, (especially if the bottom be gravelly,) or until the bottom and sides become, as it were, puddled by the action of the water. If the subject of improvement be of magnitude, it is generally prudent to contract with a responsible person for the entire execution, a conditional clause being in- serted in the contract, binding the undertaking party to uphold the works during a specified number of years after being completed. For the want of these precau- tions, large sums of money are often thrown away. Having shewn the method and necessity of straight- ening water-courses in situations where the soil for the most part is deep and the descent of water generally sluggish, we will proceed, on the same plan, to point out the method and necessity of protecting river banks in mountainous situations, where the soil is mostly gravel, and the currents in general rapid. PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. If we examine the valleys dispersed through this country, we shall find thousands of acres of the richest soil I torn to pieces by the impetuous floods a devastation that is constantly going on, for there are very few landed pro- prietors who pay that attention to the ravages committed on the haugh and other lands near their residences which their interest seems to require, without once calling in question the more remote lands. And if we make an impartial survey of the havoc that is constantly going on, we shall hardly ever find a water-course but we shall be apt to think that many districts have no owners, or K 130 PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. that they have more property than they know what to do with. If we inspect any one of the numerous water-courses from the Tweed to John o' Groat's, we shall find very few instances of that attention having been paid which the interest both of the proprietors and the country seems to demand. In the few attempts that have been made to remedy this evil, we find most of them doing more injury than any permanent good. The most extensive operations of this kind, and, at the same time, carried on in a systematic manner, are on the banks of the rivers Tay and Earn. The banks of these rivers being very much exposed to the rapid rise and fall of the water, which mostly runs in a gravelly bed, the ravages committed by the currents are often very alarming, so as to have caused some of the pro- prietors to pay more attention to protecting them than is found in most other districts. His Grace the Duke of Athol and the Right Honour- able Lord Willoughby de Eresby, in particular, have expended considerable sums of money in protecting different portions of the banks of the above-mentioned rivers, by means of sheathing the affected places with small stones experience having shewn that to employ: any other method would be ineffectual. Those operations, with a few others on the Earn and Almond, are perhaps the most permanent in the- country. The means generally employed by people not ac- quainted with the currents of water for protecting river banks are, for the most part, piers or jutments, run out at right angles into the beds of the rivers, which, in most cases, increase the evil instead of remedying it. Plan 9 Fuj.l. PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. 131 Another method is by driving long stakes into the affected part of the banks, as mentioned above in pages 125, 126, which is equally if not more injurious than jetties. I know instances where an ill-directed jetty or an ill-judged piling has caused the river to take a contrary direction from what was intended. To guard against these mistakes, it is to be considered that the path is to be cleared as well as to be made evident and safe to be pursued ; therefore, to simplify the subject and endeavour to render it plain, let us suppose the current of a straight part of the river a a (plan 9 3 fig. 1) to be interrupted by a large stone, or the root of a tree brought down and lodged by a flood at b. This, in rivers in general, is the cause of mischief. Through this trifling incident, the current loses its direct course ; for when the flood falls to the level of the obstruction, the water becomes confined in that part, its height above the obstruction is consequently increased, and its current opposite and below it not only accelerated, but gently turned from its direct course towards the opposite bank of its natural channel, which, if it be of an earthy matter, becomes undermined, and the upper part of the bank falls down, and is carried away by succeeding floods. What tends to increase the evil, is the channel immediately below the obstruc- tion, as at c, becoming occupied, in minor floods, with comparatively stagnant water. It is, in consequence, filled up with sediment there deposited, whereby an additional weight of water is thrown on the opposite bank, which, if the increasing cause of mischief be not soon removed, will, in a very short time, be greatly torn away ; and, in a few years, a bend at d will be scooped out in the grounds of the proprietor A, with a corre- K2 132 PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. spending bank of sand, united with and becoming the property of the proprietor B. If the lands of B are equally valuable with those of his opposite neighbour, he has no reason for exulting in his increase of territory ; for while the current is leaving him, perhaps, a worthless sand-bank at c, it is scooping out a bay at e, and giving to his neighbour an increasing territory at f: thus a mutual loss of lands is incurred ; and the evil is con- stantly increasing, until the banks are protected, or the current is restrained, and directed into its original channel. In this view of the subject, it is evident that there are several remedies for the evil. The one is to sheath the sides of the injured banks of the bays d and e with stones until they form a slope of forty-five degrees, which will resist the circuitous current; and the river should be allowed to remain in its crooked state. This is the most permanent of all remedies ; and where stones are plentiful, it ought never to be neglected. Another is, to erect a pier or jetty, as at the point g in figure 2, to ward off the force of the current from the bank d, and direct it straight, with the intention of pre- venting more mischief, and bringing back the course of the river to its original straightness. The diverting of the current may frequently be accomplished at a compara- tively small expense, and its effects be rendered perma- nent ; for it is plain, that if the accidental obstruction mentioned had been timely removed, no bad effect would have ensued, as the river would have continued its direct current. In many cases, by timely and judiciously placing in a similar manner an obstruction proportioned to the magnitude of the power to be counteracted, the like effect might be produced. Thus, if in the case supposed, the river-guide above PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. 133 mentioned were to be erected by the proprietor A, and to be inclined towards the stream in a degree propor- tioned to the rapidity of the current, not only the banks h h would be defended, in a great degree, from the action of the water, but the sand bed c (figure 1) would be carried away, and its materials deposited in the bay d, and thus, in a twofold way, be refilled and brought back to its original state. And further, if, when the gravel bank c is removed, the proprietor B were to erect a similar barrier at the point ?', the sand bank/* would, in like manner, be carried off, the bay c be returned to its former proprietor, and the straight course of the river be nearly regained, when the barrier ought to be removed, whether belonging to one or more proprietors, they all having a general interest in directing the river which separates their properties into a straight course, or keeping it in its natural channel. In protecting river sides, there are certain principles and particulars of practice to be observed. The position of the barrier should be such as to produce the desired effect, with the least possible resistance ; for the current of a river, as the waves of the sea, should be subdued by stratagem rather than by force resistance serves only to increase their fury. A wave falling on a flat shore seems to die without a struggle, while one that is stemmed by an abrupt rock or bank, strikes with tenfold force and breaks in pieces. In like manner, a rapid river will glide smoothly along the sides of an even bank, though it may somewhat deviate from the direct course, without perceptibly disturbing the current or injuring the banks that direct it, even though they are merely of turf; but when a strong current meets with 134 PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. an abrupt projecting or sharp bend in ks channel, its fury is increased, and stones are sometimes hardly suf- ficient to resist its force. Hence, in erecting a barrier with this intention, it should always be made to unite evenly with the natural bank of the river with a smooth hollow curve, that the fall of the current may not be checked. The outer or lower end of the barrier should be directed in a line with the straight part of the bank below the bay, which, in most cases, if carried far enough down the river, prevents the stream from doub- ling the end, and falling back into the bay ; for, in cases of this nature, the current of a flood and that of low water take different courses, according to their different heights and strength. The one rushes forward in the line required, and the other, unable to surmount the obstruction for want of strength, at the point of the barrier, doubles it, and falls back into the bay with an accelerated current, directed, perhaps, straight to the in- jured bank, which may thus increase, instead of prevent- ing the injury. To remedy this bad effect, and to guide the current at all seasons into the same channel, it is sometimes necessary, where it can be conveniently done, to cut a channel through the obstructing sand-bank deep enough to admit the stream at low water. By this procedure, although the bay d should not be so completely filled up, yet the advantage of putting an immediate stop to the ravages both of floods and low- water, might counterbalance that defect. But, in most hilly districts, the currents are very rapid, and, consequently, the sand-beds are so frequently re- newed by the action of the water, that, in many instances, it is extremely difficult and dangerous to meddle with them. And unless the site of improvement be of such PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. 135 a magnitude that it will allow the new channel through the sand-bed to be large and deep enough to contain the largest flood without rising over its banks, it should never be meddled with. The strength required depends on the weight of water, the force of the current, and the angle of deviation from the given direction of the current immediately above. If the required direction of the barrier be nearly the same as that of the current above it, as in the last diagram, it has little more than the weight of the water to withstand ; whereas a jutment run out abruptly into the natural course of the current, as is commonly done, has not only the weight but the force of the water to sustain, and requires tenfold the strength of structure. The height and base of the barrier also require par- ticular attention. The greatest care ought to be taken in giving it a sufficient base and height, so that the highest floods do not make their way over the top con- tiguous to the bank ; for if it be not raised high enough to prevent the water of floods from making its way over it, not only the foundation may be endangered^ but a large hole might be scooped out behind, especially in a place where the general fall of the river is considerable ; so that, instead of protecting the injured part, more damage would be done. The materials of a river-guide ought to be suited to its occasion. Where stones can be procured, they make the most permanent defence ; but in districts where they cannot be got but at an immense expense, brushwood and whins wattled together with short stakes make a tolerable substitute. In most hilly districts large rough stones are plentiful. A long pile of loose stones laid flatly, sloping against the bank of the river, or a flat 136 PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. ridge run out from it, may form a cheap and durable barrier ; for should they be disturbed by an extraordi- nary flood, they may be readily replaced when the water subsides. It may be proper to notice another case in which a barrier or river-guide may be employed with good advan- tage, namely, where a stream of the above description falls down a crooked valley, and necessarily takes, at certain points, a winding course, as in figure 3. If the quantity of water is considerable, its fall rapid, and especially if it is conducted to the bend, as at a, down a straight unobstructed reach, scarcely anything but substantial mason-work can resist its force in that part. In situations of this sort, it is not uncommon to see earth banks scooped out and undermined, until a perpendicular precipice of twenty or thirty feet high be formed. But if a barrier be erected at 5, with an easy curve from the natural course above, so as to bend the current without breaking it, and direct it into its natural channel in the valley below, it will have nothing to contend with but the loose gravel-beds c and d 9 which, if cut through, as in the former case, will be gradually removed, and the principal part of their materials be deposited in the bays e and f, but more especially in the latter ; in this as well as in that case, both sides of the river will be benefited by the alteration. There are cases, however, in which nothing but sheathing the whole of the injured part can be properly used to prevent further depredations ; as, first, where the river runs through a valley whose substratum is mostly gravel, as it frequently is in mountainous districts; and, PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. 