Los Angeles County Medical Association Barlow Medical Library 1932-1992 Louise M. Darling Biomedical Library UCLA ^«6^^*'^ LIBRARY OF THE LA. CO. MEDICAL ASSN. S34 SOUTH WESTLAKE AYE. LOS ANGELES TYPES OF MANKIND. TYPES OF MANKIND: OB, Ctjinnliigirnt HUsPiirrljes, BASED UPON THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS, PAINTINGS, SCULPTURES, AND CRANIA OF RACES, AND UPON THEIR NATURAL, GEOGRAPHICAL, PHILOLOGICAL, AND BIBLICAL HISTORY: ILLUSTRATED BT SELECTIONS FKOM THE INEDITED PAPERS 01 SAMUEL GEOEGE MORTON, M.D., (LATE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY OP NATURAL SCIENCES AT PHILADELPEli*, AND BY ADDITIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS FROM PROF. L. AGASSIZ, LL.D.; W. USHER, M.D.; AND PROF. H. S. PATTERSON, M.D.: BY J. C. NQJT, M.D., AND GEO. E. GLIDDON, MOBILE, ALABAMA, FORMERLT U. S. CONSUL AT CAIRO, — "Words are things; and a small drop of ink, Falling, like dew upon a thought, produces That which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think." — Btroji. giutji ^Htinn, PHILADEI>PHIA : J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO, LONDON: TRUBNER & CO. n ^ 18 6 8. D Lt&WrfTY OF THL LOI ANGELES COUNTY MtSICAL ASSOClATiO 634 SOUTH WESTLAKE AVE. FIRST ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, BY INTERNATIONAL ARRANOEMENT WITH THE AMERICAN PROPRIETORS Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1854, by LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO &, CO., in the Clerk's Office of the L'lstrict Court of the United States for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. TO THE M E M O R T OF MORTON. P E E F A C E BY GEO. R. GLIDDON. "The subject of Elhnologii I deem it expediert to postpone. On this I have collected a mass of new materials, which I hope in time to produce ; but until they have been submitted to the masterly analysis of my honored friend, Samuel George Morton, M. D., Philadelphia, a synopsis from my hands would be premature." * Little did I expect, while penning the above note, that, ere four years iiad run their course, it woukl fall to the lot of Dr. Nott and myself to "close ranks" and partially fill the gap left in American Ethnology when the death-shot struck down our friend and leader. To him the "new materials" were submitted: by him they were analyzed with his customary acuteness; and from him would the world have received a seiies of works superseding the necessity for the present volume, together with any public action of my colleague and myself in that science so indelibly marked by Morton as his own. The 15th of May, 1851, arrested his hand, and left us, with all who knew him, to sorrow at his loss : nor, for eleven months, did the endeavor to raise a literary monument to his memory suggest itself either to Dr. Xott or to myself "Types of Mankind" owes its origin to the following incidents: — After a gratifying winter at New Orleans, I visited Mobile in April, 1852; partly to deliver a course of Lectures upon "Babylon, Nine- veh, and Persepolis," but mainly to renew with Dr. Nott those interchanges of thought which amity had commenced during my preceding sojourn, in 1848, at one of the most agreeable of cities. MoRTOX and Ethnology^ it may well be supposed, were exhaustless topics of conversation. Deploring that no one had stepped forward to make known the matured views of the father of our cis-Atlantic school of Anthropology, it occurred to us that we would write one or more articles, in some Review, based upon the correspondence and * Hand-book to the Nile; London, Madden, 1849; p. 18, note. (ix) X • PREFACE. printed papers of Morton in onr several possession. Before doing so, ho^vever, we conceived it to be due to Mrs. Morton and her home-circle, to inquire by letter, if such proceeding would obtain their sanction; and also whether, in Mrs. Morton's opinion, there were among the Doctor's manuscripts any that might be eligibly embodied in our pro- posed articles. The graceful readiness with which our proffer was met is best exemplified by the fact that Dr. Nott and myself received im- mediately, by express from Philadelphia, a mass of Dr. Morton's auto- graphs on scientific themes, together with such books and papers as were deemed suitable for our purposes. On a subsequent visit to Philadelphia, I was permitted to select from the Doctor's shelves whatever was held to be appropriate to our studies ; and, while this book has been passing through the press, the whole of Dr. Mor- ton's correspondence with the scientific world was entrusted to Dr. Patterson and myself for mutual reference. But, the unbounded confidence with which we have been honored, whilst most precious to our feelings, enhances greatly our responsibility. Actuated, indi- vidually, by the sole desire to render justice to our beloved friend, each of us has executed his part of the task to the best of his ability : at the same time we can emphatically declare that, until the pages of our work were stereotyped, no member of Dr. Morton's family was cognizant of their verbal contents. Thus much it is my privilege to testify, in order that, if any of the writers have erred in their concep- tions of Morton's scientific opinions, the onus of such inadvertence may fall upon themselves exclusively. ISTevertheless, the singleness of purpose and harmony of method with which Dr. Nott, Dr. Patter- sou, and myself, have striven to fulfil our pledges, are guarantees that no erroneous interpretations, if any such exist, can have arisen intentionally. Throughout this volume, Morton speaks for himself. The receipt at Mobile of such welcome accretions to our ethno- graphical stock prompted a change of plan. In lieu of ephemeral notices in a Review, Dr. JSTott united with me in the projection of " Types of Maidviud " ; the scope of which has daily grown larger, in the ratio of the facilities with which we have been signally favored. On the first printed announcement of our intention pSTcw Orleans, December, 1852], the interest manifested among the friends of science was such, that, by March, I count««l nearly 500 subscriptions in furtherance of the work. Prof. AoASSiz's very opportune visit to Mobile during April, 1853, led to a contribution from his own pen that bases the ISTatural History of mankind upon a principle heretofore unanticipated. Dr. UsiiKK kindly volunteered a synopsis of the geological and palse- ontological features of human history ; and Dr. Patterson, fellow- PREFACE. XI citizen, professional colleague, and admiring friend of Dr. Morton, undertook the biographical Memoir which justifies this volume's dedication. The frank concurrence of Messrs. Lippincott, Giumbo & Co. has removed every obstacle to effective publication : and thus, through the liberality and thirst for information, so eminently characteristic of American repubhcanism, " Types of Mankind," invested with abundant signatures, issues into day as one among multitudinous witnesses how, in our own age and land, scientific works can be written and published without solicitation of patron- age from Governments, Institutions, or Societies ; but solely through the co-operative support of an educated and knowledge -seeking people. The departments of our undertaking, respectively assumed by Dr. Nott and mj-self, having been already set forth {infra, Part III., Essay I., p. 62G), repetition is here superfluous. Dut while, on my side, I was enabled to devote nearly twelve months of uninter- rupted seclusion (in Baldwin county, Alabama) to my portion of the labor, it must not be forgotten, on the other, that my colleague at Mobile performed his task under the ceaseless pressure of the severest professional duties. In vicAV, therefore, of the amount of Dr. JSTott's achievements under such adverse circumstances, the reader who may be pleased to criticize the editorship of "Types of Mankind," whilst recognizing my colleague's hand in every line of Part L, and his frequent suggestions throughout Parts II. and III., as concerns the Bubstance, will act but justly if, as regards modes of expression, he should direct any strictures towards myself; whose part it has been occasionally to connect the various sections of this work by reconstructed sentences, or through a few intercalated paragraphs, consequent upon the reception of new "copy" from Dr. Xott during the passage of these sheets through the press. Even at this later stage of our enterprise, owing to the distance between Mobile and Philadelphia, and to the dire havoc produced by a yellow fever simultaneously among our friends around Mobile Bay, I have not possessed the advantage of Dr. Nott's revision of "proof-sheets," nor had he the time to propose alterations. The Preface to my Otia ^gyptiaca assigns sufficient reasons why any aspirations of mine towards excellence in English composition would be vain. With myself, style is ever subordinate to matter; but my valued friends, Mr. Redwood Fisher, Mr. Lloyd P. Smith, and Dr. Henry S. Patterson, have most obligingly looked over a large portion of the "revises" as they came from the hands of the Btereotyper. I indulge the hope that all those gentlemen who have directly xii PREFACE. promoted the scientific interests of our work, will find in it due acknowledgment of their courtesies. For the free use of the col- lection of Eo;yptological works — the hest accessible to the public in this country — belonging to the Philadelphia Library Company, Dr. Morton's brother-in-law, Mr. John Jay Smith, will accept my sincere thanks. The Publishers state, on another page, the endeavor made to furnish our Subscribers with counter-value for their subscriptions far in excess of my original promises ; and with these brief expository remarks my pen would stop, did not personal gratitude claim exi^ression. Those acquainted with my earlier life (spent in the Levant until the age of thirty-two) may, perhaps, read some portions of this volume with feelings of surprise at the range of studies once so alien to my vocations, prospects, and ambition. By way of explanation let me state, that, whatever may have been the ground-work previ- ously laid for the prosecution of self-culture, there was one obstacle to progress which would have been insurmountable, when (one among the million seeking freedom) I re-landed in the United States (1842), but for the friendship of a gentleman who — unlike Pharaoh's chief butler that did not " remember Josei^h, but forgathim" — had known me in illo tempore at Memphis. The munificence of Mr. R. K. Haight of New York obviated all difficulty by placing the necessary materials for study at my disposal ; and not content with facilitating the attainment of my desires by his encouraging acts at home, Mr. Haight, on two occasions, enabled me to seek instruction abroad, at the fountain-sources of Paris, London, and Berlin. The pulsations of a grateful heart, and the hope that some readers may deem favors so magnanimous not uselessly bestowed, are the only reciprocities that can at present be tendered to him by G. R. G. Philax)elpiiia, 1st Jan., 1854. POSTSCRIPTUM. BY J. C. NOTT. I have just received from Philadelphia proof-sheets of the above Preface, and hasten to add a few words. Above three hundred and sixty wood-cuts, besides many litho- graphic plates, adorn this volume, and upon them, to some extent, •depend its value and success. The reader can well imagine the PREFACE. XUl immense labor and llea^'7 expense required to prepare a series of illustrations of- this kind, wherein minute accuracy is so indispensable, and where such accuracy can be attained only through long-con- tinued and patient industry combined with high artistic skill. * So great, indeed, were the ditticulties to be overcome, that the authors could never for a moment have entertained the idea of publishing a work like "Types of Mankind," had it not been for the aid gener- ously proffered by Mrs. Gliddon, the accomplished lady of my col- league. To her amateur pencil are we indebted for the drawings of more than three hundred of our wood-cuts, together with those for the lithographed Berlin-effigies. To say nothing of the outlay which these illustrations must other- wise have involved, it would have been impossible for us to obtain, here, an equal conformity to originals through hired artists. Mrs. Gliddon's hand was stimulated by no mercenary considerations ; and we hixxe enjoyed the incalculable advantage of having her near us at Mobile, for more than twelve months ; laboring with us and for us : ever ready to alter or amend as our caprice, or necessity, might dic- tate. Although Mrs. Gliddon was unaccustomed to drawing on wood, and notwithstanding that the wood-engravers at Philadelphia (compelled, owing to the nature of the case, to carve from her drawings alone without recurrence to the originals), may here and there have slightly erred, I venture to assert that no scientific work in our language presents as long a series of illustrations more reliable for faithfulness to originals. Many of the heads, however, are given in simple outline, and the majorit}^ have required reduction; but persons who are familiar with the great works of Rosellini, Champollion, Prisse, Lepsius, Botta, Flandin, Layard, Dumoutier, &c., from which these figures have been copied, will at once recognize a truthfulness in Mrs. Gliddon's designs (viewed ethnologically) which speaks more than the enco miums of an admiring friend. Xor is it proper that I should close this Postscript without some acknowledgment to her husband. In the first place, it is mere justice to state, that Parts II. and III. are almost exclusively his own work : because, although not uninformed on the points therein treated, and agreeing in their scientific results, I wish to mention that the materials, conception, and execution of these portions of our volume are due to him. Of Part I., on the other hand, a fuller share of responsibility must fall upon myself. The special province, which I have attempted to explore, is the Natural History proper of mankind ; and I have sought to illustrate it through the physical and linguistic history of primeval races, as deduced from the time-worn monuments of nations xiv PREFACE. by the leading archfeologists of our Dineteentli century. This effort has also been much facilitated through the zeal and experience of my collaborator, Mr. Gliddon. It is with no small gratification I now feel assured that, through Dr. Patterson's effective "Memoir," Morton's cherished fame will evermore presei^v^e its rightful place among men of science ; and, again, that th 3e grand Truths, for which I have long "fought and bled," are at last established by the unanswerable "Sketch" of our chief naturalist, Prof. Agassiz ; as well as triumphantly confirmed through the teachings of sclioiars who have investigated the records of antiquity in Egypt, China, Assyria, India, Palestine, and other Oriental countries. J. C. N. M<)BiiiE, Ala., January 12th, 1854. CONTENTS. PAOX FRONTISPIECE — Poetkait of Samuel George Morton. [Steel Engraving.] DEDICATION — "To the Memory of Morton" ■% PREFACE — BY Geo. R. Gliddon ix Postscripium — by J. C. Nott xii MEMOIR — "Notice of the Life and Scientific Labors of the late Samuel Geo. Morton, M, D." — contributed by Prof . Henry S. Patterson, M. D. xvii SE3ETCH — "OF the Natural Provinces of the Animal World and their Rela- tion TO THE DIFFERENT Types OF Man " — Contributed by Prof. L. Agassiz, LL. D. [^With colored lithographic Tableau and Map. '\ Iviii INTRODUCTION to "Types of Mankind " — by J. C, Nott 49 PART I. Chap. I. — Geographical Distribution of Animals and the Races of Men 62 II. — General Remarks on Types of Mankind 80 III. — Specific Types — Caucasian 88 IV. — Physical History of the Jews Ill V. — The Caucasian Types carried through Egyptian Monuments 141 VL — African Types 180 VII. — Egypt and Egyptians. [Four lithographic Plates."] 210 Vm. —Negro Types 246 IX. — American and other Types — Aboriginal Races of America 272 X. — Excerpta from Morton's inedited Manuscripts 298 , XI. — Geology and Paleontology, in Connection with Human Origins — contributed by YfUj-Lix'yi Usher, M. D 327 XII. — Hybriditt op Animals, viewed in Connection with the Natural History of Mankind — by J. C. Nott 372 XIII. — Comparative Anatomy of Races — by J. C. Nott 4il C (it) XVI CONTENTS. PART II. PASS Chap. XrV. — The Xth Chapter of Genesis — Pkeliminaey Remarks 466 Sect. A. — Analysis of the Hebrew Nomenclature 469 B. — Observations on the annexed Genealogical Tableau OF THE "Sons of Noah" 551 Genealogical Tableau 552 C. — Observations on the accompantinq " Map of the World" 552 Lithographic tinted Map, exhibiting the Countries more or less known to the ancient Writer of Xth Genesis 552 D. — The Xth Chapter of Genesis modernized, in its Nomen- clature, to display popularly, and in modern English, the Meaning of its ancient Writer 553 XV. — Biblical Ethnography: — Sect. E. — Terms, universal and specific 557 F. — Structure of Genesis I., II., and III 561 O, — Cosmas-Indicopleustes 566 CosMAs's Map [wood-cut] 569 H. — Antiquity of the Name "ADaM" 572 PART III. — Supplement — by Geo. R. Gliddon. Essay I. — Arch^ological Introduction to the Xth Chapter of Genesis 575 II. — Pal^ographic Excursus on the Art of Writing 628 Table — " Theory of the Order of Development in Human Writings" ... 630 III. — Mankind's Chronology: — Introductory 65B Chronology — Egyptian 667 Chinese 689 Assyrian 697 Hebrew 702 Hindoo 715 APPENDIX I. — Notes and RrFERENCES to Parts I. and II .• 717 II. — Alphabetical List of Subscribers to "Types of Mankind"... 73] M E M I H THE LIFE AND SCIENTIFIC LABORS SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON, BY HENRY S. PATTERSON, M. D., KKERITUS PROFESSOR OP MATERIA. MEDTCA AND THERAPEUTICS IN THE MEDICAL DEPARTMEHT Of PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE; FELLOW OF THE COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS; RECORDING SECRETARY OF THE MEDICAL SOCIETY OF THE STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. "When the aiitlaors of the present work, pressed with the labor of preparing for the printer their abundant materials, first suggested that I should assist them by furnishing a notice of the scientific life of our deceased friend and leader in Ethnology, I hesitated somewhat to undertake the task, feeling that the selection, dictated by their partial friendship, might by others be deemed inappropriate, and myself considered deficient in those relations which would warrant the assumption of the office. Subsequent reflection, however, con- vinced me that an acquaintance of fifteen years, approaching to inti- macy, — frequent professional and social intercourse, — my position in the Medical Faculty, that was founded mainly by his labors, — devo- tion in a great degree to the same studies, — community of sentiment in regard to the topics of most interest to both, — that all these com- bined to constitute a sufficient reason why I should freely accept the duty assigned me. I do it cheerfully, for to me it is a grateful duty and a source of pleasure, thus to be allowed to bear testimony to the worth and services of the great and good man whom we all had so much cause to love and honor. His life I do not propose to write. There is but little in the quiet daily ^^■alk of any civilian, to furnish a theme for biographical narrative. That of Morton was eminently plav^id and regular; and all that can be said upon it has already been well and eloquently expressed in the able addresses of Professorsj (xvii) XViii MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. Meiffs, Wood, and Grant.* To Dr. Wood also we are indebted for his exposition of Morton's eminent services to medical science, both as a teacher and writer ; a point too frequently overlooked in regard- ing him in the more prominent light of a Naturalist. Passing over these topics, my object will be to consider mainly his contributions to Natural Science, and especially to Ethnology. As introductory to a work upon anthropological subjects, we desire to present Morton as the Anthropologist, and as virtually the founder of that school of Ethnology, of whose views this book may be regarded as an authentic exponent. Let me be permitted, however, a few words in relation to the per- sonal character and private worth of Morton. At the mention of his name there arise emotions which press for utterance, and which it would do violence to my feelings to leave unexpressed. If I have felt this affection for him, it is only what was shared by all who knew him well. What was most peculiar in him was that magnetic power by which he attracted and bound men to him, and made them glad to serve him. This influence was especially manifested, as I shall have occasion to observe again, in the collection of his Cabinet of Crania. In looking over his correspondence now, it is sui^rising to see the number of men, so -different one from another in every re- spect, who in all quarters of the globe were laboring without expec- tation of reward to secure a cranium for Morton, and to read the reports of their varied successes and disappointments. In his whole deportment, there was an evident singleness of purpose and a candor, open as the day, which at once placed one at his ease. Combined with mis was a most winning gentleness of manner, which drew one to him as with the cords of brotherly affection. He possessed, more- over, in a remarkable degree, the faculty of imparting to others his own enthusiasm, and filling them, for the time at least, with ardor for his own pursuit. Hence, in a measure, his success in enlisting the numerous collaborators, so necessary to him in his peculiar studies. It may be affirmed that no man ever came within the sphere of his influence without forming for him some degree of * A memoir of Samuel George Morton, M. D., late President of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, by Charles D. Meigs, M. D. Read Nov. 6th, 1851, and published by direction of the Academy: Philada. 1851. A Biographical Memoir of Samuel George Morton, M. D., prepared by appointment of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, and read before that body Nov. 3d, 1852, by George 15. Wood, M. D., President of the College: Philada. 1853. Sketch of the Life and Character of Samuel George Morton, M. D. Lecture, introduc- tory to a course of Anatomy and Physiology in the Medical Department of Pennsylvania College. Delivered Oct. 13th, 1851, by William R. Grant, M. D. Published by request of the Class: Philada. 1852 MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XIX personal attacliment. His circle of attached friends was ther(>fore large, and the expression of regret for his uutimelj' loss general and sincere. It was in London, and while seated at the hospitable board of Dr. Thomas Ilodgkin, (to whom I had been introduced by a letter from Morton,*) that I first heard the news of his decease. He was the subject of an animated and interesting conversation at the moment, (for Dr. H. and he had been classmates at Edinburgh,) when a gentleman entered with an American newspaper received by the morning's mail, and containing the sad intelligence. A cloud came over every counte- nance, and every voice was raised in an exclamation of sudden grief and regret ; for he was more or less kno\vn to all present. My next appointment for that day was with Mr. S. Birch, of the Archaeological department of the British Museum, who had been a correspondent of Morton, and could appreciate his great worth. During the day, Mr. Birch or myself mentioned the melancholy tidings to numerous gentlemen, in various departments of that great institution, and always with the same repl}-. All knew his name, and felt that in his decease the cause of science had suftered a serious deprivation. And tliis seemed to me his true fame.- Outside the walls of this noble Temple of Science rolled on the turmoil of the modern Babylon, with its world of business, of pleasure, and of care, to all which the name of Morton was unknown, and from which its mention could call up no response. Within these walls, however, and among a body of men whom a more than princely munificence enables to devote themselves to labor like his own, he was uni- versally recognized and appi'eciated, and mourned as a leading spirit in their cosmopolite fraternity. But always there was this peculiarit}^ to be noticed, that wherever a man had known Morton personally at all, he mourned not so much for the untimely extinction of an intellectual light, as for the loss of a beloved personal friend. Certainly the man who inspired others with this feeling, could him- self have no cold or empty heart. On the contrary, he overflowed * Among the letters with which Dr. Morton favored me, on my visit to Europe, was one to Dr. Alexander Hannay of Glasgow. This he particularly wished me to deliver, and to bring him a report of his old friend; for Dr. H. had been an intimate of his student days, although tlieir correspondence had long been interrupted. The letter was written in a playful mood, and contained sportive allusions to their student life at Edinburgh, and a wish that they might meet again. On reaching Glasgow late in May, I sought Dr. IL, and found that he had recently deceased. Morton himself, as I afterwards learned, had then also ceased to breatlie. That letter, so full of genial vivacity and present life, was from the hand of one dead man addressed to anoUier ! And should they not meet again ? Rather had they not already met where the darkness had become day ! It is a beautiful and consolatory belief, and one that the subject of this notice could undoubtingly hold and rejoice in XX MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. with all kindly and gentle affections. Quiet and unobtrusive in man- ners, and fond of the retirement of study, it was only in the privacy of the domestic circle that he could be rightly known ; and those that were privileged to approach nearest the Sanctum Sanctorum of his happy home, could best see the full beauty of his character. That sacred veil cannot be raised to the public eye, but beneath its folds is presented the pure memory of one who illustrated every relation of life with a new grace that was all his own, and who, in departing, has left behind him an impression on all hearts, which not the most exacting affection could wish in any respect other than it is. The early training of Morton was in strict accordance with the principles of the Society of Friends, of which his mother was a mem- ber. His school education — whose deficiencies he always mentioned with regret, and remedied by sedulous labor in after years — was throughout of that character, and had all the consequent merits and demerits. It is a system which represses the imagination and senti- ments, while it cultivates carefully the logical powers ; and which strives to turn all the energies of the pupil's mind toward the useful arts, rather than what may be deemed merely ornamental accom- plishments. "When it carries him beyond the rudiments, it is usually into the higher mathematics and mechanical philosophy. Its aim is utility, even if necessary at the expense of beauty. It therefore does not generally encourage the study of the dead languages, with its incidental belles-lettres advantages, and fi-ee access to poets and rhetoricians. This plan of education I believe to be an unsuitable, and even an injurious one for a youth of cold temperament and dull sensibilities. When, however, the subject of its operation ie one of opposite tendencies, so decided as to be the better for repression, it may become not only useful, but the best training for that particular case. Such I conceive to have been the fact in regard to Morton. Endowed by nature with a delicate and sensitive tem- perament, with warm affections, a keen sense of natural beauties, a fertile imagination, and that nice musical appreciation which made him delight in the accord of measured sounds, he had an early passion for poetical reading and composition. Even in boyhood he wrote very creditable verses ; and his later productions, — for he continued to indulge the muse occasionally to the end of his life, although he would not publish, — often rose considerably above mediocrity. The following lines may answer as an average specimen of his easy flow of versification, as well as of his youthful style of thought and feeling. They were written on the occasion of a visit to Kilcoleman Castle, county Cork, Ireland, where Spenser lived, and is believed to have written his immortal poem. MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXI LINES WRITTEH ON A BLANK LEAF OF SPENSER's " FAERT QUEENB." I. Through many a winding maze in " Faery Lande" Spenser! I have followed thee along; Aye, I have laughed and sigh'd at thy command, And joy'd me in the magic of thy song : "Wild are thy numbers, but to them belong The fire of Genius, and poetic skill ; 'Tis thine to paint with inspiration strong, The fate of knight, or dame more knightly still, To sway the feeling heart, and rouse it at thy will. 11. And musing still upon the fairy dream, 1 sought the hall oft trod by thee before ; I bent me down by Mulla's gentle stream. And, looking far beyond, gazed fondly o'er Old Ballyhoura, where in days of yore Thou watch'd thy flocks with all a shepherd's pride ; And fancy listened as to catch once more Thy Harp's lov'd echo from the mountain side, — But ah ! no harp is heard in all that region wide ! in. The flocks are fled, and in the enchanted hall No voice replies to voice ; but there ye see The ivy clasp the sad and mould'ring wall. As if to twine a votive wreath for thee : All — all is desolate, — and if there be A lonely sound, it is the raven's cry ! Let years roll on, let wasting ages flee. Let earthly things delight, and hasten by, But thy immortal name and song shall never die ! Had this inherent tendency been fostered, be would doubtless have taken a high rank among our American poets. Certainly he would have been another man than we have known him. Perhaps his nervous temperament, delicate fibre, acute feelings and ardent sym- pathies, might have been developed into the same super-sensitiveness we have seen in John Keats and other gifted minds of a constitution similar to his own. But the tendency was checked and repressed from the outset by his domestic influences, by his teachers, and sub- sequently by himself. When he devoted himself to a life of science, he was earnest to cultivate that style of thought and composition which accorded with his pursuits ; for only by severe mental disci- pline, and long-continued effort, could he have acquired that cau- Xxii MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. tion and rigid accuracy of diction, which characterize his produc tions. His school appears to have been unsatisfactory to him, for he never had a fondness for the mathematics, the main topic of study. He was nevertheless of a studious turn, reading industriously, and with special interest, all the works on. History to which he had access. It is probable that in these readings was laid the foundation of a taste for those anthropological studies which have since rendered him famous, and in the prosecution of which his extensive historical knowledge gave him eminent facilities. At the same time probably he imbibed his first fondness for Natural Science. From his stepfather, (for his mother married again when he was thirteen years old,) he derived a taste for and knowledge of mineralogy and geology, the first branches to which he turned his attention. Destined originally for mercantile pursuits, j^oung Morton soon found the atmosphere of the counting-house uncongenial to him. He resolved to adopt the medical profession, which was indeed the only course open, to one of his tastes, and in his circumstances. The Society of Friends, by closing the Pulpit and the Bar against the able and aspiring among its youth, has given to Medicine man}' of its brightest ornaments, both in Great Britain and in this country. This fact will serve to explain the great success of so many physicians of that persuasion, as well as the preponderating influence of the medical profession in all Quaker neighborhoods. May not the eminence of Philadelphia in medicine be accounted for, in part at least, in the same way ? Carlyle has said that to the ambitious fancy of the Scot- tish schoolboy " the highest style of man is the Christian, and the highest Christian the teacher of such." Hence his ultimate aspira- tion is for the clerical position. But to the aspiring youth among Friends there is but the one road to intellectual distinction, — that is through medicine and its cognate sciences. The medical preceptor of Morton was the late Dr. Joseph Parrish, then in the height of his popularity. Elevated to his prominent position against early obstacles, and solely by force of character, industry, and pro- bity, he was extensively engaged in practice; and, although uncon- nected with any institution, his olRce bverflowed with pupils. His mind was practical and thoroughly medical, and so entirely did his pro- fession occupy it, that he seemed to me never to allow himself. to think upon other topics, except religious ones, in which also he was deeply interested. A strict and conscientious Friend, he illustrated all the best points in that character. As the remarkable graces of his person proverbially gave a beauty to the otherwise ungainly garb of his sect, and rendered it attractive upon him, so the graces of his spirit, obli- terating all that might otherwise have been hafsh or angular, contri- MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXIH butod to form a character gentle, kindly, lovel}', tliat made liim tlie liglit of the sick chamber, and a comforting presence at many a dying bed. To no member of our profession could the proud title of Opifer be more truly applied, for his very smile brought aid to the suffering, and courage to the despondent. The reader will pardon me this digression ; but as the Highland clansman could not pass by without adding another stone to the monumental cairn where reposed his departed chief, so can I never pass by the mention of his name with- out offering some tribute, however humble, of reverence and respect, to the memory of my excellent old master. Such was the teacher from whom mainly Morton also received the knowledge of his pro- fession ; though, had the influence of Dr. Parrish alone controlled his mind, it would have been confined rigorously to the channels of purely medical study and investigation. But, in order to provide adequate tuition for his numerous pupils. Dr. Parrish had associated with himself several 3'oung physicians as instructors in the various branches. Among them was Dr. Pichard Harlan, then enthusiasti- cally devoted to the study of Natural History, bet^veen whom and the young student there was soon established a bond of sympathy in congeniality of pursuits. That the friendship thus originated was subsequently interrupted, was in no manner the fault of Morton, to whom it was always a subject of regret. Harlan has now been dead some years, and although by no means forgotten in the world of science, he has not been accorded the full measure of his merited distinction among American naturalists. An unfortunate infirmity of temper, which was not at all calculated to conciliate attach- ments, but rather the reverse, deprived him of the band of friends who should have watched over his fame, and so his memory has suf- fered by defiiult. Yet at one period he was the leading authority on this side the Atlantic in certain departments of Zoology. By him Morton appears to have been introduced to the Academy of Natural Sciences, in whose proceedings he was afterwards to take such an important part. He attained his majority in January 1820, received his Diploma of Doctor of Medicine in March, and was elected a member of the Academy in April of the same year. He had pro- bablv taken an active interest in its affairs before this time, althouo;h not eligible to membership by reason of age ; for in one of his later )etters now before me, he speaks of it as an institution for which he had labored, "boy and man," now some thirty years. Soon after this last event he sailed for Europe, on a visit to his uncle, James Morton, Esq., of Clonmel, Ireland, a gentleman for whom he always preserv^ed a high regard and grateful affection. His transatlantic friends seem to have attached but little value to an D Xxiv MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. American diploma, and desired him to possess the honors of the University of Edinburgh, then but Uttle passed beyond the zenith of its glory. After spending the summer at his uncle's house, he went to Edinburgh, where he heard the last course of lectures, deli- vered by the chaste and classical Gregory. The American schools not being recognized by the University as ad eundem, he found him- self obliged to attend the full term of an under-graduate. This would have left him ample leisure as far as his mere college studies were concerned ; for the youth who had graduated with approbation under the tuition of Wistar, Physick, and James, and their compeers, could not have fallen far short of the requisitions of any other Medical Faculty in Christendom. But his. time was not spent in idleness. He sedulously cultivated his knowledge of the classical tongues, hitherto imperfect, and he devoted himself to the study of French and Italian, both of which languages he learned to read with facility. He also attended with great interest the lectures of Professor Jameson on Geology, thus confirming and reviving his early fondness for that branch of science. After his return to "America, he presented to the Academy a series of the green-stone rocks of Scotland, and a section of Salisbury Craig near Edinburgh, collected by himself at this time. In October 1821, he visited Paris, and spent the winter there mainly in clinical study. The next summer was devoted to a tour in Italy and other portions of the continent, and in the fall he returned again to Edinburgh, where, after attendance upon another session, he re- ceived the honors of the doctorate. His printed thesis* may be taken as a fair exponent of his mental condition and calibre at this period. It is very like himself, and yet with a diiference from him as we knew him later in life. It is quiet and indeed even simple in tone, without aifectation and without any of the declamation in which young writers are so apt to indulge. Its style is clear and sufficiently concise, and as a piece of Latiuity it is correct and graceful. It takes up the subject of bodily pain, and considers it in regard to its causes, its diagnostic value, and its efiects, both physical and psychical, leaving very little more to be said with regard to it. Put it is evident through- out tliat the essay is the production of one who is more ambitious of the reputation of the litterateur than of the savant; who writes, — and that probably marks the distinction, — with his face turned to his auditory rather than to his subject. The sentence marches some- times with a didactic solemnity almost Johnsonian, while the fre- quency of the poetical references and quotations, — Latin and Italian »a well as English, — and the facile fitness with which they glide into • Tentamen Inaugurate de Corporis Dolore, etc. — Edinburgi, m.d.cccxxiii. MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXV the text, show how familiar they must have been to the mind of the author. Indeed Edinburgh was, at the period in question, the prin- cipal centre of taste and philosophy, as well as of science, in Great Britain ; and it is not likely that one of Morton's literary turn and studious habits would miss the opportunity to pasture in either of these rich fields. The ethical tone of this production is also worthy of note. It is characteristic of the writer, and grew in a great mea- sure out of his mental constitution, which, free from all violence of passion, was habitually cheerful, hopeful, and kindly. Hence comes that beautiful spirit of philosophical ©ptimism, which, perceiving in all seeming evil only the means to a greater ultimate good, attains all that stoicism proposed to itself, by the shorter way of a cheerful and unquestioning resignation to the Divine Will, not because it is omni- potent and irresistible, but solely because it is the wisest and best. The following extracts will sufficiently explain my meaning : — " Almarerum Parens nil frustra fecit; ne dolor quidem absque suis usibus est; et semper cogimur eum agnoscere veluti fidelem quamvis ingratum monitorem, et quoque inter prse- sidia vitte nonnunquam numerandum." — (p. 9.) " Dolor enim nos nascentes aggreditur, per totam vitam insidiosus comitatur, et quasi nunquam satiandus ; adest etiam morientibus, horamque supremam angoribus infestat. At ego tamen Dolorem, quanquam invisum, et ab omnibus, quantum fieri potest, ab ipsis semotum, non omnino inutilem depinxi, sed potius eum protuli, ad vitam conservandam necessarium, a Deo Optimo Maximo constitutum." — (p 37.) This conviction animated Morton throughout his life, consoled him in suffering, cheered him in sickness, and gave to his deportment much of its calm and beautiful equanimity.* • The subjoined graceful lines breathe the same spirit. They occur among his MSS. with the date of May 1828. I quote them as illustrative of the thought above indicated. THE SPIRIT OF DESTINY. Spirit of Light ! Thou glance divine Of Heaven's immortal fire, I kneel before thy hallowed shrine To worship and admire. I cannot trace thy glorious flight Nor dream where thou dost dwell, Yet canst thou guard my steps aright By thine unearthly spell. I listen for thy voice in vain. E'en wlien I deem thee nigh; Yet ere I venture to complain. Thou know'st the reason why; And oft when, worldly cares forgot, I watch the vacant air, I see thee act, — I hear thee not,— Y'et know that thou art there. XXvi MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. In 1824, he returned to Philadelpliia, and commenced his career as a practitioner of medicine. He seems immediately to have resumed his place and labors in the Academy of Natural Sciences, which, in the next year, was deprived of the active services of some of its most efficient tnembers, by the removal of Messrs. Maclure, Say, Troost, Lesueur, and others, to New Harmony, whither they went to parti- cipate in the benevolent but ill-starred social experiment of Robert Owen. It was a pleasant dream of a good heart and a visionary brain, and has now faded away from every one but the originator, who holds it still in his extreme old age with the same fervor as in his ardent youth ; but then it had many firm believers. So enthusiastic was Maclure especially in its advocacy, that he declined about this period to assist the Academy in the erection of a new Hall, from a conviction that, in the reorganization of society, living in cities would be abandoned, and their edifices thus left untenanted and useless. One cannot imagine a body of more simple-hearted, less worldly, and less practical men, than the Philadelphia naturalists who went to recon- stitute the framework of society on the prairies of Indiana ; and it is impossible to repress a smile at their Quixotism, even while one heaves a sigh for the bitterness of their disappointment. They left in 1825, and the first papers of Morton were read in 1827. His main interest still seems to have been in Geology. In the year mentioned he published an Analysis of Tabular Spar from Bucks County^ and the next year some Geological Observations, based upon the notes of his friend, Mr. Vanuxem. About this time his attention was turned to the special department of Palaeontology, by an exami- nation of the organic remains of the cretaceous formation of New Jersey and Delaware ; and with this his active scientific life may be regarded as commencing. Some few of the fossils of the New Jersey marl had been noticed by Mr. T. Say, and by Drs. Harlan and Dekay ; but no thorough in- vestigation of this interesting topic was attempted until Morton as- sumed the task. He labored in it industriously, being assisted in the collection of materials by his scientific friends. Three papers on the subject were published in 1828, and from this time the series was continued, either in Silliman's Journal or the Journal of the Aca- And wlien with heedless step, too near I tempt destruction's brink, Deep, deep, witliin my soul 1 hear Thj' voice, and backward shrink. The poisoned shaft, by thee controlled, Speeds swift and harmless by ; But, when the days of life are told, Thou smitest — and we diel MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXVU demy, until it closed with the fourteenth paper in 1846. In 1834, the results then obtained were collected and published in a volume illustrated with nineteen admirable plates.* This book at once gave its author a reputation and status in the scientiiic world, and called forth the warm commendations of Mr. Mantell and other eminent Palaeontologists. It traces the formation in question along the borders of the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico from New Jersey to Louisiana, following it by the identification of its organic remains. The great body of the work is original, scarcely any of the species enumerated having ever been noticed before. Sub- sequent researches enabled him to add considerably to this collection, and, among others, to describe a species of fossil crocodile {Q. clavi- rostris) entirely new and differing considerably in structure from its congeners hitherto known. In regard to the fossils of the cretaceous series, he is still the principal authority. Nor was he neglectful of the other branches of Natural Science, although too well aware of the value of concentrated efl^brt to peril his own success, by a too wide diffusion of his labors. Still he main- tained a constant interest in the operation of every department of the Academ}^, and watched its onward progress with solicitude and satisfoction. To the Geological and Mineralogical, and especially to the Paleebntological collection, he was a liberal contributor. Among the papers read by him before the Academy was one in 1831 on "some Parasitic Worms," another in 1841, on "an Albino Racoon," and a third in 1844, on " a supposed new species of Hippopotamus." This animal, which has been called H. minor vel Liberiensis, was en- tirely unknown to Zoology until described by Morton, who received its skull from Dr. Goheeu, of Liberia, and at once recognized its diversity from the known species. f Notwithstanding the published opinion of Cuvier, that the field of research was exhausted in regard to the iSIammalia, our gifted townsman was enabled to add an im- portant pachyderm to the catalogue of Mammalogy, and that too from the other hemisphere. Let it not be supposed that, amid these absorbing topics of research, he relaxed for a moment his attention to his professional pursuits. On the contrary, he was constantly and largely engaged in practice, and, at his decease, was one of the leading practitioners of our city. Neither did he allow himself to fall behind his professional colleagues in the literature of medicine. He was amono; the first to intro- duce on this side the Atlantic the physical means of diagnosis in * Synopsis of the Organic Remains of the Cretaceous Group of the United States, h^ Samuel George Morton. Philadelphia: Key and Biddle. 1834. \ The Academy has recently (January 1852) received a specimen of it. XXviii MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. thoracic affections. He was also one of the earUest investigators of the morbid anatomy of Phthisis Pulmonahs ; and his volume on that subject, although superseded by the later and more extensive re- searches of the French pathologists, is a monument of his industry and accuracy, and a credit to American medicine.* He also edited Mackintosh's Practice of Physic, with notes, which add materially to its value to the American physician. f In 1849, he published a text- book of anatomy, remarkable for its clearness and succinctness, and the beauty of its illustrations.^ He was early selected by Dr. Parrish as one of his associates in teaching, and lectured upon anatomy in that connexion for a number of years. He subsequently filled the chair of anatomy in the Medical Department of Pennsylvania College from 1839 to 1843. As a lecturer he was clear, calm, and self- possessed, moving through his topic with the easy regularity of one to whom it was entirely familiar. He served for several years as one of the physicians and clinical teachers of the Alms-house Hospital, and it was there that most of his researches on consumption were made. He was a Fellow of the College of Physicians, but did not take an active part in their proceedings, from the fact that their stated meetings occurred on the same evenings as those of the Academy, where he felt it his first duty to be. His only contribution to their pjrinted- Transactions is a biographical notice of his valued friend, Dr. George McClellan, prepared by request of the College. We now come to a portion of his scientific labors, upon which I must be allowed to dwell at greater length. I refer of course to his researches in Anthropology, commencing with what may be desig- nated Comparative Cranioscopy, and running on into general Ethno- logy. The object proposed primarily being the determination of ethnic resemblances and discrepancies by a comparison of crania, (thus perfecting what Blumenbach had left lamentably incomplete,) the work could not be commenced until the objects for comparison were brought together. The results of Blumenbach were invalidated by the small Jiumber of specimens generally relied upon !)}'• him ; for in a case where allowance is to be made for individual peculiarities of form and stature, the conclusions gain infinitely in value by exten- sion of the comparison over a suflicient series to neutralize this disturbing element. There was therefore necessary, first of all, a * Illustrations of Pulmonary Consumption, its Anatomical Characters, Causes, Symptoms and Treatment. With twelve colored plates. Philadelphia: 1834. f Principles of Pathology and Practice of Physic. By John Mackintosh, M. D., &c. First American from the fourth London edition. With notes and additions. In 2 vols. Phila- delphia: 1835. X An Illustrated System of Human Anatomy, Special, General, and Microscopic. Pbi- Udelphia: 1849. MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXIX collection of crania, and that not of a few specimens, but widely enough extended to give reliable results. The contemplation of these facts shows the magnitude and boldness of the plan, which would have sufficed to deter most men from the attempt. But Mor- ton was not easily discouraged, and although he doubtless occupied a wider field in the end than he proposed to himself in the outset, it is evident that from the beginning he contemplated a full cabinet of universal Craniology, Human and Comparative. His own account of the commencement of the collection is as follows : " Having had occasion, in the summer of 1830, to deliver an introductory lecture to a course of Anatomy, I chose for my subject The different forms of the skull as exhibited in the Jive races of men. Strange to say, I could neither buy nor borrow a cranium of each of these races ; and I finished my discourse without showing either the Mongolian or the Malay. Forcibly impressed with this great deficiency in a most im- portant branch of science, I at once resolved to make a collection for myself."* Dr. Wood {31emoir, p. 13,) states that he engaged in this study soon after he commenced practice ; and adds, " among the earliest recollections of my visits to his office is that of the skulls he had collected." The selection of the topic above-mentioned shows that he was already interested in it. The increase was at first slow, but the work was persevered m with a constancy and energy that could know no failure. Every legitimate means was adopted, and every attainable influence brought to bear upon the one object. Time, labor, and money, were expended with- out stint. The enthusiasm he felt himself he imparted to others, and he thus enlisted a body of zealous collaborators who sought contri- butions for him in every part of the world. Many of them sympa- thized with him in his scientific ardor, and quite as many were actuated solely by a desire to serve and oblige the individual. A friend of the writer (without any particular scientific interest) exposed his life in robbing an Indian burial-place in Oregon, and carried his spoils for two weeks in his pack, in a highly unsavory condition, and when discovery would have involved danger, and probably death. Before his departure he had promised Morton to bring him some skulls, and he was resolved to do it at all hazards. This eflbrt also involved, of course, a very extensive and laborious correspondence. He was in daily receipt of letters from all countries and from every variety of persons. It was mainly by the free contributions of these assistants that the collection eventually grew so rapidly. Among the * Letter to J. R. Bartlett, Esq. Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, vol. li New York : 1848. XXX MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEOKGE MORTON. contributors I may mention William A. Foster, Esq., as presenting 135 specimens, Dr. J. C. Cisneros 53, and Dr. Ruschenberger 39. George R. Gliddon, Esq. presented 30, beside the 137 originally pro- cured by his agency ; William A. Gliddon, Es(^., 19 ; M. Clot-Bey 15 ; and Professor Retzius 17, with 24 more received since the death of Dr. M. Over one hundred gentlemen are named in the catalogue as contributing more or less, sixty-seven of them having presented one skull each. It is not to be supposed, however, that even the portion thus given led to no outlay of means. The mere charges for freight from distant portions of the globe amounted to a considerable sum. Dr. Wood [loc. cit.) estimates the total cost of the collection to its proprietor from ten to fifteen thousand dollars. At this moment it is undoubtedly by far the most complete collection of crania extant. There is nothing in Europe comparable to it. I have recently seen a letter from an eminent British ethnologist, containing warm thanks for the privilege even of reading the catalogue of such a collection, and adding that he would visit it anywhere in Europe, although he cannot dare the ocean for it. At the time of Dr. Morton's death it consisted of 918 human crania, to which are to be added 51 received since, and which were then on their wa}^ The collection also con- tains 278 crania of mammals, 271 of birds, and 88 of reptiles and fishes : — in all, 1656 skulls ! I rejoice to state that this magnificent cabinet has been secured to our city by the contribution of liberal citizens, who have purchased it for $4,000, and presented it to the Academy. Simultaneously with his accumulation of crania, and based upon them, he carried on his study of Ethnology, if I may use that term in reference to a period when the science, so called at present, could scarcel}' be said to exist. Indeed it is almost entirely a new science within a few years. While medical men occupied themselves exclu- sively with the intimate structure and function of the human frame, no investigator of nature seemed to turn his attention to the curious diversities of form, feature, complexion, &c., which characterize the different varieties of men. With a very thorough anatomy and phy- siology', our descriptive liistory of the human species was less accurate and extensive than that of most of the well-known animals. So true was this that BufFon pithily observed that " quelque interet que nous ayons a nous connaitre nous memes, je ne sais si nous ne connaissons pas mieux tout ce qui n'est pas nous." But every branch of this interesting investigation has recently received a sudden and vigorous impulse, and there has grown up within a few years an Ethnology with numerous and devoted cultivators. That it still has much to accomplish will appear from the number of questions which the pages MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXXI of this book show to be still sub judice. Indeed it is the widest and most attractive field open to the naturalist of to-day. To quote the admirable language of Jomard: " Car il ne faut pas perdre de vue, maintenant que la connaissance ext^rieure du glob* et de ses productions a fait d'inimenses progres, que la connaissance de Thomme est le but final des sciences geographiques. Une carriere non moins vaste que la premiere est ouverte au gdnie des voyages ; il importe, il est urgent menie, pour I'avenir de I'espfece humaine et pour le besoin de I'Eiirope surtout, de connaitre a fond le degre de civilisation de toutes les races; de savoir exacteinent en quoi elles different ou se rapprochenf quelle est I'analogie ou la dissemblance entre leurs regimes, leurs moeurs, leurs religions, leurs langages, leurs arts, leurs industries, leurs constitutions physiques, afin de lier entre elles et nous des rapports plus surs et plus avantageux. Tel est I'objet de I'ethnologie, ce qui est la science meme de la geographic vue dans son ensemble et dans toute sa haute g^n^ralite. Bien que cette matiere ainsi envisag^e soit presque toute nouvelle, nous ne pouvons trop, n^anmoins, reconimander les observations de cette espfece au z^le des voyageurs."* The attempt to establish a rule of diversity among the races of men, according to cranial conformation, commenced in the last cen- tury with Camper, the originator of the facial angle. The subject was next taken up by Blumenbach, who has been until recently the controlling authority upon it. His Decades Craniorum, whose publi- cation was begun in 1790, and continued until 1828, covers the period when Morton began this study. His method of comparing crania, (by the norma verticalis,) and his distribution of races, were then both un- disputed. The mind of the medical profession in Great Britain and in this country had then, moreover, been recently attracted to the subject by the publication (in 1819) of the very able book of Mr. Law- rence,! avowedly based upon the researches of the great Professor of Gottingen. Dr. Prichard had published his Inaugural Dissertationy De Hominum Varietatibus, in 1808, and a translation of the same m 1812, under the title of Researches on the Physical History of Man, constituting the first of a series of publications, afterwards of great influence and value. Several treatises had also been published with the intention of proving that the color of the negro might arise from climatic influences, the principal work being that of President Smith, of Princeton College, ^ew Jersey. Beyond this, nothing had been done for the science of Man up to Morton's return to this country in 1824. A new impetus had been given, however, to the speciality of Craniology by the promulgation of the views of Gall and Spurzheim., then creating their greatest excitement. These distinguished persons completed the publication of their great work at Paris in 1819, both * Etudes Geographiques et Historiques sur I'Arabie, p. 403. •f Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man, delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons, by W Lawrence, F. R. S., &c. 1 XXXll MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. before and after wliicli time Spurzheim lectured in Great Britain, making many proselytes. The phrenologists of Edinburgh must have been in the very fervor of their first love during Morton's resi- dence there, and they included in their number some men of eminent ability and eloquence. Collections of prepared crania, of casts and masks, became common ; but they were brought together in the hope of illustrating character, not race, and were prized according as fan- ciful hypothesis could make their protuberances correspond with the distribution of intellectual faculties in a most crude and barren psychology. Morton's collection was ethnographic in its aim from the outset ; nor can I find that he ever committed himself full}- to the miscalled Phrenology — a system based upon principles indisputably true, but which it holds in common with the world of science at large, while all that is peculiar to itself is already fading into obli- vion.* Attractive by its easy comprehensibility and facility of appli- cation, it acquired a sudden and wide-spread popularity, and so passed out of the hands of men of science, step by step, till it has now become the property of itinerant charlatans, describing characters for twenty- five cents a head. The very name is so degraded by these associa- tions, that we are apt to forget that, thirty years ago, it was a scientidc doctrnie accepted by learned and thoughtful men. There can be no doubt that it had its effect (important though indirect) upon the mind of Morton, in arousing him to the importance of the Craniology about which everybody was talking, and leading him to make that application of it, which, although neglected by his professional brethren, was still the only one of any real and permanent value. It is evident that the published matter for Morton's studies was very limited. A pioneer himself, he had to resort to the raw mate- rial, and obtain his data at the hand of nature. Fortunately for him he resided in a country where, if literary advantages are otherwise deficient, the inducement and opportunities for anthropological re- Boarcli are particularly abundant. There are reasons why Ethnology should be eminently a science for American culture. Hero, three of the five races, into which Blumenbach divided mankind, are brought together to determine the problem of their destiny as they best may, * The ensuing paragraph will show more clearly Morton's matured opinion on this subject. It is from an Introductory Lecture on "The Diversities of the Human Species," delivered before the Medical Class of Pennsylvania College in November 1842. " It (Phrenology) further teaches us that the brain is the seat of the mind, and that it is a congeries of organs, each of which performs its own separate and peculiar function. These propositions appear to me to be physiological truths ; but I allude to them on this occasion merely to put you on your guard against adopting too hastily those minute details i>t the localities and functions of 8upj)osed oi'gans, which have of late found so many aDd such zealous advocates." MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. XXXlll while Chinese immigration to California and the proposed importa- tion of CooHe Uiborors threaten to bring us into equally intimate contact with a fourth. It is manifest that our relation to and ma- nagement of these people must de[)ond,in a great measure, upon their intrinsic race-character. While the contact of the white man seems fatal to the Red American, whose tribes fade away before the onward march of the frontier-man like the snow in spring (threatening ulti- mate extinction), the i^egro thrives under the shadow of his white master, falls readily into the position assigned him, and exists and multiplies in increased physical well-being. To the American states- man and the philanthropist, as well as to the naturalist, the study thus becomes one of exceeding interest. Extraordinary facilities for observing minor sub-divisions among the families of the white race are also presented by the resort hither of immigrants from every part of Europe. Of all these advantages JSIorton availed himself freely, and soon became the acknowledged master of the topic. Extending his studies beyond what one may call the zoological, into the arcliifiological, and, to some extent, into the philological department of Ethnography, his pre-eminence was speedily acknowledged at home, while the publication of his books elevated him to an equal distinction abroad. Professor Retzius of Stockholm, writing to him April 3d, 1847, says emphatically : " You have do7ie more for Ethno- graphy than any living physiologist ; and I hope you will continue to cultivate this science, which is of so great interest." The first task proposed to himself by Morton, was the examination and comparison of the crania of the Indian tribes of JlsTorth and South America. His special object was to ascertain the average capacity and form of these skulls, as compared among themselves and with those of the other races of men, and to determine what ethnic dis- tinctions, if any, might be inferred from them. The result of this labor was the Crania Americana, published in 1839. This work con- tains admirably executed lithographic plates of numerous crania, of natural size, and presenting a highly creditable specimen of American art. The letter-press includes accurate admeasurements of the crania, especially of their interior capacity ; the latter being made by a plan peculiar to the author, and enabling him to estimate with precision the relative amount of brain in various races. The introduction is particularly interesting, as containing the author's general ethnologi- cal views so far as matured up to that time. He adopts the quintuple division of Blumenbach, not as the best possible, but as sufficient for his purpose, and each of the five races he again divides into a certain number of characteristic families. His main conclusions concernmg the American race are these : XXXiv MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE 3I0RT0N. *• 1st. That the American race differs essentially from all others, not excepting the Mongo- lian : nor do the feeble analogies of language, and the more obvious ones in civil and religious institutions and the arts, denote anything beyond casual or colonial commu- nication with the Asiatic nations ; and even those analogies may perhaps be accounted for, as Humboldt has suggested, in the mere coincidence arising from similar wants and impulses in nations inhabiting similar latitudes. " 2d. That the American nations, excepting the polar tribes, are of one race and one spe- cies, but of two great families, which resemble each other in physical, but differ in intellectual character. " 3d. That the cranial remains discovered in the mounds from Peru to Wisconsin, belong to the same race, and probably to the Toltecan family." The j)ublication of a work of such costly character, and necessarily addressed to a very limited number of readers, was a bold under- taking for a man of restricted means. It was published by himself at the risk of considerable pecuniary loss. The original subscription list fell short of paying the expense, but I am happy to say that the subsequent sale of copies liquidated the deficit. The reception of the book by the learned was all he could have desired. Everywhere it received the warmest commendations. The following extract from a notice in the London Medico-Chirurgical Review for October 1840, will show the tone of the British scientific press : "Dr. Morton's method and illustrations in eliciting the elements of his magnificent Craniography, are admirably concise, without being the less instructively comprehensive. His work constitutes, and will ever be highly appreciated as constituting an exquisite treasury of facts, well adapted, in all respects, to establish permanent organic principles in the natural history of man." " Here we finish our account of Dr. Morton's American Cranioscopy ; and by its extent and copiousness, our article will show how highly we have appreciated his classical pro- duction. We have studied his views with attention, and examined his doctrines with fair- ness ; and with perfect sincerity in rising from a task which has afforded unusual gratifi- cation, we rejoice in ranking his ' Crania Americana' in the highest class of transatlantic literature, foreseeing distinctly that the book will ensure for its author the well-earned meed of a Caucasian reputation." From among the warmly eulogistic letters received from distin- guished savans, I select but one, that of Baron Humboldt, who is himself a high authority on American subjects. " Monsieur, — Les liens intimes d'interet et d'affection qui m'attachent. Monsieur, depuis un d('mi-siecle a I'hemisphfere que vous habitez et dont j'ai la vanit<; de me croire citoyen, ont ajouK; a I'impression que m'ont fait presque a la fois votre grand ouvrage de physio- logic philo,sophique et I'admirable histoire de la conquete du Mexique par M. William Prescott. Voild de ces travaux qui dtendent, par des moyens trfes differens, la sphere de nos connaissances et de nos vues, et ajoutent a la gloire nationale. Je ne puis vous exprimer asscz vivement. Monsieur, la profonde reconnaissance que je vous dois. Am^ricain bien plus que Sib6rien d'apres la couleur de mes opinions, je suis, a mon grand age, singuliere- ment flatty de I'interet qu'on me conserve encore de I'autre cot<5 de la gi'aiid vallee atlantique sur laquelle la vapcur a presque jet6 un pont. Les richesses craniologiques que vous avez <5t6 assez heurcux de rcunir, ont trouvlaces ; it conveys a terrific idea of the disparity of human intelligences. But there is the » Cosmos : traduit par H. Faye. Paris : 1846. I. p. 430. Also, note 42, p. 579. Ott^ translates by depre^ing in one place, and cheerless in another. Cosmos: New York, 1850 t. p. 358. lii MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. unyielding, insuf erable reality. It is desolante indeed to think, to know, that many of these poor D'ortals were born, were created so ! But it appears to me to make little difference in the sentiment of the question whether they came into the world without their wits, or whether they lost them afterwards. And so, I would add, it makes little diiference whe- ther the mental inferiority of the Negro, the Samoiyede, or the Indian, is natural or acquired ; for, if they ever possessed equal intelligence with the Caucasian, they have lost it ; and if they never had it, they had nothing to lose. One party would arraign Provi- dence for creating them originally different, another for placing them in circumstances by which they inevitably became so. Let us search out the truth, and reconcile it after- wards." Here are sound philosophy and plain common sense. As the facts are open to investigation, let us first examine them, and leave the in- ferences for future consideration. If the proposition prove true, we may safely trust all its legitimate deductions. There is no danger from the truth, neither will it conflict with any other truth. Our greater danger is from the cowardice that is afraid to look fact in the face, and, not daring to come in contact with reality, for fear of con- sequences, must rest content with error and half-helief. The question here is one of fact simply, and not of speculation nor of feeling. Humholdt may deny the existence of unalterable diversities, but that is another question, also to be settled only by a wider observation and longer experience. The ethical consequences he so eloquently depre- cates, moreover, appear to me not to be fairly involved, unless he assumes that the solidarity and mutual moral relations of mankind originate solely in their relationship as descendants of a single pair. If so, he has built upon a sandy foundation, and one which every moralist of note will tell him is inadequate to the support of his superstructure. The inalienable right of man to equal liberty with his fellows depends, if it has any sanction, upon higher considerations than any mere physical fact of consanguinity, and remains the same whether the latter be proved or disproved. Ethical principles require a different order of evidence from material phenomena, and are to be regarded from another point of view. The scientific question should, therefore, be discussed on its own merits, and without reference to false issues of an exciting character, if we hope to reach the truth. I cannot forbear the conclusion that, in this matter, the Nestor of science has been betrayed into a little piece of popular declamation, unworthy of his pen, otherwise so consistently logical. But the acme of absurdity is reached by those clerical gentlemen at the south, who have been so eager to avail themselves of Humboldt's great authority in opposition to the doctrine of diversity, while they deny all his pre- mises. Do they consider all doctrine necessarily dfsolante, because an argument in favor of slavery, true or false, may be based upon it ? Humboldt does. And again, if the denial of a common paternity involves all the deplorable consequences indicated by the latter, does MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. lui its assertion cany with it tlie contrary inferences? They say not. If, then, the doctrine of nnity gives no essential guarantee of universal liberty and equality, why reproach the opposite doctrine with destroy- ing what never existed? Thus, these gentlemen must stultify either themselves or their champion, while that w^hich with him was merely a rhetorical flourish becomes, in their hands, a ridiculous non sequitur. In the course of these discussions it became necessary to define, with greater precision, certain terms in constant use. This was espe- cially the case with the word species, the loose employment of which occasioned much confusion. According to the prevalent zoological doctrine, the production of a prolific oflt'spriug is the highest evidence of specific identity, and vice versa. The important results of the application of this law to the races of men are appai'ent. But other authorities deny the validity of the alleged law and its application. " Wir diirften," says Rudolphi, " also wohl deswegen auf Keine Einheit des Menschengeschlechts schliessen, well die verschiedenen Menschen- stamme sich fruchtbar mit einander begatten." The question of Hybridity, therefore, presented itself to Morton in a forai that de- manded attention and settlement before going farther. He seized the subject, not to speculate, and still less to declaim about it, but cau- tiously to gather and sift its facts. His first papers were read before the Academy of N^atural Sciences in November, 1846, and published in Silliman's Journal the next year. They contain a large number of facts, from various authorities, together with the author's inferences. For these, and the entire discussion of the topic, I refer the reader to Chapter XII. (on Hybridity) in this w^ork. But the controversy into which it led Morton forms too prominent a part of his scientific history to be passed over in silence. It was not of his seeking, but was forced upon him. A literary club at Charleston, S. C, being engaged in the discussion of the Origin of Man, the Rev. Dr. Bach- man assumed the championship of the unitary hypothesis, taking ground upon the evidence aftbrded by an invariably prolific offspring. His opponents met him with Morton's papers on Hybridity. These he must, of course, examine ; but he first addressed Morton a letter, of which the follo.wing is an extract : — ' Charleston, Oct. lUth, 1849. *' We are both in the search of truth. I do not think th.at these scientific investigations afiFect the scripture question either way. The Author of Revelation is also the Author of Nature, and I have no fear that when we are able to read intelligibly, we will discover that both harmonize. We can then investigate these matters without the fear of an auto-da-fe from men of sense. In the meantime all must go with respect and good feeling towards each other. Although hard at work in finishing the last volume of Audubon's work, I will now and then have time to look at this matter ; and here let me in anticipation state some of my objections But I am overrun with calls of duty, and have written this under all kinds of interruptions. I shall be most sorry if my opposition to your theory would produce the .slightest interruption to our good feeling, as I regard you, fn your many works, as a benefactor to your country, and an honor to science. I fee' cou- liv MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. fident that I can scatter some of your facts to the winds — yet in others you will be very apt to trip up my own heels ; so let us work harmoniously together. At the English Uni- versities they have wranglers, but no quarrellers." This seems manly and friendly, and Morton, feeling it to be such, was very much gratified. He certainly never could have regarded it as a prelude to an attack upon himself; yet such it was. The next spring (1850) witnessed the publication of Dr. B.'s book on Unity, as well as his Monograph on Hybridity , in the Charleston Medical Journal, in both of which Morton is made the object of assault and attempted ridicule. The former work I have already referred to, (p. xlvi.) The author starts with what amounts, under the circumstances, to a broad and unequivocal confession of ignorance of his topic — a confession which, however praiseworthy on the score of frankness, may be re- garded as wholly supererogatory ; for no reader of ordinary intelligence can open the book without perceiving the fact for himself. His reading seems to have been singularly limited,* while the topic, involving, as it does, the characteristics of remote races, &c., demands a wide and cafeful consultation of authorities. For one M^ho is confessedly neither an archiieologist, an anatomist, nor a philologist, to attempt to teach Ethnology on the strength of having, many years ago, read on the subject a single work — and he scarcely recollects what — is a conception as bold as it is original. His production required no notice, of course, at the hand of Morton. On the special subject of Hybridity, however, he was entitled to an attentive hearing as a gen- tleman of established authority, particularly in the mammalian de- partment of Zoology. Had he discussed it in the spirit foreshadow^ed by his letter, and which Morton anticipated, there would have been no controversy, but an amicable comparison of views, advancing the cause of science. But his tone was arrogant and offensive. Not only to the general reader in his book, but also to Morton in his letters, * " In preparing these notes we have even resolved not to refer to Prichard — who, we believe, is justly regarded as one of our best authorities — whose work we read with great in- terest some, years ago, (and which is allowed even by his opponents to have been written in a spirit of great fairness,) and many of whose arguments we at the time considered unan- swerable." (p. 16.) " After this work was nearly printed, we procured Prichard's Natural History of Man — his other uorks we have not seen. We were aware of the conclusions at which his mind had arrived, but not of the process by which his investigations had been pursued." (p. 304.) Now, as the Natural History was not published until 1843, it could hardly be the book read "some years ago" (prior to 1849); especially as Dr. B. confesses ignorance "of the process, &c." [supra.'l That must have been one of the earlier volumes of the Physical Researches, commenced in 1812, probably the very first, which leaves the subject short of the point to which Blumenbach subsequently brought.it. But Ur. B. assures us again, that other work of Prichard than the Natural History he " has never seen." Then he never saw .my before writing his own book! His memory is certainlj' extremely vague. It i-s safe 'o conclude, however, that he undertook to write upon this difficult subject without mo J'rect consultation of a single authority : — the result is what might be readily anticipaifcd MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. Iv does he speak de haut en has, as if, from the height of the pulpit, he was looking down upon men immeasurably removed from him by his sacred office. This faulty manner perhaps results from his pro- fession, as does his verbose and declamatory style. But this consi- deration will not excuse the patronizing way in which he addresses one of higher scientific rank than himself. He reminds Morton of the countenance ho has heretofore given him, — that he even subscribed for his book ! The authorities relied upon by the latter he treats with supreme contempt, individually and collectively, characterizing them as pedantic, antiquated, and "musty."* All this is carried through in a bold, dashing, oli-hand way, calculated to impress forcibly any reader ignorant of the matter under discussion. It argues the most confident self-complacency and conviction of superiority on the part of the writer, and doubtless his admiring readers shared the feeling. For a short season there was quite a jubilation over the assumed defeat of the physicists. But there is an Italian proverb which says, N^on sempre chi cantando viene, cantando va! and which Dr. B. was destined to illustrate. To nis first paper Morton replied in a letter dated March 30th, 1850, the tone of which is calm, dignified, and friendly. He defends his autho- rities, accumulates new evidence, and strengthens and defines his position. This called forth Dr. B.'s most objectionable letter of June 12th, 1850, also published in the Charleston Journal, and in which he entirely passes the bounds of propriety. No longer satisfied with his poor attempts at wit, which consist almost exclusively in the use of the word "old" and its synonymes, he becomes denunciatory, and even abusive. He charges Morton with taking part in a deliberate conspiracy, having its ramifications in four cities, for the overthrow of a doctrine " nearly connected with the faith and hope of the Chris- tian, for this world and for eternity." In another paragraph, (p. 507,) he says, that infidelity must inevitably spring up as the consequence of adopting Morton's views. Now, we all know that when gentle- men of Dr. B.'s cloth use that word, the}- mean war usque ad necem. Its object is simply to do mischief and give pain. It cannot injure * Dr. Bachman's contempt for everything " old" is certainly very curious in one so likely, from calling and position, to be particularly conservative. Nor is this his only singularity. His pertinacious ascription of a remote date to every one whose name has a Latinized termination, reminds one of the story told of the backwoods lawyer, who persisted in numbering " old Cantharides" among the sages of antiquity. He is particularly hard upon " old Ilellenius," never failing to give him a passing flout, and talking about raising his ghost. The writings of Dr. B. do not indicate a very sensitive person, yet even he must have felt a considerable degree of the sensation known as cutifi anserina, when he received the information, conveyed in Morton's quietest manner, that "old Ilellenius," with others of his so-called " musty" authorities, were his own contemporaries .' The work of Chevreul, which he disposes of in the same supercilious way, bears the extr'^me date of 1846 ' Ivi MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. the person attacked, so far as the scientific world is concerned — for there the phrase can now only excite a smile — but it may impair hia • business or his public standing, or, still worse, it may enter his do- mestic circle, and wound him through his teuderest sympathies. "Was such the intention in the present case ? Charity bids us think otherwise ; and yet the attack has a very malignant appearance. To Morton it occasioned great surprise and pain. He answered it calmly in a paper in the same Journal, entitled Additional Observations, &c. He is unwavering in the assertion of his opinion ; and, inasmuch as its triumphant establishment would be his own best justification, he piles up still more and more evidence, often from the highest autho- rities in Natural History. The personalities of Dr. B. he meets and refutes briefly, but with firmness and dignity, declining entirely to allow himself to be provoked into a bandying of epithets. His con- duct was in striking contrast with that of his reverend opponent ; and, while it exalted him in the estimation of the learned everywhere, showed the latter to be a stranger to the courtesies that should characterize scientific discussion. More of a theological polemic than a naturalist, he uses the tone and style proverbially displayed by the former, and is offensive accordingly. He has his punishment in general condemnation and impaired scientific standing. In the mean time,' Morton was stimulated to a determination to exhaust whatever material there was accessible in regard to Hybridity. Dr. Bachman he dropped entirely after the second letter; but he an- nounced to his friends his intention of sending an article regularly for each successive number of the Charleston Journal, so long as new matter presented. Two only of these supplementary communications appeared, the last being dated January 31st, 1851. But the solemn termination of all these labors was near at hand. Never had Morton been so busy as in that spring of 1851. His pro- fessional engagements had largely increased, and occupied most of his time. His craniological investigations were prosecuted with un- abated zeal, and he had recently made important accessions to his collection. He was actively engaged in the study of ArchtBology, Egyptian, Assyrian, and American, as collateral to his favorite sub- ject. His researches upon Hybridity cost him much labor, in his extended comparison of authorities, and his industrious search for facts bearing on the question. In addition to all this, he was occu- pied with the preparation of his contribution to the work of Mr. Schoolcraft, and of several minor papers. Most of these labors were left incomplete. The fragments published in this volume will show now his mind was engaged, and to what conclusions it tended at the close. For it was now, in the midst of toil and usefulness, that he was called away from us. Five days of illness — not considered MEMOIR OF SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON. Ivii alarming at first — had scarcely prepared his friends for the sad event, when it was announced, on the 15th of May, that Morton was no more ! It was too true — he had left vacant among us a place that cannot soon be filled. Peacefully and calmly he had gone to his eternal rest, having accomplished so much in his short space of life, and yet leaving so much undone, that none but he could do as well ! So lived and so died our lamented friend. "While we deplore his loss, however, we cannot but perceive that few men have been more blessed in life than he. His career was an eminently prosperous and successful one. Very few have ever been so uniformly successful in their enterprises. He established, with unusual rapidity, a wide- spread scientific fame, upon the white radiance of which he has, dying, left not a single blot. His life was also a fortunate and happy one in its more private relations. His first great grief came upon him, precisely a year before his own decease, in the loss of a beloved son, to whom he was tenderly attached, j^o other cloud than this obscured his clear horizon to the last. That he felt it deeply there can be no doubt ; but he had, at his heart's core, the sentiment that can rob sorrow of its bitterness, and death of its sting. To that sen- timent he has given utterance in these lines ; and, with their quotation, I conclude this notice, the preparation of which has been to me a labor of love, and the solace, for a season, of a bed of suffering. What art thou, world ! with thy beguiling dreams, Thy banquets and carousals, pomp and pride! What is thy gayest moment, when it teems With pleasures won, or prospects yet untried? What are thy honors, titles and renown, Thy brightest pageant, and thy noblest sway ? Alas! like flowers beneath the tempest's frown. They bloom at morn, — at eve they fade away! A few short years revolve, and then no more Can Memory rouse them from their resting-place ; The joys we courted, and the hopes we bore, Have pass'd like shadows from our fond embrace. But is there nought, amid the fearful doom. That can outlast the wreck of mortal things ? There is a spirit that does not consume. But mounts o'er ruin with triumphant wings. And thou, Religion ! like a guardian star Dost glitter in the firmament on high, And lead'st us still, the' we have wander'd far, To hopes that cheer, and joys that never die! And if an erring pilgrim on his way Casts but a pure, a suppliant glance to Heaven, " Fear not — benighted child" — he hears thee say — " For they are doubly blest that are forgiveu ! " SKETCH NATURAL PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD AND THEIR RELATION TO THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF MAN. BY LOUIS AQASSIZ. Messi'S. NoTT and Gliddon. Dear Sirs: — In compliance with your request that I should furnish you with certain scientific facts respecting the Natural History of Man, to which you are now devoting par- ticularly your attention, I transmit to you some general remarks upon the natural relations of the human family and the organic world surrounding it ; in the hope that it may call the attention of naturalists to the close connection there is betweeri the geographical distribution of animals and the natural boundaries of the different races of man — a fact which must be explained by any theory of the origin of life which claims to cover the whole of this difiB.- cult problem. I do not pretend to present such a theory now, but would simply illustrate the facts as they are, to lay the foundation of a more extensive work to be published at some future time. Nor is it my intention to characterize here all the zoological provinces recognized by naturalists, but only those the animals of which are known with sufficient iccuracy to throw light upon the subject under consideration. Of the marine animals, I shall therefore take no notice, except so far as they bear a special relation to the habits of uncivilized races or to the commercial enterprise of the world. The views illustrated in the following pages have been expressed for the first time by me in a paper, published in French, in the Revue Suisse for 1845. Very truly, yours, Ls. Agassiz. Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 19th, 1853. There is one feature in the physical history of mankind which has been entirely neglected by those who have studied this subject, viz., the natural relations between the different types of man and the animals and plants inhabiting the same regions. The sketch here presented is intended to supply this deficiency, as far as it is possible in a mere outline delineation, and to show that the boundaries, within which the different natural combinations of animals are known to be circumscribed upon the surface of our earth, coincide with the 7iatural range of distinct types of man. Such natural combinations of animals circumscribed within definite boundaries are called faunae, whatever (Iviii) PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD, ETC. lix be their home — land, sea, or river. Among the animals which com pose the fauna of a country, we find types belonging exclusively there, and not occurring elsewhere ; such are, for example, the orni thorliynchus of New Holland, the sloths of America, the hippopota mus of Africa, and the walruses of the arctics : others, which have only a small number of representatives beyond the fauna which they specially characterize, as, for instance, the marsupials of JSTew Hol- land, of which America has a few species, such as the opossum ; and again others which have a wider range, such as the bears, of which there are distinct species in Europe, Asia, or America, or the mice and bats, which are to be found all over the world, except in the arctics. That fauna will, therefore, be most easily characterized which possesses the largest number of distinct types, proper to itself, and of which the other animals have little analogy with those of neighboring regions, as, for example, the fauna of New Holland. The inhabitants of fresh waters furnish also excellent characters for the circumscription of faunas. The fishes, and other fluviatile animals from the larger hydrographic basins, diifer no less from each other than the mammalia, the birds, the reptiles, and the insects of the countries which these rivers water. Nevertheless, some authors have attempted to separate the fresh water animals from those of the land and sea, and to establish distinct divisions for them, under the name of fluviatile faunae. But the inhabitants of the rivers and lakes are too intimately connected with those of their shores to allow of a rigorous distinction of this kind. Rivers never establish a sepa- ration between terrestrial faunae. For the same reason, the faunse of the inland seas cannot be completely isolated from the terrestrial ones, and we shall see hereafter that the animals of southern Europe are not bound by the Mediterranean, but are found on the southern shore of that sea, as far as the Atlas. We shall, therefore, distin- guish our zoological regions according to the combination of species which they enclose, rather than according to the element in which we find them. If the grand divisions of the animal kingdom are primordial and independent of climate, this is not the case with regard to the ulti- mate local circumscription of species : these are, on the contrary, intimately connected with the conditions of temperature, soil, and vegetation. ^A remarkable instance of this dietribution of animals with reference to climate m.ay be observed in the arctic fauna, which '*ontain8 a great number of species common to the tliree continents converging towards the North Pole, and which presents a striking uniformity, when compared with the diversity of the temperate and tropical faunae of those same continents. Ix PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD The arctic fauna extends to the utmost limits of the cold and bar- ren regions of the North. But from the moment that forests appear, and a more propitious soil permits a larger development of animal life and of vegetation, we see the fauna and flora, not only diversified according to the continents on which they exist, but we observe also striking distinctions between different parts of the same continent ; thus, in the old world, the animals vary, not only from the polar circle to the equator, but also in the opposite direction — those of the western coast of Europe are not the same as those of the basin of the Caspian Sea, or of the eastern coast of Asia, nor are those of the eastern coast of America the same as those of the western. The first fauna, the limits of which we would determine with pre- cision, is the arctic. It offers, as we have just seen, the same aspects in three parts of the world, which converge towards the North Pole. The uniform distribution of the animals by which it is inhabited forms its most striking character, and gives rise to a sameness of general features which is not found in any other region. Though the air-breathing species are not numerous here, the large number of individuals compensates for this deficiency, and among the marine animals we find an astonishing profusion and variety of forms. In this respect the vegetable and animal kingdoms difler entirely from each other, and the measure by which we estimate the former is quite false as applied to the latter. Plants become stunted in their growth or disappear before the rigors of the climate, while, on the contrary, all classes of the animal kingdom have representatives, more or less numerous, in the arctic fauna, Neither can they be said to diminish in size under these influences ; for, if the arctic representatives of certain classes, particularly the insects, are smaller than the analogous types in the tropics, we must not forget, on the other hand, that the whales and larger cetacea have here their most genial home, and make amends, by their more powerful structure, for the inferiority of other classes. Also, if the animals of the North are less striking in external ornament — if their colors are less brilliant — yet we cannot say that they are more uniform, for tliough their tints are not so bright, they are none the less varied in their distribution and arrangement. The limits of the arctic fiiuna are very easil}^ traced. We must include tlHM'cin all animals living beyond the line where forests cease, and inhalMting countries entirely barren. Those which feed upon flesh seek fishes, hares, or lemmings, a rodent of the size of our rat. Those which live on vegetable substances are not numerous. Some gramineous plants, mosses, and lichens, serve as pasture to the rumi- lants and rodents, while the seeds of a few flowering plants, and AND THEIR RELATION TO TYPES OF MAN Ixi of the dwarf birclios, afford nourishment to the little granivorous birds, wsuch as linnets and huntings. The species belonging to the sea-shore feed upon marine animals, which live, themselves, upon each other, or upon marine plants. The larger mammalia which inhabit this zone are — the white bear, the wah'us, numerous species of seal, the reindeer, the musk ox, the narwal, the cachalot, and whales in abundance. Among the smaller species we may mention the white fox, the polar hare, and the lemming. The birds are not less characteristic. Some marine eagles, and wading birds in smaller number, are found ; but the aquatic birds of the family of palmipedes are those which especially prevail. The coasts of the continents and of the numerous islands in the arctic seas are peopled by clouds of gannets, of cormorants, of penguins, of petrels, of ducks, of geese, of mergansers, and of gulls, some of which are as large as eagles, and, like them, live on prey. No reptile is known in this zone. Fishes are, how^ever, very numerous, and the rivers especially swarm with a variety of species of the salmon family. A number of representatives of the inferior classes of worms, of Crustacea, of mollusks, of echinoderms, and of medusae, are also found here. Within the limits of this fauna we meet a peculiar race of men, known in America under the name of Esquimaux, and under the names of Laplanders, Samojedes, and Tchuktshes in the north of Asia. This race, so well known since the voyage of Capt. Cook and the arctic expeditions of England and .Eussia, differs alike from the Indians of Il^orth America, from the whites of Europe, and the Mon- gols of Asia, to whom they are adjacent. The uniformity of their characters along the whole range of the arctic seas forms one of the most striking resemblances which these people exhibit to the fauna with which they are so closely connected. The semi-annual alternation of day and night in the arctic regions has a great influence upon their modes of living. They are entirely dependent upon animal food for their sustenance, no farinaceous grains, no nutritious tubercles, no juicy fruits, growing under those inhospitable latitudes. Their domesticated animals are the reindeer in Asia, and a peculiar variety of dog, the Esquimaux dog, in North America, where even the reindeer is not domesticated. Though the arctic fauna is essentially comprised in the arctic circle, its organic limit does not correspond rigorously to this line, but rather to the isotherme of 32° Fahr., the outline of which presents numerous undulations. This limit is still more natural \^■hen it ls made to correspond with that of the disappearance of forests. It then circumscribes those immense plains of the North, which tho Samoyeaes call tundras, and the Anglo-Americans, 5«rre7i lands. Ixii PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD, The naturalists, wlio Lave overlooked this fauna, and connected it with those of the temperate zone, have introduced much confusion in the geographical distribution of animals, and have failed to recognize the remarkable coincidence existing between the extensive range of the arctic race of men, and the uniformity of the animal world around the Northern Pole. The first column of the accompanying tableau represents the types which characterize best this fauna ; viz., the white or polar bear, the walrus, the seal of Greenland, the reindeer, the right whale, and the eider duck. The vegetation is represented by the so-called reindeer- moss, a lichen which constitutes the chief food of the herbivorous animals of the arctics and the high Alps, during winter. To the glacial zone, which incloses a single fauna, succeeds the temperate zone, included between the isothermes of 32°, and 74° Fahr., characterised by its pine forests, its amentacea, its maples, its walnuts, and its fruit trees, and from the midst of which arise like islands, lofty mountain chains or high table-lands, clothed with a vegetation which, in many respects, recalls that of the glacial regions. The geographical distribution of animals in this zone, forms several closely connected, but distinct combinations. It is the country of the terrestrial bear, of the wolf, the fox, the weasel, the marten, the otter, the lynx, the horse and the ass, the boar, and a great number of stags, deer, elk, goats, sheep, bulls, hares, squirrels, rats, &c. ; to which are added southward, a few representatives of the tropical zone. Wherever this zone is not modified by extensive and high table- lands and mountain chains, we may distinguish in it four secondary zones, approximating gradually to the character of the tropics, and presenting therefore a greater diversity in the types of its southern representation than we find among those of its northern boundaries. We have first, adjoining the arctics, a sub-arctic zone, with an almost uniform appearance in the old as well as the new world, in which pine forests prevail, the home of the moose ; next, a cold temperate zone, in which amentaceous trees are combined with pines, the home of the fur animals ; next, a warm temperate zone, in which the pines recede, wliilst to the prevailing amentaceous trees a variety of ever- greens are added, the chief seat of the culture of our fruit trees, and of the wheat ; and a sub-tropical zone, in which a number of tropical forms are combined with those characteristic of the w^arm temperate zone. Yet there is throughout the whole of the temperate zone one feature prevailing; the repetition, under corresponding latitudes, but under difi:erent longitudes, of the same genera and families, repre- sented in each l)otanical or zoological province by distinct so-called AND THEIR RELATION TO TYPES OF MAN. Ixill analogous or representative species, with a very few subordinate types, peculiar to each province ; for it is not nntil we reach the tropical zone that we find distinct types prevailing in each fauna and flora. Again, owing to the inequalities of the surface, the secondary zones are more or less blended into one another, as for instance, in the table-lauds of Central Asia, and Western North America, where the whole temperate zone preserves the features of a cold temperate re- gion; or the colder zones may appear like islands rising in the midst of the warmer ones, as the Pyrenees, the Alps, &c., the summits of which partake of the peculiarities of the arctic and sub-arctic zones, whilst the valleys at their base are characterised by the flora and fauna of the cold or warm temperate zones. It may be proper to remark, in this connection, that the study of the laws regulating the geographical distribution of natural families of animals and plants upon the whole surface of our globe differs, entirely, from that of the associations and combinations of a variety of animals and plants within definite regions, forming peculiar faunae and flora. Considering the whole range of the temperate zone fj'om east to west, we may divide it in accordance with the prevailing physical features into — 1st, an Asiatic realm, embracing Mantchuria, Japan, China, Mongolia, and passing through Turkestan into 2d, the JEuro- pean realm, which includes Iran as well as Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, northern Arabia and Barbary, as well as Europe, properly so called ; the western parts of Asia, and the northern parts of Africa being intimately connected by their geological structure with the southern parts of Europe ; * and, 3d, the JSforth American realm, which extends as far south as the table-land of Mexico. With these qualifications, we may proceed to consider the faunae which characterize these three realms. But, before studying the or- ganic characters of this zone, let us glance at its physical constitution. The most marked character of the temperate zone is found in the inequality of the four seasons, which give to the earth a peculiar aspect in different epochs of the year, and in the gradual, though more or less rapid passage of these seasons into each other. The vegetation particularly undergoes marked modifications ; completely arrested, or merely suspended, for a longer or shorter time, according to the proximity of the arctic or the tropical zone, we find it by turns in a prolonged lethargy, or in a state of energetic and sustained development. But in this respect there is a decided contrast between the cold and warm portions of the temperate zone. Though they • For further evidence that Iran, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Northern Arabia and Northern Africa, belong naturally to the European realm, see Guyot's Earth and Man. 5 Ixiv PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD are both characterized by the predominance of the same famihes of plants, and in particidar by the presence of numerous species of the coniferous and amentaceous pkmts, yet the periodical sleep which deprives the middle latitudes of their verdure, is more complete in the colder region than in the warmer, which is already enriched by some southern forms of vegetation, and where a part of the trees remain green all the year. The succession of the seasons produces, more- over, such considerable changes in the climatic conditions in this zone, that all the animals belonging to it cannot sustain them equally well. Hence a large number of them migrate at diiferent seasons from one extremity of the zone to the other, especially certain fami- lies of birds. It is known to all the world that the birds of Northern Europe and America leave their ungenial climate in the winter, seek- ing warmer regions as far as the Gulf of Mexico and the Mediterra- nean, the shores of which, even those of the African coasts, make a part of the temperate zone. Analogous migrations take place also in the north of Asia. Such migrations are not, however, limited to the temperate zone ; a number of species from the arctic regions go for the winter into the temperate zone, and the limits of these migra- tions may aid us in tracing the natural limits of the faunse, which thus link themselves to each other, as the human races are connected by civilization. The temperate zone is not characterized, like the arctic, by one and the same fauna ; it does not form, as the arctic does, one continuous zoological zone around the globe. Not only do the animals change from one hemisphere to another, but these ditterences exist even be- tween various regions of the same hemisphere. The species belonging to the western countries of the old world are not identical with those of the eastern countries. It is true that they often resemble each other so closely, that until very recently they have been confounded. It has been reserved, however, for modern zoology and botany to detect these nice distinctions. For instance, the coniferse of the old world, even within the sub-arctic zone, are not identical with those of America. Instead of the Norway and black pine, we have here the balsam and the white spruce ; instead of the common fir, the PinuB rigida; instead ot the European larch, the hacmatac, &;c. ; and farther south the differences are still more striking. In the- temperate zone proper, the oaks, the beeches, the birches, the hornbeams, the hoi)h()nibeams, the chestnuts, the buttonwoods, the elms, the linden, the mai)U,'s, and the wahiuts, are represented in each continent by ])eculiar species differing more or less. Peculiar forms make, here and there, their appearance, such as the gum-trees, the tulip-trees, the magnolias. The evergreens arc still more diversified, — we need only AND THEIR RELATION TO TYPES OF MAN. Ixv mention the camelias of Japan, and the kalmias of America as exam- ples. Among the trof)!