137 secondly, where a deep pool of water occurs in any part which may require to be bent and protected to an unalterable channel. In such cases, it is extremely difficult to get a proper foundation for a barrier. In hilly situations stones are generally plentiful, and they ought to be applied in such a way as the given case may require. If the foot of the injured bank be covered with a pool at low water, shelve off the brink of the bank, and pour down loose stones from the top of it, suffering them to form their own slope in the action of falling, continu- ing to pour them down until the whole space of the injured side of the river form a slope of forty-five de- grees. But where a built barrier cannot be avoided, as at b in figure 3, the foundation ought to be laid pretty deep, to guard against any accidental scooping of the floods. The wall ought to be carried up dry, or without mortar, the stones being laid with their smaller ends outwards, and their inner ends pointing to the centre like those of an arch, backed with hard materials. In forming a barrier of this sort, the largest stones should be used where the current strikes most forcibly against it ; there, likewise, the greatest slope should be given to the wall. The coping, or uppermost course of stones, is to be secured with tough sods, whose surface ought to be even with that of the stone-work ; and similar sods require to be laid, with a gentle rising slope, until they unite smoothly with the natural turf of the land defended, so that the water of floods, when it rises above the stone- work, may have no projection to lay hold of, but may glide away smoothly. A bulwark of this sort, like every other species of 138 PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. river fence, requires to be attended to from time to time, especially after great floods. If the foundation be injured, it requires to be repaired with small stones thrown loosely against the bottom of it. If any of the facing stones be displaced or loosened, they are to be replaced with "others ; or if the turf which binds them at the top be disturbed, the torn part should be cut out square with the surface, and be completely filled up with fresh turf. Although instances may occur where the cutting through a sand bed or the erecting of a barrier may be employed to advantage in protecting river banks, yet, in most cases, the sheathing of the whole of the injured part of the bank with stones is preferable to every other species of defence. In most cases it is hardly possible to erect a single barrier so as to defend the whole of the injured bank, without a regular succes- sion of them placed along the damaged part, so that they throw or ward off the water from one to the other, until the current has passed or gained the straight course of the stream ; and even in this case they can- not be so effectual as sheathing the whole of the in- jured bank, for let the barrier be ever so judiciously placed the water is apt to make a whirl behind it, which not only endangers the foundation, but scoops out a hole in the solid bank immediately below, which it is impossible to hinder without placing them very near each other, the expense of which would be greater than sheathing the whole angle of the injured bank with stones. If we carefully observe the banks of rivers, we shall have no difficulty in remarking that the ravages are always greatest where the banks are perpendi- cular to a pretty considerable height above the ordinary PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. 139 surface of the water, and seldom at those places where the banks shelve down gradually towards the water edge ; for when the water is swollen to a great height by rains, and runs with a rapidity greater than usual, it strikes violently against the perpendicular banks, under- mining them, and carrying off prodigious quantities of their materials ; but when the river rises to any con- siderable height, it gently glides along the surface of those parts of the bank that shelve gradually downwards to the water-edge, passing along without doing scarcely any damage at all. These are facts which no one who has bestowed the least attention upon this subject can fail to have observed ; and they clearly point out, that the first and most necessary step towards a cure is, to level down the edge of the bank next the water, giving it a regular slope to the surface of the water at the driest time of the year. This operation ought to be performed as early in the spring as possible, and the slope should be either immediately covered with turf, or, if the turf cannot be easily had, it should be sown very thick with the seeds of some small mat-rooted grass the creep- ing meadow-grass, (poa reptans,) is a proper grass for this purpose. The bank being thus prepared, and level with the surface of the water in dry seasons, the breast of the bank below the water should be filled with stones, carefully thrown in, till they be near the surface of the water, and form the same slope from the bottom of the river as the bank above, as at a in figure 4. Stones collected on the surface of cultivated land are best for this purpose ; but where they cannot be obtained, any kind may be used, provided they are broken, next the 140 PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. water, to the size of a man's hand. The smoother the sides of water-courses are made, whatever the materials are, the current will glide more easily along without being ruffled ; where there is no resistance there can be no friction. Where the current is not too violent, a small portion of earth mixed with gravel ought to be thrown in with the last layer of stones next the water-edge a, which will not only fill up the crevices, but if a few aquatic plants be planted near the water-edge, they will sooner strike root among the stones. For example, the water spiderwort will grow in water four feet deep, and the roots of the yellow-flowered water iris form so strong and compact a covering upon the surface of the soil on which it grows, as to be almost impregnable to the action of water. This plant has another advantage attending it, that it grows on a firm bottom, and chiefly delights in running water. The sheathing or protecting of river sides with small stones is so very simple in itself, that where stones are to be had there is not the least difficulty in preserving their banks at a trifling expense, provided the injured part be immediately filled. Instead of putting a few cart-loads in heaps at random into the affected place, they ought to be laid regularly along the affected part ; for, in the first case, they only serve to break the current, forming partial waterfalls where there were none, whereby the injury is increased instead of being diminished ; but, in the latter case, the bank will be secured. Even in districts where stones are not to be had, half the ravages committed by water-courses winding through low grounds might be prevented by PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. 141 timely and judiciously keeping down the perpendicular banks, and sowing or planting the slopes with small- rooted aquatic plants, such as bog reeds, sedges, water spiderwort, rushes, and seeds of any kind of plants which are known to thrive in and near water. Before any work of this nature can be prudently undertaken, the given site or subject of improvement should be maturely studied, in order to discern the true method of procedure, especially if the river be the boundary between two proprietors ; for although every man has a right to defend his property, it does not follow that because the one proprietor's lands are damaged, works should be run out into the river to the injury of the lands on the opposite side ; such a step would not only be imprudent but highly reprehensible. In ordinary cases, opposite proprietors have one and the same interest ; and, by amicable and judicious arrangements, a considerable portion of the damages committed by the floods may be remedied at a trifling expense. How incumbent, then, is it upon the man- agers of estates to examine, from time to time, the state of the river banks, and, by appropriate means, to preserve them in due condition, and especially to be watchful of those which separate properties. EMBANKING HAUGH AND OTHER LANDS, TO PREVENT THEM FROM BEING INUNDATED BY LAND-FLOODS OR THE TIDE. Having shewn the necessity of straightening water- courses, and the best method of protecting their banks, we now come to the third branch of the subject, which 142 PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. is the embanking of haugh and other lands, to prevent them from being inundated by land-floods or the tide. Although this branch of country business is better understood than either of the'^former, yet considerable mistakes are often committed in the execution. They sometimes occur from the engineer not being able to discover the highest water-mark, but obliged to depend on the veracity of people who, although they might be brought up on the spot, never paid any particular atten- tion to the rise and fall of the flood or tide, whereby a sure calculation could be made for the height of the proposed bank, even though it should be made con- siderably higher than the water-mark pointed out.* Another mistake is in not giving the bank a sufficient base, but, by way of saving expense, the slopes are carried up nearly perpendicular, so that, in a few years, it falls down, and the reparation costs more than it would have done had a proper plan been adopted at the first formation.f Although the theory of embanking * A case of this kind happened to the author^ in the year 1823, in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. The embankment was made considerably higher than the water-mark shewn by the proprietor and his gardener,, but they having mistaken the flood-mark, the first land-flood carried away a considerable part, , to the great damage of the crop, which the proprietor was obliged to make good to the tenant. t An embankment of this description was thrown round the small island Mogdrum, in the river Tay, to protect the land from being overflowed by the tide ; but it was made so steep, that the first spring tides levelled the greater part of it to the ground. A second attempt was made, with the additional expense of a stone wall facing the water, which shared the same fate with'the former bank. Since these failu res, a third embankment has been erected with nothing but the natural soil of the land, and the whole covered with thin turf. The length of the present slope next the sea is five PROTECTING RIVER BANKS. 143 low grounds is simple in itself, there are particulars of inquiry necessary to be made before such an operation can be properly commenced ; such as its situation, size, materials, and form of construction, which are, in a great measure, given in the particular circumstances of every case : there are, nevertheless, general principles that are applicable in all cases. The situation of the bank should be such, that its base may not be exposed unnecessarily to the imme- diate action of the waves or the current. In embank- ing rivers that run through a flat country, as the water is mostly sluggish, the embankment in such situations ought to be carried up in one slope, from the level of the surface of the lowest water in the river to such a height as may be found necessary for the protection of the land ; and should the river be too much contracted, so as not to contain the water in time of floods, it ought to be enlarged, and the stuff taken out in forming it, or in cutting off any obtuse angle, (for it is always neces- sary to make the site of a river as smooth and regular as possible,) to be applied in forming the banks ; but in situations where a river runs through a hilly country, whose sub-soil is, for the greater part, gravel, and the current of the water rapid, (as the Tay and Earn,) the embankment should not only be placed at a distance from the water edge, to admit of a cart to pass between the bank and the river, for repairing the sides of the river banks, but the small promontories the windings of the river have made should be left without the embank- times the perpendicular height of the bank, and the inner slope three times; the water, meeting no resistance, rolls up and down the long slope without doing any injury. 144 EMBANKING LANDS. ment ; for should the embankment be placed so near as to confine the water too much, and proper attention not have been paid to the protection of the river banks, a single flood might undermine the embankment in a night's time, and thereby ruin the whole crop that was meant to be saved. The line of embankment should be smooth and free from acute angles, so as to occa- sion the least possible resistance to the current, whether of a land flood or the tide. In the construction or form of the bank, there are certain principles to be observed. Its height and strength ought ever to be proportioned to the depth and weight of water which it will have to sustain. The height of an embankment on the side of a river, or in any place where the water is not exposed to the action of the wind, ought to be at least eighteen inches above the highest known land flood ; but, by the sea, the height depends on several circumstances, for not only the highest spring tides must be taken into consideration, but the rise of the waves by the action of the wind must be calculated, for if the height is not sufficient to pre- vent the spray from going over the top, the whole bank will be in danger of being washed down. It is on the width of the bottom or base of the em- bankment that the strength, firmness, and durability of the bank principally depend. The slope ought to be made to a degree of flatness, for the twofold purpose of preventing resistance and taking off all the weight of water. In difficult cases, the length of slope from the centre of the bank, on the side next the river or sea, ought to be five times its perpendicular height, and the inner slope from two to three times the perpendicular height, EMBANKING LANDS. 145 as represented in figure 5, A B C, or according to the force to be guarded against, and the materials to be employed. But in less difficult cases, such as on the sides of small rivers, where the current of the water is sluggish, and it does not rise more than four or five feet high, the length of the slope next the water may be three times the, perpendicular height of the bank, and on the side next the land twice its height will be sufficient, as shewn by figure D E F. In making embankments of this kind, the whole of their slopes next the river or sea should be covered with thin turf; but if the formation be done early in the spring, and turf not easily to be procured, the inner and upper part might be sown with grass seeds. In most cases, turf is preferable to all other materials for cover- ing the slope ; for if the turf is tough, and gets time to grow together before the autumnal floods set in, it will stand the agitation of the water better than a thin covering of stones. There are instances, however, such as in reservoirs, of the water often standing so long that the turf becomes rotten, and where the surface of the water is much exposed to the agitation of the winds, that a covering of small stones, from twelve to twenty inches deep, is unavoidable. It is likewise necessary, in situations where an embank- ment is carried up from the lowest water-mark, that the foot of the slope should be protected with small stones, to prevent minor floods from undermining its base. In the construction of an embankment, it is sometimes advisable to form part of the inner slope with stone and lime, for the twofold purpose of saving earth and mak- ing a fence to the land within the embankment ; and, in executing a work of this kind, the wall ought to be 146 EMBANKING LANDS. carried up upon its own foundation, and substantially capable of resisting the pressure of the bank, whose earth ought to be well rammed down, immediately on its back, to prevent vermin from harbouring behind the mason work. By not paying proper attention to this, many an expensive operation has been ruined in a few years. Fence embankments are well adapted where the river makes the march between two proprietors' lands, or where it runs through lawn ground, or near a resi- dence; for, in dry seasons, there are very few rivers whose water is sufficiently deep to prevent cattle from making depredations without some other fence, which often causes ill-will, and not unfrequently creates expensive litigations between neighbouring proprietors or tenants, amounting to more than would have both embanked and fenced the lands. To illustrate this subject, let us suppose figure 6 to be a river running through the grounds of A and B, whose water at floods overflows its banks. A is desirous to embank the land on his own side of the river, and, at the same time, to enclose them, so as to prevent the stock pasturing there from intruding on his neighbour. This is effected by means of the embankment C, with a stone wall raised five feet high in the inner slope D of the embankment ; but although this completely protects the lands of A from floods, and, at the same time, keeps the stock within its own bounds, it does not prevent the stock of B from forcing its way through the river in dry seasons, and jumping from the top of the wall D into the field of A ; therefore the proprietor B has no other alternative left than either to make a fence along the side of the river to prevent his stock from injuring A, EMBANKING LANDS. 147 or throw up an embankment E, with a sunk fence on the inner side F, as already done by the proprietor A. Again, should the proprietor B make a common fence by the side of the river, to keep the pasturing stock within bounds, the land will be more exposed to the ravages of the floods than it was previously to the em- bankment on the opposite side of the river. There- fore, any proprietor who studies his own interest, ought to go hand in hand with his neighbour in guarding against all kind of encroachments on river banks, whe- ther by water or pasturing stock. The small portion of land lying between the river G and the bank fences D F, can either be cut for hay by each proprietor, or grazed conjunctly. Some good specimens of fence embankments are to be found on the river Clyde, on the property of David Sim, Esq., and on the Tweed, on the property of Sir James Montgomery, Bart. These embankments, but more especially the former, are very substantially made, so that there can be no doubt of their durability, and they are a good pattern to imitate. Some very substantial earthen embankments have, within these few years, been made on the rivers Clyde arid Tay, and on the Frith of Forth, which have given satisfaction to all parties ; but there are others in differ- ent parts of the country that have been so superficially made, that they not only disgrace the planners, but every one who has been any way concerned with them. The failure of such undertakings is sufficient to prevent proprietors from laying out their capital in one of the most important branches of rural economy; and it is very much to be regretted that better advice is not ob- tained before an undertaking be commenced, when the L 2 148 EMBANKING LANDS. whole success of the improvement depends on a few pounds more being expended than may be thought necessary by improper judges. To prove this assertion, I could point out many instances where embankments have been made within these few years, which, for want of proper dimensions, are either lying in a ruinous state, or their reparation has cost nearly as much as the first formation : but it is not my intention to criticise, but rather endeavour to put landed proprietors on their guard against entering into an improvement of this nature, until every circumstance be properly weighed. REPORT TO THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. INTRODUCTION BY THE TRANSLATOR. BY the following account, the reader has an opportu- nity of judging of the success of Elkington's system of draining land in Scandinavia. It does not become the translator to make any observations on the work, but to leave that to the impartial reader ; he only begs to state, that he can pledge himself to the accuracy of the plans, sections, and the account given of the stratifica- tion of the soil of the different fields therein described. Immense tracts of the surface of Sweden, but more especially in the provinces of Wester Gothland, part of Easter Gothland, Smoland, Nerikie, Westmoreland, Dahlsland, Upland, the islands of Gothland and Oland, and several other districts, are covered with marshes, bogs, and other wet land ; the sub-soil of many of those are composed of the purest marl, from two to twenty feet deep ; for instance, nearly the whole of the marshes in the island of Gothland, amounting to upwards of fifty three thousand acres, rests on marl of the best quality. 150 REPORT TO THE ROYAL These marshes produce a little coarse grass, thinly scat- tered over the surface, which, in dry seasons, is cut and collected for fodder ; but, in wet seasons, it is lost altogether. Draining was so imperfectly understood before the introduction of Elkington's system, that any attempt which had been previously made had universally failed, on which account all classes of people were prejudiced against the cultivation of such soil. This led to the improvement of many thousand acres of the high shal- low soil, which, from the earliest period, had produced wood ; but the generality of the soil being very poor, the cultivator considered himself richly paid if he received two seeds for the one sown. The evil of breaking up the woodland has been seri- ously felt in more respects than one, for, by that means, many estates and farms have been left without either fuel or building materials, which are of the most essen- tial importance in a country where neither coal nor free- stone exist. The breaking up of the thin sandy soil in the parish of Abo, in the province of Smoland, and subjecting it to the action of fire, has proved most ruinous to many proprietors, for, by such a procedure, the whole of the black vegetable earth has been completely destroyed. The Swedes are not the only people who have reason to regret such an ill-judged system ; for, if I am not very much mistaken, many of our own country people have committed the same error, where the system of paring and burning deep moss and boggy soil has often been prevented ; although it is well known to be the most expeditious to redeem such soils to an arable state, and well authenticated as not AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 151 only the best but one that may be practised without the least risk. Although the Swedes had every cause to be preju- diced against the practice of paring and burning, yet the drainage of the marshes and bogs of Nirikie and Wermland have given them an opportunity of expe- riencing the beneficial effects of the system, for in a country where there is no possibility of purchasing putrescent manure, and where lime is only found in a few districts, and not even used there as a manure, ashes are undoubtedly one of the best substitutes, pro- vided they can be procured without injuring the soil. The success of draining the marshes and bogs has created a new epoch in the annals of Swedish hus- bandry, for now, instead of using the axe and mattock to destroy the woods, the level, spade, and paring plough are in full operation ; indeed the last mention- ed implements is in such general use in Wermland, Nirikie, and Smoland, and a few other districts, that manufactories have lately been established for making them. Previous to the introduction of Elkington's system of draining, his Excellency Count Trolle Bonde, the late Baron M'Lean, Major Stjirnsward, in Scania, and a few other proprietors, had commenced improving their estates, by dividing them into farms, building farm steadings, and introducing some British implements. The great change, however, which the Swedish system of agriculture has undergone, is wholly to be ascribed to the Nerician and Wermland societies, whose achieve- ments and example were soon followed by many others, so that the agriculturist was enabled, in a very short time, to drain and cultivate large tracts of land, which, 152 REPORT TO THE ROYAL but a few years before, were considered to be irrecover- able. Since the publication of the following report, the translator has surveyed and made plans for the drainage and cultivation of about one hundred and eighty thou- sand acres of wet land in that country, whereof many thousand acres are now improved, and many mills that injured the landed interest have been removed to other sites or abolished altogether, the proprietors of the lands making the owners compensation. Several lakes have been drained, and the water in many others have been reduced from three to ten feet below its former level. To give a full description of the immense re- sources Sweden has in her marshes, bogs, and other wet lands, with an account of the drainage and improve- ments already made, would be an undertaking of great length, and foreign to the translator's intention in this work, in which he only wishes to impress on the minds of agriculturists the true principles of a system which has been found so beneficial not only in our own country but also in many others, and which is so ably explained by the Archbishop of Sweden, PREFACE TO THE REPORT. When the Royal Economical Society of Orebro called in a foreigner to make known and put in practice Elkington's principles of draining land, it was an under- taking of too great importance to the Swedish agricul- turist not to excite considerable attention. The Society, which resolved to provide for the expenses of this enterprise, and for the sake of which so many AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 153 private individuals so liberally contributed, is thereby entitled to avail itself of a more circumstantial account than what was or indeed could be contained in the trea- tises published solely for the instruction of the peasantry. Although we have an excellent translation of Elking- ton's method of draining in our own language, yet it seems to be very little known to the public in general. I have had opportunities of hearing vague surmises as to the principles and practicability of the scheme, and also various conflicting opinions as to its utility in such a climate and soil as ours. To explain and correct the consequent errors into which this problem has led