^^!! forms extending into the warm temperate zone, we notice particuhirly the pahnetto in tlie southern United States, and the dwarf chameerops of southern Europe. The animal kingdom presents the same features. In Europe we have, for in- stance, the brown bear; in Korth America, the black bear; in Asia, the bear of Tubet : the European stag, and tlie European doer, are represented in ITorth America by the Canadian stag, or wapiti, and the American deer ; and in eastern Asia, by the musk-deer. Instead of tlu> mouflon, N"orth America has the big-horn or mountain sheep, and Asia the argali. The North American buffalo is represented in Europe by the wild auerochs of Lithuania, and in Mongolia by the yak ; the wild-cats, the martens and weasels, the wolves and foxes, the squirrels and mice (excepting the imported house-mouse), the birds, the reptiles, the fishes, the insects, the mollusks, &c., though more or less closely allied, are equally distinct specifically. The types peculiar to the old or the new world are few ; among them may be mentioned the horse and ass and the dromedary of Asia, and the opossum of I^orth America ; but upon this subject more details may be found in every text-book of zoology and botany. We would only add that in the present state of our knowledge we recognise the fol- lowing combinations of animals within the limits of the temperate zone, which may be considered as so many distinct zoological pro- vinces or faunge. In the Asiatic realm, — 1st, a north-eastern fauna, the Japanese fauna; 2d, a south-eastern fauna, the Chinese fauna, and a central fauna, the Mongolian fauna, followed westwards by the Caspian fauna, which partakes partlj' of the Asiatic and partly of the Euro- pean zoological character; its most remarkable animal, antelope saiga, ranging west as flir as southern Russia. The Japanese and the Chinese faunae stand to each other in the same relation as southern Europe and north Africa, and it remains to be ascertained by farther investigations whether the Japanese fauna ought not to be subdivided into a more eastern insular fauna, the Japanese fauna proper, and a more western continental ftuina, which might be called the 3Iandshu rian or Tongousian fauna. But since it is not my object to describe separately all faunre, but chiefly to call attention to the coincidence existing between the natural limitation of the races of man, and the geographical range of the zoological provinces^ I shall limit myself here to some general remarks respecting the Mongolian fauna, in order to show that the Asiatic zoological realm differs essentiallv from the European and the American. In our Tableau, the second column represents the most remarkable animals of this fauna; the Ixvi PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD bear of Tubet (iirsus thibetanus), the musk-deer (moscbus moscbiferus), the Tzeiran (antilope gutturosa), the Mongolian goat (capra sibirica), the argah (ovis argah), and the yak (bos grunniens). Thi& is also the home of the Bactrian or double-hunched camel, and of the wild horse (equus caballus), the wild ass (equus onager), and another equine species, the Dtschigetai (equus hemionus). The wide distribution of the musk-deer in the Altai, and the Ilimmalayan and Chinese Alps, shows the whole Asiatic range of the temperate zone to be a most natural zoological realm, subdivided into distinct pro- vinces by the greater localization of the largest number of its repre- sentatives. If we now ask what are the nations of men inhabiting those re- gions, we find that they all belong to the so-called Mongolian race, the natural limits of w^hich correspond exactly to the range of the Japanese, Chinese, Mongohan and Caspian faunae taken together, and that peculiar types, distinct nations of this race, cover respec- tively the diiferent faunse of this realm. The Japanese inhabiting the Japanese zoological province ; the Chinese, the Chinese pro- vince ; the Mongols, the Mongolian province; and the Turks, the Caspian province; eliminating, of course, the modern establishment of Turks in Asia Minor and Europe. The unity of Europe, (exclusive of its arctic regions,) in connection with south-western Asia and northern Africa, as a distinct zoological realm, is established by the range of its mammalia and by the limits of the migrations of its birds, as well as by the physical features of its whole extent. Thus we find its deer and stag, its bear, its hare, its squirrel, its wolf and wild-cat, its fox and jackal, its otter, its weasel and marten, its badger, its bear, its mole, its hedgehogs, and a number of bats, either extending over the whole realm in Europe, western Asia, and north Africa, or so linked together as to show that in their combination with the birds, reptiles, fishes, &c., of the same countries, they constitute a natural zoological association analogous to that of Asia, but essentially different in reference to species. Like the eastern realm, this European world may be sub-divided into a number of distinct faunae, characterized each by a variety of peculiar animals. In western Asia we find, for instance, the common camel, instead of the Bactrian, whilst Mount Sinai, Mounts Taurus and Caucasus have goats and wild sheep which differ as much from those of Asia, as they differ from those of Greece, of Italy, of the Alps, of the Pyrenees, of the Atlas, and of Egypt. Wild horses are known to have inhabited Spain and Germany ; and a wild bull ex- tended over the whole range of central Europe, which.no longer t^.xists there. The Asiatic origin of our domesticated animals may, AND THEIR RELATION TO TYPES OF MAN Ixvii therefore, well be questioned, even if we were still to refer western Asia to the Asiatic realm ; since the ass, and some of the breeds of our horse, only belong to the table-lands of Iran and Mongolia, whilst the other species, including the cat, may all be traced to species of the European realm. The domesticated cat is referred by Riippell to felii maniculata of Egypt; by others, to felis catus ferus of central Europe ; thus, in both cases, to an animal of the European reahn. Whether the dog be a species by itself, or its varieties derived from several species which have completely amalgamated, or be it descended from the wolf, the fox, or the jackal, every theory must limit its natural range to the European world. The merino sheep is still represented in the wild state by the monflon of Sardinia, and was formerly wild in all the mountains of Spain ; whether the sheep of the patriarchs were derived from those of Mt. Taurus, or from Armenia, still they differed from those of western Europe ; since, a thousand years before our era, the Phcenicians preferred the wool from the Iberian peninsula to that of their Syrian neighbours. The goats differ so much in different parts of the world, that it is still less possible to refer them to one common stock; and while IsTepaul and Cashmere have their own breeds, we may well consider those of Egypt and Sinai as distinct, especially as they differ equally from those of Caucasus and of Europe. The common bull is derived from the wild species which has become extinct in Europe, and is not identical with any of the wild species of Asia, notwithstanding some assertions to the contrary. The hog descends from the comn:ion boar, now found wild over the whole temperate zone in the Old World. Both ducks and geese have their wild representatives in Europe; so also the pigeon. As for the common fowls, they are decidedly of east Asiatic origin ; but the period of their importation is not well known, nor even the wild species from which they are derived. The wild turkey is well known as an inhabitant of the American continent. Is'ow, taking further into account the special distribution oi all the animals, wild as well as domesticated, of the European temperate zone, we may sub-divide it into the following eight faunte : — 1st, Scandinavian fauna ; 2d, Russian fauna ; 3d, Tlte fauna of Central Europe ; 4th, The fauna of Southern Uuroj^e ; 5th, Tlie fauna of Iran; 6th, Tlie Syrian fauna ; 7th, The Egyptian fauna ; and 8th, The fauna of the Atlas. The special works upon the zoology of Europe, the great works illustrative of the French expeditions in Egypt, Morocco, and Algiers, the travels of Riippell and liusseger in Egypt and Syria, of M. Wagner in Algiers, of Dcmidoff in southern Russia, &c. &c., and the special treatises on the geographical distribu- tion of mammalia by A. Wagner, and of animals in general by Ixviii PROVINCES OF THE ANIJMAL WORLD Schmardii may furnish more details upon the zoology of these countries. Here, again, it cannot escape the attention of the careful observer, that the European zoological realm is circumscribed within exactly the same limits as the so-called white race of man, including, as it does, the inhabitants of south-western Asia, and of north Africa, with the lower parts of the valley of the ISTile. We exclude, of course, modern migrations and historical changes of habitation from this assertion. Our statements are to be understood as referring only to the aboriginal or ante-historical distribution of man, or rather to the distribution as history finds it. And in this respect there is a singular fact, which historians seem not to have sufficiently appre- ciated, that the earliest migrations recorded, in any form, show us man meeting man, wherever he moves upon the inhabitable surface of the globe, small islands excepted. It is, farther, very striking, that the different sub-divisions of this race, even to the limits of distinct nationalities, cover precisely the same ground as the special faunae or zoological provinces of this most important part of the world, which in all ages has been the seat of the most advanced civilization. In the south-west of Asia we find (along the table-land of Iran) Persia and Asia Minor ; in the plains southward, Mesopotamia and Syria ; along the sea-shores, Palestine and Phoenicia; in the valley of the Nile, Egypt; and along the southern shores of Afiica, Barbary. Thus we have Semitic nations covering the north African and south-west Asiatic faunae, while the south European peninsulas, including Asia Minor, are inhabited by Grseco-Roman nations, and the cold, temperate zone, by Celto-Ger- manic nations ; the eastern range of Europe being peopled by Sclaves. This coincidence may justify the inference of an independent origin for these diflerent tribes, as soon as it can be admitted that the races of men were primitively created in nations ; the more so, since all of them claim to have been autochthones of the countries they inhabit. This claim is so universal that it well deserves more attention. It may be more deeply founded than historians, generally, seem inclined to grant. The third column of our Tableau exhibits the animals characteristic of the temperate part of the European zoological realm, and shows their close resemblance to those of the corresponding Asiatic fauna; the species being representative species of the same genera, with the exception of the musk-deer, which has no analogues in Europe. Though temperate America resembles closely, in its animal crea- tion, the countries of Europe and Asia belonging to the same zone, u e meet with physical and organic features in this continent which AND THEIR RELATION TO TYPES OF MAN. Ixix differ entirely from those of tlie Old World. The tropical realms, connected there with those of the temperate zone, though hound together hy some analogies, differ essentially from one another. Tropical Africa has hardly any species in common with Europe, though we may remember that the lion once extended to Greece, and that the jackal is to this day found upon some islands in the Adriatic, and in Morea. Tropical Asia differs equally from its temperate regions, and Australia forms a world by itself. Not so in southern America. The range of mountains which extends, in almost un- broken continuity, from the Arctic to Cape Horn, establishes a similarity between North and South America, which may be traced also, to a great degree, in its plants and animals. Entire families which are peculiar to this continent have their representatives in North, as well as South America, the cactus and didelphis, for instance ; some species, as the puma, or American lion, may even be traced from Canada to Patagonia. In connection with these facts, we find that tropical America, though it has its peculiar types, as characteristic as those of tropical Africa, Asia, and Australia, does not furnish analogues of the giants of Africa and Asia; its largest pachyderms being tapirs and pecaris, not elephants, rhinoceroses, and hippopotami ; and its largest ruminants, the llamas and alpacas, and not camels and giraffes ; whilst it reminds us, in many respects, of Australia, with which it has the type of marsupials in common, though ruminants and pachyderms, and even monkeys, are entirel;y wanting there. Thus, with due qualification, it may be said, that the whole continent of America, when compared with the corresponding twin-continents of Europe —Africa or Asia— Australia is characterized by a much greater uniformit}' of its natural productions, combined with a special localization of many of its. subordinate types, which will justify the establishment of many special faunfe within its boundaries. With these facts before us, we may expect that there should be no great diversity among the tribes of man inhabiting this continent; and, indeed, the most extensive investigation of their peculiarities has led Dr. Morton to consider them as constituting but a single race, from the confines of the Esquimaux down to the southernmost ex- tremity of the continent. But, at the same time, it should be remembered that, in accordance with the zoological character of the' whole realm, this race is divided into an infinite number of small tribes, presenting more or less difference one from another. As to the special faunse of the American continent, we may distin- guish, within the temperate zone, a Canadian fauna, extending frr>m Newfoundland across the great lakes to the base of the Rocky moiin- IXX PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD tains, a fauna of the North American table-land, a fauna of the North- west coast, a fauna of the middle United States, a fiiuna of the southern United States, and a Qalifornian fauna, the characteristic features of which I shah describe on another occasion. When we consider, however, the isolation of the American conti- nent from those of the Old "World, nothing is more strildng in the geographical distribution of animals, than the exact correspondence of all the animals of the northern temperate zone of America with those of Europe : all the characteristic forms of which, as may be seen by the fourth column of our Tableau, belong to the same genera, with the exception only of a few subordinate types, not represented among our figures — such as the opossum and the skunk. In tropical America we may distinguish a Central American fauna^ a Brazilian fauna, s^, fauna of the Pampas, a fauna of the Cordilleras, a Peruvian fauna, and a Patagonian fauna ; but it is unnecessary for our purpose to mention here their characteristic features, which may be gathered from the works of Prince ]S[ew Wied, of Spix and Martius, of Tschudi, of Poppig, of Ramon de la Sagra, of Darwin, &c. The slight differences existing between the faunne of the temperate zone have required a fuller illustration than maybe necessarj^to char- acterize the zoological realms of the tropical regions and the southern hemisphere generally. It is sufficient for our purpose to say here, that these realms are at once distinguished by the prevalence of peculiar types, circumscribed within the natural limits of the three continents, extending in complete isolation towards the southern pole. In this respect there is already a striking contrast between the northern and the southern hemisphere. But the more closely we compare them with one another, the greater appear their differences. We have already seen how South America differs from Africa, the East Indies, and Australia, by its closer connection with North America. Not- withstanding, however, the absence in South America of those sightly animals so prominent in Africa and tropical Asia, its gen- eral character is, like that of all the tropical continents, to nourish a variety of types which have no close relations to those of other contijients. Its monkeys and edentata belong to genera which have no representatives in the Old World ; among pachyderms it has pecaris, which are entirely wanting elsewhere ; and though the tapirs occur also in the Sunda Islands, that type is wanting in Africa, where ■in compensation we find the hippopotamus, not found in either Asia or America. We have already seen that the marsupials of South Ame- nca difl'er entirely from those of Australia. Its ostriches differ also igencrically from those of Africa, tropical Asia, New Holland, &c. If we compare further the southern continents of the Old World IN THEIR RELATION WITH TYPES OF MAN. Ixxi With one another, we find a certain uniformity between the animals of Africa and tropical Asia. They have both elephants and rhinoce- roses, though each has its peculiar species of these genera, which occur neither in America nor in Australia ; whilst cercopitheci and antilopes prevail in Africa, and long-armed monkeys and stags in tropical Asia. Moreover, the l)lack orangs are peculiar to Africa, and the red orangs to Asia. As to Australia, it has neither monkeys nor pachj'derms, nor edentata, but only marsupials and monotremes. "We need therefore not carry these comparisons farther, to be satisfied that Africa, tropical Asia, and Australia constitute independent zoological realms. The continent of Africa south of the Atlas has a veiy uniforai zoological character. This realm may however be subdivided, accord- ing to its local peculiarities, into a number of distinct faunse. In its more northern parts we distinguish the fauna of the Sahara, and those of I^ubia and Abj^ssinia ; the latter of which extends over the Red Sea into the tropical parts of Arabia. These faun?e have been par- ticularly studied by Riippell and Ehrenberg, in whose works more may be found respecting the zoology of these regions. They are inhabited by two distinct races of men, the I^ubians and Abys- sinians, receding greatly in their features from the woolly-haired IS'egroes with flat broad noses, which cover the more central parts of the continent. But even here we may distinguish the fauna of Seneo-al from that of Guinea and that of the African Table-land. In the first, we notice particularly the chimpanzee ; in the second, the gorilla. There is no anthropoid monkey in the third. The fifth column in our Tableau gives figures of the most prominent animals of the genuine West African type. A fuller illustration of this subject might show, how peculiar tribes of l^^egroes cover the limits of the difterent faunse of tropical Africa, and establish in this respect a paral- lelism between the nations of this continent and those of Europe. We are chiefly indebted to French naturalists for a better knowledge of the Xatural History of this part of the world. In the sixth column of our Tableau we have represented the animals of the Cape-lands, in order to show how the African fauna is modified upon the southern extremity of this continent, which is inhabited by a distinct race of men, the Hottentots. The zoology of South Africa may be studied in the works of Lichteustein and Andrew Smith. The East Indian realm is now very well known zoologically, thanks to the efibrts of English and Dutch naturalists, and may be subdivided into three faunae, that of Dukhun, that of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, and that of the Sunda Islands, Borneo, and the Philippines. Its characteristic animals, represented in the seventh column of oar Ixxii PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD Tableau, may be readily contrasted with those of Africa. There is, however, one feature in this realm, which requires particular atten- tion, and has a high importance with reference to the study of the races of men. We find here upon Borneo (an island not so extensive as Spain) one of the best known of those anthropoid monkeys, the orang-outan, and with him as well as upon the adjacent islands of Java and Sumatra, and along the coasts of the two East Indian penin- sulse, not less than ten other different species of Hylobates, the long- armed monkeys; a genus which, next to the orang and chimpanzee, ranks nearest to man. One of these species is circumscribed within the Island of Java, two along the coast of Coromandel, three upon that of Malacca, and four upon Borneo. Also, eleven of the highest organized beings which have performed their part in the plan of the Creation within tracts of land inferior in extent to the range of any of the historical nations of men ! In accordance with this fact, we find three distinct races within the boundaries of the East Indian realm : the Telingan race in anterior India, the Malays in posterior India and upon the islands, upon which the Negrillos occur with them. Such combinations justify fully a comparison of the geographical range covered by distinct European nations with the narrow limits occupied upon earth by the orangs, the chimpanzees, and the gorillas ; and though I still hesitate to assign to each an independent origin (perhaps rather fi'om the difficulty of divesting myself of the opinions universally received, than from any intrinsic evidence), I must, in presence of these facts, insist at least upon the probability of such an independence of origin of all nations ; or, at least, of the independent origin of a primitive stock for each, with which at some future period migrating or conquering tribes have more or less completely amal- gamated, as in the case of mixed nationalities. The evidence adduced from the affinities of the lano;uao:es of different nations in favor of a community of origin is of no value, when we know, that, among vociferous animals, every sjiecies has its peculiar intonations, and that the different species of the same family produce sound as closely allied, and funning as natural combinations, as the so-called Indo- Germanic languages compared with one another. Nobody, for instance, would suppose that because the notes of the different species of thru.shes, inhabiting different parts of the world, bear the closest affinity to one another, these birds must all have a common origin ; and yet, with reference to man, philologists still look upon the affini- ties of languages as affording direct evidence of such a community of origin, among the races, even though they have already discovered the most essential differences in the very structure of these languages. Ever since New Holland was discovered, it has been known AND THEIR RELATION TO TYPES OF MAN. Ixxui US the laud of zoological marvels. All its animals dift'er so completely from those of other parts of our globe, that it may be said to consti tute a world in itself, as isolated in that respect from the other conti nents, as it truly is in its physical relations. As a zoological realm, it extends to I^ew Guinea and some adjacent islands. New Holland, however, constitutes a distinct fauna, which at some future time may be still further subdivided, ditfcring from that of the islands north of it. The characteristic animals of this insular continent are repre- sented in the eighth column of our Tableau. They all belong to two families only, considering the class of mammalia alone, the marsu- pials, and the monotremes. Besides these are found bats, and mice, and a wild dog ; but there are neither true edentata, nor ruminants, nor pachyderms, nor monkeys, in this realm, which is inhabited by two races of men, the Australian in J^ew Holland, and the Papuans upon the Islands. The isolation of the zoological types of Australia, inhabiting as they do a continent partaking of nearly all the physical features of the other parts of the world, is one of the most striking evidences that the presence of animals upon earth is not determined by physical conditions, but established bj- the direct agency of a Creator. Of Polynesia, its races and animals, it would be difficult to give an idea in such a condensed picture as this. I pass them, therefore, entirely unnoticed. The mountain faunae have also been omitted in our Map from want of space. Before closing these remarks I should add, that one of the greatest difficulties naturalists have met with, in the study of the human races, has been the want of a standard of comparison hy which to estimate the value and importance of the diversities observed between the diffijrent nations of the world. But (since it is idle to make assertions upon the character of these differences without a distinct understand- ing respecting the meaning of the words constantly used in reference to the subject), it may be proper to ask here. What is a species, what a variety, and what is meant by the unity or the diversity of the races ? In order not to enter upon debateable ground in answering the first of these questions, let us begin by considering it with reference to the animal kingdom; and, ^\dthout alluding to any controverted point, limit ourselves to animals well known among us. We would thus remember .that, with universal consent, the horse and ass are con- sidered as two distinct species of the same genus, to which belong several other distinct species known to naturalists under the names of zebra, quagga, dauw, &c. The buffi\lo and the bull are also distinct species of another genus, embracing several other foreign species. The black bear, the white bear, the grizzly bear, give another example Ixxiv PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD of three different species of the same genus, &c. &c. "We might select many other examples among our common quadrupeds, or among hirds, reptiles, fishes, &c., but these will be sufficient for our purpose. In the genus horse we have two domesticated species, the common horse and the donkey ; in the genus bull, one domesticated species and the wild buffalo ; the three species of bear mentioned aro only found in the wild state. The ground upon which these animals are considered as distinct species is simply the fact, that, since they have been known to man, they have always preserved the same cha- racteristics. To make specific difference or identity depend upon genetic succession, is begging the principle and taking for granted what in reality is under discussion. It is true that animals of the same species are fertile among themselves, and that their fecundity is an easy test of this natural relation ; but this character is not ex- clusive, since we know that the horse and the ass, the buffalo and our cattle, like many other animals, may be crossed; we are, there- fore, not justified, in doubtful cases, in considering the fertility of two animals as decisive of their specific identit}^ Moreover, gene- ration is not the onl}' way in which certain animals may multiply, as there are entire classes in which the larger number of indivi- duals do not originate from eggs. An}^ definition of species in which the question of generation is introduced is, therefore, objec- tionable. The assumption, that the fertilitj^ of cross-breeds is neces- sarily limited to one or two generations, does not alter the case ; since, 'in many instances, it is not proved beyond dispute. It is, however, beyond all question that individuals of distinct species may, in certain cases, be productive with one another, as well as with their own kind. It is equally certain that their offspring is a half-breed; that is to say, a being partaking of the peculiarities of the two parents, and not identical with either. The only definition of species meeting all these difficulties is that of Dr. Morton, who characterizes them as primordial organic forms. Species are thus distinct forms of organic life, the origin of which is lost in the primitive establishment of the state of things now existing, and varieties are such modifications of the species as may return to the tyi)ical form, under temporary influences. Accepting this definition Mitli the qualifications just mentioned respecting hybridity, I am pr('[iiircd to show that the differences existing between the races of mci: are of the same kind as the differences observed between the different famiUes, genera, and species of monkeys or other animals; and that these different species of animals differ in the same degree one from the other as the races of men — nay, the differences between distinct races are often greater than those distinguishing specie;:! -jf AND THEIR RELATION TO TYPE?. OF MAN. Ixxv animals one from tlie other. The chimpanzee and gorilla do iiot dilibr more one from the other than the Mandingo and the Guinea !N^egro : they together do not differ more from the orang than the Malay or white man differs from the Negro. In proof of this assertion, I need only refer the reader to the description of the anthropoid monkeys published by Prof. Owen and by Dr. J. Wyraan, and to such descriptions of the races of men as notice more important peculiarities than the mere diiferences in the color of the skin. It is, however, but fair to exonerate these authors from the resjjonsibility of any deduction I would draw from a renewed examination of the same facts, differing from theirs; for I maintain distinctly that the differences observed among the races of men are of the same kind and even greater than those upon which the anthropoid monkeys are considered as distinct species. Again, nobody can deny that the offspring of different races is always a half-breed, as between animals of different species, and not a child like either its mother or its father. These conclusions in no way conflict with the idea of the unity of mankind, which is as close as that of the members of any well-marked type of animals ; and wdiosoever will consult history must remain satisfied, that the moral question of brotherhood among men is not any more affected by these views than the direct obligations between immediate blood relations. Unity is determinal by a typical structure, and by the similarity of natural abilities and propensities ; and, unless we deny the typical relations of the cat tribe, for instance, we must admit that unity is not only compatible with diversity of oi'igin, but that it is the universal law of nature. This coincidence, between the circumscription of the races of man and the natural limits of different zoological provinces characterized by peculiar distinct species of animals, is one of the most important and unexpected features in the Natural History of Mankind, which the study of the geographical distribution of all the organized beings, now existing upon earth, has disclosed to us. It is a fact which can- not fail to throw light, at some future time, upon the very origin of the differences existing among men, since it shows that man's physical nature is modified by the same laws as that of animals, and that any general results obtained from the animal kingdom regarding the organic differences of its various types must also apply to man. Now, there are only two alternatives before us at present: — Ist. Either mankind originated from a common stock, and all the different races with their peculiarities, in their present distribution, are to be ascribed to subsequent changes — Ixxvi PROVINCES OF THE ANIMAL WOELD, ETC. an assumption for which there is no evidence whatever, and which leads at once to the admission that the diver- sity among animals is not an original one, nor their dis- tribution determined by a general plan, established in the beginning of the Creation ; — or, 2d. We must acknowledge that the diversity among animals is a fact determined by the will of the Creator, and their geographical distribution part of the general plan which unites all organized beings into one great organic con- ception : whence it follows that what are called human races, down to their specialization as nations, are distinct primordial forms of the type of man. , The consequences of the first alternative, which is contrary to all the modern results of science, run inevitably into the Lamarkian development theory, so well known in this country through the work entitled "Vestiges of Creation;" though its premises are gen- erally adopted by those who would shrink from the conclusions to which they necessarily lead. Whatever be the meaning of the coincidence alluded to above, it must in future remain an important element in ethnographical studies ; and no theory of the distribution of the races of man, and of their migrations, can be satisfactory hereafter, which does not account for that fact. We may, however, draw already an important inference from this investigation, which cannot fail to have its influence upon the farther study of the human races : namely, that the laws which regulate the diversit}^ of animals, and their distribution upon earth, apply equally to man, within the same limits and in the same degree; and that all oar liberty and moral responsibility, however spon- taneous, are yet instinctively directed by the All-wise and Omni- j)otent, to fulfil the great harmonies established in Nature. L. A. T.,M,;,„ f,, unmofHuif fiW^,^..,,;^ '^v/M" xYmS dl'Mun;, hptt orMajU-mJ , /X.i/ n EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU ACCOMPANYING PROF. AGASSI z'S SKETCH. I. -ARCTIC REALM. 1. Head — JCskiiiiafuc. [Frankun : 2d Ejrp. r„l. &a : 1828; i. pi. 13.] 2. Skull — Kshiinaux. \ Morton : Or. Ainei:; p. 70. No. 1.] 3. AVhite Bear (Ursus maritimns). [Clvier: Hcgue Anim.; Atlas, Mamm., pi. 30, fig. 3.] 4. Walrus (Trkhecus Hosmarm). [Clvier: op. cil.; pi. 45, fig. 1.] 6. Reindeer ( Q^rvus Tarandus '). [Cuvier: op. cit.; pi. 87, fig. 2.] 6. Harp Seal {Phoca gra;nkindica). [Shaw: Zool.; Mamm., i. pi. 71.] 7. RighlWliale (Bukena Mysticetus). [Cuvikr: op. cit. ; pi. 100, fig. 1.] 8. Kider Duck (Anas mollissima). [Audubon: Birds; 1843; vi. pi. 405, fig. 1.] 9. Reiudeer-moss {Cenomyce rangi- ferina). [Loudon: Enc. Plants; p. 969, No. 15,636.] II. -MONGOL REALM. 10. Head — Chinese. [Ham. Smith: Nat. Hist. Human Species ; 1848 ; pi. 10, "Mongol."] 11. Skull — Cldnese. [Cuvier : op. cit. ; pi. 8, fig. iii.j 12. Bear {Ursus Ihihetanus). [Schre- der: SiiugVderc: Hi. pi. 141 dd]. 13. MuskKleer (Moschus moschifirus). [Cuvier: op. cit. ; pi. 86.] 14. Antilope (Antilope gidturosa). [Schreber: op. cit.; pi. 275.] 15. Goat {Capra siberica). [Schre- ber : op. cit.; pi. 281.] 16. Sheep (Ovis Argdli). [Cuvier: Iconographie ; i. pi. 44 his. fig. 1.] 17. Yak (Bos grunniens). [Vasey: Ox Tribe; 1S51; p. 45.] III. -EUROPEAN REALM. 18. Head— CuHER's portrait. [Regne Anim.; Atlas, Mamm.; " Me- dal ion."] 19. Skull — European. [Cuvier : op. cit ; pi. 8, fig. 1.] 20. Bear (Ursus Arctos). [Schreber: op. cit. ; pi. 139.] 21. Stag (Cervus Elaphus). [Schre- ber : op. cit. ; pi. 247 a.] 22. Antilope (Antilope Bupicapra). [StilKEDER: op. cit.; pi. 279.] 23. Goat (Capra Ibex). . [Schreber : op. cit.; pi. 281 c] 24. Sheep (Ovis Musimon). Schre- ber : op. cit. ; pi. 288 A.] 25. Auerochs (Bos Urus). [Vasey: op. cit. ; p. 40.] IV. -AMERICAN REALM. 26. Head— Indian t'kiif. [.Max. Pn. deWied: Travels; pi. 3.] 27. Skull — .A/oi^nd in Tennessee. — [Morton: Or. Amer. ; pi. 55.] 28. 'Bea.T (Ursus americanus). [Schre- ber : op. cit. ; pi. 141 B.] 29. Stag(Cecti. virgiitianus). [Schre- ber : op. cit, : pi. 246 h.] 30. Antilope (Ant.furcifera). [K & Pat. Off. Hep. 1852 ; pt. ii. pi. 1.] 31. Goat (Capra americana). [U. S- Pat. Off. ; pi. C] 32. Sheep (Ovis mnntana). \U. S. Pat. Off'.; pi. 5.] 33. Bi.fou (Bos ame.ricanits). ^U. S. Pat. Off. ; pi. 7.] V.-AFRICAN REALM. 34. Head — Moza m biipte Negro. — Courtet de l'Isle: Tableau Eth- nog. du Genre Humain ; 1849 ; pi. 5.] 35. Skull — Creole Negro. [Latham: Varieties of Man ; p. 6.] 36. Chimpanzee (Troglodytes niger). [Cuvier : Regne An.; pi. ii. fig. 1.] 37. Elephant (Ekphas africanus). CirviER : Regne anim. ; 1. p.] 38. Rhinoceros (R. bicornis). [Smith: South Africa ; pi. 2.] 39. Hippopotamus (H. amphibius). [Smith : South Africa ; pi. 6.] 40. Wart- Hog (Phacochcerus jEU- ani). [Schreber: op. «'<.; pi. 326 A.] 41 . G i r a f f e (Cameleftpardalis Gi- raffa). [Cuvier: Iconographie: 1. pi. 43.] VI. -HOTTENTOT FAUNA. 42. Head — Busltman. [Ham. Smith: Nat. Hist.; pi. 13.] 43. ?,y.u\\— Bushman. [Ham. Smith : op. cit. ; pi. 2.] 44. HyenaGenet (ProteZes Lalandii). [Man. du Museum; xi. p. 354.] 45. Quagga (Eiptus Quagga) [Schre- ber: op. cit.; pi. 317.] 46 Rhinoceros (R. Simus). [Smith Sout/i Africa; pi. 19.] 47. Cape Hyrax (Hyrax capensis) [Schreber: op. cit.; pi. 240.] 48. Ant-catiiT (Oryclero}jus capensis.) [Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. NatureUe; xxiv. p. 182.] 49. Cape Ox (Bos caffer). [Vabey Ox Tribe ; p. 86.J VII. -MALAYAN REALM. 50. Head — Ma I a y. [Ward : Nat Hist, of Mankind; 1849; p. 54.] 51. Skull — Malay. [Dumoutier : Atlas Anthropol. ; pi. 37, fig. 5.) 52. Oraug-Utan (Pithecus Salyrus). [Temminck: Monographies ; ii. pi. 41.] 53. Elephant (Elephas indicus). — [Schreber : op. cit. ; pi. 317 cc] 54. Rhinoceros (R. sondaicus) [HiRS- field: Zool. Researches ; 1824.J 55. Tapir (Tapirus malayanus). — [HORSFIELD : op. cit.'] 56. Stag (Cervus Muntjac). HoRS- FIELD : op. C(i.] 57. Ox (Bos Arnee). [Tasey: Ox Tribe; p. 111.] VIII.-AUSTRALIAN REALM. 58. Head — Alfouroux. [Cuvier: op. cit.; pi. 8, fig. 1.] 59. Skull — Alfouros. [Ham. Smith: Nat. Hist; pi. 2.] 60. Spotted Opossum (DasyurusViv.). [Schreber: op. cit.; pi. 152 b.] 61. Ant-eater ( Myrmecobius fas- ciatus). [Trans. Zoological Soc; ii. p. 154.] 62. R.ibbit (Perameles Lagotis). — [Waterhouse: Marsupials; i. pi. 13.] 63. Phalanger (Phalangista mlpina). [Waterhouse: op. cit.; i. pi. 8.] 64. Wombat (Pliascolarctoscinereus). [Schreber: op. cit.; pi. 155 a.] 65. Squirrel (Petaurus sdureus). — [Waterhouse: op. cit.; i. p. 33.] 66. Kangaroo ( Macrnpus gigante- us). [Waterhouse : op. cit. ; i. p. 62.] 67. Duck-bill (Ortiitltorhynchus para- doxus). [Waterhouse : op. cit ; i. p. 25.] A'bte. — Adhering as closely as possible to the written instructions of Prof. Agassiz, the annexed Tableau was drawn and tinted, under my own eye, in the Library of the Academy of the Natural Sciences at Philadel phia. Every effort at correctness has been made ; although, owing to unavoidable reduction to so smidl a scale. the coloring especially can be but suggestive. To Prof. Joseph Leidy. Dr. Wm. S. Zantzinger, and M.ijor John Le Conte, who mo.st obligingly gave me tri« advantage of their aid and counsel in selecting the originals of these figures, must be ascribed the merit or oorrying Prof. Agsissiz's conception into detailed effect. (January, 1854.) Q. R. Q., Corr Mem. Acad. Nat. Sciencet Ixxvii ) EXPLANATIONS MAP ACCOM PA NYING PROF. AGASSIZS SKETCH. I.— ARCTIC R E A L M — inhabited by HYPERBORiEANS; and containing : — AAA — au Hyperborean fauna. II, — ASIATIC R E A L M — inliabited by MONGOLS; and subdivided into : — B — a ilandchurian fauna i _ , , >m the temperate range of the zone. C — a Japanese fauna j D — a Chinese fauna, in the warmer part. E — a Central- Mongolian fauna. F — a Caspian (western) fauna. III. — EUROPEAN R EALM — inhabited by WHITE-MEN; and divided into : — G — a Scandinavian fauna. H — a Russian fauna, , I — a Central-European fauna. J — a South-European fauna. K — a North-African fauna. L — an Egi/ptian fauna. M — a Syrian and an Iranian fauna. IV. — AMERICAN REALM — inhabited by AMERICAN INDIA N.S. North America — divided into : — N — a Canadian fauna. — an Alley hanian fauna, or fauna of the Middle States. P — a Louisianian fauna, or fauna of the Southern States Q — a Table-land fauna, or fauna of the Rocliy Mountains. B — a Korthwest-Cousl fauna. S — a Californian fauna. Central America — subdivided into : — T — a Main-land fauna. U — an Antilles fauna. South America — divided into : — V — a Brazilian fauna. W — a Pampas fauna. • X — a Cordilleras fauna. Y — a Peruvian fauna. Z — a Patagonian fauna. V, — AFRICAN RE AIM— inhabited by NUBIANS, ABYSSINIANS, FOOLAHS, NB- GROES, HOTTENTOTS, BOSJESMANS; and divided into: — fflo — a Saharan fauna. 66 — a Nubian fauna. cc — an Abyssinian fauna (extending to Arabia). dd — a Senegalian fauna, ee — a Guinean fauna. ff — an Afric-Table-land fauna. gg — a Cape-of-Good-IIope fauna. Ml — a Madagascar (diverging) fauna. VI.-EAST-INDIAN (or MALAYAN) R E A LM -inbabitcd by TELINO ANS, MALAYS, NEGRILLOS; and divided into : — n — a Dukhun fauna. jj — an Indo-Cliincse fKan&. kk — a Sunda-Islandic fauna (including Borneo and the Philippines) VII.— AUSTRALIAN R E A L M — inhabited by PAPUANS, AUSTRALIANS; and divided into : — II — a Papuan fauna. mm — a New-Holland fauna. VIM, -P L Y N E S I AN R E A LM — inhabitedby SOUTH-SEA ISLANDERS; and containing: — nn, nn — Polynesian faunae. N B It has not been in my power to follow Pro£ Agassiz's instructions in regard to the coloring of thil Oiap the scale adopted being too small. — G. R. Q. ( Ixxviii ) I I TYPES OF MANKIND. IN"TRODUCTION. Mr. Luke Burke, the bold and able Editor of the London Ethno logical Journal, defines Ethnology to be " a science which investigates the mental and physical differences of Mankind, and the organic laws upon which they depend; and which seeks to deduce from these investigations, principles of human guidance, in all the important relations of social existence." ^ To the same author are we indebted not only for the most extensive and lucid definition of this term, but for the first truly philosophic view of a new and important science that we have met with in the English language. * The term "Ethnology" has generally been used as synonymous with "Ethnography," understood as the ISTatural History of Man ; bat by Burke it is made to take a far more comprehensive grasp — to include the whole mental and physical history of the various Types of Mankind, as well as their social relations and adaptations ; and, under this comprehensive aspect, it therefore interests equally the philanthropist, the naturalist, and the statesman. Ethnolog}^ demands to know what was the primitive organic structure of each race ? — what such race's moral and psychical character? — how far a race may have been, or may become, modified by the combined action of time and moral and physical causes ? — and what position in the social scale Providence has assigned to each type of man ? " Ethnology divides itself into two principal departments, the Scientific and the Historic Under the former is comprised every thing connected with the Natural History of Man and the fundamental laws of living organisms ; under the latter, every fact in civil history which has any important bearing, directly or indirectly, upon the question of races — every fact calculated to throw light upon the number, the moral and physical peculiarities, the early seats, migrations, conquests or interblendings, of the primary divisions of the humar family, or of the leading mixed races which have sprung from their intermarriages. "2 7 .'49^ 60 INTRODUCTION. Such is the scope of this science — born, we may say, within our own generation — and we propose to examine mankind under the above two-fold aspect, while we point out some of the more salient results towards which modern investigation is tending. The press everywhere teems with new books on the various partitions of the wide field of Ethnology ; yet there does not exist, in any language, an attempt, based on the highest scientific lights of the day, at a systemat-j treatise on Ethnology in its extended sense. Morton was the first to conceive the proper plan ; but, unfortunfc.tely, lived not to carry it out ; and although the present volume falls very far below the just requirements of science, we feel assured that it will at least aid materially in suggesting the right direction to future mvestigators. The grand problem, more particularly interesting to all readers, is that which involves the common origin of races ; for upon the latter deduction hang not only certain religious dogmas, but the more practical question of the equality and perfectibility of races — we say "more practical question," because, while Almighty Power, on the one hand, is not responsible to Man for the distinct origin of human races, these, on the other, are accountable to Him for the manner in which their delegated power is used towards each other. Wliether an original diversity of races be admitted or not, the permanence of existing physical t}^es will not be questioned by any Archseologist or Naturalist of the present day. Nor, by such com- petent arbitrators, can the consequent pennanence of moral and intellectual peculiarities of types be denied. The intellectual man is inseparable from the physical man ; and the nature of the one cannot be altered without a corresponding change in the other. The truth of these propositions had long been familiar to the master-mind of John C. Calhoun ; who regarded them to be of such paramount importance as to demand the fullest consideration from those who, like our lamented statesman in his day, wield the destinies of nations and of races. An anecdote will illustrate the pains-taking laboriousness of Mr. Calhoun to let no occasion slip whence informa- tion was atiainable. Our colleague, G. R. Gliddon, happened to be in Waslnngton City, early in May, 1844, on business of his father (United States' Consul for Egypt) at the State Department ; at which time Mr. Calhoun, Secretary of State, was conducting diplomatic negotia- tions with France and England, connected with the annexation of Texas. Mr. Calhoun, suffering fi-om indisposition, sent a message to Vrr. Gliddon, requesting a visit at his lodgings. In a long interview which ensued, Mr. Calhoun stated, that England pertinaciously con- tinued to intertere with our inherited Institution of Negro Slavery, INTRODUCTION. 51 and in a manner to render it imperative that he should indite very- strong instructions on the subject to the late Mr. Wm. R. King, of Alabama, then our Ambassador to France. He read to Mr. Gliddon portions of the manuscript of his celebrated letter to Mr. King, which, issued on the 12th of the following August, ranks among our ablest national documents. !N[r. Calhoun declared that he conld not foresee what course the negotiation might take, but wished to be forearmed for any emergency. He w^as convinced that the true difficulties of the subject could not be fully comprehended ^^^thout fii-st considering the radical difference of humanity's races, which he intended to dis- cuss, should he be driven to the necessity. Knowing that Mr. Gliddon had paid attention to the subject of Afi-ican ethnology ; and that, fi'om his long residence in Eg}^3t, he had enjoyed unusual advantages foi- its investigation, Mr. Calhoun had summoned him for the purpose of ascertaining what were the best sources of information in this countrj\ Mr. Gliddon, after la^'ing before the Secretary what he conceived to be the true state of the case, referred him for further information to several scientific gentlemen, and more particularly to Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia. A correspondence ensued between ^[r. Calhoun and Dr. Morton on the subject, and the Doctor presented to him copies of the Crania Americana and ^gyptiaca^ together with minor' works, all of which Mr. Calhoun studied with no less pleasure than profit. He soon perceived that the conclusions which he had long before drawn from history, and from his personal observations in America, on the Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, Teutonic, French, Spanish, Negro, and Indian races, were entirely corroborated by the plain teachings of modern science. He beheld demonstrated in Morton's works the important fact, that the Egyptian, N"egro, several White, and sundry Yellow races, had existed, in their present forms, for at least 4000 years ; and that it behoved the statesman to lay aside all current speculations about the origin and perfectibility of races, and to deal, in political argument, with the simple facts as the}- stand. ^\niat, on the vital question of African Slavery in our Southern States, was the utilitarian consequence of Calhoun's memorable dispatch to King? Strange, yet true, to say, although the English press anxiously complained that Mr. Calhoun had intruded Ethnology into diplomatic correspondence, a communication from the Foreign Office promptly assured our Government that Great Britain haa no intention of intermeddling w^th the domestic institutions of other nations. Xor, from that day to this, has she violated her formal pledge in our regard. During a sojourn of Mr. Calhoun, on his retire- ment from office, mth us at Mobile, we enjoyed personal opportunities of knowing the accuracy of the above facts, no less than of receiving 52 INTRODUCTION. amplfe! corroborations illustrative of the inconvenience whicli true ethnological science might have created in philanthropical diplomacy, had it been frankly introduced by a Calhoun. No class of men, perhaps, understand better the practical import- ance of Ethnology than the statesmen of England ; yet fi'om motives of policy, they keep its agitation studiously out of sight. Dr. Prichard, ■when speaking of a belief in the diversity of races, justly remarks — "If these opinions are not every day expressed in this country [England], it is because the avowal of them is restrained by a degree of odium that would be excited by it." 3 Although the press in that country has been, to a great extent, muzzled by government influence, we are happy to see that her peri- odicals are beginning to assume a bolder and more rational tone ; and we may now hope that the stereotyped errors of Prichard, and we might add, those of Latham,* wdll soon pass at their true value. The immense evils of false philanthropy are becoming too glaring to be longer overlooked. Wliile, on the one hand, every true philanthropist must admit that no race has a right to enslave or oppress the weaker, it must be conceded, on the other, that all changes in existing insti- tutions should be guided, not by fanaticism and groundless hypo- theses, but by experience, sound judgment, and real charity. "No one that has not worked much in the element of History can be aware of the immense importance of clearly keeping in view the differences of race that are discernible among the nations that inhabit different parts of the world. In practical politics it is cer- tainly possible to push such ethnographical considerations too far ; as, for example, in our own cant about Celt and Saxon, when Ireland is under discussion ; but in speculative history, in questions relating to the past career and the future destinies of nations, it is only by a firm and efficient handling of this conception of our species as broken up into so many groups or masses, physiologically different to a certain extent, that any progress can be made, or any available conclusions accurately arrived at. " The Negro, or African, with his black skin, woolly hair, and compressed elongated skull ; the Mongolian of Eastern Asia and America, with his olive complexion, broad and all but beardless face, oblique eyes, and square skull ; and the Catjcasian of Western Asia and Europe, with his fair skin, oval face, full brow, and rounded skull : such, as every school-boy knows, are the three great types or varieties into which naturalists have divided the inhabitants of our planet. Accepting this rough initial conception of a world peopled everywhere, more or less completely, with these three varieties of human beings or their combinations, the historian is able, in virtue of it, to announce one important fact at the very outset, to wit: that, up to the present moment, the destinies of the species appear to have been carried forward almost exclusively by its Caucasian variety." 5 In the broad field and long duration of ITegro life, not a single civilization, spontaneous or borrowed, has existed, to adorn its gloomy past. The ancient kingdom of Meroe has been often pointed out as an exception, but this is now proven to be the work of Pharaonic Eg;yT)tians, and not of Negro races. Of Mongolian races, we have the prolonged semi-civilizations of China, Japan, and (if they be classed INTRODUCTION. 53 un er the same head) the still feebler attempts of Peru and Mexico. T\Tiat a contrast, if we compare with these, "Caucasian proo;rcss, as exhibited in the splendid succession of distinct civilizations, frum the ancient Egyptian to the recent Anglo-American, to which the Caucasian part of the species has given birth." ISTor when we examine their past history, their anatomical and phy- siological characters, and philological diftereuces, are we justified in throwing all the Indo-European and Semitic races into one indivisible mass. " Our species is not a huge collection of perfectly similar human beings, but an aggre- gation of a number of separate groups or masses, having such subordinate differences of organization that, necessarily, they must understand nature difl'erently, and employ in life very different modes of procedure. Assemble together a Negro, a Mongol, a Shemite, an Armenian, a Scythian, a Pelasgian, a Celt, and a German, and you will have before you not mere illustrations of an arbitrary classification, but positively distinct human beings men whose relations to the outer world are by no means the same." " In all, indeed, there will be found the same fundamental instincts and powers, the same obligation to recognized truth, the same feeling for the beautiful, the same abstract sense of justice, the same necessity of reverence ; in all, the same liability to do wron"- knowing it to be wrong. These things excepted, however, what contrast, what variety ! The representative of one race is haughty and eager to strike, that of another is meek and patient of injury ; one has the gift of slow and continued perseverance, another can labour only at intervals and violently ; one is full of mirth and humour, another walks as if life were a pain ; one is so faithful and clear in perception, that what he sees to-day he will report accurately a year hence; through the head of another there perpetually sings such a buzz of fiction that, even as he looks, realities gi'ow dim, and rocks, trees, and hills, reel before his poetic gaze. Whether, with phrenologists, we call these differences craniological ; or whether, in the spirit of a deeper physiology, we adjourn the question by refusing to connect them with aught less than the whole corporeal organism — bone, chest, limbs, skin, muscle, and nerve; they are, at all events, real and substantial; and Englishmen will never conceive the world as it is, will never be intellectually its masters, until, realizing this as a fact, they shall remember that it is perfectly respectable to be an Assyrian, and that an Italian is not necessarily a rogue because he wears a moustache." 6 Looking back over the world's history, it wdll be seen that human progress has arisen mainly from the war of races. All the great impulses which have been given to it from time to time have been the results of conquests and colonizations. Certain races would be stationary and barbarous for ever, were it not for the introduction of new blood and novei influences ; and some of the lowest types are hopelessly beyond the reach even of these salutary stimulants to melioration. It has been naively remarked that — " Climate has no influence in permanently altering the varieties or races of men ; destroy them it may, and does, but it cannot convert them into any tther race; nor can this be done by an act of parliament; which, to a thoroughgoing Englishman, with all his amusing flationalities, will appear as something amazing. It has been tried in Wales, Ireland, and S!!aledon\a, and failed." ^ Not enough is it for us to know who and what are the men who 54 INTRODUCTION. play a prominent part in these changes, nor what is the general character of the masses whom they influence. JSTone can predict how long the power or existence of these men wall last, nor foretell what Avill be the character of those who succeed them. K we wish to pre- dict the future, we must ascertain those great fundamental laws of humanity to which all human passions and human thoughts must ultimately be subject. We must know universal, as well as individual man. These are questions upon which science alone has the right to pronounce. " Where, we ask, are the historic evidences of universal human equality, or unity ? The farther we trace back the records of the past, the more broadly marked do we find all human diversities. In no part of Europe, at the present day, can we discover the striking national contrasts which Tacitus describes, still less those represented in the more ancient pages of Herodotus." 8 And nowhere on the face of the globe do we find a greater diver- sity, or more strongly-marked tjqDes, than on the monuments of Egypt, antedating the Christian era more than 3000 years. Dr. James Cowles Prichard, for the last half centuiy, has been the grand orthodox authority wdth the advocates of a common origin for the races of men. His ponderous work on the " Physical History of Mankind" is one of the noblest monuments of learning and labour to be found in any language. It has been the never-exhausted reser- voir of knowledge fi-om which most subsequent writers on Ethnology have drawn ; but, nevertheless, as Mr. Burke has sagely remarked, Prichard has been the " victim of a false theory." He commenced, when adolescent, by wiiting a graduating thesis, at Edinburgh, in support of the unity of races, and the remainder of his long life was devoted to the maintenance of this first impression. "We behold him, year after year, like a bound giant, struggling with increasing strength against the cords which cramp him, and we are involuntarily looking with anxiety to see him burst them asunder. But how few possess the moral power to break through a deep-rooted prejudice ! Prichard published no less than three editions of his " Physical History of Mankind," viz. : in 1813, 1826, and 1847. To one, how- ever, who, like ourselves, has followed him line by line, throughout his whole literary life, the constant changes of his opinions, his " special pleading," and his cool suppression of adverse facts, leave little confi- dence in his judgment or his cause. He set out, in youth, by distort- ing history and science to suit the theological notions of the day; and, m his mature ago, concludes the final chapter of his last volume by abandonhig the authenticity of the Pentateuch, which for forty years had been the stumbling-block of his life. Dr. Prichard's defence of the Book of Genesis, in the Appendix to INTRODUCTION. 55 the fifth vohime of his "Researches," is certaiuly a very extraordinary performance. He denies its genealogies ; denies its chronology ; de- nies all its historical and scientific details ; denies that it was writlen by Moses ; admits that nobody knows who did write it ; and yet, withal, actually endeavours " to show that the sacred and canonicul authority' of the Book of Genesis is not injured." "SVe confess that we cannot understand why one half of the historical portion of a book should be condemned as false and the other received as true, when both stand upon equal authorit3^ Nor do we think that Uib dissection of other parts of the Old Testament leaves them in much better condition, as regards their account of human origins. Behold a sample : " The time of Ezra, after the Captivity, was the era of historical compilation, soon after which the Hebrew language gave way to a more modern dialect. There are indications that the whole of the Sacred Books passed under several recensions during these successive ages, when they were, doubtless, copied, and recopied, and illustrated by additional passages, or by glosses, that might be requisite, in order to preserve their meaning to later times. Such passages and glosses occur frequently in the diflPerent Books of Moses, and in the older historical books, and we may thus, in a probable ivay, account for the presence of many explanatory notices and comments, of comparatively later date, which, unless thus accounted for, would add weight to the hypotheses (?) of some German writers, who deny the high antiquity of the Pentateuch.'''' 9 On the degree of orthodoxy claimed by the erudite Doctor in respect to chronology, the following extract will speak for itself: "Beyond that event [arrival of Abraham in Palestine,] we can never know how many centuries, nor even how many thousands of years, may have elapsed since the first man of clay received the image of God, and the breath of life. Still, as the thread of genealogy has been traced, though probably with many great intervals, the whole duration of time from the beginning must apparently have been within moderate bounds, and by no meana so wide and vast a space as the great periods of the Indian and Egyptian fabulists.'' Instead of thus nervously shifting his scientific and theological grounds from year to year, how much more dignified, and becoming to both science and religion, would it have been, had Prichard simply followed facts, wherever they might lead in science; and had he fi'ankly acknowledged that the Bible really gives no history of all the races of Men, and but a meagre account of one ? He was indeed the victim of a false theory; and we could not but be struck by the applicability of the following pencil-note to his first volume (1813), written on the margin, just forty years ago, by the late distinguished ])r. Thomas Cooper, President of South Carolina College : " This is a book by an industrious compiler, but an inconclusive reasoner ; he wears tlie orthodox costume of his nation and his day. No man can be a good reasoner who is marked by clerical prejudices." Alas ! for his fame. Dr. Prichard continued to change his costume with the fashion ; and some truths of the Universe, most essential tw 56 INTRODUCTION. Man, "have thereby been kept in darkness, that is, out of the popular sight, by erroneous interpretations of God's works. Albeit, in his last edition, Prichard evidently perceived, in the distance, a glimmer of light dawning from the time-worn monuments of " Old Egypt," destined eventually to dispel the obfuscations with which he had enshrouded the histor}^ of Man ; and to destroy that darling unitary fabric on which all his energies had been expended. Had he lived but two years longer, until the mighty discoveries of Lepsius were unfolded to the world, he would have realized that the honorable occupation of his long life had been only to accumulate facts, which, properly interpreted, shatter everything he had built upon them. In the preface to vol. iii., he says : " If it should be found that, within the period of time to which historical testimony extends, the distinguishing characters of human races have been constant and undeviating, it would become a matter of great difficulty to reconcile this conclusion \_i. e. the unity of all mankind,] with the inferences already obtained from other considerations." In other words, if hypotheses, and deductions drawn from analo- gies among the lower animals, should be refuted by well-ascertained facts, demonstrative of the absolute independence of the primitive types of mankind of all existing moral and physical causes, during several thousand years, Prichard himself concedes, that every argu- m.ent heretofore adduced in support of a common origin for human families must be abandoned. One of the main objects of this volume is to show, that the criterion- point, indicated by Prichard, is now actually arrived at ; and that the •diversity of races must be accepted by Science as a fact, independently of theology, and of all analogies or reasonings drawn from the animal Idngdom. It will be obsei-ved that, with the exception of Morton's, we seldom quote works on the Natural Histoiy of Man ; and simply for the reason, that their arguments are all based, more or less, on fabled analogies, which are at last proved by the monuments of Egypt and Assyria to be worthless. The whole method of treating the subject is herein changed. To our point of view, most that has been written on human Natural History becomes obsolete; and therefore we have not burthened our pages with citations from authors, even the most erudite and respected, whose views we consider the present work to have, in the main, superseded. Such is not our course, however, where others have anticipated any conclusion we may have attained ; and we are hap]\y to find that Jacquinot had previously recognized the principle which has over- thrown Prichard's unitary scheme : " If the great branches of the liunian family have remained distinct in the lapse of ages. with tliinr characteristics fixed and unalterable, we are justified in reffarding mankind aF divisible into distinct species." "> INTRODUCTION. 57 Four years ago, in our "Biblical and Physical Histoiy of Man,"" we publisliod the following remarks : — " If the Unity of the Races or Species of Men be assumed, there are but three supposi- tions on which tlie diversity now seen in the white, black, and intermediate colors, can be accounted for, viz. : *' 1st. A miracle, or direct act of the Almighty, in changing one type into another. " 2d. The gradual action of Physical causes, such as climate, food, mode of life, &c. " 3d. Congenital, or accidental varieties. " There being no evidence whatever in favor of the first hypothesis, we pass it by. The second and third have been sustained with signal ability by Dr. Prichard, in his Physical History of Mankind. " Although, even then, thoroughly convinced ourselves that the second and third h^-potheses were already refuted by facts, and that they would soon be generally abandoned by men of science, we confess that we had little hope of seeing this triumph achieved so speedily; still less did we expect, in this matter-of-fact age, to behold a miracle, which exists too, not in the Bible, but only in feverish imaginations, assumed as a scientific solution. Certain sectarians ^^ of the evange- lical school are now gravely attempting-, from lack of argument, to revive the old hypothesis of a miraculous change of one race into many at the Tower of Babel ! Such notions, however, do not deserve serious consideration, as neither religion nor science has anything to do with unsustainable hypotheses. The views, moreover, that we expressed in 1849, touching Phy- sical Causes, Congenital Varieties, &c., need no modification at the present day ; but, on the contrary, will be found amply sustained by the progress of science, as set forth in the succeeding chapters. We make bold to add an extract from our opinions published at that time : — " Is it not sti-ange that all the remarkable changes of type spoken of by Prichard and others should have occurred in remote antehistoric times, and amongst ignorant erratic tribes? Why is it that no instance of these remarkable changes can be pointed out which admits of conclusive evidence? The civilized nations of Europe have been for many cen- turies sending colonies to Asia, Africa, and America ; amongst Mongols, Malays, Africans, and Indians; and why has no example occurred in any of these colonies to substantiate the argument? The doubtful examples of Prichard are refuted by others, which he cites on the adverse side, of a positive nature. He gives examples of fews, Persians, Hindoos, Arabs, &c., who have emigrated to foreign climates, and, at the end of one thousand or fifteen hundred years, have preserved their original types in the midst of widely different races. Does nature anywhere operate by such opposite and contradictory laws ? " A few generations in animals are sufficient to produce all the changes they usually undergo from climate, and yet the races of men retain their leading characteristics for ages, without approximating to aboriginal types. " In fact, so unsatisfactory is the argument based on the influence of climate to Prichard himself, that he virtually abandons it in the following paragraph : ' It must be observed,' eaj'S he, 'that the changes alluded to do not so often take place by alteration in the phy- sical character of a whole tribe simultaneously', as by the ."prinyiny up of some new conycnilal peculiarity, which is afterwards propagated, and becomes a character more or less constant 8 \ ) 58 INTRODUCTION. in the progeny of the individuals in whom it first appeared, and is perhaps gradually com- municated by intermarriages to a whole stock or tribe. This, it is obvious, can only happen in a long course of time.' " We beg leave to fix your attention on this vital point. It is a commonly received error that the influence of a hot climate is gradually exerted on successive generations, until one species of mankind is completely changed into another ; a dark shade is impressed on the first, and transmitted to the second ; another shade is added to the third, which is handed down to the fourth ; and so on, through successive generations, until the fair German is transformed, by climate, into the black African ! " This idea is proven to be false, and is abandoned by the well-informed writers of all parties. A sunburnt cheek is never banded down to succeeding generations. The exposed parts of the body alone are tanned by the sun, and the children of the white-skinned Euro- peans in New Orleans, Mobile, and the AVest Indies, are bo7-n as fair as their ancestors, and would remain so, if carried back to a colder climate. The same may be said of other acquired characters, (except those from want and disease.) They die with the individual, and are no more capable of transmission than a flattened head, mutilated limb, or tattooed skin. We repeat, that this fact is settled, and challenge a denial. " The only argument left, then, for the advocates of the imiiy of the human species to fall back upon, is that of ' congenital' varieties or peculiarities, which are said to spring up, and be transmitted from parent to child, so as to form new races. " Let us pause for a moment to illustrate this fanciful idea. The Negroes of Africa, for example, are admitted not to be offsets from some other race, which have been gradually blackened and changed in moral and physical type by the action of climate ; but it is asserted that, 'once in the flight of ages joast,' some genuine little Negro, or rather many such, were born of Caucasian, Mongol, or other light-skinned parents, and then have turned about and changed the type of the inhabitants of a whole continent. So in America : the count- less aborigines found on this continent, which we have reason to believe (see Squier's work) were building mounds before the time of Abraham, are the offspring of a race changed by accidental or congenital varieties. Thus, too, old China, India, Australia, Oceanica, etc., all owe their types, physical and mental, to congeiiital or accidental varieties, and all are descended from Adam and Eve ! Can human credulity go farther, or human ingenuity invent any argument more absurd ? Yet the whole groundwork of a common origin for some nine or ten hundred millions of human beings, embracing numerous distinct types, which are lost in an antiquity far beyond all records or chronology, sacred or profane, is narrowed down to this ' baseless fabric' " In support of this argument, we are told of the Porcupine family of England, which inherited for some generations a peculiar condition of the skin, characterized by thickened warty excrescences. We are told also of the transmission from parent to child of club feet, cross eyes, six fingers, deafness, blindness, and many other familiar examples of congenital peculiarities. But these examples merely serve to disprove the argument they are intended to sustain. Did any one ever hear of a club-foot, cross-eyed, or six-fingei-ed race, although such individuals are exceedingly common? Are they not, on the contrary, always swallowed up and lost? Is it not strange, if there be any truth in this argument, that no race has ever been formed from those congenital varieties which we know to occur frequently, and yet races should originate from congenital varieties which cannot be proved, and are not believed, by our best writers, ever to have existed ? No one ever saw a Negro, Mongol, or Indian, born from any but his own species. Has any one heard of an Indian child born from white or black parents in America, during more than two centuries that these races have been living here ? Is not this brief and simple statement of the case sufficient to satisfy any one, that the diversity of species now seen on the earth, cannot be accounted for on the assumption of congenital or accidental origin? If a doubt remains, would it not f^e expelled by the recollection of the fact that the Negro, Tartar, and white man, existed, with their present types, at least one thousand years before Abraham journeyed to Egypt bs a Buppiicant to the mighty Pharaoh? INTRODUCTION. 59 " The unity of the human species has also been stoutly maintained on psychological grounds. Numerous attempts have been made to establish the intellectual equality of the dark races with the ■white ; and the history of the past has been ransacked for examples, but they are nowhere to be found. Can any one call the name of a full-blooded Negro who has ever written a page worthy of being remembered ? " The avowal of the above views drew down upon us, as might have been expected, criticisms more remarkable for virulence of hostility, than for the scientific education of the critics. Our present volume is an evidence that we have survived these transient cavils ; and while we have much satisfaction in submitting herein a mass of facts that, to the generality of readers in this country, will be surprising, we would remind the theologist, in the language of the very orthodox Hugh Miller [Footprints of the Creator), that " The clergy, as a class, suffer themselves to linger far in the rear of an intelligent and accomplished laity. Let them not shut their eyes to the danger which is obviously cor";,"g. The battle of the evidences of Christianity will have, as certainly to be fought on the field of physical science, as it was contested in the last age on that of the metaphysics." The Physical history of Man has been likewise trammelled for ages by arbitrary systems of Chronology ; more especially by that of the Hebrews, which is now considered, by all competent authorities, as altogether worthless beyond the time of Abraham, and of little vame pre\dously to that of Solomon ; for it is in his reign that we reach their last positive date. The abandonment of this restricted system is a great point gained ; because, instead of being obliged to crowd an immense antiquity, embracing endless details, into a few centuries, we are now free to classif}'- and arrange facts as the requirements of history and science demand. It is now generally conceded that there exist no data by which we can approximate the date of man's first appearance upon earth ; and, for aught we yet know, it may be thousands or millions of years beyond our reach. The spurious systems, of Archbishop Usher on the Hebrew Text, and of Dr. Hales on the Septuagint, being entirely broken down, we turn, unshackled by prejudice, to the monumental records of Eg^-pt as our best guide. Even these soon lose themselves, not in the primitive state of man, but in his middle or perhaps modern ages ; for the Egyptian Empire first presents itself to view, about 4000 years before Christ, as that of a mighty nation, in full tide of civilization, and surrounded by other realms and races already emerging from the barbarous stage. In order that a clear understanding with the reader may be estab hshed in the following pages, it becomes necessaiy to adopt some common standard of chronology for facility of reference. An esteemed correspondent, Mr. Birch, of the British Museum, aptly observes to us in a private letter — "Although I can see what l^ 60 INTRODUCTION. not the fact in chronology, I have not come to the conclusion of what is the truth." Such is precisely our own condition of mind ; nor do we suppose that a conscientious student of the subject, as developed under its own head at the close of this volume, can at the present hour obtain, for epochas anterior to Abraham, a solution that must not itself be vague for a century or more. Nevertheless, in Eg}'ptian chronology, we follow the system of Lepsius by assuming the age of Menes at B. C. 3893; in Chinese, we accept Pauthier's date for the 1st historical dynasty at B. C. 2637 ; in Assyrian, the results of Layard's last Journey indicate B. C. 1250 as the probable extreme of that countrj^'s monumental chronicles ; and finally, in Hebrew com- putation, we agree with Lepsius in deeming Abraham's era to approxi- mate to B. C. 1500. Our Supplement offers to the critical reader every facility of verification, with comparative Tables, the repetition of which is here superfluous. To Egyptology, beyond all question, belongs the honor of dissi- pating those chronological fables of past generations, continued belief in which, since the recent publication of Chev'r Lepsius's researches, implies simply the credulity of ignorance. One of his letters from the Pyramids of Memphis, in 1843, contained the following almost prophetic j)assage : ^^ " We are still busy with structures, sculptures, and inscriptions, which are to be classed, by means of the now more accurately-determined groups of kings, in an epoch of highly- flourishing civilization, as far back as the fourth Millennium before Christ. We cannot suffi- ciently impress upon ourselves and others these hitherto incredible dates. The more criticism is provoked by them, and forced to serious examination, the better for the cause. Conviction will soon follow angry criticism ; and, finally, those results will be attained, which are so intimately connected with every branch of antiquarian research." We subscribe without reservation to the above sentiment ; and hope we shall not be disappointed in the amount of "angry criticism " which we think the truths embodied in this volume are calculated to provoke. Scientific truth, exemplified in the annals of Astronomy, (xeology, Chronology, Geographical distril)ution of animals, &c., has literally fought its way inch by inch through false theology. The last grand battle between science and dogmatism, on the primitive origin of races, has now commenced. It requires no prophetic eye to foresee that science must again, and finally, triumph. It may be proper to state, in conclusion, that the subject shall be treated purely as one of science, and that our colleague and ourself vviil follow facts wherever they may load, without regard to imaginary consequences. Locally, the "Fi'iend of JNloses," no loss than other "friends of the ])il)lc" evei'ywhere, have ])con compelled to make large concessions to science. We shall, in the present investigation, treat the Scriptures simply in their historical and scientific .bearings INTRODUCTION. 61 On former occasions, and in the most respectful manner, we had attempted to concihate sectarians, and to reconcile the plain teachings of science with theological prejudices ; hut to no useful purpose. In retui-n, our opinions and motives have been misrepresented and vilified by self-constituted teachers of the Christian religion ! We have, in consequence, now done with all this ; and no longer have any apologies to ofter, nor favors of lenient criticism to ask. The broad banner of science is herein nailed to the mast. Even in our own brief day, we have beheld one flimsy religious dogma after another consigned to oblivion, while science, on the other hand, has been gaining strength and majesty with time. "Nature," says Luke Burke, "has nothing to reveal, that is not noble, and beautiful, and good." In our former language, " Man can invent nothing in science or religion but falsehood; and all the truths which he discovers are but facts or laws which have emanated from the Creator. All science, therefore, may be regarded as a revelation from Him ; and although newly-discovered laws, or facts, in nature, may conflict with religious errors, which have been written and preached for centuries, they never can conflict with religious truth. There must be harmony between the works and the words of the Almighty, and wherever they seem to conflict, the discord has been produced by the ignorance or wickedness of man." J, C. N Mobile, August, 1868. PART I. CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS, AND THE RACES OF MEN. Have all the living creatures of our globe been created at one common point in Asia, and thence been disseminated over its wide surface by degrees, and adapted to the varied conditions in which they have been found in historical times ? or, on the other hand, have different genera and species been created at points far distant from each other, with organizations suited to the circumstances in which they were originally placed ? Two schools have long existed, diametrically opposed to each other, on this question. The first may be termed that of the Theological Naturalists, who still look to the Book of Genesis, or what they conceive to be the inspired word of God, as a text-book of Natural History, as they formerly reputed it to be a manual of Astronomy and Geology. The second embraces the Naturalists proper, whose conclusions are derived from facts, and from the laws of God as revealed in his works, which are immutable. Not only the authority of Genesis in matters of science, but the Mosaic authenticity of this book, is now questioned by a very large proportion of the most authoritative theologians of the present day ; and, inasmuch as its language is clearly opposed to many of the well- established facts of modern science, we shall unhesitatingly take the benefit of tins liberal construction. The language of Scripture touching the point now before us is so unequivocal, and so often repeated, as to leave no doubt as to the author's meaning. It teaches clearly that the Deluge was universal, that every living creature on the face of the earth at the time was destroyed, and that seeds of all the organized beings of after tiiiies were saved in Noah's Ark. The following is but a small portion of its oft-repeated words on this head : — (62) DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS, ETC. 63 *' And the waters prevailed exceedingly upon the earth, and all the high hills that were under the whole heaven, were covered. * * * Fifteen cubits upward did the waters prevail and the mountains were covered. * * * And all flesh died that moved upon the earth, both of fowl, and of cattle, and of beast, and every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth, and every man. All in whose nostrils was the breath of life ; of all that was in the dry land. * * * And Noah only remained alive, and they that were witli him in the Ark." i* 'Now we reiterate tliat speech cannot be more explicit than this ; and if it be true, it must apply with eqiial force to all living creatures — animals as well as mankind. It is really trifling \vith language to say, that the Text does not distinctly convey the idea that all the creatures of our day have descended from the seed saved in the Ark ; or that they were all created within a certain area around the point at which Adam and Eve are supposed first to have had their being. Although the same general laws prevail throughout the entire Fauna and Flora of the globe, yet in the illustration of our subject, we restrict our remarks mainly to the class of Mammifers, because a wider range would lead beyond our prescribed limits. It has been a popularly-received error, from time immemorial, that degrees of latitude, or in other words, temperature of countries, were to be regarded as a sure index of the color and of certain other physical characters in races of men. This opinion has been supported by many able writers of the pi*esent century, and even in the last few years by no less authority than that of the distinguished Dr. Prichard, in the ^'■Physical History of Mankind.'' A rapid change, however, is now going on in the public mind in this respect, and so conclusive is the recent evidence drawn fi'om the monuments of Eg^^t and other sources, in support of the permanence of distinctly marked tv|')eft of mankind, such as the Egyptians, Jews, Negroes, Mongols, American Indians, etc., that we presume no really well-informed naturalist will again be found advocating such philosophic heresies. Indeed, it IS diificult to conceive how any one, with the facts before him, (recorded by Prichard himself,) in connection with an Ethnographical Map, should believe that climate could account for the endless diversity of races seen scattered over the earth from the earliest dawn of history. It is true that most of the black races are found in Africa ; but, on the other hand, many equally black are met with in the temperate cli- mates of India, Australia, and Oceanica, though diftering in every attribute except color. A black skin would seem to be the best suited to hot climates, and for this reason we may suppose that a special creation of black races took place in Africa. The strictly ^hitc races lie mostly in the Temperate Zone, where they flourish best; and tliey certainly deteriorate physically, if not intellectually, when .emoved to hot climates. Their ti-pe is not in reality changed or obliterated. but they undergo a degradation from their primitive state, analogo;ie 64 DISTRIBUTION" OF ANIMALS. to the operation of disease. The dark-skinned Hyperboreans are foand in the Frigid Zone ; regions most congenial to their nature, and fi^om which they cannot be enticed by more temperate climes. The Mongols of Asia, and the aborigines of America, with their peculiar types, are spread over almost all degrees of latitude. So is it with the whole range of Mammifers, as well as birds, and other genera. The lightest and the darkest colors — the most gorge- ous and most sombre plumage, are everywhere found beside each other; though brilliant feathers and colors are commoner in the tropics, where men are generally more or less dark. Every spot on the earth's surface, from pole to pole — the moun- tains and valleys, the dry land and the water — has its organized beings, which find around a given centre all the conditions necessary for their preservation. These living beings are as innumerable as the conditions of the places they inhabit ; and their difierent stations are as varied as their instincts and habits. To consider these stations under the simple point of view of the distribution of heat on their surface, is absolutely to see but one of the many secondary natural causes that influence organized beings. Amidst the infinitude of beings spread over the globe, the Class of Mammifers stands first in organization, and at its head Zoologists have placed the Bimanes (Mankind). It is the least numerous, and its genera and species are almost entirely known. This class is composed of about 200 genera, which may be divided into two parts. 