many, and present it in a fair light, will certainly prove advantageous to the public ; for if the rules are ascertained to be clear and simple, founded on those laws of nature which operate alike in all climates, and if the putting them in practice do not require greater outlay than Sweden can afford, the method ought and no doubt will meet with the greatest attention in a country of which so considerable a portion lies waste, in the shape of mosses, morasses, and other wet uncultivated lands, on whose generally unlevel surface numerous springs are found. From the confidence with which I was honoured by the Society, I felt it to be my duty to pay the minutest attention to the experiments which were made last year under the direction of Mr Stephens, and accordingly, on these occasions, I generally accompanied that indivi- dual, and consider myself under peculiar obligations to him as well as to the public. My design in publishing the present work is to com- municate the success with which the Society's undertak- ing has been crowned, to make known those individuals 154 REPORT TO THE ROYAL who so zealously contributed to its performance, and also what has been accomplished by Mr Stephens, and the principles he has followed. My design, at the same time is, to prove that what has been published in the Swedish language concerning Elkington's method is quite clear and comprehensible, according to my experience of its working. I will likewise endeavour to shew that, at the several trials made to drain land in Sweden, the same variable- ness of strata, the rising of water in wells or bore-holes., &c., has been experienced here, as is shewn by Elkington to prevail in England ; that the application of his prin- ciples of draining will so improve the land, probably very soon, to cover the outlay ; and that the method is not only adapted to mosses and bogs, though many suppose the contrary and are afraid to make the expe- riment, but, on the contrary, may be practised on every kind of soil ; and wherever it is tried, the expense (which has hitherto been the principal objection) will be compensated for by the improvement of the land. Should my endeavours to call attention to the subject meet with the success which I anticipate and wish, the truth of what is above stated will soon be proved throughout Sweden. The Society, which called Mr Stephens to this country and caused the experiments to be made, have accom- plished much, but still much is required to be done. Different situations and circumstances, in which the principles may and ought to be brought into operation, have been yet untried, and very little of the system is known by the public the effects will often not be visible for a considerable time, before which the whole business may probably be forgotten. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT 0REBRO. 155 Such persons as consider these transactions of any consequence, have still an opportunity of being useful both to themselves and others. It is hoped Mr Stephens' settling in Sweden will be productive of something else than the mere talk of a day. It is a circumstance fortunate for the country.* So far as his own agricultural pursuits will allow, he offers his services to all such landed proprietors and agriculturists as will make farther trials in the art of draining land, and, through his confidence, I am herewith commissioned to correspond with him. With pleasure I am given to understand, from several districts, that he will not want opportunities of shewing his abilities. An inclination for agricultural pursuits seems to be the prevailing spirit of the day ; we converse in almost all companies ; we write, we dispute about the most im- portant principles of the system of circulation of the use- fulness and advantages of new improvements if clover shall be sown among rye or barley, &c. That, nevertheless, is not the way the tide rolls ; it is my accidental obliga- tions to the before mentioned Royal Agricultural Society, which has brought me forward as an author in a science as far separated from my natural disposition and inclina- tion as it is foreign to the knowledge I have hitherto treasured up, and in the pursuit of which I hope to spend the remainder of my life. .This treatise is, there- fore, published without any pretentious : my design is to keep the public attention alive towards the subject. Should the practice of Elkington's discovery, with respect to Sweden, become a question of controversy, * The translator having then taken an arable farm in the province of Wester Gothland, fifty miles from Gothenburgh. 156 REPORT TO THE ROYAL according to my ideas a single trial would soonest and in the most satisfactory manner testify both its import- ance and practicability. INTRODUCTION TO THE REPORT. Superfluous moisture is undoubtedly one of the greatest obstructions to vegetation which a well-ordered husbandry has to overcome. Dampness of the soil not only creates a great deal of trouble in the management, but it prevents the coming up of the finer plants as well as their ripening. It often spreads destruction to a considerable distance over neighbouring lands, and, at length, turns the whole tract of otherwise good soil to worthless moss and barren land. Even before it has produced these visible evidences of its mischievousness, it has diminished the fertility of the improved lands. Water-sick arable lands seldom produce heavy grain, but plenty of weeds ; wet natural meadow and pasture land give weak and less wholesome food for cattle ; and many gardens, even large tracts, otherwise well adapted for the growth of wood, are solely, through the same inconveniences, rendered altogether useless. Therefore, it is unquestionably one of the agriculturist's first objects, to remove all superfluous moisture from the soil, if he expects to reap a profitable crop. In the greater part of the Swedish provinces, the usefulness of draining has already been discovered ; and where it has hitherto been neglected, the system is more and more beginning to be put in practice : but where fixed principles are wanting, the labour is increased and the expense doubled. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 157 I think I may assert that we have hitherto, in most cases, been draining at random, without being sure of arriving at the point we aimed at; without paying proper attention to the nature of the soil, of the sufficiency of the fall, of the dimensions of the outlet, whether large enough to carry away the flood water as fast as it comes upon the land ; without sure principles for directing the drains or ditches, their distance from each other, and their depth we have seldom understood the real cause of the wetness. A diligent husbandman has drained his land in the hope of receiving benefit, while his drains produced little or no effect ; he has, with the same uncertainty as before, augmented their number, or, in some few instances, their depth ; but it often happens that his property, after several renewed and unsuccessful trials, continues as wet as ever.* Many arable fields shew evidence of this, and particularly some mosses, where very expensive longitudinal and diagonal drains have been employed. The expense of ditching, in the first instance, has been questioned ; badly designed work has left the land equally wet ; doubts have arisen as to the benefit of draining, especially with the peasants in some of the provinces where it is most required, namely, in Neri- kie, Wermland, and a part of Wester Gothland ; and often the inclination to proceed has been damped on account of the little benefit gained by the operation. Elkington appears to have been the first who fixed the principles of draining land by the comparative rela- * This is too often the case in our own country, where more money has been thrown away in attempting to drain than in any other branch of husbandry. Translator, 158 REPOHT TO THE ROYAL tion of the different strata with water which has made its way into the bowels of the earth, and also the unal- terable physical laws by which the water rises, is con- veyed, or runs away. His principles are plain, although but briefly explained in the translation of his work, published in the Swedish language ; as the promulga- tion of these are the object of this treatise, the reader who did not before know Elkington's method will ex- pect here, at least, to have a short description of it. In the meantime, as this treatise is not a full exposi- tion of the system, but merely a hint on the occasion, to prove its utility and practicability in our country, or, at least, to rouse attention to this weighty and import- ant subject, I hope it will be allowed me to avoid tediousness, and to refer such as wish a more complete knowledge of it to the above masterly translation, or to the other writings which I have had an opportunity of consulting.* Before any drainage can be commenced with suc- cess, it is necessary to understand where the water comes from that causes the wetness. It is either occa- sioned by the rain water which has collected on the surface, or by subterraneous springs. The success of Elkington's system of draining depends on the particular attention he pays to the different causes which produce the wetness of the land ; and, in this respect, he departs considerably from the old principles of making drains, by which we only augment the difficulty. To accom- plish the removal of the subterraneous water is more difficult, and requires more knowledge of the nature * An Account of the Mode of Draining Land, according to the system practised by Mr Elkington, drawn up by John Johnston, Landsurveyor. London, 180.1. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 159 and source of springs. The earth is composed of various kinds of strata, which we, when the question is for draining, may, without regard to their other charac- teristics, divide into those which are porous and those which are impervious to water. All the strata of the earth, whose less coherent essential parts freely receive water, and, consequently, are traversed by it with ease, such as rotten rock, gravel, sand, and loamy clay, &c., are called porous. On the other hand, hard clay, clay mixed with fine sand, and the different kinds of solid rock, come under the name of impervious. In these stratifications which vary so often, we again find the causes of springs. When the rain water sinks through a porous stratum below the surface of the ground, and then meets with an impervious one, it must remain. In this way a large quantity of water is collected, which must either sink into the hard clay, or, by degrees, rise in evaporation, which wets the surface of the ground and keeps it cold; or otherwise, where the stratum that contains the water communicates with a hill from which the rain water has descended, it must, through its own gravity, find its equilibrium, break through and cause springs wherever it finds the easiest passage to the surface of the ground. The variableness of the strata, their position, bear- ings, form, and quality, give occasion to many different causes of wetness, which must be taken into considera- tion in the draining of different lands. To account for all the different circumstances that may occur, and, at the same time, the particular prac- tice which ought to be followed, is not my purpose. I believe the general principles ought only to be pointed out to give a clear idea of the subject. 160 REPORT TO THE ROYAL Elkington's principles, on which the whole draining system depends, are as follow : First, The main spring or the collection of water which causes the wetness of the ground, must be dis- covered, otherwise an essential benefit cannot be accom- plished. The main spring is a term used by Johnston and his translator, which expression has been misun- derstood by some readers. They have confined them- selves to the general signification of the word spring. They have thought that, by exploring the springs found on the surface, one should be fixed on which was the principal cause of all the others. * This mistake has, I suppose, been the cause why so many husbandmen have deemed the translation we have of Elkington's method of draining an obscure and insufficient guide to the practical operator a fault, according to my opinion, we can neither lay to the charge of Johnston nor his Swedish translator ;f for we have only to remember the main spring merely signifies the collection of water which causes the wetness, whether that collection shews itself on the surface or must be looked for in the bowels of the earth. With this explanation, I hope a word already received may be used without any controversy. Secondly, The height of the subterraneous water must be examined along with its position. It is ack- nowledged that these principles were never urged before Elkington's discovery. The outlet is of little or no service, unless it goes through, or, at least, * This is the opinion of many of our agriculturists and men pretend- ing to understand draining of land at this present day. Translator. t Mr Castirin, proprietor of Elfstorps Iron Manufactory, has accomplished, with the assistance of the above translation, a con- siderable drainage. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 161 touches the stratum that contains the water, and has its bottom lower than the surface of the water.