1st. Those whose habitations are limited to a single Zone. 2d. Those, on the contrary, which are scattered through all the Zones. There would at first seem to be a striking contrast between these two divisions ; on the one side, complete immohility, and on the other, great mohility ; but this irregularity is only apparent, for when we examine attentively the different genera, we find them governed by the same laws. Those of the first division, whose habitat is limited, are in general confined to a few species ; while those of the second, on the contrary, contain many species, but which are themselves confined to certain localities, in the same manner as the fewer genera of the first division. Thus we find the same law governing species in both instances. We will cite a single example out of many. The White Bear is confined to the Polar regions, whiic other ursine species inhabit the temperate climates of the mountain chains of Europe and America; and finally, the Malay Bear, and the Bear of Borneo, are restricted to torrid climates. We may then consider the difl:*erent species of Mammifers as ranged under an identical law of geographical distribution, and that each (jpecies on the globe has its limited space, beyond which it does not AND THE RACES OF MEN. 65 extend ; and that every country on the globe, whatever may be its temperature, its analogies, or diiierences of climate, possesses its own Mammifers, different from those of other countries, belonging to its region alone. There are apparent exceptions to this law, but they are all susceptible of explanation." A few species are really common to the two continents, but only in the Arctic region. America and Asia are there united by icy plains, which may be easily traversed by certain animals ; and, while the White Bear, the Wolf, the Red Fox, the Glutton, are conmion to both, the continents and climates may there be really considered as one. We shall show, as we proceed, that w^ith a few exceptions in the Arctic region, the Faunoe and Florte of the two continents are entirely distinct, and that even the Temperate Zones of North and South America do not present the same types, although they are sejDarated by mere table-lands, presenting none of the extremes of climate encountered in the Tropic of Africa. But this immobility, imposed by nature on its creatures, is illustrated in a still more striking manner if we turn to those Mammifers that inhabit the ocean, where there are no appreciable impediments, none of those infinitely varied conditions which are seen upon land, even in the same parallels of latitude. The temperature of the ocean varies all but insensibly with degrees of latitude ; and among the immense crowd of animals that inhabit it, w^e find numerous families of Mammifers. Although endowed with great powers of locomotion, and notwithstanding the trifling obstacles opposed to them, they are, like animals of the land, limited to certain localities. The genera Oalocephalus, Stemmatopes and Morse, are peculiar to the N^orthern Seas. In the Southern, on the contrary, we find the genera Otarie, StenoryncTius, Platyrynclius, kc. Other species inhabit only hot or temperate regions. The various species of Whales and Dolphins, despite their prodi- gious powers of locomotion, are confined each to regions originally assigned them ; and, while there is so little difference of temperature in the ocean, that a human being might, in the mild season, swim with delight from the ISTorth Temperate Zone to Cape Horn, along either coast of America, there is no degree of latitude in which we do not discover species peculiar to itself. After a resum6 of these and many kindred facts, M. Jacquinot uses this emphatic language : " To recapitulate, it seems to us, after all we have said, that we may draw the following conclusions, viz., that all Mammifers on the globe have a habitation, limited and circum- scribed, which they never overleap ; their assemblage contributes to give to each country its particular stamp of creation. What a contrast between the Mammifers of the Old and' New World, and the creations, so special and so singular, of New Holland and Madaga-scar *"■ 9 66 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS Facts, tlierefore, point to numerous centres of creation, wherein we find creatures fixed, with pecuHar temperaments and organizations, which are in unison with surrounding circumstances, and where all their natural wants are supphed. But the strongest barrier to vohin- tary disphxcements would seem to be that of instinct — that force, unknown and incomprehensible, which binds them to the soil that has witnessed their birth. "While passing these sheets through the press, we have enjoyed the privilege of perusing The Geographical Distribution of Animals and Plants,^^ by our valued friend, Charles Pickering, M. D., JSTaturalist to the United States' Exploring Expedition under Captain Wilkes. This is to be " regarded as an introduction to the volume on Geogra- phical Distribution, prepared during the voyage of the Expedition," and published in Volume IX. of the same compendium. In connection with our own work, the utterance of Dr. Pickering's views is most opportune; because, with thorough knowledge of Eg}"pt, derived from personal travels, and acquaintance with hiero- glyphical researches, he has traced the Natural History of that country from the remotest monumental times to the present day. The various pictorial representations of Fauna and Florae are thereby assigned to their respective chronological epochas ; and, inasmuch as they are identified vnth living species, they substantiate our assertions regarding the unexceptional per77ianence of types during a period of more than 5000 years. Dr. Pickering's era for "the commencement of the Egyptian Chronological Reckoning" being B. C. 4493,^'^ we find our- selves again in unison with him upon general principles of chronolo- gical extension. The gradual introduction of foreign animals, plants, and exotic substances, into the Lower Valley of the Nile — the extinction of sundiy species once indigenous to that soil, during the hundred and fifty human generations for which we possess contemporaneous registry — and the infinitude of proofs that such changes could not have been efi'octed without the intervention of these long historical ages — are themes which Dr. Pickering has concisely and ingeniously elaborated : and although our space does not permit the citation of the numerous examples duly catalogued by him, it affords us pleasure to concur in the following results, viz. : " That the names of animals and plants used in Ep:ypt are Scriptural [/. e. old Semitish] names. Furthei", in some instances, these current Egyptian names go behind the Greek language, sup]>ly the meaning of obsolete Greek words, and show international relationship, che more intimate the further we recede into antiiiuity." '** It will become ap])ar('nt, in its place, that the philological views now held by Birch, D(i Kongo, and Lepsius, upon the primeval intro- •duction of Semitic elements in Egypt, are confirmed by these indepen- AND THE RACES OF MEN. 67 dent researches of Pickering into the Natural History of Egyptian animals and plants, as we trust will be now demonstrated through the monnniontal evidences of human physiology. Let us next turn to the races of jSCankind in their geographical dis- tribution, and see whether they form an exception to the laws which have been established for the other orders of Mammifers. Does not the same physical adaptation, the same instinct, which binds animals to their primitive localities, bind the races of Men also ? Those races inhabiting the Temperate Zones, as, for example, the white races of Europe, have a certain degree of pliability, that enables them to bear climates to a great extent hotter or colder than their native one ; but there is a limit beyond which they cannot go with impunity — they cannot live in the Arctic with the Esquimaux, nor in the Tropic of Africa with the Negro. The Negro, too, (like the Elephant, the Lion, the Camel, &c.,) possesses a certain pliability of constitution, w^hich enables him to enter the Temperate Zone ; but his Northern limit stops far short of that of natives of this Zone. The higher castes of what are termed Caucasian races, are influenced by several causes in a greater degree than other races. To them have been assigned, in all ages, the largest brains and the most powerful intellect ; theirs is the mission of extending and perfecting civiliza- tion — they are by nature ambitious, daring, domineering, and reckless of danger — impelled by an irresistible instinct, they visit all climes, regardless of difhculties ; but how many thousands are sacrificed annually to climates foreign to their nature ! It should also be borne in mind, that what we term Caucasian races are not of one origin : they are, on the contrary, an amalgama- tion of an infinite number of primitive stocks, of different instincts, temperaments, and mental and physical characters. Eg_\q:)tians, Jews, Arabs, Teutons, Celts, Sclavouians, Pelasgians, Romans, Iberians, etc.. etc., are all mingled in blood ; and it is impossible now to go back and unravel this heterogeneous mixture, and say precisely what each type originally was. Such commingling of blood, through migrations, wars, capti\^ties, and amalgamations, is doubtless one means by which Providence carries out great ends. This mixed stock of many primi- tive races is the only one which can really be considered cosmopolite. Their infinite diversity of characteristics contrasts strongly with the immutable instincts of other human types. How stands the case with tliose races which have been less subjected to disturl)ing causes, and whose moral and intellectual structure is less complex ? The Greenlander, in his icy region, amidst poveitv, hardship, and want, clings with instinctive pertinacity to his birtli- place, in spite of all apparent temptations — the Temperate Zone, 68 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS with its luxuries, has no charm for him. The Africans of the Tropic, the Aborigines of America, the Mongols of Asia, the inhabitants of Polynesia, have remained for thousands of years where history first found them ; and nothing but absolute want, or self-preservation, can drive them from the countries where the Creator placed them. These races have been least adulterated, and consequently preserve their orisrinal instincts and love of home. This truth is illustrated in a most remarkable degree by the Indians of America. "VVe still behold the small remnants of scattered tribes fighting and dying to presei've the lands and graves of their ancestors. We shall have more to say, in another chapter, on the amalgama- tion of races, but may here remark, that the infusion of even a minute proportion of the blood of one race into another, produces a most decided modification of moral and physical character. A small trace of white blood in the negro improves him in intelligence and morality ; and an equally small trace of negro blood, as in the quadroon, will protect such individual against the deadly influence of climates which the pure white-man cannot endure. For example, if the population of ISTew England, Germany, France, England, or other northern cli- mates, come to Mobile, or to 'New Orleans, a large proportion dies of yellow fever : and of one hundred such individuals landed in the latter city at the commencement of an epidemic of yellow fever, pro- bably half would fall victims to it. On the contrary, negroes, under all circumstances, enjoy an almost perfect exemption from this dis- ease, even though brought in from our Northern States ; and, what is still more remarkable, the mulattoes (under which term we include all mixed grades) are almost equally exempt. The writer (J. C. Nott) has witnessed many hundred deaths from yellow fever, but never more than three or four cases of mulattoes, although hundreds are exposed to this epidemic in Mobile. The fact is certain, and shows how diffi- cult is the problem of these amalgamations. That negroes die out and would become extinct in l^ew England, if cut oil" from immigration, is clearly shown by published statistics. It may even be a question whether the strictly-white races of Europe arc perfectly adapted to any one climate in America. We do not gene- rally find in the United States a population constitutionally equal to that of Great Britain or Germany ; and we recollect once hearing this remark strongly endorsed by Henry Clay, although dwelling in Kentucky, amid the best agricultural population in the country. Knox''' holds tha^' Ihe Anglo-Saxon race would become extinct in America, if cut off trom immigration. Now, we are not prepared to endorse this asser- tion ; but inasmuch as nature works not through a few generations, but through thousands of years, it is impossible to conjecture what time AND THE RACES OF MEN. 69 may effect. It would be a curious inquiry to investigate the physio- logical causes which have led to the destruction of ancient empires, and the disappearance of populations, like Egypt, Assyria, Greece, and Rome. Many ancient nations were colonies from distant climes, and may have wasted away under the operation of laws that have acted slowly but surely. The commingling of different bloods, too, under the law of hybridity, may also have played an important part. Mr. Layard tells us that a few wandering tribes only now stalk arouiid the sites of the once-mighty Mneveh and Babylon, and that, but for the sculptures of Sargan and Sennacherib, no one could now say what race constructed those stupendous cities. But let us return from this digression. To this inherent love of primitive locality, and instinctive dislike to foreign lands, and repugnance towards other people, must we mainly attribute the fixedness of the unhistoric types of men. The greater portion of the globe is still under the influence of this law. In America, the aboriginal barbarous tribes cannot be forced to change their habits, or even persuaded to successful emigration : they are melting away from year to year ; and of the millions which once inhabited that portion of the United States east of the Mississippi river, all have vanished, but a few scattered families ; and their repre- sentatives, removed by our Government to the Western frontier, are reduced to less than one hundred thousand. It is as clear as the sun at noon-day, that in a few generations more the last of these Red men will be numbered with the dead. We constantly read glowing ac- counts, from interested missionaries, of the civilization of these tribes ; but a civilized full-blooded Indian does not exist among them. We see every day, in the suburbs of Mobile, and wandering through our streets, the remnant of the Choctaw race, covered with nothing but blankets, and living in bark tents, scarcely a degree advanced above brutes of the field, quietly abiding their time. No human ingenuity can induce them to become educated, or to do an honest day's work : they are supported entirely by begging, besides a little traflic of the squaws in wood. To one who has lived among American Indians, it is in vain to talk of civilizing them. You might as well attempt to change the nature of the buffalo. The whole continent of America, with its mountain-ranges and table-lands — its valleys and low plains — its woods and prairies — ex- •hibiting every variety of climate which could influence the nature of man, is inhabited by one great family, that presents a prevailing tyipe. Small and peculiarly shaped crania, a cinnamon complexion, small feet and hands, black straight hair, Mild, savage natures, characterize 70 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS 'H the Indian everywhere. There are a few trivial exceptions, easily accounted for, particularly on the Pacific coast. The eastern part of Asia presents a parallel case. From 65° north latitude to the Equator, it presents the greatest inequalities of surface and climate, and is peopled throughout by the yellow, lank-haired Mongols ; the darkest families lying at the North, and the fairest at the South. Their crania, their instincts, their whole moral and l^hy- sical characteristics, distinguish them from the American race, which otherwise they most resemble. The other half of this northern continent, that is to say Europe and the rest of Asia, may be divided into a northern and a southern pro- \dnee. The first extends from the Polar region to 45° or 50° north latitude — from Scandinavia to the Caspian Sea ; and contains a group of men with light hair, complexion fair and rosy, and blue eyes. The second or southern division, running north-west and south-east, stretches from the British Isles to Bengal and the extremity of Hin- dostan — from 50° to 8° or 10° north. This vast area is covered by people with complexions more or less dark, oval faces, black smooth hair, and black eyes. ]^ow, it is worthy of remark, that since the discovery of America, and during several centuries, the fair races have inhabited North America extensively, while the dark races, as the Spaniards, have occupied South and Central America, and Mexico ; both have dis- placed the Aboriginal races, and yet neither has made approximation in type to the latter, nor does any person suppose they could in a hundred generations. And so with the JSTegroes, who have lived here through eight or ten generations. We have no more reason to sup- pose that an Anglo-Saxon will turn into an Indian, than imported cattle into buffaloes. We shall show, in another chapter, that the oldest Indian crania from the Mounds, some of which are probably several thousand years old, bear no resemblance to those of any race of the old continent. When we come to Africa, we shall perceive various groups of peculiar types occupying their appropriate zoological provinces, which they have inhabited for at least 5000 years. But, having to develop some new views respecting Egypt in another place, we shall take up the races of the African continent in extenso. Taking leave, for the present, of continents, let us glance for a moment at New Holland. This immense country, extending from latitude 10° to 40° south, attests a special creation — its population, its animals, birds, insects, plants, etc., are entirely unlike those found in any other part of the world. The men present altogether a very peculiar typo: they are black, but without the features, woolly heads, AND THE RACES OF MEN. 71 or other physical characters of ISTegroes. Beyond, we have Van Die- men's Land, extending to 44° south hititude, which presents a tem- perate chniate, not unUke that of France ; and what is remarkable, its inhabitants, unlike those of New Holland, are black, with frizzled heads, and very similar to the African races. iSTot far from jSTew Holland, under the same parallels, and extend- ing even farther south, we find Xew Zealand ; where commences the beautiful Polynesian race, of light-brown color, smooth l)lack hair, and almost oval face. This race extends from 50° south, descends to the equator, then remounts to the Sandwich Islands, 20° north scattered over islands without number — encircling about half the globe — without presenting any material difterences in their color or forms — in a word, in their zoological characters. India aftbrds a striking illustration of the fallacy of arguments drawn from climate. We there meet with people of all shades, from fair to black, who have been living together from time immemorial. We have the well-known testimony of Bishop Heber^ and others, on this point; and Desmoulins adds, " The Eohillas, who are blonds, and situated south of the Ganges, are surrounded by the l!^epauleans with black skins, the Mahrattas with yellow skins, and the Bengalees of a deep brown ; and yet the Eohillas inhabit the plain, and the Xepau- leans the mountains."^ Here we have either difl:erent races inhabit- ing the same climate for several thousand years without change ; or the same race assuming every shade of color. Of this dilemma, the advocates of unity may choose either horn. We might thus recite innumerable facts to the same effect, but the labor would be superfluous. The different shades of color in races have been regarded, by manv naturalists, as one of their most distinctive characters, and still serve as the basis of numerous classifications ; but M. Jacquinot thinks too much importance has been attached to colors, and that they cannot be relied upon. For example, all the intermediate shades from white to black are found in those races of oval face, large facial angle, imooth hair, etc., which Blumenbach has classed under the head Caucasian. Commence, for example, with the fair Fins and Sclavo- nians with blond hair, and pass successively through the Celts, Iberi- ans, Italians, Greeks, Arabs, Egyptians, and Hindoos, till you reach the inhabitants of Malabar, and you find these last to be as black as Negroes. Among the Mongols, hkewise, we encounter various shades. Amid the Africans there exist all tints, from the pale-yellow Hottentots, Bushmen, and dusky Caftres, to the coal-black Negro of the Tropic and confines of Egj-pt. In short, the black color is beheld in Caucasians. 72 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS Negroes, Mongols, Australians, etc., while yellows or browns are visible tlirougliout all tlie above types, as well as among Americans, Malays, and Polynesians. In the present mixed state of the population of the earth, it is per- haps impossible to determine how far this opinion of Jacquinot may be correct. We possess certainly many examples to prove that color has been permanent for ages ; while, on the contrar}^, it is impossible to show that the complexion of a pure primitive stock has been altered by climate. As before stated, we conceive that too much importance has been given to arbitrary classifications, and that the Caucasian division may include innumerable primitive stocks. This fact is illustrated further on, particularly in the history of the Jews, whose type has been permanent for at least 3000 years. We have no reason to believe that the Hebrew race sprang from, or ever origi- nated, any other type of man. We therefore not merely regard the great divisions of Caucasian, Mongol, Malay, Negro and Indian, as primitive stocks, but shall estab- lish that History, Anatomy, Physiology, Psychology, Analog}^, all prove that each of these stocks comprehends many original subdivisions. Let us acknowledge our large indebtedness to Prof. Agassiz, who has given the most masterly view of the geographical distribution of animals written in our language, or perhaps in any other. Not a line can be retrenched from his already condensed articles without inflicting a wound, and we take much pleasure in referring the reader to them.^^ He shows, conclusively, that not only are there numerous centres of creation, or zoological provinces, for our pending geo- logical epoch, but that these provinces correspond, in a surprising manner, to those of former epochas ; thus proving that the Creator has been working after one grand and uniform plan through myriads of years, and through consecutive creations. " It is satisfactorily ascertained at present, that there have been many distinct successive periods, during each of which large numbers of animals and plants have been introduced upon the surface of our globe, to live and multiply for a time, then to disappear and be replaced by other kinds. Of such distinct periods — such successive creations — we know now at least about a dozen, and there are ample indications that the inhabit-ants of our globe have been successively changed at more epochs than are yet fully ascertained." In the earliest formations, but few and distant patches of land having emerged from the mighty deep, the created beings were comparatively few, simple, and more widely disseminated ; but yet many distinct species, adapted to localities whore they were brought into existence, are discovered. In the moi-e recent fossil beds, we find a distribu- tion of fossil remains wliicli agrees most remarkably with the pre- sent geographical arrangement of animals and plants. The fossils tif modern geological periods in NewPIolland are types identical vsith AND THE RACES OF MEN. 73 most of the animals now living there. Brazilian fossils belong to the same fomiUes as those alive there at the present day ; though in both cases the fossil species are distinct from the surviving ones. If, therefore, the organized beings of ancient geological periods had arisen from one central point of distribution, to be dispersed, and finally to become confined to those countries where their remains now exist in a fossil condition ; and if the animals now living had also spread from a common origin, over the same districts, and had these been circumscribed within equally distinct limits ; we should be led to the unnatural supposition, argues Agassiz, that animals of two distinct creations, differing specifically throughout, had taken the same lines of migration, had assumed finally the same distribution, and had become permanent in the same regions without any other inducement for removal and final settlement, than the mere necessity of covering more extensive ground, after they had become too numerous to remain any longer together in one and the same district. Now it would certainly be very irrational to attribute such instincts to animals, were such a line of march possible ; but the very possi- bility vanishes, however, when we reflect upon the wide-spread phy- sical impediments opposing such migrations, and that neither the animals nor plants of one province can flourish in an adverse one. Xo Arctic animals or plants can be propagated in the Tropics, nor vice versa. The whole of the Monkey tribe belong to a hot climate, are retained there by their temperaments and instincts, and cannot by any ingenuity of man be made to exist in Greenland. The same rule applies to the aboriginal men of the Tropical and the Arctic regions. That the animals and plants now existing on the earth must be referred to many widely-distant centres of creation, is a fact which might, if necessary, be confirmed by an infinite number of circum- stances ; but these things are nowadays conceded by every well- informed naturalist ; and if we have deemed it necessary to illustrate them at all, it is because this volume may fall into the hands of some possibly not versed in such matters. Another question of much interest to our present investigation is — Have all the individuals of each species of animals, plants, &c., descended from a single pair ? Were it not for the supposed scientific authority of Genesis to this effect, the idea of community of origin would hardly have occurred to any reflecting mind, because it in- volves insuperable difficulties ; and science can perceive no reason why the Creator should have adopted any such plan. Is it reasonable to suppose that the Almighty would have created one seed of grass, ono 10 74 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS acorn, one pair of locusts, of bees, of wild pigeons, of herrings, of buffaloes, as tlie only starting-point of these almost ubiquitous species ? The instincts and habits of animals difter widely. Some are soli- tary, except at certain seasons ; some go in pairs ; others in herds or shoals. The idea of a pair of bees, locusts, herrings, buffaloes, is as contrary to the nature and habits of these creatures, as it is repug- nant to the nature of oaks, pines, birches, &c., to grow singly, and to form forests in their isolation. In some species males — in others, females predominate ; and in many it would be easy to show, that, if the present order of things were reversed, the species could not be preserved — locusts and bees, for example : the former appear in my- riads, and by far the greater number of those produced are destroyed; and though they have existed for ages, a naturalist cannot see that they have increased, nor can he conceive how one pair could continue the species, considering the number of adverse chances. As regards bees, it is natural to have but one female for a whole hive, to wdiom many males are devoted, besides a large number of drones. Again, Agassiz gives this striking illustration : — " There are animals which are impelled by nature to feed on other animals. Was the first pair of lions to abstain from food until the gazelles and other antelopes had multiplied sufficiently to preserve their races from the persecution of these ferocious beasts ? " So with other carnivorous animals, birds, fishes, and reptiles. "We now behold all their various species scattered through land and water in harmonious proportions. Thus they may continue for ages to come. Hyhridity has been considered a test for species ; but, when we come to this theme, it shall be proven that, in many instances, what have been called varieties are really distinct species : hence, that hyhri- dity is no test. All varieties of dogs and wolves, for example, are pro- lific inter se; yet we shall prove that many of them are specifically distinct, that is, descended from different primitive stocks at distant points of the globe. Agassiz has beautifully illustrated the fact by the natural history of lions. These animals present very marked varieties, extending over immense regions of country. They occupy nearly the whole continent of Africa, a great part of Southern Asia, as, formerly, Asia Minor and Greece. Over this vast tract of country several varieties of lions are found, differing materially in- their phy- sical characters : these varieties also are placed remotely from each other, and each one is surrounded by entirely distinct Faunse and Florae: natural facts confirming the idea of totally distinct zoological provinces. It will readily be conceded by naturalists, that all the animals found in such a province, and nowhere else, must have been therein created; and although lions may possess in common that AND THE RACES OF MEIS . 75 assemblafre of characters winch has been construed into evidence of community of species, vet it by no means necessitates community of origin. The same question here arises as in considering the varieties of mankind, with regard to the detinition of the term species. W^ hold that a variety Tvhich is permanent, and which resists, without change, all known external causes, must be regarded as a primitive species — else no criteria exist by which science can be governed in Natural History. Monkeys aiibrd another admirable illustration, and are doubly interesting from the fact of their near approach to the human family. The following paragraph is one of peculiar interest : — " As already mentioned, the monkeys ai'e entirely tropical. But here again we notice a very intimate adaptation of their types to the particular continents ; as the monkeys of tropical America constitute a family altogether distinct from the monkeys of the old world, there being not one species of any of the genera of Quadrumana, so numerous on this con- tinent, found either in Asia or Africa. The monkeys of the Old Woi"ld, again, constitute a natural family by themselves, extending equally over Africa and Asia ; and there is even a close representative analogy between those of different parts of these two continents — the orangs of Africa, the Chimpanzee and Orilla, corresponding to the red orang of Sumatra and Borneo, and the smaller long-armed species of continental Asia. And what is not a little remarkable, is the fact that the black orang occurs upon that continent which is inhabited by the black human race, while the brown orang inhabits those parts of Asia over which the chocolate-colored Malays have been developed. There is again a peculiar family of Quadrumana confined to the Island of Madagascar, the Makis, which are entirely peculiar to that island and the eastern coast of Africa opposite to it, and to one spot on the western shore of Africa. But in New Holland and the adjacent islands there are no mon- keys at all, though the climatic conditions seem not to exclude their existence any more than those of the large Asiatic Islands, upon which such high types of this order are found. And these facts, more than any other, would indicate that the special adaptation of animals to particular districts of the surface of the globe is neither accidental nor dependent upon physical 'conditions, but is implied in the primitive plan of creation itself. Whatever classes we may take into consideration, we shall find similar adaptations, and though per- haps the greater uniformity of some families renders the difference of types in various parts of the world less striking, they are none the less real. The carnivora of tropical xVsia are not the same as those of tropical Africa, or those of tropical America. Their birds and reptiles present similar differences. The want of an ostrich in Asia, when we have one, the largest of the family, in Africa, and two distinct species in Southern America, and two cassowaries, one in New Holland and another in the Sunda Islands, shows this constant process of analogous or representative species, repeated over different parts of the world, to be the principle regulating the distribution of animals ; and the fact that these analo- gous species are different, again, cannot be reconciled to the idea of common origin, as each type is peculiar to the country where it is now found. These differences are more striking in tropical regions than anywhere else. The rhinoceros of the Sunda Islands differs from those of Africa, and there are none in America The elephant of Asia differs from that of Africa, and there are none in America. One tapir is found in the Sunda Islands; there are none in Africa, but we find one in South America. . . . Everywhere special adap- tation, particular forms in each continent, an omission of some allied type here, when in the next group it occurs all over the zone." The same authority has so well expressed his opinion on another point, that we cannot resist the temptation of making an additional extract 76 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS " We are thus led to distinguish special provinces in the natural distribution of animalS; and we may adopt the following division as the most natural First, the Arctic province, with prevailing uniformity. Second, the Temperate Zone, with at least three distinct zoological provinces — the European Temperate Zone, west of the Ural Mountains; th^ Asiatic Temperate Zone, east of the Ural Mountains ; and the American Temperate Zone, which may be subdivided into two, the Eastern and Western, for the animals east and west of the Rocky Mountains differ sufficiently to constitute two distinct zoological provinces. Next, the Tropical Zone, containing the African Zoological province, which extends over the main part of the African continent, including all the country south of the Atlas and north of the Cape colonies ; the Tropical Asiatic province, south of the great Himalayan chain, and including the Sunda Islands, whose Fauna has quite a continental character, and differs entirely from that of the Islands of the Pacific, as well as from that of New Holland; the American Tropical province, including Central America, the West Indies, and Tropical South America. New Holland constitutes in itself a special province, notwithstanding the great differences of its northern and southern climate, the animals of the whole continent preserving throughout their peculiar typical character. But it were a mistake to conceive that the Faunae, or natural groups of animals, are to be limited according to the boundaries of the mainlands. On the contrary, we may trace their natural limits into the ocean, and refer to the Temperate European Fauna the eastern shores of the Atlantic, as we refer its western shores to the American Temperate Fauna. Again, the eastern shores of the Pacific belong to the Western American Fauna, as the western Pacific shores belong to the Asiatic Fauna. In the Atlantic Ocean there is no peculiar Oceanic Fauna to be distinguished ; but in the Pacific we have such a Fauna, entirely marine in its main character, though inter- spread with innumerable islands, extending east of the Sunda Islands and New Holland to the western shores of Tropical America. The islands west of this continent seem, indeed, to have very slight relations, in their zoological character, with the western parts of the main- land. South of the Tropical Zone we have the South American Temperate Fauna and that of the Cape of Good Hope, as other distinct zoological provinces. Van Diemen's Land, however, does not constitute a zoological province in itself, but belongs to the province of New Holland by its zoological character. Finally, the Antarctic Circle encloses a special zoological province, including the Antarctic Fauna, which, in a great measure, corresponds to the Arctic Fauna in its uniformity, though it diflFers from it in having chiefly a maritime character, while the Arctic Fauna has an alnlost entirely continental aspect. " The fact that the principal races of men, in their natural distribution, cover the same extent of ground as the same zoological provinces, would go far to show that the diflferences which we notice between them are also primitive." These facts prove conclusively tliat the Creator has marked out both the Old and New Worlds into distinct zoological provinces, and that FaunfB and Florae are independent of climate or other known physical causes; while it is equally clear that in this geographical dis- tribution there is evidence of a Plan — of a design ruling the climatic conditions themselves. It is very remarkable, too, that wdtile the races of men, and the Fauna and Flora of the Arctic region, present great uniformity, they follow in the different continents the same general law of increasing dissimilarity as we recede from the Arctic and go South, irrespectively of climate. We have already shown that, as we pass down through America, Asia, and Africa, the farther we travel the greater is the dts- eimilarity of tlu^ir FauniB and Flome, to their very terminations, even when compared together in the same latitudes or zones; and an ANDTHERACESOFMEN. 77 examination will show, that differences of types in the human family become more strongly marked as we recede from the Polar regions, and reach their greatest extremes at those terminating points of con- tinents where they are most widely separated by distance, although occupying nearly the same parallels of latitude, and nearly the same climates. For instance, the Fuegians of Cape Horn, the Hottentots and Bushmen of the Cape of Good Hope, and the inhabitants of Van Diemen's Land, are the tribes which, under similar parallels, differ most. Such differences of races are scarcely less marked in the Tro- pics of the earth ; as testified by the N^egro in Africa, the Indian in America, and the Papuan in Polynesia. In the Temperate zone, we have in the Old World the Mongolians and the Caucasians, no less than the Indians in America, living in similar climates, yet wholly dissimilar themselves. History, traditions, monuments, osteological remains, every literary record and scientific induction, all show that races have occupied sub- stantially the same zones or provinces from time immemorial. Since the discovery of the mariner's compass, mankind have been more dis- turbed in their primitive seats ; and, \^'ith the increasing facilities of communication by land and sea, it is impossible to predict what changes coming ages may bring forth. The Caucasian races, which have always been the representatives of civilization, are those alone that have extended over and colonized all parts of the globe ; and much of this is the work of the last three hundred years. The Creator has implanted in this group of races an instinct that, in spite of themselves, drives them through all difficulties, to carry out their great mission of civilizing the earth. It is not reason, or philanthropy, which urges them on ; but it is destiny. When we see great divisions of the human family increasing in numbers, spreading in all direc- tions, encroaching by degrees upon all other races wherever they can live and prosper, and gradually supplanting inferior types, is it not reasonable to conclude that they are fulfilling a law of nature ? We have alwaj's maintained diversity of origin for the whole range of organized beings. If it be granted, as it is on all hands, that there have been many centres of creation, instead of one, what reason is there to suppose that any one race of animals has sprung from a single pair, instead of being the natural production of many pairs ? And, as was written by us many years ago, "if it be conceded that there were two primitive pairs of human beings, no reason can be assigned why there may not have been hundreds." ^ Agassiz thus expresses himself: — " Under such circumstances, we should ask if we are not entitled to conclude that these races must have originated where they occur, as well as the aninals and plants inhabiting 78 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS the same countries, and have originated there in the same numerical proportions and over the same area in which they now occur ; for these conditions are the conditions necessary to their maintenance, and what among organized beings is essential to their temporal exist- ence must be at least one of the conditions under which they were created. " We maintain that, like all organized beings, mankind cannot have originated in single individuals, but must have been created in that numerical harmony which is characteristic of each species. Men must have originated in natiojis, as the bees have originated in swarms, and, as the different social plants, have covered the extensive tracts over which they have naturally spread." We remarked, in the commencement of this chapter, that M. Agas- siz had presented his views in such a condensed and irrefragable manner, that it would be impossible to attempt a resume, or to do him justice without repeating the whole of his article ; but although we have already borrowed freely, we cannot refrain from a concluding paragraph, our object being rather to give a synopsis, or "posting up" to date, of facts illustrative of our subject, than to claim any great originality: if we can bring the truth out, our goal is attained. " The circumstance that wherever we find a human race naturally circumscribed, it is aonnected in its limitation M'itli what we call, in natural history, a zoological and botanical province — that is to say, with the natural limitations of a particular association of animals and plants — shows most unequivocally the intimate relation existing between mankind and the animal kingdom in their adaptation to the physical world. The Arctic race of men, covering a treeless region near the Arctics in Europe, Asia, and America, is circumscribed, in the three continents, within limits very similar to those occupied by that particular com- bination of animals which are peculiar to the same tracts of land and sea. " The region inhabited by the Mongolian race is also a natural zoological province, coyered by a combination of animals naturally circumscribed within the same regions. The Malay race covers also a natural zoological province. New Holland again constitutes a very peculiar zoological province, in which we have another particular race of men. And it is further remarkable, in this connection, that the plants and animals now living on the continent of Africa south of Atlas, within the same range within which the Negroes are naturally circumscribed, have a character differing widely from that of the plants and animals of the northern shores of Africa and the valley of Egypt ; while the Cape of Good Hope, within the limits inhabited by Hottentots, is characterized by a vegetation and a Fauna equally peculiar, and dififei'ing in its features from that over which the African race is spread. " Such identical circumscriptions between the limits of two series of organized beings so widely difiering in men and animals and plants, and so entirely unconnected in point of descent, would, to the mind of the naturalist, amount to a demonstration that they origi- nated together within the districts which they now inhabit. We say that such an accumu- lation of evidence would amount to demonstration ; for how could it, on the contrary, be supposed that man alone would assume new peculiarities and features so different from his primitive characteristics, whilst the animals and plants circumsci-ibed within the same limits would continue to preserve their natural relations to the Fauna and Flora of other parts of the world ? If the Creator of one set of these living beings had not also been the Creator of the othe., and if we did not trace the same general laws tliroughout nature, there might he room left for the supposition that, while men inhabiting different parts of the world originated from a common centre, the plants and animals associated with them in the same countries originated on the spot. But such inconsistencies do not occur in the laws of nature. " The coincidence of the geographical distribution of the human races with that of AND THE RACES OF MEN. 79 animals, the disconnection of the climatic conditions where we have similar races, and the connectijon of climatic conditions where we have different human races, shows furthei, that the adaptation of different races of men to different parts of the world must be inten- tional, as well as that of other beings ; that men were piimitively located in the various parts of the world they inhabit, and that they arose everwhere in those harmonious numeric proportions with other living beings which would at once secure their preservation and contribute to their welfare. To suppose that all men originated from Adam and Eve, is to assume that the order of creation has been changed in the course of historical times, and to give to the Mosaic record a meaning that it was never intended to have. On that ground, we would particularly insist upon the propriety of considering Genesis as chiefly relating to the history of the white race, with special reference to the history of the Jews." Zoologically, the races or species of mankind obey the same organic laws which govern other animals : they have their geographical points of origin, and are adapted to certain external conditions that cannot be changed with impunity. The natives of one zone cannot always be transferred to another without deteriorating physically and men- tally. Races, too, are governed by certain psychological influences, which differ among the species of mankind as instincts vary among the species of lower animals. These psychological characteristics form part of the great mysteries of human nature. They seem often to work in opposition to the physical necessities of races, and to drive individuals and nations Ijeyond the confines of human reason. We see around us, daily, individuals obeying bhndly their psychological instincts ; and one nation reads of the causes which have led to the decline and fall of other empires without profiting by the lesson. The laws of God operate not through a few thousand years, but throughout eternity, and w^e cannot always perceive the why or where- fore of what passes in our brief day. JSTations and races, like indivi- duals, have each an especial destiny: some are born to rule, and others to be ruled. And such has ever been the history of mankind. Ko two distinctly-marked races can dwell together on equal terms. Some races, moreover, appear destined to live and prosper for a time, until the destroying race comes, which is to exterminate and supplant them. Observe how the aborigines of America are fading away before the exotic races of Europe. Those groups of races heretofore comprehended under the generic term Caucasian, have in all ages been the rulers ; and it requires no prophet's eye to see that they are destined eventually to conquer and hold every foot of the globe where climate does not interpose an impenetrable barrier. No philanthropy, no legislation, no missionary labors, can change this law: it is written in man's nature by the hand of his Creator. "While the mind thus speculates on the physical history of races and the more or less speedy exteraiination of some of them, other prob- lems start up in the distance, of which the solution is far beyond the 80 GENERAL REMARKS reach of human foresight. "We have abeady hinted at the mysterious disappearance of many great races and nations of antiquity. Wh^en the inferior types of mankind shall have fulfilled their des- tinies and passed away, and the superior, becoming intermingled m blood, have wandered from their primitive zoological provinces, and overspread the world, what will be the ultimate result? May not that Law of nature, which so often forbids the commingling of species, complete its work of destruction, and at some future day leave the fossil remains alone of man to tell the tale of his past existence upon eai-th ? CHAPTER II. GENERAL REMARKS ON TYPES OF MANKIND. "We propose to treat of Mankind, both zoologically and historically ; and, in order that we ma}^ be clearly understood, it is expedient that we should define certain terms which will enter into frequent use as we proceed. TYPE. — The definition of H. Cassini, given in Jourdan's Diction- naire des Termes, is adopted by us, as sutRciently precise : — " Typical characters are those which belong only to the majority of natural bodies com- prised in any group, or to those which occupy the centre of this group, and in some sort serve as the type of it, but presenting exceptions when it approaches its extremities, on account of the relations and natural affinities which do not admit well-defined limits between species." In speaking of Mankind, we regard as Types those primitive or original forms which are independent of Climatic or other Physical influences. All men are more or less influenced by external causes, but these can never act with sufiicient force to transform one type into another. SPECIES. — The following definition, by Prichard, maybe received as one of the most lucid and complete : — •' Tiie meaning attached to the term species, in natural history, is very defitiite and intel- ligible. It includes only the following conditions : namely, separate origin and distinctness of race, evinced by a constant transmission of some characteristic peculiarity of organization. A race of animals or of plants marked by any peculiar character which it has constantly dis- played, is termed a 'species'; and two races are considered specifically different, if they are distinguished from each other by some characteristic which the one cannot be supposed to have acquired, or the other to have lost, through any known operation of physical causes ; for we are hence led to conclude, that tribes thus distinguished have not descended from tlie same original stock. ON TYPES OF MANKIND. 81 " This is the import of the word Sweden, aa it has loug been understood by writers on different departments of natural history. They agree essentially as to the sense which they appropriate to this term, though they have expressed themselves differently, according as they have blended more or less o{ hi/jjo thesis with their conceptions of its meaning." "VARIETIES," continues Prichard, "in natural history, are such diversities in indivi- duals and their progeny as are observed to take place within the limits of species. " PERMANENT VARIETIES are those which, having once taken place, continue to be propagated in the breed in perpetuitj'. The fad of their origination must be known by observation or inference, since, the proof of this fact being defective, it is more philosophical to consider characters which are perpetually inherited as specific or orit/inal. The term per- manent variety would otherwise express the meaning which properly belongs to species. The properties of species are two: viz., original difference of characters, and the perpetuity of their transmission, of which only the latter can belong to permanent varieties. " The instances are so many in which it is doubtful whether a particular tribe is to be considered as a distinct species, or only as a variety of some other tribe, that it has been found, by naturalists, convenient to have a designation applicable in either case." 23 Dr. Morton defines species simply to be "a primordial organic form."^ He classes species, "according to their disparity or affi- nity," in the following provisional manner : — " REMOTE SPECIES, of the same genus, are those among which hybrids are never produced. "ALLIED SPECIES produce, inter se, an infertile offspring. "PROXIMATE SPECIES produce, with each other, a fertile offspring." GROUP. — Under this term we include all those proximate races, or species, which resemble each other most closely in type, and whose geographical distribution belongs to certain zoological provinces ; for example, the aboriginal American, the Mongol, the Malay, the Negro, the Polynesian groups, and so forth. It will be seen, by comparison of our definitions, that we recognize no substantial diflference between the terms types and species — perma- nence of characteristics belonging equally to both. The horse, the ass, the zebra, and the quagga, are distinct species and distinct types: and so with the Jew, the Teuton, the Sclavonian, the Mongol, the Austra- lian, the coast !N"egro, the Hottentot, &c. ; and no physical causes known to have existed during our geological epoch could have transformed one of these types or species into another, A type, then, being a pristine or primordial form, all idea of common origin for any two is excluded, otherwise eveiy landmark of natural histoiy Avould be broken down. It has been sagaciousty remarked by Bodichon : — "That when a people writes its history, time, and often space, have placed them very faF from their origin. It is then composed of diverse elements, and its national traditions are altered : there happens to it that which occurs to the man who has arrived at adult age — the remembrance of his early years has seized upon his imagination more than upon his mind, and incites him to cast over his cradle a coloring, brilliant, but deceptive. Thus some pretend they are descended from Abraham, others from ^^neas, some from Japhet, Bomo from stones thrown by Deucalion and Psyche: the greatest number from some ?od or demigod — Pluto, Hercules, Odin."^ 11 82 GENERAL REMARKS It may then be truly said, that we possess no data by which science can at all approximate to the epoch of man's first appearance upon earth ; for, as shown in our chronological essay, even the Jewish history, whose fabulous clironology is so perseveringly relied on by many, does not reach back to the early history of nations. It cannot now reasonably be doubted, that Egypt and China, at least, existed as nations 3000 years before Christ ; and there is monumental evidence of the simultaneous existence of various Tj'pes of Mankind quite as far back. Inasmuch as these types are more or less fertile inter se, and as they have, for the last 5000 years, been subjected to successions of wars, migrations, captivities, intermixtures, &c., it would be a vain task at the present day to attempt the unravelling of this tangled thread, and to make anything like a just classification of types ; or to determine how many were primitive, or M'liich one of them has arisen from intermixture of types. This difiiculty holds not alone with regard to mankind, but also with respect to dogs, horses, cattle, sheep, and other domestic animals, as we shall take occasion to show. All that ethnography can now hope to accomplish is, to select some of the more prominent t}^3es, or rather groups of proximate tj^es, compare them with each other, and demonstrate that they are, and have always been, distinct. A vulgar error has been sedulously impressed upon the public mind, of which it is very hard to divest it, viz., that all the races of the globe set out originally from a single point in Asia. Science now knows that no foundation in fact exists for such a conclusion. The embarrassment in treating of types or races is constantly increased by false classifi- cations imposed upon us by prejudiced naturalists. It is argued, for example, that all the Mongols, all the African Negroes, all the American Indians, have been derived from one common Asiatic pair or unique source ; whereas, on the other hand, there is no evidence that human beings were not sown broadcast over the whole face of the earth, like animals and plants : and we incline to the opinion of M. Agassiz, that men were created in nations, and not in a single pair. Since the time of Linnaeus, who first placed man at the head of the Animal kingdom and in the same series with monkeys, numerous classifications of human races have been proposed; and it may be well to give a rapid sketch of a few of them, in order to show the diflficulties which encompass the sulyect, and how hopelessly vague every definitive attempt of this kind must be, in the present state of our knowledge. BuFFON divid<;8 the human race into six varieties — viz.. Polar, Tartar, Austral-Asiatic, European, Negro, and American. Kant divides man into four varieties — Wliite, Black, Copper, and Olive. I ON TYPES OF MANKIND. 83 Hunter, into seven varieties; Metzan, into ftvo — ^AVliitc and Blaek; ViREY, into three; Blumenbacii, into Jive — viz., Caucasian, Mongol, Malay, JSTegro, and American ; Desmoulins, into sixteen species ; Bory DE St. Vincent makes ffteeti species, subdivided into races, Morton classifies man into twenty-two families; Pickering, into eleven races ; Luke Burke, into sixty-three, whereof twentj-eiglit are distinct varieties of the intellectual, and thirty-five of the physical races. Jacquinot^ divides mankind into three species of a genus homo — viz., Caucasian^ Mongol, and Negro. The Caucasian, says Jacquinot, is the only species in which white races with rosy cheeks are found; but it embraces besides sundiy brunette, brown, and black races — not regarding color as a satisfac- tory test of race. The principal races which he includes under the Caucasian head are, the Germanic, Celtic, Semitic, and Hindoo. The latter difi'er much in color, some being black, and others fair, com- prising all intermediate shades, and are probably a mixture of differ- ent primitive stocks. The Mongol species embraces the Mongol, Sinic, Malay, Polynesian, and American. The Negro species comprehends the Ethiopian, Hottentot, Oceanic- Negro, and Australian. The Ethiopian race comprises those Negroes inhabiting the greater part of Africa, having black skins, woolly heads, &c. ; Hottentots and Bushmen exhibiting light-brown com- plexions. This classification of M. Jacquinot is supported by much ingenuity. In many respects it is superior to others ; and inasmuch as some classification, however defective, seems to be indispensable, his may be received, as simple and the least objectionable. Like all his pre- decessors, however, who have w^ritten on anthropology, he seems not to be versed in the monumental literature of Egypt ; and, therefore, he classes together races which (although somewhat similar in tjqje), having presented distinct physical characteristics for several thousand years, cannot be regarded as of one and the same species, any more than his Caucasians and Negroes. Though many other classifications might be added, the above suffice to testify how arbitrary all classifications inevitably must be ; because no reason has yet been assigned why, if two original pairs of human beings be admitted, we sliould not accept an indefinite number ; and, if we are to view mankind as governed 1)y the same laws that regulate the rest of the animal kingdom, this conclusion IS the most natural, no less than a[>parently most in accordance with the general plan of the Creator. We have shown that sundry groiipn of human beings, presenting general resemblances in physical char 84 GENERAL REMARKS acterS; are found in certain zoological provinces where ever}i;hing conveys the idea of distinct centres of creation ; and lience, we may conclude that mankind only constitutes a link in l^^Tature's great chain. But many of our readers will doubtless be startled at being told that Ethnology was no new science even before the time of Moses. It is clear, and positive, that at that early day (fourteen or fifteen centuries b. c), the Egyptians not only recognized, and faithfully represented on their monuments, many distinct races, but that they possessed their own ethnographic systems, and already had classified humanity, as known to them, accordingly. They divided mankind m\o four species: viz., the Red, Black, White, and Yellow; and, what is note-worthy, the same perplexing diversity existed in each of their quadripartite divisions which still pervades our modern classifica- tions. Our divisions, such as the Caucasian, Mongol, Negro, &c., each include many sub-t}^es ; and if different painters of the present day were called upon to select a pictorial t}q)e to represent a man of these arbitrary divisions, they would doubtless select difi^erent human heads. Thus with the Egyptians : although the Red, or Egyptian, type was represented with considerable uniformity, the Wliite, Yellow, and Black, are often depicted, in their hierogl}^3hed drawings, with different physiognomies ; thus proving, that the same endless variety of races existed at that ancient day that we observe ia the same localities at the present hour. So far from there being a stronger similarity among the most ancient races, the dissimilarity actually augments as we ascend the stream of time ; and this is naturally explained by the obvious feet that existing remains of primitive types are becoming more and more amalgamated ever^^ day. There are several similar tableaux on the monuments; but we shall select the celebrated scene from the tomb of Seti-Menephtha I. [generally called "Belzoni's Tomb," at Thebes], of the XlXth dynasty, about the year 1500 b. c, wherein the god Horus conducts sixteen personages, each/owr of whom represent a distinct iy^Q of the human race as known to the Egyptians ; and it will be seen that Egyptian ethnographers, like the writers of the Old and I^ew Testa- ments, have described and classified solely those races dwelling within t?ie geographical limits known to them. We cannot now say exactly how far the maximum geographical boundaries of the ancient Egyp- tians extended; for their language, the names of places and names of races in Asia and Africa, have so changed with time that a margii» ^niust be left to conjecture ; although much of our knowledge w positive, because the minimum extent of antique Egyptian geography 18 determined. ON TYPES OF MANKIND. 85 Fig. 1. The ancient Egyptian division of mankind into four species — fifteenth century b. c. A B c r> The above figures, which may be seen, in plates on a folio scale, in the great works of Belzoni, Champollion, Rosellini, Lepsius, and others, are copied, with corrections, from the smaller work of Cham- pollion-Figeac.^ The}^ display the Rot., the Namu., the Nahsu, and the Tamhu^ as the hieroglyphical inscription terms them ; and al- though the effigies we present are small, they portray a specimen of each type with sufiicient accuracy to show that four races were very distinct 3300 yeare ago. We have here, positively, a scientific qiiad- ripartite division of mankind into Red, Yellow, Black, and White., antedating Moses ; whereas, in the Xth chapter of Genesis, the sATn- bolical division of "Shem, Ham, and Japhet," is only tripartite — the Black being entirely omitted, as proved in Part II. of this volume. The appellative ^^ Rot" applies exclusively to one race, viz., the Egyptian; but the other designations may be somewhat generic, each covering certain groups of races, as do our terms Caucasian, Mongol, &c. ; also including a considerable variety of types bearing general resemblance to one another in each group, through shades of color, features, and other peculiarities, to be discussed hereafter.^ EXPLANATION OF FIG. 1. A — This figure, together with his three fac-simile associates, extnnt on the oripinul painted relievo, is, then, typical of the E(jj/ptians ; who are called in the hieroglyphics " Rot" or Race ; meaning the Human race, par excellence. Like all other Eastern nations of antiquity — like the Jews, Hindoos, Chinese, and others — the Egyptians regarded themselves alone as the chosen people of God, and contemptuously looked down upon other races, reputing such to be Gentiles or outside-barharians. The above representation of the Egyptian type is interesting, inasmuch as it is the work of an Egyptian artist, and must therefore be regarded as the Egyptian ideal representation of their own type. Our con 86 GENERAL REMARKS elusion is much strengthened by the fact, that the same head is often repeated on different monuments. This and the other portraits of the Egyptian type to which we allude, were figured during the XVIIIth dynasty of Rosellini ; and possess, to Ethnologists, peculiar interest, from the fact of their vivid similitude to the o/rf Egyptian type, (subsequently resus- citated by Lepsius), on the earlier monuments of the IVth, Vth, and Vlth dynasties ; at the same time that these particular efiBgies offer a marked dissimilarity to the Asiatico-Egyptian type, which becomes common on the later monuments of the XVIIth and subsequent dynasties ; that is, from 1500 b. c. downwards. B — This portrait is the representative of that Asiatic group of races, by ethnograpliers termed the Semitic. The hieroglyphic legend over his head reads ^'Namu ;" which, toge- ther with "Aamu," was the generic term for yelloio-skmn^A races, lying, in that day, between the Isthmus of Suez and Tauric Assyria, Arabia and Chaldsea inclusive. C — Negro races are typified in this class, and they are designated, in the hieroglyphics, ^^Nahsu." The portrait, in colour and outline, displays, like hundreds of other Egyptian drawings, how well marked was the Negro type several generations anterior to Moses. We possess no actual portraits of Negroes, pictorially extant, earlier than the seventeenth cen- tury before Christ ; but there is abundant proof of the existence of Negro races in the Xllth dynasty, 2300 years prior to our era. Lepsius tells us that African languages ante- date even the epoch of Menes, b. c, 3893; and we may hence conclude that they were then spoken by Negroes, whose organic idioms bear no affinity to Asiatic tongues. D — The fourth division of the human family is designated, in the hieroglyphics, by the name ''■Tamhn ;" which is likewise a generic term for those races of men by us now called Jcipethic, including all the wAi7«-skinned families of Asia Minor, the Caucasian mountains, and " Scythia" generally. But we shall return to this Egyptian classification in another chapter. Our object, here, is simply to establish that the ancient Egyptians had attempted a systematic anthropology at least 3500 years ago, and that their ethnographers were puzzled with the same diversity of types then, that, after this lapse of time, we encounter in the same localities now. They of course classified solely the races of men within the circumference of their own knowledge, which comprehended necessarily but a small portion of the earth's surface. Of their contemporaries in China, Australia, Northern and Western Asia, Europe, and America, the Pharaonic Egyptians knew nothing ; because all of the latter types of men became known even to Europe only since the Christian era, most of them since 1400 A. D. We have asserted, that all classifications of the races of men here- tofore proposed are entirely arbitrary ; and that, unfortunately, no data yet exist by which these arrangements can be materially im- proved. It is proper that we should submit our reasons for this assertion. The field we here enter upon is so wide as to embrace the whole physical history of mankind ; but, neither our limits nor plan permitting such a comprehensive range, we shall illustrate our views by an examination of one or two groups of races ; premising the remark that, whatever may be true of one human division — call it Caucasian, Mongol, Negro, Indian, or other name — applies with equal force to all divisions. K we endeavor to treat of mankind zoologically, ON TYPES OF MANKIND. 87 we can but follow IsL Agassiz, and map them otF into those great groups of proximate races appertaining to the zoological provinces into which the earth is naturally divided. "We might thus make some approach towards a classification upon scientific principles : but all attempts beyond this must be wholly arbitrary. ^''Unity of races" seems to be an idea introduced in comparatively modern times, and never to have been conceived by any primitive nation, such as Egypt or China. N^cither does the idea appear to have occurred to the author of Genesis. Indeed, no importance could, ii. Mosaic days, attach to it, inasmuch as the early Hebrews have left no evidences of their belief in a future state, which is never declared in the Pentateuch.^ This dogma of " unity," if not borrowed from the Babylonians during the captivity- of the Israelites, or from vague rumors of Budhistic sua\aty in the sixth century b. c, may be an outgTO-\vth of the charitable doctrine of the "Essenes ;"^'' just as the present Socialist idea of the " soUdarite of humanity" is a conception borrowed from St. Paul. The authors have now candidly stated their joint views, and Tsall proceed to substantiate the facts, upon which these deductions are based, in subsequent chapters ; unbiassed, they trust, by precon- ceived h}^otheses, as well as indifierent to other than scientific conclusions. With such slight modifications as the progress of knowledge — especially in hieroglyphical, cuneiform, and Ilebraical discovery — may have superinduced since the publication of his Crania JEgyptiaca, in 1844, they adopt the matured opinions of their lamented friend, Dr. Samuel George Morton, as, above all others, the most authorita- tive. In the course of this work, abundant extracts from Morton's writings render unmistakeable the anthropological results to which he had himself attained ; but the authors refer the reader particu- larly to Chapter XI. of the present volume, containing " Morton's Inedited manuscripts," for the philosophical and testamentary deci- wons of the Founder of the American School of Ethnology. 88 SPECIFIC TYPES CAUCASIAN, CHAPTER III. SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. What is meant by the word " Caucasian ? " Almost every Etliiio- logist would give a different reply. Commonly, it has been received, since its adoption by Blumenbach, as a sort of generic term which includes many varieties of races. By some writers, all these varieties are reputed to be the descendants of one species ; and the manifest diversity of types is explained by them through the operation of physical causes. By others, the designations Caucasian, Mongol, Negro, kc, are employed simply for the convenience of grouping certain human varieties which more or less resemble each other, without paying due, if any regard, to specific characters. Under the head Caucasian are generally associated the Egyptians, the Berbers, the Arabs, the Jews, the Pelasgians, the Hindoos, the Iberians, the Teutons, the Celts, the • Sclavonians : in short, all the so-called Semitic and Indo-Germanic races are thrown together into the same group, and hence become arbitrarily referred to a common origin. l!^ow, such a sweeping classification as this might have been main- tained, with some degree of plausibility, a few years ago ; when it was gravely asseverated that cHmate could transform one t}^e into an- other: but inasmuch as this argument, apart from new rebutting data, revealed through the decyphering of the monuments of Egypt and of Assyria, is now abandoned by every well-educated naturalist, (and, we may add, enlightened theologian,) it is difficult to conceive how it can any longer be accepted with favor. We know of no archaeologist of respectable authority, at the present day, who will aver that the races now found throughout the valley of the Nile, and scattered over a considerable portion of Asia, were not as distinctly and broadly contrasted at least 3500 years ago as at this moment. The Egyptians, Canaanites, Nubians, Tartars, Negroes, Arabs, and other types, aie as faithfully delineated on the monuments of the XVHth and XVIIIth Dynasties, as if the paintings had been executed by an artist of our present age. Some of these races, owing to the recent researches of Lcpsius, have even been carried backwards to the IVth Dynasty ; which he places about 3400 years before Christ. It becomes obvious, conse- quently, that all the countries known to Egyptians in those remote SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 89 ages presented types wliicli were as essentially different then as tliey now exhibit. It is equally certain, that the Pharaonic Egyptians repudiated all idea of affinity to these eoetaneous races ; and it would seem to follow, as a corollary, that the other parts of the world were contem- poraneously occupied by many aboriginal species. Ancient histoiy nowhere acquaints us with habitable countries known to be uninha- bited, and the earliest discoverers always found new types in distant lauds. Hence, nothing short of a miracle could have evolved all the multifarious Caucasian forms out of one primitive stock; because the Canaanites, the Arabs, the Tartars and Egyptians, were absolutely as distinct from each other in primeval times as they are now; just as they all were then from co-existent Negroes. Such a miracle, indeed, has been invented and dogmatically defended ; but it is a bare postulate, unsupported by the Hebrew Bible, and positively refuted by scientific facts. The Jewish chronology, (fabricated, as we shall render appa- rent, after the Christian era,) for the human family, since the Deluge, carries us back, according to Usher's computation, only to the year 2348 B. c. ; or, at farthest, according to the Septuagint version (wdiose history we shall see is somewhat apocryphal), to 3246 b. c. ; but the monuments of Egypt remove ever}' shadow of doubt, by establishing that not merely races but nations existed prior to either of those imaginary dates. If then the teachings of science be true, there must have been many centres of creation, even for Caucasian races, instead of one centre for all the types of humanity. The multiform races of Europe, wdth trifling exceptions, have been classed under the Caucasian head ; and it has been assumed for ages, that each of these races must have been derived from Asia. It is strange, moreover, that naturalists should have spent their time in studying remote, barbarous and obscure tribes, while they have passed in silence over the historical races, lying close at hand : nevertheless, we think this branch of our subject may be readily elucidated by analyzing those tjq^es of mankind which surround us. It is to M. Thierry and M. Edwards, the one honorably known as an historian and the other as a naturalist, that we are indebted for the first philosophical attempt to break in upon this settled routine. They have penetrated directly into the heart of Europe, and by a masterly examination of the histoiy and physical characteristics of long-known races, have endeavored to trace them back to their several primitive sources. Ancient Gaul is the chosen field of their investigations; and, although we admit tJiat, from the very nature of the case, it is impos- sible at this late day to arrive at definite results, yet their facts are so fairly posited, and their deductions so interesting, as to command 12 90 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. attention ; no less tlian to induce the belief that their plan, if persevered in, may lend most efficient aid in classifying the races of men. They have at least shown, conclusively, that very opposite types have dwelt together in Europe for more than two thousand years ; that time and identical physical causes have not yet obliterated or blended them ; and that, while nations may become expunged, there is every reason to believe that primitive diversities are rarely, if ever, wholly effaced. Inasmuch as the labors of these gentlemen stand unparalleled, and possess very important bearings upon certain opinions long held by ourselves, and w^hich we are about to develop, no apology need be offered for the follow^ing extended resume of their combined labors. C^SAR begins his commentaries with — "All Gaul is divided into three parts, of which one is inhabited by the Belgians, another by the Aquitanians, and the third by those who, in their own language, call themselves Celts, and who in our tongue are called Galls (Galli). These people differ among them- selves by their language, their manners and their laws." 31 To these three divisions, taken in mass, he applies the collective denomination of Galli, corresponding to the French term Gaulois. Strabo confirms this account, and adds that the Aquitanians differ from the Celts, or Galli, and from the Belgians, not only in language and institutions, but also in conformation of body ; and that they resemble much more the Iberians; while he regards the Celts and the Belgians as of the same national type, although speaking different dialects. There are, however, valid reasons for doubting the latter opinion. From their physical character and language, Strabo considers the Aquitanians, as well as the Ligurians, who occupied a part of the coast of France, to be a branch of the Iberians,^^ the ancient people of Spain. These Iberes, or "people beyond,'" seem to have been trans- planted, from time immemorial, on the soil of France, and are still beheld, distinct from all other men, in the modern Basques. In consequence of their position on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Ligurians became known to ancient navigators before the other populations of Gaul. Greek historians and geographers speak of them in very early times. They figure among the barbarous allies of the Carthaginians, as far back as 480 b. c. Thierry adopts, enforcing by many proofs, the opinion that the Aquitanians and Ligurians were both of the Iberian stock, and also that they were alien to the Gallic family, properly speaking.^^ These races disposed of, Thierry says that the Celts, or Galli, and the Belgians remain to be examined; and he views them as two branches of the same ethnic trunk : — "Two fractions of the same family, isolated during many ages, developed separately, and become, by means of their long separation, distinct races. The Galls, or Celts, were SPECIFIC TYPES CAUCASIAN. 91 the most ancient inhabitints of the country, and it is from them that it derives its name : and an idea of their antiquity may be obtained from the statement that ' the Celts subju- gated Spain in the sixteenth century b. c. The Galls made a descent on Italy, under the name of Ombrce, about two centuries after ; and the Roman antiquaries designate these ancestors of the Ombrians by the name of Old Galls.' ... In short, we should consume much time, were we to cite all the authorities at command, to prove that the Galls were the most ancient population. On the contrary, the word Belgians is comparatively modern: it is found, for the first time, in Cjesak ; and they are recognized under the name of Cim- hriaiis, in 113 B. c." It seems tolerably well established, that the Belgians invaded Gaul on their first advent from the North, and that the Celts were driven before them. The Belgians settled in the north of Gaul and in Italy, where they were not only located by ancient historians, but where, according to Thierry and EdAvards, they are still resident. The Celts, routed, and impelled to the South and East, took refuge in mountains, peninsulas, and islands — historical facts also elucidated by De Brotonne.^* M. Thieriy has shown tliat the Armoricans and the Belgians are an identical people, and that the Welsh of Great Britain are also derived from the same stock. Priehard, it is true, does not concur in this opinion ; but Thierry, so far as we can perceive, is thoroughly sustained in his views by French, German, and other continental writers. He places the entrance into Gaul of the conquering Bel- gians between the years 349 and 290 b. c. The Armoricans apper- tained to the same stock, but their estabhshment in Gaul was still more ancient. The Celts, or G-alls proper, according to M. Thierry as well as to ancient historians, were already inhabitants of Gaul about 1500 b. c, or previously to the time of Moses. They then existed as a nation, warring with other races around them ; nor can a conjecture be formed as to the number of centuries, anterior to this date, during which they had occupied that territoiy. The Pre-Celtic researches of "Wilson,^^ among the peat-hogs of the British Isles, have carried the existence of man in England and Scotland back to ages immensely remote ; at the same time that those of Boucher de Perthes, amid the alluvial stratifications of the river Somme,^ indicate a still more ancient epoch for the cinerary urns, bones, and instruments, of a primordial people in France ; who, if geological observations be correct, are yet posterior to the silex- e\"idences of human entity on the same spots before the " dihivial drift." These facts correspond with the exhumations of Retzius, in Scandinavia,^ and the human vestiges discovered in European caves.^ But, leaA-ing such points to another section (ably handled by our colleague. Dr. Usher,) it remains now for us to ask, who were the Belgcctn% ? M Thierry shows, from an elaborate historical investiga- 92 SPECIFIC TYPES CAUCASIAN. tion, that the Cimbri, who played so important a part in the history of earty Europe, were of the same race as the Belgians ; and that old writers, coeval with the time of Alexander, or fourth century b. c, place this race on the Northern Ocean, in Jutland. Between the years 113 and 101 b. c, the Cimhri were set in motion, and eventually devastated Gaul, Spain, and Italy. It is a striking fact, that, in this invasion, when they reached Northern Gaul, where the Belgians were already seated, the latter immediately joined them, as allies, against the Celts ; and it seems to he clearly proven that the Cimhri and the Belgians spoke dialects of the same language. This Cimmerian race was diffusely scattered through the north of Europe, and even into Asia Minor, at an early period. " Down to the seventh century before our era, the history of the Cimbri near the Euxine remains enveloped in the fabulous obscurity of Ionian traditions ; it does not commence with any certainty before the year 631 b. c. This epoch was fruitful in disturbances in the ■west of Asia and east of Europe." Ahout this time, it is to he inferred fi^om Herodotus, the Genesiacal GoMEi, Cromerians, or Kymri, abandoned the Tauric Chersonesus, and marched westward.^^ "We pretend not to afford a complete analysis of M. Thierry's able work. He has tracked out, with vast research, the settlements and subsequent history of the various Caucasian races of ancient Gaul ; and to him we refer the reader for corroboration of the facts we are succinctly sketching. The resume at the end of his Introduction explains his general conclusions. He considers the following points to be unanimously demonstrated by authorities : — "Two great human families furnished to Gaul its ancient inhabitants: viz., the Iberian and the Gallic [Gauloises) families. The Aquitanians and Ligurians appertained to the Iberian family. The Gallic family occupied, out of Gaul, the British Isles. It was divided into two branches or races, presenting, under a common type, essential differences of lan- guage, manners, and institutions, and forming two individualities widely separated." M. Thierry, notwithstanding, asserts that the Cimbri and Celts were branches of the same family ; but this we doubt. They were both fair, and strikingly contrasted with the dark-skinned, black- haired, and black-eyed Iberians : M. Edwards, however, proves that their physical characters were exceedingly different. No proof can be adduced of their common origin, beyond some afhnity between their languages : arguments that we shall show to be no longer satis- factory evidence of aboriginal consanguinity. " The first branch had preceded, in Gaul and the neighboring Archipelago, the dawn of history. The ancients considered them as autochthones. From Gaul they extended to Spain, Italy, and Illyria. Their generic name was Gael, or rather a word which the Romans rendered by Galliis, and the Greeks by Galas and Galatcs. The latter had improperly attri- buted to the whole stem the denomination of Celt, which properly belonged only to it« southern tribes. The second branch, colonized in the west of Europe since historic times, SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 93 was represented in Gaul by the Armoricans and Belgians, and by their descendants in tho British Isles. Armorican was a local designation ; Belgian, the name of a belligerent con- federation ; Cimbri, the name of a race. The relative position of the two Gallic branches was as follows: the Cimbrian branch occupied the north and west of Gaul — the east and south of Britain ; the Celtic branch, on the contrary, the east and south of Gaul, and the west and north of the British Isles." It becomes apparent, tlien, from the facts detailed, and whicli no historian will question, that the territory of ancient Gaul was occupied, some 1500 years b. c, by at least tivo distinctly-marked Caucasian races — the Celts and the Iberians : the one fair-skinned and light- haired ; the other a dark race ; and each speaking a language bearing no affinity to that of the other — precisely, for instance, as theEuskal- dune of the present Basques is unintelligible to Gaelic tribes of Lower Brittany. But history justifies us in going beyond this dual division. Each type was doubtless a generic one, including many subordinate types. There are no data to warrant the conclusion that either of these stocks was an ethnic unit. It will be made to appear, when we come to the monuments of Egypt, that various Caucasian types existed in Egypt and Asia 2000 years before the most ancient Celtic history begins ; and the same diversity of races, without question, prevailed simultaneously in Europe. Let us inquire whether some positive information cannot be obtained with regard to the types of primitive European races. The work of Edwards, to which we have already alluded,*" stands in many respects unrivalled. The high reputation of its author as a naturalist guaran- tees his scientific competency ; and he has directed his attention into an unexplored channel. After perusing Thierry's Histoire des Gaulois, of which we have just spoken, M. Edwards made a tour of France, Belgium and Switzerland (i. e. ancient Gaul), and Italy, engaged in care- ful study of the present diversified races, in connection with their ancient settlements ; and he asserts that now, at the end of 2000 years, the types of the Belgians (Cimbri), the Galls or Celts, the Iberians or Aquitanians, and the Ligurians, are still distinctly traceable among their living descendants, in the veiy localities where history at its earliest dawn descries these families. Gaul has been the receptacle of other races than those named, but these were comparatively small in popular multitude ; and although a great variety of types is now visible, yet M. Edwards contends that such exotic constituents of later times form but trivial exceptions, and that three major types stand out in bold relief. Edwards upholds sundry physiological laws to account for this pre- servation of tj'pes ; and a few shall be noticed incidentally, as we go on. He lays down a fundamental proposition, the importance of which wiU be at once recognized : — 94 SPECIFIC TYPES CAUCASIAN. "Where there is no natural repugnance to each other, and races meet and mix on equal terms, the relative number of the two races influences greatly the result: the type of the lesser number may disappear entirely. Take, for example, a thousand white families and one hundred black ones, and place them together on an island. The result would be, that the black type would after a while disappear, although there is reason to believe that traces of it would ' crop out' occasionally during a very long time. Where two fair-skinned races are brought into contact, the extermination of one would probably sooner be eflFected ; nevertheless, even here, it is impossible to destroy the germ entirely. The Jews form a, convincing illustration of the influence of the larger over the smaller number. This, from the time of Abraham to the present, has been a more or less adulterated race ; yet its type has been predominant, is preserved, and is likely to be for ages to come. Such a law is well illustrated in the lower animals. Cross two domestic animals of difi'erent races ; take the offspring, and cross it with one of the parent stocks ; continue- this process for a few generations, and the one becomes swallowed up in the other. " Even where two races meet in equal numbers, which is an extreme supposition, in order to make a uniform type they would have to pair off uniformly, one race with another, and not each race to intermarry among themselves. This equilibrium could not be maintained ; and without it, each race would preserve its own type. " There is another tendency in nature, that interests us here particularly, and which has been curiously and ingeniously illustrated by M. Coladon, of Geneva. He bred a great many tchite and ffrat/ mice, on which he made experiments by crossing constantly a white with a gray one. The product invariably was a white or a gray mouse, with the characters of the pure race : ' point de metis, point de begarrure, rien d'interm^diere, enfin le type parfait de I'une ou de I'autre vari^t4. Ce cas est extreme, a la verity ; mais le precedent ne Test point moins ; ainsi les deux proced^s sont dans la nature : aucun ne regne exclu- sivement.' "*i The habit of reflecting on tlie i-elations in which primitive races are found, induces us to consider tlie following as the conditions which may make one or the other of these eftects preponderate. Where races diifer considerably, which animals do whenever they are of different species, (like, for example, the horse and the ass, the dog and the wolf or fox,) their product is constantly hybrid. If, on the other hand, they are very proximate, [tres voisines, says M. Edwards,) they may not give birth to mixtures [melanges),, but repro- duce pure or primitive types. On examining facts closely, the greatest conformity is encountered precisely where w^e perceive, at first glance, the strongest contrast. In the crossing of widely differerit races, the hybrid presents a type diverse from that of the mother; notwithstanding certain conformities. So also when two proximate races reproduce the one and the otherprimi- tive type, the mother gives l)irth to a being which differs from herself. Behold here an uniformity of facts; l)ut remark likewise, that in this last crossing, the mother produces a being more like herself than in the former case. She departs then less from the general tendency of nature, which is the propagation of the same types. •' In the higher order of animals, the two sexes concur in the formation of two indivi- iluals which represent tliem ; thus the mother gives birth sometimes to one made in her own image — at others to one after the image of the father. Here she produces two very distinct SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 95 types, notwithstanding tlieir relations, and to such a point that the male and female of the same species often differ more between themselves, than one or the other ditfers from indi- viduals of the same sex, in proximate species. This is so true, that the male and its female, among animals whose habits there has been no opportunity of examining, have frequently been classified as distinct species ; insects and birds especially have furnished numerous examples. " It is manifest that the observations of M. Coladon belong to this order of facts, consi- dered in their general bearing; as the mother produces two types, of which one repre- sents that of her own race, and the other the physical characters of the race of the father. Other examples of the same kind miglit be presented, but this is sufficiently striking. " The most important consideration is, that the same phenomena are seen in the human races, and, further, in the same conditions indicated. Those human races which diifer most produce constantly hybrids {melts). It is thus that a mulatto always results from the mixture of white and black races. The other fact, of the reproduction of two primitive types, when the parents are of two proximate (voisines) varieties, is less notorious, but is not, on that account, the less true. The fact is common among European nations. We have had frequent occasions to notice it. The phenomenon is not constant — but what of that? Crossing sometimes produces fusion, sometimes the separation of types; whence we arrive at this fundamental conclusion : that people appertaining to varieties of different, but proximate races, in vain unite, in the hypothetical manner we have described above ; a portion of the new generations will preserve the primitive types." These facts are no less true than curious; and every American, especially, has the means at hand for verifying them. "When a white man and a negress marry, the product is a mulatto or intermediate type. When a white man and white woman marry, the one having dark hair, eyes and complexion, with one cast of features, and the other light hair and eyes, and fair complexion, with different features, some of the children will generally resemble one parent, some the other ; while others may present a mixed type, being a reproduction of the likeness of an ancestor (generally forgotten) of either parent. Every race, at the present time, is more or less mixed. A nation, that is, a numerous population, may be dispossessed of, and displaced from, a large extent of its territory ; but this is extremely rare — savages alone furnishing almost all such examples. In America, witness the Indians driven before the whites, without leaving a trace behind them. There is a fixed incompatibility between civilized and savage man : they cannot dwell together. On the Old Continent, it is not now a question of savages ; science has there to deal at most with barbarians ; that is, people possessing the commencements of civili- zation. Otherwise, it would be neither the interest of collquero^^s to drive them all oif, nor is it their inclination to abandon their nati\e soil; of which history aftbrds abundant proof Mythology, fable, and Utopian philanthropy, have traced imaginary pictures ; but history nowhere shows us a people who, first discovered in the savage state, afterwards invented a civilization, or learned the arts of tlieir dis- coverers. The monuments of Egypt prove, that Negro races have not, during 4000 years at least, been able to make one solitary styp, m 96 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. Wegro-land, from their savage state ; the modern experience of the United States and the West Indies confirms the teachings of monu- ments and of history; and our remarks on Crania, hereinafter, seem to render fugacious all probability of a brighter future for these organically-inferior types, however sad the thought may be. There is abundant evidence to show that the principal physical characters of a people may be preserved throughout a long series of ages, in a great part of the population, despite of climate, mixture of races, invasion of foreigners, progress of civilization, or other known influences ; and that a type can long outlive its language, history, reli- gion, customs, and recollections. The accession of new people multi- plies races, but it does not confound them : their numbers are in- creased by those which the intruders introduce, and also by those which they create by commingling ; but all these incidents, neverthe- less, still leave the old type in existence. In tracing, at this late day, ancient types of men, we shall, of ne- cessity, meet chiefly with those of great and powerful nations, that have been able to maintain themselves more or less inviolate, through a thousand difliculties, by their force or knowledge. Small and feeble fractions of humanity have generally been swallowed up and oblite- rated, like the Guanches of the Canary Isles. The world now advances in civilization more rapidly than in former times, and mainly for the substantial reason that the higher types of mankind have so increased in power that they can no longer be molested by the inferior ; nor, arguing ti'om the past and present, can we doubt that a time must come, when the very memory of the latter will survive solely on the page of history. The days of the aborigines of America are num- bered ; no victorious Tartar-hordes will ever set foot again on Euro- pean soil; and the white races, or lapetidse, have commenced the career of Oriental conquest, and already "dwell in the tents of Shem." Examinations of Eoman history throw important light on this subject. The Empire was crushed by successive hordes of barbarians ; but still their numbers, compared to the population of Italy, have been much overrated. The human waves of Visigoths, Vandals, Huns, Ilerules, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Normans, rolled successively into Italy ; and yet, it may be asked, what vestiges remain, in Italy itself, of these barbarian surges ? The first three passed over it like tornados. The two next, within a short time, had to contend with the Goths, and were exj)elled from the country; and of the whole coc- glomeratc mass but small fragments were left, too insignificant mate- I'ially to influence the native Italic types. The Lombards, on tho contrary, remained, and have implanted their name on a portion of Italy. The Normans were numerically but a handful. Gaul changed SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 97 its government and name under the Franks ; however, the army ot Clovis was small ; while William the Conqueror subjugated England with 60,000 men: but, as if to illustrate our axioms of the indelibility of type and the vigor of the white race, not a head in Christendom that, legitimately, wears a crown — not an individual breathes in whose veins flows blood acknowledged to be "royal," but traces his or her genealogy to this ITorman colossus, "William the Conqueror ! *^ 8ueh are some of the great conquests of European antiquity that have considerably aflfected the condition of men and things, but which, notwithstanding, have not produced much alteration in the type of the conquered people. Some mixture of types is still seen — here and there the alien races "crop out," but the indigenous thou- sands have swallowed up the exotic hundreds. Conquests are often merely political, resulting in territorial annexa- tion or in tributary accessions, where little or no mingling of races takes place. Other examples there are, where the conquerors continue to pour into a country from time to time, and thereby greatly influence native types. It is thus that the Saxons, taking possession of Eng- land, have perpetuated their race : but it is ever the higher type that in the end predominates. " The ignorant Turk, you say, subjected without diflSciilty the intellectual and lettered Greeks ; the ferocious Tartar handcuffed the polished and learned Chinese ; the violent Mongol bent under his scimetar the head of the studious Brahman ; the Vandal, finally, ravaged Rome and Italy, then the centre of European civilization. Take care not to accuse the sciences of a humiliation entirely due to despotism, which alone degrades and debases human hearts. Certainly, no one exposes his life to defend a government he abhors and despises. * * * Perhaps a new vanquisher may be more generous; he cannot, at any rate, display himself more atrocious and more cruel than those monsters, in their infamies." *3 Creative laws, as we have said, work by myriads of ages. Six cen- turies have not elapsed since Turks, Tartars, and Mongols, appeared in Europe. The Vandal had already disappeared. At every point of the European continent, the remnants of these Central-Asiatic; swarms are melting away before the higher Caucasian types, wher- ever complete subserviency to the latter does not suspend the extermina- tion of the former. Were it not that politics are eschewed in the present volume, events of the past five years might supply signal examples. In characterizing tt/pes, M. Edwards justly regards form and size of the head, and the traits of the face, as most important : all other criteria are delusive and changeable ; such as hair, complexion, stature, &c., though not to be neglected. Even these are less mutable, we think, than M. Edwards supposes. There are many examples of complexion and hair resisting climates for centuries, wifnout the slightest alteration ; and, in fact, we know of no authentic instance where a radical change of complexion or hair has been produced.** 1-3 98 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. We liave mentioned tiiat, in order to put the question to a piactical test, M. Edwards made a journey tlirougli France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland. In passing through Florence, he took occasion to visit the Ducal gallery, to study the ancient Roman type. He selected, in preference, the busts of the early Roman emperors, because they were descendants of ancient families. They, too, are so alike, and withal so remarkable, that they cannot be mistaken. Augustus, Tiberius, Germanicus, Claudius, Nero, Titus, &c., exemplify this type in Florentine collections. The following is his description : — " The vertical diameter of the head is short, and, consequently, the face broad. As the summit of the cranium is flattened, and the inferior margin of the jaw-bone almost hori- zontal, the contour of the head, viewed in front, approaches a square. The lateral parts, above the ears, are protuberant ; the forehead low ; the nose truly aquiline, that is to say, the curve commences near the top and ends before it reaches the point, so that the base is horizontal; the chin is round, and the stature short." [A sailor came to my office, a few months ago, to have a dislocated arm set. When stripped and standing before me, he pre- sented this type so perfectly, and combined with such extraordinary development of bone and muscle, that there occurred to my mind at once the beau-ideal of a Roman soldier. Though the man had been an American sailor for twenty years, and spoke English with- out foreign accent, I could not help asking where he was born. He replied in a deep strong voice, " In Rome, sir! " — J. C. N.] This is the characteristic type of a Roman ; but we cannot expect now to meet with absolute uniformity in any race, however seemingly pure. Such a type M. Edwards found to predominate in Rome and certain parts of Italy at the present day. It is the original type of the country, which has swallowed up all intruders, has remained unchanged for 2000 years, and probably existed there from the epoch of creation. The Etruscans present an extraordinary historical enigma. Science knows not whence they came, nor whence their institutions, arts, or language — whether, indeed, they were indigenous to the Italian soil, or strangers. "We can trace their civilization far be^^ond that of Rome — more than 1000 years b. c. Cita- tions from Etruscan archoeologists, to this effect, are given further on. Some of their descendants now resemble Romans, but they present a mixed type. The well-known head of Dante atlbrds an illustration, pecu- liar, and strikingly typical ; far it is long and narrow, with a high and developed fore- head, n ose long and curved, with sharp point and elevated wings. [Here is the portrait in question, to afibrd an idea of its style; which, however, recpiires to be studied upon designs of a larger scale.] M. Edwards waft Fio. 2. ;> iV ^^Wr- Dante.''5 SPECIFIC TYPES CAUCASIAN. 