* Thirdly ) When the water lies so deep that a ditch or drain cannot reach the bottom of the strata, and in that manner cut off all the springs, or, by so doing, the work should be too expensive, it may generally be accomplished by using the auger or sinking wells in the bottom of the ditch or drain. The last mentioned expedient, however startling it may appear at first sight, is founded upon physical truths. When subterraneous water, through its own weight, has communication with other water in the neighbour- ing high grounds, it forces itself to the surface of the ground, (otherwise it can by no means cause any wet- ness,) therefore it will easily rise in the bore-holes, in which it meets little or no obstruction. If I suppose, for example, that the wetness in the land I wish to drain comes from a stratum where the water has accu- mulated, say sixteen feet under the surface of the ground, whence it forces its way slowly and continually through one or more strata of a hard and compact nature, which often happens, then by making a drain, two, four, or six feet deep, with bore-holes or wells in the bottom of the drain down to the collection of water, the water will rise through such holes into the bottom of the drain and run away. In the same manner, by making a sufficient number of such openings for the water to run through, the superabundant water will be reduced two, four, or six feet below the surface.f If * This mistake happened to the author in attempting to drain at Kumla. t The deeper the drains are made where bore-holes or wells are to be used, the effect will be in proportion. Translator. M 162 REPORT TO THE ROYAL the water, by the above mentioned pressure, be forced sixteen feet up to the surface of the ground, independ- ent of the many obstructions which it meets with in the bowels of the earth, it is evident that it will rise much easier ten, twelve, or fourteen feet through bore- holes or wells where all impediments are removed. In this part of Elkington's method, we only find the new application of one of those truths known from the earliest periods. The astonishing aqueducts of the Greeks and Romans, the ancient and modern water works by which towns and fortifications are supplied with the liquid, and the many gardens and pleasure grounds which are embellished, and nearly all the wells in every country have, for the most part, been made on the same principles. However, the merit will always be Elkington's, who first applied them to the purpose of agriculture, and who, probably, discovered by accident what has led to so much ultimate advantage, and of which so much has been made. Should ignorance or prejudice succeed in limiting the practice of the system to any certain country, and maintain that these laws will not answer our climate; and if, likewise, by applying Elkington's method on Swedish soil, the experience of our earth and our changeable situations probably may give the same many alterations, developements, and additions ; never- theless, I believe the fundamental principles laid down by him will remain unmoved. In the execution of these drainages, two instruments are almost in every case necessary, viz. the spirit level and auger. The boring rods, twenty feet and upwards long, made of inch square iron, ought, for the sake of conveniency, to be divided into lengths, from three to AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 163 four feet each, to be screwed together at pleasure. The auger for making trials of the different strata, should be about two and a half inches in diameter, but the one for making the holes in the bottom of the drains and ditches ought to be from four to five inches in diameter. * Where the ground is of considerable extent, or the situation difficult, the spirit level ought to be used. For the greater part of landed proprietors, it is advisable to employ a person who understands the use of the spirit level, to take the levels of the outlet and the height of the subterraneous water, otherwise it might happen, through mistake, that the whole operations would be useless. When a drainage is to be commenced, the levels of the ground must be taken, to determine what fall possibly can be gained for the outlet. By using the spirit level, several outlets may be discovered, whereby the operator will have it in his power to fix on the best. In the next place, trial must be made with the auger to ascertain the quality of the stratum, its changeableness, whether porous or impervious, its declination and form, continuing the trial till the stratum is discovered which contains the water that forms the main spring. To ascertain the depth of the drain required to take away the water found in the above mentioned stratum, the levels must be taken which will determine whether bore-holes may be used with propriety in such land. If, by boring, the subterraneous water do not shew itself in the bore-holes, it will be necessary to sink pits * I have found the auger very useful in all soft soils, and never travelled in Sweden without it ; but where the ground is hard, the spade and pick is preferable. Translator. M2 164 REPORT TO THE ROYAL into the wet strata, when it will soon be seen how high the water rises. It is often discovered without any trouble, especially in sloping grounds, through the line in which the spring breaks out. We ought, nevertheless, to remember and reckon on the effect the season of the year and the weather has on all subterraneous collections of water, which, after abundance of rain, always shew a higher surface than usual, and the reverse after a long drought. Lastly, The drains, bore-holes, or wells, which are found necessary for carrying the superfluous water $way, must be marked. How the draining in other respects and in different cases should be arranged, is explained in the account of Elkington's method, to which the reader has been re- ferred. I only wish that the following treatise may be the means of drawing the particular attention of the thought- ful cultivator to this weighty discovery, and inclining him even now to make farther trials of its practicability. This attention and inclination gave occasion to the provision for which I now wish to explain to the public. As early as the end of 1804, Baron J. O. Cronstadt, of Runnaby, drew the attention of the committee of management of the Nerician Agricultural Society at Orebro, to Elkington's discovery, the knowledge of which appeared to be of the greatest importance, and worthy of the Swedish agriculturists' notice. He was of opinion, that although we had a sufficient store of the knowledge of Elkington's theoretical principles in the often mentioned translation by Adlesparre, there remained, nevertheless, various causes to be attended to in a practical performance, which would require at least several years experience before they could be generally AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 165 known, except some effectual means were taken to hasten the attainment of this knowledge in our own country, to the whole of its extent. The committee una- nimously agreed in this conviction. As, however, they were not fully agreed as to the measures to be taken, it was brought, for the first time, before the general meeting of the Society, on the 25th January 1805, when it was supported by the Baron Cronstadt, as also by other members, especially the late Judge Dahlson, who offered a donation of 500 rix-dollars,* binding himself to pay it to the Society as soon as the committee of management had determined on the practicable means towards obtaining a perfect knowledge of the principles of draining mosses and other wet lands in Sweden, either by sending a person to Britain, through corre- spondence, or otherwise, as might be thought most advisable. The whole of these expedients at the time met with many difficulties ; through corresponding, little could be gained, as there was not the least doubt of the truth of the theory and practicability in that country. To send one of our own countrymen to Britain to learn the method on the spot, and afterwards to practice in Sweden, had many difficulties attending it, and would necessarily take a considerable time ; whereas, on the other hand, it appeared most proper to write for a skilful person, who would agree to give instructions in the art. This proposal, together with an account of the expense, being laid before the Society, met with the most cordial approbation.! * About 107. -Translator. t The Society's protocol of 10th September 1805. 166 REPORT TO THE ROYAL Baron Hamilton of Boo, Bruks Patron Stierncreutz, and Bruks Patron Westerbeny, gave each of them one hundred rix-dollars banco towards the promoting of the measure, and, at the same time., offered their estates to make trials on as soon as a person should arrive for that purpose. Baron Silfverschiold, Baron Cronstadt, Judge de Frese, and Secretary Falkenstadt, bound themselves likewise to make trials on their estates, under the superintendence of the expected person, and, at the same time, Mr Geijerstam gave fifty rix-dollars banco, and Baron Silfverschiold agreed that the sum of five hundred rix-dollars banco, which he had previously given to the Society for the especial purpose of encour- aging the breed of cattle, should be used, if necessary, for the introduction of Elkington's system, if it appeared best adapted to prepare and forward the improvement of meadow and pasture land. The committee were empowered, without farther delay, to take the necessary steps for the performance of the measure, and also to order the capital required from the Society's funds. But although there was sufficient capital for the pur- pose, yet it may be easily conceived that many circum- stances still remained, on the adjustment of which the success of the undertaking depended. It only required the neglect of one of those to defeat the whole success. A stranger was to be called ; who could answer for his humour, ability, or vigilance ? An interpreter and an apprentice must be engaged; the choice of them might even be difficult. Several proprietors had offered them land and work-people ; but how could we pre- viously know if there was land of such a description on AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 167 their estates as would give an opportunity to develope the whole method in a satisfactory manner.* The time for performing field labour in Sweden is but short, it was therefore uncertain how much could be done in a season to acquire the necessary experience whereby we could judge of the value of the discovery. These difficulties gave occasion to many to regard the undertaking of the Society as empty speculation ; but the uncertainty wherewith it was attended could not diminish the zeal of a Society whose numbers were so well disposed to benefit their country they being con- vinced of the importance of the subject, and having a desire to undertake something which would be worthy of such a numerous association. On the part of the Society, I had the honour to correspond with the Earl of Kellie, in Scotland, who, from old attachment to the Swedish nation, and he being also disposed to promote any useful improvement, spared no trouble in executing the Society's wishes. On the recommendation of his lordship, Mr Stephens went to Kumla Manse, in the province of Nirikie, in the beginning of May 1806, and engaged to make trials in draining, agreeable to the system practised by Elkington, on 'such estates as should be pointed out, and, at the same time, to instruct two persons ; for which his tra- velling expenses to Sweden and back again, with all expenses there, and one guinea per diem, was to be paid him.f * For instance, there was no land on Mr Falkenstadt's property on which Elkington's system could be applied. Translator. t With respect to this remuneration for the improvement of agri- culture, many may think it too high, we are so little accustomed in our country to employ more knowledge or ability than is to be found 168 REPORT TO THE ROYAL That Mr Stephens' knowledge of draining, his activity, and the value of his instructions, fully answered^ the Society's expectations, I take this opportunity of publicly attesting ; and, at the same time, have much pleasure in expressing my esteem for him, a testimony which would be altogether superfluous here if I did not believe that this account would be read where Mr Stephens has not had an opportunity to be personally known. As apprentices, the Society appointed Mr Lagerholm and Mr Oferman, the former a professional land-sur- veyor, and the latter a famous discoverer of springs and a well-digger ; Mr Wyld, who had emigrated from the carron works in Scotland, was appointed interpreter.* When Mr Stephens arrived, the spring-floods of 1806 were unusually late, which hindered the operations for several days, and we could not commence till the 19th May ; but after that date we carried on regularly till the middle of October, as will be seen by the following report : in a land-steward or common labourer; but when we remember that this is the payment of a person who will survey and make the plan for the draining of fifty or a hundred acres, and often to a much greater extent of land, in a few days, the expense of which only costs twenty, thirty, or forty rix-dollars, it will appear very reason- able ; whereby we save several times that sum, besides the great advantage of a complete drainage being effected. In architecture and operations of mining, we are accustomed to make out accounts why may not the agriculturist even use the same sound arithmetic ? * Mr Lagerholm was an active young man, but never did any good as a drainer ; Mr Oferman had been a life grenadier, and had some nonsensical idea regarding springs ; he was soon discharged ; and as for Mr Wyld, he could neither speak English nor Swedish, but a mixture of both ; he was superseded by a Mr Hillstadt, who had been an agent for a mercantile house in Philadelphia. Trans- lator. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 169 REPORT. AFRABY MOSS. THIS moss belongs to Baron Hamilton of Boo, is situated at Afraby, and is of considerable extent, whereof thirty-nine and a half acres, as shewn by the annexed plan, were drained by Mr Stephens. That PLAN 10. 170 REPORT TO THE ROYAL part marked with the letter a was previously cultivated having been divided by ditches into ridges of about twenty yards wide, and the surface dug over and burned, as practised in Finland ; but, although the ditches were from two to three feet deep, the land was still wet. The other part was untouched, and so very wet that it could not bear cattle in the summer time. The surface of the moss, as may be seen by the section, declines a little towards the outlet E. The upper stra- tum or surface is composed of blackish moss earth in the middle, between sixteen and seventeen feet deep ; we then come to clay mixed with fine sand, and, under that, coarse sand, containing a large quantity of water. Towards the sides the depth of the moss diminished to two or three feet ; on the upper side of the moss is a considerable ridge of sand covered with wood, the water from which runs into and under the bottom of the moss in the coarse sand, where a collection of water is con- fined, and forms the main spring, which, with the water at the upper side, and as long as the water in the burn runs, keeps the whole tract wet the water seeking, through its own pressure, a level, rises up through the thin stratum of clay, and makes the whole constantly wet, so that nothing can grow on it. To remedy this, the open drain A A A was made six feet deep, parallel with the sand bank, just where the springs made their appearance by the side of the moss, which ought to dry the space between it and the horizontal line, drawn from the bottom of the drain c a. (See section.) Another drain, B B, was made a little below that line, which acts in the same manner as the first, and dries the whole moss above the broken line b b, to the surface of the ground at the bum E. Had the field been AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 171 broader and the fall greater, it is evident that several drains would have been necessary in the same direction. The two drains C C lead the water from the drains A and B to the outlet E. As the drains C C and B did not reach to the water in the sand at the bottom of the moss, a complete drainage could not be accomplished with a few drains in so large a field, without the assistance of several wells, to allow the superfluous water confined at the bottom of the moss to rise. The number of the wells shewn in the plan are eleven. They are made four feet square, and from seven to ten feet deep below the bottom of the drains; but, to prevent them from sludging up, they are made by the sides of the drains, with a small outlet to the drain, and built on the sides and covered with wood. The water rises in the wells by its own pressure, the bottom of the drains being so much lower than where the water comes from in the said bank on the upper side of the moss, that it must force its way and run off, as already remarked. Bore-holes in such soft clay cannot be depended on ; the drain D was made round that part of the moss that had been cultivated, to carry away the water from the drain A to the outlet. Mr Stephens believed that those arrangements were sufficient to dry the whole, so that the other operations of improvement might be commenced. He deprecated the dividing of the land by deep open ditches into nar- row ridges, as is customary with us, and appealed to the experience of the Scotch in the cultivation of moss, and to Mr Aiton's treatise on moss.* * Mr Aiton's treatise on moss contains many remarks and much good advice, and, in my opinion, is extremely useful to the Swedish cultivator. It has been lately translated into the Swedish language. 172 REPORT TO THE ROYAL The above mentioned, compared with our principle of draining moss, which is by very diminutive drains, is, according to his ideas, the cause of the moss's growth and uselessness ; and if the continual flowing of the water is not prevented, although hundreds more of these drains are made, and the main springs are not cut off according to Elkington's system, the water in the moss will keep it constantly wet and spungy ; but where the main springs are cut, the water already in the moss earth will sink gradually, which is advantageous, as it should not be too hurriedly or beyond a certain depth dried ; for when it is too suddenly deprived of all its moisture through too much ditching, it is like the bark of a fir tree when bruised down to a powder, which will neither receive nor keep moisture to such a degree as vegetation requires. After the principal drains are made, and as many wells as are deemed necessary, and the wetness subsided, the moss ought to be pared and burned. The breadth of the ridges should not exceed thirty-six or forty feet, well levelled, with very little rise in the middle, and plough furrows between them, from six to eight inches deep, to carry away the super- fluous water.* What is here said with regard to the drains between the ridges in mosses will be disputed by many, but the present experience of the Swedish agriculturist can neither confirm nor contradict ; it ought, therefore, in the meantime, to be considered as an experiment. The mosses already drained by Mr Stephens will, in course * To free the surface of moss from rain or snow water, wedge drains made of the moss itself are now generally in use ; when they are well executed, they will operate from twenty to thirty years. ^ Translator. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 173 of time, settle this question, although great falls of snow and sudden spring floods will make an exception even with respect to mosses. I cannot, however, in this place omit mentioning, that in Nerikie, lands having a gentle declivity, and the ridges properly formed with the plough and with water furrows through the hollows, with proper outlets, the rain and snow water is evidently carried off as soon as by means of the numerous division ditches practised by us.* The drain A in Afraby moss, which was made six feet deep, and in many places from three to four and a half feet, in different kinds of sand, was with difficulty kept from falling in, on account of the great quantity of water breaking out from the sides and rising from the bottom it still runs uncommonly strong. To prevent this from taking place, the proprietor found it necessary to secure the sides with wood, which had the desired effect. That Elkington's system of draining, as practised by Mr Stephens, operates much sooner and more effect- ually than any other yet known, is shewn at Afraby a proof of which is visible on the lower part between the drains B and E. This piece was drained last year, and, from being a complete swamp, was, before autumn, * It is the general practice in Sweden, with those who profess to be the best agriculturists,, to divide the arable land into small ridges, with open ditches between them, which is not only expensive to keep in repair, but takes up a great deal of the surface, and com- pletely prevents all the operations of the plough and harrow from working across the field. There are but a very few of the peasan- try who make small ditches, as practised by the rich. I have found in every case where the land has been properly laid up with the plough and worked in a regular way, the crop has been equally good where there are no ditches as it was when the ditches were made. Translator. 174 REPORT TO THE ROYAL become so dry as to be equally firm with that part of the moss (letter a) that had been drained with an immense number of drains two years before. This sud- den change may principally be attributed to the effect of the wells ; for, although a drain was thrown round it, it was not much drier during the summer. After the draining was finished, ten or twelve acres were partly ploughed with oxen and partly dug over the same year. The whole expense of draining the above thirty-nine and a half acres, was one hundred and seventy-nine rix- dollars, or about 26 sterling, which is not one pound per acre an outlay which cannot be thought too great. Mr Stephens was employed at Afraby, taking levels at several places at Boo, and inspecting the operations at Damm, Alkarret, and Swinkarrs mosses, six days ; but as these operations are not completed, an account of them cannot be produced here. UNGER'S MOSS AT GAEPHYTTAN. This moss consists of one hundred and ten acres; Messrs G. Westerberg and P. J. Grill had already spent a great deal of money and been at considerable trouble in attempting to drain it. As it is one of those tracts where the greatest pains, according to our principles of draining moss, have been taken that I have had an opportunity of seeing, I have made choice of it to make a comparison between the old system- of draining and Elkington's. How it ought to have been drained in the beginning is shewn by plan 11, and plan 12 shews the system hitherto practised. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. PLAN II. 175 iniliis^v mm j 1 p y lli 176 REPORT TO THE ROYAL The moss falls from east to west, which will be seen by the section, plan 11. It is confined between two high sand ridges, covered with wood on the east and west sides, at the foot of which, just at the side of the moss, a considerable number of strong springs arise. There is sufficient fall to the north for all the water in the moss. In the middle of the moss, sand and stones, containing a considerable quantity of water, were found by boring to the depth of from twenty-two to twenty-four feet, but the depth of the moss diminished towards the sides. It appears that the moss was thirty-six feet deep before the commencement of the improvement. It was Mr Stephens' opinion that, when drain A, parallel to the upper side of the moss, was made suffi- ciently deep to go through the moss into the sand, drain C should be made nearly through the middle of the moss, where a horizontal line drawn from the bottom of drain A strikes the surface; two ditches D D in like manner with C, ditch E at the lower side, wide and deep enough to receive and carry the whole water to the outlet, and also the drain F, to conduct the water from the drains A C D to E, the principal part of the draining would be accomplished. However, as that part of the moss is very wide, especially between A and C, which is nearly in the middle, the drain B B would be useful and, per- haps, necessary. As bore-holes in moss are not durable, and it was not possible to make the drains so deep that they would reach the bottom, it was necessary to make wells at all these places marked in the plan with the figure 1, to allow the water to rise from the main spring at the bottom of the moss. In this place, we may refer to the observations already made respecting the dividing the moss into small beds with open drains, as mentioned in the account of Afraby moss. A large open drain, B, (plan 12), nine AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 177 PLAN 12. 178 REPORT TO THE ROYAL feet deep, with proportionable breadth, was made nearly through the middle of the moss ; the intention of this drain was, if possible, to get to the bottom of the moss, but this was found impracticable after getting a small distance from the outlet. The division ditches were directed to the large one, and were, in some places, from three to six feet deep ; it divided the whole into ridges of common size, about forty feet wide. These division drains terminated in two drains, A and C, which were only two feet deep, so that neither of the two could be considered as sufficient to receive and carry away the water, both from the moss and neighbouring high ground on the east side. In the meantime,. that part which lay between B and C, at the north end, was pretty dry, and had already produced good crops of rye, after being turned. This may be considered as a clear proof of the superiority of Elkington's system, for as far as the springs or collection of water was cut off from the moss, by means of the deep drain B, to the bottom, it stands with reason, as mentioned by Elking- ton, that the lower part would necessarily be dry, which, likewise, would have been the same if the drain C had been made deep and wide enough, whereby all water would have been cut off from that side. On the south side, where the drain B was not quite finished, that part was equally wet and swampy with the upper, on which the deep drain appeared to have little effect. That, although such drains be made ever so deep and wide, it can have no effect on the land on the upper side, especially where the water cannot run easily through the soil, is plain to every one who considers the com- parative relation of the course of water and its effect with that shrewdness which Elkington has done. The water that filtrates from the neighbouring springs, AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 179 and comes from the high ground, can never make its way into the above mentioned drain, unless it continue running through and keeping the land between the height and springs wet. The drain, on that account, can never make the ground dry, except it has it in its power, within a given time, to drain the whole of the collection of water in the sand ridge and all connected with it. If the division drains between the ridges in moss lands should be