99 struck by the great frequency of this type in Tuscany (ancient Etru- ria), among the peasantry ; in the statues and busts of the Medici family; and also amid the ilhistrious men of the Republic of Flor- ence, in their efhgies and bas-reliefs. This type is well marked since the time of Dante, as doubtless long before. It extends to Venice, and is visible over a large extent of country. In the Ducal palace, M. Edwards had occasion to observe that it is common among the Doges. The t^v-pe became more predominant as he approached Milan; hence he traced it through a great part of France, and through the settlements of the ancient Cymbri or Belg?e, who, Thierry has shown, occupied Cis-Alpine and Trans-Alpine Gaul. The physical charac- teristics of the present population, therefore, correspond exactly with the historical colonies ; showing that the ancient tj-pe of tliis wide- spread people, the Cymhri, has been presei'ved for more than 2000 years. After visiting and analyzing thoroughly the population and history of Italy, M. Edwards next investigated Gaul, passing by the southern and western part, where Thierry places the Basques or ancient Ligu- rians. In the other parts of France, as we have seen, there existed, at a remote epoch, two great families, differing in language, habits and social state ; and these two formed the bulk of the ancient popula- tion. Examination ascertains tliat two dominant types even yet prevail throughout the kingdom, too saliently marked and distinct from each other to be confounded. There have been many conquests and com- minglings of races ; but inasmuch as the greater number has swal- lowed up the lesser, no very obvious impression has been produced by these causes. Of the two families, the Galls^ or Celts, and the Cymbri, or Belgse, the former should be the most numerous, because they are the most ancient, and had covered the whole country before the entrance of the latter: in consequence, we find that the tj^Q with round heads and straight noses, that of the Grails, has prevailed over that of the Cymbri. Oriental Gaul was occupied by the Galli proper of Csesar, whom Thierrj^ denominates '■'■Galls.'' JSTorthern Gaul, including the Belgica and Armorica of Caesar, on the other hand, was occupied by the Cymbri. The population of Eastern Gaul — the G-auls proper — according to the historical facts, ought to be the least mixed, because the Belgse never penetrated among them by force of arms, but took quiet possession of their outskirts, along the northern parts of the country. "In traversing the part of France which corresponds to Oriental Gaul, from north tr south, viz. : Burgundy, Lyons, Dauphiny, and Savoy, I have distinguished (says M. Ed wardsj that type, so well marked, to which we have given the name of Galls." 100 SPECIFIC TYPES CAUCASIAN. He thus describes the type of the G-all: "The head is so round as to approach the spherical form; the forehead is moderate, slightly protuberant, and receding towards the temples ; eyes large and open ; the nose, from the depression at its commencement to its termination, almost straight — that is to say, without any marked curve ; its extremity is rounded, as well as the chin ; the stature medium. It will be seen that the features are perfectly in harmony with the form of the head." In the northern part of Gaul, the principal seat of the Belgfe, you ag^ain encounter the same striking coincidence, " In a previous journey I traversed a great part of the coast of Gallia Belgica of Coesar, from the mouth of the Somme to that of the Seine. It was here that I distinguished, for the first time, the assemblage of traits which constitutes the other type, and often to such an exaggerated degree that I was very forcibly struck ; the long head, the broad, high fore- head ; the curved nose, with the point below and wings tucked up ; the chin boldly de- veloped; and the stature tall." M. Edwards has pursued this type in its various settlements, with numerous and valuable scientific results. He concludes a division of his subject with the following strong language : "Without the preceding discussions, and the facts we have just unravelled, how could we recognize the Gaulois in the north of Italy, among the Sicules, the Ligures, the Etrus- cans, the Veneles, the Romans, the Goths, the Lombards? But we possess the thread to guide us. First, whatever may have been the anterior state, it is certain, from your re- searches (M. Thierry's), and the unanimous accord of all historians, that the Peuples Gaulois have predominated in the north of Italy, between the Alps and Apennines. We find them established there in a permanent manner, according to the first lights of history. The most authentic testimony represents them with all the characters of a great nation, from this remote period down to a very advanced point of Roman history. Here is all I demand. I have no need to occupy myself with other people who have mingled with them since ; to discuss their relative numbers — the nature of their language — the duration of their estab- lishment. It is sufficient for me to know that the Gaulois have existed in great numbers. I know the features of their compatriots in Trans- Alpine Gaul. I find them again in Cis- Alpine Gaul." It has often struck us, that, even in the heterogeneous population of our United States, we could trace these European ancient races. The tall figure and aquiline nose of the Cymbrian are generally seen together ; while the traits of the Gaul are more frequently accompa- nied by short stature. The Celts and Cymbri have spread themselves extensively through Eastern Europe, beyond the limits of Gaul and Italy : but, for our olijects their ])ursuit1i>oing irrelevant, we resume the explorations of M. Edwards ; wlio, after his survey of Western, takes a glance at several other races of Eastern Europe, although he does not claim to have analyzed these with the same I'igorous detail as those of Gaul. The Sclavonic t^^pe, another of the thousand-and-one Caucasians whose types stretch beyond the reach of history, is thus described by our observant ethnologist ; and it seems to be just as distinct and 'iharply marked ovei' half of Europe, as that of the Jews everj'where: SPECIFIC TYPES CAUCASIAN. 10] «' The contour of the head, viewed in front, approaches nearly to a square ; the height surpasses a little the breadth ; the summit is sensibly flattened ; and the direction of the jaw is horizontal. The length of the nose is less than the distance from its base to the chin ; it is almost sti-aight from the depression at its root, that is to say, without decided curvation : but, if appreciable, it is slightly concave, so that the end has a tendency to turn up; the inferior part is rather large, and the extremity rounded. The eyes, rather deep- set, are perfectly on the same line ; and when they have any particular character, they are smaller than the proportion of the head would seem to indicate. The eyebrows are thin, and very near the eyes, particularly at the internal angle ; and from this point, are often directed obliquely outwards. The mouth, which is not salient, has thin lips, and is much nearer to the nose than to the top of the chin. Another singular characteristic may be added, and which is very general : viz., their small beard, except on the upper lip. Such is the common type among the Poles, Silesians, Moravians, Bohemians, Sclavonic Hunga- rians, and is very common among the Russians." This type is also fi^equent through eastern Germany, and although it has become much mixed with the German, their separate historical settlements may yet be followed, and the two races traced out and identified, like those of the Celts and Cymbri in Gaul. History, from its commencement, has mentioned immense Cauca- sian populations, ranging throughout northern and eastern Europe and western Asia, to the confines of Tartar and Mongol races. From their remoteness, and the absence of communication, little was known an- ciently about them ; and even at the present day, they are looked upon as " outside barbarians," exciting trivial interest among general readers. This group, however, at all times, has comprised the most numerous of all the fair-skinned races upon earth : intellectually equal to any others. To give the reader an idea of the actual extent of Sclavonic races, we subjoin statistics, as quoted by Count Ki-asinski, fi'om the Sclavonian Ethnography of Schafterick : — Russia. Austria. Prussia. Turkey. Cracow. Saxony. Total. Moscovites, or > Great Russians ^ 35,314,000 35,314,000 Little Russians, ^ Ruthenians ^ White Russians.... 10,370,000 2,726,000 2,774.000 13,144,000 2,726,000 Bulgarians 80,000 100,000 7,000 2,594,000 3,500,000 2,600,000 3,587,000 5,294,000 Servians and ( lUyrians \ '" Croats 4,912,000 801,000 1,151,000 2,341,000 4,370,000 1,982,000 44,000 130, boo 801 000' Carinthians Poles l,15r.0O0| 9,365.000 4,414.000 Bohemians and ) Moravians ^ Stovacks in / Hungary ^ ■" 2,753,000 2,753,0(10 Lusatians, or ) Wends ^ '" Total 82,000 6,100,000 60,000 142,000 53,502,000 16,791, 000j2, 108, 000 130,000 60,000 78,691,000 1 From the same North British Review we extract sufiicient to ill us 102 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. Irate our own views ; but nothing adequate to evince tlie ability of the best article we have met with on these Sldaves. " Much confusion has been produced by the constant iise in books of words denoting the supposed state of flux and restlessness in which the early nations of Europe lived. The natural impression, after reading such books, is, that masses of people were continually coming out of Asia into Europe, and driving others before them. . . . But care must be taken to confine these stories of wholesale colonization to their proper place in the ante- historic age. For all intents and purposes, it is best to conceive that at the dawn of the historic period the leading European races were arranged on the map pretty much as they are now. Regarding the Slavonians, at least, this has been established ; they are not, as has generally been supposed, a recent accession out of the depths of Asia, but are as much an aboriginal race of Eastern, as the Germans are of Central Europe. In short, had a Roman geographer of the days of the Empire advanced in a straight line from the Atlantic to the Pacific, he would have traversed the exact succession of races that is to be met in the same route now. First, he would have found the Celts occupying as far as the Rhine ; thence, eastward to the A^istula and the Carpathians, he would have found Germans; beyond them, and stretching away into Central Asia, he would have found the so-called Scythians — a race which, if he had possessed our information, he would have divided into the two great branches of the Slavonians or European Scythians, and the Tatars, Turks, or Asiatic Scythians ; and, finally, beyond these, he would have found Mongolian hordes overspreading Eastern Asia to the Pacific. These successive races or populations he would have found shading oif into each other at their points of junction ; he would have remarked also a general westward pressure of the whole mass, tending toward mutual rupture and invasion, the Mongolian pressing against the Tatars, the Tatars against the Sclavonians, the Slavonians against the Germans, and the Germans against the Celts. " The Slavonians, we have said, are an aboriginal European branch of the great Scythian race." 46 One of the most striking examples in history of preservation of type, after tlie Jews, is that of the Magyar race in Hungary. Com- pletely encircled by Sclavonians, they have been living there for 1000 years, speaking a distinct language, and still presenting physical characters so peculiar as to leave no doubt of their foreign origin. " Head nearly round, forehead little developed, low, and bending ; the eyes placed obliquely, so that the external angle is elevated ; the nose short and flat ; mouth prominent, and lips thick ; neck very strong, so that the back of the head appears flat, forming almost a straight line with the nape ; beard weak and scattering ; stature small." ■*■? This picture, which is a faithful description of a modern Hungarian of the Magyar race, corresponds with the accounts given of this people by older writers, and of the ancient Huns. History teaches that the Huns settled in Hungary in the fifth cen- tury after Christ, and to these succeeded a body of the Magyars, under Arpad, in the ninth. The type of the two races was identical. This type, so peculiarly exotic, is totally unlike any other in Europt.. It belongs to the great Uralian-Tatar stem of Asia. The derivation is conceded by every naturalist, from Pallas to the present day: but it is a curious fact that, although differing in type, the Magyars speak a dialect of the language of the Fins; and the two races must have been iL^sociated in some way at a remote epoch, previously to the settle- SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 103 ment of the ]\rac:yars in Iluno-arj, De Guignes had traced other connections, making' also the grand error of confounding the Huns with the Chinese Houng-nou : hut that identity of language is no irrefragahle argument in favor of identity of race, will be a positive result of the researches in this volume. Grecian annals afford an instructive lesson in the history of type* of mankind. "We trace her circumstantial history, with suffi^^ient truthfulness, some centuries beyond the foundation of Rome, and her traditions back to about the epoch of Moses. This we can do with enough certainty to know, that Hellenic Europe was then populated, and marching toward that mighty destiny which has been the wonder and object of imitation of all subsequent ages. Who were the people that achieved so much more than all others of antiquity ? And what was there in climate and other local circumstances that could produce such intelligence, coupled with the noblest physical type ? Or, we may ask, did Greece owe her marvellous superiority to an indigenous race ? The Hellenes and Pelasgi are the two races identified with her earliest ti^aditions ; but when we appeal to history for their origin, or seek for the part that each has played in the majestic drama of anti- quity, there is little more than conjecture to guide us. Greece did not come fairly within the scope of M. Edwards's researches, yet he has ventured a few note-worthy observations, in connection with the point before us. He thinks the same principles that governed his exami- nation of Gaul may be applied to Greece ; and that the Hellenes and Pelasgi might be followed, ethnologically, like the Celts and Cymbri. Everybody speaks of the G-reek tyi^e^ regarded as the special charac- teristic of that country, referring it to a beau-ideal conformation Nevertheless, all ancient monuments of art in Greece exhibit a wide diversity of types, and this at every period of their sculpture. M. Ed- wards draws a happy distinction between the heroic and the ImtoHo. age of Greece : the first, if chiefly fabulous, has doubtless a semi historical foundation; the latter is the true historic age — althougli no people of antiquity appears to have conceived the "historical idea" correctly; nor is it popularly understood, even at the present day, among ourselves. "Most of the divinities and personages of the heroic times," says M. Edwards, "are formed on the same model that constitutes what we term the beau-ideal. The forms and proportions of the head and features are so regular that we may describe them with mathe- matical precision. A perfectly oval contour, forehead and nose straight, without depres- sion between them, would suffice to distinguish this type. The harmony is such that the presence of these traits implies the others. But such is not the character of the person- ages of truly historic times. The philosophers, orators, warriors, an^i poets, almost all differ from it, and form a group apart. It cannot be confounded with the first — I will not attempt to describe it here. It is suflBcient to point it out, for one to recognize at once how far it is separated. It greatly resembles, on the contrary, the type which 's see-j in other countries of Europe, while the former is scarcely met with there." 104 SPECIFIC TYPES CAUCASIAN. To facilitate the reader's appreciation of the differences betwixt the heroic and the historic types, the following heads are selected : Fig. 3 — Heroic type; especially No. 4.^8 1 2 3 Fig. 4 — Historic type. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Philip ABKiDiEU8.52 CLEOrATEA.^^ SPECIFIC TYPES CAUCASIAN. 105 The lineaments of Lycurgus and Eratostlieues, excepting the beard, are sucli as those one meets with daily in our streets ; and the same applies to the other familiar personages whose portraits we present. " Were we to judge solely by the monuments of Greece, on account of the contrast I have pointed out, we should be tempted to regard the type of the fabulous or heroic per- sonages as ideal. But imagination more readily creates monsters than models of beauty ; and this principle alone will suffice to convince us that it has existed in Greece, and the countries where its population has spread, if it does not still exist there." The learned travellers, MM. de Stackelberg and de Bronsted, have journeyed through the Morea, and closely investigated the popu- lation. They assert that the heroic type is still extant in certain localities.^ Here, then, there has been a notable preservation of a peculiar type — within a small geographical space — through time, wars, famines, plagues, immigrations, multifarious foreign conquests ; although the Greeks of the liistoric type are, out of all proportion, the most abundant at the present day ; which is precisely what, under the circumstances, an ethnographer would have expected. ** Nul peuple n'a conserve avec plus de fidelite la langue de ses aieux. Nul peuple n'a conserve plus d'usages, plus de coutumes, plus de souvenirs des temps antiques ; au milieu d'eux ies murs d'Argos, de Mycene et de Tyrinthe, qui deja du temps d'Homfere 6taient d'une haute antiquity, sont encore debout : des Rapsodes parcourent encore le pays, et chantent avec le meme accent et Ies memes paroles, Ies ev^nements memorables : eux- memes sont I'image de ceux que ces souvenirs rappelent avec tant de force ; et la ressem- blance des traits est rehauss^e par la similitude des 6v^nements. S'ils ne repr^sentent pas sous le rapport de la civilisation leurs ancetres des beaux sifecles de la Grece, ils represen- teat ceux qui Ies ont am^n^s." Of the two types indicated, it is positive, M. Edwards thinks, that the first [heroic) is pure: but not certain that the second {historic) is. It may be, that the latter is the result of a mixture of the first with some other, the elements of which are now unknown to us ; because it does not seem to be sufiiciently uniform to be original. Albeit, if we set forth with M. Edwards to hunt for the required elements of modification through Greece, (giving to this name its most extensive sense) — "We discover a people that has not been sufficiently studied. They speak a language peculiar to themselves. It is not known whence they come, nor when they established themselves there. The Albanians seem to be in some respects in Greece, what the Basques are on the two sides of the Pyrenees, the Bretons in France, the Gaels in England, and those who speak the Erse in Scotland and Ireland — a remnant of ancient inhabitants. Why not regard them as such, if it be true that we can find no trace of their foreign origin in their traditions, history, nor in the comparison of language ? Why may they not be descendants of the Pelasgi?" [They call themselves " Skippetar ;" but their Turkish name is Arnaoot.'\ This ethnological question of heroic and historic types, mooted by Edwards, is worthy of careful study ; but we must pass on. 100 SPECIFIC TYPES CAUCASIAN. M. BoDiCHON, a surgeon distinguislied for fifteen years in the French army of Algeria, examines the races of Europe from another point of view; throwing considerable light on this abstruse subject, con- firmatory of the very early, no less than permanent, diversity of types in the populations of Gaul and other European countries. After establishing the insufiiciency of Philology in tracing the origin of races, Bodichon makes the following forcible remarks in vindication of Physiology, as a more certain instrument of analysis : " To throw light upou the question of origins, it is necessary to appeal to a science more precise, and founded on the nature of the object which we' examine. This science is the Physiologj/ of races, or, in other words, a knowledge of their moral and physical characters. Through Physiology has been established the existence of antediluvian beings, their genera, their species and their varieties ; by it also we shall discover the origin of races of men, even the most mysterious. Through it we shall one day be able to classify populations aa surely as we now class animals and plants : history, philology, annals, inscriptions, the monuments of arts and of religion, will be auxiliaries in these researches. Herein we con- sider its indications as motives of certitude, and its decisions as a criterion. "^5 The first inhabitants of southern and western Europe, according to his system, belonged to tivo very distinct races ; but that region, from time to time, received many accretions from other tribes, mainly Oriental, such as Phoenicians, Pelasgians, Cretans, Rhodians, Hel- lenes, Carthaginians, Phocians, Saracens, Huns, &c. Hjs generic characters of the two primitive races may be gathered from the comparative columns we subjoin ; and, although, at this late day, it is impossible to separate completely elements so interblended, we think there is much truth in his observations, and refer at the same time to a book that teems with solid material for reflection. "BLOND RACE. "BROWN RACE. " Head generally large, of elongated, and " Head generally small, of round, but often square, form ; eyes blue, or bordering rarely square, form ; eyes black or brown, on blue ; hair and beard blond, often red, or bordering on these colors ; hair and beard but without Albinism. black, sometimes red ; but then there is Al- binism, which is a pathological state. " Stature tall, and skin fair. In love, na- " Short stature, and brown skin. In love, tural chastity, with inclination to sentiment sensuality more developed than sentiment, rather than sensuality. " Aptitude to unite in great assemblies, to " Aversion to all unitary systems, for make leagues, to choose a system of poll- great assemblies or leagues. Peculiar dis- tical unity, to live under the monarchical position to live in a social state by pro- form, vinces. "Fond of navigation, long voyages, ad- "Tenacious of their locality ; opposed to venturous expeditions. distant expeditions. '< Commenced by the pastoral or nomadic " Have commenced by the agricultural state, have been developed in plains, on the state, and fixed habitations. Have been de- bordors t)f great rivers, on the coasts of large vcloped in mountains, islands, and coun- bodics of water, and in countries which pos- tries, lacking natural channels of communi- Bess natural modes of communication. cation. Have at all times been addicted to the exploration of mines. SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 107 "In war, prefer cavalry to infantry, the attack to defence, open movements to am- buscades, pitched battles to small combats. " Rush impetuously into danger. " Unreserved, gay, fond of noise, orations, strong drinks, and good eating. Frank and naive. " Minds naturally open to doubt, to ex- mination, to discussion. Tolerant, and hold to the religious idea rather than to forms. " Seek strangers, novelties, and ameliora- tions. Inconstant, violent, and impetuous, but easily forgive injuries. " Are eminently sympathetic, initiatory, marching incessantly towards new ends. •' From its origin, has been under the in- fluence of cold climates. "Its faculties develop in the North. "It produces, in preference, savans, re- formers, creators of systems — philosophers : men whose genius is manifested by profound meditations, by elevated reason, by sang froid, by coldness and investigation. Thus, Bacon, Luther, Descartes, Liebuitz, New- ton, Cuvier, Washington, and Franklin. "Predominance of the aristocratic ele- ment, and political influence accorded to women. " Its varieties are, the Celtic, which is di- vided into the Gaelic, Belgic, and Cymbric ; then the Germanic, divided into Germans, Franks, Vandals, Goths, Angles, Saxons, Scandinavians, and other blue-eyed nations, which have played so important a part in the formation of the modern nations of Europe. " Of Asiatic origin, it penetrated Europe from the East and North ; thus, the Volga and the Baltic. " Considered in relation to the countries where we first see them, they are Stran- ffers." " In war, prefer infantry to cavalry, de- fence to attack, ambuscades to open move- ments, and guerillas to pitched battles. " Await danger with firmness. " Uncommunicative, sober. Perfidious and reserved. "Credulous, intolerant, fanatical; attach- ed to religious forms rather than the idea; and reject discussion, doubt, and inquiry. " Hold strongly to ancient usages ; feel a repugnance with regard to strangers. " Unsympathetic ; possess, to an extreme point, the genius of resistance ; tend pecu- liarly to immobility and isolation. " From its origin, has been under the in- fluence of hot climates. " Its faculties develop in the South. " It produces, in preference, orators, war- riors, artists, poets : men whose genius ma- nifests itself by the exaltation of sentiments and ideas, by enthusiasm, a rapid concep- tion. Thus, Hannibal, Cicero, Caesar, Mi- chelangelo, Tasso, Napoleon. " Predominance of the democratic ele- ment, and little political influence granted to women. " Its varieties are, the Atlantes, divided into Libyans and Berbers ; next, the Iberi ans, divided into the Sicanians, Ligurians, Cantabrians, Asturians, Aquitanians, and other people of brown skins, who have played an important part in the formation of the ancient nations of Europe. " Aboi'igines of Atlantis [ ? ] ; penetrated Europe from the South and West; thus, Spain and the Ocean. " Considered in relation to the countries where we first see them, they are Autoc- thones." M. Bodichon, vnih most writers, thinks that the hlond race entered Europe originally from Asia, and many strong reasons suppoii; this position, in respect to those races found in Gaul and in countries north of it, during the recent times of the Greeks and Romans. Older races, notwithstanding — fated like our American aborigines — may have been exterminated by them, or have become amalgamated with them. He supposes these blond immigrants from Asia to have been of the same race as theHyksos, who conquered and took posses- 108 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN, Fig. 9.'^ sion of Egjpt some 2000 years b. c. ; but our modifications of thia view, from the study of her monuments, will appear in their place. "On arriving in Gaul, the Gaels found the banks of the Rhone, the Garonne and the Loire, in possession of a people who spoke a different language and had different usages. They, from time immemorial, had crossed the Pyrenees, and held the soil as first occupants. They were Iberians." About the time alluded to, there seems to have been a great com- motion among the white races of Asia; and the Gauls or Celts, and perhaps the Hyksos, (whose name means "royal shepherd,") may have been diverging streams of the same stock. Dr. Morton points out a head, often repeated on the monuments of Egypt, which he regards as of Celtic stock. These people, called "Tokkari" in hieroglyphics, are pri- soners in a sea-fight of Ramses IU., of the XXth dynasty, about the thirteenth century B. c. They are, without question, the Tochari of Strabo. In his manuscript "Letter to Mr. Gliddon," Dr. Morton re- putes these people to " Have strong Celtic features ; as seen in the sharp face, the large and irregularly-formed nose, wide mouth, and a certain harshness of expression, which is character- istic of the same people in all their varied localities. Those who are familiar with the Southern Highlanders ^of Scotland) may recognize a speaking resemblance. "•''7 But the interest in them is greatly en- hanced by cuneiform discovery. Here are the same " Tokkari," from Assyrian monuments of the age of Senna- cherib, about B. c. 700.^^ It is, to say the least, a very remarkable fact, that we find upon Egyptian monu- ments, beginning from the XVIIth dy- nasty, B. c. 1600, portraits in profusion, corresponding in all particulars with the blond races of Europe, whose written history opens as far west as Gaul and Germany: and now Assyrian" sculptures present us with the same blond races in the Vllth and Vlllth century before our era. Wlien the two races first met in Europe, the blond from the south-east and the dark from the west, they encountered each other as natural enemies, and a severe struggle Fig. 10. SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. 109 ensued. The Gaels finally forced their way into Spain, and esta- blished themselves there ; became more or less amalgamated with the darker occupants, and were called the Celt-Iberians. These two lypes have ever since been commingling ; but a complete fusion has not taken place, and the types of each are still clearly traceable. One pristine population of the British Isles was probably Iberian ; and their t^-pe is still beheld in many of the dark-haired, dark-eyed and dark-skinned Irish, as well as occasionally in Great Britain itself. The enormous antiquity of the Iberians in Europe is admitted on all hands; but their origin has been a subject of infinite disputes. Their type, both moral and physical, is so entirely distinct from that of the ancient fair-skinned immigrants from Asia, that it would be unphilosophical to claim for both a common source, in the present state of knowledge. DupONCEAU long ago wrote of the Basque, living representative of the Iberian tongue — "This language, preserved in a corner of Europe, by a few thousand mountaineers, is the sole remaining fragment of, perhaps, a hundred dialects, constructed on the same plan, ■which probably existed, and were universally spoken at a remote period, in that quarter of the world. Like the bones of the mammoth, and the relics of unknown races which have perished, it remains a monument of the destruction produced by a succession of ages. It stands single and alone of its kind, surrounded by idioms whose modern construction bears no analogy to it." We borrow the quotation from Prichard,^^ who has profoundly in- vestigated the theme ; and this idea of the antiquity of the Basque or " Iberic " tongue, termed "Euskaldune " by its speakers, is eloquently exemplified by Latham. " Just as, in geology, the great primary strata underlie the more recent superimposed formations, so does an older and more primitive population represent the original occu- pants of Europe and Asia, previous to the extension of the newer, and (so to say) second ary — the Indo-Germans. "And just as, in geology, the secondary and tertiary strata are not so continuous but that the primary formations may, at intervals, show themselves through them, so also do the fragments of the primary population still exist — discontinuous, indeed, but still capable of being recognized. " With such a view, the earliest European population was once homogeneous, from Lap- land to Grenada, from Tornea to Gibraltar. But it has been overlaid and displaced : the only remnants extant being the Finns and Laplanders, protected by their Arctic climate, the Basques by their Pyrenean fastnesses, and, perhaps, the next nation in order of notice. The Euskaldune is only one of the isolated languages of Europe. There is another — the Albanian." 60 There was, truly then, an Iberian world before the Celtic world.'^^ "Persons," continues Bodichon, "who have inhabited Brittany, and then go to Algeria, are struck with the resemblance which they discover between the ancient Armoricans [the Bretons) and the Cabyles [of Alr/eria). In fact the moral and physical character is identical. The Breton of pure blood has a bony head, light yellow complexion, of bistre tinge, eyes black or brown, stature short, and the black hair of the Cabyle. Like him, he instinct- ively hates strangers. In both the same perverseness and obstinacy, same endurance of 110 SPECIFIC TYPES — CAUCASIAN. fatigue, same love of independence, same inflexion of voice, same expression of feelings. Listen to a Cabyle speaking his native tongue, and you will think you hear a Breton talking Celtic." The Bretons to this day form a striking contrast with the people around them, who are — "Celts, of tall stature, with blue eyes, white skins and blond hair — they are com- municative, impetuous, versatile ; they pass rapidly from courage to timidity, and from audacity to despair. This is the distinctive character of the Celtic race, now, as in the ancient Gauls. " The Bretons are entirely different: they are taciturn; hold strongly to their ideas and usages ; are persevering and melancholic ; in a word, both in morale and physique, they present the type of a southern race — of the Allanteans [Atalantidae, Berbers ?]." The early history of the world is so enshrouded in darkness, that science leaves us to probabilities in all attempts to explain the manner of the wandering of nations from primitive seats. "Formerly," says Bodichon, "northern Africa was joined to Europe by a tongue of land, afterwards divided by the Straits of Gibraltar. The ensemble of the Atlantic coun- tries formed the [imaginary] island of Atlantis. Is it not probable that the Atlanteans, fol- lowing the coast, penetrated Spain, Gaul, and reached Armorica ? In contact with the Celts, may they not have adopted some of their usages ? These African tribes, too, might have reached Europe by sea. The Atlanteans, among the ancients, passed for the favorite children of Neptune; they made known the worship of this god to other nations — to the Egyptians, for example. In other words, the Atlanteans were the first known navigators. Like all navigators, they must have planted colonies at a distance — the Bretons (race Bre- tonne) in our opinion sprang from one of them." 62 Our historical proofs of the early diversity of Caucasian t}q3es in Europe might be greatl}^ enlarged ; but the fact will be admitted by ever}" candid student of ancient history, who, to the propositions that we have already supported by cumulative testimony, will add those more recently established in Scotland, through the inestimable re- searches of Dr. Daniel Wilson and his erudite fellow-laborers : " Tlie Celtse, we have seen reason to believe, are by no means to be regarded as the primal heirs of the land, but are, on the contrary, comparatively recent intruders. Ages before their migration into Europe, an unknown Allophylian race had wandered to thiis remote island of the sea, and in its turn gave place to later Allophylian nomades, also des- tined to occupy it only for a time. Of these antehistorical nations, Archasology alone reveals any traces."^ For our immediate objects, however, the acknowledgment that Europe and Asia Minor were covered, at epochas antecedent to all record, by dark as well as by fair-skinucd races, suffices. The farther back we journey chronologically, the more conflicting become the tribes, and the more salient their organic diversities ; and no reflecting man can, at the present day, cast his eye upon the infinitude of types now extant over this vast area, and disbelieve that their originals were already located in Europe in ages parallel with the earliest pyra- mids of Egypt, nor that some of them were indigenous to the European soil. The reader will hardly controvert this conclusion, after he has followed us through the types of mankind depicted upon ancient monuments. PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. Ill CHAPTER lY. PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. This histoiical people furnislies so striking an example of the perma- nence of a Caucasian type, tliroiiglioiit ages of time, and in spite of all tlie climates of the globe, that we assign it a chapter apart ; and if indelibility of type be a test of specific character, the Jews mnst be regarded as a primitive stock. If the opinion of ]\L Agassiz, which coincides with what we have long maintained, viz., that mankind were created in nations, be cor- rect, it follows that, in reality, there is no such thing as a pure Ahra- hamic race ; but that this so-called " race" is made up of the descend- ants of many proximate races, which had their origin around " Ur of the Chaldees." We have already set forth that the various zoological provinces possess their groups of proximate species of animals, plants, and races of men ; which difler entirely from those of other provinces. In like manner, around the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, for an indeiiuite distance, and extending westward to the land of Canaan on the Mediterranean, were grouped certain races bearing a general resemblance to each other, although of distinct origins. This is not simply a conjecture; because we see these races painted and sculp- tured on the monuments of Assyria and Egypt. The striking resemblance of physical characters among the whole of them is unmis- takeable, and wherever the portrait of another foreigner to their stock is introduced, the contrast is at once evident. Let us, in the first place, take a glance at the history of the Jews, as given by their own chroniclers. In Genesis, chap, xi., we are told that Abraham, their great progenitor, is descended in a direct line from Shem, the son of Xoah. Only ten generations intervene between Shem and Abraham ; and the names, ages, and time of birth of each, being given by the Hebrew writers themselves, we are enabled to ascertain, with much precision, the length of time they estimated between the Jewish date of the flood and the birth of Abraham. According to the Hebrew text, which must be regarded as the most authentic, it was 292 years. It is certainly reasonable to infer that Abraham inherited, through these few generations, the type of Shem and ISToah (supposing the 112 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. latter to be historical personages) ; for there are many examples where races have preserved their types for a much longer time ; and the Jews themselves, as we shall show, have maintained their own type, from the epoch assigned to Abraham, down to the present day. The era of Abraham has been variously estimated, from 1500 even to 2200 years b. c. ; which would give to his descendants at least one hundred generations, according to the common rules of vital statistics. It should be kept in view that we are here treating the Book of Genesis according to the vulgar understanding of its language. In Part II., and in the Supplement, it is shown that a far diiferent con- struction has been adopted by the best scholars of the day ; who regard the so-called ancestors of Abraham as geographical names of nations, and not as individuals. The inadequacy of King James's Version to express literally the meaning of Hebrew writers, compels us to follow the Bible of Cahen, Director of the Israelite School of Paris, and one of the ablest trans- lators of the day. This work, printed under the patronage of Louis- Philippe, commenced in 1831, and completed its twenty-two volumes in 1848 : " La Bible, Traduction Nouvelle, avec VHehreu en regard; accompagne des points-vot/elles et des accens-toniques, avec des notes pldlologiques, geographiques et litter air es ; et les variantes des Septante et du texte Samaritain." There is nothing like it in the English language ; nor shall we discuss Old Testament ques- tions with those who are unacquainted with Cahen and the Hebrew Text. Neither must the reader infer, from our general conformity with the ordinary mode of expression, that we regard the documents of Genesis otherwise than from the scientific point of view. The country of Abraham's birth was Upper Mesopotamia, between the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, not very far from the site of Nineveh ; and, after his marriage with Sarai, his history thus con- tinues : — " And Terah took Abram, his son, and Lot the son of Haran his son's son, and Sarai his daughter-in-law, his son Abram's wife ; and they went forth together from Ur of the Chal- dces [AUll-KaSDIM], to go into the land of Canaan; and they came unto Haran and dwelt there, and the days of Terah were 205 years, and Terah died in Ilaran. " Now leHOuall said unto Abram, Get thee oul of thy country and from thy birth-place and from thy father's house, unto a land wliich I will show thee. And I will make of thee a great nation, and I will bless thee, and I will aggrandize thy name, and thou shalt be a blessing." 64 Accordingly, Abraham and Lot, with their families and their flocks, journeyed on, "and in the laud of Canaan they amved." "And JoTTOuaH appeared unto Abram and said, Unto thy seed will I give Ibis land." They were soon driven to Egypt, by a grievous famine, to beg corn PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 113 of the riiaraoli who then Tilled over that country ; but, after a .^hort sojourn there, they returned to tlie Promised Land, and pitched their tents again on the very spot from which they had been taken. "And the Canaanite and the Perizzite then dwelled in the land." Abram and Lot soon separated; and "Abram struck his tents, and came, and established himself in the grove of Mamre, which is near Ivliebron, and there he built an altar to lellOuall." In his eighty- sixth year of age,Abram's Egyptian concubine Hagar (whose name means desert, stone) gave birth to Ishmael ; who, launched into Ara- bian deserts, became the legendary parent of Bedouin tribes ; while, to us, he is the earliest Biblical instance of the mixture of two types — Semitic and Egyptian. Then the patriarch's name was changed : " Thou shalt no longer be called ABRaM {father of high-land) ; thy name shall be ABRallaM {father of a multitude), because I have rendered thee parent of many nations."*'^ Sarah, at ninety years of age, gave birth to Isaac, TTsKhaK, "laughter," Her own name, also, had previously been changed: " Thou shalt no longer call Uer SaPal [ladyship], her name is now SaRall [a woman of great fecundity']." ^^ She died at the age of one hundred and twenty-seven years, and was buried in the family cave, wliich Abram had purchased in Canaan. Wishing then to dispose of his son Isaac in marriage, Abraham said to his most aged slave, " I will make thee swear by lellOuaH, God of the skies and God of the earth, that thou shalt not takeybr my son of the daughters of the Ca- naanite [nether-landers] amongst whom I dwell, but thou shalt go into my country, and to my birth-place, to take a woman for my son Isaac." ^' And, accordingly, the slave went back into Mesopotamia, unto the city of Nahor, and brought Rebecca, the cousin of Isaac whom the latter married. The next link in the genealogy is Jacob ; who, after defrauding his brother Esau of his birthright, retired, from prudential motives, into the land of his forefathers, and there married Leah and Rachel, the two daughters of Laban. Isaac lived to be one hundred and eighty, and Jacob one hundred and forty-seven years old; and they were both deposited in the family cave, or mausoleum. So tenacious were they of their customs, that Jacob, after being embalmed with groat ceremony, was carried all the way back from Egypt, as was afterwards his son Joseph, to repose in the same family burial-place ; which. our Supplement shows, is not a cave called "Machpelah," but "the cavern of the field contracted for, facing Mamre." Here closes the histoiy of those generations which preceded tiiu departure of the Israelites for Egj'pt ; and the evidence is clear, up to 15 114 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. this epoch, as to the extreme particularity (Ishmael being outlawed) with Avhich they preserved the purity of their blood, as well a.s the custom of "sleeping with their fathers." Who the Canaanites were has been amply treated in Part II. It suffices here to note that ^na means "low;" and that Canaanites, as loivlanders, were naturally repugnant, at first, to the ABEaMtrfa?, or " highlanders" of Chaldsean hills. Let us follow this peculiar people through the next remarkable page of their history. The whole sept amounted to seventy persons in number, viz. : Jacob and his eleven sons, who, with their families, by the invitation of Joseph, the twelfth, migrated to Egypt ; and were thereupon settled in the land of Goshen, apart from the Egyptians. Thus secluded, they must have preserved their national type tolerably unchanged down to the time of the Exodus, when they carried it back with them to the land of Canaan. Exceptional instances fortify the rule : else why should the genesiaeal writer particularize the marriage of Joseph with ASNeiTA (the devoted to the goddess Neith), daughter of PoTiPHAR (PET-HER-PHRE, the belonging to the gods Jlorus and Ma — " priest of On," ffeliopoUs), an Egyptian woman ? ^ Judah had begotten illegitimate children by the Canaanite Shuah f^ Moses, born, and educated in Egypt so thoroughly as to be called a " Mizrite- man^"''^ had wedded an Arabian Zipporah, Tsi-PARaH (literally, daughter of the god Ra), the daughter of Jethro, a pagan " priest of Midian :" '^^ and, besides the GouM AaRaB, Arab-horde (falsely rendered "mixed multitude"''^), that journeyed with the Sinaic Israel- ites, and with whom there must have been illicit connexions, there was at least one son of an Egyptian man, by an Israelitish woman, in the camp.^^ Other examples of early Hebrew proclivity can be found ; but these suffice to indicate exceptions to the law afterwards promul- gated. Under the command of Joshua, the land of Canaan was con- quered, and divided amongst the twelve tribes ; and from that time down to the final destruction of the Temple by Titus (70 a. d.), a period of about 1500 years, this country was more or less occupied by them. They were, however, almost incessantly harassed by civil and foreign wars,' captivities, and calamities of various kinds ; and their blood became more or less adulterated with that of Syro-Arabian races around them ; the type of whom, however, did not difter materially from their own. We shall not impose on the patience of the reader, by recapitulat- ing the long list of evidences which are found in history, both sacred and profane, to prove the comparative purity of the blood of the Israelites down to the time of their dispersion (70 a. d.). The avoid- ance of marriages with other races was enjoined by their religion, PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 115 and tliis custom has been perpetuated, in an extraordinary degree, throug'li all their wanderings, and under all their oppressions, down to the present day. But, while all must agree that the Jews have, for ages, clung together with an adhesiveness and perseverance unknown, perhaps, to any other people, and that their lineaments, in consequence, have been preserved with extraordinary fidelity ; it must, on the other hand, be admitted that the race has not entirely escaped adultera- tion ; and it is for this reason that we not unfrequently see, amongst those professing the Jewish religion, faces which do not bear the stamp of the pure Abrahamic stock. We have only to turn to the records of the Old Testament, to find proofs, on almost every page, that the ancient Hebrews, like the modern, were but human beings, and subject to all the infirmities of our nature. Even those venerable heads of the Hebrew monarchy, whose names stand out as the land-marks of sacred history, were not untarnished by the moral darkness which covered the early inhabitants of the earth. The history of the connubial life of the patriarchs, Abraham and Jacob, presents a picture quite revolting to the standard of our day. After the promulgation of the Mosaic laws, the Israelites were expressly forbidden to intermarry with aliens; and yet the injunction was often disregarded. Abraham, besides his Arab vafe Ketourah, and Joseph, as just shown, had both taken women from among the Eg^-ptians ; and Moses had espoased an Arab (Cushite ?). David, the man after God's own heart, long after the promulgation of the law, not onlv had his concubines, but so far foro-ot himself as to commit adultery A^ith Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah, the Hittite ; and, after murdering the husband, married her, and she became the mother of the celebrated Solomon. Next, on the throne, came Solomon him- self, whose career, opening with murder, closed in Paganism. He also married an Egj^^tian (a princess) ; enjoying, besides, seven hundred other wives and three hundred concubines: for " King Solomon loved many strange women, together with the daughter of Pharaoh — wo- men of the Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Sidonians, Hittites, and of other nations:""* and so promiscuous was his philogamy, that son^e commentators have imputed scandal even to the "Queen of Sheba," the sombre belle of Southern Arabia. Even the noble-hearted Judah, the ^'■Lion's Whelp,'' the last column of the twelve that stood erect in the sight of Jehovah, and whose especial mission it was to rege- nerate and raise up the fiillen race in purity and power, even he, not only wedded an impure Canaanite, but was tempted to crime by hi? own daughter-in-law, disguised as a harlot, on the road-side ; and, so far from repenting the sin, he had two children by her. ISTor need 116 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS, Fig. 11. we remind the reader of tlie unfortunate affair of Sarah with Pharaoh^ and again with Ahimelech. We might thus go on, and multiply examples of similar import from Jewish annals ; but to us it is much more pleasing to draw the veil of oblivion over the depravity of those primitive days, and to remember only the noble moral precepts bequeathed us by the kings and prophets of Judea. These, how^ever, are historical facts, having important bearings on the subject before us, and must not, therefore, be passed over in silence. They show clearly that the ancient Israel- ites were restrained by no moral force which could keep their gene- alogies pure ; but, in comparison with every other people, there is enough to justify us in believing that their pedigrees are to be relied on for a long series of generations. Those among Jews of the present day who preserve what is regarded as the national ty^e, must neces- sarily be of pure blood ; while those w^ho do not, must be traced up to foreign alliances. It will illustrate the indelibility of the Abrahamic t3'pe to present here a mummied Shemitish head, fi'om Morton's collection.'^ Being bitu- minized, the skull cannot be much older than the time of Moses — say, fifteenth century b. c. ISTor, inas- much as general mummification ceased about 300 years after Christ, can it be less than 1500 years old. From its style and Theban extrac- tion, it may be referred to Solomonic days"'' — yet, how perfectly the He- brew try-pe is preserved ! Fresh from exhumations in the father-land of Abraham, we add a higher variety of the same t^-pe — Part of a Colosscd Head from Kou- yunjUi?"' Its age is fixed between the reign of Sennacherib and the fall of Nineveh, about "the seventh century b. c. And still, after 2500 3^ears, so indelible is the type, every resident of Mobile will recognize, in this Clialdiean efiigy, the fac- simile portrait of one of their city's most prominent citizens, who is Fig. 12. PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 117 honored alike by the affection of his co-religionists, and the conti- dence of the community which has just elevated him to a seat in the National Councils. Ail written descriptions of early times, relative to the Jewish race, concur in establishing the permanence of their type. We are informed, by modern travellers, that the same features are common in Mesopotamia, their original seat, and also scattered through Persia, Afghanistan, &c. ; the direction in which, we are taught by the annals of modern times, some descendants of the ten tribes were dispersed, long after the Assyrian captiA-ity in the eighth century b. c. In short, the Jewish features meet one in almost every country under the sun ; l)ut it is worthy of special remark, that Hebrew lineaments are found in no region whither history cannot track them, and rarely where their possessors do not acknowledge Jewish origin. Nor will the fact be questioned, we presume, that v^ell-marked Israelitish features are never beheld out of that race ; although it has, as we shall show^, been contended that Jews in certain climates have not only lost their own tj'pe, but have become transformed into other races ! The number of Jews now existing in the world, (of those that are regarded as descendants in a direct line from, and maintaining the same laws Anth, their forefathers, who, above 3000 years ago, reti'eated from Egypt under the guidance of the lawgiver, Moses,) is estimated by Weimer, Wolff, Milman,'" and others, variously, from three to five millions. In all climates and countries, they are recognized as the same race. Weimer, whose statistics are lowest, gives the fol- lo^\"ing : — " Africa. — They are scattered along the whole coast, from Morocco to Egypt, besides being found in many other parts. Morocco and Fez, 300,000 ; Tunis, 130,000 ; Algiers, 30,000; Gabesor Habesh, 20,000; Tripoli, 12,000; &c. Total, 504,000. " Asia. — In Mesopotamia and Assyria. The ancient seats of the Babylonian .Jews are still occupied by 5,270 families, exclusive of those of Bagdad and Bassora. Asiatic Turkey, 330,000; Arabia, 200,000; Hindostan, 100,000; China, 60,000; Turkistan, 40,000 ; Pro- vince of Iran, 35,000; &c. Total, 738,000. " EuiioPE. — Russia and Poland, 608,000; European Turkey, 321,000; Germany, 138,000; Prussia, 134,000; Netherlands, 80,000; France, 60,000; Italy, 36,000; Great Britain, 12,000; &c. Total in Europe, 1,918,053." In America, Milman averages them at 6000 only ; but this waf certainly very far below the mark, even when his book w^as publislied, and they have since been increasing, with immense rapidity. We should think that an estimate of 100,000, for North and South America, would not be an exaggeration. This sketch suffices to show how the Judaic race has become scat- tered throughout the regions of the earth; many families being domi filiated, ever since the Christian era, in climates the most opposite : and, yet, in obedience to an organic law of animal life, they have pre 118 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE TEWS. s-Ji-ved, unchanged, the same features which the Ahuighty stamped on the first Hebrew pairs created. It may be well to denounce, as vulgar and unscriptural, the notion that the features of the Jews are attri- butable to a subsequent miracle, or that God has put a mark upon them, by which they may be always known, and for the mere purpose of distinguishing them from other races. K we are correct in carry- ing their type back to times preceding the Exodus, this superstition must fall to the ground. The Almighty, no doubt, individualized all human races, from the beginning. It is admitted, by ethnographers of every party, that mankind are materially influenced by climate. The Jewish skin, for example, may become more fair at the north, and more dark at the tropics, than in the Land of Promise ; but, even here, the limit of change stops far short of approximation to other types. The complexion may be bleached, or tanned, in exposed parts of the body, but the Jewish features stand unalterably through all climates, and are superior to such influences. ^Nevertheless, it is stoutly contended, even at the present day, that Jews, in various parts of the world, have been transmuted into other types. Several examples (so supposed) have been heralded forth to sustain the doctrine of the Unity of the human species. We have examined, with care, all these vaunted examples, and feel no hesitation in asserting that not one of them possesses any evidence to sustain it, while the proof is conclusive on the opposite side. The most prominent of these mendacious instances is that of the hlack Jeivs in Malabar ; and this has been confidently cited by all advocates of the doctrine of Unity, down to the Edinburgh Review, 1849. Prichard, in his great work, has dodged this awkward point, in a manner that we are really at a loss to understand. In the second edition (1826) of his "Physical History of Mankind," he stated the facts with sufficient fairness ; whereas, in the last, he sup- presses them entirely, and passes over them without uttering one word in support of his previous assertions — merely saying that there is "no evidence" to show that the hlack Jews are not Jews. We shall here introduce testimony to prove our position, that the subjoined facts, though familiar to our author, are eluded by him with most ominous silence. Under the protection and patronage of the British government, the Kev. Claudius Buchanan, D.D., late Vice Provost of the College of Fort William, in Bengal ; well known for his learning, fidelit}', and piet}' ; visited and spent some time amongst the white and the hlack Jews of Malabar, near Cochin, in 180G-7-8 ; and the testimony given in Ijis "Asiatic Researches" is so remarkable, and the subject so im- portant, that we venture a long extract. The " Jerusalem, or white i PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 119 Jews," he tells us, live in Jeivs town, about a mile fi-om Cochin, and the ^^ ancient, or black Jeivs," w^ith small exceptions, inhabit towns in the interior of the province. " On my inquiry (continues Dr. Buchanan) into the antiquity of the white Jews, they first delivered me a narrative, in the Hebrew hiiiguage, of their arrival in India, which has been handed down to them from their fathers ; and then exhibited their ancient brass plate, containing their charter and freedom of residence, given by a king of Malabar. The fol- lowing is the narrative of the events relating to their first arrival : — "'After the second Temple was destroyed, (which may God speedily rebuild!) our fathers, dreading the conqueror's wrath, departed from Jerusalem — a numerous body of men, women, priests and Levites — and came into this land. There were among them men of repute for learning and wisdom ; and God gave the people favor in the sight of the king who at that time reigned here, and he granted them a place to dwell in, called Cranganor, He allowed them a patriarchal jurisdiction in the district, with certain privileges of nobility , and the royal grant was engraved, according to the custom of those days, on a plate of brass. This was done in the year from the creation of the world 4250 (A. D. 490) ; and this plate of brass we still have in possession. Our forefathers continued at Cranganor for .about one thousand years, and the number of heads who governed were seventy-two. Soon after our settlement, other Jews followed us from Judea ; and among them came that man of great wisdom. Rabbi Samuel, a Levite, of Jerusalem, with his son. Rabbi Jehuda Levita. They brought with them the silver trumpets made use of at the time of the Jubilee, which were saved when the second Temple was destroyed; and we have heard, from our fathers, that there were engraven upon those trumpets the letters of the Ineffable Name. There joined us, also, from Spain and other places, from time to time, certain tribes of Jews, who had heard of our prosperity. But, at last, discord arising among ourselves, one of our chiefs called to his assistance an Indian king, who came upon us with a great army, de- stroyed our houses, palaces and strongholds, dispossessed us of Cranganor, killed part of us, and carried part into captivity. By these massacres we were reduced to a small number. Some of the exiles came and dwelt at Cochin, where we have remained ever since, suffering great changes, from time to time. There are amongst us some of the children of Israel (Beni-Israel), who came from the country of Ashkenaz, from Egypt, from Tsoha, and other places, besides those who formerly inhabited this country.' "The native annals of Malabar confirm the foregoing account, in the principal circum- stances, as do the Mahommedan histories of the later ages ; for the Mahommedans have been settled here, in great numbers, since the eighth century. " The desolation of Cranganor the .lews describe as being like the desolation of Jeru- iem in miniature. They were first received into the country with some favor and confidence, agreeably to the tenor of the general prophecy concerning the Jews — for no country was to reject them ; and, after they had obtained some wealth, and attracted the notice of men, they are precipitated to the lowest abyss of human suffering and reproach. The recital of the sufferings of the Jews at Cranganor resembles much that of the Jews at Jerusalem, as given by Josephus. [Exactly! Notice also the " 72" governors, and the " 7" kings. — G. R. G.] " I now requested they would show me their brass plate. Having been given by a native King, it is written, of course, in the Malabaric language and character, and is now so old that it cannot well be understood. The Jews preserve a Hebrew translation of it, which they presented to me ; but the Hebrew itself is very difficult, and they do not agree among themselves as to the meaning of some words. I have employed, by their permission, an engraver, at Cochin, to execute a fac-simile of the original plate on copper. This ancienn document begins in the following manner, according to the Hebrew translation : — " ' In the peace of God, the King, which hath made the earth according to his pleasure — fo this God, I, AIRVI BRAHMIN, have lifted up my hand and have granted, by this deed, which many hundred thousand years shall run — I, dwelling in Cranganor, have granted, Ji. 120 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. the thirty-sixth year of my reign, in the strength of power I have given in inheritance, \. Joseph Rarban — '" (Here follow several privileges, &c.) " What proves the importance of the Jews, at the period when this grant was made, is, that it is signed by seven kings as witnesses. (The names are here given.) " There is no date to the document, further than what may be collected from the reign of the prince, and the names of the royal witnesses. Dates are not usual in old Malabaric writings. One fact is evident, that the Jews must have existed a considerable time in the country before they could have obtained such a grant. The tradition, before-mentioned, assigns for the date of the transaction the year of the creation 4250, which is, in Jewish computation, A. D. 490. It is well known that the, famous Malabaric king, Coram Peru- MAL, made grants to the Jews, Christians, and Mahommedans, during his reign ; but that prince flourished in the eighth or ninth century." Arcliseologically, the date assigned to tliis document is a manifest imposture, for any epoch anterior to 900 years after Christ. That change of rehgion from Brahminism to Judaism cannot metamor- phose Hindoo renegades into Jews^ is evident from what follows. Speaking of the black Jews, Dr. Buchanan thus continues : — " Their Hindoo complexion, and their very imperfect resemblance to the European Jews, indicate that they have been detached from the parent stock, in Judea, many ages before the Jews in the west, and that there have been intermarriages with families not Israelilish. I had heard that those tribes, which had passed the Indus, had assimilated so much to the customs and habits of the countries in which they live, that they sometimes may be seen by a traveller without being recognized as Jews. In the interior towns of Malabar, I was not always able to distinguish the Jew from the Hindoo. I hence perceived how easy it may be to mistake the tribes of Jewish descent among the Affghans and other nations, in the northern parts of Hindostan. The white Jews look upon the black Jews as an inferior race, and as not of pure caste, which plainly demonstrates that they do not spring from a common stock in India." '''9 The evidence of Dr. Buchanan can scarcely leave room for a doubt that the white Jews had been living at least a thousand years in Malabar, and were still white Jews, without even an approximation, in t}^e, to the Hindoos ; and that the black Jews were an " inferior race" — "not of pure caste" — or, in other words, adulterated by dark Hindoos — Jews in doctrine, but not in stock. But we have another eye-witness, of no less note, to the same effect, namely, Joseph Wolff, a Christianized Jew, whose authority is quoted in places where modern Jews are spoken of He assures us,**" that the black Malabar Jews are converted Hindoos, and at most a mix- ture only of the two races. Similar opinions have been expressed by every crvnipetent authority we have seen or can tind quoted ; and even Prichard, in his laborious work, while he slurs over all these facts with the simple remark that there is "no evidence" in favor of Buchanan's opinion, ventures to give not a single authority to rebut liim, and offers not a solitary reason for doubting his testimony, iind, we say it with regret, tliat this is but one of Dr. Prichard's many unfair modes of sustaining the doctrine of the unity of mankind. We PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 121 may add, also, that tlie opinions of Buchanan and Wolff are those of all Juda^ans of our day, as far as we have been able to ascertain them. Mr. Isaac Leeser, the learned and estimable editor of the ^'■Occident,'' at Philadelphia, in answer to our inquiries, thus writes : — "You may freely assert that, in all essentials, the Jews are the same they are repre- sented on the Egyptian monuments ; and a comparison of 3500 years ought to be sufficient to prove that the intermediate links have not degenerated. . . . The black Jews of Malabar are not a Jewish race, according to the accounts which have appeared from time to time in the papers. They are most likely converts to Judaism, who, never having intermarried with the white Jews, have retained their original Hindoo complexion, and, I believe, language." Although this letter of Mr. Leeser was written in haste, and not for publication, his well-known respectability and talent lend so much weight to any thing he would utter about his co-religionists, that we cannot forego the pleasure of giving another and longer extract, from it. He says : — " In respect, however, to the trae Jewish complexion, it is fair ; which is. proved by the variety of the people I have seen, from Persia, Russia, Palestine, and Africa, not to men- tion those of Europe and America, the latter of whom are identical with the Europeans, like all other white inhabitants of this continent. All Jews that ever I have beheld are identical in features ; though the color of their skin and eyes differs materially, inasmuch as the Southern are nearly all black-eyed, and somewhat sallow, while the Northern are blue- eyed, in a great measure, and of a fair and clear complexion. In this they assimilate to all Caucasians, when transported for a number of generations into various climates. [?] Though I am free to admit that the dark and hazel eye and tawny skin are oftener met with among the Germanic Jews than among the German natives proper. There are also red-haired and white-haired Jews, as well as other people, and perhaps of as great a pro- portion. I speak now of the Jews north — I am myself a native of Germany, and among my own family I know of none without blue eyes, brown hair (though mine is black), and very fair skin — still I recollect, when a boy, seeing many who had not these characteristics, and had, on the contrary, eyes, hair, and skin of a more southern complexion. In America, you will see all varieties of complexion, from the very fair Canadian down to the almost yellow of the West Indian — the latter, however, is solely the effect of exposure to a delete- rious climate for several generations, which changes, I should judge, the texture of the hair and skin, and thus leaves its mark on the constitution — otherwise the Caucasian type is strongly developed; but this is the case more emphatically among those sprung from a German than a Portuguese stock. The latter was an oi-iginal inhabitant of the Iberian Peninsula, and whether it was presei'ved pure, or became mixed with Moorish blood in the process of centuries, or whether the Germans contracted an intimacy with Teutonic nations, and thus acquired a part of their national characteristics, it is impossible to be told now. But one thing is certain, that, both in Spain and German}^ conversions to Judaism during the early ages, say from the eighth to the thirteenth century, were by no means rare, or else the governments would not have so energetically prohibited Jews from making prose- lytes of their servants and others. I know not, indeed, whether there is any greater phy- sical discrepancy between northern and southern Jews than between English families who continue in England or emigrate to Alabama — I rather judge there is not." Mr. Leeser professes not to have paid any special attention to the physical history of the .Tews ; but, nevertheless, his remarks corro- borate very strongh' two important points: 1st, That the Jews merely undergo those temporary changes from climate which are admitted bv 16 122 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. all etlinographers ; and 2d, that they have occasionally mingled in blood with Gentile races ; amalgamations that account for any visible diversity of type amongst them. And that we have sought for information among the best informed of the Hebrew community in the United States, may be inferred from the subjoined letter of an authority universally known, and by all respected. His testimony confirms Mr. Leeser's, no less than that of every Hebrew we have been able to consult. " The black Jews of Malabar are not descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but are oi Hindoo origin. At Cochin, there are two distinct communities of Jews: one, white, was originally settled at Cranganor, but when the Portuguese became too powerful on that coast (a. d. 1500 to 1590) removed to Cochin. These Jews have been residents in India consider- ably above 1000 years, but still retain their Jewish cast of features, and, though of dark complexion, are not black. They never intermarry with the second community, also Jews, but black, of Hindoo origin, and, according to tradition, originally bondmen, but converted and manumitted some 300 years ago. Though of the same religion, the two races are, and keep distinct. In the interior of Africa, many Negroes are found who profess to be Jews, practise circumcision, and keep the Sabbath. These are held to be the descendants of slaves who were converted by their Jewish masters, and then manumitted. All the Jews in the interior of Africa who are of really Jewish descent, as, for instance, in Timbuctoo, the Desert of Sahara, &c., though of dark complexion, are not black, and retain the charac- teristic cast of features of their race — so they do likewise in China. ^< T /I ivT HI T^ Til u-1 1) "Yours, &c. M. J. Raphall. "J. C. NoTT, M. D., Mobile.' ' We think it is now shown satisfactorily that the "Black Jews" of India are not Jews by race, any more than the Negro converts to Ju- daism known to exist at Timbuctoo, or the many Moorish adherents to the Hebrew faith scattered throughout the States of Barbaiy. There are authors living who insist that the aborigines of our Ameri- can continent are lineal descendants of the lost ten tribes, which have run so wild in our woods as to be no longer recognizable ! Other examples of Jewish physical transformation have been alleged, but they are even less worthy of credit than the preceding. The Jews of Abyssinia, or Falashas, as they are called, may be noticed. They do not present the Jewish physiognomy, but are, doubtless, composed of mixed bloods, Arabian with African, and converts. Before us lies a pamphlet by Dr. Charles Beke, the verj^ erudite Abyssinian traveller* *^" This essay was read on the 8th of February, 1848, before the Syro-Egyptian Society of London, and Dr. Bcke's standing as an orientalist requires no comment. His information was obtained from the Falashas themselves ; his opinion formed in presence of the speakers. " There is, however, no reason for imagining that these Israelites of Abyssinia, who are known in that country by the name of Falashas, are, as a people, the lineal descendants of any of the tribes of Israel. Their peculiar language, which they still retain, differs entirely ("rom the Syro- Arabian class to which the Ethiopic and Amharic, as well as the Hebrew and Arabic, belong, and is cognate with, and closely allied to, the existing dialects spoken by the PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 123 A'gaus of Lasta and the A'gauinicler: a circumstance affording; a strong argumenr in sup- port of the opinion that all these people are descended from an aboriginal race, which has been forced to give way before the advances of a younger people from the opposite shores of the Red Sea — first in Tigrii, and subsequently in the countries adjacent to Bab-el Mandeb. " It is not till about the tenth century of the Christian era that we possess any his- tory of the Israelites of Abyssinia, as a separate people ; and even then the particulars respecting them, which are to be gathered from the annals of the country as given by Bruce, must, in the earlier portions at least, be received with great caution." Bruce, in the second volume of Ms Travels, gives an interesting account of this people. lie regards them really as Jews, but expresses sundry doubts, and thinks the question must be determined by future fhilologkal researches. Such researches have been made since his da}', and the decision of Beke is recorded above. Even Prichard did not credit Bruce's narrative. The history of the ten tribes affords also conclusive evidence of the influence of Jewish intermixtures with alien races. In the eighth cen- tury B. c, they were conquered, and carried captive, by Tiglathpilesar and Shalmanasar, into the north-western parts of the Assyrian empire; their places being supplied by foreign colonists from that country. These, with a few remaining Israelites, formed the Samaritans of after times ; but the ten tribes have been scattered, and most of them lost by Assyrian amalgamations, or absorption into cognate Chaldtean tribes. " The Aflfghans, as before remarked, bear strong marks of the Jewish type, and are doubtless descended from the ten tribes. . . . The Aifghans have no resemblance to the Tartars who surround them, in person, habits, or language. Sir William Jones (and this opinion is now prevalent) is inclined to believe that their descent may be traced to the Israelites, and adds, that the best-informed Persian historians have adopted the same opinion. The Affghans have traditions among themselves which render it very probable that this is the just account of their origin. Many of their families are distinguished by names of Jewish tribes, though, since their conversion to Islam, they conceal their descent with the most scrupulous care ; and the whole is confirmed by the circumstance that the Pushto has so near an affinity with the Chaldaic that it may justly be regarded as a dialect of that tongue. They are now confounded with the Arabs."82 This quotation is a fair specimen of the fabulous ethnography cur- rent among orthodox litterateurs of our day. There is no Biblical or historical basis for the tirst assumption : the second is a misappre- hension, attributing to Judaism that which is due to Islamism in the last 1000 years ; and the third is exi3lained by linguistic importations, Persic and Arabian ; because the Pushto is a Medo-Persian branch of Indo-European languages. Prichard himself treats Affghan derivation from the Israelites with a sneer*^^ — but the reader is referred to oui Supplement for further citations on the subject, from the works of thorough onentalists, who unite in testifying that the Semitic element in Alighanistan, out of the synagogues, is exclusively Arabian. 124 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS, Fig. 13. The portrait of Dost-Mohammed** blends Semitic features with those of the true Affghan ; and suffices to illustrate the similitudes perceived by tourists who, partial to a theory of the "ten tribes'" journey into Tartary, have been blinded to the paljjable diversities of osteological structure, which even Arab blood has not obliterated. We have thus gone over the phy- sical history of the Jewish race ; and, although the argument is very far from being exhausted, we think enough has been said to satisfy any unprejudiced mind that this species has preserved its peculiar type from the time of Abraham to the present day, or through more than one hundred generations ; and has therefore transmitted directly to us the features of Noah's family, which preceded that of Abraham, ac- cording to the so-termed Mosaic account, by only ten generations. If, then, the Jewish race has preserved the type of its forefathers for 3500 years, in all climates of the earth, and under all forms of govern- ment — through extremes of prosperity and adversity — if, too, we add to all this the recently developed facts (which cannot be negatived), that the Tartars, the Negroes, the Assyrians, the Hindoos, the Egyptians, and others, existed, 2000 years before the Christian era, as distinct as now ; where, we may ask, is to be found the semblance of a scientific argument to sustain the assumption of a common Jewish origin for every species of mankind ? Accounts of the Gipsies offer such curious analogies with those of the Israelites, that it may not be out of place to add a word respect- ing them. " Both have had an Exodus ; both are exiles, and dispersed among the gentiles, by whom they are hated and despised, and whom they hate and despise, under tlie names of Busnees and Goyim ; both, though speal8v 130 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. Fig. 25. reputed to be female., and by "Wilkinson to be always male in Egypt, has the body of a lion when {e. g. in the splendid granite Sphinx of Ramses at the Louvre,) it typifies the king ; or of a lioness, (as in Maut-hem-wa's at Turin,) when the queen. Another rule of Egyp- tian art is, that the human faces of Divinities wear the portrait of the reigning monarch. Now, in Assyrian sculpture — an offshoot of Nilotic art — the same rules hold good. Those gigantic human-headed bulls, and those superb winged-gods, of scenes in w^hich human-faced deities are introduced, assume the portraits of the sovereigns in whose age they were carved : truths easily verified by comparison of the folio plates of Flandin or of Layard. In consequence, regretting the necessity for reduc- tion of size, we submit, from one of the winged- bulls at Paris'"^ the likeness (Fig. 25) of him whose cuneatic legend reads : — " SAEGON, great king, puissant king, king of the kings of the land of Assour'' — Ashur, or Assyria — of whom Isaiah relates — " In the year that Tartan came unto Ashdod (when Sargon, the king of Assyria, sent him,) and fought against Sargon. Fig. 26.105 Fig. 27. Sennacherib — b o 700. PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 131 Fia. 28. Ashdod, and took it;" events of tlie seventh century before Christ, To complete the series, we add a royal head, (Fig. 26) of the same times, but name unknown to us, surmounting a winged-lion ; its only peculiarity being the ponderous nose. ISot less curiously valuable, whether in its historical, biblical, or ethnographic associations', is the portrait (Fig. 27,) of Sargan's son — *' Sennacherib, on his throne before Lachish."''* We have already beheld (Fig. 14) his Jewish captives. Mr. La YARD unfolds, through translation of this king's cuneiform inscrip- tions, points of the grandest scriptural interest "'' — " Hezekiah, king of Judah," says the Assyrian king, " who had not submitted to my authority, forty- six of his principal cities, and fortresses and villages depending upon them, of which I took no account, I captured, and carried away their spoil. I shut up (?) himself within Jerusalem, his capital city." We commenced at the seventh, and now advance into the eighth century-, b. c. A " Bas-relief, (Fig. 28) representing Pll, or TiGLATH-Pileser," from N^imroud,"^ places us about the year b, c. 750. Here the same high type is preserved in the features of the king, his bearded chariot-driver, and his depilated eunuch: while inscriptions that contain the name of "Menahem, king of Israel," tributary to Assyria,*** evince the intimate relations already existing between that emigrant branch of the Ahrahamidde domiciliated in Judaea, and the indigenous stem still flou-- rishiiig in Chald?ea, whence \\\Qy had issued about 1000 j-ears before. The same tj'pe 18 carried back to the tenth century b. c, by this copy (Fig. 29) of the statue of Sardanapalus I.""; whose era falls about 930 years before ours. " On the breast is an inscription nearly in these words : — after the names and titles of the king, 'The conqueror from the upper passage of the Tigris to Lebanon and the Great Sea, who all countries, from Fio. 29. 132 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. the rising of the sun to the going down thereof, has reduced under his authority.' The statue was, therefore, probahly raised after his return from the campaign in Syria" — where, the Tyrians^ Sidonians, Arvadites, and others, acknowledged his suzerainty. An epoch has now been reached that is more ancient than the registry of Hebrew annals,'" by a century, perhaps ; and hence they cease to throw light, for times anterior to Solomon, upon nationalities outside the topographical boundaries of Palestine. But, where Ju- daean chronicles are silent, when cuneiform records falter, the hiero- glyphics of Egypt supply abundance of ethnological information, and enable us to demonstrate the perpetual indelibility of this (let us call it, for mere convenience sake,) Ghaldaic type. Already, "half-breeds," between I^ilotic and Euphratic populations, must have been numerous. Palestine was the neutral-ground of contact; and Solomon's wedding with the " daughter of Pharaoh" shows that Abrahamic royalty only followed a matrimonial practice familiar to the Israelites since that patriarch's first visit to Egj^pt ; which duly received Mosaic sanction in the law — "Abhor not the MiTsRI {Egyptian) : " "^ benignantly pro- viding for its prolific consequences by adding the clause — "The children that are born of them, at the third generation, shall enter into the assembly of leHOuaH." Mr. Birch was the first to establish, five years ago,"' the intimate connexions between Egypt and Assyria, in the tenth century b. c. ; the very age of Solomon's marriage with an Egyptian princess, and of tlie punishment inflicted, about 971-'3, by Sheshonk upon Jeru- salem, " in the fifth year of Rehoboam." The kings of Egypt during the XXIId or Buhastite dynasty, were proved, by this erudite palfeo- grapher,to bear not Egyptian, but Assyrian names: thus, Sheshonk, iShisJiak, was assimilated to the " Sesacea" of Babylon ; Osorkon to Se- rak, Saraeus ; the son of Osorkon II. was shown to be a NIM-ROT, Nimrod ; and the appellative Takelloth, TKLT, of the hieroglyphics, to contain DiGLaTA, which is the same river Tigris that is embodied in the royal Assyrian name of TiGhATn-Pileser. Here is a mute witness of those events and those times — GOT- TlIOTIII-^wn/fc (Fig. 30), "Chief of the Artificers," at Thebes,"' who died, according to inscriptions on his cerements, in the "Year X" of thti reign of King Osorkon III. ; that is, he was alive in the year 900 B. c. ! His complete mumwy lies in the Anatomical Museum of the University of Louisiana, Xew Orleans ; and we shall describe it in the proper place : our object at present being merely to indicate an atom of the ethnological abundance that Egypt and Assyria supply. And the reader will realize the harmony of these archaeolo- gical researches, when he beholds the portrait of the king (Fig. 31) m PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 133 Fig. 30. Fia. 31. OSORKON III.115 whose reign this mummy was made. Leemans published a date of the IXth, and Bunsen one of this Pharaoh's Xlth regnal year. The legend on the mummy has added another of his Xth. Several coincidences have l)een ingeniously put together by Mr. Sharpe; "^ but, while we refer to Layard's Second Expedition™ for realizations of the almost-pTOphetie science of Birch, the latter's opportune discovery of the relationship of Ramses XIV., by marriage, to the daughter of the Semitic "King of Bashan," '^^^ is merely noted here, because it will be elucidated under the chapter on Egypt. In the following Asiatic prisoners, i^corded among the foreign conquests of Amunoph m., at Soleb,"^ there is no difficulty of recognizing — Fig. 32, 1. Pa-ta-na, Padan-Aram ; 2. A-s\i-ru, Ashur, Assyria ; 3. Kn-rv- ka-mishi, Carchemish. The names of Saenkar, Shinar, and Naha- rainoj in Hebrew Naharaim, the "two rivers," or Mesopotamia, 134 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. Fig. 33. hieroglyphed in the same Pharaoh's reign, have long been familial to Egyptologists ; and thus Assyrian data and connexions with the Nilb are positively carried back to the XVIIth dynasty, and the six- teenth century b. c. But although, amid the ruins of Babj'lon itself, nothing has been yet disclosed 'of an earlier date than Nebuchadnezzar, b. c. 604 ; and no genealogical list, not to say contemporaneous monument, older than B.C. 1250,^-" at Nineveh; hieroglyphics of an ancestor of Amu- j^oPH in., viz., Thotmes III., prove the existence ofhoih Bahi/lon and Nineveh, as tributaries to the Pharaohs, at least one generation earlier, or about 1600 years b. c.'^' This king, in an inscription more recently translated by Birch, is said to have "erected his tablet in Naharaina (Mesopotamia), for the extension of the frontiers oi Kami (Egypt)." '^ The sixteenth century b. c, according to Lepsius's system of chro- nology, touches the advent of Abraham and later sojourn of his grand- son Jacob's children in the land of Goshen. Relations of war, com- merce, and intermarriage, between the people of the Nile and those from the Tigris and Euphrates, in these times, were incessant. Semitic elements (as we shall see in the gallety of royal Egyptian portraits further on) flowed from Asia into Africa in unceasing streams. The Queens of Eg}-pt, especially, betray the commingling of the Chaldaie t}'pe with that indigenous to the lower valley of the Nile; and, al- though we shall resume these evi- dences, the reader will recognize the blending of both types in the linea- ments of Queen Aahmes-Neferari (Fig. 33), wife of Amunoph I., son of the founder of the XVIIth dynasty, about 1671 B. c. Hers is the most ancient of regal feminine likenesses identified ; '^ and of it Morton wrote, "Perhaps the most Hebrew portrait on the monuments is that of Aahmes-Nofre-Ari." 121 Having thus traced back the Chaldaie type into Egypt before the arrival of Abraham, first historical ancestor of the Jews, we have proved the peq)etuity of its existence, through Egyptian and Assyrian records, during 3500 years of time, down to our day. But the Jewish type of man must have existed in Chaldsea for an indefinite time before Abraham. After all, he was merely one emigrant ; and his ancestral stock, at 1500 b. c, must have amounted to an immense population. "We hold, without hesitation, that 2000 years before '^-^^on PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 135 Abraham, there had already been intermarriages between the CJialdaic and the Egyptian species. No ethnographer but will perceive, with us, the Jewish cross upon Egyptians of the IVth ISIemphite dynasty, 8500 years b. c, say about 5400 years ago: and such amalgamations must then have been far more ancient. Examine the following — (Figs. 34, 35) : we shall revert to them by-and-by. Fig. 34.125 Fig. 35. "We shall yet be able to sketch out the durability of the cognate Arabian race 2000 years earlier than Ishmael, son of Abraham, when we deal with Egyptian primitive relations with Asia ; and as, for thirty-five centuries (not to say fifty-five, when the Chaldaic blood first appears), Jews and Arabs have been monumentally coexistent and distinct in type, therefore the demonstration of the existence of the latter people 5500 ^^ears ago will naturally imply the simultaneous presence of the former in their Mesopotamian birth-place ; although neither from Assyrian nor Hebrew records can we produce annals to that efiect — simply because such chronicles, if any were kept, have not reached our modern day. Before quitting, for the present, Semitish immigrations into Africa, we may allude to early Phoenician colonization of Barbary, as another prolific source of comminglings between Chaldaic and Berber, or Ata- lantic, types. These must have preceded, by centuries, the foundation of Carthage, estimated at b. c. 878 ; and, in those days (the camel not having been introduced into Africa before the first or second century B. c), the Sahara desert being absolutely impassable, the Atalan- tidae of the Barbary coast held no communication with jSTegro races of inland Africa. The subject is discussed in Part 11. of this volume. The illiterate advocates of a pseudo-negrophilism, more ruinous t? tl-ie Africans of the United States than the condition of servitude in 136 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. Fig. 36. which they thrive, multiply, and are happy, have actually claimed St. Augustine, Eratosthenes, Juba, Hannibal, and other great men, as historical vouchers for the perfectibility of the Negro race, because born in Africa ! It might hence be argued that " birth in a stable makes a man a horse." We submit the following portraits. Eratosthenes '^"^ (Fig. 36), born at the Greek colony of Gyrene, on the coast of Barbary, about 276 B. c. What more perfect sample of the Greek Jiistorical type could be desired ? Hannibal '^^ (Fig. 37), son of Hamilear Barcas, born at Carthage, about b. c, 247. The highest "Caucasian" type is so strongly marked in his face, that, if his father was a Phoenico-Carthagi- nian, one would suspect that his mother, as among the Ottomans and Persians of the present day, was an imported ivhife slave, or other fe- male of the purest Japhetic race. Fig. 37. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. JuBA^^® (Fig- 38), son of Hiempsal, king of JSTumidia, ascended the throne about b. c. 50. If not Berber (and we have no means of compa- rison), the Arab type predominates in his countenance ; and that this closely approximated to the true Tyrian^ or PlKcnician, is evident by com])aring it with the features of an ancient citizen of Tyi-e (Fig. 89), figured at Thebes, in the reign PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS, 13/ of Ramses EH., of the XXtli dynasty, during tlie thirteenth century B. c. Abundant ilhistrations of the permanence of type, in other varieties of Semitish races, will be given in due course ; but, on our road to Persia, let us indicate a Syrian form, in this mountaineer of Lebanon"" (Fig. 40), from the conquests of the same Eamses ; and contrast it with a genuine Cushite Arab, or Himyarite^'^'^ (Fig- 41), who appears in the tomb of Seti-Meneptha I., about 1400 years b. c. FiQ. 40. Fig. 41 A full-length figure of Fig. 42 As we cross through Chaldiea, we again encounter (Fig. 42) the true Jewish type in the land of its origin this individual will be given in a succeeding Chapter; and it is the more curious, inasmuch as we be- hold in its design an Egyptian art- ist's conception of a Clialdee during the fifteenth century b. c. ; that is, about 500 3"ears before any cunei- form monuments yet found, and 600 years before any Jewish records, now known, were inscribed or written. Persian monumental ethnogra- phy, (like the native, the Hebrew, and the Greek chronicles of that Iranian land,) can but commence with Cyrus ; — that mighty name, which, until recent hieroglyphical and cnneatic discoveries threw open the portals of ages anterior, marked the grand terminus of historical knowledge concerning Oriental events and nations, "We accompany the following series wath Pawlinson's translation of the Persepolitan arrow-headet' 'egends. 18 138 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. Fig. 43. " I am Cyrus, the King ; the Achsemenian." ^32 Such is the simple epitaph of sterUng greatness, on the ruined pilasters of Mur- ghab, or Parsagadse, adja- cent to the tomb of Cyrus : built about b. c. 528. The abraded condition of the face (Fig. 43) en- ables us merely to distin- guish that high-class type, which the grandson of a Mede (Astyages) and a Ly- dian (Mandane, sister of Croesus), and the son of a Persian^ would naturally present. Singularly enough, the effigy wears an Egyptian (Kneph-Osiris) head-dress ; which confirms Letronne's argument of the very inti- mate relations between Per- sia and Egypt, before the conquest by Cambyses.'^ " I am Darius, (Fig. 44) the great King, the King of Kings, the King of Persia, the King of (the depen- dent) provinces, the son of Hya- taspes, the grandson of Arsames, the Achaemenian." >35 We see Darius in the attitude of uttering that noble address, which stand& inscribed on the vast cu- neiform Tablet of Behistiin, cut about 482 b. c. " Xerxes, the great King, the King of Kings, the son of King Darius, the Achaemenian." 1^ We are uncertain whether the effigy (Fig. 45) be not that of his son, A RTA XERXES: but, e^hnologically, the point is immaterial; for the Persic type of the line of Achsemenes is rigorously preserved in these sculptures of Persepolis. Bas-Relief of Cyrus. 133 Fig. 44. Fig. 45. Bas-Relief or DAUlUS.13f Bas-Relief op Xerxes. 138 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 139 "This is the face (Fig. 46) of the (Mazdaean) servant of Ormuzd, of the god Sapor, king of the kings of the Iranians and of the non-Iranians, of the race of the gods; son of tiie (Mazdiean) servant of Ormuzd Ardeshir, king of the kings of Iran, of the race of the gods; grandson of the god Babek, king." '^s Fia. 46. Roman. Sapor, iw Tills Cf-reek version of the trilingnar inscription carved upon Sha- poor's horse at iSTakshi-Redjeb, near Persepolis, is the more precious, because it served to Grotefend, 1802, the same purpose tliat the tri- glyphic Rosetta Stone answered to Young, in 1816. The latter became the finger-post to Champollion le Jeune's deciphering of all Egyptian hieroglyphics ; just as the former to Rawlinson's of all cuneiform writings. Our heads, however, are taken from the bas-relief of the same king SiiAPOOR, Sapor, at Nakshi-Rous-tam : where a Roman suppliant, no less a personage than the captive emperor Valerian, kneels in vain hope of exciting Persian humanity. The scene refers to events of about A. D. 260 ; when, under the Sassanian dynasty, art had wofuUy declined. The contrast, notwithstanding, between the Persian and the Roman, is here preserved ; and still more effectively in another tableau^*' at Chapour. Among the prisoners of Darius at Behistun, the nations carved on his rock-hewn sepulchre at Persepolis, and the troops supporting the throne of Xerxes, may be seen many varieties of the Median, Per- sian, and Chaldfean races ; although, in the latter instances, the ab- sence of names prevents identification : but this son of the desert, (Fig. 47) of the age of Sapor,^^^ affords a variant, with some Arabian lineaments, that we are inclined to refer to Beloochisttln, or the Indian side of the Persian Gulf Still nearer to the Indus do we assign the first of two effigies (Figs, 48, 49) painted in Egypt about 1800 years previously. The second 140 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS, Fig. 47. Fig. 49. may even, perhaps, approach the Himalayan range. They are from the "Grand Procession" of Thotmes III., in the sixteenth century B. c, to he elucidated hereinafter. He (Fig. 48) leads an elephant, which, hke that on the Obelisk of Nimroud,^^'' points towards Ilindostanic intercourse ; and his features, surmounted by the straw hat, are peculiarly Hindoo. The other (Fig. 49) carries an elephant's tooth, at tl;e same time that he leads a bear — by Morton denominated an Ursus Lahiatus — and a certain Avian cast of countenance favors the vague geogra- phical attribution we adopt for him. Finally, to esial)lish the diversity of Asiatic tj'pes, in every age parallel with the Jewish, here is a Tartar (Fig. 50) from the conquests of Ramses H.,'" painted at Aboosimbel in tlie fourteenth century b. c. His face is unmistakeable ; as are those of his associates, some of whom wear their hair long, in the same tableau. The question of the "Chinese" (un- \ T~i — known to any nation west of the Euphrates pi-ior to the Christian era,) has been set- tled in our Supplement; and it suffices here to note that, the custom Fig. 50. THE CAUCASIAN TYPES, ETC. 141 of shaven heads, with scalp-lock, is essentially Tartar. The Chine?e always wore their hair long until compelled to shave their heads by the present dynasty of ]\Iantchou-Tartars ; ""^ and the Turkish branch of those hordes introduced this usage in the modern Levant. Reader ! we have followed the Chaldaic type from Mesopotamia to Memphis; and thence, via Carthage, through Palestine, Syria, Arabia, Assyria, and Persia, until it disappeared ; when, looking towards the Caspian and the Indus, we descried the cradle-lands of Arian, Tartar, and Hindoo races. May we not now consider permanence of type among JEWS, for more than 3000 years, to be a matter pi'oved ? and with it, the simultaneous existence in the same countries of every variety of type and race visible there now, ever distinct during the same period ? The monuments of Egj-pt and Assyria, history and the Bible, have enabled us to ascend to the age of Abraham, iirst historical progenitor of the Israelitish line, and demonstrate the indelibility of the Jewish type from his era downwards. The sculptures of the IVtli dynasty have also exhibited the admixture, or engraftment of the same Chaldaic type upon native famiHes of Egypt at a date which is some 2000 years beyond Abraham's era upwards. Other analogical proofs will appear in tlie sequel ; but, in the in- terim, the Jews themselves are living testimonies that their \.\^Q has survived every vicissitude ; and that it has come down, century by century, from Mesopotamia to Mobile, for at least 5500 years, unaltered and, save through blood-alliance with Gentiles, unalterable. CHAPTER V. THE CAUCASIAN TYPES CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. In a preceding chapter, portions of the European group, generi- cally styled the " Caucasian," were traced backwards through historical times. This sketch was followed by a resume of the Physical History of the Jews, whose annals constitute the boundary of written history, by supplying the most ancient literary link that connects us with remoter monumental periods. We now propose to track this Cau- casian type onwards, through the stone records of Egypt, up to the earliest of such documents extant. The incipient history of the Israelites is indissolubly woven with that of Egypt; nor could we separate the two if we would. Although the earliest positive sj'nchronism, or ascertained era of contact, be- tween these people, is the year 971 b. c. ; viz. : the conquest of Judiea 142 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES under Rehoboam by Shishak or ShesJwnJc — nevertheless, there are other periods of intercourse much earlier in date, which may be reached approximately : and while, on the one hand, Egyptian monu- ments, so far as knoAvn synchronisms extend, bear testimony to the historical truth of Jewish records posterior to Solomon, these, on the otlier, furnish evidence in favor of the reliabilit}^ of the hieroglyphics. The histories of Abraham, of Joseph, of Jacob and his descendants, and of Moses, all bear witness to the antiquity, grandeur, and high civilization attained by Egypt's Old Umjnre before the birth of the tirst Hebrew patriarch : but wlien we compare the genealogical and chro- nological systems of the two people, as well as their respective phy- sical types, there is really nothing in common between them. Abra- ham, according to the Rabbinical account, is but the tenth in descent from Noah ; his birth occurring 292 years after the Deluge : but, substituting the more critical computation of Lepsius, Abraham must have lived in the time of Amunoph III., 3Iemnon, of the XVIIIth dynasty, about 1500 years b. c. Now, the epoch of Menes, the first Pharaoh of Egypt, is placed by the same savant at 3893 b. c, or some 2400 years before Abraham. The epoch of Abraham has ordinarily, indeed, been computed by Biblical commentators, a few centuries farther back than the date assigned to him by Lepsius ; but we are inclined to adopt the esti- mate of this superior authority, for the following simple reasons : — There are but five generations — viz. : Isaac, Jacob, Levi, Kohath, Amram — between Abraham and Moses; and the era of the latter is now approximately fixed in the fourteenth century b. c. By adding to the latter age — assuming the Exodus, when Moses was 80 years old, at B. c. 1322'*^ — the average duration of life for five generations, the time of Abraham falls about 1500 b. c. It may be objected that people in olden times were gifted with a longevity immeasurably greater than our modern generations; but this presumption is contra- dicted by a thoroughly-established fact, that the Egyptians, whose ages are recorded on the hieroglyphical tomljstones for twenty centu- ries before Abraham's nativity, and whose mummied crania, of gene- rations long anterior to this patriarch, abound, lived no longer than people do now. Another proof, likewise, that numerical errors have always existed in the Book of Genesis, is the fact, that the maimscript Texts dift'er irreconcilal)]}' in respect to the ages of the Patriarchs; while these extraordinary ages are rendered nugatory by the physio- logical laws governing human life. If farther proof be Avanted, it nuiy oe gathered from the story of Abraham and Sarah. Though ronteinporar?