found necessary to carry away rain or snow water from the surface of moss, they are of very little service for removing wetness caused by subterraneous water, which I experienced at Unger's moss and many others. When the necessary drains round the highest side of a piece of wet land are neglected or made too diminutive to cut off the water coming from the high ground, and the division drains are even carried into well made outlets, we often see them dry, although the water is standing on the surface of the ridges within three or four feet of them, and the land as swampy as before. The drain A, plan 11, is now nearly completed, and shews the desired effect, and there is every reason to believe that the whole will be completely drained when finished. As the drainage is not completed, the expense cannot be exactly stated ; in the meantime, we have only to cast our eyes on the two plans, and they will instantly prove what a great saving there would have been had Elkington's system been known and followed from the commencement. A field on the south side of the road opposite Unger's moss that was laid down in grass, of which a consider- able part was swampy, and began to be covered with N 2 180 REPORT TO THE ROYAL moss, was drained by a drain staked out by Mr Stephens, across the slope or declivity of the ground, a little above where the springs shewed themselves. The same proprietor had commenced draining a moss at Latorp, which was likewise done satisfactorily, agreeable to the alterations suggested by Mr Ste- phens. RUNNABY MEADOW. One would think, according to the foregoing state- ments, that Mr Stephens had no opportunity of employ- ing Elkington's system but on mosses only. Perhaps, since it became a question with us, it is unjustly thought only applicable to such soils. Its usefulness, however, extends to all kinds of wet lands; and, probably, had we, during last summer, had an opportunity of witnessing a more detailed practice in all its bearings, I am inclined to believe many more proprietors who had not mosses on their properties, but had both meadow and arable fields which required draining, would have given notice that some trials would have been very acceptable among whom was Baron Cronstadt, the proprietor of the meadow now in question. It consists of it about forty-five acres, and is situated at the foot or lower side of Runnaby wood, sloping towards the east till it is cut off by the rivulet D, plan 13. The lower part between drain C and the rivulet D was dry ; but the higher lying part was a complete bog, especially the highest portion, which, in several places, would not bear cattle ; it was, therefore, impossible to plough it. According to indisputable authority, the former pro- AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. PLAN 13. 181 prietor, thirty years before, had expended about one thousand one hundred rix-dollars in improving this mea- dow from moss by draining alone, making an immense number of small open drains in all directions, in con- sequence of which the surface became so firm as to allow it to be ploughed; but as the subterraneous water was not removed, the moss began to grow again, 182 REPORT TO THE ROYAL and the ground became so very swampy, that the sown grasses were soon destroyed, and the surface returned to its former barrenness. Baron Cronstadt being desirous to employ the de- cayed vegetable earth on the strong clay land which was found on the north side of the road above the drain H, had divided about an acre into squares of twenty- four feet, with drains from four to six feet deep ; but although the drains were made so near together and so deep, the land was nearly as wet as before, and a great number of springs arose both in the bottom of the drains and on the surface of the squares. The cause of the wetness of this meadow cannot be explained by any other theory than that of Elkington, for the breaking out of subterraneous water to the surface is already noticed and assigned. I have not seen any other piece of land that shews a plainer proof of the usefulness of this meritorious man's method of draining. By boring, the whole of the upper side of the meadow was found to be clay ; but the west side, between the drain A and B, was mixed with a con- siderable quantity of sand, and the surface, in some places, was covered with peat moss. An oblique stratum of sand, resembling the annexed section, filled with water, stretched itself with tapering thickness, passing the drain C, and was reached by the boring instrument at the depth of from fifteen to twenty- two feet. The collection of water in this stratum of sand could not force its way to the surface below C, through the stratum of hard clay ; but it came up, not- withstanding, in several well eyes between B and C, and plentifully on the upper side of B. The whole of the high ground, called Runnaby wood, is composed of sand AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 183 and gravel filled with water, which, by its own pressure, forces itself through the sand, and rises to the surface of the meadow ; and, there is every reason to believe, it has carried the sand along with it that is found in the upper part mixed so curiously with clay. The principal spring lay too deep in this instance to be removed without the help of wells or bore-holes. The side drain A A was made six feet deep, with out- lets at both ends into drain EE, which discharges itself into the rivulet D ; the drain B was made from four to five feet deep, nearly parallel with the drain A ; the old cross- drain C was deepened and continued to the road, and from thence to the rivulet ; an old drain G was also made deeper to carry away the water from B, as also the cross drain H, on the north side ; the well eye. No. 1, naturally very strong, was carried into drain A, and acted as a well ; bore-holes were made very near together in the bottom of drain A, where the clay was least mixed with sand, also in the drains B, G, H, and in the north end of C. A short time before Mr Stephens' departure, he inspected the ground, and the operations not being altogether completed, he thought, as the drains had had no effect on the well eye, No. 2, that the drain F, between A and B, from four to five feet deep, with bore-holes, would be necessary, having an outlet to B. The length of this drain could not be determined until next summer, when the effect of what had been already done would be seen. One will then have an opportunity of judging whether the ground between B and C will require another drain, with an outlet to G, parallel with them ; but, in any case, it will not be necessary to be carried across the whole extent of the field. It will also then be seen if it will be 184 REPORT TO THE ROYAL advisable to make another outlet from the largest crook of drain C, to carry away the water coming from the bore-holes to the rivulet. When this extraordinary wet meadow was first examined with the auger, the water rose several feet above the surface of the ground, the same as an artificial fountain. These operations have had already a considerable effect, a great part of the ground between drain A and B being completely dried, notwithstanding the sides of drain A have fallen in in many places, as also the sides of the drain C at the north end. Many of the well eyes, old ditches, and holes are dried, and some of the bore-holes that were made last summer keep their depth with increased width, the water also rises as regular and as strong as at first. I believe that (although the drain mentioned between B and C will be necessary, and the drain F continued farther north than shewn by the plan, and, as the clay in drain A is so much mixed with sand, the bore-holes in A and F ought to be kept quite free of it) wells should be made to allow the large quantity of water to run freely away, for bore-holes are not so permanent when the soil is mixed with sand. I believe, when the whole of the operations are com- pleted, the expense will amount to four hundred rix- dollars currency, that is, eighty guineas sterling ; but, owing to the absence of the proprietor, I could not obtain a correct statement.* Mr Stephens was em- ployed six days in arranging these new operations. * The translator has had several opportunities of seeing the above- mentioned meadow since it was drained, and hopes he may be justi- fied in stating, that the operations have been the most complete and least expensive of any he ever before or since has been engaged with. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OUEIJRO. 185 DJURSKOG'S MOSS, AT SABYLUND. This little moss, consisting of only a few acres, was improved by Baron Silfverschiold, the proprietor, on purpose to try the effect of Elkington's system. It lies in a wood by the lake Mossjon, five and a half feet above the surface of the water in the lake. The moss has no natural outlet, the surface being nearly level, and the sub-stratum, a thin layer of clay, resting on gravel mixed with small stones at the depth of five feet, the moss diminishing at the sides to three feet. It was easily seen that the wet bed of gravel contained the main spring or collection of water, which, with the water lodged on the surface, was the occasion of the accumulation of the moss and its wetness. An open drain was made round the upper side of the moss five feet deep, gra- dually diminishing to the depth of three feet towards the lower side where the outlet was, which, going through a considerable sand bank to the lake, was obliged to be covered. If the stratum of clay under the moss had been level, one could have fixed the depth of the drain by boring, so that it would have reached the gravel all the way. There could have been no doubt of a complete drainage, if, in executing the work, the moss had not been found to be of unequal depth, This experiment was perhaps one of the best that could have been brought before the Swedish agriculturist, whose attention was at this period wholly turned to this subject, on which the subsequent improvement of their country so much depended, in order to shew them the superiority of Elkington's system of draining over that practised by them hitherto. Translator. 180 REPORT TO THE ROYAL which occasioned the bottom of the ditches to remain, in some places, in the moss, and, in others, in the fast clay, although every caution was taken, in staking out, to keep it as level and parallel with, the rising ground as possible. To have made the ditch deep enough so that it would have reached the gravel all round, would have been too expensive, especially as the gravel was mixed with large stones, which could not be removed without the assistance of picks and pinches. Mi- Stephens thought that, although the moss would be longer in drying on that account than in common cases, nevertheless the work already done would be of con- sequence, and ultimately be satisfactory. But, if it should prove otherwise, bore-holes ought to be made in all such places where the bottoms of the ditches do not reach the sand ; and, if the water rise in them strongly, the force of the water will keep them open; but if the spring be weak, and only a small quantity of water issuing, it would rather be advisable to make a few wells in the slope, with outlets to the ditch, which will be sure to answer the purpose. The proprietor wished to have pared and burned the surface this summer, but it was found to be still too wet, although it was become considerably harder and drier ; but, to make a complete drainage, bore-holes or wells would be necessary. These operations were expensive, from several circumstances. The outlet required to be cut and blown with powder through a hard bank mixed with very large stones, and the deep part to be covered, because it would not stand open without a very extraordinary width at top. The expense allocated on a few acres of ground comes higher than when the field is larger. Draining stone- bound land is troublesome and expensive, especially in AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OKEB11O. 187 a district where the work-people are not accustomed to such operations ; indeed, they never think themselves well enough paid. As the draining at present is not complete, the expense cannot be exactly stated, but it appears to verge upon thirteen rix-dollars per acre. At the time Mr Stephens went to Sabylund, Baron Silfverschiold engaged him to survey the large moss called Ekeby, situated west of Sundsbridge, by Mosos, and to make a plan for draining part of it. This, in its present state, is not only good for nothing, but noxious to the surrounding lands. It consists of from eight hundred to one thousand acres of a good kind of moss, and would, according to Mr Stephens' account, cost about thirteen rix-dollars banco per acre in draining an expense which would be richly repaid in a short time. But the largest part of the work would require to be per- formed conjunctly by the different proprietors, among whom many have neither inclination nor capital; and what is still a greater hinderance is, the close vicinity of Mossjon lake, which, being dammed up by the dam in the outlet of the lake at Attersta, not only prevents the improvement of the moss, but other considerable tracts in the neighbourhood. If Ekeby moss was cultivated, its height would gradually diminish, so that, in a few years, its surface would be level with the water in the lake ; but, as the fall is very considerable at Attersta, the water in the lake may be reduced in proportion as the moss sinks. DYKARRET MORASS, AT LANNAFORS. The cultivation of about twenty acres of this morass was