/ ivith every one of her ancestors back to Noah hhnself, (all .IT whom, according to Genesis,"'' lived fi'om 205 to 600 years), yet i CARRIED TIIROUGn EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 143 Sarah, when told, in her ninetieth year, that she should bear a child, laughed twice, having never heard of such an occurrence ! But, even admitting such suporhunian longevities for the Patriarchs, that does not nuMul the ditHcnlty ; for, after all, there are but ten generations between Abraham and i^oah, to set otf against no less than seventeen dynasties of P]g\i>t, each of which included many kings, whose united ages exceed 2000 years. The following is the popular view of the genealogy of Abraham : the seientitic results of Ilebraical inquiry into which are discussed in Part 111. of our work. 1. S/icm. 2. Arphaxad. 3. Salah. 4. Hber. 6. Pelecf. 6. Reu. 7. Seriiff. 8. Nahor. 9. Terah. 10. Abraham,' ITow, as we have stated, Abraham was not only contemporary with this ancestry, but, according to the Jewish system, 58 years old when Noah himself died ; and yet, when he visits Egj-pt, he meets with no acquaintances nor kindred there ; but, on the contrary, he finds a great empire, composed of millions of strange people ; and beholds standing around him p3-ramids and temples, erected by this more an- cient and distinct race — with records, hieroglyphical and hieratic, written in a language to him foreign, stretching back more than 2000 years before his birth. The reasons, then, are obvious, for passing over that part of Egyptian history subsequent to b. c. 1500, and for commencing our analysis of the monuments with those of the XVIIth dynasty, (of Lepsius — XVIIIth, of Rosellini,) which was contempo- rary with Abraham. Although Jewish chronicles, as they have reached us, beyond this Abrahamic point are all confusion, it will be seen that Eg^'ptian monuments afford vast materials, bearing upon some T}i^es of ISfankind, in Asia and Africa, whose epoch antedates, by twenty centuries, that of the Father of the Abrahamidre. It is now known to every educated reader that the Egyptians from the very earliest times of which vestiges remain, viz., the Hid jmkI IVtli dynasties, were in the habit of decorating their temples, royat and private tombs, &:c., with paintings and sculptures of an historical character; and that a voluminous, though interru|)ted, series of su>;]« hieroglyphed monuments and papyri is preserved to the present day These sculptures and paintings not only yield us innumerable por- traits of the Eijvptians themselves, but also of an infinitude of foreitcu people, with whom they held intercourse through wars or commerce. Thev have portrayed their allies, their enemies, their captives, servants, and slaves ; and we possess, therefore, thus faithfully delineated, most if not all the Asiatic and African races known to the Egyptians 3500 years ago — races which are recognized as identical with those thai occupy the same countries at the present day. 144 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES "We shall commence our illustrations by a series of roval portraits of tlie XYIItli and succeeding dynasties. They are fixithfully copied, on a reduced scale, from the magnificent Monumenti of Rosellini. Although reasons will be produced hereinafter for regarding this line of Pharaohs as of mixed Asiatic origin [i. e. not of the pure Egyptian type proper), yet they will sei-ve admirably as a basis whence to con- tinue tracing, upwards, our Caucasian types. !N"ot only are all these heads of high Asiatic or Caucasian outline, but several of their features strongly betray the Abrahamic cross. "When the celebrated Visconti printed, in Italy, his " Greek and Roman Iconography,'' containing the portraits of the most famous personages of classical antiquity, he lamented the absence of Egyptian portraits ; little expecting that, a few years later, Rosellini '^* should publish a complete gallery of likenesses of Pharaohs and Ptolemies from the monuments of the Nile ; still less could either of those great scholars foresee that, ere one generation elapsed, we should possess the portraits of Sennacherib and other Assyrian monarchs from the palaces of Nineveh ! Mankind have always, and in every country (China, from most ancient times, particularly), taken extreme interest in knowing the features of those who have been renowned in storj-. Pliny praises the 700 portraits collected by Varro. Solomon, or the writer of Wisdom,^*^ says, " Whom men could not honor in presence, because they dwelled afar off, they took the counterfeit of his visage, and made an express image of a king whom they honored ; " and while to Gre- cian art we owe the perpetuation of the sublime busts of their worthies back to the fourth century b. c, we can no longer tolerate the illusion, now that we possess the likeness of Prince Merhet (to be exhibited in due course) who lived about 5300 years ago, that Lysistratus, who flourished in the 114th Olympiad, was either the first portrait-sculptor or moulder. Such sparse remains of Hellenic art as appertain to the sixth century b, c. difi:er altogether from the perfection of later ages, and betray the stifi^iiess of antiquity. They correspond in style to the old Lycian sculptures, which are known derivatives of Assyrian art ; and it is sufficient to glance at the efligies of Ninevite kings and nobles, so splendidly illustrated in the folio plates of Botta and of Layard, to be convinced tluit the art of portrait-taking ascends, in As- syria at least, to the tenth century b. c. ; while, in Egypt, its origin precedes the oldest pyramids — because, at the IV th dynasty, the likenesses oi individuals are repeated times out of number in their tombs. II?. any one can verify by opening Lepsius's Denkmdler. The general exactitude of Egyptian iconography being now a matter ^)eyond dispute, we have only to remind the reader, while submitting CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 145 the following selections, tliat, if lie makes allowance for want of per- spective in antic^ue Eoyptian art, wherein the eye is alwa^'s presented in full, he will find the profiles adniirahly truthful. Moreover, he will be struck with the likenesses from father to son in each family group — which is another guarantee of artistic fidelity; at the same time that the infusion of new blood in each dynasty, and the conse- quent alteration of lineaments, are apparent to every eye. PHARAONIC PORTRAITS. 150 Amunophites AND TiiOTMESiTES. — New Empire — XVIIth Theban dynasty — commencing at b. c. 1671 (Lepsius), with Aahmes, Amasis; whose portrait being unknown, we begin with his son's. Our ethno- logical conceptions are very brieiiy given under each head, leaving the reader to emend where we may not have seized the exact definitions. Fig. 44. Fig. 45. His wife. "x — \ Amtjnoph I. Aahmes-Nofre-Ari. (A Grecian countenance.) (Strong Semitic features.) Fig. 46. Son of the above. "©a f Fig. 47. ^ .-^^ —( ^m//\ His wife. C-rJ Thotmes I, (Strikingly Uellenic.) 19 Aahmes. (Absolutely Jewish.) 146 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES Fig. 48. Fig. 49. Thotmes II. (Blends his father's with his mother's face.) Fig. 50. Thotmes III. (Preserves the same character.) Fig. 51. Amunoph II. (Unites Egyptian with Hellenic.) Fig. 52. Thotmes IV. (Returns to the old Egyptian form.) Fig. 53. Thotmes IV. mar- ries a foreigner. Their son has foreign features. Maut-IIemwa. (Nubian? Cushite- Avmbt) Amunoph III. Memnon. (A hybrid, but not of Negro intermixture.) CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. Fio. 55. 147 Fig. 54, Wife of Ara- unoph III. (Further commin- glings with foreigners occur, and the Disk- heresy be- gins.) Son of Amu- noph III. Taia, {Egyptian.) Amunoph IV. Bex'^n-AtenJ^^ (Anomalous features.) At the close of the XYIIIth dynasty, and just before the inangnra- tion of the XlXth, intervenes a period of anarchy, technically known to Egyptologists as the "Disk Heresy;" wherein the above extraor- dinary personage (Fig. 55) plays a not less extraordinary part. He turned the orthodox priests out of the sanctuaries — abolished the polytheistic orisons to Eg^q^t's ancient gods — and introduced during his reign (followed for a short time by successoi^^), the worship of the suns disk. These events took place in Upper Egypt, during the fifteenth century b, c. ; or some time before the birth of Moses, a<;- cording to the emended Biblical chronology of Lepsius, Fig. 56. After anarchical times. HORUS. (A lineal descendant from Thotmes III., whose Semitic ancestors he reproduces.) And the XVHlth Dynasty ends in usurpations. 148 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES XlXth Dynasty — New Family — Ramesides — about b. c. 1525. Fig. 57. FiQ. 68. Ramesu. Bamses I. (Grseco-Egyptian ?) Fig. 59. Seti-Menki'tha.is^ (Mother imknoTvri ; but the Semitic caste reappears.) Fig. 60. Seti-Menei'tha I. (Not a good likeness ?) Seti-Meneptha I. (More like his youthful style.) The w'fe of Seti- Meneptha I. The son of Seti- Meneptha I. and Tsira. TSIRA. (Entirely Jewish.) Ramses II., the GreatA^'^ (His features are as superbly European as Napoleon's, whom he resembles.) CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 149 FiQ. 63. Fia. 64. NOFRE-ARI. (Very high-caste lineaments.) Wife of Ramses II. A daugh- ter of Ramses II. by an- other wife. BOTIANTE. (Chiefly Semitic.) Fig. 65. Fig. 66. Mkneptha II. Menephthes. (Lepsius's Pharaoh of the ExodusA^ ) [Egypto-Semitic] Uerri. Rawerri. (/Se7/i«7«co-Egyptian.) And the XlXth dynasty ends about 1300 b. c. We pass over the various portraits of the XXth and XXIst dy- nasties; because, where identified, the type is the same, except that it is -"n i\\Q females that we perceive the Asiatic caste of race most prominently; a fact of singular ethnograpliical import. We renew the illustrations at about 971-3 b. c, with the portrait of SMshak, conqueror of "Jerusalem," as recorded at Ivarnac ; and "in the iifth year of Rehoboam," as chronicled by the Hebrew writers. 150 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES XXnd Dynasty — Manetho's " Bubastites ;" Proved by Mr. Birch to have Assyrian names ; but the Pharaonic stock has now become so mixed, that it is difficult to determine whether the Hellenic, the Semitic, or the Egyptian preponderates. I Fig. 67. Fig. 68, Sheshonk I. OSOEKON HI. There are little or no remains of the XXllld or XXTVth dynasties ; but, in order to show that the so-called " Ethiopian" dynasty had no Negro blood in their veins, we subjoin their three portraits. Dr. Morton calls them "Austro-Egyptians ; " and we opine that they may De derived from an Egyptian colony, crossed with Old Beja (Begawee), DP perhaps with CwsAz'te- Arabian blood. XXVth Dynasty— b. c. 719 to 695. Fig. 69. Fig. 70. ^HKJi \K-Sabaco, (Meroite ?) SHABATOK-zS'evec/ms. (Pharaoh Sua. 2 Kings, xvii. 4.) CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 151 FiQ. 71. TxHUAKA-Tirhaka. (" Melek-KuSA." 2 Kings, xix. 9.) It is unnecessary, for etiinological purposes, to continue the series of Egyptian portraits clown to the Ptolemies, and ending with Cleo- patra (already given, Fig. 8, page 104,) and her son by Julius C^sar, C^SARiON. The reader can behold the whole of theip in Rosellini's magnificent folios. Having presented the royal likenesses, to serve as e\adence of Egyptian artistic accuracy, we shall now investigate the foreign nations with whom the men, whose portraits we have just seen, were acquainted ; together with such others as their ancestors had known during twenty centuries previously. It will become apparent, in a succeeding chapter, that even as far back as the IVth dynasty, b. c. 3500, the population of Egypt already exhibited abundant instances of mixed types of African and Asiatic origins ; at the same time that the language then spoken on the Lower Nile, and recorded in the earliest hieroglyphics, also presents evi- dence of these amalgamations. The series of Royal portraits just submitted not only demonstrates this commingling of races, but shows that Asiatic intruders had, at the foundation of the New Empire, to a great extent, supplanted, in the royal family at least, the indige- nous Egyptians. Their foreign tjq^e is vividly impressed upon the iconographic monuments. So much do the Pharaonic portraits of the XVIIth, XVIIIth, and XlXth dynasties resemble those of the later Greek and Roman sovereigns, that the eye passes through the long series given by Rosellini without being arrested by any striking contrast between the former and the latter. Although the common people were also greatly mixed, the Eg}-ptian type proper, neverthe- less, among them, predominated over the Asiatic. Even admitting that the autocthonous Egyptian race was always, down to the Persian conquest, b. c. 525, the ruling one, yet the royal families of the Nile, as in other countries, become modified by mariiages with alien races 152 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES We know, tlirongli classical history, of numerous alliances betwebn the Ethiopians and Eg^'ptians. Solomon too, an Asiatic, married an Egyptian princess; and we have mentioned other instances of Jewish predilection for the women, no less than for the "flesh-pots, of Egypt." Mr. Birch'^^ has recently furnished some quite novel particulars concernins: the matrimonial alliance of a Pharaoh of the XXth dynasty (probably Ramses XIV.) with an Asiatic princess of Buk- hitana ; to whom was given the title of " Ea-neferu, the king's chief wife." With regard to the exact locality in Asia of this country, although it might be Ecbatana in Media, Birch takes it to be the celebrated Bashan mentioned in Deuteronomy (iii. 1, &c.) This tablet, brought from the temple of Chons at Karnac, in 1844, by M. Prisse, is so intensely curious that we extract two of Birch's translations, adding interlineary explanations : — "■Line 5. 'Then the chief of Bukhitana \_Bashan?'\ caused his tribute to be brought; he gave his eldest daughter [to the King of Egypt] .... in adoring his majesty, and in promising her to him : she being a very beautiful person, his majesty prized her above all things.' ''Line 6. 'Then was given her the title [ ? ] of Ra-neferu, the king's chief wife, and when his majesty arrived in Egypt, she was made king's wife in all respects.' " Here, then, is a positive example of the marriage of an Eg3^tian king with an Asiatic female, that entirely corroborates the intermix- ture of races we derived from tlie physical aspects of the royal portraits. Whether the hierogl^^jhic Bashten, or Bakhtan, be the Bashan of Palestine or Median Ecbatana, to ethnology the fact is the same ; and probabilities favor, in either case, the lady's Semitish extraction. It is with regret that we cannot digress about the cure wrought upon this lady's sister, " Benteresh" [Hebraice, Daughter of the Resh, chief, or king], who was "possessed by devils ; " but her name, being Ara- bic no less than Hebrew, settles, philologically, her Semitic lineage. It may be worthy of passing notice to the reader, that the conven- tional color by which the Egyptians always represented their own males was red, and their own females, yelloiv ; and that, with few ■exceptions, other races were painted in such different col(U's as the artist deemed most conformable to their cuticular hues. Why were •exceptions made ? Was it because the Egyptians, in such instances, ihad formed marriage connections with some of these races, and •ennobled them, therefore, with the red color? Our Figs. 41, 82, and 88, belonging to the fourteenth and iifteenth centuries b. c, are, in KosELLiNi, thus represented in rec? ; showing, perhaps, that they were esteemed as equals,^-* or that they belonged to cognate Ilamitic affiliations. Let us now select for examination a few monumental heads of the VAYionQ foreign races so faithfully portrayed. It will then be apparent CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 153 that the same diversity has ever existed among the so-called Caucasian species, np to the very earliest monuments of above fifty centuries ago. By w;iy of general introduction to this vast subject, we present one group wherein three distinct types of mankind are grasped by a fourth. Ramses 11., in the fourteenth century b. c. (or during the early paii; of the lifetime of Moses), at the temple of Aboosimbel in IS'ubia, sym- bolizes his Asiatic and African conquests in a gorgeousl^'-colored tableau. He, an Egyptian, brandishes a pole-axe over the the heads oi Negroes, Nubians (Barabera), and Asiatics, each painted. in their true colors: viz., black, brick-dust, and yellow flesh-color; while, above his head, runs the hieroglyphic scroll, " The beneficent living god, guardian of gloiy, smites the South ; puts to flight the East ; rules by victory ; and drags to his country all the earth, and all foreign lands." Ramses inclusive, here, to begin with, are /owr types of men — one mixed, two purely African, and one true Asiatic, co- existent at 1400 years b. c, or some 3350 years ago. Their geography extends from the confluence of tbe Blue and AVhite Niles, beyond the northern limit of the tropical rains, in Kegro-laiid ; down the river to Egypt, and thence to the banks of the Euphrates. Precisely the same four types occupy the same countries at the present day. 20 . 154 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES We next proceed to examine the Asiatic class ; but it should be remembered that we are about to trace retrogressively, into the very night of antiquity, various races — say, an indefinite point of time, more than 5000 years anterior to our age ; and that languages, toge- ther with the names of people and of places, have so changed, that it is in these days impossible to identify, in several instances, either the nations or their habitats, except en masse. Often, the type alone, which has never altered, remains to guide us. It were irrational to be surprised at these difficulties. We must ever bear in mind the confusion of races and countries seen among the Hebrew, Greek, and Roman historians, and even in our geographies of much later ages. If classical topography be so often vague, that of the primeval hiero- glyphics may well be still more so. Most of our illustrations are taken from the great works of Rosel- lini and Lepsius ; but we subjoin references to other hierological commentators. This head (Fig. 72), one of several similar, ^°" ■ is taken from the Nubian temple of Ahoosim- hel, by Lepsius placed in the fourteenth cen- tury B. c. They appear on a tableau wherein Ramses 11., during the fifth year of his reign, attacks a fortress in Asia, which, it is be- lieved, belonged to a tribe of people called the Bomenen, ReMeNelST, near the " land of Omar;"^^^ probably mountaineers of the Tauric range, and, in any case, not remote from Mesopotamia. The Romenen are a branch of the Lodan-nou, or "Ludim," Lydians ; by which general designation are known, on the monuments, divers Asiatics inhabiting Asia-Minor, Syria, Assyria, and adjacent countries; probably, Rosellini thinks, this side of the Euphrates : but we incline, with Morton, to consider that Fig. 72 " represents ancient Scythians, the easternmost Caucasian races; who, as history informs us, pos- sessed fair complexions, blue eyes, and reddish hair." Contrasted with the other Asiatics, grouped in Fig. 71, it affords a very distinct type. The lower and most salient of the latter profiles presents, as Morton has duly noted, " a finely-marked Semitic head, in which the forehead, though receding, is remarkably voluminous and expres- sive.'' '•''' An additional reason for supposing that Fig. 72 does not belong to Semitic races on the Euphrates, is the fact that it oft'ers no resemblance to the true Chaldsean, or indigenous type, beheld on the royal monuments of Nineveh or Babylon; but may possibly be recognized among their prisoners of war or foreign nations. CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 155 Fio. 73. Allowance made for diiference be- tween Egyptian and Assyrian art, cou- pled with the proviso tliat the Ninevite sculptors were by no means so precise in ethnic iconography as those of Egypt, we reproduce here a head (Fig. 73), from the sculptures of Khorsabad, by way of comparison : noting the iden- tity of the head-dress, which is a leathern cap. ( Vide infra, P^ge 128). West of the Eviphrates, more or less of the Jewish type prevailed. The heads, of which Fig. 72 is a specimen, represent a race which, some 1400 years b. c, was distinct from con- temporaneous Mesopotamian families. People with yellowish skins, blue eyes, and reddish hair, are certainly not of Semitic extraction ; and, judging from the physiognomy of this man and his associates, these were probably cognate Scythian tribes, inasmuch as they do not dilier among themselves more than individuals of any Caucasian nation of our day. It is known that Scythic tribes settled in Syria, and even at Sci/thopolis, in Judtea ; nor do we employ the term "Sc}"thian" here in a sense more specific than as distinct from "Semitic" and from "Hamitic" populations. OsBURN figures this head, classing it as one of the Canaanitish " Zuzim ;" but we certainly should not regard blue eyes, red hair, eye-brows, and beard, as characteristic of Canaanites, nor a§ any other Hamitic families situate in this region of country, west of the Euphrates. The same author calls our Asiatic, Fig. 71 bis, a " Moabite of Eabbah," and describes him among the Hittites ; but he likewise has classed our Fig. 93 as a Hittite ; and we cannot imagine how heads so entirely different could be deemed identical by an ethnologist. Fio. 74.160 This head (Fig. 74) is taken from the celebrated tomb of Seti-Me- 156 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES Fia. 75. NEPTHA T., of XlXth dynasty, about the fifteenth century b. c. We have ah-eady alluded, when speaking of classifications of races, to this scene, and illustrated it in Fig. 1. The god Horus is represented, conducting sixteen per- sonages, in groups of four ; each of which groups represents a distinct division of the human fixmily; and these divisions include all the races known to the Egyptians. Our full length (Fig. 75) is a reduced copy of the same personage ; but taken from the Prussian, "'^ where- as the head (Fig. 74) is from the Tuscan work. A similar scene occurs in the tomb of Ramses III. of the XXth dynasty, in which the same divisions are kept up ; but the individuals selected differ in race from the preceding, though bearing a certain generic resemblance. As before stated, each Egyptian division, like our generic designations — Caucasian, Mongol, Xegro, &c., contained many proximate types. Although previously published in his colored folio plates by the indefatigable Belzoni, the ethnological importance of this tableau, in the sepulchre of Seti I., was not perceived until Champollion-le- Jeune visited Thebes in 1829; nor, indeed, to this daj^, has its quad- ripartite classification of mankind been adequately appreciated. Some writers have mistaken its import altogether ; while none, that we kjiow of, have deduced from it the natural consequence, that Egyptian ethnographers already knew of four types of mankind — red, black, white, and yelloiv — several centuries before the writer of Xth Genesis ; who, omitting the black or Negro races altogether, was acquainted with no more than three — " Shem, Ham, and Japheth." Champollion, with his consummate acuteness, at once pronounced this scene to represent " The inhabitants of the four quarters of the worlJ, according to the ancient Egyptian system: viz., 1st, the inhabitants of Egypt; 2d, the Asiatics; 3d, the inhabitants of Africa, or the blades ; and 4th, the Europeans." We merely object to the term "Europeans," instead of ^' white races ;" because, in the fifteenth century b. c. there was no necessity for travelling out of Asia Minor in quest of ^vhite men; nor could the Egyptians, at that time, have possessed much knowledge of Europe. To our eye, Fig. 74 marks a ti/pe of the vjhite races in the fifteenth centuiy b. c The particular nation to which he belongs is the Rebo of hierog^yyih.icf. , probably the Rhibii of the classics. Figure 76'^-^ is from another part of the tomb of Seti I., also datin^s; CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS 15T Fig. 76. about 1500 years b. c. This head, in Rosollhii's colored pLates, pre- sents all the lineaments of a Iliniyarite Arab, except the blue eye ; which, possibly, niaj^ be a mistake of the artist. " Himyjir" moans red^ and the Pisan copy is colored red. Upon reference, notwith standing, to the great Prussian work,^"^ wherein, it is to be assumed, the colors of the original paintings are reproduced with greater accuracy-, this face is of a light brown complexion, with black eyes and beard. While, perhaps, it is not possible (considering the numerous transfers of copies be- tween ancient originals in Egypt and their multiplied reproductions in mo- dern plates,) always to avoid discrepan- cies, it will be remembered that the crimson or scarlet tints, adopted by the Egyptians for their own males, is purely conventional — that is, being impossible in real nature — so that, whether the skin be colored red or brown, the osteological structure of the features remains the same; and these are genuine Arab. Morton remarks, in his MS. letter : — " This is the very image of a Southern Arab, with his sharp features, dark skin, and certain national expression, admirably given in the drawing." As such, his effigy furnishes another antique type of man. This head (Fig. 77) [vide svpra page 108, fig. 9,) has been already compared with the Tochari of Strabo and of the K^inevite sculptures. There is nothing to favor Os- burn's theory, that this man and his ma- ritime associates were Philistines ; nor to oppose Morton's, that they exhibit Celtic • features. We present it, without comment, as another evidence of the ancient diversity of "Caucasian types :" and Avith an indica- tion of the incompatibility of this man's features with any tongue not a congener of that class bearing the name of "Indo-European." lie cannot, therefore, be a Philistine. From the prisoners of Ramses m., of the XXth dynasty, thirteenth century b. c, we take Fig. 78: sculptured on the base of his pavilion at Medeenet-IIaboo.'*^ A fracture in the wall has obliterated the hieroglyphics, so that there is no name for him ; but adjacent to him are prisoners of the Tokkari or Tochari. lie may be a mountaineer 158 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES Fig. 78. Fig. 79. Ancient Asiatic. Modern Kurd. of the Taurus chain ; because he bears a strong resemblance to modern Kurdish families ; seen by comparing this profile with the head of a Kurd (Fig. 79), from the work of Hamilton Smith. To our minds, here is a strong example of permanence of type through 8000 years; whilst the name "Kurdah," Kurds, is read in ancient cuneiform, by De Saulcy, upon Assyrian inscriptions. Asiatic conquests of Ramses II. yield us Fig. 80 ; within the four- teenth century b. c, preserved at Beyt-el-Walee.'^^ Mr. Birch's detailed account of this important historical document is accompanied by colored drawings, in which the victories of that monarch over various Asiatic and African races are represented w^ith amazing truthfulness and spirit. The head itself possesses a Semitic caste, blended, perhaps, with Arian elements. Fig. 80. Fig. 81. Anotlier captive (Fig. 81) from the Asiatic conquests of Ramsep (IL CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 159 at Medeenet-Haboo. ^'^ Wilkinson reads tlie name " Lemanon," identical witli Lebanon ; which is probable, inasmuch as Birch agrees ; whilst Osburn, by reading Hermo- nites, fixes their locality at Mount Fio. 82. Hermon, anti-Libanus, in the north- east of Palestine. This character- istic specimen is essentially Semitic, of the Syrian form. Fig. 82 belongs to the " Grand Procession" of the age of Thotmes in., of the XVIIth dynasty, 1600 B. c.^^' No head in our whole cata- logue has, perhaps, caused as much arch geological debate ; nor is our knowledge of his race and countiy as yet satisfactory. Posellini figures this head without comment. Champollion Figeac copies it, but his explanations lead to no tangible result. Hoskins has beautifully colored the whole file (sixteen persons in number) of these tributary people, regarding them as natives of 3Ieroe, in Ethi- opia ; but subsequent researches, by Lepsius and others, render such estimate of Meroite antiquity radically wrong. "We now know that, in the time of Thotmes III., the only civilized points in Nubia were those occupied by Egyptian garrisons. The Meroe of Greek annalists did not then exist. Wilkinson accurately designs the whole scene, but without colors ; thereby rendering it less clear, in an anthropological point of \dew ; but his hieroglyphics are more exact, and he observes : — "The people, Kufa (which is their name), appear to have inhabited a part of Asia, lying considerably to the north of the latitude of Palestine ; and theii long hair, rich dresses, and sandals of the most varied form and color, render them remarkable among the nations represented in Egyptian sculpture." Birch calls them "the people o^ Kaf or Kfou^ an Asiatic race ; " placing them near Mesopotamia. Prisse denominates them, "le peuple de Koufa (race Asiatique, peinte en rouge)." From the foregoing we may conclude — 1st, that these Koufa were Asiatics ; 2d, that they resided near Mesopotamia; 3d, that, as they are painted red on the monuments, they presented certain aflinities with the Eg}-ptians, confirmed by the physiological characteristics of the latter race observed by Morton — "shortness of the lower jaw and chin ;" and 4th, that, if they be Cus?tites, they are of the Ilamitic st(iiii. They are probably of the KUSA-ite families of Arabia, cognate to the Egyptians (perhaps allied by royal marriages), who in consequence honored them with the red color. Inasmuch as they bring a tribute 160 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES Fig. 83, of golden vessels, they may have had access to the Arabian Ophir; and as they carry elephants' teeth, they had communication with the Indies, or with Africa. Judging from their-portraits, they certainly belonged not to any of the Abrahamic or Chaldsean tribes. They bear, further- more, considerable resemblance to those primeval heads we shall exhibit in a succeeding chapter as illustrative of the type of the founders of the Egyptian empire ; and slightly also to the later Egyp- tian type {Rot), as represented by Theban artists in their quadruple classification of races. These Koufa may possibly have been the descendants of an Egyptian colony, near the Persian Gulf: like that of Colchis, if we can trust Herodotus, in Asia Minor. This figure is from the conquests of Seti-Meneptha L, fifteenth century b. c, at the temple of Karnac.'* The people come under the generic class of White races ; and their tribe is called Tohen, by Rosellini. The same head, in one of the tombs, appears as the type of White races in the quadrupartite division of which we have already spoken. Birch calls them Tohen, Tahno, or Ten-hno — "evidently belonging to the white blood, or Japhetic family of mankind." Mor- ton, in his MS. letter, writes, "they present Pelasgic features ; but the blue eye, reddish hair, and harsh expression, are not unlike the Scythian race." The Egyptians seem to have entertained towards them an excess of hatred, and to have slaughtered them with more fury than any other people. But we leave their exact race and country an open question, although their Caucasian features cannot be mistaken. We have compared this (Fig. 84) and the next (Fig. 85) with the Jewish type {vide supra, p. 140). Rosellini gives no exjjlanations. Supposed, by Champoilion, to be Lydians — their name reading iw- dannu, or Rot-n-no. This head be- longs to the same Grand Proces- sion of Thotmes IIL, so eftectively colored in Iloskins ; but we have copied Rosellini's outline, as more correct. '^^ Iloskins again perceives "white slaves" of the king of his Ethiopia ! Osburn terms them Arvadites ; but Bii'cli, refuting both Fig. 84. CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS, 161 Fig. 85. opinions, puts these people down as Cappadocians, or Leuco-Syrians ; which seems more rational, did not an elephant's tooth suggest some geographical obstacle. The man leads an animal — disputed, whether it is a hear or lion, the drawing being so very defective. He also carries an elephant's tusk. Morton figures this head as Indo-Semitic, or Indo-Persian ; and all attending circumstances assign him a habi- tation between Persia and the Upper Indus. Another from the same scene as the pre- ceding figure.^™ He wears a light dress and straw hat, and leads an elephant: conditions indicative of a southern climate. Morton observes — " This is a yet more striking Hindoo, in whom the dark skin, black eye, delicate features, and fine facial angle, are all admirably marked. The presence of the elephant assists us in designating the national stock, while the straw hat sends us to the Ganges" — or, much nearer, to the Indus ? Peculiar interest attaches to both of the above effigies ; the latter of which enables us to carry the existence of a Hindoo national type back to the sixteenth century b. c. Although no written Hindostanic monuments are extant of an age coetaneous with even the sixth cen- tury prior to our era, native traditions, zoological analogies, and admissions of the more sceptical Indologists, justify our considering the Hindoos to have inhabited their vast peninsula as early as the Egyptians did the shores of their Nile, or any other type of men its original centre of creation, whether in Asia, Africa, Europe, America, or Oceanica. We now come to that Egyptian tableau the most frequently alluded to. and which has prompted much nonsensical, if pious, discussion. The head (Fig. 86) is one of the '' Brickmakers," from the tomb of an architect — " Prefect of the country, Intendant of the great habitations, RoKSiiERE " — of the time of Thotmes III., XVHth dynasty, sixteenth century b. c.''^ We copy from Rosellini, who thougl it them Israelites ; but, according to the chronology of Lepsius, they antedate Jacob ; though they may be a cognate race — perhaps some of his ancestr}'. Wilkinson honestly observes : — •• To meet with Hebrews in the sculptures cannot reasonably be expected, since the remains in that part of Egypt where they lived have not been preserved ; but it is curioa» 21 Fio. 86. 162 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES to discover other foreign captives occupied in the same manner, overlooked by similar ' task- masters,' and performing the very same labors as the Israelites described in the Bible." The same author again insists — " They are not, however, Jews, as some have erroneously supposed, and as I have else- where shown." Notwithstanding the palpable anachronism and contradicting figura- tive circumstances, certain evangelical theologers have wasted much crocodilean grief over these unfortunate and oppressed, however apo- chryphal, Israelites ; forgetting, in their exceeding-great-thankfulness over a wondrous " confirmation," to weep for the Egyptian brick- makers, who toil in the same scene. The following items may assist the reader in forming an indepen- dent opinion : — 1st. The hieroglyphics do not mention the name or country of these briekmakers. 2d. The scene is not an historical record; but a pictorial illustration of brick-making, among other constructive arts that embellished the tomb of an architect, at Thebes — that is, 500 miles from "Goshen." 3d. The people wear no 6earc?8 — their little chin-sprouts are but the usual unshaven state of Egyptian laborers, no less than of pea- santry ever3^where. 4th. They are a Semitic people — possibly, with their beards cut off in Egyptian slavery ; but whether Canaanites, Hebrews, Arabs, Chalda^ans, or others, cannot be determined. 5th. There is not the slightest monumental evidence that the Jews (in the manner described by the writers of Genesis and Exodus) were ever in Egypt at all ! Their tt/pe, however, had existed there, 2000 years before Abraham's birth. 6th. These briekmakers are not more Jewish, in their lineaments, than Egyptian Fellahs of Lower Egypt at the present day, where the Arab cross is strong. Indeed, they greatly resemble the living- mixed race, who now make Nilotic bricks, every day, at Cairo, exactly as these briekmakers did 3500 years ago, and think nothing of it. Finally — if these briekmakers are claimed to be Israelites, we can have no objection, because their effigies will corroborate the perma- nence of the Jewish ty{)e for 3500 years : if they be not, to us they answer just as well — being tacit witnesses of the durability of Semitic features in particular, no less than proofs of one more form of ancient Caucasian ty[»e8 in general. The next head (Fig. 87), we now submit, is really out of place among our Caucasian group ; but, from the man's associations, he may have a position here. We are induced to portray his singular type for another reason : viz., that, being represented in the same picture with foreign allies, as well as with native Egyptian soldiers, it serves to CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 163 illustrate the correctuess of Egyptian out- ^^g- ^T- line drawing, and also the minute knowledge their artists had of various types of man- kind at that early day. The people of whom this is a sample have been reputed by many to be ancient Chinese. There are much better reasons for believing them to be Tartar tribes ; which form the geogra- phical link between Mongols and Cauca- sians — aboriginal consanguinity wdth either excluded. Morton took this head for Mongolian; and too hastily adopted ancient Egypto-Chinese connexions, on the faith of certain pseudo- antique Chinese "vases;" which, not manufactured prior to A. d. 1100, could not have been found in Theban tombs shut up 2000 years before. Under the heading of "Alphabetical Origins," our Supplement establishes that the Chinese, before the Christian era, possessed no knowledge whatever of nations whose habitats lay north and west of Persia. The splendid tableau from which the above ethnographic re- cord is taken, contains many heads of the same type — some of which are shaven, except the scalp-lock on the crown ; while others, though adorned with the thin moustache, wear the hair long and untouched by scissors. Is'ow, it can be seen, by reference to Pautliier, that the 3Iantchou- Tartars, in A. D. 1621-27, forced the Chinese to shave their heads, and wear the pig-tail. Previously, the Chinamen had worn their hair long. This scalp-lock (called Shoosheh, by the Arabs), therefore, is a Tartar custom ; and inasmuch as in the reign of Ramses IL, fourteenth century b. c, China and Chinese were equally unknown to the Egyptians, Jews, or Assyrians, we must suppose that these fair, oblique-eyed, and scalp-locked enemies of Ramses, were Tartars, or a branch of the great easterly Scythian hordes.^'^ Osburn repeats this scene, calling the people Sheti, whilst striving to restrict their habitat to Canaan, in which he signally fails. Birch's more consistent geography carries them to the Caspian, whei-e Tartars would naturally be found ; to which critical induction we may add the recent opinions of Rawlinson, De Saulcy, Ilincks, and Lowen- stern, that the Tartar, or " Scythic," element in cuneatic inscriptions, especially of the Aehisnieno- 3Iedian style, establishes the proximity of Turkish (call them Tartar or Scjthic, for the terms are still vague; tribes to Persia at a much earlier period than ethnologists h id liere- tofore suspected. As such, this effigy (Fig. 87) exempliiies the remotest Asiatic people 164 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES depicted on Pharaonic monuments, in days parallel witli Moses, during the fourteenth century b. c. Eamses IT,, at Beyt-el-Walee — fourteenth century b. c. — grasps the subjoined foreigner (Fig. 88) by the hair of his head. Considered, by Rosellini, to be typical of the "Tohen," a people of Syria: whereas Morton deemed him a " Himyar- ^^«- ^^- ite-Arab."^'^ We have naug-ht to oppose; and may add, that his red {Himyhr) color affiliates him with the Arabian KUSA-iteo. Fig. 89. Fio. 90. As the type of Yellow races, (Fig. 89) stands in the tomb of Ramses m., XXth dynasty, about thirteen centuries b. c.^'* Nothing is certain respecting the history of the people he represents; but Osburn perhaps is right in calling him an ancient Tyrian: everything — features, purple dress, &c. — harmonizes with this view, adopted by us in a pre- ceding chapter. {Infra, p. 136.) An identical type, possibly from another Phoenician colony, is met with about 150 years earlier. From the Thebau tomb at Qoornet Murrai, of the time of Amuntuonch [Amen- anehut of Birch), we select (Fig. 90) one instance of the many, to illus- trate physiological similitudes,"* that time has not extinguished, along the present coasts of Pales- tine, in the fishermen of Sour and Seyda (Tyre and Sidon), even co this day. CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMEMIS, 165 This great Asiatic chief (Fig. 91) is killed, in single combat, b^ Ramses IL; the colored original being drawn on a magnifieent tableau, at Aboosimbel.^'^ Rosellini makes him one of the Scythian " Tohen," beyond the Euphrates; and Morton deems him "Pelasgic." Hia features depart essentially from the Semitic cast ; and the face offers the earliest instance wherein Egyptian art has figured the eye closed. In this instance, as in many others, our copy is reversed; but such inad- vertencies do not affect ethnoo-ra- o phic precision. Fig. 92. Fig. 01. Fig. 93. We detach Fig. 92 from the bas-reliefs of Ramses HI., XXth dynasty, at Medeenet Ilaboo ; where he is called " Captive prince of the per- verse race of the inimical country of Sheto, living in captivity." '■" Morton, very naturally, holds him to be a "variety of the Semitic stock;" and Sheto, if read Kheto, signifies a Hittite; using the Biblical term E7^eTi in its widest acceptation. As the t}^e of White races, Fig. 93 appears in one of the Thebau tombs ; and, name unknown, is con- jectured, by Rosellini, to be " an an- cient example of the Greeks of Asia JSHnor, and especially of lonians. To strengthen this conjecture, I recall how among tlie monuments of Thot- mes V. [IV.], and of Meneptha I., mention is made of this people."'"^ The lonians^ Javan, &c., are sufficiently discussed in our Part 11., where the lUN" of Xth Genesis is analyzed; but " Yavan," and the " people of Yavan," as Grecian tribes of the seventh century b. c, occur repeatedly upon the monuments of Nineveh. Morton take« him to be " Pelasgic." In his MS. letter, he adds: — 166 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES Fio. 95. Fig. 96. " This head presents us with the true Hellenic line of nose and forehead; for, althougu the latter is more receding than we continually see in the Greek heads, it forms an unin- terrupted line with the nose. The black hair is in unison with the other traits ; but the red tint of the eye [perhaps an error of artist ?] is not so readily accounted for. The facial angle, moreover, in this head, is little short of a right-angle." ^^^- ^*- For the sake of comparison, we first give Lepsius's copy of the enlarged head (Fig. 94) of the standard type of Yellow races, from the quadripartite division in Seti's tomb, de- scribed in a former place. Beneath it, (Fig. 95) is a reduction of one of the same four persons at full length. Opposite, we put Eosellini's copy (Fig. 96), for the express purpose of indicating an error in the Tuscan work which the Prussian has removed : re- ferring to our note™ for explanations. Numerous are the com- rades of Fig. 97 in the conquests of Ramses II., at Beyt-el-Walee, XlXth dynasty, fourteenth cen- tury B. c. Birch considers them tribes of Canaan ; because, at Karnac, the same people are called, in the text, " The fallen of the Shos-sou, in their elevation on the fortress of Pelou, which is in the land of Ka7iana."^^ And the next (Fig. 98) ia an individual appertaining to another set of prisoners, from some adjacent district. Osburn figures them as Jebusites ; to which we Fig. 98. Fig. 97. CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 167 offer no objection ; and thus we should behold one of the inhabitants of ante-Judaic Jerusalem, leBUS or Jehus: before its capture by Joshua, and long prior to the expulsion of the Jebusian from Mount Zion by the prowess of David. Fig. 99. Fig. 100. Both the head and the full-length figure, here presented, illustrate four personages identical in all respects.'^' They are the type of the Yellow races, in one of the tombs coeval with Mosaic times. Rosellini, who wrote before the Persian and the Ninevite arrow-heads were deciphered, suggested their resem- blance to the sculptures of Assyria and Persepolis. They portray, certainly, strong Chaldsean atfinities, cognate with the Hebrew race ; and their elegant green dresses, embroidered with skilful taste, show a very polished people. Osburn figures them as Haniatliites — citizens of Hamah, between Damascus and Aleppo, ever renowned for their beautiful manufactures, brocades, shawls ; togetlier with those richly- colored silk-and-cotton goods, now dear to Levantine merchants as "All^gias;" nor does his view militate against ours. Champollion- Figeac gives this effigy, with the conjecture of his brother that they are Medts, corresponding to Persepolitan relievos. Chaldsea seems to be the centre-point of all these authorities ; and we have classified, elsewhere, this head among Jewish tribes. Belonging to the same sculptures of the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries b. c, and located geographically in the same Syrian pro- vinces, we group together six more specimens of varieties of this all-pervading Semitic type. Representatives of ancient Sidonians, Aradians, and so forth, along the coast of Syria, and on the spurs of Lebanon, each one still lives in thousands of descendants, who now throng the Bazaars of Seyda, Be3-root, Tripoli, Latachia, Antioch and Aleppo. Substitute the turban for the military casque and civic cap; and, in the same localities, still speaking dialects of the same. 168 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES Semitish tongues, yon will recognize in the " Shaw^m," people of Sham, or Syria (SAeMites), — as the Arabs still des^ignate the Damas- cenes technically, and the Syrians generally — the very men whose ancestral images were chiselled by Diospolitan artists not less than 3200 years agone. Fia. 101.182 Fig. 102.183 Fia. 103.184 Fio. 104.185 Fig. 105.180 Fio. 106.187 ^^11> CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 169 Here let us pause. Thirty varieties, more or less, of the Caucasiantj-^Q, flolely among ancient foreigners to Egypt, have now been submitted to the reader. They have been taken, almost at random, from the 3Ionumenti of Rosellini, with occasional reference to the Denkmdler of Lepsius : and their epochas range between the thirteenth and the seventeenth centuries b. c. ; a period of about 400 years, including, moreover, whatever era is assignable to Moses. There is diversity enough among them to satisfy the most exacting, that men, in the same times and countries, w^ere just as distinctly marked as they are now in the Levant, after some 3300 years ; and hence, again, it follows that, in the same lands, time has produced no change, save throuo;h amalgamation ; because, in the streets of Cairo, Jerusalem, Damascus, Beyroot, Aleppo, Antioch, Mosul, and Bagdad, every one of these varieties strikes your vision daily. Mark, too, that the whole of these diversified Oriental families occu- pied a very limited geographical area ; viz. : from the river Nile east- ward to the Tauric range of mountains ; at most, to the western borders of the Euxine and Caspian Seas, and across from the Medi- terranean to the Persian Gulf — the Indus, perhaps, inclusive. This superficies constitutes but a petty segment of the earth. Neither have we yet looked beyond such narrow horizon, whether for Mongols, Ma- lays, Polynesians, Australians, Americans, Esquimaux; nor for Finnish, Scandinavian, endless European, Uralian, and other races, with the above .t}'pes necessarily coexistent, although to old Pharaonic ethno- graphy utterly unknown ! Observe likewise, that, Egypt deducted, Africa and her multifarious types are yet untouched. How, we feel now emboldened to ask, have the defenders of the Unity-doiitvme met the above facts ? The answer is simple. By sup- pressing every one of them. Dr. Prichard published the third edition of the Hd volume of his Researches into the Physical History of 3Iankind, in 1837, at the vast me- tropolis of London, surrounded with facilities unparalleled. He de- votes fifty-nine pages to the " Egyptians ;" ^^ yet, beyond a passing sneer at ChampoUion-le-Jeune,'®^ whose stupendous labors were then endorsed by the highest continental scholars — De Sacy, Humboldt, Arago, Bunsen, &c. — he never quotes a single hierologist! oSTow-a- days, every archseologist knows that three-fourths of those very writers whom Prichard does cite on I^gypt have been consigned to the "tomb of the Capulets." Now, in 1837, Rosellini's Plates and Text, compre- hending almost every pictorial fact by us brought forward, had been published — in great part, for above four years, commencing in 1832-3. Common enough was the Tuscan work in London, to say naught of Paris, close at hand. How could Prichard ignore the existence alst» 22 170 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES of tliese identical subjects in Champollion's folio Monuments d' Egypte ? But, worse than tliat, viewing the question merely as one of scientific knowledge and good faith, Prichard continued to publish, volume III. in 1841 ;" volume IV. in 1844 ; and volume V. in 1847. The world scenes exhausted to prove his unitary-h^'pothesis. He never reverts to Egyptian archaeology, nor reveals one iota of all these splendid discoveries. Why? Because they flatly contradict him, and the antiquated school of which he was the steel-clad war-horse. Who forced Prichard, at last, either to accept hieroglyphical disco- veries in some of their bearings upon the Natural History of Man, or to become phved, so to say, without the pale of scientific anthropology? Our countryman, Morton, — a student who, deprived of every facility in Egyptian matters until 1842, printed, in 1844, his '■'■Crania jEgypt- iaca, or Observations on Egyptian Ethnography, derived from Ana- tomy, History, and the Monuments;" and thereby founded the true principle of philosophical inquiry into human origins. Prichard (in justice to his memory let us speak,) acknowledged Morton's w^ork in the handsomest manner,'^ although not in the " Researches." But, how came it that Prichard should have allowed an American savan (cut oiF by the Atlantic from all his own un- bounded facilities,) to anticipate him ? In truth, only because Egyp- tian archaeology had shattered Prichard's unity-doctrine from the weather-vane to its foundations. Having disposed thus of their champion, weaker sustainers of " unity" who have pinned their creed on his obstinacy, adding their own blindness to his cecity, may be passed over, without distressing the reader by recapitulation of shallow arguments and unphiloso- pliical crudities. Numbers of their books lie on our shelves undusted, because there is not a monumental fact to be culled from the whole of them. Nor shall we do more than allude to the opinions of the learned Mure,^'^' or of the erudite, though mystical, Henry, ^^^ who endeavored to confine all these Asiatic wars of the Pharaohs to the valley of the Nile ; because, as neither scholar could read a hierooly' p?iic, they debated upon that which they did not understand ; and, in consequence, uttered views that are now entirely superseded by later Egyptologists, to whose pages we make a point of referring those who may choose to criticise the bibliographical ground-work of " Types of Mankind." But we have not finished with the monuments. M. Prisse's copy of the heterodox king, Atenra-Bakhan [Bex-en- Aten)^ now proved to be Amunopii IV., need not here be repeated, [ts reduced fac-simile may be consulted («?tpra, page 147); while every reference required is thrown into a note : '^^ and, inasmuch as one i )f CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 171 the writers (G. R. G.) was present at the temple of Karnac, 1839-40, wlieu the original stone was found, and the design made, we can vouch for the accuracy of Prisse's copy of this unique has-relief. We mention this, because it differs, though not materially, from the later reproductions of the same portrait in Lepsius's DevkvviJer:^^^ a divergence accounted for by the fact that the French original lay at Thebes, Avhereas the Prussians copied others at Tel-el-Amarna, 200 miles off: nor is it to be expected that ancient Egyptian portrait- sculptors could multiply likenesses of a man more uniformly similar among themselves, than can our own artists, or even daguerreo- ti/pists, at the present day. In proof of how artists differ, we here Fia. 107. Skai, or AI. Bekhen-aten. present other less faithful copies, followed by Morton.^^^ The cut contains, moreover, an attempted portrait of another king, formerly termed SKAI, whose place, though proved to be nearly coeval with that of Bakhan, was enigmatical until Lepsius discovered that he was an immediate successor of the arch-heretic, and, like him, became effaced from the monuments when Amun's priests regained the upper hand.'* " This king, AI, was formerly a private individual, and took his sacerdotal title into his cartouche at a later period. He appears with his wife in the tombs of Amarna, not unfre- quently as a noble and peculiarly-honored officer of king Amunoph IV. ; that puritanical 8un-worshipper, who changed his name into that of ' Bech-en-Aten'" — i.e. Adorer of tfif tun I disk. In Rosellini's copy,^^ the features of this king AI aie atrocious. Lepsius has since pronounced Bex-^-n-aten to be Amunoph IV., son 172 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES of Amunoph-J/ewwow. Etbnologicallj, his strange countenance attests very mixed blood ; but notbing of tbe Negro in eitber parent. His face is Asiatic, typifying no especial race ; but it is one of those accidental deviations from regularity that anatomists are familiar with, especially among mongrel breeds. "We have seen in our Pharaonic gallery that Amunoph III. (Fig. 53) himself was not of pure Egyp- tian stock. We now take a long and portentous stride in Egyptian history ; viz. : from the XVIIth back to the Xllth dynasty, a pei'iod obscure for about four centuries. The country during this hiatus seems to have been greatly disturbed by wars, conquests, by H7/ksos-raigriK- tions of population, and other agitating causes ; and hence arises the lack of monuments to guide our investigations. In ethnographical materials, especially, there is almost an entire blank. But with the Xllth dynasty, one of the most effulgent periods of Egyptian history bursts upon us ; and we can again, with ample documents, take up our Caucasian type, and pursue it upwards along the stream of time. According to Lepsius, the Xllth d3'nasty closed about the year 2124 B. c. If we add to this the summation for the eight kings, given in the Turin Pap3Tus, of "213 years, 1 month, and 15 days,"^^^ this dynasty commenced about the year 2337 b. c. ; which is only some eleven years after Usher's date for the Deluge, when most good Chris- tians imagine that but eight adults, four men and four women (with a few children), were in existence ! The monuments of this dynasty afford abundant evidence not only of the existence of Egypto-Cauca- sinn races, but of Asiatic nations, as well as of Negroes and other A frican groups, at the said diluvian era. Fig. 108. FiQ. 109. ' I'hirty-seven Prisoners'^ of Beni-Hassan. General Nevotph : now, Num-hotep Let us dispose first of Fig. 110. It is one of three recently pub- lished by Lepsius ; characterized by red hair, and distinct from No. CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS, 173 Asiatic, from Beni-Hassan. 108, whose hair is black. We refer to Fio. no. the Denkmdler^^ for their colored por- traits, adding Lepsius's comments below. The head (Fig. 108)^-"° on the preced- ing [)age, from the celebrated tombs of Beni-IIassan, so often alluded to by Egyptologists, represents one of a group of pei-sonages, generally known as the '■'■ thirty-seven prisoners of Beni-Hassan.'' The scene has been repeatedly and va- riously explained, by Champollion, Ro- sellini, Wilkinson, Champollion-Figeac, Birch, and Osburn — leaving aside the trashy speculations of mere tourists; for, as usual, there have been printed many extravagant theories as to the country and condition of these "thirty-seven prisoners." They were, indeed, sup- posed, by ortbodox credulity, to represent the visit of Abraham to Egypt, or else the arrival of Jacob and his family. More critical authori- ties have beheld in them Israelitish wanderers, Ionian Greeks, Hyksos, and what not. But, alas ! all Jewish partialities received a death- blow when it was proved, through the discovery of the Xllth dynasty, that this tableau had been painted at Beni-Hassan several generations before Abraham's birth ! The first rational account, in English, of this scene was put forth by Mr. Birch, in 1847. He says : — " An officer of Usr-t-sen I., as recorded in his tomb at Benihassan, received in the sixth regnal year of that monarch, by royal command, a convoy of thirty-nine (37) Mes-segem, foreigners, headed by their hyk, or leader, Ab-sha. These were of the great Semitic family, called, by the Egyptians, "^4aniM."20i This lection he confirms in 1852 — " The Mes-stem foreigners, who approach the nomarch Neferhetp, come through the Ara- bian Desert on asses." 202 Lepsius had described the impressions made upon him, at first sight of this unique series : — "In these remarks, I am thinking especially of that very remarkable scene, on the grave of Nehera-se-liivMHKTEV, which brings before our eyes, in such lively colors, the entrance of Jacob with his family, and would tempt us to identify it with that event, if chronologij would allow us, (for Jacob came under the Hyksos [i. e., centuries later]), and if we were not compelled to believe that such family immigrations ivere by no means of rare occur- rence. These were, however, the forerunners of the Hyksos [and of the Israelites], and doubtless, in many ways, paved the way for them." ^3 From the excellent translation of Lepsius's Brief e by Mr. Kenneth B. H. Mackensie,^ we extract the following particulars, referring at the same time to the Prussian Denkmaler^^ for exquisite plates of these splendid sepulchi'es : — 174 THE CATCASIAN TYPES "It must then have been a proud period for Egypt — that is proved by these mighty tombs alone. It is interesting, likewise, to trace in the rich representations on the walls, which put before our eyes the high advance of the peaceful arts, as well as the refined luxury of the great of that period ; also tlie foreboding of that great misfortune which brought Egypt, for several centuries, under the rule of its northern enemies. In the repre- sentations of the warlike games, which form a characteristically recurring feature, and take up whole sides in some tombs, which leads to a conclusion of their general use at that period afterwards disappearing, we often find among the red or dark-brown men, of the Egyptian and southern races, very liglit-colored people, who have, for the most part, a totally different costume, and generally red-colored hair on the head and beard, and blue eyes, sometimes appearing alone, sometimes in small divisions. They also appear in the trains of the nobles, and are evidently of northern, probably of Semitic, origin. We find victories over the Ethiopians and Negroes on the monuments of those times, and therefore need not be surprised at the recurrence of black slaves and servants. Of wars against the northern neighbors we learn nothing; but it seems that the immigration from the north- east was already beginning, and that many foreigners sought an asylum in fertile Egypt in return for service and other useful employments. ... I have traced the whole representa- tion, which is about eight feet long, and one-and-a-half high, and is very well preserved through, as it is only painted. The Royal Scribe, Nefruhotep, who conducts the company into the presence of the high officer to whom the grave belongs, is presenting him a leaf of papyrus. Upon this the sixth year of King Sesurtesen II. is mentioned, in which that family of thirty-seven persons came to Egypt. Their chief and lord was named Absha, they themselves Aama, a national designation, recurring with the light-complexioned race, often represented in the royal tombs of the XlXth dynasty, together with three other races, and forming the four principal divisions of mankind, with which the Egyptians were acquainted. Champollion took them for Greeks when he was in Benihassan. but he was not then aware of the extreme antiquity of the monuments before him. Wilkinson con- siders them prisoners, but this is confuted by their appearance with arms and lyres, with "wives, children, donkeys, and luggage; I hold them to be an immigrating Hyksos-family, which begs for a reception into the favored land, and whose posterity perhaps opened the gates of Egypt to the conquering tribes of their Semitic relations." The writer (G. R. G.), who had explored all these localities? in 1839, with Mr. A. C. Harris, would mention, that immediately ahove Beni-Hassan (at the Speos-Artemidos, overlooked by "Wilkinson from 1823 to '34), a defile through the precipitous hills leads from the Nile into the Eastern Desert, and thence trends through the Wadee-el- Arabah to the Isthmus of Suez : as, indeed, may be perceived in Russegger's map,^"*' before us. At the Egyptian mouth of this ravine are remains of walls, &c., that once blocked the passage ; and, in ancient times, here doubtless was a military post, to prevent nomadic ingress into tne cultivated lands without the surveillance of the police. Owing to the intricacies of the limestone ravines in this part of the .Eastern Desert, any strangers, becoming entangled in these intersec- tions, would, in the end, dehouche at this pass, and be at once arrested by the guard. It is thus that, without speculative notions, we arrive at the conclusion that these "thirty-seven foreigners" (although the artist has drawn but fifteen — nien, woukmi, and children) were merely Arabian wanderers; who, motives unknown, entered Egy})t during the twenty-third century b. c. Natural history, heretofore too fre- CARRIED TIIROUGn EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 175 qneutly left aside by archaeologists, not only confirms our view, but indicates the Peninsula of Mount Sinai, if not as their homestead, at least as the road by which they came. The reason we are about to give estabUshes two things : 1st, the minute accuracy of Egyptian draughtsmen in the Xlltli d^-nasty, 4200 years ago ; 2dly, the prompt acuity of Prof. Agassiz, in April, 1853. At the house of their friend, Mr. A. Stein, of Mobile, the authors were looking over his copy of the noble Prussian Denhmdler, when Prof. Agassiz, the moment we reached this plate [uhi supra), pointed out the '•'•Capra Siniaca — the goat with semicircular horns, laterally compressed," as the first animal ; and the ^^Antilope Saiga, or gazelle of temperate Western Asia," as the second: animals ofi:ered in pro- pitiatory tribute to General Num-liotep, by Absha, the Jl^k, chief, of these Mes-segem, foreigners. Our Fig. 109 presents the likeness of the excellent governor of the province ; and the contrast, between their yellow Semitic counte- nances and his rubescent Eg3'ptian face, spares us from fears that consanguinity will be claimed for them. At least two types, then, of Caucasian families — the one Semitish, and the other Egyptian — were distinct from each other, and co- existent, 4200 years ago. If two, why not more? Why not each one of all the primitive types of humanity now distinguishable in Asia, Africa, Europe, America, or Oceanica? Science and logic can assign no negative reason : dogmatism, which excludes both, will doubtless continue to worry the hapless "general reader" with man3\ We must span, for want of intervening ethnographic monuments, the gulf that separates the Xllth from the Vlth dynasty, assuming the latter at about 2800 years b. c. Here again, however, our Cau- casian type reappears not only perfectly marked, but identical with man\' of the heads we have already- beheld among the royal portraits of the XVIIth and succeeding dynaties. Lepsius's precious De7ik' mdler yields us the following : — Fig. 111.207 Fig. 112.208 176 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES The above heads are from patrician tombs of the Vlth dyrasty, which, according to Lepsius, commenced about the year 2900 b. c. Concerning the type of these, and numerous other effigies of this epoch, admirably figured by tlie same author, there can be no dispute ; but, the plates being una 3companied by text, we are unable to supply historical details of the personages represented in these early dynas- ties. Lepsius himself will ere long elucidate them. The following two (Figs. 113 and 114) are selected as examples of the same type, in the anterior Vth dynasty, and are Egypto-Cauca- sians, no less clearly defined. In Fig. 113, the facial angle is actually Hellenic. Fig. 113.209 Lastly, here are some of the earliest portraits of the human species now extant — effigies 5300 years old. CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 177 The preceding four heads are all from painted sculptures in tombs of the IVth dynasty ; which commenced at Memphis, according to Lep- sius, about 3400 years b. c. The second and third of these heads assimilate closely to many of those already given of XVIIth and XYIIIth dynasties ; demonstrating that mixed Caucasian types in- habited Eg\"pt fi'om the first to the last of her surviving monuments. We have stated our reasons, in another place, for regarding this spe- cial physiognomy to be commingled with foreign and Asiatic elements ; and not representative, consequently, of the aboriginal Egj^itian stem. The third of these heads is strongly Chaldaic in its outlines ; and we think there is httle reason to doubt that the ancestral Mesopotamian stock of Abraham had long been mingling its blood with the royal and aristocratic families of Egypt ; because, in the IVth, Vth, and Vlth dynasties, we find two distinct types sculptured on the monu- ments — the one African or Negroid, and the other Asiatic or Semitic. Of course, when speaking of Abraham's ancestral stock, the reader will understand that we make no reference to this patriarch's indivi- duality. To us, his name sei-ves merely to classifj- some proximate or identical Chaldaic family of man, originally connected with a com- mon Euphratic centre of creation, of which the existence very likely preceded Abraham's birth by myriads of ages. Our fourth portrait (Fig. 118) is the only one we can identify, and its associations are most interesting. Prince and Priest Merhet — probably a relative, if not son, of King Shoopho, Cheops; builder of the Great Pyramid — is the man whose tomb, transferred from Mem- phis to Berlin, and now built into the Royal Museum, has escaped the vicissitudes of time for above fifty-two centuries. His bas-reliefed visage has endured almost intact; whilst, of the "chosen people," every Hebrew portrait, from Abraham to Paul, has been expunged from human iconography. In his lineaments, we behold the pure 23 178 THE CAUCASIAN TYPES Egyptian type, which we shall endeavor to render more obvioiia through lithographs that are genuine fac-similes of stamps made, on the monuments themselves, by the hand of Lepsius, at Berlin. Meanwhile, it is worthy of notice, that, in the ratio of our descent from the sculptures of the IVth dynasty, through the Old Empire^ our conventionally-termed " Chaldaic " t}npe supplants the J^ilotic to such an extent, that, under the New Empire, and among the aristocracy of the land, it almost entirely supersedes the African type of incipient times. The admixture, in these later ages, of such Asiatic blood, may be due to the so-called Hyhsos ; who commenced, even before the time of Menes, intruding upon, and settling in Egypt. Alliances and intermixtures of races, similar to those seen at the present day, have operated among nations in all ages, and everywhere that men and women have encountered each other on our planet. Four instances may be consulted in Lepsius's Denkmdler, of Egyp- tian monarchs who have left at the copper-mines of Mt. Sinai, on jStelae, inscribed with hieroglyphical legends, their bas-relief effigies ; repre- senting each king in the act of braining certain foreigners : whose pointed beards, aquiline noses, and other Semitish characteristics, com- bine with the Arabian locality to identify them as Arabs. We give entire (Fig. 119, A) a specimen of the earliest Tablets — "Num-Shufu Fig. 119.21.^ CARRIED THROUGH EGYPTIAN MONUMENTS. 179 Btimnmg an Ai'iih-barbarian ; " and tlie head of another smitten hy " Senufeu;" both kings of the IVth dynasty, during the thirty-fourth century b. c. The other two examples (by us not copied) are identical in style, but a little posterior in age ; one being of the reign of king Shore, (or Resho) in the Vth, and the other of Merira-Pepi, in the Vlth dynasty. A fifth example might be cited of the IVth, but it is of the same Senufru mentioned above.^^^ Here then are represented Egj-ptian Pharaohs striking Asiatics ; and here, we are informed epistolurily by Chev. Lepsius, is the re- motest monumental evidence of two distinct types of man ; although, an analytical comparison of such antipodean languages as the ancient Chinese with the old Egyptian, of the Atlantic Berber with the Medic of Darius's inscriptions, of the Hindoo Pali with the Hebrew of Habbakuk, and a dozen others we might name, would result in estab- lishing for each of these distinct tongues such an enormous and inde- pendent antiquity, as to leave not a shadow of doubt that all primitive African and Asiatic races existed, from the Cape of Good Hope to China, as far back as the foundation of the Egyptian Empire, and long before. It is in the I\"th Memphite dynasty, however, that we find the oldest sculptural representations of man now extant in the world. In the above figures two primordial types, one Asiatic and the other Egyptian, stand conspicuous. If then, as before asserted, tivo races of man existed simultaneously during the IVth dynasty, in suflicient numbers to be at war with each other, their prototypes must have lived before the foundation of the Empire, or far earlier than 4000 years b. c. If two types of mankind were coetaneous, it follows that all other Asiatic and African races found in the subse- quent XHth dynasty must have been also in existence contempora- neously with those of the IVth, as well as with all the aboriginal races of America, Europe, Oceanica, Mongolia — in short, with every species of mankind throughout the entire globe. 180 AFRICAN TYPES. CHAPTER VI. AFRICAN TYPES, Our preceding chapters have estahlished that the so-called Cauca- sian types may be traced upwards from the present day, in an infinite variety of primitive forms, through eveiy historical record, and yet farther back through the petroglyphs of Egj^pt (where we lose them, in the mediaeval darkness of the earliest recorded people, some 3500 years before Christ), not as a few stray individuals, but as populous nations, possessing distinct physical features and separate national characteristics. We now turn to the African types, not simply be- cause they present an opposite extreme from the Caucasian, but mainly because, fi^om their early communication with Egypt, much detail, in respect to their physical characters, has been preserved in the catacombs and on the monuments. In our general remarks on species, we have shown that no classifica- tion of races yet put forth has any foundation whatever in nature ; and that, after several thousands of years of migrations of races and comminglings of types, all attempts at following them up to their original birth-places must, from the absence of historic annals of those primordial times, and in the present state of knowledge, be utterly hopeless. This remark applies with quite as much force to Negroes as to Caucasians ; for Africa first exhibits herself, from one extreme to the other, covered with dark-skinned races of various shades, and possessing endless physical characters, which, being dis- tinct, we must regard as primitive, until it can be shown that causes exist capable of transforming one type into another. The Negroes may be traced on the monuments of Egypt, with certainty, as nations, back to the Xllth dynasty, about 2300 years b. c. : and it cannot be assumed that they were not then as old as any other race of our geo- logical epoch. In order to develop our ideas more clearly, we propose to take a rapid glance at the population of Africa. "VYe shall show, that not only is that vast continent inhabited by types quite as varied as those of Europe or Asia, but that there exists a regwhxY gradation, from the Cape of Good Hope to the Isthmus of Suez, of which the Hottentot and Bushman form the lowest, and the Egyptian and Berber types the Jiighest links ; AFRICAN TYPES. 181 that all these gradations of African man are indigenous to the soil ; and that no historical times have existed when the same gradations ■were not. AVhen we compare the continent of Africa with the other greal divisions of the world, it is apparent that it forms a striking contrast in every particular. Its whole physical geograjjhy, its climates, its populations, its faunse, its florae, &c., are all peculiar. Upon exami- nation of maps of Europe, Asia, and America, we see indeed, in each continent, great diversities of climate, soil, elevations of surface, and other 2>lienomena ; still no natural barriers exist so insurmountable as to prevent the migrations and comminglings of races, and con- sequent confusion of tongues and types : but in Africa the case is quite ditterent. Here stand obstructions, fixed b}' nature, which man in early times had no means of overcoming. Xot only from the time of Menes, the first of the Pharaohs, to tliat of Moses, but from the latter epoch to that of Christ, Africa, south of the Equator, was as much a terra incognita to the inhabitants of Europe, Asia, Egypt, and the Barbary States, as certain interior parts of that continent are to us at the present day. We know tliat, long after the Christian era, the nautical skill necessary for exploring expeditions, no less than for the transportation of emigrants to those distant latitudes, was want- ing ; and we have only to turn to any standard work (Hitter's, for instance) on Ancient Geography, to be satisfied of these facts. It is equally certain that what is now termed " Central Africa" could not have been reached by caravan from the Mediterranean coast, before the introduction of camd% from Asia, through Egypt, into Barbary. The epoch of this animal's introduction is now known to antedate the Christian era but a century or two. It is contended, by the advo- cates of a common origin for mankind, that this African continent was first populated by Asiatic emigrants into Egypt ; that these im- migrants passed on, step by step, gradually changing their physical organizations, under climatic iniluences, until the whole continent, from the Mediterranean to the Cape of Good Hope, was peopled by the various tribes we now behold scattered over that enormous space. But such an hypothesis can hardly be maintained, in the face of the fact asserted by Lepsius, and familiar to all Egyptologists, that Negro and other races already existed in Northern Africa, on the Upper Nile, 2300 years b. c. — existed, we repeat, in despite of natural barriers which could not have been passed by any means previously Jcnown ; and, moreover, that all truly African races have, from the earliest epochas, spoken languages radically distinct from every Asiatic tongue. Linguistic researches have established that, prior to the introduction of Asiatic elements into the Lower Valley of the Nile., the speech of 182 AFRICAN TYPES. the anle-n.onumental Egyptians could have borne no affinity towards the latter. Lepsius, Birch, and De Eonge — our highest philological authorities in this question — coincide in the main principle, that the lexicology deduced from the earliest hieroglyphics exhibits two ele- ments : viz., a primary, or African ; and a secondary, or Asiatic, superimposed upon the former. It is also certain that, Syro- Arabian engraftments being deducted from the present Nubian and the Berber vernaculars spoken above and westward of Egypt, these languages are as purely African now as must have been the idiom uttered by the Egyptian ancestry of those who raised the pyramids of the IVth dynasty, 5300 years ago. Such are the results of archaeology, applied by that school of Egyp- tian philologists which alone is competent to decide upon the language of the hieroglyphics. They harmonize with the physiological con- clusions we have reached through monumental iconography. But, requesting the critical reader to accompany us upon a map of the African continent, such as those contained in the Physical Atlases of Berghaus, or Johnston, we propose commencing at the Cape of Good Hope, and following the African races from Table Rock to the Medi- terranean. Our limits do not permit a detailed analysis, nor is such necessary, as the few prominent facts we shall present are quite suffi- cient for the purpose in hand, and will at once be admitted by every reader who is at all competent to pursue this discussion. Wliat is now called Cape Colony lies between 30° and 35° of south latitude. It rises, as you recede from the coast, into high table- lands and mountains, and possesses a comparatively temperate and agreeable climate ; nevertheless, it is here that we find the lowest and most beastly specimens of mankind : viz., the Hottentot and the Bush- man. The latter, in particular, are but little removed, both in moral and physical characters, from the orang-outan. They are not black, but of a yellowish-brown [tallow-colored, as the French term them), with woolly heads, diminutive statures, small ill-shapen crania, very projecting mouths, prognathous faces, and badly formed bodies ; in short, they are described by travellers as bearing a strong resemblance to the monkey tribe. They possess many anatomical peculiarities, known to physiologists if not recapitulated here. Lichtenstein, one of our best authorities, in describing this race, says : — " Tlicir common objects of pursuit are serpents, lizards, ants, and grasshoppers. They ■will remain whole days without drinking ; as a substitute, they chew succulent plants : they do not eat salt. They have no fixed habitation, but sleep in holes in the ground or under the branches of trees. They are short, lean, and, in appearance, weak in their limbs ; yet are capable of bearing much fatigue. Their sight is acute, but their taste, emell, and feeling, are feeble. They do not form large societies, but wander about in 'amilies." I I AFRICAN TYPES. 183 The HottentoU have been supposed by many to belong to tlie same race as theBosjesman or Bushmen ; and although we do not partake of this oj.)inion, the point is too unimportant to our purpose to justify critical discussion here. In most i)articulars, the pliysieal characters of Bushmen and Hottentots do not differ greatly — the Hottentots ex hibit much of the orang character of the Bushmen, aud their females; often present two very remarkable peculiarities or deformities : viz., humps behind their buttocks, like those on the backs of dromedaries, and a disgusting development of the labia pudendi. (See an example in the Mottetitot Vetius, figured in our Chapter XHI.) The complexion of the Hottentots is compared by travellers to that of a person " affected with jaundice" — "a yellowish-brown, or the hue of a faded leaf" — "a tawny buff, or fawn-color." Barrow relates that — "The hair is of a very singular nature — it does not cover the whole surface of the scalp, but grows in small tufts, at certain distances from each other, and when clipped short has the appearance and feel of a hard shoe-brush, except that it is curled and twisted into small round lumps, about the size of a marrowfat pea. When suffered to grow, it hangs on the neck in hard-twisted tassels, like fringe." The Hottentots are also very strongly distinguished from all other races by their singular language. Their utterance, according to Lichtensteiu, is remarkable for numerous rapid, harsh, shrill sounds, emitted from the bottom of the chest, with strong aspirations, and modified in the mouth by a singular motion of the tonofue. The name for it is commonly " gluckiugs." The peculiar construction of the vocal organs of this race greatly facilitates the formation and emission of these sounds, which to other species of men would be very difficult. [TV^e had the pleasure, two years ago, at a meeting of the Ethnological Society in 'New York, to hear some specimens of this language from Prof. Haldemanx, of Penusylvania, who possesses an extraordinary talent for imitating sounds, and we can readily believe that the Hottentot vocalization has no affinity with any other in existence. — J. C. ^N".] The next race we encounter, after leaving the Cape, is the Kafirs, or Caffres. They are not only found along the coast to the north- east in Caffraria, but extend far beyond, into the interior of Africa. They display certain affinities with the Fulahs, Foolahs, or Fellatahs, who are prolonged even into Northern Africa — whence an opinion that the two races are identical ; but the fact, to say the least, is a matter of great doubt. The Caffres are traced northward, under various names ; and their language and customs are veiy widely spread. Though they are now encountei-cd in considerable numbers near the Cape, their original seat is doubtful. In geography, Ceuti'a] 184 AFRICAN TYPES. Africa is yet a terra incognita, and we cannot, therefore, fix their birth-place with precision, however manifest may be the CafFrarian link in the chain of gradation we have assumed. Albeit, they resem- ble the true ISTegro much more than the Hottentot ; whilst, both intel- lectually and physically, they are greatly superior not only to Hot- tentots, but to many Negro tribes on the Slave-Coast. The}' possess some knowledge of agriculture and the use of metals ; they dress in skins, and live in towns. Descriptions of the CafFres, by different writers, vary considerably ; and it is probable that several closely allied though diverse types have been included under this general appellation. No one has had better opportunities for stud^ang this race, or can be more competent, than Lichtenstein, and we shall therefore adopt his description. " The universal characteristics of all the tribes of tliis great nation consist in an external form and figure, varying exceedingly from the other nations of Africa : they are much taller, stronger, and their limbs better proportioned. Their color is brown ; their hair black and woolly. Their countenances have a character peculiar to themselves, and which does not permit their being included in any of the i-aces of mankind above enumerated. They have the high forehead and prominent nose of the Europeans, the thick lips of the Negroes, and the high cheek-bones of the Hottentots. Their beards are black, and much fuller than those of the Hottentots." This race, it will thus be seen, is a very peculiar one, combining both moral and physical traits of the higher and the lower African races. Widely disseminated, they exhibit such singular affinities with opposing, such strange differences from proximate, Africans, that it is impossible to fix them to one locality : at the same time, being, like all savage races, without a history, we are unable to say, with any probability, to what latitude or to which coast they belong. When, however, taking our departure from the Cape (the central regions of the continent being unknown), we continue our examina- tion along the eastern and western coasts, as far as the transverse belt, just beyond the Equator, which separates the two great deserts, Northern and Southern, we find a succession of well-marked types, seemingly indigenous to their respective localities. Along the East- tern coast we encounter the various tribes inhabiting Inhambane, Sabia, Sofa! a, Botonga, Mozambique, Zanguebar, &c., each present- ing physical characters more or less hideous ; and, almost without 'exception, not merely in a barbarous, but superlatively savage state. All attempts towards humanizing them have fiiiled. Hopes of even- tual improvement in the condition of these brutish families are enter- tained by none but missionaries of sanguine temperament and little mstruction. Even the Slaver rejects them. If we now go back to Cape Colony, and thence pass upwards along the Western coast, we mc€t with another, equally diversified, series AFRICAN TYPES. 185 of JTegro races, totally distinct fi"om those of the eastern side, inha- biting Cinibebas, Benguela, Angola, Congo, Loango, Maternbas, and Guinea; where we again reach the Equator. These are all savage tribes, but little removed, in physical nature and moral propensities, from the Hottentots. Anything like a detailed analysis of them would be but an unprofitable repetition of descriptions, to be found in all travellers' accounts, exhibiting pictures of the most degraded races of mankind. In a w^ord, tlie whole of Africa, south of 10° N. lat., shows a succession of human beings with intellects as dark as their skins, and with a cephalic conformation that renders all expectance of their future melioration an Utopian dream, philanthropical, but somewhat senile. Korth of the Equator, and dividing the two great Northern and Southern deserts, we fall in with a belt of country traversing the whole continent of Africa, terminating on the east with the highlands of Abyssinia — on the west with the uplands of Senegambia; and, between these two points, including part of the Soodan, Negro-land proper, oi Nigritia. About 10° N. lat. stretches an immense range of mountains, wdiich are supposed to run entirely across the conti- nent, and to form an insurmountable barrier between the Southern Deserts and the Northern Sahara. Throughout this region, we behold an infinitude of Negro races, ditfering considerably in their external characters. The annexed extracts from Prichard, bearing upon this subject, contain some important fiicts requiring comment. "The whole of the countries now described are sometimes called Nigritia, or the Land of Negroes — they have likewise been termed Ethiopia. The former of these names is more frequently given to the Western, and the latter to the Eastern parts ; but there is no exact limitation between the countries so termed. The names are taken from the races of men inhabiting different countries, and these are interspersed, and not separated by a particular line. Black and woolly-haired races, to which the terra Negro is applied, are more predo- minant in Western Africa ; but there are also woolly-haired tribes in the East : and races who resemble the Ethiopians, in their physical characters, are found likewise in the West. We cannot mark out geographical limits to these different classes of nations ; but it will be useful to remember the diiference in physical characters which separates them. The Negroes are distinguished by their well-known traits, of which tiie most strongly marked IS their woolly hair; but it is difficult to point out any common pioperty characteristic of the races termeil fUhiopians, unless it is the negative one of wanting the above-mentioned peculiarity of the Negro : any other defiiiition will apply only in general, and will be liable to exceptions. The Ethiopian races have generally' something in their physical character which is peculiarly African, though not reaching the degree in which it is displayed by the ulack people of Soudan. Their hair, though not woolly, is commonly frizzled, or strongly curled or crisp. Their complexion is sometimes black, at others, of the color of bronze, or olive, or more frequently of a dark-copper or red-brown ; such as the Egyptian paintings display in human figures, though generally of a deeper shade. In some instances, their hair, as well as their complexion, is somewhat brown or red. Their features are often full rnd rounded — not so acute and salient as those of the Arabs; their noses are not flattened or depressed, but scarcely so prominent as those of Europeans ; their lips are generally 24 186 AFRICAN TYPES. thick tr full, but seldom turned out like the thick lips of Negroes ; their figure is slender and well shaped, and often resembling that form of which the Egyptian paintings and statues afford the most generally known exemplifications. These characters, though in some respects approaching towards those of the Negro, are perfectly distinct from the peculiarities of the mulatto or mixed breed. Most of these nations, both classes being equally included, are originally African. By this I do not mean to imply that their first parents were created on the soil of Africa, but merely that they cannot be traced, by his- torical proofs, from any other part of the world, and that they appear to have grown into clans or tribes of peculiar physical and social character, or that their national existence had its commencement in that continent." 217 The above paragraph establishes that Pricharcl, in accordance here with our own views, cuts loose the population of the basin of the Nile from all the Negro races scattered between Mount Atlas and the Cape of Good Hope. In fact, one of Prichard's great objects, throughout his "Eesearches," is to show that there exists a veg\x\?cr gradation of races, from the highest to the lowest types, not only in Africa, but throughout the world. The lenrned Doctor spared no labor, for forty years, to prove that this gradation is the result oi physical causes, act- ing, as he says, "during chiliads of years," upon one primitive Adamic stock. We, on the contrary, contend, that many primitive types of mankind were created in distant zoological provinces ; and, that the numerous facts, ignored by Dr. Prichard, which have lately come to light from Egyptian monuments and other new sources, confirm this view. In fact, Prichard himself, in the fifth or final volume of his last edition, virtually abandons the position he had so long and so ably maintained. The range of mountains which bounds Guinea on the north is sup- posed, by RiTTER and other distinguished geographers, to be the commencement of a huge chain which trends across the continent about the tenth degree, connecting itself with the so-called "Moun- tains of the Moon," on the East;^'® and thus constituting an impass- able wall, athwart the continent, between the North and the South. Certain it is that the whole of Africa south of this parallel was utterly unknown 600 years ago to any writers, sacred or profane — the coast, on either side, until reached by navigators, in quite modern times — the interior, or central portion of this mountain-laud, continues to be less known than even the moon's. One interesting fact, however, is clear: viz., that when, passing onwards from the South, we overleap this stupendous natural Avall,^'^ we are at once thrown among tril)es of higher grade ; although con- tinuing still within the region of jet-black skins and woolly heads. The excessively prognathous type of the Hottentots, Congos, Guinea- Negroes, and so forth, is no longer, we now perceive, the prevailing type north of this mountain-range. We here meet with features approach- ing the Caucasian coupled with well-formed bodies and neatly-turned AFRICAN TYPES. 187 limbs ; improved cranial developments, and altogether a much higher intellectual character. Here, likewise, the rudiments of civilization are met with for the first time in our progress from the South. Here and there, though surrounded by pastoi'al nomadism, many of the tribes are rude agriculturists ; manufacturing coarse cloth, leather, &c. ; knowing somewhat of the use of metals, and living in towns of from ten to thirty thousand inhabitants. It must be conceded, how- ever, that most of this progress is attributable to foreign immigration and exotic influences. In the fertile low-countries, beyond the Sahara deserts, watered by rivers which descend northwards from water- sheds upon the central highlands, Africa has contained, for centuries, several Nigritian kingdoms, founded by Mohammedans ; while many Arabs, and many more Atlantic Berbers, have settled among the native tribes. To these influences we should doubtless ascribe tho maintenance of their Muslim religion and infant civilization : for it is indisputable that the rulers (petty kings and aristocracy) are not of pure Negro lineage.^ This superiority of races north of the mountain-range does not extend to all indigenous tribes ; for Denham and Clapperton describe some of the tribes around Bornou and Lake Tchad as extremely ugly, savage, and brutal. It would seem that nature preserves such aboriginal specimens in every region of the globe : as if to demonstrate that types are independent of physical causes, and that species of men, like those of animals, are primitive. "We have also numerous accounts, from Bruce, Eiippel, Cailliaud, Linant, Beke, Werne, Combes et Tamisier, Eochet d'Hericourt, Eus- segger, Mohammed-el-Tounsy, Lepsius, and other explorers, of Sen- naar, Dar-Four, Kordofau, "Fazoql, of the wild Shillooks, &c., bordering on the "White Nile and its tributaries, and of the western slopes of Abyssinia ; and they concur in representing most of these superla- tively barbarous tribes as characterized by Negro lineaments, more or less well marked. Of such unaltered types we see many authentic samples depicted on the Egj-ptian monuments of the XVIIth dynasty; and we find that some are referred to in the hieroglyphical inscrip- tions as early as the Xllth. Indeed, the first authentic evidences extant of Expeditions, made to penetrate towards the Nile's unknown sources, date with the Xllth dynasty, about 2300 b. c. ; when Sesour- tesen III. had extended his conquests up the river at least as high as Samneh, in Upper Nubia, where a harbor, or arsenal, and a temple (the former repaired by the Amenemhas, and the latter rebuilt bv Thotmes III,), with other remains, prove that the Pharaohs of the Xllth dynasty had established frontier garrisons. But, as the Tablet of Wndee Haifa contains the names of nations undoubtedly Nigritian, 188 AFRICAN TYPES. and inasmucli as there are abimdant arguments to prove that the habitat of Negro races anciently, as at this du}^, never approximated to Egypt closer than, if as near as, the northern limit of the Tropical Rains, we can ascend without hesitation to the age of Sesourtesen L; and confidently assert that, in the twenty-third century b. c, the know^- ledge possessed by the Pharaonic Egytians concerning the upper regions of the Nile extended to points as austral as that derived be- tween A. D. 1820 and 1835, by civilized Europe, from the Ghazwas, or slave-hunts, of Mohammed-Ali.^^^ Time has transplanted some of these upper Nilotic families, over a few miles, from one district to another ; but that such movements have entailed no physical mutations of race, we shall perceive hereinafter. We have already stated, that Senegambia, on the west of Central Africa, like the eastern extremity at Ab^-ssinia,^^^ rises into mountains and elevated table-lands — physical characters which usually accom- pany higher grades of humanity than those of the burning plains below. It is here that we find sundry of the superior (so-called) Negro races of Africa : viz., the Mandingos, the Fulahs, and the lolofs. The Mandingos, a ver}^ numerous and powerful nation, are remarkable among the African races for their industry and energy ; and, of the genuine Negro tribes, have perhaps manifested the greatest aptitude for mental improvement. They are the most zealous and rigid Mo- hammedans on the continent. Agriculturists, cattle-breeders, cloth- manufacturers, living in towns, they possess schools, engage in exten- sive commerce, and use Arabic writing. Goldberry, Park, Laing, Durand, and other travellers, coincide in the statement that these Mandingos are less black, and have better features, than Negroes ; indeed, Goldberry, who is good authority, says they resemble dark Hindoos more than Negroes. The Fulahs^'^ are a still more peculiar people, whose history is involved in much obscurity. They are supposed, by many authorities, to be a mixed race. Their type and language are totally distinct from all surrounding Africans. According to Park and others, they rank themselves among white people, and look down upon their neighbors as inferiors ; at the same time, they are alwaj's the domi- nating families, wherever found. The contradictory descriptions of travellers lead us to suspect some diversity of physical characters among these Fulahs, or Fellatahs. They are not black, but of a mahogany color, with good features, and hair more or less straight, and often very fine. They are commercial, intelligent, and, for Afri- cans, considerably advanced in the civilization they owe to Islamism fiwd the Arabs. The lolofs, between the Senegal and Gambia, the most northerly AFRICAN TYPES. 