commenced, by making part of an open drain five feet through the middle. The moss earth lies on 188 REPORT TO THE ROYAL clay mixed with stones, under which sand was found containing water, that rose up through the clay and stones, which, with the collection of confined rain water on its surface, was the cause of its barrenness. The surface declined a little to the north. It is evident that the heights, covered with wood on the west side, gave considerable water, but the lower heights on the east only a small quantity. The greatest depth of the moss was nine feet. It was necessary to continue the drain before mentioned, which, being the principal one, ought, on account of its receiving and carrying away a con- siderable quantity of water, to be made six feet deep, with proportionable breadth, and the outlet from it deepened. The drain on the west side was staked out by Mr Stephens, from four to five feet deep, agreeable to the formation of the ground ; on the other hand, the drain on the east side was only made about two feet deep, to remove rain or snow water. As the principal drain could not be made so deep as to reach the bottom of the moss and clay, he was of opinion that wells would be required to be made to the sand, which he thought would be sufficient to reduce the wet- ness, but added, that should that not be the case, a drain would be necessary, from the middle of the drain on the west side to the middle of the drain on the east, passing through the principal drain near the centre bore-holes made in the east and west drains would certainly also be useful. Near the east side of the morass is a small piece of moss about one and a half acres, at the foot of a stony bank, from which it receives its wetness a drain made parallel with the lower side of the bank will cut off the springs that ooze from it, and will lay the ground completely dry. The principal drain and the one on the west side are AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 189 now nearly finished, and a well made in the side of the former has already had considerable effect, but the cross drain, with several more wells and bore-holes in their sides, will be necessary. The expense of draining and improving this morass, according to this plan, must be considerable. OPERATION AT KUMLA MANSE. Kumla Manse lies, to appearance, on a very dry ridge of sand. On the declivity of the east side is a plantation of hard wood, which I augmented with some fruit trees. By the necessary digging, I always found water at two or three feet deep. Below the bank is an arable field very much injured by water, which, I understand, my predecessor as well as myself, at the commencement of my farming, tried to drain. I began by making a drain, three feet deep, at the foot of the sand bank, with a considerable number of division ditches up and down the declivity to a meadow on the lower side, by which means the field was not dried, and the collection of water in the sand bank continued undiminished Mr Stephens explained this. The bank consisted of sand, covered with a little earth, and at the foot there was a deep stratum of impervious clay. I had directed the drain to be made too low down the bank in the clay, thereby leaving ten or twelve feet for a barrier of im- pervious clay between the drain and the collection of water in the sand ridge, by which means the water could not penetrate to the ditch, which was always dry. To determine the height of the water in the declivity of the sand ridge, a pit was sunk, in which the water, in a 190 REPORT TO THE ROYAL few hours, collected. The level of the surface of the water was taken and compared with the height of the stratum of clay under the sand in the sand ridge ; after- wards a drain was made a little above the lower end of the tapering stratum of sand, which completely cut through to the clay, and thereby hindered the water from wetting the arable field below. As part of the drain was meant to go through my orchard and garden, and being desirous to learn the British practice of making covered drains, I determined to have it covered. The depth was, according to the formation of the land, from six to ten feet ; the aperture of the drain about nine inches square, and filled above the covers with small stones till within two feet of the surface of the ground. The whole of the garden, and as much of the arable field as could have been expected, were completely dried, and even many old springs have been dried up. This spring, before the frost left the ground, the water commenced to run in the drain, and it has not been the least injured by the frost this winter ; the drain discharges itself into an open ditch.* The expense was half a rix-dollar per fathom, where- of half that sum was expended in driving flat stones nearlv three miles for covers. OPERATIONS AT SEVERAL OTHER PLACES. The places already mentioned I have been particular in describing, because I thought them best calculated * This being the first regular made covered drain for draining land ever known in Sweden, it was generally supposed that the severe frost in winter would completely destroy the whole of it, Translator. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 19 1 to shew the meaning of Elkington's system ; the other situations which Mr Stephens has been consulted about, I believe there is no occasion for entering on them. He was called by the mining master, Mr Troilius, to survey Knutsberg's Bostalle, (farm,) that lies in a rocky district near the little town of Nora. The garden, with a little field on the upper side, and a pasture field below the house, was generally wet during the spring and beginning of summer, but which was less so in 1806 than generally. By boring, rock was found, some lying flat, others very unlevel, others again with abrupt falls, stretching itself under the surface for a considerable distance the rain and* snow water having subsided to the rock, faithfully following its surface until irregularly thrown to the surface of the ground. The uncommon dry autumn of 1805, which was succeeded' by a winter with very little rain or snow, and a dry spring, shewed plainly the reason why the district about Nora, at the time Mi- Stephens was there, was in a drier state than usual at that season of the year. Some useful drains, agreeable to the above system, were staked out ; but, to completely drain such land from subterraneous water, it required a more extensive survey, greater outlay than was wished, and longer time than Mr Stephens had to spare. The water, which comes from large tracts of wood and high hills after rain and the melting of the snow, sinks and follows close to the surface of the rocks, so that it cannot be completely cut off by drains carried across thesurface of the ground, until itmakes its appear- ance in the slope or in the valleys. To eut off the water which sometimes follows inclined rocks that are covered with earth, and after breaks out in the form of springs, 192 REPORT TO THE ROYAL would require a cross drain cut into the rock, whereby the running water would be prevented and carried to a sure outlet. At Wargtorp, the property of Counsellor Bruhn, in Nora, a drain was staked out to drain a very wet field ; the water came from very high ground covered with wood, and was collected in a stratum of sand at the foot of the high ground, and afterwards, meeting a stratum of impervious clay, rose in numerous springs. When the stratum of sand has been cut through by a drain on the upper side of the line of springs, the water unquestionably will disappear. The reason is shewn by the account of the operations at Kumla Manse. The same kind of situation and means were employed in draining a meadow from subterraneous water within the boundary of Nora, belonging to Counsellor Fischer. By desire of Judge de Frese, Holmstorp's meadow was surveyed. At the lowest side towards the north, the vegetable earth was fifteen feet deep to clay, but, towards the south side, it became much deeper ; under the clay was a stratum of sand containing a small quantity of water, which circumstance, together with the surrounding heights not being very high, made one suppose that the wetness did not proceed from the bottom, but from the rain water wanting a sufficient outlet to free the surface of the meadow from stag- nation it sunk into the clay and made it soft. A single outlet drain made along the lower side of the meadow, large enough to receive and carry away the water on the land, was found sufficient for the pur- pose. Thile moss, at Skofftesta, the property of H. J. Sahle- AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 193 feldt, Esq., was surveyed, with a large tract of good moss, well adapted for cultivation, belonging to Captain Linroth of Gustafsvik, and plans made; as also for the improvements of a bog belonging to the last men- tioned proprietor. These tracts are of considerable extent, and their future improvement will only be gained by Elkington's method of treatment, and a considerable expense will be saved, together with the advantage of a sure drainage ; but as they do not shew any great alteration in the situation or stratification from the mosses already described, I have no occasion to detain the reader in repeating what has been before mentioned. At Gustafsvik, the necessary drains were staked out for draining two fields near the house ; the one of them was improved a few years before from bog, through the means of a great number of open drains ; the surface had become firm, but, nevertheless, shook when walked upon, so that none of the delicate plants would thrive. The soil is clay, lying in a long and pretty wide valley, between two heights, and the land did not shew the least sign of a spring on the surface all the ditches were completely dry. When the bore-holes were made, to discover the cause of the dampness of such well laid out and carefully kept open ditches, it only required to be worked down the first two or three feet, when it sunk, with its own weight, from eighteen to twenty feet into the soft clay ; when the auger was drawn up, the water rose in the holes to within one or two feet of the bottom of the ditches. Here it was plain that the collection of water in the ground and heights had not sufficient strength to force itself any higher than the last mentioned place, but that o 194 REPORT TO THE ROYAL it was sufficiently near the surface to damage the land ; and, by making the drains deeper, with bore-holes in their bottoms, the water can be kept as low as is neces- sary or as the outlet will admit. Mr Stephens likewise took the levels of the fall of the water-course from Wiby lake, through the lake Skarby, the Mossjon, the large and small Quismaren, to the Hjelmaren lake, a distance of one hundred and forty miles, which was the commencement of an undertaking of the greatest importance to the economical knowledge of Nirikie, and equally as weighty and important to the future improvement of that district.* Many readers may be surprised that none of the operations here mentioned have altogether shewn the full effect the cause depends on circumstances and not on any fault in the principle, that so few have been com- pleted; besides, many of the situations were of such a description that it was impossible to see the full effect in so short a time.f Water in moss requires a considerable time to sink before the moss subsides. Several pieces of land that were drained have neither been levelled with the spade nor the plough, that, through mistake, one would be apt * Between and round abou* these lakes are several thousand acres of morass and meadow land, which, during autumn and spring floods, are completely covered with water, and, in wet summers, to such a degree, that it is impossible for the proprietors to cut and collect the scanty crop of bad grass. The soil is composed of the finest particles brought by the water from the neighbouring lands, which, if drained, would yield the finest crops possible. Translator. t The whole of these operations, with many more not here speci- fied, were finished the following year to the satisfaction of all parties. Translator. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT OREBRO. 1Q5 to suppose that the rain and snow water standing on the surface in holes was subterraneous water. There is no other system of draining that produces such a sudden effect as that which has been experienced at Afraby, Runnaby, and Kumla Manse. So much appears certain, that Elkington's system may be adopted in Sweden, and, consequently, his prin- ciples must be acknowledged. The strata of Sweden lies in layers the same as in Britain, but, from the sudden changes of the surface, it is, perhaps, more precipitous. Springs and subterraneous collections of water rise, run, and are carried away here agreeable to the same natural laws. The pressure of water, also the different kinds of soil, have, more or less, coherent parts; and the water rises in wells or bore-holes on the same principles as in other countries. The expense is the only, or, at least, the greatest obstacle with which we have now to contend ; but, from the increased interest which has now arisen for the im- provement of agriculture, there is no reason to doubt but that will be speedily removed, when Elkington's method, by being more generally known and tried, will be adapted more closely to the circumstances of our soil and climate this enlightened and enterprising Society, which first introduced and proved its utility, have a lasting claim on the gratitude of our native country. THE END. VKTEK UllOWN, PRINTER, 1-ADY STAIll's CLOSE, EDINBURGH. YB