189 ISegro nations on the West coast, are represented to be tlie comeliesl of all Negro tribes. " They are always well made [says Goldberry] ; their features are regular, and like those of Europeans, except that their nose is rather round, and their lips thick. They are said to be remarkably handsome — their women beautiful. The complexion of the race is a fine transparent deep black ; their hair crisp and woolly." Here, again, is a combination of physical characters which contra- dicts the alleged influence of climate ; because the lolofs, and some other races north, are jet-black, while the Fulahs, and others, under and south of the Equator, are comparatively fair. We shall show, in another place, that history affords no evidence that education, or any influence of civilization that may be brought to bear on races of inferior organization, can radically change their physical, nor, consequently, their moral, characters. That the brain, for example, which is the organ of intellect, cannot be expanded or altered in form, is now admitted by every anatomist ; and Prichard. in recapitulating his results as to the races of Central Africa, makes the following important admission : — " On reviewing the descriptions of all the races enumerated, we may observe a relation between their physical character and moral condition. Tribes having what is called the Negro character in the most striking degree are the least civilized. The Papels, Bisagos, Ibos, who are in the greatest degree remarkable for deformed countenances, projecting jaws, flat fore- heads, and for other Negro peculiarities, are the most savage and morally degraded of the nations hitherto described. The converse of this remark is applicable to all the most civilized races. The Fulahs, Mandingos, and some of the Dahomeh and Inta nations have, as far as form is concerned, nearly European countenances, and a corresponding configuration of the head. ... In general, the tribes inhabiting elevated countries, in the interior, are very superior to those who dwell on low tracts on the the seacoast, and this superiority is mani- fest both in mental and bodily qualities." 221 The truth of these observations is sustained by all past history, backed by every monument. Much as the success of the infant colony at Liberia is to be desired by every true philanthropist, it is with regret that, whilst wishing well to the Negroes, we cannot divest our minds of melancholy forebodings. Dr. Morton, quoted in another chapter, has proven, that the Negro races possess about nine cubic inches less of brain than the Teuton ; and, unless there were really some facts in history, something beyond bare hypotheses, to teach us how these deficient inches could be artificially added, it would seem that the Negroes in Africa must remain substantially in that same benighted state wherein Nature has placed them, and in which they have stood, according to Egyptian monuments, for at least 5000 years. Prichard's herculean work is so replete with interesting facts ana valuable deductions, that we are tempted, almost at every page, to 190 AFRICAN TYPES. make extracts. The following resume is certainly decisive in estab- lishing the entire want of connexion between Types and Climate. " The distinguishing peculiarities of the Afri«an races may be summed up into four heads ; viz. : the characters of complexion, hair, features and figure. We have to remark — " 1. That some races, with woolly hair and complexions of a deep black color, have fine forms, regular and beautiful features, and are, in their figure and countenances, scarcely different from Europeans. Such are the lolofs, near the Senegal, and the race of Guber, or of Hausa, in the interior of Sudan. Some tribes of the South African race, as the darkest of the Kafirs, are nearly of this description, as well as some families or tribes in the empire of Kongo, while others have more of the Negro character in their countenances and form. "2. Other tribes have the form and features similar to those above described: their complexion is black or a deep olive, or a copper color approaching to black, while their hair, though often crisp and frizzled, is not the least woolly. Such are the Bishari and Danakil and Hazorta, and the darkest of the Abyssinians. " 3. Other instances have been mentioned in which the complexion is black and the fea- tures have the Negro type, while the nature of the hair deviates considerably, and is even said to be rather long and in flowing ringlets. Some of the tribes near the Zambezi are of this class. " 4. Among nations whose color deviates towards a lighter hue, we find some with woolly hair, with a figure and features approaching the European. Such are the Bechuana Kafirs, of a light brown complexion. The tawny Hottentots, though not approaching the Euro- pean, differ from the Negro. Again, some of the tribes on the Gold Coast and the Slave Coast, and the Ibos, in the Bight of Benin, are of a lighter complexion than many other Negroes, while their features are strongly marked with the peculiarities of that race." These observations, Prichard thinks, cannot be reconciled with the idea that the Xegroes are of one distinct species ; and that the opinion sustaining the existence, among them, of a number of separate spe- cies, each distinguished by some peculiarity which another wants, might be more reasonably maintained. The latter supposition he conjectures, however, to be refuted b}' the fact that species in no case pass so insensibly into each other. It will appear, notwithstanding, when we come to the questions of hyhridity and of specific characters, that Prichard's doctrine, besides being in itself a non sequitur, is over- thrown by positive facts. Prichard himself tells us, "there are no authentic instances, either in Africa or elsewhere, of the transmutation of other varieties of mankind into Negroes." '^ We have, however, he continues, examples of very considerable deviation in the opposite direction. The de- scendants of the genuine Negroes are no longer such : they have lost in several instances many of the peculiarities of the stock from Avhich they spring. To which fallacies we reply, that vague reports of mis- informed travellers alone support such assertion. Our remarks on the Permanence of Types establish, that what physiological changes Prichard and his school refer to climatic influences, are indisputably to be ascribed to amalgamation of races. Let us now travel throngh Nigritia, and ascend the table-lands of AFRICAN TYPES. 191 Abyssinia ; where another climate, another Fauna, another Flora, and another Type of Afan, arise to view. Here, for the first time since our departure from the Cape of Good Hope, we stand among tribes of men who are actually capacitated to enjoy a higher stage of ciyilization ; and, although we have not yet reached God's "noblest work," we have happily waded through the "slough of despond" in human gradations of Africa. Header! let us imagine ourselves standing upon the highest peak in Abyssinia ; and that our vision could extend over the whole continent, embracing south, east, north and west : what tahleaux-vivants would be presented to the eye, no less than to the mind ! To the south of the Sahara we should descry at least 50,000,000 of Is^igritians, steeped in irredeismable ignorance and savagism ; inhabiting the very countries where history first finds them — vast territorial expanses, which the nations of the north, in ancient times, had no possible means of visit- ing or colonizing. Do we not behold, on every side, human character- istics so completely segregated from ours, that they can be explained in no other way than by supposing a direct act of creation ? Upon the moral and intellectual traits of such abject types no impres- sion has been made within 5000 years : none can be made, (so far as science knows,) until their organization becomes changed by — silliest of desperate suppositions — a " miracle." Turn we now towards the north. There we behold the tombs, the ruined temples, the gigantic pyramids of Pharaonic Egj-pt, which, braving the hand of time for 5000 years past, seem to defy its action for as many to come. These monuments, moreover, were not otAj built by a people diftering from all others of Asia and Europe, in characters, language, civilization, and other attributes ; but diverging still more widely from every other human type. Positive evidence, furthermore, exists, that Negroes, at least as far back as the Xllth dynasty, in the twenty-fourth century b. c, dwelt contemporaneously in Africa : which is parallel with (b. c. 2348) the era ascertained, to a fraction by Rabbinical arithmetic, for Noah's Flood ; when all creatures outside of the Ark, except some fishes, had found a watery grave ! But we pursue our journey. Abyssinia, according to Tellez, is called by its inhabitants Alhere- gran or the "lofty plain ; " by which epithet they contrast it with the low countries surrounding it on almost every side. It is compared by the Abyssinians to the flower of the Benguelet, which displays a magnificent corolla surrounded by thorns — in allusion to the many barbarous tribes who inhabit the numerous circumjacent valleys and low lands.^ The highlands of Abyssinia, properly so called, stretch from the southern provinces of Shoa and Efat, which are not far distant from 192 AFRICAN TYPES. Enarea under 9°, to Tscherkin and Waldubba under 15° N. lat. ; where they make a sudden and often precipitous descent into the stunted forests occupied by the Shangalla Negroes. From east to 'TX'est they extend over 9° of longitude. Rising at the steep border or terrace of Taranta from the depressed tract along the Arabian Gulf, they reach the mountains of Fazolco, Dyre and Touggoula ; which overhang the flat, sandy districts of Sennaar and the valleys of Ivordofan. (Ritter.) The researches of Bruce, Salt, Ritter, and Beke, have shown that the high country of Habesh, Abyssinia, consists of three terraces or distinct table-lands, rising one above another; and of which the several grades or ascents present themselves in succession, to the tra- veller who advances from the shore of the Red Sea.^^'^ The plain of Baharnegash is first met after traversing the low and j'id steppe of Samhard, inhabited by the black Danakil and Dumboeta, where the traveller ascends the heights of Taranta. The next level is the kingdom of Tigre, which formerly contained the kingdom of Axum. "Within this region lie the plains of Enderta and Giralta ; containing Chelicut and Antalow, principal cities of Abyssinia. The kingdom of Tigre comprehends the provinces of Abyssinia westward of the Tacazze, of which the larger are Tigre and Shire towards the north, "Woggerat and Enderta and the moun- tainous regions of Lasta and Samen towards the south. High Abyssinia — kingdom of Amhara — is a name now given to the realm of which Gondar is the capital, and where the Amharic lan- guage is spoken, eastward of the Tacazze. Amhara proper is a mountain province of that name to the southeast, in the centre of which was Tegulat, the ancient capital of the empire ; and, at one period, the centre of civilization of Abyssinia. This province is now in the possession of the Galla ; a barbarous people who have overcome the southern parts of Habesh. The present kingdom of Amhara is the heart of Abyssinia, the abode of the Emperor or Negush. It eon- tains the upper course of the Blue Nile. The climate is delightful — perpetual spring; and the mean elevation about 8000 feet. The upland region of Amhara, or rather the province of Dembea, breaks oft" towards the northeast, by a mountainous descent into the plains of Sennj\ar and lower Ethiopia. On the outskirts of the highlands, and at their feet, are the vast forests of Waldubba and Walkayat, abound ing with troops of monkeys, elephants, buftliloes and wild boars. The human inhabitants of these tracts and the adjoining forests, and likewise of the valleys of the Tacazze and the Angrab, are Shang- alla Negroes, who in several parts environ the hill-country of Abyssinia.^ AFRICAN TYPES. 193 Races inliahiting Abyssinia. — Sevcnil ditterent races inhabit the old empire of the Negush or Abyssinian sovereign, wlio are commonly included under the name of Hahesh or Abyssinians. They differ in language, but possess a general resemblance in their physical charac- ters and customs. Whether they really are of unique origin is a question which science has no data for settling. Those who believe that the Hebrew and the Hottentot (as well as camels and cameleo- }»ards) are of one and the same stock, will unhesitatingly answer in the affirmative. 1. The Tii/rani, or Ahyssins of Tigre. — These are the inhabitants of the kingdom of Tigre, on the east of Tacazze — speaking the lingua Tigrana. 2. The Amharas. — They have for ages been the dominant people of Abyssinia, and speak the widely-spread Amharic language. 3. The Agows. — There are two tribes bearing this appellation, who speak distinct tongues, and inhabit different parts of the country. 4. The Falashas. — This race has much puzzled ethnographers, and their history is involved in obscurity. They possess strong affinities with the Fulahs on the western coast, and have not only been sup- posed by many to be of the same stock, but both have been regarded as identical with the Kafirs (Caftres) of Southern Afi-ica. The Fala- shas are Jews in religion, though their language has no affinity with the Hebrew ; and they use the Gheez version of the Old Testament. 5. The G-afats are another tribe, possessing a language of their own. 6. The Crongas and Enareans have also a language distinct from all the above. There are other tribes which might be enumerated, speaking lan- guages hitherto irreconcilable.^'^ Whether these really present affi- nities, or whether some of them be not radically distinct, are questions yet undetermined. Physical Characters. — Human races of the plateaux of Abyssinia are said to resemble each other, although it is admitted on all hands that they vary considerably in complexion and features. Prichard, who has brought all his immense erudition to bear on these families, cuts them loose entirely from I^egro races ; and classes them under the head of Ethiopians ; who, we shall see, have been very improperly confounded with Negroes. After treating on the general resemblance, in physical characters, of these nations, he concludes — "By this national character of conformation, the Abyssinians are associated -with tnat class of African nations which I have proposed to denominate by the term Ethiopian, aa distinguishing them from Negroes. The distinction has indeed been already established by 25 194 AFRICAN TYPES. Baron Larrey, Dr. Ruppell, M. de Chabrol, and others. Some of these writers include in the same department the Abyssins, the native Egyptians and the Barabra, separating them by a broad line from the Negroes, and almost as widely from the Arabs and Europeans. The Egyptians or Copts, who form one branch of this stock, have, according to Larrey, a 'yellow, dusky complexion, like that of the Abyssins. Their countenance is full without being puffed; their eyes are beautiful, clear, almond-shaped, and languishing; their cheek- bones are projecting; their noses nearly straight, rounded at the point; their nostrils dilated ; mouth of moderate size ; their lips thick ; their teeth white, regular, but a little projecting ; their beard and hair black and crisp.' 230 in all these characters, the Egyptians, according to Larrey, agree with the Abj'ssins, and are distinguished from the Negroes." The Baron enters into a minute comparison of the Abyssinians, Copts, and Negroes ; concluding that the two former are of the same race ; and supporting this idea with Egyptian sculptures and paint- ings, and the crania of mummies. M. DE Chabrol, describing the Copts, says that they evince decidedly an African character of physiognomy; which, he thinks, establishes that they are indigenous inhabitants of Egypt, identifying them with the ancient inhabitants : — " On pent admettre que leur race a su se conserver pure de toute melange avec le Grecs, puisqu'ils n'ont entre eux aucun trait de ressemblance."23i [This must be taken with many grains of allowance ; for the present Copts are hybrids of every race that has visited Egypt : at the same time that his "African physiognomy" evidently means no more than that the character of countenance termed Ethiopian is not that of the Negro.— G. R. G.] Dr. Ruppell has also portrayed the Ethiopian style of counte- nance and bodil}^ conformation as peculiarl}^ distinct from the type both of the Arabian and the Negro. He describes its character as more especially belonging to the Barabra, or Berberins, among whom he long resided ; but he says that it is common to them, together with the Ababdeh and the Bishari, and in part with the Abyssinians. This type, according to Riippell, bears a striking resemblance to the ■characteristics of the ancient Egyptians and Nubians, as displayed in the statues and sculptures in the temples and sepulchral excavations along the course of the Nile. The complexion and hair of the Abyssinians vary very much : their complexion ranging from almost white to dark brown or black ; and their bail", from straight to crisp, frizzled, and almost woolly. Hence the deduction, if these are facts, that they must be an" exceedingly mixed race. l)r. Prichard, in defining the Abyssinians, 1ms taken much pains, as we have said, to prove that they, together with families generally of the eastern basin of the Nile, down to Egypt inclusive, not only are not Negro, but were not originally Asiatic races , display- ing somewhat of an intermediate type, which is nevertheless essen- AFRICAN TYPES. 195 fially African in character. To us, it is very gratifying to see tliis view so ably sustained ; because, regarding it as an incontrovertible fact, we have made it the stand-point of our argument respecting the origin of the ancient Egyptians, whose eftigies present this African type on the earliest monuments of the Old Empire more vividly than upon those of the Netv. This autochthonous type, as we shall prove, ascends so far back in time, is so peculiar, and withal so connected with a primordial tongue — presenting but small incipient affinity with Asiatic languages about 3500 years b. c. — as to preclude every idea of an Asiatic origin for its aboriginally-Nilotic speakers and hieroglj'phical scribes. Languages of Abyssinia. — In tracing the history of this country, we find the Gheez, or Ethiopic, the Amharic, and other Abyssinian Languages. It is no longer questionable, that the Gheez or Ethiopic — idiom of the Ethiopic version of the Scriptures, and other modern books which constitute the literature of Abyssinia — is a Semitic dia- lect, akin to the Arabic and Hebrew. " There is no reason to doubt [says Prichard], that the people for whose use these books were written, and whose vernacular tongue was the Gheez, were a Semitic race. How, and at what time, the highlands of Abyssinia came to be inhabited by a Semitic people, and what relations the modern Abyssinians bear to the family of nations, of which that people were a branch, are questions of too much importance, in African ethnography, to be passed without examination." The Gheez is now extant merely as a dead language. The Amharic, or modern Abyssinian, has been the vernacular of the country ever since the extinction of the Gheez, and is spoken over a great part of Abyssinia. It is not a dialect of the Gheez or Ethiopic, as some have supposed, but is now recognized to be, as Prichard affirms, "a language fundamentally distinct." It has incorporated into itself many words of Semitic origin ; but accidents of recent date do not alter the case, as concerns the ft)rmer existence of local Abys- synian idioms, non-Asiatic in structure. So with the Atlantic Berber language, which has likewise become much adulterated by foreign grafts : yet Venture, JSTewraan, Castiglione, and Griiberg de Ilemso, have fully proved that it is essentially, and in the primary or most original parts of its vocabulary, a speech entirely apart, and devoid of a"ny relation whether to Sentitic or to any other known language. The same remark applies with ecpial truth to the Amharic, which was probably an ancient African tongue, and one of the aboriginal idioms of the inhabitants of the south-eastern pro\ances of Abyssinia. Prich- ard winds up his investigation with the following emphatic avowal, 80 that we may consider the question settled : — " The languages of all these nations are essentially distinct from the Gheez and evei^;) other Senutic dialect. (.mr own general conclusion from the pre 196 AFRICAN TYPES. Tuise.s k, that, while the Abjssinians are absohitely distinct, on the one hand, from every Negro race, they are, on the other, equally dis- tinct, in type and languages, from all Asiatic races ; and they must therefore be regarded as autocthones of the country where they are now found. On the south and south-east of Abyssinia there exist other races which might be enumerated ; the Gallas, for example, with brown complexion, long crisp hair, and features not unlike the Abyssinians. Also, the Danakil, the Somauli, &c. — none of whom are IN'egroes : their types being intermediate — long hair, skins more or less dark, good features, &c. ; all partaking far more of the Ethic/pian than of the Negro. [No Abyssinian natives having fallen under the writer's personal eye, he cannot pronounce upon them with the same con- fidence that he speaks of Negroes ; but his colleague, Mr. Gliddon, whose twenty-odd years' residence in Egypt, individual aptitude of observation, and extensive Oriental knowledge, render his opinions of some weight in these Nilotic questions, refers to the exquisite plates of Prisse d'Avennes^ for what may be considered the most perfect expression of this Abyssinian tj^e. We accept M. Prisse's life-like sketches the more readily, inasmuch as they harmonize with the best accounts we have read, and with our own ethnological deductions, through analogy, of the characteristics that Abyssinians must pre- sent.— J. C. K] On resuming our line of march, then, north towards Egypt, we turn our backs upon the jSoodan, " black countries," ever the true land of Negroes; and descend from the Abyssinian highlands on the north-west and north, along the borders of Gondar and Dembea. Here, again, we meet divers scattered tribes, with black skins and woolly heads — varieties of the intrusive Shangalla, who now are found not only on the west, but on the northern borders of Ilabesh ; while on the south-east we desciy the Dobos. In Sennaar we again encounter Negro tribes — the Shilooks and the Tungi; inhabiting the islands of the Bahr-el-Abiad, above Wadee Shallice. Fully de- scribed by Seetzen, Linant, Lord Prndhoe, Russegger, and others; they present Negro types more or less marked. This fact might seem to contradict our statement with regard to the primitive localities of Nigritian races. We look upon such minutioe, however, as unimport- ant ; because, contending simply for a gradation of African races, a few hundred miles, within the same upper Nilotic basin, do not aftcct the main principle. Dr. Eiippell, than whom there is certainly no better authority on this question, corroborates our assumption, by asserting tiiat the present stations of those Negro races are not their ancient abodes. He assures us that — AFRICAN TYPES. 197 '* The Shilukh Negroes are a niimcrous and widely spread people, in the country of Bertal, bordering on Fertit, and to the southward of Kordofan, beyond the tenth degree of latitude, ivhence Ihey have dispersed themselves, towards the East and North, along the course of the White Nile." Prichard furthermore admits, that " the people of Sennaar are no longer Negroes," quoting M.Cailliaud to sustain himself; and adding the latter's description of the physical character of the races of Sen- nkar in general : — " Les indigenes du Sennaar ont le teint d'un brun cuivr^ ; leurs cheveux, quoique cr^pus, diiferent de ceux des vrais Niigres': ils n'ont point, comme ceuxci, le nez, les levres, et les joues, saillantes — Fensemble de leur phys-iognoniie est agr^able et regulier." Cailliaud further remarks, that — '* Among the inhabitants of the kingdom of Sennaar, and the adjoining countries to the south, the results of mixture of race, in the intermarriage of Soudanians, Ethiopians, and Arabs, were frequently to be traced." He holds, as does also Cherubini,^^ that six distinct castes are weli known in that countiy, the names and descriptions of which they give.^ After a careful review of most leading authorities on the races of Africa, we have arrived at the conclusion that, upon ascending the table-lands of Abyssinia, at the south and west, we bid adieu to the true iSTegro-land (believing that every dispassionate inquirer must come to results identical). Which departure taken, we find, along the descending waters of the Xile, only some few scattered iSTegro types, who have wandered from their indigenous and more austi-al soil. Dr. Prichard, we have stated, fully recognizes the gradation of African races for which we have been contending, but he attributes it entirely to the operation of physical causes — assigning imaginary reasons, unsubstantiated by even the slenderest proof, and in negation of which we hope to adduce overwhelming testimony. Nubians. — l^ext in order, we must glance at the races inhabiting Xubia and other countries between Abyssinia and Egypt, about whom much unnecessary confusion has existed, simply because few European travellers among them have been competent physiologists. One people who inhabit the valley of the Nile above Egypt, and from that country to Sennaar, give themselves the appellation of Berherri (in the singular). B}^ the Arabs, they are termed Nuba and Barabera. The same people in Egypt, whither they immigrate in large numbers, are by Europeans called Berberins. These races, through similarity of name, have been erroneously confounded with the Berbers of the Barbar}' States ; but they diifer in language, features, and every essential particular.^* The Nubians constitute altogether a group of peculiar races, differing from Arabs, Negroes, or Egyptians — pos- sessing a physiognomy and color of their own. They speak language« 198 AFRICAN TYPES. peculiar to themselves ; in which, from the time of Moses, they were hieroglyphed as BaRaBeRa, no less than as Nuba. They are in the habit of coming down to Egypt, where their offices are wholly menial ; and among other articles of trafhc, some clans bring Negroes pro- cured from the caravans of Sennaar, and are commonly known at Cairo under the name of Gellabs, "fetchers," or slave-dealers. The discrepancy in the descriptions given of this Nubian race by travellers, demonstrates that there exists among them considerable variety of colors; and hence, at once, we feel persuaded of no little mixture of races. Denon describes them as of a " shining jet-black," but adds, " they have not the smallest resemblance to the Negroes of Western Africa." Other travellers speak of them as copper-colored, or black, with a tinge of red, &c. The fact is, the mothers are often pure negresses, and their children mulattoes of all shades. Theii proper physical character is, Aye think, well described by M. Costaz : — " La couleur des Barabras tient en quelque sorte le milieu entre le noif d'ebfene des habi- tans de Sennaar et le teint basan4 des Egyptiens du Sayd. Elle est exactement seniblable a celle de I'acajou poli fonce. Les Barabras se prevalent de cette nuance, pour se ranger parmi les blancs. . . Les traits des Barabras se rapprochent efFeetivement plus de ceux des Europeens que de ceux des Nfegres : leur peau est d'un tissu extrenienient tin — sa couleur ne produit point un effect desagreable ; la nuance rouge, qui y est melee, leur donne un air de sante et de vie. lis different des Negres par leur cheveux, qui sent longs et legere- nient crepus sans etre laineux. Dr. Rlippeirs very scientific account of the races inhabiting the province of Dongola contains the following: — "The inhabitants of Dar Dongola are divided into two principal classes : namely, the Barabra, or the descendants of the old Ethiopian natives of the country, and the races of Arabs who have emigrated from Hedjas. The ancestors of the Barabra, who, in the course of centuries, have been repeatedly conquered by hostile tribes, must have undergone some intermixture with people of foreign blood; yet an attentive inquiry will still enable us to distinguish among tliem the old national physiognomy, which their forefathers have marked upon colossal statues and the bas-reliefs of temples and sepulchres. A long oval counte- nance; a beautifully curved nose, somewhat rounded towards the top; proportionally thick lips, but not protruding excessively; a remarkably beautiful figure, generally of middle size, and a brown color, are the characteristics of the genuine Dongalawi. These same traits of physiognomy are generally found among the Ababdi, Bishari, a part of the inha- bitants of the province of Schendi, and partly also among the Abyssinians." Many of the Barabra speak Arabic, and with an accent ever " sui generis f' but very few free Arabs consider it respectable to learn Ber- berree, which they affect to despise as Mutcina, a "jargon." • Both races keep themselves separate ; and marriage connexions between them, entailing disgrace upon the Arab, are, at the present day, of so rare occurrence, that Berberri husbands at Cairo are only adopted for one day, in cases of "trii)lo divorce." ^^ There are many citations of Arab historians to support the conclusion that some septs of these so-termed AFRICAN TYPES. 109 Barjibra derived their origin from a country westward of the Xile, and not far from Kordofiln. A doubt thus arises not only, as abovt* mentioned, with regard to Xegroes, l)ut whether some Nubians them- selves did not come originally from the west of the White Nile. This opinion, confirmed to some extent by affinity of language and by modern traditions, is contradicted, a])parently, by the monuments : — 1st, Egyptian monarchs of the XVlUth dynasty conquer the Nouba, no less than the Barcibera, in their expeditions of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries b. c. 2d, The portraits of these Ancient Nubians exhibit precisel}^ the same traits, whilst occupying, 3500 years ago, the same topographical habitats, as their descendants at the present day ; and the nostalgic tendencies of the modern Berberri are so noto- rious, that voluntary displacements on his part seem improbable. In Part II. of this volume, under the head of KUS/i, the reader will meet with ample investigations : although, beyond general accuracy, a minutel^'-exact geographical settlement of these Nubian groups is not essential to anthropology ; because, whether in the Lower or Upper Nubias, or in Kordofan, they lie now, where their progenitors ever did, along the Nile ; that is, between the Egyptians at the north and the Negroes at the south. And, after all, their mightiest dislocations are confined within an area of 500 miles, up or down a single river. To us they are, consequently, merely Nubian aborigines. The population of Kordofan now consists of three races at least, who are ph\-sically distinct, each speaking clifterent languages : — 1. Bedouin Arabs from the Iledjaz. 2. Colonists from Dongola. 3. Original natives of the countrj', who call themselves JVouba, whereas, in race, they are genuine Negroes. "VVe dwell not, however, on exotic races ; but upon the Nubians proper : whose type is inde- pendent of this chaos of national names, often erroneously given to them, as well as misappropriated by them. Dr. Prichard says : — " The descent of the modern Nubians or Barabra, from the Nouba of the hill country of Kordofan, seems to be as well established as vei'y many facts which are regarded as certain by writers on ethnography." But the Bai-Hbra are not Negroes ; their hair, though slightly friz- zled and crisp, is long and not woolly : and Prichard's surmise of any great Nubian displacements since Pharaonie times, was doubted by Morton,^** and is overthrown by facts we owe to Birch.^ Burckhardt, Cailliaud, and other travellers who have \'isited this part of Africa, tell us that the Noubas, who are Negroes, do not here resemble in form, features, hair, complexion, &c., other Negroes of the west coast, but approximate more closely to the type of Barabra or true Nubians. It is clear that there exists some strongly-marked ditieience between 200 AFRICAN TYPES. the Nouha of Kordofan and the Bardhra of Nubia ; which Dr. Prichard is at a loss whether to attribute to ehmate or to commin- ghngs of races. Of the two opinions the hitter is the only reasonable one ; because the Nubians or modern Barabra are the representatives of an original indigenous stock; whose normal position stands north- ward of pure Negro races. The inhabitants of Dar-Four and Fezzan exhibit some striking peculiarities, but we shall pass them by, as non-essential to our pre- sent objects, with the observation that, while the former approximate the Nubian, the latter verge towards the Atlantic Berber type. The Eastern Nubians^ or Bisharine or Bejaivy Race. — To the east- ward of Nubia, throughout the deserts and denuded hill-country east of Egypt, we encounter diiferent tribes and nations, all supposed to belong to the same race, which is one of the most widely-spread in Ethiopia, stretching from the Eastern desert at Thebes, to the So- mauli-country below Shoa. The Bishari are the most powerful of these clans. The ITadharebe, to the southward of the Bishari, and the Ababdeh, to the northward, belong, it is believed, to the same stock. Under the appellation Hadharehe are included numerous tribes, which it would be tedious and useless to enumerate.^ ^ Sudkim, or Suakin, is their principal settlement ; and of this place and its inhabitants Burckhardt supplies an ample account. " The Suakiny have, in general, handsome and expressive features, with thin and very short beards ; their color is of the darkest brown, approaching black, but they have nothing of the Negro character of countenance." 239 To the same excellent observer we are indebted for a fact that, seized upon to sustain the exploded idea of physical changes through climate, in reality affords the happiest illustration of the mode through which types of man become naturally effaced ; viz. : by foreign amalga- mations. The town of Suakim ; in Ptolemaic times Berenice; and containing (970 b. c.) the ancestors of the same Sukkiim^^ that now reside in its neighborhood; exhibited in Burckhardt's day a triple population, viz. : native Hadharehe, Arabs from the opposite coast, and the descendants of some Turkish soldiery left there by Sooltan Seleem. "The present race," says Burckhardt, "have the African features and manners, and are in no way to be distinguished from the iladherebe."^^ Turkish soldiery cohabit with the females of every land in which they arc posted ; and, while they rarely carry their own women with them, of all points of Ottoman coiujuests, S'utikim, on the African desert- coast of the Red Sea, would l)o the least likol}^ to have been occupied i)y Turkish married couples. In consequence, Seleem's garrison thwe, AFRICAN TYPES. 201 after the subjugation of Egypt in a. d. 1517, adopted as wives and concubines tbe females of the Hadharehe ; and in less than ten gene- rations, down to the period of Burckliardt's travels, their descendants had been ah-ead}- absorbed into the aboriginal masses whence the mothers had been drawn.^^^ Sustainers of " unity," who once snatched franticly at Turks metamorphosed, by climate, into Afri- cans, are welcome henceforward to what capital they can evolve from Burckhardt's narrative. The country of the Bishari reaches from the northern frontier of Abj'ssinia, along the course of the river Mareb, which flows through the northern forests of the Shangallah to the Belad-el-Taka and At- bara, where dwell the Hadendoa and Hammadab, said to be the strongest tribe of the Bishari race. Tribes of the Bishari reach north- ward as far as Gebel-el-Ottaby in the latitude of Derr, where the Nile, after its great western bend, turns back towards the Eed Sea ; they occupy all the hilly country upon the Xile from Sennaar to Dar Berber and to the Red Sea. (Prichard.) Travellers do not give a flattering account of their social condition. Burckhardt states: "The inhos- pitable character of the Bisharein would alone prove them to be a true African race, were this not put beyond all doubt by their lan- guage." Riippell declares that the physical character of the Bishari is very like that of the Barabra. Burckhardt again observes, " The Bi- shari of Atbara, like their brethren, are a handsome and bold race of people. I thought the women remarkably handsome ; they were of a dark brown complexion, with beautiful eyes and fine teeth ; their persons slender and elegant." Hamilton, who saw a few of them during his short stay about Assouan and Philffi, yields very much the same account, with the commentary, that many of them are beheld with " a cast of the Negro, others with very fine profile." Pricliard makes the following just and significant remark on this description : " This sort of variety in physiognomy is observed by almost every traveller in the eastern parts of the continent, from Kafiirland to Nubia and Egypt." Now, on the west^ the population has been cut ofi^", by deserts and other natural impediments, from all foreign ad- mixtures, in consequence of their isolated position ; while, on the east, they have been subjected from time immemorial to adulteration from Semitic inmiigrants. Both the Bishari and Ababdeh have been somewhat adulterated with Arab blood ; and, doubtless, far more so through Negresses, their slaves. They may, however, be considered a tolerably pure African race, inasmuch as the marks of adulteration are not by any means universal; at the same time they have preserved their native tongue, while the Arabic idioms have supplanted othe^ languages around them. 26 202 AFRICAN TYPES. The Ababdeh occupy the country to the northward of the Bishari ; viz.: fiom the parallel of Derr to the frontiers of Egypt, and in the eastern desert as tar northward as Qosseyr : they were scarcely known previously to the French Expedition to Egypt. M. du Bois Ayme, a member of Napoleon's Egyptian commission, affords the earliest de- scription of the Ababdeh : — " Les Ababdeh sont un tribu nomade, qui habitent les montagnes situees a I'orient du Nil, au sud de la valine de Qo5eyr. lis different entierement, par leur moeurs, leur lan- guage, leur costume, leur constitution physique, des tribus d'Arabes, qui, comme ceux ci, occupent les deserts qui environnent I'Egypte. Les Arabs sont blancs, se rasent la tete, sont vetus. Les Ababdeh sont noirs, mais leur traits ont beaucoup de ressemblance avec ceux des Europeens. lis ont les cheveux naturellement boueles, mais point laineux." Belzoni, who knew them well, says their complexions are naturally of a dark chocolate ; their hair quite black ; their teeth tine and white, protuberant and very large. It will be seen, from what precedes, that considerable is the discre- pancy among descriptions by travellers of these Ababdeh and Bisha- reen, as well as of other races. This arises, doubtless, from two facts : 1, That they are a mixed population, descended from several primitive races ; 2, That they have been described at different topographical points. The following observations of M. Prisse — whose residence among these tribes in Upper Egypt counts years where others reckon months, or, more frequently, weeks, is a guarantee for the accurac}^ of his ethnological drawings — completely demonstrate the truth of our deductions : — " The manners of Ihe Bedjah described by Arab authors are even yet those of these populations, who, under the name of Ababdeh, of Bishari, or Bichareen, and others less known, inhabit the same countries at this day In 1836, out of 500 men (Ababdeh) of the tribe, assembled at Louqsor for the transportation of wheat to Coss^ir, nearly 100 Arabs were found, who had married Ababdeh girls to avoid the conscription and the taxes. The Ababdeh have a peculiar idiom, which seems to be that of the aborigines, or the ancient Ethiopians The Bishari commence at the north, where the Ababdeh finish, and extend to the south as far as the vicinity of Souakim. They occupy all that chain of mountains which runs along the eastern coast of Africa, and that seems to be the cradle of all these wandering septs, living in grottoes, and designated in consequence under the name of Troglodytes. They derive their origin from the Blemmyes, a nomad people of the environs of Axum, which the love of pillage drew towards Egypt [that is, in Roman times ; when Coptic annals recount the ravages as low as Esneh of the Bal-n-Moui, " Eye- of-Lion," or Blemmyes. 213] The manners of the Bishari difter little from those of the Ababdeh, with whoip, nevertheless, they are ever at war Their language has drawn nothing from the Arabic, and seems to approach tlie Abyssinian and the Berber [i. e. Ber- berree.'] This people, truly intligcnous lo Africa, is cruel, avaricious, and vindictive; these dispositions are restrained by no law, human or divine. "2** We copy (Fig. 120) one of Prissc's engravings. It exhibits the perfect Bishari, but differs too slightly from the Ababdeh characteris tics not to exemplily both tribes equally well. AFRICAN TYPES. 203 Among Dr. Morton's Fig. 120. papers we find the copy of a letter, addressed from the Isle of Philse, Sept. 15, 1844, by Chev. Lepsius, to our erudite countryman, the late John Pickering, of Boston. Being inedited, and mentioned onl}' by one writer -^"^ that we know of, we translate such passages as bear upon Nubian sub- jects, not merely for their intrinsic value, but in tri- bute to the memory of the profoundest native philo- logist that our country has hitherto produced. " I have no ueed, certainly, to insist, as regards yourself, upon the high importance which linguistic researches always possess in ethnographical studies. I have not neglected, either, to study, to the extent that time permitted, the different tongues of the Soudan, whenever I could find individuals who were in a state to communicate anything about their own language, through the medium of Arabic. The three principal tongues which I have studied in this manner, and of which I now possess the grammar and vocabulary, suffi- ciently complete to give an idea of their nature, are — the Nobinga, or Nouba, ordinarily known under the strange name of Berber, which is spoken in three different dialects in the valley of the Nile, from Assouan to the southern frontier of the province of Dongola, as also in certain parts of Kordifal (this is the true pronunciation in lieu of KordofUn) : 2d, The / Kongdra, or language of Uar-Four, a very extended speech of Negroes, of which until now even the name was unknown : 3d, The Begawie, or the language of the Bichartba, who oc- cupy the country west of the Nile from 23° to 15°, and principally the fertile province of Taka. The most interesting among these three tongues is, without doubt, the third. The grammar causes it to be recognized without difficulty as appertaining to the great family of Caucasian languages, as I think I was the first to demonstrate of the Egyptian tongue (in 1835, by comparison of the pronouns; in 1836 by that of the names of number); and as known concerning the Abyssinian tongue. This fact alone proves that the primitive origin of all these people, of this eastern part of Africa, must have been in Asia. [We do not perceive why such deduction necessarily follows. " Caucasian" is a term that physiology must abandon, as a misnomer productive of confusion ; but the above was penned in haste, nine years ago, and the erudite writer may since have seen occasion, as we have ourselves, to modify first impressions]. . . . Finally, this tongue becomes to us of a far higher import- ance, through the circumstance that I think I shall be able to prove that the same people, who now speak this tongue, formerly inhabited the Isle of Meroe ; built the temples and the pyramids, of which we still there find the ruins. . . . The people who ruled then, in this great kingdom, called themselves Dega (Bedja); a name which is now entirely lost as the name of a people, but which originated the name of the tongue Begavie, of which I have spoken above. . . . One facilely perceives at once, by many well-proserved paintings, that the people who built the pyramids [of Meroe] were a red people, or, rather, very reddish [Ai'e?* rougeatrel, as might have been expected if they spoke veritably a Caucasian language. Bui 204 AFRICAN TYPES. nothing presents itself to the most scrupulous investigations that could lead us to suspect that a single one of the monuments [of Meroe] might ascend higher than the first century after j. c. The greater part belong, without doubt, even to much later times ; and we must place the most flourishing epoch of MeroS nearly at the second or third of our era. And, not only upon the Isle of Meroe, but in all Ethiopia, from one end to the other, there is not the slightest trace, I will not say of a primitive civilization anterior to the Egyptian civili- zation, as has been dreamed, but not even whatsoever of an Ethiopian civilization, properly 80 called." 2^6 These most scientific views of Chev. Lepsius were communicated to us long ago ; and they have materially aided our endeavors to dis- criminate between the true and the false, the certain and the impro- bable, in EtMopic problems ; about which, we grieve to say, consider- able mystification is still kept up between the Northern and the Southern States of our Federal Union, which a little reading might remove. On the northern coast of Africa, between the Mediterranean and the Great Desert, including Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Ben- gazi, there is a continuous system of highlands, which have been included under the general term Atlas, anciently Atalantis, now the Barbary States. This immense tract, in very recent geological times, was once an Island, M'ith the ocean flowing over the whole of the Sahara ; thus cutting oft' all land-communication between Barbary, on the Mediterranean, and the remote plateaux of Nigritia. Throughout Barbary we encounter another peculiar group of races, subdivided into many tribes of various shades, now spread over a vast area, but which formerly had its principal, and probably aboriginal, abode, along the mountain-slopes of Atlas. The tribes have different appel- latives in difterent districts : e. g., the Shillouhs, now a separate people,^'^ have been included under the general name of Berbers or Berehbers : but from the primitive Berbers the north of Africa seems to have derived the designation of Barbary or Berberia, " Land of the Berbers.'' To speak correctly, the real name of the Berbers j)roper is Mazirgh ; with the article prefixed or sufiixed, T-amazirgh, or Ama- zirgh-T : meaning, free, dominant, or ^^ noble race." Their name, in Latin mouths, was softened into 3Iasges, 3Iasiges, Mazici, kc.\ and in Grecian, into Ma^ue.c, as far back as Herodotus [lib. iv. 191). These people have spoken a language unlike any other from time immemo- rial ; and, although it has been a fruitful theme of discussion, yet no aflinity can be established between its ancient words, stripped of Pha3nician and Arabic, and any Asiatic tongue. We have every reason to feel persuaded that the Berbers existed in the remotest times, with all their essential moral and physical peculiarities. In a word, the reader of Part IT. of this work will see, that tlu*"c exists no ground for regarding them in any other light than as the liutoo \ AFRICAN TYPES. 205 thones of Mount Atlas and its prolongations. The Berber was, pro- bably, as Mr. AV. B. Hodgson (of Savannah — one of the highest authorities in Berber lore,) remarks, the language which " Tyria Bi- lingua" was obliged to learn in addition to a Carthaginian mother- tongue, the Punic or Phoenician speech. We know that this people, with their language stamped upon the native names of rivers, moun- tains, and localities, have existed apart for the last 2500 years ; and inasmuch as Egypt, back to the time of Menes, barred their inter- course by land with races on the eastern side of the Suez isthmus, there is every reason to believe that the Berbers existed, at that re- mote date, in the same state in which they were discovered by Phoenician navigators, previously to the foundation of Carthage. At the time of Leo Africanus, the Berber was the language of all Atlas. It has remained so since, except where crowded out by Arabic. They are an indomitable nomadic people, who, since the introduction of camels, have penetrated, in considerable numbers, into the Desert, and even as far as Nigritia. These Berbers are the Numidians and Maurita- nians of classical writers, by the Romans termed '■'■genus insuperahile hello;'' and French Algeria can testity to the indelible bellicosities of the living race. AVe gather from Shaw, that — " The tribes who speak this language have different names : those of the mountains belonging to ^lorocco are termed Shilloukhs ; those who inhabit the plains of that empire, dwelling under tents, after the manner of Arabs, are named Berber ; and those of the mountains belonging to Algiers and Tunis call themselves Cabaylis, or Gebalis" [a designa- tion which is merely Qabdil, Arabic for a "tribe," when not Gebaylee, "mountaineer."] A fourth and prominent branch must be added to this division : viz., the TuaryTc, who are now widely spread over the Sahara and its oases, and on both banks of the Niger. Mr. Hodgson, long resident officially in the Barbary States, who has devoted much time, talent, and learning, to this subject, seems to have settled the question, that all these Berber races (except such few as have adopted the Arabic) speak dialects of the same language. In consequence, it has been assumed, by Prichard and others of the TJnity-school, that they must all be of a common origin. But, while of this there is no evidence beyond a community of languages, the manifest diversity of physical characters would prove the contrary. Some of these clans are white ; others black, with woolly hair ; and there is no fact better established in ethnography, than that physical characters are far more persistent than unwritten tongues. The great mass of the Berber tribes have, in all likelihood, substantially pre- served their physical as well as moral ciiaracters since their creation ; although they have been to some extent subjected to adulterations 206 AFRICAN TYPES. of blood. The PhoBniciatis, Greeks, Romans, and Vandals, succes- sively, founded colonies in the Barhary States : but they built and inhabited towns for commercial purposes — mixed little socially with the people — never resided in the interior, and have disappeared from the scene, leaving nearly imperceptible traces behind them. Arabs have since overrun the country, but their numbers have been small, compared with the natives ; and, except during and since Saracenic culture in the towns, they have generally preserved their nomadic habits — keeping much aloof from the indigenous Bai'baresques ; and there is not merely no reason for thinking that Arabia has exercised great influence on the Berber type, but circumstances rather indicate Barbary's action over the Arab colonists. The ruling tuition of the Arabs, the genial vitality of Islam, and the constant reading of the Koran, have had the effect of spreading the Arabic language much faster and farther than Arabian blood. In some of the more civilized cities — Morocco, Fez, &c. — Arabic is the only tongue spoken among the patrician Berbers ; thus affording another evidence of the utter fallacy of arguments in favor of the identify/ of origin or consanguinity/ of races based solely upon communitg of language. The Mohammedan in Africa, like the Christian religion elsewhere, is spreading its own languages over races of all colors : just as did Shamanism, Budhism, or Judaism, in many parts of Asia, during ages past. Many Jews are scattered throughout Barbary, but especially in the empire of Morocco, where their number is estimated at 500,000. Some black blood too has infiltrated from the South. No little difference exists in descriptions of the phj^sical characters of Barbary Moors (corruption of the Latin Mauri), no less than concerning the native tribes of Atlas now difiused over the Sahara. Prichard says — " Their figure and stature are nearly the same as those of the Southern Europeans ; and their complexion, if darker, is only so in proportion to the higher temperature of the coun- tries which they inhabit. It displays, as we shall see, great varieties." The influence of climate is here again boldlj^ assumed by Prichard, without one particle of evidence. What reason is there to suppose that climate influences Berbers, an}' more than it does Mongols, American Indians, or other races, who, each with their t}^ical com- })lexions, are spread over most latitudes ? Moreover, the complexion of the Berbers does not, in very many cases at least, correspond with climate. The same action, we presume, operates in Barbaresque local! ties that seems to prevail in various ]»arts of the earth; and which we have insisted upon in our general Keniarks on Types. The Berbei family, at present, appears to be made up of many tribes, ])resent"ng a sort of generic resemoiance, but differing speciflcally, and possc^tj AFRICAN TYPES. 207 iiig physical characteristics that are original, and not amenable to climatic influences any more than those whi( h denote the Jew, the Ihei'ian, or the Celt. We submit a few examples of Atalantic physical characters, as described by various travellers. Jackson informs us, that — " The men of Temsena and Sliowinli are of a strong, robust make, and of a copper-color — the women beautiful. . . . The women of Fez arc fair as the European, but hair and eyes always dark. . . . The women of Mequinas are very beautiful, and have the red and white complexion of English women." RozET gives the annexed description of the Moors : — "II existe cependant encore un certain nombre de families, qui n'ont point contracts d'alliances avec des Strangers, et chez lesquelles on retrouve les caractferes de la race pri- mitive. Les hommes sont d'une taille au dessus de la moyenne ; leur demarche est noble et grave ; ils ont les cheveux noirs ; la peau un peu basanee, mais plutot blanche que brune ; le visage plein, mais les traits en sont moins bien prononc^s que ceux des Arabes et des Berbferes. lis ont geueralement le nez arrondi, la bouche moyenne, les yeux tres ouverts, mais peu vifs ; leurs muscles sont bien prononces, et ils ont le corps plutot gros que mai'gre." Spix and Martius, the well-known German travellers, depict them as follows : — " \ high forehead, an oval countenance, large, speaking black eyes, shaded bj arched and strong eyebrows; a thin, rather long, but not too pointed, nose; rather broad lips, mepting in an acute angle ; thick, smooth, and black hair on the head and in the b>iard ; broiunish-yelloiu complexion; a strong neck, joined to a stature greater than the middle height, characterize the natives of Northern Africa, as they are frequently seen in the streets of Gibraltar." M. Rozet recounts, that — "The Berbers or Kabyles of the Algerine territory are of middle stature; their com plexion is brown, and sometimes almost black [noirdire) ; hair brown and smooth, rarely blond ; they are lean, but extremely robust and nervous, very well-formed, and with the elegance of antique statues ; their heads more round than the Arabs'." Lieutenant Washington declares — " The Moors are generally a fine-looking race of men, of middle stature, disposed to become corpulent; they have good teeth; complexions of all shades, owing, as some have supposed, to intermixture with Negroes, though the latter are not sufficiently numerous to account for the fact." He describes the Shillonhs or Shilhas as having light complexions. Prichard thus sums up his inquiries : — ' It seems, from these accounts, that the nations whose history we have traced in this chapter, present all varieties of complexion ; and these variations appear, in some instances at least, to be nearli/ in relation to the temperature." "With all his inclination that wa}^, hoAvever, it is evident that ne himself cannot make his own climatic theory fit. Our reasonings are based upon comparison of Barbaresque fami- .les diifused over a vast superficies — comprising tribes now more or .ess commingled, and in all social conditions, civic, agricultural, and Viomadi" We may mention, although we exclude, as too local and 208 AFRICAN TYPES. modern to be important out of towns on the seaboard, the combined influences of European captives, at Salee, Tangiers, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Bengazi, and other privateering principalities ; which circum- stances, in the maritime cities, have blended every type of man that could be kidnapped around the Black Sea, Mediterranean, and East- ern Atlantic, by Barbary pirates. [As an illustration — Mr. Gliddon tells us, that, in 1830, just after the French conquest of Algiers, the hold of a Syrian brig, in which he sailed from Alexandria to Sidon, was occupied by one wealthy Algerine family, fleeing from Gallic heresies to Arabian IsRm, anywhere. Exclusive of servants and slaves, there were at least fifty adults and minors, under the control of a patriarchal grand or great-grandfather. Of course, our infor- mant saw none of the grown-up females unveiled ; but, while the patriarch and some of the sons were of the purest white complexion, their various children presented every hue, and every physical diver- sity, from the highest Circassian to a Guinea-JsTegro. In this case, no Arabic interpreter being needed, it was found that each individual of the worthy corsair's family, unprejudiced in all things, save hatred towards Christendom in general and Frenchmen in particular, had merel}' chosen females irrespectively of color, race, or creed. — J. C. N.] Hodgson states — " The Tuarycks are a white people, of the Berber race. . . . The Mozabicks are a remark- ably white people, and are mixed with Bedouin Arabs. . . . The Wadreagans and Wurgelans are of a dark bronze, with woolly hair . . . are certainly not pure Caucasian, like the Berber race in general. . . . There is every probability that the Kushites, Amalekites, and Kah- tanites, or Beni-Yoktan Arabs, had, in obscure ages, sent forward tribes into Africa. But the first historic proof of emigration of the Aramean or Shemitic race into this region is that of the Canaanites of Tyre and of Palestine. This great commercial people settled Carthage, and pushed their traders to the Pillars of Hercules." 248 Upon these various branches of a supposed common stock, there have been engrafted some shoots of foreign origin ; for, amidst a uni- formity of language, there exist extraordinary ditferences of color and of physical traits — at the same time, are we sure of this alleged uniformity of speech itself? Now, we repeat, history affords no well- attested example of a language outliving a clearly-defined physical type ; and, in a preceding chapter, we fully instanced how the Jews, .scattered for 2000 years over all climates of the earth, have adopted *.hc language of every nation among whom they sojourn — thus aflbrdiug 07ie undeniable proof of our assertion, not to mention many others one might draw from less historical races. Mr. Hodgson is a streimous advocate of an extreme antiquity for the Berbers, or Libyans : — "Their history is yet to be investigated and written. I yet maintain the opinion ad- fanced some years ago, that these people were the (e7Ta; geniti — the aboriginal inhabitants AFRICAN TYPES. 209 of Egypt, prior to the historic or monumental era, and before the Mizraimites and their descendants, tlie Copts." 249 In our Part 11., these skilful inferences are singularly reconciled vith the monuments and liistoiy, and from an altogether different point of view. When we rememher how, in Hebrew persouifications, MizRAiM was the grandson of Noah, and how Lepsius traces the Egyptian Empire back nearly 4000 years before Christ, a claim of such antiquity for the Berbers is certainly a high one, although, according to our belief, not extravagant ; for we regard the Berbers as a primitive type, and therefore as old as any men of our geological period. Hodgson confirms his statement, by abundant proofs, that " the grammatical structure of the Berber dialects is everywhere the same ;" and, in allusion to the affinities among these languages, avers : — " Yet, with all this identity of a peculiar class of words and similarity of some inflections, adjunct particles, and formations — the three most micient and historical languages, Arabic, Btrber, and Coptic, are essentially distinct." With perfect propriety, our friend might have added the Chinese speech, which is equally peculiar, and can be traced monumentally farther back than either the Arabic or the Berber — if not, certainly, so far as that ante-monumental tongue which is prototype of the Coptic. It seems to us, that no one can read Pauthier's several works on Chinese history, language, and literature, without coincid- ing in this opinion ; and every one can verify that the languages of America, according to Gallatin, Duponceau, and other qualified judges, are radically distinct from every tongue, ancient or modern, of the Old Continent. Our ethnological sweep over the African Continent, from the Cape of Good Hope northwards to the ISTubias on the right hand, and to Barbaiy on the left, incomplete as it is — wearisome, to many read- ers, as it may be — has brought us to the confines of Egypt. In that most ancient of historical lands we propose to halt, for a season ; devoting the next chapter to its study. But, by way of succinct recapitulation of some results we think the present chapter has elicited, we would inquire of the candid reader, whether, at the present moment, the human races indigenous to Africa do not pre- sent themselves, on a map, so to say, in layers ? Whether the most southern of its inhabitants, the Hottentots and Bushmen, are not the lowest types of humanity therein found ? And lastly, whether, in the ratio of our progress towards the Mediterranean, passing successively through the Caffre, the Negro, and the Foolah populations, to "^he Abyssinian and Nubian races on the east, and to the Atalantic Berbei 27 210 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. races on the west, we have not beheld the Types of Mankind rising, almost continuously, higher and higher in the scale of physical and intellectual gradations ? Such are the phenomena. Climate^ most certainly, does not explain them ; nor will any student of Natural History sustain that each type of man in Africa is not essentially homogeneous with the fauna and the flora of the special province wherein his species now dwells. Two cjuestions arise: — 1st, Within human record, has it not always been thus ? and 2d, Do the EgyptianB^ northernmost inhabitants of Africa, obey the same geographical law of physical, and consequently of mental and moral, progression ? Our succeeding chapters may suggest, to the reflective mind, some data through which both interrogatories can be answered. CHAPTER VII. EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. Our survey of African races, so far, has been rapid and imperfect, but still we hope it is sutficiently full to develop our idea oi gradation in the inhabitants of that great continent. A more copious analysis would have surpassed our limits, while becoming unnecessarily tedious to the reader. Prichard has devoted a goodly octavo of his '■'■Physical History'' to these races alone ; whereas we can afford but a few pages. We now approach Egypt, the last geographical link in African Ethnology. She has ever been regarded as the mother of arts and sciences ; and, strange as it may seem. Science now appeals to her to settle questions in the Natural History of Man, mooted since the days of Herodotus, the father of our historians. When we cast a retrospect through the long and dreary vista of years, which leads to the unknown epoch of Man's creation, in quest of a point of departure where we can obtain the first historical glimpse of a human being on our globe, the Archaeologist is com- pelled to turn to the monuments of the Nile. The records of India cannot any longer be traced even to the time of Moses. Hebrew Lhionicles, beyond Abraham, present no stand-point on which we ciin rely; whilst their highest pretension to antiquity falls short ..y 2000 years of the foundation of the Egyptian Empire. The EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS 211 Cliinese, according to tlieir own historians, do not carry their true historic period beyond 2637 years before Christ. Nineveh and Ba- bylon, monumentally speaking, are still more modern. But, Egypt's proud pyramids, if we are to belie\^e the ChampoUion-school, elevate us at least 1000 years above every other nationality. And, wdiat is more remarkable, when Egypt iirst presents herself to our view, she stands forth not in childhood, but wath the maturity of manhood's age, arrayed in the time-worn habiliments of civilization. Her tombs, her temples, her pyramids, her manners, customs, and arts, all betoken a full-grown nation. The sculptures of the IVth dynasty, the earliest extant, show that the arts at that day, some 3500 b. c, had already arrived at a perfection little inferior to that of the XVIIIth dynasty, which, until the last five years, was regarded as her Augustan age. Egyptian monuments, considered ethnologieally, are not only in- estimable as presenting us two types of mankind at this early period, but they display other contemporary races equally marked — thus affording proof that humanity, in its infinite varieties, has existed much longer upon earth than we have been taught; and that physical causes have not, and cannot transform races from one type into another. Among former objections against the antiquity of Egj^ptian monu- ments, it has been urged, that such numerous centuries could not have elapsed with so little change in people, arts, customs, language, and other conditions. This adverse charge, however, does not in itself hold good, because the fixedness of civilization, or veneration for the customs of ancestors, seems to be an inherent characteristic of Eastern nations. Through the extensive portion of Egyptian his- tory which is now known with sufiicient certainty, we may admit a comparative adhesion to fixed formulte, and an indisposition to change : but no Egyptologist will deny that, during nearly 6000 years, for which monuments are extant, the developing mutations in Egyptian economy obeyed the same laws as in that of other races — with this signal advantage in. the former's favor, that w^e possess an almost unbroken chain of coetaneous records for each progressive step. Oriental history anteeeding Christian ages (when viewed through the eye-glasses of pedagogues who rank among Carlyle's " doleful creatures,") looms monstrously, like a chaotic blur, precisely where archaeology, using mere naked eyes, has long espied most lumi- nous stratifications : and human developments, requiring " chiliads of years," even yet are popularly restricted to the action of one patriarchal lifetime. For ourselves, referring to the works of the hierologists for explanation, we w^ould readily join issue with objcctorH upon the following heads : — 212 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. IVth dynasty — b c 3400 EgTjptian developments down to the CHRISTIAN ERA. 1st. Language — Only 15 articulations, developed, in the Coptic, to 31 letters. 2d. Writing — Hieroglyphics, then Hieratic, next Demotic, and lastly Co/)<2c. 8d. Architecture — Pyramids, « then temples with Doric, and lastly with every kind of column. 4th. Geography — Egypt proper, then, gradually, knowledge as extensive as that of the Evangelists. 5th. Zoology — No horses, camels, or com- ) ., • i i * » • t ^i ' ' (. then, every animal known to Aristotle. mon fowls, j 6th. Arts — No chai-iots, then, all vehicles generally used by the ancients. 7th. Sciences — No bitumenized mummies, . then, every form, with many kinds of foreign drugs, &c. 8th. Ethnology, Native — 1st. Egyptian type, then 2d. Egypto-Asiatic, 3d. Egypto-Negroid. Foreign — IVth dynasty — Arabs. Xllth dynasty — Arabians, Libyans, Nubians, Negroes. XVIIIth dynasty — Canaanites, Jews, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Tartars, Hindoos, Thracians, Jonians, Lydians, Libyans — Nubians, Abyssinians, Negroes. And, thence to Oriental mankind, as known to the Greeks in Alexander's day. "We might extend this mnemonical list through many other depart- ments of knowledge ; but, until these positive instances of develop- ment be overthrown, let us hear no more fables about " stationary Egyptians." It was, however, only through alien rule, introduced in later times by Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Turks, that all old habits were uprooted. Look at India and China ; which countries, accord- ing to popular superstitions, seem to have been stereotyped some three or four thousand years ago : yet, what enormous changes does not the historian behold in them ! Nevertheless, every type is more or less tenacious of its habits ; and we might cite how the Arabs, the Turks, and, still more, the Jews, now scattered throughout all nations of the earth, cling to the customs of their several ancestries : but, as we are merely suggesting a few topics for the reader's meditation, let us inquire, what was the type of that Ancient Egyptian race whicl;i linked Africa with Asia ? This interrogatory litis given rise to endless discussions, nor can it, even now, be regarded as absolutely answered. For many centuries prior to the present, as readers of Rollin and of VoLNEY may remember, the Egyptians were reputed to be Negroes, and Egyptian civilization was believed to have descended the Nile from Ethiopia! Champollion, Rosellini, and others, while unanimous in overthrowing the foi*mer, to a great extent consecrated the latter of tnese errors, which could hardly be considered as fully refuted EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 213 until the appearance of GliJdon's Chapters on Ancient Egypt^ in 1843, and of Morton's Crania ^gyptiaca, in 1844. The following extract presents the first-named author's deductions : — "The importance of confining history to its legitimate place — to Lower Egypt — is evident : " 1st. Because it was in Lower Egypt that the Caucasian children of Ham must have first settled, on their arrival from Asia. " 2d. Because the advocates of the theory which would assert the African origin of the Egyptian, say that they rely chiefly on history for their African, or Ethiopic, predilections. '* 3d. Because the same theorists assume, that we must begin with Africans, at the top of the Nile, and come downward with civilization; instead of commencing yiith Asiatics and White men, at the bottom, and carrying it up. " I have not as yet touched on ethnography, the effects of climate, and the antiquity of the different races of the human family; but I shall come to those subjects, after establish- ing a chronological standard, by defining the history of Egypt according to the hierogly- phics. At present, I intend merely to sketch the events connected with the Caucasian children of Ham, the Asiatic, on the first establishment of their Egyptian monarchy, and the foundation of their first and greatest metropolis in Lower Egypt. "The African theories are based upon no critical examination of early history — are founded on no Scriptural authority for early migrations — are supported by no monumental evidence, or hieroglyphical data, and cannot be borne out or admitted by practical common sense. For civilization, that never came northward out of benighted Africa, (but from the Deluge to the present moment has been only partially carried into it — to sink into utter oblivion among the barbarous races whom Providence created to inhabit the Ethiopian and Nigritian territories of that vast continent,) could not spring from Negroes, or from Berbers, and never did. "So far, then, as the record, Scriptural, historical, and monumental, will afford us an insight into the early progress of the human race in Egypt, the most ancient of all civilized countries, we may safely assert, that history, when analyzed by common sense — when scrutinized by the application of the experience bequeathed to us by our forefathers — when subjected to a strictly impartial examination into, and comparison of, the piiysical and mental capabilities -of nations — when distilled in the alembic of chronology, and submitted to the touchstone of hieroglyphical tests, will not support that superannuated, but unten- able, doctrine, that civilization originated in Ethiopia, and consequently among an African people, by whom it was brought down the Nile, to enlighten the less polished, therefore inferior, Caucasian children of Noah, the Asiatics ; or, that we, who trace back to Egypt the origin of every art and science known in antiquity, have to thank the sable Negro, or the dusky Berber, for tiie first gleams of knowledge and invention. We may therefore conclude with the observation that, if civilization, instead of going from North to South, came (contrary, as shown before, to the annals of the earliest histo- rians and all monumental facts) down the "Sacred Nile," to illumine our darkness; and, if the Ethiopic origin of arts and sciences, with social, moral, and religious institutions, were in other respects possible, these African theoretic conclusions would form a most astounding exception to the ordinations of Providence and the organic laws of nature, otherwise so undeviating throughout all the generations of man's history. " I have already stated that Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson's critical observations, during his long residence in Egypt, and his comparisons between the present Egyptians ami the ancient race, as depicted in the monuments, had led him to assert the Asiatic origin of the early inhabitants of the Nilotic valley. The learned hierologist, Samuel ]3irch. Esq , of the British Museum, informed me, in London, that he had arrived at the same conclusion — while to his suggestion I am indebted for the first idea 'that the most ancient Egjp ^ian monuments lie North.^ The great naturalists, Blumenbach and Cuvier, declared. 214 EGYPT AJ^D EGYPTIANS. that all the mummies they had opportunities of examining presented the Caucasian type. M. Jomard, the eminent hydrographer and profound Orientalist, in a paper on Egyptian ethnology, sustains the Arabian, and consequently the Asiatic and Caucasian, origin of the early Egyptians ; and his opinions are more valuable, as he draws his conclusions inde- pendently of hieroglyphical discoveries. On the other hand, Prof. Rosellini, throughout his ^ Monumenti,' accepts and continues the doctrine of the descent of civilization from Ethiopia, and the African origin of the Egyptians. Champollion-Figeac supports the same theory, which his illustrious brother set forth in the sketch of Egyptian history presented by him to Mohammed-Ali, in 1829 (published in his ^ Letters from Egypt and Nubia'), wherein he derives the Ancient Egyptians, according to the Grecian authorities, from Ethiopia, and considers them to belong to ' la race Barabra,' the Berbers or Nubians. Deeming the original Bardhra to have been an African race, engrafted at the present day with Caucasian as well as Negro blood, I reject their similitude to the monumental Egy]Dtians in toto, and am fain to believe that Champollion-le-Jeune himself had either modified his previous hastily-formed opinion, or, at any rate, had not taken a decided stand on this important point, from the following extract of his eloquent address from the academic chair, delivered May 10, 1831 : — C'est par I'analyse raisonnee de la ianguedes Pharaons, que I'ethnographie decidera si la vieille population ^gyptienne fut d'origine Asiatigne, ou bien si elle descendit, avec le fleuve divinise, des plateaux de I'Afrique centrale. On decidera en meme temps si les Egyptiens n'appartenaient point a une race distincte ; car, il faut le declarer ici [in which I entirely agree with him], contre I'opinion commune, les Coptes de I'Egypte moderne, regard6s comme les derniers rejetons des anciens Egyptiens, n'ont offert a mes yeux ni la couleur ni aucun des traits caracteristiques, dans les lineaments du visage ou dans les formes du corps, qui put constater une aussi noble descendance.' " 250 [These views received considerable extension in Mr. Gliddon's Otia u^gyptiaca f^^ and our colleague's enthusiastic concurrence in the work now put forth, in our joint names, su:^ciently attests his adop- tion of our personal modifications, derived especially from Anatomy, compared with the more recent hieroglyphical discoveries. — J. C. IST.] Others, however, though not so decidedly out-spoken in tone, had rejected African delusions. Thus, Pettigrew,^^ following BUimenbach and Lawrence, had previously alluded to the probahility of the ascent of civilization, introduced by an Asiatic people, along the Nile, from north to south. De Brotonne,^^^ succeeded by Jardot,^^^ ably sustained the Asiatic colonization of Egypt against the ISTigritian hypothesis of Volney f^^ and, a hundred years ago, the academician De Fourmont^ declared, "The Egyptians, for the three-fourths, issued either out of Arabia or Phoenicia ; . . . Egypt being composed of Chaldsean, Phoe- nician, Arab people, &c., but especially of these last." Morton, drawing from his vast resources in craniology, skilfully combined with history and such monuments as were deciphered in 1842, terminated his Crania ^gyptiaca with the subjoined conclusions — the utterance of which commenced a new era in anthropological researches : — " The Valley of the Nile, both in Egypt and Nubia, was originally peopled by a branch of the Caucasian race. " These primeval people, since called the Egyptians, were the Mizraimites of Scripture, the posterity of Ham, and directly affiliated with the Libyjai family of nations. EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 215 " The Austral-Egyptian or Meroite communities were an Indo- Arabian stock, engrafted on the primitive Libyan inhabitants. " Besides these exotic sources of population, the Egyptian race was at diffei'ent perioas modified by the influx of the Caucasian nations of Asia and Europe : Pelasgi, or Hellenes, Scythians, and Phoenicians. " The Copts, in part at least, are a mixture of the Caucasian and the Negro, in extremely variable proportions. " Negroes were numerous in Egypt, but their social position in ancient times was the same as it now is : that of servants and slaves. " The present Fellahs are the lineal and least mixed descendants of the Ancient Egyp- tians ; and the latter are collaterally represented by the Tuariks, Kabyles, Siwahs, and other remains of the Libyan family of nations. " The modern Nubians, with a few exceptions, are not the descendants of the monu- mental Ethiopians, but a variously' mixed race of Arabs and Negroes. " The physical or organic characters which distinguish the several races of men are as old as the oldest records of our species." Such were the best and most natural results of ethnography prior to Lepsius's unanticipated exhumations at Memphis, in 1842-'3 ; but the latter's discoveries did not become accessible to the authors' joint studies until 1850. We can now assert, with the plates of his splendid Denhndhr before us, that, notwithstanding the labors of our prede- cessors, they have left many doubts and difficulties still hauging around the primitive inhabitants of Egypt. ISTot only her written traditions, but her monumental history, as far back as it has been traced, prove that, from the Menaic foundation of the Empire, she had been engaged in constant strifes vn\\\ foreign nations of types very diiferent fi'om that of her own aboriginal population, and that she has been often conquered and temporarily ruled by foreigners. Hence the consequence, prijiia facie, that the blood of her primitive inhabitants must have become greatly adulterated. Morton's Crania Egyptiaca issued in 1844 ; at which day the dis- coveries of Lepsius were in progress, but not published ; at the same time that the works of Rosellini, Champollion, Wilkinson, &c. — then the best sources of information respecting the monuments — did not extend, with the exception of some meagre materials of the Xllth dynasty (by all three scholars then supposed to be the XVIIth), be- yond the XVIIIth, or about 1600 b. c. All these complicated data were, nevertheless, most admirably worked up by our revered friend ; and he showed conclusively that, while there existed a pervading " Caucasian " Type, which he regarded as the Egyptian proper, the population already, at the XVIIIth dynasty, was a very mixed one, comprising many diverse Asiatic and African elements. Did archaeological science now solely rely, as before Champollion's day, upon the concurrent testimony of early Greek writers, we should be compelled to conclude that the Egyptians, previously to the Chris- tian era, were literally Negroes ; so widely do such Grseco-Romau de- 216 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. scriptions vary, and so strangely in their writings do Egyptian attri- butes diverge, from the Caucasian tj^pe. A passage in Herodotus has been often cited ; and it possessed the more weight, inasmuch as he travelled in Egypt ; and because his authority is generally reliable in such matters as fell beneath his personal observation. Of the people of Colchis he says, that they were a colony of Egyptians ; supporting his assertion, unique among ancient authorities, by the argument that they were "black in complexion and wool ly -haired. "^^ Pindar also, copying the Halicarnassian, in his fourth Pythian Ode, speaks of the Colchians as black. In another passage, when retailing the fable of the Dodonian Oracle, Herodotus again alludes to the swarthy complexion of the Egyptians, as if it were exceedingly dark, or even black, ^schylus, in the Supplices, mentions the crew of an Egyptian bark seen from the shore. The person who espies them concludes they must be Egyptians from their black complexion : " The sailors too I marked, Conspicuous in white robes their sable limbs." Prichard has collected ample Greek and Latin testimony, of similar import, to show that the Egyptians were dark. His erudition renders any further ransacking of the Classics here supererogatory : but we may remark that the Greek terms might often apply with equal propriety to a jet-black Negro, or to a brown or dusky Nubian. The various names given to Eg^qot and her people, together with the mistakes of translators, are, however, analyzed in our Part H., where we treat upon " Mizraim ; " and therefore a pause to discuss them now would be superfluous. Prichard sums up in the following strong language : — •' From comparing these accounts, some of which were written by persons who had tra- velled in Egypt, and whose testimony is not likely to have been biassed in any respect, we aiust conclude that the subjects of the Pharaohs had something tVi their physical character approximating to that of the Negro.'" In opposition to which classical opinions, Beke, in a paper "On the {^omjdexion of the Ancient Egyptians,""^* had set forth : — 1st. The negative testimon}^ of the Hebrew Scriptures — how Joseph's brethren, when thej^ iirst saw him in Egypt, supposed him to be an Egyptian -.''^'^ how alliances with the Egyptians were permitted by the Israelitish lawgiver:^®' how an Egyptian wonuxn was the mother of the heads of two of the tribes of Israel:^" another the wife of Solomon, &c. : 2d. That " a description given by Lucian, in one of his Dialogues, ^'Navigium, seu Vota,') of a young sailor on board an Egyptian vessel, who, besides being black, is represented as having pouting hpa EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 217 atid spvidle-sJianl"s" — ratLcr proves an exception to the usual tint of the Egyptian people : 3d. The incontrovertible evidence of the paintings, and mummy- cases. We place these discussions of the learned in juxta-position ; although new facts supersede the necessity for recurring to past disputations. That the sldns of Egyptians, in Grecian times, were much darker than those of Greeks and other white races around the Archipelago, there can be no question ; nor that this complexion was accompanied sometimes with curly or frizzled hair, tumid lips, slender limbs, small heads, with receding foreheads and chins, which, by contrast, excited the wonder or derision of the fair-skinned Hellenes. But, Avhile it must be conceded that Negroes, at no time w^ithin the reach even of monumental history, have inhabited any part of Egypt, save as captives ; it may, on the other hand, be equally true, that the ancient Egyptians did present a type intermediate between other African and Asiatic races ; and, should such be proved to have been the case, the autocthones of Egypt must cease to be designated by the misnomer of "Caucasian." Whatever the complexion of the real Egyptians may have been, all authorities agree tliat the races south of Egypt were and are darker ; and it is equally clear that the local habitats of JSTegroes in earl}' times, having ever been the same as they are now, render it geographically impossible that Egyptians could be confounded with distinct types of men, never voluntarily resident within 1200 miles of the Mediterranean. The Egyptians, on their oldest monuments, always painted their males in red and their females in yellow ; thus adopting in their painted sculptures, (in order to demarcate themselves from foreign nations around them,) colors Avhich, of course, were conventional. That there was considerable diversity of color among the denizeus of Egypt need not be doubted, inasmuch as we now find parallel diversity of hues among Berbers, Abyssinians, !N"ubian8, &c. The "Ethiopians" were always darker than the Egyptians proper, as their Greek name (aidw, hum, and w-j', /ae sculptures, and to the mummied remains of the old population found in tlie catacombs. Before pursuing, therefore, the monumental history of the Egyptian type into the earliest times, let us endeavor to see what were its physical characters subsequently to the Restora- tion in the seventeenth century b. c; and afterwards we can better com- pare tliem with the pictorial and embalmed vestiges of earlier date. Although it will be shown that Dr. Morton, since the publication of his Crania j^^^gyptiaca, had made important modifications in some of his opinions, there are others which have withstood triumphantly the test of time. When he published in 1844, his object was to de- scribe and figure the people of Egyj)t as they appear on the monu- ments and exist in the se|)ulchres. Whatever the physical type of the autenor population may have been, previously to the date of his EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 219 materials, had nothing to do with the task proposed. He was deahng exchisively with known facts, and wo cannot but admire the sagacity with which, for the first time in Egyptian ethnology, Morton brought order out of a chaos — nniversally seen among authors prior to 1844 Considering that he had before him but a few monuments of the Xllth dynasty (in his day called the XVIIth of Manetho), and no- thing of earlier date, his analysis of these, and of the XVIIIth and succeeding dynasties, must remain an imperishable attestation to his genius. In order to institute comparisons between the population of these later dynasties with that upon the sculptures of the Old Empire, since discovered, extracts at length from the Crania JEgyptiaca will place before the reader the ideas of our great craniologist, together with abundant exemplifications of the type of man prevalent in Egypt during the New Empire. " The monuments from Meroe to Memphis, present a pervading type of physiognomy, which is everywhere distinguished at a glance from the varied forms which not unfrequently attend it, and which possess so much nationality, both in outline and expression, as to give it the highest importance in Nilotic ethnography. We may repeat that it consists in an upward elongation of the head, with a receding forehead, delicate features, but rather sharp and prominent face, in which a long and straight or gently aquiline nose forms a principal feature. The eye is sometimes oblique, the chin short and retracted, the lips leather tumid, and the hair, whenever it is represented, long and flowing. "This style of features pertains to every class, kings, priests and people, and can be readily traced through every period of monumental decoration, from the early Pharaohs down to the Greek and Roman dynasties. Among the most ancient, and at the same time most characteristic examples, are the heads of Amurioph the Second and his mother, as represented in a tomb at Thebes,263 which dates, in Rosellini's chronology, 1727 years before our era. In these efiigies all the features are strictly Egyptian, and how strikingly do they correspond with those of many of the embalmed heads from the Theban catacombs / FiQ. 121. Fig. 122. 220 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. " A similar physiognomy preponderates among the royal Egyptian personages d every epoch, as will be manifest to any one who will turn over the pages of Champollion and Rosellini. The head of Horus [see our Fig. 56] is an admirable illustration, while in the portraits of Rameses IV., [III., of Lepsius] and Rameses IX., the same line^ are apparent, though much less strongly marked. How admirably also are they seen in the subjoined juvenile head, (Fig. 123) which is that of a royal prince, copied from the very ancient paintings in the tomb of Pehrai, at Eletheias.264 go also in the face of Rameses VII. (Fig. 124), who lived perhaps one thousand years later in time. Fig. 123. Fig. 124. I " I observe that the priests almost invariably present this physiognomy, and, in accord- ance with the usage of their caste, have the head closely shaven. When colored they are red, like the other Egyptians. The subjoined drawing (Fig. 125), which is somewhat harsh in outline, is from the portico of one of the pyramids of Meroe,26'5 and is probably one of the oldest human effigies in Nubia. They abound in all the temples of that country, and especially at Semneh, Dakkeh, Soleb Gebel-Berkel, and Messoura.266 " From the numberless examples of similar conformation, I select another of a priest from the bas-relief at Thebes, which is remarkable for delicacy of outline and pleasing serenity of expression.267 (Fig. 126). " So invariably are these characters allotted to the sacerdotal caste, that we readily detect them in the two priests who, by some unexplained contingency, become kings in the XXth dynasty. Their names read Amensi-Hrai-Pehor and Phisham on the monuments; and the accompanying outline is a fac-simile of Rosellini's porti'ait of the latter personage, who lived about 1100 years before the Christian era. 268 In this head the Egyptian and Pelasgic sharacters appear to be blended, but the former preponderate. (Fig. 127). "The last outline (Fig. 128) represents a modification of the same type, that of the Earper in Bruce's tomb at Thebes. The beautiful form of the head and the intellectual character of the face, may be compared with similar efforts of Grecian art. It dates with Rameses IV.269 FiQ. 126. Fig. 126. EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 221 Fig. 127. Fig. 128. *' As I believe this to be a most important ethnograpic indication, and one which points to the vast body of the Egyptian people, I subjoin four additional heads of priests (Figs. 129, 130, 131, 132,) from a tomb at Thebes of the XVIIlth dynasty. We are forcibly im- pressed with the delicate features and oblique eye of the left-hand personage, and with the ruder but characteristic outline of the other figures, in which the prominent face, though strongly drawn, is essentially Egyptian.270 Fig. 129. Fig. 130. Fig. 131. Fig. 132. " The annexed outlines (Fig. 133), which present more pleasing examples of the same ethnographic cha- racter, are copied from the tomb of Titi, at Thebes, and date with the remote era of Thotmes IV.2~i They repre- sent five folders in the act of drawing their net over a flock of birds. The long, flowing hair is in keeping with the facial traits, which latter are also well characterized in the subjoined drawings (Figs. 134, 135, 136, 137), derived from monuments of different epochs and lo- calities. FiQ. 133. Fio. 134. Fig. 135. Fig. 136. Fig. 137. 222 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS, " Fig. 134 is the head of a weaver, from the paintings in the very ancient tomb of Roti and Menoph at Beni-Hassan, wherein the same cast of countenance is reiterated without number. -"- "Fig. 135, a wine-presser, is also from Beni-Hassan, and dates with Osortasen, more than 2000 years before the Christian era. -^^ " Fig. 136 is a cook, who, in the tomb of Rameses IV, at Thebes, is represented with many others in the active duties of his vocation. 2~* " Fig. 137. I have selected this head as an exaggerated or caricatured illustration of the same type of physiognomy. It is one of the ffoat-herds painted in the tomb of Roti, at Beni-Hassan. 275 "The most recent of these last four venerable monuments of art dates at least 1450 years before our era : the oldest belongs to iinchronicled times ; and the same physical characters are common on the Nubian and Egyptian monuments down to the Ptolemaic and Roman epochs. " The peculiar head-dress of the Egyptians often greatly modifies, and in some degree con- ceals, their characteristic features ; and may, at first sight, lead to the impression that the priests possessed a physiognomy of a distinct or peculiar kind. Such, however, was not the case, as a little observation will prove. Take, for example, the four following draw- FiG. 138. Fig. 139. ings, from a Theban tomb, in which two mourners (Fig. 138) have head-dresses, and two priests (Fig. 139) are without them. Are not the national characteristics unequivocally manifest in them all ? " 2~6 Such, textually, are Morton's words, with the sole exception that, while preserving his references, we have substituted our own numerals : but, for the express object of removing, once for all, current impressions of Egyptian affinity with Negro races, we intercalate a relevant series of illustrations, and group into one page various heads from the Cra nia ^jgyptiaca — five of which (Figs. 140 — 144) appertain to females of diflcrent classes, and two (Figs. 145 and 146) to males ; indicating nndorneath each the vocations in which they are severally represented on the monuments. Apart from their facial angles and high-caste configuration, it is their long hair to which the attention of Negro- philism is more particularly invited. EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 223 Fig. 140. Fio. 141. FiQ. 142. A Lady coiffee. FiQ. 143. A Mourner. A Female Athlete. Fig. 145. Fig. 146. A Carpenter. A Rustic-wrestler. 224 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. " It 19 thus th:it we trace this peculiar style of countenance, in its several modifications, through epochs and in localities tlie most remote from each other, and in every class of the Egyptian people. How different from the Pelasgic type, yet how obviously Caucasian ! How varied in outline, yet how readily identified! And, if we compare these features with those of the Egyptian series of embalmed heads, are we not forcibly impressed with a striking analogy not only in osteological conformation, but also in the very expression of the face? ... No one, I conceive, will question the analogy I have pointed out. This type is certainly national, and presents to our view the genuine Egyptian physiognomy, which, in the ethnographic scale, is intermediate between the Pelasgic and Semitic forms. We may add, that this conformation is the same which Prof. Blumenbach refers to the Hindoo variety, in his triple classification of the Egyptian people. 277 And this leads us briefly to inquire, who were the Egyptians? " That this '■^genuine Egyptian physiognomy" was the preponderant type, seen throughout the whole monumental period known to Mor- ton, cannot be questioned ; but we do not think it is so universal in the royal families as in the other classes. There is such a want of portraits and other information of the dynasties between the Xllth and XVIIth, that we know little or nothing of the ;predomdnant type of those intermediate times. But it is highly probable, owing to Hyksos traditions, that the royal families of that period, called the "Middle Empire," were in great part Asiatics ; and we are certain that, after the Restoration, marriages with foreigners w^ere not uncom- mon. Alliances of this kind occurred in the XXth and preceding dynasties ; and it is but reasonable to conclude that such had been the custom of the countiy in earlier times ; inasmuch as the Bible has helped us to prove the same habits respecting Jewish amalgama- tions wnth denizens of the Nile. In order that the reader may be enabled to judge for himself of the characteristics of the royal families, we have already exhibited some of their portraits, back to the XVIIth dynasty. It is evident to us, that these portraits do not fully correspond to Dr. Morton's Egyptian Type, but that, on the contrary, they are eminently Asiatic, and not African. However, it cannot be denied that the pervading type, throughout Egypt proper, was the one described by him ; though we are not prepared to admit this as the then-common type in the Nubias, or so high up as Meroe. The monuments of Meroe, on which his opinions were based, have since been discovered to be mere bastard and modern copies of those of Egypt. This country, until the eighth century b. c, formed part of the EgjqDtian Empire ; and its later edifices were built by consecutively ruling races — Egypto-Mero'ite, then Nubian, and lastly Negro-Nubian. But we have abundant reason for opining that the populations of the Nubias, in ancient times, were what (Arab elements deducted) they are now : viz., types intermediate between Negroes and Egyptians ; viewing the latter such as we behold them at the XVIIIth dynasty, or about 1500 b. c. EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 225 "W"e read the Crania ^gyptiaca, with intense interest, so soon as it was publislied ; and, down to the time when Lepsius's plates of the IVth, Vth, and Vlth dynasties appeared, we had not ceased to regard Morton's Eyyptiari type as the true representative of that of the Old Empire ; but the first hour's glance over those magnificent delinea- tions of the primeval inhabitants produced an entire revolution in the authors' opinions, and enforced the conviction that the Egyptians of the earliest times did not correspond with our honored friend's description, but with a type which, although not Negro, nor akin to any ISTegroes, was strictly African — a type, in fact, that supplied the long-sought-for link between African and Asiatic races. There are no portraits, yet discovered, older than the IVth dynasty, or the thirty-fifth century b. c. ; and altliough what may be called a Negroid type preponderates at that period, yet the race, even there, is already a mixed one ; and we distinguish many heads which are clearly Asiatic — possessing, as we have shown [ante, Figs. 34, 35), Semitish features. The histoiy of Egypt from the Xllth to the XVIIth dynasty is so mutilated, that, for this interregnum, there -is but little material for definite opinions. Lepsius, upon Manethonian tradition, states, that during this time the bulk of native Egyptians were driven up the Nile by Asiatic races, and retired into Xubia ; and that when the Hyksos were expelled, their Pharaonic conquerors came down the river. It is not probable that every individual of the Hyksos race, however, could have been driven out ; and when we compare the monumental portraits of the IVth, Vth, and Vlth dynas- ties with those of the XVTIth and XVIIIth, we cannot doubt that an immense amount of Asiatic blood remained in the country, notwith- standing these expulsions. Lepsius considers that those Asiatic Shep- herds impressed their type and language upon the native race, although the Egyptian people and their tongue still remained essentially Afri can. It should be observed that, if Hyksos invasions be accepted as historical, so must the many centuries of the intruders' sojourn ; and during Manetho's five hundred and eleven years, or sixteen genera- tions, these warriors must have found abundant leisure to stamp then paternity upon the oflspring of Egyptian women, whose sentiments of chastity have never been other than somewhat lax. But the Negroid type of the earlier dynasties seems never to have become extinguished, notwithstanding the immense influx of Asiatics into Eg}'pt; which has been going on, literally for thousands of years, to the present hour. It may be received, in science, as a settled fact, that where two races are thrown together and blended, the type of the major number must prevail over that of the lesser ; and, in time, the latter will become efiaced. This law, too, acts with greater force 29 226 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS, where a foreign is attempted to be engrafted upon a native type aboriginall}^ suited to the local climate. The Fellahs of Upper and Middle Egj^pt, at the present day, continue to be an unmistakeable race, and are regarded by most travelled authorities as the best living representatives of the ancient population of Egypt. [Mr. Gliddon, resi- dent in Egypt for more than twenty years, may certainly be accepted as competent authorit}^ respecting the physical characteristics of the present inhabitants, whose idioms and customs in all their ramifica- tions have been familiar to him from boyhood. He assures us, that the predominant type of the modern Fellah, ^. e., peasant (deducting Arab blood), is just as identical with the majority of portraits on the earliest monuments, as Morton concluded by comparing the crania of ancient mummies with Fellah-skulls from the present cemeteries To render the latter point obvious, we subjoin, from the Crania ^gyijtiaca, an authentic series of both. The practised eye of the anatomist will at once recognize the similitudes between the ancient and the modern heads, and detect in these last the osteological divergences produced by Arab infiltrations : — Fig. 147. Ancient Crania, "from the front of Northern Brick Pyramid of Dashour." Fig. 148. / ^ 885 •■;./ .f 852 ■- Ancient Crania, from Thebes; by Morton termed " Negroid Heads," whereas to us they yield rather the Old Egyptian type. EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. Fig. 149. 227 Modern Skulls — " the Fellahs," of Lower Egypt. Fig. 150. L^ Modern Skulls — " the Arabs ; " Bedaioees of the Isthmus of Suez. Fig. 151. Modern Skulls — " the Copts ;" from their Christian cemeteries. With these positive data before him, the reader will be the better able to follow our general argument. — J. C. N.] But we have not yet done with the Egyptian Type as understood by ]Slorton ; which, although without question popularly prevalent upder the Xew Empire, was not, we think, the predominant type of 228 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. the royal families. This last, to our eyes, as portrayed in Eosellini's Iconography, is clearly Asiatic : and not only Asiatic, but Semitic; and not merely Semitic, hut strongly Ahrahamic, or, to repeat our adopted term, Chaldaic. From the Xllth to the XVIIth dynasty (a period of some 511 years, according to Manetho, in Josephus), Egypt must have been subjected to extraordinary disturbing causes, which, how- ever terrible to her denizens, to us, at the present day, are shrouded by darkness, and as if circumscribed within a moment of time. Ample evidence is now exhumed of the minuteness and fidelity with which the Egyptians, before and after the Hyksos-period, recorded events and delineated the physical characters of their own people, as well as of the foreigners with whom they held intercourse ; but during this hiatus our monuments are comparatively few, and sculptured portraits, to guide the ethnographer, are wanting. The XVIIth dynasty (about 1761 b. c, according to Lepsius) opens to view with a completeness and splendor truly astounding ; and from this point downward, for more than 1000 years, (we cannot too often insist upon with general readers,) there are ample materials for study- ing the natural histoiy as well of Asiatic as of African humanity. In the magnificent plates of Rosellini, faithful representations of these painted sculptures are preserved ; and in order that the reader might judge of the quantity of materials and the correctness of our deductions, we selected {ante, pp. 145 — 150) a copious series of the Royal Portraits of the XVIIth and XVIIIth dynasties. We have also illustrated how the same physical characteristics prevail, in pro- fusion, down to the XXVth dynasty, when the so-called EiJdopian sovereigns come in for a brief season, to change a dynastic family, but not the national type.^-^ In the absence of parallel history (the "Middle Empire," or ITyksos- period, separating us from the Xllth dynasty), nothing remains beyond genealogical tablets and papyri to guide us, as to the ancestral oi-igin of Pharaonic families of the New Empire, except their phy- sical type, depicted or carved upon coeval monuments. There is a family-contour about them all, which at once indicates to the observer that they were of high "Caucasian" caste, with but little African of an}^ grade, except what was derived from Old Egyptian lineage. Having enlarged sufificiently upon the Egyptian race, as portrayed upon the sculptures of the IS'ew Empire, coetaneously with the times of Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and Josiah ; (or, from about sixteen cen- turies before our era down to the apogee of Assyria's glory) ; none can now doubt that Pharaonic Egypt, at least among royalty, nobility, and gentry, exhibited in tliose generations a very mixed type, wherein Asiatic elements predominated over the Nilotic. Let us next take a EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. ' 229 retrogressive leap, over tlie ITi/ksos-pGriod, from the XVIIth to the Xllth dynasty, and inquire, What was the type of Egyptians under the Old Empire — that is, backwards, from about the twentieth century before Christ? But before doing so, fairness renders it incumbent on the part of one of the authors [G. R. G.], whose province it is to superintend " Types of Mankind" as it passes through the press, to give place to some general observations of his absent colleague. The former, immediately in contact with their lamented friend. Dr. Mor- ton, at Philadelphia, until within a few weeks of his demise in 1851, naturally became more conversant with the great ethnographer's matured views ; whereas Dr. ^^ott's residence at Mobile restricted his studies ^^^thin his own resources : so that what of merit and origi- nalit}' may attach to the following analysis of the Old Egyptian type, belongs to his individual ratiocinations. [On the publication of Dr. Morton's Crania ^gyptiaca, we studied it carefully, and compared it, step by step, with the w^orks of Cham- poUion and Rosellini. No other conclusion than the one adoptecl by him, viz., that the physical traits which he had assumed as character- istic of the Egyptians were realh^ and truly typical of the first settlers of Egypt, resulted from our researches ; but, after several years, the Denkmdler of Lepsius, (the first livraisons of which reached us about two years ago,) essentially modified our former conclusions. Exami- nation of these plates, and a more thorough investigation of the sub- ject, have satisfied us, that the Egyptian type as known in 1844 to Morton, existed no longer in its pristine purity, but, after the Xllth dynasty, w^as absolutely an amalgam of foreign (chiefly Asiatic) stocks, engrafted on an antecedent and aboriginal African type ; that the latter, although not Negro, was Nilotic ; and that it constituted the true connecting grade between African and Asiatic races. When Mr. Gliddon and the writer again met, at Mobile, above eighteen months ago, after five years' separation, we mentioned this conclusion to him; and he placed in our hands various letters, received by him between the years 1846 and 1851, from Morton; tln-ough which it became evi- dent that the Doctor himself had also so far changed his opinions as to feel assured that the primordial Egyptians were not an Asiatic, but an aboriginal population, indigetious to the Nile-land, although he sa3^s nothing of their primitive Negroid type : the ultimatum which our personal researches had then attained. We afterwards wrote to Chevalier Lepsius, informing him of the impression his Old Egyptian portraits had left on our mind, and w^ere much gratified to learn, from his reply, that our new convictions accorded with his OAvn. A very obliging letter also, from Mr. Birch, enables us to add his vahd 230 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. authority to arguments hereinafter presented, without, in either case, infringing upon the sanctity of private correspondence. — J. C. N.] Although Dr. Morton had insisted strongly upon his conventional Egyptian type, nevertheless, a critical perusal of his work will show that, even in 1844, he felt by no means certain as to its Asiatic origin — glimmerings of the light that was ere long to break through " Egyptian darkness" already dawning upon the mind of our acute anthropologist. In the Crania, he says : — " We have already alluded to the opinion of Prof. Ritter and others, that the old Bejas and modern Bishareens were derived from the Berber or Libyan stock of nations. I am ready to go farther, and adopt the sentiment of the learned Dr. Murray, that the Egyptians and monumental Ethiopians were of the same lineage, and probably descended from a Libyan tribe. " This view of the case [he continues] at once reconciles the statement of Champollion, Rosellini, Heeren, and Riippell, that they could detect i\\e.Ntibian physiognomy everywhere on the monuments ; but, at the same time, it supersedes the necessity of their inference that Nubia was the cradle of civilization, and that the arts, descending the river, were per- fected in Egypt." Ifi further support of the common origin of the Egyptians, Berbers, and other tribes of J^orthern Africa, Morton refers to evidences fur- nished by Ritter, Heeren, Shaler, Plodgson, &c. — showing how "the Libyan or Berber speech was once the language of all Northern Africa," and infinitely more ancient than the Coptic — probably as old as the monumental language of Egypt's pyramidal period. [For the sake of perspicuity, and to convey to the reader some idea of the chronological order of linguistic developments in Egypt, it may be well to mention, that the name Coptic [i. e. Christian Jacobite) repre- sents the vernacular Egyptian from the seventh century after Christ back to about the Christian era ; that Beynotic, or Enchorial, refers to the colloquial idiom thence used backwards to the seventh century B. c. ; that Hieratic, or Sacerdotal, means only the cursive character in which the " lingua saneta" of the old hieroglyphics was written, in every age, back to at least the Vlth dynasty, or 2800 years b. c. ; and finally, that the hieroglyphics, " sacred sculptured characters," repre- sent that antique tongue which was the speech of Egypt when, long prior to the pyramids of the IVth dynasty (that is, centuries anterior to 3500 years b. c.) phonetic hieroglyphs succeeded an earlier picture- writing. "With the reservation that where our Anglo-Saxon tongue counts centuries, the language of Egypt reckons up its thousands of years, if we were to call the English of Thackeray, Bulwer, and Irving, " Coptic" — that of the forty-seven translators of King James's Ver- wion, "Demotic" — that of Chaucer, "Hieratic," and that of the old Doom's- day Book, "Hieroglyphic," we should perceive, in modern English, some of the linguistic gradations and some phases in the writ- EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 231 ings of Eg3'pt during 4000 monuincntal years, clown to the nitroduc- tion of Christianity into the Valley of the JSTile.^'^ Consequently, all philologers who, when comparing Coptic with Atalantie Berber dia- lects, imagined they were dealing with ancient Egyptian lexicography, have committed, ipso facto, a wondrous anachronism ; and science must set their futile labors respectfully aside — Latham's inclusive. G. II. G.] We must remark, in passing, that Dr. Morton's mind had not yet freed itself from the old, arbitrary, divisions of races, and that he here attempted to force into one common stock many African races which in themselves merely constitute a group of proximate, but quite dis- tinct, types. But, it is interesting to observe the change gradually working in a brain so eminently reflective, as new archaeological facts offered themselves to its well-disciplined scrutiny ; nor can we ade- quately express our admiration at the simple-hearted honesty with which Morton sacrificed many hard-earned opinions, in the ratio that the field of Eg}q3tian science widened before his contemplation. We derive extreme pleasure in offering some instances. On the 26th of February, 1846, but two years after his Crania JEgyptiaca had appeared, in a letter to Gliddon at Paris, he thus utters thoughts which it seems had been half-formed for years pre- viously, though proofs were yet wanting to mould them into definitive shape : — " I am more than ever confirmed in my old sentiment, that Northern Africa was peopled by an indigenous and aboriginal people, who were dispossessed by Asiatic tribes. These aboingines could not have been Negroes, because the latter were never adapted to the climate, and are nowhere now, nor ever have been, inhabitants of these latitudes. Were they Bera- bra ? — or some better race, more nearly allied to the Arabian race ? " This gleam of light received expression long previously to the pub lication of any of the pictorial results of Lepsius's Expedition. To our view, Morton here struck the true key to the type of the Egyptian population of the ISTew Empire. The}- were then already a mixed race, derived from Asiatic superpositions upon the aboriginal people of the lower Xile. From the dawn of monumental history, which antedates all chronicles, sacred or profane, we see the whole basin of the Nile, together with that part of Africa lying north of the Sahara, inhabited by races unlike Asiatics, and equally unlike j^egroes : but forming in anthropology a connecting link, and, geographically, another gradation. To say nothing of Egyptians proper, such were and are the Nubians, the Abyssinians, the Gallas, the Barabra, no less than the whole native population of the Barbary States ; which last, in those ancient days, were absolutely cut off, through want of camels, from communication with Xigritia athwart the Saharan waste* J232 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. About the time the preceding letter was penned, Dr. Morton was in correspondence with a very distinguished savan in Paris — our mutual friend, M. le Dr. Boudin, latterly Medecin en chef de I'armee des Alpes — who proposed to translate and republish the Crania ^gyptiaea. The work was to be rewritten ; and we have before us its MS. emendations for a second edition. Writing to Gliddon, then in London, in May, 1846, Morton holds the following language : — " In tbi? work I maintain, without reservation, the following among other opinions — that the human race has not sprung from one pair, but from a plurality of centres ; that these were created ab initio in those parts of the world best adapted to their physical nature ; that the epoch of creation was that undefined period of time spoken of in the first chapter of Genesis, wherein it is related that God formed man, 'male and female created he them.;' that the deluge was a mere local phenomenon ; that it affected but a small part of the then- existing inhabitants of the earth ; that these views are consistent with the facts of the case, as well as with analogical evidence." In another letter to Gliddon, at N'ew York, December 14, 1849, we read : — *' By the hands of the person to whom you confided them, I last night received Lepsius's " Chronologie," and the tin case of fac-simile drawings.'-^" These, when studied in connec- tion with the Egyptian heads \_skulls'\, and especially with the small series sent me [from Memphis] by your brother William [seventeen in number, and very ancient,], compel me to recant so much of my published opinions as respects the origin of the Egyptians. They never came from Asia, but are the indigenous or aboriginal inhabitants of the valley of the Nile. I have taken this position in my letter to Mr. J. R. Bartlett {New York Ethnological Soc. Journal, I.) : every day has verified it, and your drawings settle it forever in my mind. It has cost me a mental struggle to acknowledge this conviction, but I can withhold it no longer." [See confirmations in the MSS. of Dr. Morton; infra, Chap. XI.]. Again, to the same, January 30, 1850 : — "You allude to my altered views in Ethnology; but it all consists in regarding the Egyptian race as the indigenous people of the valley of the Nile. Not Asiatics in any sense of the word, but autocthones of the country, and the authors of their own civilization. This view, wliich you will recollect is that of Champollion, Heeren, and others [excepting only tliatthey do not apply the word indigenous to the Egyptians], in nowise conflicts with their Caucasian position: for the Caucasian group had many primordial centres, of which the Egyptians represent one." Here, then, we behold the matured and deliberately-expressed ■opinion of Dr. Morton, that the earliest monumental type of Egyp- tians was not Asiatic, but that of an aboriginal African race. A few months ago the writer (J. C. N.) addressed the Chevalier Lepsius, stating the impressions relative to what we shall call a Negroid type, left on our mind by an examination of his plates of the IV th dynasty. We received from liim a most obliging and compre- hensive letter : an extract below indicates its nature. We otight to premise that the Chevalier, like Baron von Humboldt,^^ is a wustainer of the unity of races, for linguistical and other reasone in be detailed by his own pen some day. We wish here simply to EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 233 present the results of some of his ^' Unguistique" researches — a de- partment of science in which he is so justly renowned. His reply to onr interrogatory begins — " Je laisse de cote le point de vue thcolo- gique qui n'a rien ^ faire avec la science." Our clerical adversaries need not lean, therefore, upon savans whose sole object is scientific truth ; nor, for ourselves, can we refrain from admiring the philoso- phic tone with which such intelligences as Agassiz, Lepsius, and Morton, have pursued it. " Vous parlez d'une gradation des peuples du continent d'Afrique depuis le Capjnsqu'^ dans le nord. II y'a iin fait bien curieux, que les langues des Hottentots et des Buslinians sont essentiellement difft'rentes des langues de tout le reste du continent jusqu'a I'^quateur. Et ce qui est, peut-etre, encore plus curieux, leur langue porte quelques traits charact^ris- tiques, qui ne se retrouvent que dans les langues du nord-est de I'Afrique Tout le continent Africain avait, selon mon id^e, dans un certain temps, une population parente, et les langues par consequent analogues aussi. Plus tard les peuples Asiatiques immigraient du nord-est. Le melange des races produisait ce large bandeau de peuples et de langues disperses et appareinment incoherens qui se trouvent maintenant entre la ligne et le 15""* degr^ lat. nord. Ces langues out perdu leur caractfere Africain sans acqu^rir le caractere Asiatique ; mais le fond des langues et du sang est Africain " Je comprends ce que vous appelez un type negroide dans les figures Egyptiennes, et je n'ai rien contre cette observation ; mais cela n'empeche pas que leur caractere principal ne soit Asiatique. Pendant le temps des Hyksos, la race ancienue se changeait conside- rablement." We repeat that Prof. Lepsius declares, in the same letter, his con- firmed belief in the unity of races ; but the occurrences he speaks of must antedate the era by him defined for the foundation of the Egyp- tian Empire, 3893 years b. c, as Frenchmen express it, by " des millions et des milliards d'annees." ]N"ot less do we esteem, on these archaic subjects, the high authority of Mr. Birch, of the British Museum ; who, in a private letter (to J. C. J^.), dated October, 1852, writes : — " You are, I agree, quite right as to the inler7nediate relation of Egypt to the Asiatic and Nigritian races. Benfey a-nd others have already, I think, pointed out that the so-called Semitic languages are p>'ir"'ipally spoken in Africa, and the hieroglyphs are of Semitic con- nection — resembling the Semitic languages in the construction and copia verborum ; at the same time they differ in »aany essential points, and have a fair claim to be considered a separate species of langu-ige. The astounding fact is, that Egyptian civilization was the oldest — and that the Assyrian and other nations have left no remains to compare with them in respect of time." It cannot fail to be remarked, that certain of the portraits on the earliest pyramidal monuments already represent a veiy mixed people; and, consequently, it is. clear that Egypt, for anterior centuries unnum- bered, must have been, so to say, the battle-ground of Asiatic impinging against African races. Some of the heads we have selected as illus- trative of the an'iquity of a high "Caucasian" type, might readih pass unnoticed a< the present day in the streets of London, Paris, oi New York; wh'le others, again, are so strictlv African, that tljo 30 231: EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. typical difference cannot be mistaken. It is note-worthy, besides, that many of these Egypto-Caucasian heads are not only strongly Semitic, but even Abrahamic in type : thus affording support to legends running through the fragments of Manetho, and his muti- lator, JosEPHUS, as to connections between the Ilyksos and the early population of Canaan. The same Chaldaic features beheld in some of the royal hkenesses of the XVIIth, XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties, are seen upon the sculptures of the IVth, Vth and Vlth. Philological science generall}' admits that the roots of the modern Coptic language are, in the main, (alien engraftments deducted) the same as those of the " lingua sancta," or Old Egj-ptian tongue, spoken by the priesthood and educated classes, from Roman times, through all dynasties, back to the earliest Pharaohs, when the latter was the colloquial idiom of every native. As a medium of oral communica- tion, the Coptic language ceased to be used in the twelfth century, and the last person who could speak it is said to have died in a. d. 1663 : 282 but an old Egyptian (G. R. G.) avers that he met with good authority for its decease about ninety years ago, with a priest, in the Thebaid. The ifpct ^laXexTog-,^^^ sacerdotal dialect, or antique language, affords one of the strongest evidences of the high antiquity of the early population of Egypt, and also of their Nilotic or aboriginal emana- tion. Egypt has been, literally, for many thousands of years, the football of foreign conquerors ; and her primordial language became infiltrated, from age to age, with Arabic, Persian, Greek, Libyan, Latin, and words of other tongues, known to us only at a later stage of development ; but, when these exotic injecta are abstracted, there remains, nevertheless, a stone-recorded vernacular, possessing all the marks of originality, and in itself totally distinct from the utmost circumference of Asiatic languages. The proper names of very few Nilotic objects, natural or artificial, in primitive hieroglyphics, are really identical with the vocalization of Syro- Arabian languages ; and their Egyptian structure is characteristically different ; being mono- syllabic, in lieu of the posterior triliteral shape in which Semitic tongues have come down to us. " If all these languages be kindred, Benfey, who has compared them most elaborately, holds, they must have split off from a parent stock, not only at a period too remote for all historical or monumental evidence, but even for plausible con- jecture."'-**' Such, in brief, are the current opinions of Lepsius, Birch, of Bunsen, Hincks, De Saulcy, Lanci, and other eminent authorities of the day, as regards Egypt : supported, moreover, by the philological discoveries of Rawlinson, Ilincks, and De Longperier, in cuneiform Assyria ; and by the studies of Gesenius, Ewald, Munk, and Fresnel, EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 235 in Shemitish paloeog^aph3^ It is the deduction of Lepsiiis, that Egypt had possessed an African population, and a Nilotic language, before the foundation of the Old Empire ; and that various disturbing causes superimposed, gradually, an Asiatic type and Semitic dialects upon the anterior people of the Lower Nile, without obliterating the aboriginal frame-work which, as well in type of man as in speech, was exclusively African. Affinities, tending to establish a remote contemporaneousness, have been traced among various languages of Northern Aftica: and Hodgson, quoted in the last chapter, long ago put forth the doctrine that the Berber speech, as now extant, had preceded the Coptic of Christianized Egypt. He insisted that many old names of places, divinities, &c., along the Nile, were Berber, and neither Coptic nor Semitic. Allowance made for some slight anachronisms, in terms rather than in facts, we think our learned countryman's arrow has not flown wide of the target. The high antiquity formerly claimed for civilization in India, and many coincidences of doctrine and usages that, imagined by Indolo- gists, have entirely vanished from Egypt since her hieroglyphics have become readable, had led Priehard, and other scholars less eminent, to connect the Ganges with the Nile : but, so far from any evidence of intercommunication, we have nothing to show that the nations on these two rivers, in the time of Solomon, much less of Moses or Abraham, were even acquainted with each others' existence. The ancient Egyptians never surmised a Hindostanic origin for their own nation ; they believed themselves to be, in the strictest sense, autoc- thones, natives of the soil. Nor do East-Indians (since Wilford's misconceptions became exposed) possess any tradition of having re- ceived an Egyptian or sent forth a Hindoo colony.'®^ Moreover, the rumored resemblances between the languages of India and Egypt — Sanscrit and Coptic — compared in their modern phases, are few and slight, where not altogether factitious. The w^hole genius of both, and almost their entire stock of words, are entirely diflerent. The hieroglyphic system of Egyjjt is clearly indigenous to the valley of the Nile, whilst not even a legendary tale remains to show that such mode of writing ever prevailed in India. When we reflect that this hieroglyphic writing is found in hig) perfection on the earliest monuments extant, viz. : those of the IVth dynasty, 3400 years b. c, and, therefore, must have existed many cen- turies previously ; that the figure of every animal, plant, or thing, delineated in these hieroglyphics, is Nilotic to the exclusion of every foreign idea ; and that Egyptian economy in manners, customs, arts, &c., must have been radically diverse from those of all other races, 236 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. at the time such writing received its incipient projection; — when, too, we remember the fact that, the physical characters of each type of man in India and Egypt were ditierent, and that no physical causes but amalgamation have ever transformed one race into another, it is impossible to resist the conviction that these Gangeatic and ^N'ilotic races have always been, that which, modern fusions deducted, they are now, distinct. The Egyptians, for instance, had practised circumcision from time immemorial, long before Abraham adopted this mark after his visit to Egypt, in common with the later Ethiopic tribes ; but this Nilotic rite was not practised in India, until introduced by Mohammedan conquests. So, again, with regard to " castes," heretofore almost insolently ob- truded, in order to identify Egyptian with Hindostanic customs ! It will be news to some coryphaei of the unity-doctrine, when they are taught, in our Part III., that the "caste-system" has never existed along the Nile, and that, on the Ganges, it is a very modern invention. To the extreme climatic drj-ness of Egypt are we mainly indebted for the preservation of her monumental history. While the remains of Greece, Rome, and other nations, none of them 3000 years old, crumble at first touch, Egypt's granitic obelisks, at the end of 4000 years, have not yet lost their polish ; and had all the early monuments of that country been spared by barbarian hands, we should not now, after fifty-three centuries, have to accuse Tivie as the cause of disputations over the history of the old Empire. That Menes of Tins was the first mortal king of Egypt, is one of the points in which classical authorities, Herodotus, Manetho, Eratos- thenes, and Diodorus, agree with the genealogical lists upon tablets and papyri; and we must regard him as the first historical founder of an empire, which, for untold ages previousl}^, had been approaching its consolidation. His reign is placed by Lepsius at 3893 j-ears b. c. ; and although criticism grants that this date may be a few centuries below or above the true era, yet there is so much irrefragable evi- dence of the long duration of the empire prior to the fixed epoch of the Xllth djmasty, 2800 years b. c, that any error, if there be such, in his chronological computations, cannot be very great, while almost immaterial to our present purposes. The august name of Menes is gloriously associated with the building of Memphis, the oldest metro- polis, with foreign conquests, with public monuments, with, the pro- gjess of the arts and of internal improvements. To admit the pos- bibility of such legislative actions, a numerous population and a long prepai-atory civilization must have preceded him : to say nothing oi the contemporary nations with which this military Pluiraoh held intercourse* that must have been at least as old as the Egyptians EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 237 themselves. To one who knows anythhig of the topography of the Nile-land, it need not be tokl that the science of hydraulic engineer- ing, in particular, must have existed in high perfection before the Lower Valley of the Nile could have been studded to any extent with towns on the alluvium : because this stream had to be controlled by dykes, canals, sluices, and similar works, long before the soil on its banks could be uniformly cultivated ; and, what an antiquity do not these facts necessitate ! But, whatever uncertainty may hang over the first three dynasties (of which coetaneous records are now lost), when we come to the IVth — " We may [in the language of the Rev. John Kenrick] congratulate ourselves that we have at length reached the period of undoubted cotemporaneous monuments in Egyptian history. The pyramids, and the sepulchres near them, still remain to assure us that we are not walking in a land of shadows, but among a powerful and populous nation, far advanced in the arts of life ; and, as a people can only progressively attain such a station, the light of historic certainty is reflected back from this era upon the ages which precede it. . . The glimpse which we thus obtain of Egypt, in the fifth century after Menes, accord- ing to the lowest computation, reveals to us some general facts, which lead to important inferences. In all its great characteristics, Egypt was the same as we see it 1000 years later. A well-organized monarchy and religion elaborated throughout the country. The system of hieroglyphic writing the same, in all its leading peculiarities, as it continued to the end of the monarchy of the Pharaohs." 286 Bas-reliefs beautifully cut, sepulchral architecture, and pyramidal engineering — reed-pens, inks (red and black), papyrus-/)«j9gr, and chemically-prepared colors! — these are proud evidences of the Mem- phitic civilization of fifty-three centuries ago, that every man with eyes to see can now behold in noble folios, published by Fiance, Tuscany, and Pruspia ; and concerning which any one, not an igno- ramus through education, or a blockhead by nature, can acquire ade- quate knowledge by merely reading those English, French, German, or Italian works, printed within the last fifteen years, and abundantly cited at the end of this volume, which are at the present hour very accessible to all intelligent readers, everywhere but on the bookshelves of primaiy seminaries. This reservation made, we appeal, through these popular works, to the most ancient sculptures, in hopes of ascertaining — What was the Ti/pe of the primitive Egyptians ? Let our departure be taken, in this inquiry, from one of those four efiigies extant in the sepulchral habitation of Seti I., before alluded to {vide ante, p. 85, Fig. 1), which establishes what Egyptian art considered, in the fifteenth century b. c, the beau-ideal of the Egyptians themselves. Beneath the head (Fig. 152) we place a re duction of one of the same full-length figures (Fig. 153), whicli, on the original, is colored in deep red. The reader has now before hia «jye the standard effigy, typical of the Egyptian race, such as the " huih dred-gated" Thebes exhibited in her streets about 3400 years ago. !38 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS, Fig. 152.287 This head we regard as a most inte- FiG. 153. resdng one, in connection with the Egyp- tian type ; because it gives the Egyptian idea of their own people, whom the accompanying hieroglyphics call the RoT, that is, "race," par excellence — viewed by the Egyptians as the only human species, to the exclusion of "out- side barbarians" of every nation around the "land of purity and justice." Now, although this effigy was designed, at Thebes, as typical of the Egyptian na- tion during the XVIIIth dynasty, to us it seems rather to be the long-settled type of that race, handed down from early times ; for, assuredly, it does not corres- pond with the royal portraits of the New Empire, which, we have seen, were strongly Semitic in their lineaments, and therefore chiefly Asiatic in derivation. This EoT, if placed alongside the ico- nographic monuments of the IVth, Vth, and Vlth dynasties, is closely analogous to the predominant type of that day ; which fact serves to strengthen our view that the Egyptians of the early dynasties were rather of an African or Negroid type — resembling the Bishari, in some respects, in others, the modern Fellah, or peasantry, of Upper Egypt. To show its analogy to- the primitive stock, we repro- duce a better copy of the colored head of Prince Merhet (Fig. 154), " Priest of Shufu" builder of the great pyramid, and probably his son {supra, p. 177, Fig. 118). More than 1700 years of time sepa- rate the two sculptures, and yet how in- delible is the type ! Fig. 155 IS taken from the temple of Aboosimbel — Wars in Asia of liamses II., XVIIIth dynasty, during the fourteenth century b. c. This head is one of a group of full-length portraits of the same type, and they are Egyptian picked soldiers of the royal body-guard — pro- Fig. 154.288 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 239 Fio. 155.289 bably Calisirians: a word which means "young t>:uard," and also persons wearing the caZagms, " fring-ed tunic." ^'* [The pictorial illustrations designed in 1842 for Gliddon's Lectures having required a cri- tical study of every head then known uj)on the monuments, we will here introduce an extract from his Ethnographic JSfotes, written eleven years ago — when, without theory to sustain, he could have no idea that his private memoranda would become available to ana- tomists in the year 1853. — J. C. N.] "These are Egyptian soldiers, of the royal body-guard — probably Hermotybians, or Ca- lasirians ; but, as the latter name seems derivable from the Coptic SHELOSHIPi.1, young, and since these soldiers are young men, it is likely that they represent Calasirians of the royal guard — like the young guard of Napoleon, or the Yenle-cheri (corrupted by Euro- peans into Janisaries), ' new guard' of the Ottomans. The Hermotybians were the vete- rana — the old guard, in whose charge were the fortresses. " Now, as these soldiers were quartered in, and chiefly drafted from, Loiver Egypt, this soldier is a good specimen of the ' thews and sinews' of Egypt. See his athletic build, his muscular frame, and look of bull-dog determination — the very beau-ideal of a soldier ! This man is precisely similar to the mass of the Felldhs of Lower Egypt at this day, espe- cially on the Damiata branch, and I could pick thousands in these provinces to match him; whereas, above Middle Egypt, as you approach Nubia, this type disappears, to be replaced by lank, tall, dark, spare men, until the Fellah merges in the Nubian races, above Esne. I therefore contend that this soldier is a perfect specimen of the picked men of Lower Egypt, B. c. 1560. He shows the superiority of the people of Lower Egypt in that day ; while, as he is identical with the picked men of the Fellahs of Lotver Egypt at i\iQ present day, it fol- lows that very great changes have not taken place, in 3500 years, between the ancient and modern Lower Egyptians ; and supports my assertion that, apart from a certain amount of Arab-cross (easily explained, and easily detected), it is in Loiver Egypt, among the Fellahs, you will find the descendants of the ancient race — more than among the Copts (whose females are, and have been, the 'Gussarheyeh of Nations') ; and infinitely more than among the half-witted, dissolute, corrupt, and mongrel African race o{ Bardberas." Morton's comparison of ancient and modern skulls confirms this view ; and it will remove some erroneous notions from the reader of Osburn,^^' to mention an indisputable proof of the Egyptian origin of those guards — that is, the fact that they are painted red in the tableau at Aboosimbel. Now, a remark made by us when speaking of the last race (RoT), applies equally to this figure : viz., that although both are represent- ations of Egyptians, drawn and colored by an Egyptian artist, during the XVIIIth dynasty, yet this soldier does not display the same type as the legitimate line of royal portraits, from Amenopii I. downwards. There is nothing Asiatic about his physiognomy — on the contraiy, it pei-petuates the African or Negroid type of the first dynasties. 240 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. Fig. 156. llTevertheless, already the military caste of Egypt was a mixed one ; for here are two soldiers (Fig. 156), from another brigade, who, as Morton ob- served, present rather the Hellenic style of feature.^^ So too, allowance made for very possible inattentions on the part of European copyists, where the subject was not royal iconography, do some of the following heads of lower classes of people (Figs. 157-161), also selected by Morton : — Fig. 168. FiQ. 157 Fia. 159. Peasants.296 Servants.296 The modern Fellahs, constituting the mass of the common people of the country, have not even yet become sufficientl}^ adulterated for their ancestral type to be extinguished, inasmuch as the same pre- ponderating characteristics can be traced, backwards, from the living race, through five millennia of stone-chroniclings, to the earhest times. EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 241 It is fair to concliulo that these Fellahs really preserve much of the aboriginal Eg3'ptian type. Such type bears not the slightest resem- blance (except in casual instances, themselves doubtful, when we first see it in the IVth dynasty, about 3400 b. c.) to any Asiatic race, and must therefore have been inherent in that indigenous race which was created to people the Valley of the Nile. The authors esteem it a very high privilege that " Types of Man- kind" should be the first work to remove all doubts upon the type of the earliest monumental Egyptians. Further discussion becomes superseded by the publication of the annexed lithographic Plates I., II., III., and*[V. Being fac-similes of the most ancient human heads now extant in the world, and transfer-copies of impressions stamped, by the hand of Chevalier Lepsius himself, upon the original bas-reliefs preserved in the Royal Museum of Berlin, their intrinsic value in eth- nography cannot be overrated ; at the same time that, like an axe, these etfigies cleave asunder /ac^s and suppositions as to what primor- dial art at Memphis, above 5000 years ago, considered to be the "canonical proportions" ascribable to the facial and cephalic struc- ture of the heads of the Egyptian people themselves. Prefacing our exposition of the guarantees the lithographs possess for exactitude and authenticity with the remark, that these portraits belong to the tombs of princely, aristocratic, and sacerdotal person- ages, who lived during the IVth, Vth, and Vlth Memphite dynasties, w^e proceed to state how such illustrations (alike precious from their enormous antiquity and for their unique excellence) haves been obtained. Attendants on Mr. Gliddon's Archaeological Lectures in the United States have been informed, yearly, from 1842 to 1852,^^ of the chscoveries of the Prussian Scientific Mission to Egypt : in every case, before the winter of 1849, far in advance of detailed publication, whether in America or in Europe. In that year, the first volume of Lepsius's quarto Chronologie der jEgypter was quickly followed by the fii'st livraisons of the folio Denkmciler aus ^gypten und j^thiopien — the former judiciously constructing the chronological and historical framework within which the stupendous facts unfolded by the latter are enclosed. To facilitate popular appreciation of the magnitude ot these Prussian labors and discoveries, Lepsius put forth, at Berlin, in 1852, his octavo Briefe aus JEgyptcn, u^thiopien, kc. ; which, trans- lated and ably annotated by Mr. Kenneth Mackenzie, being now equally accessible to every reader of our tongue, readers any accouuil 31 242 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. here of these Nilotic explorations superfluous, beyond mentioning that four of the most ancient tombs discovered at Memphis by Lep- sius, independently of his vast collection of other materials, were taken to pieces on the spot, with the utmost care, and became rebuilt into the Roj^al Museum at Berlin. Invited by Chevalier Lepsius to visit, ^^ and inspect personall}^, anti- quarian treasures endeared by a lifetime's Egyptian associations, Mr. Gliddon was at once so struck with the ethnographic importance of these sepulchral bas-reliefs, that he solicited paper-impressions of a few heads for the joint and future studies of Dr. Morton and himself; and, on the 10th of May, 1849, he had the gratification of assisting Cheva- herLejisius to make numerous estampages ; while, to insure perfection and authenticity, the paper was stamped upon the sculptures by the Chevalier's own hands. One singular fact, illustrative of the superior antiquity of these tombs of pyramidal magnates to any heretofore described by Egypt- ologists, may here be mentioned. Laid biare, through excavation, at a depth of many feet below the rocky surface, and emptied of the sand with "which they had become refilled since their desecration by unknown hands (probably Saracenic) centuries ago, the relievos pre- sented themselves in colors so vivid as to appear " fresh and perfect, as if painted only yesterday;" but, despite every precaution, on removing each slab into the open air, the painted stucco-superficies fell off — leaAang, however, the uninjured low-relief (about the sixth of an inch) sculpture to endure long as time shall respect the Berlin Museum. Now, in the dry climate of Memphis, Egyptian colors known to range from 2500 to 4000 years old, where not exposed to the dew, or to the Etesian winds, still adhere on the wall of tombs in their pristine freshness and brilliancy. Well, therefore, is an anti- quity of at least 5300 years for these now colorless relievos (imperi- ously demanded also by their hieroglyphical and other conditions) corroborated by their exceptional friability. With his wonted fore- sight, Lepsius had caused the colored sculptures to be copied by his ■draughtsmen, in situ, before remo^'al ; and in the Denkniiiler^-^^ their gorgeous paintings may still be admired. On the writer's (G. R. G.'s) return to London, these estampages^ jifter being outlined, were transferred upon tracing-paper by his wife's accurate pencil, in duplicate, for Dr. Morton and himself. The originals, as acknowledged by the Doctor in a foregoing letter .p. 232, ante), were duly passed on to his cabinet, where their inspec- tion completed that revulsion of earlier views toward which his pro- gressive studies had long been leading. The second copy, shaded aiid colored in imitation of the limestone originals, has often embel X 90 CD -J CO I ■V cc CO I- <: 00 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 243 li shed Mr. Gliddon's lecture-rooms when "Egyptian Ethnology" was the topic of his address. "When the authors projected the present work, at Mobile, in the spring of 1852, they acquainted Chevalier Lepsius, among other Eu- ropean colleagues, with their respective desiderata, archaeological or ethnographical. Answering one of Gliddon's letters, the Chevalier complaisantly remarks : — "Berlin, 1 Novembre, 1852. . . . "Pour les individus vous ne pouvez vous fier que sur les empreintes que vous nvez; et si vous en desirez je vous en enverrai encore d'avantage. . . . Les empreintes des bas- reliefs et les pldtres des anciennes statues sont, a ce qu'il me parait, les seuls matdriaux utiles pour 6tudier I'ancien caractfere des Egyptiens ; et meme pour ceux-la il faut adniettre qu'on pourrait se tromper sur plusieur traits qui paraissent etre surs, parceque le r.anon [that is, the canon of proportion accorded by Old Egyptian art to the human figure. — G. R. G.] re9U pouvait s'^carter en quelques points de la v^rit6, comme dans la position haute de roreille." "We have to record our joint obligations for the receipt, in August of the present year, of the second collection of stamps promised in the above letter ; and it is from careful comparison of the duplicate originals with their tracings, that the models for our lithographic plates were designed. We feel confident, therefore, that our litho- graphs ^XQ fac- similes — submitting them to Chevalier Lepsius for com- parison with the original bas-reliefs, while taking the liberty to urge upon his scientific attention, no less than upon that of possessors of such remains generally, the benefit they would confer upon ethno- logical studies, were they to publish similar fac-similes, where the lithographer, copying the original monument under their own critical eyes, would attain precision from which the Atlantic debars art in this country. Abstraction made of the divergence from nature in the "high posi- tion of the ear," to which the above epistolary favor alludes, as a subject set at rest by Morton ;^™' and repeating our previous notice of false delineation of the eye in Egyptian profiles : there remains no doubt that the facial outlines^ and, where naked, the cranial conforma- tion^ in these most antique of all known sculptures, are rigorously faithful. Without hesitation, these heads may be accepted by eth- nography as perfect representations of the ty]pe of Egyptia*is under the Old Empire. Assuming such to be facts — and, beyond accidents of some trivial slip of a pencil, none can dispute them but the unlettered in tliesc sciences — we may now claim as positive that the originals of our fac-simile heads date back, as a minimum, from 3000 to 3500 years before Cimst, or to generations deceased above 5000 years ago ; at 244 EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. vvhioh time Egypt had already existed for many centuries as a powerful ompire, borne along on full tide of civilization : and, let us ask, what trace of an Asiatic type does the reader perceive in these hoary like- nesses ? How distinct, physiologically, are these heads from the royal portraits of the New Empire ! Does not the low, elongated head ; the imperfectly-developed forehead ; the short, thick nose ; the large, full lip ; the short and receding chin ; with their tout-ensemhle, all point tc Africa as the primeval birth-place of these people ? When, too, we look around and along this ancient valley of the ISTile at the present day, and compare the mingled types of races, still dwelling where their fathers did — the Fellahs, the Bishariba, the Abyssinians, the Nubians, the Libyans, the Berbers (though they are by no means iden- tical among each other), do we not behold a group of men apart from the rest of human creation ? and all, singularly and collectively, in- heriting something in their lineaments which clusters around the t}^e of ancient Egypt ? A powerful and civilized race may be conquered, may become adulterated in blood; yet the tt/pe, when so widely spread, as in and around Egypt, has never been obliterated, can never be washed out. History abundantly proves that human lan- guage may become greatly corrupted by exotic admixture — nay, even extinguished ; but physiology demonstrates that a t^pe will sundve tongues, writings, religions, customs, manners, monuments, tradi- tions, and history itself. Dr. Morton's voluminous correspondence with scientific men throughout both hemispheres is replete with interest, exhibiting as it does so many charming instances of that philosophical abandon, or freedom from social rigidities, which characterizes true devotees to science in their interchanges of thought. There is one epistle among these, that almost electrified him^°' on its reception, bearing date "Alexandria, Dec. 17, 1843." It is invested with the signature of a voyager long "blanched under the harness" of scientific pursuits; who, as Naturalist to the United States' Exploring Expedition, had sailed round the world, and beheld ten types of mankind, before he wrote, after exploring the petroglyphs of the Nile : — " I have seen in all eleven races of men ; and, though I am hardly prepared to fix a positive limit to their number, I confess, after having visited so many different parts of the globe, that I am at a loss where to look for others." 302 Qualified to judge, through especial training, varied attainments, tind habits of keen observation that, in Natural History, are i>re- emment for accuracy, the first impressions of the gentleman from whose letter to his attached friend we make bold to extract a few sentences, (preserving their original form,) are strikingly to the point: < ,li UJ 00 < \ IjI P LiJ 1^"=^ '-'^L ^ 1 CO CD CD Q I d6 CD .s0^'^^'^m:& DQ o J- I- tu 2 < I- co o 5 <§ UJ CO EGYPT AND EGYPTIANS. 245 '* Dear Morton : "This is the fourth day I have been in the land of the Pharaohs Well, now for the Egyptian problem. "Your October letter is now before me, and the left-hand drawing bears' a most aston- ishing resemblance to my long-legged valet, Ali ! (whom I intend to get daguerreotyped, if euch a thing can be found at Cairo). The Robber Race has swept away everything at Alexandria; — nevertheless, by means of a specimen here and there, I had not been three hours in the country before I arrived at the conclusion, that the ancient Egyptians were neither Malays nor Hindoos, but - Egyptians Yours, truly, "Charles Pickering." So inferred Champollion-le-Jeune;^^^ so pronounced Morton, after a formal recantation of liis published views ; so, finally and deliberately, think the authors of this volume ; viz. : that the primi- tive Egyptians were nothing more nor less than — EGYPTIANS. Objectors must restrict themselves henceforward merely to cavils as to the antiquity of these Egyptian records. In Part III. their claims to reverence are superabundantly set forth. For ourselves we are content to rest the chronological case upon the authority of Baroji Alexander von Humboldt : — " The valley of the Nile, which has occupied so distinguished a place in the history of Man, yet preserves authentic portraits of kings as far back as the commencement of the IVth dynasty of Manetho. This dynasty, which embraces the constructors of the great pyramids of Ghiza, Chefren or Schafra, Cheops, Choufou, and Menkara or Menker^s, commences more than 3400 years b. c, and twenty-four centuries before the invasion of Peloponnesufi by the Heraclides."30* 2i0 NEGRO TYPES. CHAPTER VIII. NEGRO TYPES. "When the prophet Jeremiah 305 exclaims, 'Can the JEthiopian cha,nge his skin, or the leopard his spots?' he certainly means us to infer that the one was as impossible as the other." — Mokton's MSS. " Niger in die (quodam) exuit vestes suas, incepitque capere nivem et fricare cum ea corpus suum. Dictum autem ei fuit: quare fricas corpus tuum nive? Et dixit (ille) : forlasse albescam. Venitque vir (quidam) sapiens, (qui) dixit ei: tu, ne afflige te ipsum ; fieri enim potest, ut corpus tuum nigram faciat nivem, ipsum autem non amittet nigredinem." — Locmani Tabula XXIII: translated from the Arabic by Rosenmuller.'^^ Had every nation of antiquity emulated Egypt, and perpetuated the portraits of its own people with a chisel, it would now be evident to the reader that each type of manJcind, in all zoological centres of man's creation, is by nature as indelibly permanent as the stone- pages upon which Egyptians, Chinese, Assyrians, Lycians, Greeks, Romans, Carthaginians, Meroites, Hindoos, Peruvians, Mexicans, (to say naught of other races,) have cut their several iconographies. How instantaneously would vanish pending disputes about the Unity or the Diversify of human origins ! Contenting ourselves at present with the now-acquired fact, that the Egyptians, according to monumental and cranio! ogical evidences, no less than to all history, written or traditionary, Avere really autoc- thones of the Lower Nile, we think the question as to their "type" has been satisfactorily answered. In reply, furthermore, to our pre- vious interrogatory, whether this ancient family obeyed the same law of "gradation" established for other African aborigines; we may now observe, that the Egyptians, astride as it were upon the narrow isthmus which unites the once-separate continents of Africa and Asia, figure, when the Aurora of human tradition first breaks, as at one and the same time, the highest among African, and (physiologically, if not perhaps intellectually) as the lowest type in West-Asiatic gradations. AVere we to prosecute our imaginary journey northwards, the dark Oushite-Anibs would naturally constitute the next grade, and the ancient Canaanites probably the one immediately succeeding. The primitive group of Semitic nations would be found to have aborigi- nally occupied geographical levels commencing with Mount Lebanon and rising gradually in physical characters as we ascend the Tauric NEGRO TYPES. 247 chain — passing, almost insensibly, into the Japethic or wj:iitest races (also possessing their own gradations), until the highest types of pre- historic humanity would reveal their birth-places around the Caucasus. But, dealing mainly with the Natural History of Man, elucidated through new archffiological data, the scope of our work permits nf» geographical digressions beyond the Caucasian mountains. We have already insisted that the term " Caucasian" is a misnomer, productive of infinite embarrassments in anthropology ; because a name in itself epeciiically restricted, since the times of Herodotus, to one locality and to one people, has become misapplied generically to types of mankind whose origins have no more to do with the mountains of Caucasus than with those of the moon. Would it not be ridiculous to take, for example, the name " Englander" (a compound of ^ri^^ and land — "man of the land of the Angli"), and to classify under such an appellative, Hebrews, Egyptians, Hindoos, &c. ? That " Cau- casian" is equally fallacious, will be made clear to the reader, in Pai-t n., under the article on MaGUG ; but we anticipate a portion of the philological argument by mentioning, that the Ilellenized name CAUC-ASOS means simply the '^Mountain of the Asi;" being the Indo-Germanic word Khogh, signifying " mountain," prefixed to the proper name of a nation and a race : viz., the Aas, Asi, Jases, Osseth, or Osses; who, dwelling even yet at the foot of that Cauc-Asos where, from immemorial time, their ancestors lived before them, would be astonished to learn that European geographers had bestowed their national name upon the whole continent of Asia, and that modern ethnologists actually derive a dozen groups of distinct human animals from the mountain ("Khogh") of which such Asi are aborigines ! ^"' Turning our backs upon the Caucasus, and retracing our steps toward Africa, let us inciden- tally notice the recognition by ante-Mosaic Egyp- tian, and by post-Mosaic Hebrew, ethnographers, of the general principle of gradation among such types of mankind as lay within the horizons of their respective geographical knowledge. The Egyptians, for instance, in their quadripar+itt' division of races, already explained (ante, p. 85, Fig. 1), assigned the most northerly habitat to the '■^whife race," of which we here reproduce the standard type (Fig. 162) — one of the four de signed in the tomb of Seti I., about 1500 b. c. Precisiily does the writer of Xth Genesis, as WHte rates— J APHETH. set forth elaborately in Part H., follow the same Fig. 162. 248 NEGRO TYPES. Fig. 163. Yellow races — Shem. system, in his tripartite division ; inasmucli as he groups the " Affi- liations of Japheth," that is, his '■'■white races," between the Tauric chain of mountains and the Caucasian, along and within the northern coast of Asia Minor to the BLack Sea. So, again, Egyptian ethnography chose, for the standard-type of ^'■yellow races," four effigies which entirely correspond, in every desideratum of locality, color, and physical conformation, with those families classified, in Xth Genesis, as the ^'■Affiliations of Shem;" and like the He- brew geographer, the Theban artist must have known, that the yellow, or Semitic, groups of men occupied countries immediately south of the '■'white races," and stretching from the Tau- rus to the Isthmus of Suez, including the river- lands of the Tigris and Euphrates, together with the Arabian Peninsula. The specimen illustrative of these groups of yellow-skinned races here presented in Fig. 163, is also, like the following (Figs. 164, 165), a re- production from the four figures before shown on page 85. Equally parallel is the Jewish classification, in respect to the "Affili- ations of Ham" (Fig. 164), with those "red races" among which the EgJ'ptians placed the RoT, or themselves. To the latter, KAaM w^as nothing but the hieroglyphical name of Egypt proper; KAeMe, or Iv/nMe, "the dark land" of the Nile; corrupted by the Greeks into " Chemmis" and " Chemia," and by us preserved in such words as "chem-\sivy" and " aX-chem-y,'' both Egyptian sciences ; while, in Hebrew geography, K/^aM, signifying dark, or swarthy, merely meant all those non-Shemitish families w^hich, under the especial cognomina of Cushites, Caiiaanites, Mizraiynites, Libyans, Ber- bers, and so forth, formed that group of proxi- mate types situate, aboriginally, east and west of the Nile, and along its banks north of thu first cataract at Syene. Our wood-cut illnstratea the Egyptian standard-type of these populations. But here the analogy betW'Cen the earliei Egyptian and the posterior Hebrew systems Nigritian races, never domiciled nearer to Palestine than Fig. 164. Swarthy (or red) races - Ham. f^eascs. 1000 miles to the south-westward, did not enter into Ihe social NEGRO TYPES. 249 Fig. 165. i economy of the Solomonic Jews, any more than into that of the Homeric Greeks ; and, if not perhaps absolutely unknown, Negroes were tlien as foreign to, and remote from, either nation's geography, as the Samoidans or the Tungousians are to our popular notions of the earth's inhabitants at the present day. In consequence, (as it is thoroughly demonstrated in Part II.), the writer of Xth Genesis omits Negro races altogether, from his tripartite classifi- cation of humanity under the symbolical appel- latives of " Shem, Ilam, and Japheth ; " Avhereas the Egyptians of the XlXth dynasty, about 1500 years b. c, having become acquainted with the existence of Negroes some eight centuries previ- ously (when Sesourtasen I., of the Xllth dynasty, about B. c. 2300, pushed his conquests into Up- per Nubia), could not fail to include t\\\ii fourth type of man in their ethnological system ; be- cause the river Nile was the most direct viaduct through which the Soodan, Negro-land, could be reached, or Negro captives procured. With this preliminary basis, calling attention to the effigy (Fig. 165) by which they personified Negroes generally, we proceed to draw from the ancient stone-books of Egypt such testimonies concerning the permanence of type among Nigritiau races as they may be found to contain. Our Negro (Fig. 166) is from the bas-reliefs of Eamses III. (XXth dynasty, thirteen centu- ries B. c), at Medeenet-Haboo, where he is tied by the neck to an Asiatic prisoner. The head, in the original, is now unco- lored; and it serves to show how perfectly Egyptian artists represented these races.^"^ "We quote from Gliddon's Ethnogra- phic Notes, before referred to : " This head is remarkable, fur- thermore, as the usual type of two-thirds of the Negroes in Egypt at the present day." And any one living in our Slave-States will see in this face a type which is frequently met with here. We thus obtain proof that the Negro has remained unchanged in Africa, above Egypt, for 3000 years ; coupled 32 Black races. Fig. 166. 250 NEGRO TYPES. witK the fact that the same type, during some eight or ten genera- tions of sojourn in the United States, is still preserved, despite of transplantation. The following representation (Fig. 167) is traced upon a spirited reduction by Oherubini.'"'^ It is a double tile of Negroes and Barahra (Nubians), bound, and driven before his chariot by Ramses II., at Aboosimbel. This picture answers well as a complement to the two Fig. 167. Fm. 168. preceding ; for we here have the brown Nubian — a dark one, and a light-colored family — admirably contrasted with the jet-black Negro; thus proving that the same divisions of African races existed then as now, above the first cataract of the Nile at Syene. One of the same series (Fig. 168), on a larger scale, taken from Rosellini.^'" It should be ob- served that he is shaded browner than the next head (Fig. 169) ; thereby showing the two com- monest colors and physiognomical lineaments prevalent among Nubian Barabra of the present day ; who, whether owing to amalgamation, or from original type, approach closer to the Negro than do the adjacent tribes — Ababdek, Bisha- riba, &c. The same group supplies a lighter (cinnamon) shaded sample of a ISTubian Berberri {¥\g. 169); whose name in the Arabic plural is Bar- ibra. The identical designation, BaRaBaRa, is applied to the same people in the sculptures of several Pharaohs of the XVIIth and XVinth dynasties, 1500 years b. c.^^^ NEGRO TYPES, 251 Fia. 169. Fig. 170. To render tlie contrast more striking, we place in juxta-position an enlarged head (Fig. 170) of the last Negro from the above prisoners. The face is ingeniously distorted by the Egyptian artist, who repre- sents this captive bellowing with rage and pain. One of Mr. Gliddon's personal verifications on the Nile is here worthy of note. He observed that the fusion between Nubian and modern Arab races is first clearly apparent, exactly where nature had placed the boundary-line between Egypt and Nubia : viz., at the first cataract. Here dwell the Shellalees, or "cataract-men" — descended, it is said, from intermixture between the Saracenic garrisons at As- souan and the women of Lower Nubia. Persian, Greek, and Roman troops had been consecutively stationed there, centuries before the Arabs ; while European and American tourists at the present day cooperate vigorously to stem the blackening element as it flows in from the South. The Shellalees count perhaps 500 adults and children ; and they are mulattoes of various hues, compounded of Nubian, Arab, Egyptian, Turkish, and European blood ; whilst, incidentally, Negresses enter as slaves among the. less impoverished families — their cost there seldom exceeding fifty dollars. But, the predominating color, especially among the female Shelalleeyeh, is alight cinnamon ; and in both sexes are seen some of the most beautiful forms of hu- manity; as may be judged from the " Nubian Girl," so tastefully portrayed by Prisso d'Avesnes.^^'^ This (Fig. 171) is the type of the NallSU {Negroes), on a larger scale, among the four races in the tomb of Seti-Menei'tha I. ; before spoken of, and delineated at full length on pages 85 and 249, supra. Beautifully drawn and strikingly contrasted, see two of the nine Asiatic and African heads (Fig. 172) smitten by king, Seti L, at Fig. 171.313 252 NEGRO TYPES, Fig. 172.3U Karmac. The Negro's features are true to the life, if we deduct the ancient defective drawing of the eye ; as must be done in all copies of Egyptian art. "We next present (Fig. 173) one of the many proofs that Negro davery existed in Egypt 1500 years b. c. An Egyptian scribe, colored Fig. 173.315 red, registers the black slaves ; of which males, females, and their children are represented ; the latter even with the little tufts of wool erect upon their heads : while the leopard-skin around the first Negro'3 loins is grotesquely twisted so as to make the animal's tail belong to its human wearer. In connection with this scene, which is taken from a monument at Thebes, Wilkinson remarks : — " It is evident tliat both white and black slaves were employed as servants ; they attended on the guests when invited to the house of their master; and from their being in the fami- lies of priests as well as of the military chiefs, we may infer that thej' were purchased with money, and that the right of possessing slaves was not confined to those who had taken them in war. The traffic in slaves was tolerated by the Egyptians ; and it is reason- able to suppose, that many persons were engaged, as at present, in bringing them to Egypt NEGRO TYPES, 253 for public sale, independent of those who were sent as part of the tribute, and who were probably, at first, the property of the monarch; nor did any difficulty occur to the Iphmael- ites in the purchase of Joseph from his brethren, nor in his subsequent sale to Potiphar ou arriving in Egypt." Ill his comments on the antiquity of " eunuchs," Ghddon has ex- tended these analogies of slavery among the Hebrews, and other anc/ent nations.^'^ We might thus go on, and add numberless portraits of Negro races. Hundreds of them are represented as slaves, as prisoners of war, as fugitives, or slain in large battle-scenes, &c. ; all proving that, as far back as the XVHth dynasty, b. c. 1600, they existed as distant na- tions, above Egypt. Taken at random from the plates of Rosellini, the three subjoined portraits (Figs. 174, 175, 170) are submitted, to fortify our words. Fig. 174. Fig. 175. Fig. 176. The lotus-hnd at the end of their halters means the word " south," in hieroglyphical geography : while their varieties of physical conforma- tion sutfice to show that anciently, as at this day, the basin of the upper Nile included many distinct Negro races. It has been for several years as- serted ^^'^ by the authors of the pre- sent volume, and it is now finally demonstrated in Part II., that Negro races are never alluded to in ancient Jewish literature ; the Greek word "Ethiopia" being a false interpretation of the Hebrew KUSA, which al ways meant Southern Arabia, and nothing but the Cushite-Arsibian race. The Greeks, of course, were unacquainted with the existence of Negroes until about the seventh century b. c. ; when Psametik L opened the ports of Lower Egypt to Grecian traffickers. Their "Ethiopians," sun-burned-faces, before that age, were merely any 254 NEGRO TYPES. people darker than a Hellene — Arabs, Egyptians, and Lib^^ans, from Joppa (Jaffa) westward to Carthage : nor, camels being unknown to the Carthaginians, as well as to the early Cyreneans, could Negroes have been brought across the Sahara deserts into the Barbary States, until about the first century before the Christian era. The only channel to the natural habitat of Negro races, (which never has lain geographically to the northward of the limit of the Tropical rains, or about 16° ]Sr. lat.,) until camels were introduced into Barbary, after the fall of Carthage, was along the Nile, and through Egypt exclu- sively. The Carthaginians never possessed Negro slaves, excepting what they may have bought in Egyptian bazaars ; of which incidents we have no record. It is worthy of critical attention, that in the Periplus of Hanno, and other traditionary voyages outside the Pillars of Hercules, while we may infer that these Carthaginian navigators (inasmuch as they reached the country of the Gorillae, now known to be the largest species of the chimpanzee,) must have beheld Negroes also ; yet, after passing the Lixitw, and other " men of various appearances," they merely report the whole coast to be inha- bited by " Ethiopians." ^^^ Now, the Punic text of this voyage being lost, we cannot say what was the original Carthaginian word which the Greek translator has rendered by "Ethiopians;" so that, even if Negroes be a very probable meaning, these Atlantico- African voyages prove nothing beyond the fact that, in Hanno's time, b. c. five or'six centuries, there was already great diversity of races along the north- western coast of Africa, and that all of them were strange to the Carthaginians. It is now established, moreover, that the account given by Hero- dotus of the Nasamonian expedition to the country of the Garamantes, never referred to the river Niger, but to some western journey into Mauritania ; as we have explained in Part H. Apart, then, from a few specimens of the Negro type that, as cun- osities, mn}^ have been occasionally carried from Egypt into Asia, there was but one other route through which Negroes, until the times of Solomon, could have been transported from Africa into Asiatic countries ; viz. : by the Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea. We have diligent!}' hunted for archaeological proofs of the existence of a Negro out of Egypt in such ancient, times, and have found but two instances ; dependent entire!}' upon the fidelity of the superb copies of Texier, and of Flandin. In Texier's work-"^ we think a Negro, (in hair, lips, and facial angle,) may be detected as the last figure, on the third line, among the foreign supporters of the throne of one of the Achfemonian kings at Persepolis. There is nothing improbable in the circumstance ; for NEGRO TYPES, 255 the vast Satrapies of Persia, in the fifth century b. c, extended into Africa. The more certain example we allude to is found in the sculp- tures of Kliorsabad, or Nineveh ;^^" and probably appertains to the reign of Sargan, b. c. 710-668. It is a solitary figure of a beardless Negro with woolly hair, wounded, and in the act of imploring mercy from the Assyrians. Turn we now to Roman authority. Latin description of a Negress, written early in the second century after c. " Interdum clamat Cybalen ; erat unica custos ; Afra genus, tota patriam testante figura ; Torta coniam, labroqtie tumens, et fusca colorem; Pectore lata, jacens maramis, coitipressior alvo, . Ci'uribus exilis, spatiosa prodiga planta ; Continuis rimis calcanea scissa rigebant." " In the meanwhile he calls Cybale. She was his only fhouse-] keeper. African by race, her whole face attesting her father-land : with crisped hair, swelling lip, and blackish complexion ; broad in chest, with pendant dugs, [and] very contracted paunch; her spindle-shfinks [contrasted with her] enormous feet ; and her cracked heels were stiffened by perpetual clefts." Egyptian delineation of a Negress, cut and painted some 1600 years before the Latin description. Fig. 177. To Mr. Gustavus A. Myers, (an eminent lawyer of Richmond, Va.,; are we indebted for indicating to us this unparalleled description of a Negress ; no less than for the loan of the volume in which an un- applied passage of Virgil^-' is contained. Through it we perceive that, in the second century after c, the physical characteristics of a "field," or agricultural, "Nigger" were understood at Rome 1800 years ago, as thoroughlj' as by cotton-planters in the State of Ala- bama, still flourishing in a. d. 1853. 2Vmg, as every one now can see, has efifected no alteration, even by transfer to the New World, upon African types (save through amalga- mation) for 3400 years downwards. Let us inquire of the Old conti- nent what metamorphoses time may have caused, as regards such alleged transmutations, upwards. About the sixteenth century b. c, Pharaoh Horus of the XVIIIth dynasty records, at Hagar Silsilis, his return from victories over Ni- gritian families of the upper Nile.^-^ The hieroglyphical legends above his prisoners convey the sense of — "KeS^, barbai-ian country, perverse race;" expressive of the Egyjitian sentimentalities of thai day towards Nubians, Negroes, and "foreigners" generally. 256 NEGRO TYPES. Among his captives is the Negress already portrayed (Fig. 177); to whose bas-reliefed effigy we have merely restored one of the colors now effaced by time. We present (Fig. 178) a head indicative of her male companions, traced upon Eosellini's size ; our __J^' reduction of her full-length figure being taken from the Prussian Denhmdler.^^ Here, then, is a Negress, sculptured and / painted in Egypt about b. c. 1550, whose effigy Hy corresponds with Virgil's description at Rome a little after a. d. 100 ; which female is identical with living Negresses, of whom American States, south of "Mason and Dixon's line," could produce many hundreds in the present year, 1853. Have 3400 years, or any transplantations, altered the NEGRO race ? When treating of the " Caucasian" type, we were obliged to jump from the XVnth back to the XHth dynasty, owing to the lack of in- tervening monuments, since destroyed by foreign invaders. The same difficulty recurs with regard to Negro races. In fact, our materials here become still more defective ; for, altliongh in the XHth dynasty abundant hieroglyphical inscriptions attest the existence of Negro nations, no portraits seem to be extant, of this epoch, upon whose eoetaneous date of sculpture we can rely. That Negroes did, how- ever, exist in the twenty-fourth century b. c, or contemporaneously with Usher's date of the Flood, we shall next proceed to show. Aside from the Tablet of "Wady Haifa, cut by Sesourtasen I., of the Xllth dynasty, [supra, p. 188,) we quoted from Lepsius (supra, p. 174), a paragraph illustrative of the diversity of types at this early period, of which the following is a portion rendered from his Briefe : " Mention is often naade on the monuments of this period of the victories gained by the kings over the Ethiopians and Negroes, wherefore we must not be surprised to see black slaves and servants." Mr. Birch kindly sent us, last year, an invaluable paper, wherein the political relations of Egypt with Ethiopia are traced by his mas- terly hand, from the earliest times down to the XlXth dynasty. The "Historical Tablet of Ramses II.," from which the most recent facts are drawn, dates from the sixteenth year of a reign, that lasted upwards of sixty years.^^ The subjoined extract is especially import- ant, not only because demonstrative of the existence of Negroes as far back as the XHth dynasty, but also because it establishes the extended intercourse which Egypt held at that remote day (b. c. 2400-2100) with numerous Asiatic and African races. "The principal inducements which led the Pharaohs to the south were the valuable pro- ducts, especially the minerals, with which that region abounded. At the early period of NEGRO TYPES. 257 the IVth and Vlth Egyptian dynasties, no traces occur of Ethiopian relations, and the frontier was probably at that time Eileithyia (El Hcgs). So far indeed from the Egyptian civilization having descended the cataracts of the Nile, there are no monuments to show that the Egyptians were then even acquainted with the black races, the Nahsi as they were called. ^^ Some infoiniation is found at the time of the Xlth dynasty. The base of a small statue inscribed with the name of the king Ra nub Cheper, apparently one of the monarchs of the Xlth dynasty, whose prenomen was discovered by Mr. Harris on a stone built into the bridge at Coptos, intermingled with the Enuentefs, has at the sides of the throne on which it is seated Asiatic and Negro prisoners. Under the monarchs of the Xllth dynasty, the vast fortifications of Samneh show the growing importance of Ethiopia, while the conquest of the principal tribes is recorded by Sesertesen I. at the advanced point of the Wady Haifa. The most remarkable feature of this period are the hydraulic observations carefully recorded under the last monarchs of the line, and their successors the Sebakhetps of the Xlllth dynasty. A tablet in the British Museum, dated in the reign of Amenemha I. has an account of the mining services of an officer in ^Ethiopia at that period. ' I worked,' he says, ' the mines in my youth : I have regulated all the chiefs of the gold washings ; I brought the metal penetrating to the land of Phut to the Nahsi.' It is probably for these gold mines that we find in the second year of Amenemha IV. an officer bearing the same name as the king, stating that he ' was invincible in his majesty's heart in smiting the Nahsi.' In the nineteenth year of the same reign were victories over the Nahsi. At the earliest age ^Ethiopia was densely colonized, and the gold of the region descended the Nile in the way of commerce; but there are no slight difficulties in knowing the exact relations of the two countries. " The age of the XVIIIth dynasty is separated from the Xllth by an interval during which the remains of certain monarchs named Sebakhetp, found in the ruins of Nubia, ihow that they were at least ^Ethiopian rulers. The most important of the monuments of this age is the propylon of Mount Barkal, the ancient Napata, built by the so-called S-men- ken, who is represented in an allegorical picture vanquishing the ^Ethiopians and Asiatics. The XVIIIth dynasty opened with foreign wars. The tablet of Aahmes-Pensuben in the Louvre records that he had taken 'two hands,' that is, had killed two Negroes personally in Kish or iEtliiopia. More information, and particularly bearing upon the Tablet of Rameses, is afforded by the inscription of Eilethyia, now publishing in an excellent memoir by M. dB Roug^, in the line, ' Moreover,' says the officer, 'when his majesty attacked the Mena-en-shaa,' or Nomads, ' and when he stopped at Penti-han-nefer to cut up the Phut, and when he made a great rout of them, I led captives from thence two living men and one dead (hand). I was rewarded with gold for victory again ; I received the captives for slaves.' During the reign of Amenophis I., the successor of Amosis, the Louvre tablet informs that he had taken one prisoner in Kash or Ethiopia. At El Hegs, the functionary states, 'I was in the fleet of the king — the sun, disposer of existence (Amenophis I.), jus- tified ; he anchored at Kush in order to enlarge the frontiers of Kami, he was smiting the Phut with his troops.' Mention is subsequently made of a victory, and the capture of prisoners. It is interesting to find here the same place, Penti-han-nefer, which occurs in a Ptolemaic inscription on the west wall of the pronaos of the Temple of Philae, where Isis is represented as 'the mistress of Senem and the regent of Pent-han-nefer.' From this it is evident that these two places were close to each other, and that this locality was near the site more recently called Ailak or Philce. The speos of this monarch at Ibrim, the chapels at Tennu, or the Gebel Selseleh, show that the permanent occupation of Nubia at the age of the XVIIIth dynasty extended beyond Phil®. Several small tesserae of this reign represent the monarch actually vanquishing the ^Ethiopians. " The immediate successors of Amenophis occupied themselves with the conquest of .(Ethi- opia. There is a statue of Thothmes I. in the island of Argo, and a tablet dated on the 15 Tybi of his second year at Tombos. The old temple at Samneh was repaired and dedi- cated to Sesertesen III., supposed by some to be the Sesostris who is worshipped by Thoth 33 258 NEGRO TYPES. mes III. as the god Tat-un, or ' Young Tat.' It is at the temple of Samneh that the first indication occurs of that line of princes who ruled over ^Ethiopia, by an officer who had served under Amosis and Thothmes I., in which last reign he had been appointed Prince of ^Ethiopia. The reign of Thothmes III. shows that Kush figured on the regular rent-roll of Egypt. The remains of the mutilated account of the fortieth regnal year of the king is mentioned as '240 ounces' or 'measures of cut precious stones and 100 ingots of gold.' Subsequently ' two canes' of some valuable kind of wood, and at least ' 300 ingots of gold,' are mentioned as coming from the same people. It appears from the tomb of Rech-sha-ra, who was usher of the Egyptian court at the time, and who had duly introduced the tribute- bearers, that the quota paid from this country was bags of gold and gems, monkeys, pan- ther-skins, logs of ebony, tusks of ivory, ostrich-eggs, ostrich-feathers, camelopards, dogs, oxen, slaves. The permanent occupation of the country is at the same time attested by the constructions which the monarch made, at Samneh, and the Wady Haifa. At Ibrim, Nehi, prince and governor of the South, a monarch, seal-bearer, and counsellor or eunuch, leads the usual tribute mentioned as 'of gold, ivory, and ebony' to the king. Set, or Ty- phon, called ^ Nub' or 'Nub-Nub,' Nubia, instructs him in the art of drawing one of those long bows which these people, according to the legend, contemptuously presented to the envoys of Cambyses. The successor of this monarch seems to have held the same extended, territory, since, in the fourth year of his reign, these limits are mentioned, and some blocks with the remains of a dedication to the local deities. One of the rock temples at Ibrim was excavated in the reign of Amenophis II. by the Prince Naser-set, who was ' monarch' (repa ha), 'chief counsellor' (sobu shaa), and 'governor of the lands of the south.' The wall-paintings represent the usual procession of tribute-bearers to the king, with gold, silver, and animals, some of whom, as the jackals, were enumerated. The same monarch continued the temple at Amada, and a colossal figure of him, dedicated to Chnumis and Athor, and sculptured in the form of Phtha or Vulcan, has been found at Begghe, and in the fourth year of his reign the limits of the empire are still placed as Mesopotamia on the north, and the Kalu or Gallse on the south. " In the reign of his successor Thothmes IV. a servant of the king, apparently his chari- oteer, states he had attended the king from Naharaina on the north, to Kalu, or the Gallse, in the south. "The constructions of this monarch at Amada and at Samneh, show that tribute came at the same time from the chiefs of the Nnhnraina on the north, and also from Ethiopia. This is shown by the tombs of the military chiefs lying near the hill which is situate be- tween Medinat Haboo and the house of Jani, one of whom had exercised the oiSce of royal scribe or secretary of state, from the reign of Thothmes III. to that of Amenophis III. The reign of his successor, the last mentioned monarch, is the most remarkable in the monumental history of Egypt for the Ethiopian conquests. The marriage scarabaei of the king place the limits of the empire as the Naharaina (Mesopotamia) on the north, and the Kant or KjIu (the Gallse) on the south. Although these limits are found, yet it is evident from the number of prisoners recorded that the Egyptian rule was by no means a settled ■one. They are Kish, Pet or Phut, Pamaui, Patamakai Uaruki, Taru-at, Baru, . . . kaba, Aruka, Makaiusah, Matakarbu, Sahabu, Sahbam, Ru-nemka, Abhetu, Turusu, Shaarushak, Akenes, Serunik Karuses, Shaui, Buka, Shau, Taru Taru, Turusu, Turubenka, Akenes, Ark, Ur, Mar. Amongst these names will be seen in the list of the Pedestal of Paris that of the Akaiat or Aka-ta, a name much resembling that of the Ath-agau, which is still preserved in the Agow or Agows, a tribe near the sources of the Blue Nile. Amenophis appears by no means to have neglected the conquests of his predecessors, and his advance to Soleb, in the province of El Sokhot, and Elmahas, proves that the influence of Egypt was still more extended than in the previous reigns. " In the reign of Amenophis, ^Ethiopia appears to have been governed by a viceroy, who Was a.*- Egyptian officer of state, generally a royal scribe or military chief, sent down for NEGRO TYPES, 259 the purpose of administering tlic country ; the one in this reign bore the name of Merimes, and appears to liave ended his days at Tiiebes, as his sepulchre remains in tlie western hills. He was called the so suten en Kush, or prince of Ku.'^h, wiiich comprised the tract of country lying south of Elephantina. In all the Ethnic li>ts this Kash or ^Ethiopia is placed next to the head of the list, 'all lands of the south,' and its identity with the Bibli- cal Kush is universally admitted. It is generally mentioned with the haughtiest contempt, as the vile Kush {Kush kfi'aus,) or ^Ethiopia, and the princes were of red or Egyptian blood. They dutifully rendered their proscynemata to the kings of Egypt." •''26 [Substantial reasons may be found in our Part II. for questioning a somewhat unlimited extension of the Biblical IvUS/i, which certain opponents might draw from Mr. Birch's language. The hierogly- phical name for Negroes is Nahsu, ov JSfahsi ; and, on the other hand, the Egyptian (not the Hehreiv) word KiSA, KeS^, IvaS/J/^^ was ap- plied to the ancient Barahra of Nubia, between the first and second cataracts, specifically ; and sometimes to all Nubian families, gene- rically. The vowels a, e, z, o, in antique Egyptian no less than in old Semitic writings, when not actually inserted, are entirely vague; nor is the hieroglyphical word ever spelt kUsh, like the Hebrew desig- nation "Cush;" which is maltranslated by "Ethiopia," because it de- notes Southern Arabia. — G. R. G.] The authors regret that their space compels them to abstain from reproducing the arch.ieological references with which Mr. Birch sup- ports his erudite conclusions. Ethnological science, then, possesses not only the authoritative tes- timonies of Lepsius and Birch, in proof of the existence of Negro races during the twenty-fourth century b. c. ; but, the same fact being conceded by all living Egyptologists, we may hence infer that these Nigritian types were contemporary with the earliest Egyptians. Such inductive view is much strengthened by a comparison of languages ; concerning the antiquity of which we shall speak in another chapter. To one living in, or conversant with, the Slave-States of North America, it need not be told, that the Negroes, in ten generations, have not made the slightest physical approach either towards our aboriginal population, or to any other race. As a mnemonic, we here subjoin, sketched by a friend, the likenesses of two Negroes (Figs, Fig. 179. Fia. 180. 260 NEGRO TYPES. 179, 180), who ply their avocations everyday in the streets of Mobile; where anybody could in a single morning collect a hundred others quite as strongly marked. Fig. 179 (whose portrait was caught when, chuckhng with delight, he was "shelling out corn" to a favorite hog) may be considered caricatured, although one need not travel far to procure, in daguerreotype, features fully as animal ; but Fig. 180 is a fair average sample of ordinary field-Negroes in the United States. Mr. Lyell, in common with tourists less eminent, but in this ques- tion not less misinformed, has somewhere stated, that the Negroes in America are undergoing a manifest improvement in their physical type. He has no doubt that they will, in time, show a development in skull and intellect quite equal to the whites. This unscientific assertion is disproved by the cranial measurements of Dr. Morton. That Negroes imported into, or born in, the United States become more intelligent and better developed in iho^v physique generally than their native compatriots of Africa, every one will admit ; but such intel- ligence is easily explained by their ceaseless contact with the whites, from whom they derive much instruction ; and such physical improve- ment may also be readily accounted for by the increased comforts with which they are supplied. In Africa, owing to their natural im- providence, the Negroes are, more frequently than not, a half-starved, and therefore half-developed race ; but when they are regularly and adequately fed, they become healthier, better developed, and more humanized. Wild horses, cattle, asses, and other brutes, are greatly improved in like manner by domestication : but neither climate nor food can transmute an ass into a horse, or a buffalo into an ox. One or two generations of domestic culture effect all the improve- ment of which Negro-organism is susceptible. We possess thousands of the second, and many more of Negro families of the eighth or tenth generation, in the United States ; and (where unadulterated by white blood) they are identical in physical and in intellectual characters. No one in this country pretends to distinguish the native son of a Negro from his great-grandchild (except through occasional and ever- apparent admixture of white or Indian blood) ; while it requires the keen and experienced eye of such a comparative anatomist as Agassiz to detect structural peculiarities in our few African-born slaves. The " improvements" among Americanized Negroes noticed by Mr. Lyell, in his progress from South to North, are solely due to those ultra-ecclesiastical amalgamations which, in their illegitimate conse- quences, have deteriorated the white element in direct proportion that they are said to have improved the black. But, leaving aside modern quibbles upon simple facts in nature, (so often distorted through philanthropical panderings to political ambi- NEGRO TYPES. 261 Fio. 181. tion), we select, from Abraliamic antiquity, two other heads (Figs. 181, 182) which, J.though not Negroes, constitute an interesting link In the giadation of races; being placed, geographically and physically, Detween the two extremes. This specimen (Fig. 181) is from the " Grand Proces.sion " of Thot^ mes in. — XVIIth dynasty, about the sixteenth century b. c. The original leads a leopard and car- ries ebony-wood : and his skin is ash-colored in Rosellini.^^ The same scene is given in Hoskins'e Ethiopia, where this man's person is improperly painted red?'^ He is again figured without colors by Wilkinson,^^° no less than by Champollion-Figeac.^* He is another sample of those ^'■gentes subfusei eoloris" — abounding around Ethiopia, above Egypt — neither Negro, Berberri, nor Abyssinian ; but of a race affiliated probably to the lattei ; judging, that is, by characteristics alone, in the absence of hieroglyphlcal explanations now effaced b^- time. Here we behold (Fig. 182), un- ^^^- ^^^' doubtedly, a true Abyssinian, who should be represented, as he is at Thebes, orange-eolor.^^"^ We have the valid authority of Pickering^^^ on this point ; who concludes his chapter on Abyssinians as fol- lows : — " It seems, however, that the true Abys- sinian (as first pointed out to me by Mr. Gliddon) has been separately and distinctly figured on the Egyptian monuments : in the two men leading the camelopard in the tri- bute procession ofThoutmosis III.; and this opinion was confirmed by an examination of the original painting at Thebes." Pickering's Baces of Men contains a beautiful cinnamon-colored portrait of an Abyssinian warrior, taken by Prisse ; and, as before remarked, ofiers to the reader a good idea of the living type of this people. It is worthy, too, of special note, that the above Fig. 182 is repre- sented, in the Theban procession, leading a giraffe ; which animal is not met with nearer to Egypt than Dongola ; a fact that fixes his parallel of latitude along the Abyssinian regions of the ISTile. Such heads seem to confirm the fidelity of Egyptian draughtsmen, together with the correctness of their ethnographical conceptions and varied 262 NEGKO TYPES. materials. Our Abyssinian head exhibits the same f( rm and color as the present race of that country, even after the lapse of 3300 years; and it stands as another proof of the permanence of human types. Conceding the extreme probability of Birch's conjecture, that the Negro captives discovered by Mr. Harris belong to the Xlth dynasty, (which thus would place the earliest known effigies of Negroes in the twenty-fourth or twenty-lifth century b. c.,) we cannot lay hold of the indication as a stand-point ; because the sculpture may (through cir- cumstances of recent masonry) be assigned to a later age. But, of one fact w^e are made certain by Birch's former studies :^^* viz., that the officers or superintendents apj^ointed by the Pharaohs to regulate their Nubian provinces, w^re invariably Egyptiayis, painted red, and never Nigritians of any race whatever. The title "Prince of KeSA" was that of Egyptian viceroys, or lord-lieutenants, nominated by the Diospolitan government to rule over distant territories occupied by Nubians and Negroes of the austral Nile. In the Theban tomb, opened previously to 1830 by Mr. Wilkinson, (about the epoch of which the theory of an Argive, "Danaus,"^^ led him into some odd hallucinations), and critically examined in 1839- '40 by Harris and Gliddon, there was an amazing collection of Negro scenes. A Negress, apparently a princess, arrives at Thebes, drawn in a plaustrum by a pair of humped oxen — the driver and gi"Oom being red-colored Egyptians, and, one might almost infer, eunuchs.^-^ Following her, are multitudes of Negroes and Nubians, bringing tribute from the Uj^per country, as w^ell as black slaves of both sexes and all ages, among wdiich are some red children, whose fathers were Egyptians. The cause of her advent seems to have been to make offerings in this tomb of a "royal son of KeS7i — Amunoph," who may have been her husband. The Pharaoh whose prenomen stands recorded in this sepulchral habitation is an Amenophis ;^^ but, beyond the fact that his reiorn must fall towards the close of the XVHIth Fig. 183. Fig. 184.338 NEGRO TYPES. 263 dynasty, and about the times of the " disk-heresy," we were not aware tliat his place could be determined, until we opened the Denkmdler ; where the major portion of these varied African subjects, unique for their singularit}' and preservation, are reproduced in brilliant colors. "We have already chosen a Semitic head, deemed by us to present Phoenician affinities {supra, p. 1G4, Fig. 90), from sculptures of the same times. We here repeat it (Fig. 183), for the sake of contrasting its type with a Negro, and a Nubian apparently (Fig. 184), taken from the menagerie of African curiosities above mentioned. We say apparently, be- cause the slighter shade, given by Eg3'ptian artists to figures grouped closely together, sometimes arises from the necessity of distinguishing the interlocked limbs, &c., of men of the same color. Instances may be found, of this attempt at perspective, in various colored scenes indicated in the notes,^^'^ so that the unblackened face in our Fig. 184 may be that of a Negro also. For the sake of illustrating that, even in Ancient Egypt, African sla- very was not altogether unmitigated by moments of congenial enjoyment ; not always inseparable from the lash and the hand-cuff; we submit a copy of some Negroes " dancing in the streets of Thebes " (Fig. 185), by way of archffiological evidence that, 3400 years ago, (or before the Exodus of Israel, b. c. 1322), "de same ole Nig- ger" of our Southern plantations could spend his Nilotic sabbaths in saltatory recreations, and "Turn about, and wheel about, ArA jump Jim Crow !" Before closing our comments upon "Ethiopians," it is due to the me- mory of the author of Orania ^^gi/p- tiaca not to omit some notice of two 264 NEGRO TYPES. problems that attracted his penetrating researches. The first con- cerns the ancient Meroites ; the second, that mixed family in which, under the name of "Austral-Egyptians," Morton perceived some ■poss\h]y-IIindoo affinities. Commencing with the former question, we recall to mind how the discoveries of the Prussian Scientific Mis- sion {supra, p. 204), in and around the far-famed Isle of Meroe, have relieved archaeologists from further discussions as to the illusory anti- quity of a realm that, previously to the eighth century b. c, was merely a Pharaonic province and an Eg3'ptian colony ; and which, moreover, did not become important, as an independent kingdom, until Ptole- maic times. It was not, however, until after the publication of his ^gyptiaca (of which Chevalier Lepsius received a first copy, together with Gliddon's Chapters, under the pyramid of Gebel Birkel, in Ethi- opia itself^"), that Dr. Morton was informed, by the Chevalier directly, of results so demolishing to the learned theories of Heeren, Prichard, and other scholars. Unhappily for science, death arrested the hand of our illustrious friend before it could register the emendations con- sequent upon such immense changes in former historical opinions. Although one of the authors (G. R. G.) has, in the interim, enjoyed the advantage of beholding, at Berlin, the sculptures brought from Ethiopia, and of hearing Chevalier Lepsius's criticisms, viva voce, upon Meroite subjects, we deem ourselves peculiarly unfortunate that the Denkmdler, so far as its livraisons have reached us, has not yet com- prised copies of these newly-discovered bas-reliefs. We are unable, at present, therefore, to demonstrate to the reader, by the reproduction of portraits of Queen Candace and her mulatto court, the true causes why the civilization of Meroe declined, and finally became extin- guished : viz., otvirtg to Negro amalgamations, during the first centu- ries of our era. This fact may serve as a topic for some future Appendix to our volume. To obviate, however, any argu- ment respecting Meroite affinities wath regard to Negro races in ante- rior times, we reproduce the portrait of Manetho's "Ethiopian" sovereign, Tirhaka {supra, p. 151, Fig. 71) ; the "Melek-KUS/i, or CusJdte king (2 Kings, xix. 9) ; contemporary with the Assyrian Sennacherib, whose like- ness has also been submitted under our Fig. 27 (supra, p. 130.) Nor did the high-caste lineaments of these "Ethiopian" princes, and Fig. 186. NEGRO TYPES. 265 the total absence of Nigritian elements in the physiognomies of all Meroites, as known in 1844, escape Morton's attention.^" His com- ments on the accompanying effigies from Meroe suffice. FlQ. 187.3»3 FlQ. 188.344 "The one on the left hand [Fig 87] (that of an Fia. 189.3« unkT>nwa king), has mixed lineaments, neither Etnctly Pelasgic nor Egyptian ; while the right- hand personage [Fig. 188], who appears to be a priest doing homage, presents a countenance which corresponds, in essentials, to the Egyptian type, although the profile approaches closely to the Gre- cian. The annexed head [Fig. 189 — is] also a king, bearing some resemblance to the one above figured." With regard to the "Hindoo" re- semblances perceived by Morton in cer- tain Egyptian crania of his vast collection, while we will neither affirm nor deny them, the authors cannot but think that their lamented colleague was herein biassed, rather by traditionary data (even yet supposed to be historical), than by anatomical evidences which, at any rate, do not strike our eyes as salient. Indeed, we know per- sonally that, had Morton lived, Prichard's scholastic learning, but pertinacious ignorance of hieroglyphical Egypt, would have been dealt with as by ourselves, under full recognition of the one, and through respectful exposure of the other. Part IH. of our volume renders it unnecessary to dwell, in this place, upon Sir W. Jones's Oriental eru- dinon, or upon Col. Wilford's self-delusions, in respect to now-exploded connections between ancient India and primordial Egypt. The Greek tradition (Latinice) runs as follows : ''jEthiopes, ab Indo fluvio profeeti, supra ^gyptum sedem sibi eligerunt."'"' But, who are these Ethiopians ? At most, Asiatic " «ni\-hurned faces" — some 34 266 NEGRO TYPES, people, darker in hue than Greeks, who emigrated from the Indus. The era, assigned for their migration to countries south of Egypt, is attributed to that of one among many Pharaohs, called 1 (jirecian narrators " Amenophis; " and the legend reaches us through a Byzan- tine monk, the Syncellus (writing 2000 years after the events), at once the most diligent, and the least critical, compiler the seventh century of our era produced. To say the least, the historical surface we tread on trembles, as though it floated over a quagmire. These doubts suggested, we submit extracts from the Crania ^gyptiaca : — " I observe, among the Egyptian crania, some which differ in nothing from the HinJoo type, either in respect to size or configuration. I have already, in ray remarks upon the ear, mentioned a downward elongation of the upper jaw, which I have more frequently met with in Egyptian and Hindoo heads than in any other, although I have seen it occa- sionally in all the races. This feature is remarkable in two of the following five crania (A, B), and may be compared with a similar form from Abydos.''^*''' Fig. 190. " It is in that mixed family of nations which I have called Austral-Egyptian that we should expect to meet with the strongest evidence of Hindoo lineage ; and here, again, we can only institute adequate com- parisons by reference to the works of Champollion and Rosellini. I observe the Hindoo style of features in several of the royal effigies ; and in none more deci- dedly than in the head of Asharramon (Fig. 191), as sculptured in the temple of Debod, in Nubia. The date of this king has not yet been ascertained ; but, as he ruled over Meroe, and not in Egypt, (probably in Ptolemaic times [b. c. 200-300],) he may be re- garded as an illustration of at least one modification of the Austral-Egyptian type. "Another set of features, but little different, how- ever, from the preceding, is seen among the middling class of Egyptians as pictured on the monuments, and these I also refer to the Hindoo type. Take, for example, the four annexed outlines (Fig. 192), copied from a sculptured fragment preserved in the museum of Turin. These effigies may be said to be essentially Egyptian ; but do they not forcibly remiad us of the Hindoo ?" NEGRO TYPES. 267 Fio. 193.318 So great is our respect for Morton's judgment ; sucli manifold ex- periences have we acquired of his perceptive acutenoss in craniological anatonu', that we should pi-efer the aflirmatory decisions of others relative to this Ilindoo-Meroite problem, to any negation on our own parts. The preceding brief digressions enable us to leave Mcroe, and re- sume with a more positive, because osteological, proof of the perdu- rable continuance of the Negro type. This semi-embalmed cranium of a Negress (Fig. 193), from Morton's cabinet, is preserved at the Acade- my of jSTatural Sciences in Phila- delphia. Beyond the fact that mum- milication ceased towards the lifth century of our era ; and that, being from an ancient tumulus at the sa- cred Isle of Beghe, the female owner of the annexed skull may have been a domestic slave of some " Ethiopian " worshipper at the shrine of Osiris, on the adjacent Isle of Philte ; all that can be said as to the antiquity of our specimen confines it to a period between the fourth century b. c. (when Pharaoh ISrECTANEBO founded tlie temple of Philffi), and the extinction of embalming, coupled with the substi- tution of Christianity (as understood by "Ethiopians,") for the reli- gion of Osiris, about the fifth century after c.^*^ Fifteen hundred years ma}', therefore, be assumed as the reasonable lapse of time since this aged Negress was consigned to the mound where hundreds of other Osirian pilgrims lie, coarsely swathed in bitumenized wrap})ers. The specimen is unique in the annals of Egyptian embalmment ; inas- nmch as no other purely-Negro vestiges have as yet turned up in tumuli or catacombs. Trivial to many as the incident may seem. Science, nevertheless, can make "these dry bones speak" to the following points. First, they establish Nigritian indelibility of type, even to the woolly hair ; because, our American cemeteries could yield up thousands of heads identical with this woman's. Secondl}-, they attest the comparative paucity of Negro individuals in Egypt during all ancient times; be- cause, although the priests embalmed e\Qry native pauper, such Ni- gritian mummies have never, that we can learn, been discovered by ransackers of that country's sepulchres. And, thirdly, as tliis skull • s a solitary exception, among millions of mummies disinterred, it demonstrates that the Egyptians possessed no craniological proximity 268 NEGRO TYPES, Fio. 194. to those Kegro types with whom their existence was ever coeval. Indeed, this head was not found in Egypt proper, but immediately above the first cataract in Lower Nubia. As Mr. Birch has mentioned, in the extract previously given, history reposes upon the Tablet of Wadee Haifa for the conquest of Upper Nubia ; and also for the earliest monumental ren- contre with Negroes, by Se- souRTESEN L, second king of the Xllth dynasty, near about 2348 years b. c. ; which is the autho- rized date of the Delude in King James's version. The tablet is small, and very much abraded ; but, Morton having enlarged the royal portrait,^*' we repeat it here, for what it may be worth ethnologically. It proves, at least, that Sesour- tesen's lineaments were any- thing but African. The heads of austral captives, surmounting shields in which their national names are written, exist in this tablet, too mutilated for us to distinguish anything beyond the African contour of their features. Birch ^^^ reads their cognomina — '1. Kas, or Gas. 2. Sfiewki, or Temki. 3. Chasab,. 4. Shaat. 5. Khilukai; or, perhaps the Shiloiigis, who now are called ' Shillouks ' ? " It therefore becomes settled by the hieroglyphics, that the Egj-ptiang had ascended the Nile, and had encountered iV^^ro-races, at least as far back as the twenty-fourth century b. c. Wq, can now add a most extraordinary^ fact, since discovered by Viscount De Eouge, to the extracts we have culled from Birch's memoir. An inscription on the rocks near Samneh, in Nubia, ^^^ cut by Sesourtescn III. (of the same Xllth dynasty — about 2200 b. c), in the " Vlllth year" of his reign, establishes that he had then ex- tended the southern frontier of Egypt to that point, viz., the third cataract ; whereas his predecessor, Sesourtesen I., had only guarded the passes at WA-dee Haifa, the second cataract, some 180 miles b«^low. M. De Rouge,^''^ with that felicitous acumen for which he is renowned, reads a passage in this inscription as follows : — NEGRO TYPES. 269 "Frontier of the South. Done in the year VIII., under King Sescirtesen [HI], ever living; in order that it may not be permitted to any Negro to pasf l;y it in navigating" [down the river]. The repugnance of the Egyptians towards Nigritian races, exhibited in their epithet of "NallSL — barbarian country, perverse race," be- comes now a solid fact in primeval history ; at the same time that the above inscription proves conclusively, how, just about 4000 years ago, the geographical habitat of Negroes commenced exactly where it does at this day : viz., above the third cataract of the Nile. We have shown, by their portraits, that the three "Ethiopian" kings (Sabaco, Sevechus, and Tarhaka) of the XXVth dynasty, b. c. 719-695), possess nothing Negroid in their visages. Meroe, as Lep- sius has determined irrevocably, became an independent principality at a far later day ; and, so soon as she was cut oif from Egyptian blood and civilization, the influx of Negro" concubines deteriorated her people, until, by the fifth century after Christ, she sank amid the billows of surrounding African barbarism, mentally and physically obliterated for ever. To our lamented countryman, Morton, belongs the honor of first rendering these data true as axioms in the science of anthropology. Our part has been to demonstrate that the principles of his method were correct, as well as to support them with fresher evidences than he was sjnared to investigate. At the time of the publication of the Crania ^gyptiaca^ the " Gallery of Antiquities in the British Mu- seum "^^ had not reached him; consequently he was not then aware that the vast tableau from Beyt-el-AValee, out of which he had selected the following heads (Fig. 151) stands, moulded in fac- simile and beautifully colored, on the walls of an Egyptian hall in that great Institution. The copy lies before us, elucidated by Mr. Birch's critical description. Here Negroes and Nubians are painted in all shades — blacks and browns ; while the red (or color of honor) is given to the Egyptians alone. With these emendations, which unfortunately the nature of our work does not permit us to portray in colors, Morton's own words and wood -cuts may appropriately close this chapter on the Negro Type:'— " For the purpose of illustration, we select a single picture from the temple (hemispeos) of Beyt-el-Walee, in Nubia, in which Rameses II. is represented in the act of making war upon the Negroes — who, overcome with defeat, are flying in consternation before him. From the multitude of fugitives in this scene (which has been vividly copied bj' Champol- lion3'^ and Rosellini, and which I have compared in both), I annex a fac-simile group of nine heads, which, while they preserve the national features in a remarkable degree, pre sent also considerable diversity of expression. '• The hair on some other figures of this group is dressed in short and separate tufts, or 270 NEGRO TYPES. Fig. 195. inverted cones, precisely like those now worn by the Negroes of Madagascar, as figured in Botteller's Voyage. " In the midst of the vanquished Africans, standing in his car and urging on the conflict, is Rameses himself; whose manly and beautiful countenance will not suffer by comparison with the finest Caucasian models. The annexed outline (for all the figures are represented in outline only), will enable the reader to form his own conclusions respecting this extra- ordinary group," which dates in the fourteenth century before the Christian era.^^ Fig. 196. ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 271 The authors confidently trust, thjit the antiquity of Negro race?, no less than the perma7ie7iee of Negro types, during the (1853-1-2348) 4201 3'ears that have just elapsed since Usher's Flood, are questions now satisfactorily set at rest in the minds of lettered and scientific readers. A parahle, thrown hack among our notes,^^''' sutRces to illus- trate popular impressions in regard to the cuticular and osteological changes produced by climate, and in respect to the philological meta- morphoses caused by transplantation, upon human races aboriginally distinct. It is not incumbent upon us to inquire, whether the delu- sions, generally current upon such very simple matters of fact, are to be ascribed to intellectual apathy among the taught, or to ignorance and mystifications among their teachers. At the close of Chapter VI. {supra, p. 210), in reference to the per- manency of Asiatic and African types in their respective geographical gradations, we asked, " Within human record, has it not always been thus?" Every national tradition, all primitive monuments, and the whole context of ancient and modern history, answer affirmatively for each of those parts of the Old continents hitherto examined. Deviations from the historical point of view requiring no notice, at the present day, by any man of science, it would be sheer waste of time to discuss thera. We lose none, therefore, in passing over at once to that continent which no students of Natural History now miscall "theiVei^;." CHAPTER IX. AMERICAN AND OTHER TYPES. — ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. The Continent of America is often designated by the appellation of the New World; but the researches of modern geologists and archaeologists have shown that the evidences in favour of a high anti- quity, during our geological epoch, as well as for our Fauna and Flora, are, to say the least, quite as great on this as on the eastern hemi- sphere. Prof. Agassiz, whose authority will hardly be questioned in matters of this kind, tells us that geology finds the oldest landmarks here ; and Sir Charles Lyell, from a mass of well-digested facts, and from the corroborating testimony of other good authorities, concludes that the Mississippi river has been running in its present bod for more than one hundred thousand j-ears.^'* The channel cut by the Niagara river, below the Falls, for twelve miles through solid rock, in the 272 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA, estimation of the same distinguished author, as well as of others, gives no less satisfactory proof of the antiquity of the present relative position of continents and oceans. Dr. Bennet Dowler, of New Orleans, in an interesting essay,-'^® recently published, supplies some extraordinary facts in confirmation of the great age of the delta of the Mississippi, assumed by Lyell, Riddell, Carpenter, Forshey, and others. From an investigation of the successive growths of cypress forests around that city, the stumps of which are still found at different depths, directly overlying each other ; from the great size and age of these trees, and from the remains of Indian bones and pottery found below the roots of some of these stumps, he arrives at the following conclusion : — " From these data it appears that the human race existed in the delta more than 57,000 years ago ; and that ten subterranean forests, and the one now growing, will show that an exuberant flora existed in Louisiana more than 100,000 years anterior to these evidences of man's existence." The delta of the Alabama river bears ample testimony to the same effect. Along the Mobile river and ba}^ we find certain shell-fish, whose relative positions are determined at present, as they always have been, by certain physical conditions, viz. : the unio and paludina, the gnathodon, and the oj^ster. The first are always found above tide-water, where the water is perfectly fresh; the second flourishes in brackish water alone ; and the oyster never but in water that is almost salt. As the delta of the river has extended, they have each greatly changed their habitats. The most northern habitat, at the pre- sent day, for example, of the gnathodon, stands about Choctaw Point, one mile lielow Mobile ; whereas we have abundant evidence that it formerly existed fifty miles above. The unio, paludina, and oyster have changed positions in like manner. Immense beds of gnathodon shells are found, and in the greatest profusion, all along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, where they have doubtless been deposited by Indians in former times. Great numbers of these beds exist on the Mobile bay, and along the river, for fifty miles above the city, where only a scattering remnant of the living species is still found. The Indians had no means for, and no object in, transporting such an immense number fifty miles up the river ; and we must, therefore, conclude that the Mobile bay once ex- tended to the locality of those upper " shell banks ;" and that the Indians had collected them for food, near where these banks are now beheld. One strong evidence of this conclusion is gathered from the fact, that the diflerent artificial beds of the unio, the gnathodon, and the oyster, are never here formed of a mixture of two or more shells; which would be the case if their locations had been near each other. ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 273 That tliese beds are of Indian origin is clear, from the fact tliat the shells have all been opened, and that we tind in them the marks of fire, extending over considerable spaces — the shells converted into qnick-lime, and mingled with charcoal, so that the successive accu- mulations of shells may be plainly traccd.^'^'^ Fish-bones and other remains of Indian feasts are common : i. e. fragments of Indian pot- tery ; and of human bones, which can be identified by their crania. Some of these beds are covered over by vegetable mould, from one to two feet thick, which must have been a very long time forming ; and upon tliis are growing the largest forest trees, beneath whose roots these Indian remains are often discovered. It is more than probable, too, that these huge trees are the successors of former growths quite as large. We cannot, by any conjecture, approximate, within many centu- ries, perhaps thousands of years, the time consumed in thus extending the delta of the Alabama river, and in producing the changes we have hinted at; nor dare we attempt to fix the time at which the Red men fed upon the gnathodons that compose the first beds to which we have alluded. It is worthy also of special remark that the gnathodon, of which a few surviving specimens still endure along the Gulf coast of Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi, was once a living species in the Chesapeake bay, but has been so long extinct that it now exists there only in a fossil state. This would extend the living fauna very much farther back than the Chesapeake deposits : all our recent shells, or nearly all, being found in the pliocene, and many shells in still earlier forma- tions. Such facts, with many others of similar import, which might be adduced, point to a chronology very far be3'ond any heretofore received : and who wall doubt that, when the Mississippi, Alabama, and Niagara rivers first poured their waters into the ocean, a fauna and a flora already existed ? and, if so, why did not man exist ? They all belong to one geological period, and to one creation. These authorities, in support of the extreme age of the geological era to which man belongs, though startling to the unscientific, are not simply the opinions of a few ; but such conclusions are substam tially adopted by the leading geologists everywhere. And, although antiquity so extreme for man's existence on earth may shock some preconceived opinions, it is none the less certain that the rapid accu- mulation of new facts is fast familiarizing the minds of the scientific world to this conviction. The monuments of Egypt have already carried us far beyond all chronologies heretofore adopted ; and when these barriers are once overleaped, it is in vain for us to attempt to approximate, even, the epoch of man's creation. This conclusion if> 35 274 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. not based merely on tlie researches of such archaeologists as Lepsius, Bunsen, Birch, De Longperier, Humboldt, &c., but on those, also, of strictly-orthodox writers, Kenrick, Ilincks, Osburn ; and, we may add, of all theologians who have really mastered the monuments of Egypt. Nor do these monuments reveal to us only a single race, at this early epoch in full tide of civilization, but they exhibit faithful portraits of the same African and Asiatic races, in all their diversity, which hold intercourse with Egypt at the present day. Is'ow, the question naturally springs up, whether the aborigines of America were not contemporary with the earliest races, known to us, of the eastern continent? If, as is conceded, "Caucasian," Negro, Mongol, and other races, existed in the Old World, already distinct, what reason can be assigned to show that the aborigines of America did not also exist, with their present types, 5000 years ago ? The naturalist must infer that the fauna and flora of the two continents were contemporary. All facts, and all analogy, war against the sup- position that America should have been left by the Creator a dreary waste for thousands of years, while the other half of the world was teeming with organized beings. This view is also greatly strength- ened by the acknowledged fact, that not a single animal, bird, rep- tile, fish, or plant, was common to the Old and New Worlds. No naturalist of our day doubts that the animal and vegetable kingdoms of America were created where they are found, and not in Asia. The I'aces of men alone, of America, have been made an exception to this general law ; but this exception cannot be maintained by any course of scientific reasoning. America, it will be remembered, was not only unknown to the early Romans and Greeks, but to the Egj^p- itians ; and when discovered, less than four centuries ago, it was found to be inhabited, from the Arctic to Cape Horn, and from ocean to ocean, by a population displaying peculiar physical traits, unlike any races in the Old World ; speaking languages bearing no resemblance in structure to other languages ; and living, everywhere, among 'animals and plants specifically distinct from those of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Oceanica. But, natural as this reasoning is, in favor of American origin for our Indians, we shall not leave the question on such debatable ground. Theic is abundant positive evidence of high antiquity for this popu- lation, Avliich we proceed to develop. In reflecting on the aboi-iginal races of America, we are at once met by the striking fact, that their physical characters are wholly in- dependent of all climatic or known physical influences. Notwith- standing their immense geographical distribution, embracing every jsrariety of climate, it is acknowledged by all travellers, tliat there is ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 275 among this people a pervading type, around wliicli all the tribes (north, south, east, and west) cluster, though varying within prescribed limits. "With trilling exceptions, all our American Indians bear to each other some degree of family resemblance, quite as strong, for example, as that seen at the present day among full-blooded Jews ; and yet they are distinct from every race of the Old World, in features, languages, customs, arts, religions, and propensities. In the language of Morton, who studied this people more thoroughly than any other writer : — "All possess, though in various degrees, the long, lank, black hair; the heavy brow; the dull, sleepy eye; the full, compressed lips; and the salient, but dilated nose." These characters, too, are beheld in the civilized and the most savage tribes, along the rivers and sea-coasts, in the valley's and on the mountains; in the prairies and in the forests; in the torrid and in the ice-bound regions ; amongst those that live on fish, on flesh, or on vegetables. The only race of the Old World with which any connection has been reasonably conjectured, is the ^[ongol ; but, to say nothing of the marked difference in physical characters, their languages alone should decide against any such alliance. "The American race differs essentially from all others, not excepting the Mongolian; DOT do the feeble analogies of language, and the more obvious ones of civil and religious institutions and arts, denote anything beyond casual or colonial communication with the Asiatic nations ; and even these analogies may, perhaps, be accounted for, as Humboldt has suggested, in the mere coincidence arising from similar wants and impulses in nations inhabiting similar latitudes." 36i No philologist can be found to deny the fact that the Chinese are now speaking and writing a language substantially the same as the one they used 5000 years ago; and that, too, a language distinct from every tongue spoken by the Caucasian races. On the other hand, we have the American races, all speaking dialects indisputably peculiar to this continent, and possessing no marked atfinity with any other. Kow, if the Mongols have preserved a language entire, in Asia, for 5000 j-ears, they should have likewise preserved it here, or to say the least, some trace of it. But, not only are the two linguistic groups radically distinct, but no trace of a Mongol tongue, dubious words excepted, can be found in tlie American idioms. If such, imagi- nary Mongolians ever brought their Asiatic speech into this country, it is clear that their fictitious descendants, the Indians, have lost it; and the latter must have acquired, instead, that of some extinct race which preceded a Mongol colonization. It will be conceded that a «olony, or a nation, could never lose its vocabulary so completely, unlesis througli conquest and amalgamation ; in which case they would ud'>iit another language. But, even when a tongue ceases to be "276 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. spoken, some trace of it will continue to survive in the names of individuals, of rivers, places, countries, &c. The names of Moses, Solomon^ David, Lazarus, Isaac and Jacob, are still found among the Jews everywhere, although the Hebrew language has ceased to be spoken for more than 2000 years. And the appellatives Mississippi, Missouri, Orinoko, Ontario, Oneida, Alabama, and a thousand other Indian names, will live for ages after the last Red man is mingled with the dust. They have no likeness to any nomenclature in the Old World. In treating of American races, our prescribed limits do not permit us to go into details respecting the infinitude of types which compose them. Our purpose at present is simply to bring forward such fact-s as may be sufficient to establish their origin and antiquity. The broad division of Dr. Morton, into two great families, which contrast in many points strongly with each other, is sufficiently minute, viz. : "The Toltecan nations £ind the Barbarous tribes." This classification is somewhat arbitrary ; but it is impossible, in our day, to establish any but very wide boundary-lines. Here, as in the Old World, wars, migrations, amalgamations, and endless causes, have, during several thousand years, disturbed and confused ^f^ature's original work ; and we must now deal with masses as we find them. In fact, our main object in alluding at all to the diversity of types among the aborigines of America, is to give another illustration of a position advanced else- where in this volume. We have shown that the major divisions of the earth, or its different zoological provinces, were populated by groups of races, bearing to each other certain family resemblances ; notwithstanding that, in reality, these races originated in nations, and not in a single pair ; thus forming proximate, but not identical spe- cies. The Mongols, the Caucasians, the ISTegroes, the Americans, each constitute a group of this kind. In our chapters on the Cauca- sian races, for example, we have shown how the Jews, Egyptians, Hindoos, Pelasgians, Romans, Teutons, Celts, Iberians, &c., which had all been classed under this common head, can be traced, as dis- tinct forms, beyond all human chronolog}'. The same law applies to the American races. Although every tribe" has some characters that mark it as American, yet there are certain sharp!}-- drawn distinctions, among some of these races, which cannot be explained by climatic influences. The Toltecan, and Barbarous tribes, taken separately, en masse, aflbrd a good ilhistration, for they differ essentially in their moral and physical characteristics. The most prominent distinction between these two families results from comparison of their cranio- logical developments. Dr. Morton, whose collection of human crania is the most complete in the world, bestowed unrivalled attention on ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 277 American races, and has given actual measurements of 338 Indian skulls, in wliic'li tlie two great divisions are almost equally represented. 1st. Tlw Toltecan Faniili/ — comprising all the semi-civilized nations of Mexico, Peru, and Bogota, who, there is every reason to believe, v^ere the builders of the great system of mounds found throughout North America. Of 213 skulls, Mexican and Peruvian, 201 belong to the latter — each having been obtained from the oldest burial- grounds and through the most reliable sources. On these heads, Morton makes the following striking comment: — " When we consider the institutions of the old Peruvians, their comparatively advanced civilization, their tombs and temples, mountain-roads and monolithic gateways, together with their knowledge of certain ornamental arts, it is surprising to find that they possessed a brain no larger than (he Hottentot or New Hollander, and far below the barbarous hordes of their own race." [We have shown, in our remarks on anatomical characters of races, that the Hottentot has a brain on the average 17 cubic inches less than the Teutonic race — the latter being 92, and the former 75 cubic inches.] " For, on measuring 155 crania, nearly all derived from the sepulchres just mentioned, they give but 75 cubic inches for the average bulk of brain, while the Teutonic, or highest developed white race, gives 92 cubic inches. Of the whole number, one only attains the capacity of 101 cubic inches — [the highest Teutonic in Dr. Morton's collection is 114 cubic inches] — and the minimum sinks to 58 ; the smallest in the whole series of 641 measured crania of all nations. It is important to remark, also, that the sexes are nearly equally represented : viz.. 80 men and 75 women. The mean of twenty-one Mexican skulls is seventy-nine, or five cubic inches above the Peruvian average ; but the authenticity of this series is not so well made out as the other, and it may be too small for the estal)lishmeut of a very correct mean. 2d. The Barbarous Tribes. — The semi - civilized communities of America seem at all times to have been hemmed in and pressed upon by the more restless and warlike barbarous tribes, as they are at the present day. We now see the unwarlike Mexican constantly pillaged by daring Camanches and relentless Apaches ; who, since the intro- duction of horses, have become most fearful marauders, scarcely inferior to the Tartars or Bedouins of Asia. On this series, collected both from modern tribes and ancient tumuli the most widely separated by time and space, Morton remarks : — "Of 211 crania derived from the various sources enumerated in this section, 161 have been measured, with the following results: the largest cranium gives 104 cubic inches — the smallest, 70; and the mean of all is 84. There is a disparity, however, in the male and female heads, for the former are 96 in number, and the latter only 65. "We have here the surprising fact, that the brain of the Indian, in his savage state, ia far larger than that of the old demi-civilized Peruvian or ancient Mexican. Hnw iic we to explain this remarkable disparity between civilization and barbarism? The l:irv<,-i Pe- ruvian brain measures 101 cubic inches; and the untamed Shawnee rises to 104; and the average difference between the Peruvian and the savage is nine cubic inches in favor of the latter. Something may be attributed to a primitive difference of stock ; but more, perhaps, to the contrasted activity of the two races," [Here Dr. Morton might appear to endorse the 278 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. *heory that )ultWation of the mind, or of one set of faculties, can give expansion or increased =?ize of brain, [there is no proof of the truth of such a hypothesis. The Teutonic races, in their barbarous state, 2000 years ago, possessed brains as large as now ; and so with other -aces. —J. C. N.] Taken collectively, the American races yield an average mean, for the whole 338 crania, of only seventy-nine cubic inches, or thirteen below that of the Teutonic race. The general law laid down by craniologists, that size of brain is a measure of intellect, would seem to meet with an exception here ; but it is only apparent. A very satisfactory solution of the fact will be found in Mr. J. S. Phillips's Appendix to Morton's memoir on the Physical Type of the American Indians ;'^ also, in Mr. George Combe's Phrenological Remarks, in \hQ Appendix to Morton's Crania Americana. The appendix of Mr. Phillips, published after Morton's death, adds some new materials, which the Doctor had not time to work up before his demise. The additional crania make a little variation from the means or averages obtained by Morton, but too slight to influence the general conclusions. Mr. Phillips's closing observations are so well expressed that we are sure the reader will prefer them entire, to wit : — " The average volume of the brain in the Barbarous tribes is shown to be from 83 J to 84 cubic inches, while that of the Mexicans is but 79, and in the Peruvians only 75 ; thus exhi- biting the apparent anomaly of barbarous and uncivilized tribes possessing larger brains than races capable of considerable progress in civilization. This discrepancy deserves more investigation than time permits at present ; but the following views of the subject may make it appear less anomalous : — "The prevailing features in the character of the North American savage are, stoicism, a severe cruelty, excessive watchfulness, and that coarse brutality which results from the entire preponderance of the animal propensities. These so outweigh the intellectual por- tion of the character, that it is completely subordinate, making the Indian what we see him — a most unintellectual and uncivilizable man. " The intellectual lobe of the brain of these people, if not borne down by such over- powering animal propensities and passions, would doubtless have been capable of much greater efforts than any we are acquainted with, and have enabled these barbarous tribes to make some progress in civilization. This appears to be the cerebral difference between the Mexicans and Peruvians on the one hand, and the Barbarous tribes of North America on the other. The intellectual lobe of the brain in the two former is at least as large as in the latter — the difference of volume being chiefly confined to the occipital and basal por- tions of the encephalon ;' so that the intellectual and moral qualities of the Mexicans and Peruvians (at least as large, if not larger than those of the other group) are left more free to act, being not so subordinate to the propensities and violent passions. This view of the subject is in accordance with the history of these two divisions: larlaro^is and civUizalle. When the former were assailed by the European settlers, they fought- desperately, but rather with the cunning and ferocity of the lower animals, than with the system and courage of men. They could not be subjugated, and were either exterminated, or continued to retire into the forests, when they could no longer maintain their ground. Had their intel- lect been in proportion to their other qualities, they would have been most formidable ene- mies. With the Mexicans and Peruvians the case has been the reverse. The original inhabitants of Mexico were entirely subjugated by the Aztecs, who appear to have been a ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 279 Binnll tribe in compnvison -with the Mexicans ; ami then they were all conquered and enslaved by a mere handful of Spaniards — although the Mexicans had the advantage over the bar- barous tribes of concerted action, some discipline, and preparation, in -which the latter were greatly deficient. The Mexicans, with small brains, were evidently inferior in resolution, in attack and defence, and the more manly traits of character, to the Barbarous races, who contested every inch of ground until they were entirely outnumbered. And at the present time, the Camanches and Apaches, though a part of the great Shoshonee division (one of the lowest of the races of North America), are continually plundering and destroying the Indians of Northern Mexico, who scarcely attempt resistance. " Viewed in this light, tlie apparent contradiction of a race with a smaller brain being superior to tribes with larger brains, is so far explained, that the volume and distribution of their respective brains appear to be in accordance with such facts in their history as have come to our knowledge." Again, Mr. Phillips remarks, of the Indians of the United States, that he has "grouped them, on a large scale, into families, according to language ; and the result of measurement of the volume of brain is strikingl}' in accordance with the ascertained character of the diiier- ent groups thus constituted. His arrangement is — 1st, Iroquois ; 2d, Algonquin and Apalachian ; 3d, Dacota ; 4th, Shoshonees ; 5th, Oregonians. Of the first division (the Iroquois), he observes : — " The average internal capacity of the cranium in this group is about 8j inches higher than the lowest types, and 4 J inches higher than the average — being 88j cubic inches. This result is strikingly in keeping with the fact that they were so completely the master- spirits of the land ; that, at the time of the first settlement of this country by the white race, they were so rapidly subduing the other tribes and nations around them ; and that, if their career of conquest had not been cjit short by the Anglo-Saxon predominance, they bade fair to have conquered all within their reach." He then states the measurements and characters of other families, in all of which the morale and phi/sique most strikingly correspond. These facts afford very instructive material for reflection. We here behold one race, with the larger, though less intellectual brain, subjugating the unwarlike and half-civilized races; and it seems clear, that the latter were destined to be either swallowed up or exter- minated by the former. Who can doubt that similar occurrences had been going on over this continent for many centuries or even thousands of years ? There are scattered over North America count- less tumuli, which it is believed were built by races different from the savage tribes found around them on the advent of the whites, and an impenetrable oblivion rests upon these earth-works. There are many reasons for supposing that these mound-builders were either identical with, or closely allied to, the Toltecs ; and, that they were driven south or exterminated by more savage and bellicose races, such as the Iroquois : for the traditions of the Mexicans point to the North as their original country. At the present day, we see in America large settlements of Span- iards, French, Germans, kc, as well as Indians — all speaking their 280 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. own languages ; yet who doubts that in a century or two the Indians will be extinct, and the others swallowed up in the Anglo-Saxon tongue and type ? Then, when the ethnographer shall undertake to analyze the population, what can he learn of the history of races that first overspread this continent, or what light upon the origins of lost or absorbed autocthones can he draw from the European dialects spoken by their destroyers ? What will be the condition of this country two or three thousand years hence, we may ask, when we see Europe pouring its population into it from the East and Asia from the "West ? We can reason on the things of this world merely from what we see and know ; and we must infer that a succession of events has been going on for ages, during ante-historic times, similar to those we encounter in the pages of written history. Human nature never changes, else it would cease to be human nature. Now, how are we to explain these opposite intellectual and physical characters in the two great families of America, except by primitive cranial conformations, each aboriginally distinct ? Certainly, no known facts exist leading to the conclusion that any particular mode of life can change the size or form of brain in man ; while, on the contrary, we have abundant reason to be convinced that the size and form of brain play a conspicuous part in the advancement and destiny of races. The large heads, in many instances, having emerged from barbarism (Teutons, Celts, for example), within historical times, have reached the higher pinnacles of civilization, and everywhere outstrip- ped and dominated over the small-headed races of mankind. It is interesting here to note that the ancient Egyptians and Hin- doos, who in very early times reached a considerable degree of civili- zation, had, like the Mexicans and Peruvians, much smaller heads than the savage tribes around them.^^ Each of these people give an internal mean-capacity of eighty cubic inches, which is but one inch above the average of American races. The Kegro races, exclusive of Hottentots, yield an average of eighty-three inches. If the Jews have lived during 1500 years in Malabar, the Magyars 1000 in Hungary, the Parsees as mau}^ ages in India, the Basques or Ibeinans in France and Sj)ain for more than 3000, without material change — and, if the Anglo-Saxons and Spaniards have lived through ton generations in America without approximating the aboriginal type of tne country, it is a reasonable inference that the intellectual and physical differences of tlie Toltecan and Barbarous tribes are not attributable to secondary causes, either moral or physical. Mr. Squicr makes the following pliilosophical remarks : — " The casual resemblance of certain words in the languages of America and those of the Old AVorld cannot be taken as evidence of a common origin. Such coincidences may b« ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 281 easily accounted for as the result of accident, or, at most, of local infusions, which were without any extended eflfect. The entire number of common words is said to be one hun- dred and eighty-seven ; of these, one hundred and four coincide with words found in the languages of Asia and Australia, forty-three with those of Europe, and forty with those of Africa. It can hardly be supposed that these facts are sufficient to prove a connec- tion between the four hundred dialects of America and the various languages of the other continent. It is not in accidental coincidences of sound or meaning, but in a comparison of the general structure and character of the American languages with those of other countries, that we can expect to find similitudes at all conclusive, or worthy of remark, in determining the question of a common origin. And it is precisely in these respects that we discover the strongest evidences of the essential peculiarities of the Ame- rican languages : here they coincide with each other, and here exhibit the most striking contrasts with all the others of the globe. The diversities which have sprung up, and which have resulted in so many dialectical modifications, as shown in the numberless voca- bularies, furnish a wide field for investigation. Mr. Gallatin draws a conclusion from the circumstance, which is quite as fatal to the popular hypothesis, respecting the origin of the Indians, as the more sweeping conclusion of Dr. Morton. It is the length of time which this prodigious subdivision of languages in America must have required, making every allowance for the greater changes to which unwritten languages are liable, and for the necessary breaking up of nations in a hunter-state into separate communities. For these changes, Mr. Gallatin claims, we must have the very longest time which we are permitted to assume ; and, if it is considered necessary to derive the American races from the other continent, that the migration must have taken place at the earliest assignable period. " The following conclusions were advanced by Mr. Duponceau, as early as 1819, in sub- stantially the following language : — " 1. That the American languages, in general, are rich in words and grammatical forms ; and, that in their complicated construction the greatest order, method, and regu- larity prevail. " 2. That these complicated forms, which he calls polysynthetic, appear to exist in all these languages, from Greenland to Cape Horn. " 3. That these forms differ essentially from those of the ancient and modern languages of the Old Hemisphere." 364 The type of a race would never change, if kept from adulterations, as we have shown in the case of the Jews and other peoples. So with languages : we have no reason to believe that a race would ever lose its language, if kept aloof from foreign influences. It is a fact that, in the little island of Great Britain, the Welch and the Erse are still spoken, although for 2000 j^ears pressed upon by the strongest influences tending to exterminate a tongue. So with the Basque in France, which can be traced back at least 3000 years, and is still spoken. Coptic was the speech of Egypt for at least 5000 years, and still leaves its trace m the languages around. The Chinese has existed equally as long, and is still undisturbed. " An effort has been made by Mr. Blackie, Professor of Greek in the University of Edinburgh, to reform the pronunciation of Greek in tliat University. He is teaching his students to pronounce Greek as they do in Greece, insisting that it is not a dead, but a living language — as anyone may see by looking at a Greek newspaper. Prof. Blackie gives an extract from a newspaper printed last year, at Athens, giving an account of Koa.- «uth's visit to America, from which it is evident that the language of Homer lives in a state of purity to which, considering the extraordinary duration of its literary existence (250C 36 282 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. years at least), there is no parallel, perhaps, on the face of the globe. After noticing a few trifling modifications, which distinguish modern from ancient Greek, he states, as a fact, that in three columns of a Greek newspaper of the year 1852, there do not certainly occur three words that are not pure native Greek — so very slightly has it been corrupted from foreign sources." •^^^ Although the nations of Europe and "Western Asia have been in constant turmoil for thousands of years, and their languages torn to pieces, j^et they have been moulded into the great heterogeneous Indo-European mass, everywhere showing affinities among its own fragments, but no resemblance to American languages. The subjoined extract from a paper of Prof. Agassiz admirably expresses new and most interesting views upon the natural origin of speech: — " As for languages, their common structure, and even the analogy in the sounds of difiFer- ent languages, far from indicating a derivation of one from another, seem to us rather the necessary result of that similarity in the organs of speech which causes "them naturally to produce the same sound. "Who would now deny that it is as natural for men to speak as it is for a dog to bark, for an ass to bray, for a lion to roar, for a wolf to howl, when we see that no nations are so barbarous, so deprived of all human character, as to be unable to express in language their desires, their fears, their hopes? And if a unity of language, any analogy in sound and structure between the languages of the white races, indicate a closer connection between the diflFerent nations of that race, would not the difference which has been observed in the structure of the languages of the wild races — would not the power the American Indians have naturally to utter gutturals which the white can hardly imitate, afford additional evidence that these races did not originate from a common stock, but are only closely allied as men, endowed equally with the same intellectual powers, the same organs of speech, the same sympathies, only developed in slightly different ways in the different races, precisely as we observe the fact between closely allied species of the same genus among birds ? " There is no ornithologist who ever watched the natural habits of birds and their notes, who has not been surprised at the similarity of intonation of the notes of closely allied species, and the greater difference between the notes of birds belonging to different genera and families. The cry of the birds of prey, are alike unpleasant and rough in all; the song of all the thrushes is equally sweet and harmonious, and modulated upon similar rhythms, and combined in similar melodies ; the chit of all titmice is loquacious and hard ; the quack of the duck is alike nasal in all. But who ever thought that the robin learned his melody from the mocking-bird, or the mocking-bird from any other species of thrush ? Who ever fancied that the field-crow learned his cawing from the raven or jackdaw? Cer- tainly, no one at all acquainted with the natural history of birds. And why should it be different with men ? Why should not the different races of men have originally spoken distinct languages, as they do at present, differing in the same proportions as their organs of speech are variously modified? And why should not these modifications in their turn be indicative of primitive differences among them? It were giving up all induction, all power of arguing from sound premises, if the force of such evidence were to be denied." ^^6 To which may be added the familiar instance, that, although the Negro has been donnciliated in the United States for many genera- tions among white people, he nevertheless, whether speaking English, French, or Spanish, preserves that peculiar, unmistakeably-iVip^ro, in- tonation, which no culture can eradicate. So, again, who ever heard the ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 283 voice of an Indian uttering English, and could not instantly detect the articulations of the Red man ? A review of the preceding facts shows conclusively, we think, that the Natural History of the American aborigines runs a close parallel with that of races in other countries. We have made but two divisions ; but it is more than probable that each of these families, instead of springing from a single pair, have originated in many. But we have discussed this point elsewhere, and need not reopen it here. Let us now glance at the history of those aboriginal races which made the only approach towards civilization. It is true that our ma- terials are very defective in many particulars, yet enough remain to lead ethnologists to some important results. No trace of an alphabet existed at the time of the conquest of the continent of America; but some tribes possessed an imperfect sort of picture-writing, from which a little archaeological aid can be derived ; though we are compelled to look chiefly to traditions, which are often vague, and to the light which emanates from the physical cha- racters, antiquities, religions, arts, sciences, languages, or agriculture. The decided structural connection which exists among the various Indian languages has been regarded as suihcient evidence, not only of the common origin of these languages, but of the races speaking them. The venerable Albert Gallatin, who devoted much time and talent to American ethnography, says : — "All those who have investigated the subject appear to have agreed in the opinion that, however differing in their vocabularies, there is an evident similarity in the structure of all the American languages, bespeaking a common origin. "30'!' Now, we are not disposed to deny the close affinity of these lan- guages, but we cannot agree that this aftbrds any satisfactory proof of unity of their linguistic derivation. The conclusion, to our minds, is a non sequitur. Let us assume, with Agassiz and Morton, that all mankind do not spring from one pair, nor even each race from distinct pairs; but that men were created in nations, in the different zoological provinces where history first finds them. The Caucasians, Mongols, Indians, Negroes, were, for example, created in large numbers, or in scattered tribes. What, let us ask, would necessarily be the result as regards types and languages? Various individuals of these tribes, having no language, would soon come in contact, either through proximity, or early wan- derings. Unions would soon take place, and there would be a fusion of types, so as perhaps to change, more or less, each original ; just as amalgamations have taken place among all historical nations, and arc now going on in every country of the glolje. So with languages. As soon as individuals came in contact, they 284 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. would necessarily commence the first steps towards forming a speech, as hirds instinctively sing and dogs hark. The wants, and range of ideas of these tribes, would, for a long time, he very limited, and their vocabulary, thus formed, very meagre. The aboriginal races of America, though not identical, display a certain similarity in their phy- sical and intellectual characters, as species of a genus in the animal kingdom possess certain physical characters and instincts in common ; and it is probable that their primitive languages would, in conse- quence, more or less, resemble each other. This view is strengthened by the fact of general resemblance amongst American crania. But nothing in human anatom}- can be more striking, than the wide dif- ference in the conformation of the skulls of American and African races. If two distinct races, created on incommunicable continents, had been left alone, originally, each to form its own languages indepen- dently of the other, is it not presumable, a priori, that there would accrue a much greater similarity among the tongues of the one race, on the same continent, than between these tongues and those spoken on the other continent by the other race ? Especially, when the phy- sical and moral characteristics of the former differ radically from those of the latter ? As, then, the crania of American races resemble each other, while dift'ering entirely from those of African races, so do American and African languages differ from each other in structure and vocabulary ; although both are in harmony with the various dialects spoken on their respective continents by races osteologically similar. Whether the above proposition be true or false, all languages which, in their infant state, came together, would necessarily become fused into one heterogeneous mass. Let us illustrate this point a little farther. Suppose that, five thousand years ago, a country had existed large as Europe, covered by a virgin forest, and that the Creator had scattered over it tribes, bearing the type of the old Teutonic stock — each of whom commenced at once in forming a language — what would be the result in our day, after 5000 years of migrations, wars, amalga- H mations? Can any one doubt that these languages would be fused into one whole, quite as homogeneous as those of the aborigines of America? When we reflect that there is every reason to believe that this continent has been inhabited for more than 5000 years, such case becomes a much stronger one. Niebuhr, in one of his letters, ex- presses views very similar.^'^ " These great national races have never sprung from the growth of a single family into a nation, but always from the association of several families of human beings, raised above their fellow animals by the nature of their wants, and the gradual invention of a ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 285 language; each of which families probably had originally formed a language peculiar to itself. This last idea belongs to Reinhold. By this I explain the immense variety of Ian guages among the North American Indians, which it is absolutely impossible to refer to any common source, but which, in some cases, have resolved themselves into one language, as in Mexico and Peru, for instance ; and also the number of synonyms in the earliest periods of languages. On this account, I maintain that we must make a very cautious use of dif- ferences of language as applied to the theory of races, and have more regard to physical conformation; which latter is exact!}' the same, for instance, in most of the Indian tribes of North America. I believe, farther, that the origin of the human race is not connected with any given place, but is to be sought everywhere over the face of the earth ; and that it is an idea more worthy of the power and wisdom of the Creator, to assume that he gave to each zone and each climate its proper inhabitants, to whom that zone and climate would be most suitable, than to assume that the human species has degenerated in such innumer- able instances." Wiseman approaches the subject from a different point of view, offering another explanation for the dissimilarity of languages. lie maintains that there are affinities among all languages, which can only be explained by original unity, but acknowledges, on the other side, certain radical differences, which are only to be explained by a mi- racle. He says, in Lecture second : — " As the radical difference among the languages forbids their being considered dialects, or offshoots of one another, we are driven to the conclusion that, on the one hand, these languages must have been originally united in one, whence they drew their common ele- ments, essential to them all ; and, on the other, that the separation between them, which destroyed other and no less important elements of resemblance, could not have been caused by any gradual departure, or individual development — for these we have long since ex- cluded — but by some violent, unusual, and active force, sufficient alone to reconcile these contJicting appearances, and to account at once for the resemblances and the differences." ^69 This view of the enigma would be nmch the most agreeable to many readers, inasmuch as, by the obtrusion of an unwarranted phy- sical impossibility, it gets clear of that radical diversity of languages which philology has not yet been able to overcome. Such reasoning, however plausible at the time when it was written, will not stand the test of criticism in the year 1853. The facts revealed to us by the subsequent discoveries of Lepsius and others, require a much higher antiquity for nations and languages than the Cardinal had any idea of; and which is entirely irreconcilable with the Jewish date for the "confusion of tongues" at Babel, to which he plainly points. If that confusion of tongues in Genesis were even taken as literally true, it could neither have applied to all the nations of the earth, nor, particularly, to those inhabiting parts of the world unknown to Oriental geography in the time of Moses or Abraham ; and this owing to exegetical reasons hereinafter set forth. Clavigero, whose ability and opportunities confer upon his autho- rity especial weight, gives the following chronology, derived from data obtained through Mexicans : — 286 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. A. D. The Toltecs arrived in Anahuac, or the country now called Mexico, migrating from the North 648 They abandoned the country 1051 The Chichemecs arrived 1170 The Acholchuans arrived about 1200 The Mexicans reached Tula 1296 They founded Mexico 1325 Here, then, we have the dates of successive migrations of these Toltecan races, from the seventh to the fourteenth century ; and, although much doulit exists with regard to the accuracy of some of these dates, no one who investigates the subject will deny that they are sufficiently close for all practical purposes, and may be taken as the basis of chronological calculation. Clavigero, Gallatin, Humboldt, Pres- cott, Squier, Morton — in short, all authorities, are substantially agreed on this point. These Toltecan races, who it seems inhabited, though perhaps at different epochs, almost every portion of the present terri- tory of the United States, must have been pressed upon by causes now unknown to us, and forced to migrate from their original abodes. They sought an asylum in the southern countries — Mexico, Central America, Peru ; and here gave birth to the semi-civilization found at the time of the Spanish conquest. Gallatin, however, thinks it most probable that the Toltecan races and their civilization commenced in the tropic, and spread towards the north. Over an immense territory, bounded by the Atlantic and Pacific, the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes, are scattered those countless mounds, on the origin of which the savage tribes surrounding them for the last three or four centuries have not even preserved a tradition. "Not far from one hundred enclosures, of various sizes, and five hundred mounds, are found in Ross county, Ohio. The number of tumuli in the State may be safely estimated at ten thousand, and the number of enclosures at one thousand or fifteen hundred." 3~o From this single State, constituting but a small fraction of the surface over which they are scattered, may be formed some idea of the enormous number of these remains and of the ante-historical popu- lation which constructed them. These tumuli were of several distinct kinds, viz., sepulchral and sacrificial; dikes, fortifications, &c. Squier's investigations lead him to aver : — " Tiie features common to all are elementary, and identify them as appertaining to one grand system, owing its origin to a family of men moving in the same general direction, acting under common impulses, and influenced by similar causes." These mounds, from their mimber and magnitude, present indis- putable evidence of the existence of very large agricultural popula- tions. How many centuries were these pe(>[>le increasing, migrating, and concentrating, around so many thousand widely-scattered nuclei? ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 287 How long was it before tliej' possessed a density and command of labor requisite for such structures? How long, after building such national monuments, did they live around, before abandoning them ? Were they not the same people who migrated into Mexico and Cen- tral America from the seventh to the thirteenth century a. c. ? Surely, any reply to this view of the subject alone, in connection with the physical tvpe of the race, must carry them back to times contempo- rary with the Pharaohs of Egj-pt. Too valuable to be mutilated, a long extract from the standard work before quoted is here introduced. "The antiquity of the ancient monuments of the Mississippi Valley has heen made the subject of incidental remark in the foregoing chapters. It will not be out of place here to allude once more to some of the facts bearing upon this point. Of course, no attempt to fix their data accurately, from the circumstances of the case, can now be successful. The most that can be done is, to arrive at approximate results. The fact that none of the anci"?!/ monuments occur upon the latest formed terraces of the river-valleys of Ohio, is one of much importance in its bearing upon this question. If, as we are amply warranted in believing, these terraces mark the degrees of the subsidence of the streams, one of the four (which may be traced) has been formed since those streams have followed their present courses. There is no good reason for supposing that the mound-builders would hare avoided building upon that terrace, while they erected their works promiscuously upon all the others. And if they had built upon it, some slight traces of their works would yet be visible, however much influence one may assign to disturbing causes — overflows, and shift- ing channels. Assuming, then, that the lowest terrace, on the Scioto river, for example, has been formed since the era of the mounds, we must next consider that the excavating power of the Western rivers diminishes yearly, in proportion as they approximate townrds a general level. On the Lower Mississippi, where alone the ancient monuments are some- times invaded by the water, the bed of the stream is rising, from the deposition of the ma- terials brought down from the upper tributaries, where the excavating process is going on. This excavating power, it is calculated, is in an inverse ratio to the square of the depth -- that is to say, diminishes as the square of the depth increases. Taken to be approxi- mately correct, this rule establishes, that the formation of the latest terrace, by the opera- tion of the same causes, must have occupied much more time than the formation of any of the preceding three. Upon these premises, the time since the streams have flowed in their present courses may be divided into four periods of diflferent lengths — of which the latest, supposed to have elapsed since the race of the moimds Jtourished, is much the longest. " The fact that the rivers in shifting their channels have in some instances encroached upon the superior terraces, so as in part to destroy works situated upon them, and after- wards receded to long distances of a fourth or half a mile or upwards, is one which should not be overlooked in this connection. In the case of the ' high bankworks,' the recession has been nearly three-fourths of a mile, and the intervening terrace or 'bottom' was, at the period of the early settlement, covered with a dense forest. This recession and subse- quent forest growth must of necessity have taken place since the river encroached upon the ancient works here alluded to. " Without doing more than to allude to the circumstance of the exceedingly decayed state of the skeletons found in the mounds, and to the amount of vegetable accuniulatidns in the ancient excavations and around the ancient works, we pass to another fact, perhaps more important in its bearing upon the question of the antiquity of these works, than any of those presented above. It is, that they are covered with primitive forests, in no way dis tiuguishable from those which surround them, in places where it is probable no clearingf 288 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. were ever made. Some of the trees of these forests have a positive antiquity of from six to eight hundred years. They are found surrounded with the mouldering remains of others, undoubtedly of equal original dimensions, but now fallen and almost incorporated with the soil. Allow a reasonable time for the encroachment of the forest, after all the works were abandoned by their builders, and for the period intervening between that event and the date of their construction, and we are compelled to assign them no inconsiderable anti- quity. But, as already observed, the forests covering these works correspond in all respects with the surrounding forests ; the same varieties of trees are found, in the same proportions, and they have a like primitive aspect. This fact was remarked by the late President Harrison, and was put forward by him as one of the strongest evidences of the high antiquity of these works. In an address before the Historical Society of Ohio, he said : — " 'The process by which nature restores the forest to its original state, after being once cleared, is extremely slow. The rich lands of the West are indeed soon covered again, but the character of the growth is entirely different, and continues so for a long period. In several places upon the Ohio, and upon the farm which I occupy, clearings were made in the first settlement of the country, and subsequently abandoned and suffered to grow up. Some of these new forests are now, sure, of fifty years' growth ; but they have made so little progress towards attaining the appearance of the immediately contiguous forest, as to induce any man of reflection to determine that at least ten times fifty years must elapse before their complete assimilation can be effected. We find, in the ancient works, all that variety of trees which give such unrivalled beauty to our forests, in natural proportions. The first growth, on the same kind of land, once cleared and then abandoned to nature, on the contrary, is nearly homogeneous, often stinted to one or two, at most three, kinds of timber. If the ground has been cultivated, the yellow locust will thickly spring up ; if not cultivated, the black and white walnut will be the prevailing growth. ... Of what immense age, then, must be the works so often referred to, covered, as they are, by at least the second growth after the primitive-forest state was regained ? ' " It is not undertaken to assign a period for the assimilation here indicated to take place. It must, hoivever, be measured by centuries. " In respect to the extent of territory occupied at one time, or at successive periods, by the race of the mounds, so far as indicated by the occurrence of their monuments, little need be said, in addition to the observations presented in the first chapter. It cannot, how- ever, have escaped notice, that the relics found in the mounds — composed of materials pe- culiar to places separated as widely as the ranges of the AUeghanies on the east, and the Sierras of Mexico on the west, the waters of the great lakes on the north, and those of the Gulf of Mexico on the south — denote the contemporaneous existence of communication between these extremes. For we find, side by side, in the same mounds, native copper from Lake Superior, mica from the AUeghanies, shells from the Gulf, and obsidian (perhaps porphyry) from Mexico. This fact seems to conflict seriously with the hypothesis of a migration, either northward or southward. Further and more extended investigations and observations may, nevertheless, serve satisfactorily to settle, not only this, but other equally interesting questions, connected with the extinct race, whose name is lost to tradition itself, and whose very existence is left to the sole and silent attestations of the rude, but oft im- posing monuments, which throng the valleys of the West." A dispassionate review of the evidences thus cursorily presented, in support of the contemporaneousness of American races with those first r(!corded on the monuments of the eastern world, when taken together, ought, we tliink, to satisfy any unprejudiced mind. Nor can anything be twisted out of the Jewish records to show that, at the time when many races were ah'eady formed in the old Levant, ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 289 at least one distinct type of man did not exist on the Western Conti- nent. But, to our luinds, stronger tlian all other reasonings, not ex- ceptiug the antithesis of languages, is that drawn from the antiquity of skulls. The vertical occiput, the prominent vertex, the great interparietal diameter, the low defective forehead, the small internal capacity of the skull, the square or rounded form, the quadrangular orhits, the massive maxillse, are peculiarities which stamp the American groups, more especially the Toltecan family, and distinguish them widely from any other races of the earth, ancient or modern. As before remarked, these characters are seen to some extent in all Indians : although the savage tribes exhibit a greater development of the posterior portion of the brain than the Toltecs — thus supply- ing, in iSTatural History, the link of organism which assimilates the Barbarous septs of America to the savage races of the Old World. An interesting fact was mentioned to us by an American ofScer, of high standing, who accompanied our army in its march through Mexico during the late war. Although his head, which we mea- sured, is below the average size of the Anglo-Saxon race, he told us that it was with difficulty he could find, in a large hat-store at Mata- moras, a single hat which would go on his head. Hats suited to Mexicans are too small for Anglo-Saxons : a fact corroborated by ample testimony. Throughout the w^inter season, in Mobile, at least one hundred Indians of the Choctaw tribe wander about the streets, endeavoring to dispose of their little packs of wood ; and a glance at their heads will show that they correspond, in every particular, with the anatomical description just given. They present heads precisely analogous to those ancient crania taken from the mounds over the whole territory of the United States ; while they most strikingly contrast with the Anglo-Saxons, French, Spaniards and Negroes, among whom they are moving. It is impossible to say how long human bones may be preserved in a dry soil. There are some curious statements of Squier, and many more of Wilson,^^ respecting the barrows of the ancient Britons, where skeletons have been preserved at least 2000 years : — " Considering that the earth around these skeletons is wonderfully compact and dry, and that the conditions for their preservation are exceedingly favorable, while they are in fact 80 much decayed, we may form some approximate estimate of their remote antiquity. In the barrows of the ancient Britons, entire, well-preserved skeletons are found, although possessing an undoubted antiquity of at least eighteen hundred years. Local causes may produce singular results in particular instances, but we speak now of these remains in the aggregate." 372 From the ruins of Nineveh and Babylon we have bones of at least 2500 years old;^"^ from the pyramids ^'^ and the catacombs of Egypt. 37 290 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. both mummied and unmummied crania have been taken, of still higher antiquity, in perfect preservation ; and numerous other proofs might be brought forward to the same effect : nevertheless, the ske- letons deposited in our Indian mounds, from the Lakes to the Gulf, are crumbling into dust through age alone ! Speaking of the mound-builders, it is said: — "The only skull incontestably belonging to an individual of that race, which has been recovered entire, or sufficiently well preserved to be of value for purposes of comparison, was taken from the hill-mound, numbered 8 in the map of a section of twelve miles of the Scioto Valley." Squier's account continues : — " The circumstances under which this skull was found are, altogether, so extraordinary as to merit a detailed account. It will be observed, from the map, that the mound above indicated is situated upon the summit of a high hill, overlooking the valley of the Scioto, about four miles below the city of Chilicothe. It is one of the most prominent and com- manding positions in that section of country. Upon the summit of this hill rises a conical knoll, of so great regularity as almost to induce the belief that it is itself artificial. Upon the very apex of this knoll, and covered by the trees of the primitive forests, is the mound. It is about eight feet high, by forty or fifty feet base. The superstructure is a tough yellow clay, which, at the depth of three feet, is mixed with large, rough stones ; as shown in the accompanying section, (Fig. 197). "These stones rest upon a dry, calcareous deposit of buried earth and small stones, of a dark black colour, and much compacted. This deposit is about two feet in thickness, in the centre, and rests upon the original soil. In excavating the mound, a large plate of mica was discovered, placed upon the stones Immediately underneath this plate of mica, and in the centre of the buried deposit, was found the skull figured in the plates (Figs. 198, 199). It was discovered resting upon its face. The lower jaw, as, indeed, the entire skeleton, excepting the clavicle, a few cervical vertebrae, and some of the bones of the feet, all of which were huddled around the skull, were wanting. " From the entire singularity of this burial, it might be inferred that the deposit was a comparatively recent one ; but the fact that the various layers of carbonaceous earth, stones, and clay were entirely undisturbed, and in no degree intermixed, settles the question be- yond ddubt, that the skull was placed where it was found, at the time of the construction of the mound. . . . " This skull is wonderfully preserved ; unaccountably so, unless the circumstances under which it was found may be regarded as most favorable to such a result. The impervious- ness of the mound to water, from the nature of the material composing it, and its position on the summit of an eminence, subsiding in every direction from its base, are circumstances which, joined to the antiseptic qualities of the carbonaceous deposit enveloping the skull, may satisfactorily account for its excellent preservation." A twofold interest attaches to the mound (Fig. 197), of which we offer a sectional tracing. On the one hand it indicates the pains ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 291 bestowed by ancient American man upon the dead ; thus evincing considerable civilization : on the other, the central tumular position in which this unique cranium was discovered, establishes an ante- Columbian age for its builders, and segregates it entirely from the ruder sepulchres of our modern Indians. "We present a vertical and a profile engraving of this ancient skull, one exceedingly characteristic of our American races, although more Fig. 198. Fio. 199. particularly of the Toltecan ; having already stated that the Barba- rous tribes possessed more development of the posterior part of the brain than the Toltecs. An examination of this skull will elicit the following characteristic peculiarities — forehead low, narrow, and re- ceding; flattened occiput; a perpendicular line drawn through the external meatus of the ear, divides the brain into two unequal parts, of which the posterior is much the smaller ; forming, in this respect, a striking contrast with other, and more particulai-ly the Xegro, races. Viewed from above, the anterior part of the biain is narrow, and the posterior and middle portion, over the organs of caution, secretive- ness, destructiveness, &c., very broad, thus lending much support to phrenolog}^: vertex prominent. [These peculiarities are confirmed by the numerous measurements of Dr. Morton, and by the observations of many other anatomists, as well as our own. Identical characters, too, pervade all the American races, ancient and modern, over the whole continent. "We have compared many heads of living tribes, Cherokees. Choctaws, Mexicans, &c., as well as cra- nia from mounds of all ages, and the same general organism characterizes each one. — J. C. N.] Any South-African race, compared with an American Indian, would ex- hibit a contrast almost as salient; but a Bosjesman (Fig. 200) from the Cape Fig. 200.3-5 292 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. of Good Hope answers our purpose. Osteologically, they are as dis- tinct from each other as the skull of a fossil hyena is from that of a prairie wolf; at the same time that each human cranium is emphati- cally typical of the race to which it appertains. But, if comparison of an antique American cranium (Fig. 198) with the skull of a modern Bushman (Fig. 200), evolves instantane- ously such palpable contrasts, still more extraordinary and startling are those which resile when we compare either or both with one of the primeval '■'■ kumhe-kephalic" or boat-shaped skulls (Figs. 201, 202), Fig. 202. Fig. 201. exhumed from the pre-Celtic cairns of Scotland.^"^^ Can anything human be more diverse than the osteological conformation of the most ancient type of man known in America from that of the primordial Briton ? Be it duly noted, too, that while, on the American conti- nent, the earliest cranium resulting from Squier's researches is every way identical (as we shall demonstrate hereinafter) with crania of the Creeks, and other Indian nations of our own generation, men of this kumbe-kephalie type occupied the British Isles long prior to the ad- vent of those brachy-kephalie races, who were precursors of the old Celts ; themselves, in Britain, antedating all history ! Of this fact Wilson's Archoiology of Scotland furnishes exuberant evidences ; to be enlarged upon by us in dealing with "Comparative Anatomy." Hamilton Smith and Morton have contended that no test is known by which fossil human are distinguishable from other fossil bones of extinct species.^^'^ The question, to say the least, is an open one ; although none can aver that there are not human fossils as old as those of the mastodon and other extinct animals. The following extract from Morton's memoir is interesting, taken in connection with the American type : — ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 293 " It is necessary to advert to the discoveries of Dr. Lund, among the bone-caves of Minas Gerdas, in Brazil. This distinguislied traveller has found the remains of man in tlieso caverns associated with those of extinct genera and species of animals; and the attendant circumstances lead to tlie reasonable conclusion that they were contemporaneous inhabit- ants of the region in which they were found. Yet, even here, the form of the sl^uU differs in nothing from the acknowledged type, unless it be in the still greater depression of the forehead and a peculiarity of form in the teeth. With respect to the latter. Dr. Lund describes the incisors as having an oval surface, of which the axis is antero-posterior, in place of the sharp and chisel-like edge of ordinary teeth of the same class. He assures us, that he found it equally in the young and the aged, and is confident it is not the result of attrition, as is manifestly the case in those Egyptian heads in which Professor Blumenbach noticed an analogous peculiarity. I am not prepared to question an opinion which I havo not been able to test by personal observation ; but it is obvious that, if such differences exist independently of art or accident, they are at least specific, and consequently of the highest interest in ethnology. " The head of the celebrated Guadaloupe skeleton forms no exception to the type of the i-ace. The skeleton itself, which is in a semi-fossil state, is preserved in the British Mu- seum — but wants the cranium, which, however, is supposed to be recovered in the one found by M. L'H^minier, in Guadaloupe, and brought by him to Charleston, South Carolina. Dr. Moultrie, who has described this very interesting relic, makes the following obser- vations : ' Compared with the cranium of a Peruvian presented to Professor Holbrook, hy Dr. Morton, in the Museum of the State of South Carolina, the craniological similarity manifested between them is too striking to permit us to question their national identity. There is in both the same coronal elevation, occipital compression, and lateral protu- berance, accompanied with frontal depression, which mark the American variety in general. '" It seems clear, that the Indians of America are indigenous to the soil ; but it does not follow, that in ancient times there might not have been some occasional or accidental immigrations from the Old World, though too small to aifect materially the language or the type of the aborigines. There are several quite recent examples recorded, where boats with persons in them have been blown, from the Pacific islands and other distant parts, to the shores of America ; and in this way may be explained certain facts, connected with language, which have been adduced as evidence of Asiatic origin for our Indians. But we protest, in the name of science, against the notion that any of these ancient possibilities have yet entered into the category of ascertained facts. On the contrary, all known anatomical, archaeo- logical, and monumental proofs oppose such hypothesis. Possible, also, is it that the Northmen discovered this country several hundred years before Columbus, and held intercourse with it as far as Labrador ; yet they have left no trace of tongue nor vestige of art. Agriculture is acknowledged on all hands to have incited the first steps toward civilization, and, for some most curious facts on this head, the reader is referred to Mr. Gallatin's paper.™ Was the agriculture found in America by the Whites, introduced at an early epoch from abroad, or was it of domestic origin ? This question has excited 294 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. much conjecture, and is an important one, as it necessarily involves the origin of American civilization. The following facts are certainly very significant : — 1. All those nutritions plants cultivated and used for food in the other hemisphere, such as millet, rice, wheat, rye, barley, and oats, as well as our domestic animals — horses, cattle, sheep, camels, goats, &c., were entirely unknown to the Americans. 2. Maize, the great and almost sole foundation of American civili- zation, is exclusively indigenous, and was not known to the other hemisphere until after the discovery of America.^'^ The kind of beans by the Spaniards called frijoles, still cultivated by the Indians in Mexico and Central America, is indigenous to our continent, and even now unused in the other. If these facts be conceded, as they have heretofore been by all naturalists and archaeologists, it will not be questioned that the agri- culture of America was of domestic origin, as well as the semi-civiliza- tion of any Indian cultivators. These premises alone establish a primitive origin and high antiquity for the American races. Inquiry into their astronomical knowledge, their arithmetic, divi- sion of time, names of days, &c., will show that their whole system was peculiar ; and, if not absolutely original, must antedate all historical times of the Old World, since it has no parallel on record. The Chaldeans, the Chinese, the Egyptians, and other nations of the East- ern hemisphere, had divisions of time and astronomical knowledge more than 2000 years b. c. ; nevertheless, among ancient or modern Indians, there remains no trace of these trans- Atlantic systems. "Almost all the nations of the world appear, in their first attempts to compute time, to have resorted to lunar months, which they afterwards adjusted in various ways, in order to make them correspond with the solar year. In America, the Peruvians, the Chilians, and the Muyscas, proceeded in the same way ; but not so with the Mexicans. And it is a remarkable fact, that the short period of seven days (our week), so universal in Europe and in Asia, was unknown to all the Indians, either of North or South America." 38o [Had this learned and unbiassed philologist lived to read Lepsius,38i he would have excepted the Egyptians ; who divided their months into three decades, and knew nothing of weeks of seven days. Neither did the Chinese, ancient or modern, 3^*2 ever observe a " seventh day of rest." — G. R. G.] "All the nations of Mexico, Yucatan, and probably of Central America, which were within tlie pale of civilization, had two distinct modes of computing time. The first and vulgar mode, was a period of twenty days; which has certainly no connection with any celestial phenomenon, and which was clearly derived from their system of numeration, or arithmetic, which was peculiar to them. " The other computation of time was a period of thirteen daj's, which was designated as being the count of the moon, and which is said to have been derived from the number of days whtn, in each of its evolutions, the moon appears above the horizon during the greater part of the night. ... " We distinguish the days of our months by their numerical order — first, second, third, &c., day of the month; and the days of our week by specific names — Sunday, Monday, ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 295 &c. The Mexicans distinguished every one of their days of the period of twenty days, by a specific name — Cipactli, Eliecatl, &c. ; and every day of the period of thirteen days, by a numerical order, from one to thirteen." ^3 These can be neither called weeks nor months — they were arbi- trar}' divisions, used long before the Christian era, and no doubt long before the Americans had any idea of the true length of the solar year. This they arrived at with considerable accuracy, but, as we have reason to believe, not many centuries before the Spanish con- quest. With regard to the origin of the astronomical knowledge of American races, there has been much discussion. Humboldt has pointed out some striking coincidences in the Mexican modes of com- puting time, names of their months, and similar accidents, with those of Thibet, China, and other Asiatic nations ; which (were philology certainty, and old Jesuit interpretation safe,) would look very much as if the}^ had been borrowed, and engrafted on American systems at a comparatively recent period. On the other hand, he has laid stress upon some of the peculiarities especially distinguishing the Mexican calendar, and which cannot be ascribed to foreign origin — such as the fact already mentioned, that the Mexicans never counted by months or weeks. " What is remarkable too [says Humboldt], is, that the calendar of Peru aflfords imlubit- able proofs not only of astronomical observations and of a certain degree of astroiiomical knowledge, but also that their origin was independent of that of the Mexicans. If both the Mexican and Peruvian calendars were not the result of their own independent obser- Tations. we must suppose a double importation of astronomical knowledge — one to Peru, and another to Mexico — coming from different quarters, and by people possessed of difl'er- ent degrees of knowledge. There is not in Peru any trace of identity of the names of the days, or of a resort to the combination of two series. Their months were alternately of twenty-nine and thirty days, to which eleven days were added, to complete the year." Now, if the Mexican calendar differed, '■Hoto ecelo,'" from that of the Permnan, it follows that their respective origins were distinct ; and if neither, as Humboldt indicates, was constructed upon a foreign or Asiatic basis, how are any suppositions of antique intercourse between the two hemispheres justified by a.stronomy ? Why, if the Peruvians did not borrow from the Mexicans, (their contemporaries on the same continent,) sbould they not have taught themselves, just as the Mexi- cans did their ownselves, systems as unlike each other as they are separated by nature, times, and spaces, from every one adopted by those types of mankind, whose physical structure is from these Ame- ricans utterl}' diverse ? Some of the astronomical observations of the Mexicans were also clearly local : the two transits of the sun, for instance, by the zenith of Mexico, besides others. A.ssuredly the major portion, then, of the astronomical knowledge of the aboriginal Americans was of domestic origin ; and any of thf» 296 ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. few points of contact witli the calendars of the Old World, if not accidental, must have taken place at an exceedingly remote period of time. In fact, whatever may have come from the Old World was engrafted upon a system itself still older than the exotic shoots. But, if it still be contended that astronomy was imported, why did not the immigrants bring an alphabet or Asiatic system of writing, the art of working iron, mills, wheel-barrows (all, with remembrance even of Oriental navigation, unknown in America) ? Or at least the seeds of millet, rice, wheat, oats, barley, &c., of their respective bota- nical provinces or countries ? Alas ! sustainers of the Unit7/-doctrme will be puzzled to find one fact among American aborigines to sup- port it. In conclusion, we have but to sum up the facts briefly detailed, and these results will be clearly deducible, namely : — 1. That the continent of America was unknown not only to the ancient Egyptians and Chinese, but to the more modern Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans. 2. That at the time of its discovery, this continent was populated by millions of people, resembling each other, possessing peculiar moral and pjiysical characteristics, and in utter contrast with any people of the Old World. 3. That these races were found surrounded everywhere by animals and plants specifically different from those of the Old World, and created, as it is conceded, in America. 4. That these races were found speaking several hundred languages, which, although often resembling each other in grammatical structure, ditfered in general entirely in their vocabularies, and were all radi- cally distinct from the languages of the Old World. 5. That their monuments, as seen in their architecture, sculpture, earth-works, shell-banks, &c., from their extent, dissemination, and incalculable numbers, furnish evidence of very high antiquity. 6. That the state of decomposition in which the skeletons of the mounds are found, and, above all, the peculiar anatomical structure of the few remaining crania, prove these mound-builders to have been both ancient and indigenous to the soil ; because American crania, antique as well as modern, are unlike those of any other race of an- cient or recent times. 7. That the aborigines of America possessed no alphabet or truly- [)honetic sj'stem of writing — that they possessed none of the domestic animals, nor many of the oldest arts of the Eastern hemisphere; whilst their agricultural plants were indigenous. 8. That their system of arithmetic was unique — that their astro- nomical knowledge, in the main, was indubitably of cis-Atlantiu ABORIGINAL RACES OF AMERICA. 297 origin ; while their calendar was unlike that of any people, ancient or modern, of the other hemisphere. AVhatever exception may be taken to any of these propositions separately, it must be conceded that, when viewed together, they form a mass of cumulative testimony, carrying the aborigines of America back to the remotest period of man's existence upon earth. The entire scope of argument on these subjects may be presented in the vigorous language of LordKAiMES; expressing ideas entertained by himself and the authors in common, although more than seventy nine years interlapse between their respective writings : — " The frigidity of tlie North Americans, men and women, differing in that particular from all other savages, is to me evidence of a separate race. And I am the more coniirmed in that opinion, when I find a celebrated writer, whose abilities no person calls in question, endeavoring in vain to ascribe that circumstance to moral and physical causes. Si Fergaijia dexlra defcndi poxset. "In concluding from the foregoing facts that there are different races of men, I reckon upon strenuous opposition; not only from men biassed against what is new or uncommon, but from numberless sedate writers, who hold every distinguishing mark, internal as well as external, to be the effect of soil and climate. Against the former, patience is my only shield-; but I cannot hope for any converts to a new opinion, without removing the argu- ments urged by the latter. "Among the endless number of writers who ascribe supreme efficacy to the climate, Vitruvius shall take the lead. 384 . . . " Upon summing up the whole particulars mentioned above, would one hesitate a mo- ment to adopt the following opinion, were there no counterbalancing evidence: viz., 'That God created many pairs of the human race, differing from each other both externally and internally ; that he fitted these pairs for different climates, and placed each pair in ita proper climate ; that the peculiarities of the original pairs were preserved entire in their descendants — who, having no assistance but their natural talents, were left to gather knowledge from experience, and in particular were left (each tribe) to form a language for 'tself ; that signs were sufficient for the original pairs, without any language but what nature suggests ; and that a language was formed gradually, as a tribe increased in num- bers and in different occupations, to make speech necessary ? ' But this opinion, however plausible, we are not permitted to adopt, being taught a different lesson by revelation : viz., That God created but a single pair of the human species. Though we cannot doubt of the authority of Moses, yet his account of the creation of man is not a little puzzling, as it seems to contradict every one of the facts mentioned above. According to that account, different races of men were not formed, nor were men framed originally for different cli- mates. All men must have spoken the same language, viz., that of our first parents. And what of all seems the most contradictory to that account, is the savage state : Adam, as Moses informs us, was endued by his Maker with an eminent degree of knowledge ; and he certainly must have been an excellent preceptor to his children and their progenj', among whom he lived many generations. Whence then the degeneracy of all men unto the savage state? To account for that dismal catastrophe, mankind must have suffered some terrible convulsion. " That terrible convulsion is revealed to us in the history of the Toicer of Babel." ^^ . . . Babylon's Tower (it is known to cuneiform students of the present day) did not exist before the reign of ISTebuchadnezar ; who built ir. during the seventh century b. c.'^***^ As the edifice does not concern Ethnology, we pass onward. 38 598 Morton's inedited mss. CHAPTER X. Excerpta FEOM Morton's inedited manuscripts. [Although not in the mature shape in which Dr. Morton h^ibitw- ally submitted his reflections to the scientific world, and destitute, alas ! of his own improvements, a contribution, so valuable to that study of Man which owes its present momentum to his genius, must not be overlooked in "Types of Mankind." With their joint acknowledg- ments to Mrs. S. Geo. Morton, for the unreserved use of whatever autographs their much-honored friend intended for eventual publica- tion, the authors annex two fragmentary essays. Overcome by ill- ness, the Doctor withdrew from his library on the 6th of May, 1851 ; leaving these, among other evidences of an enthusiasm for science which death alone could stifle. The authors take the more pleasure and pride in embodying such first rough-draughts, fresh as they flowed from his mind — not unstudied, but unadorned. Dr. Morton is here beheld in his office, writing down with characteristic simplicity, while disturbed by professional interruptions, the results of his incessant labor and meditation, couched in the language of truth.] [MANUSCRIPT A.J " On the Size of the Brain in Various Maces and Families of Man; with Ethnological Memarks. By Samuel George Morton, M. D. : Philadelphia and Edinburgh.'' The importance of the brain as the seat of the faculties of the mind, is preeminent in the animal economy. Hence the avidity with which its structure and functions have been studied in our time ; for, although much remains to be explained, much has certainly been ac- complished. We have reason to believe, not only that the brain is the centre of the whole series of mental manifestations, but that its .ieveral parts are so many organs ; each one of which performs its peculiar and distinctive office. But the number, locality, and func- tions of these several organs are far from being determinea- nor ON THE SIZE OF THE BRAIN IN MAN. 299 should this uncertainty surprise us, when we reflect on the slow and devious process by which mankind have arrived at some of the sim- plest physiological truths, and the diffieuUies that environ all inquiries into the nature of the organic functions. In studying ethnology, and especially in comparing the crania of the several races, I was struck with the inadecjuacy of the methods in use for determining the size and weight of the brain. On these methods, which are four in number, I submit the following remarks: 1. The plan most frequently resorted to is that which measures the exterior of the head or skull within various corresponding points. "We are thus enabled to compare the relative conformation in different individuals, and in this manner obtain some idea of the relative size of the brain itself. Such measurements possess a great value in cra- niology, and, we need hardly add, are the only ones that are available in the living man. 2. The plan of weighing the brain has been extensively practised in modern times, and with very instructive results. Haller found the encephalon to vary, in adult men, from a pound and a half to more than five pounds ; and the Wenzels state the average of their experi- ments to range from about three pounds five ounces to three pounds ten ounces.* The experiments of the late Dr. John Sims, of London, which, from their number and accuracy, deserve great attention, place the average weight of the recent brain between three pounds eight and three pounds ten ounces, or nearly the same weight as that obtained by the "Wenzels. Of 253 brains weighed by Dr. Sims, 191 were adults from twenty years old to seventy, and upwards ; and of the whole series, the lowest weighed two pounds, and the highest an ounce less than four pounds. t Prof Tiedemann, of Heidelberg, a learned and accomplished ana- tomist, has pursued the same mode of investigation. After giving the weight of fifty-two European brains, he adds that " The weight of the brain in an adult European varies between three pounds two ounces and four pounds six ounces Troy. The brain of men who have distinguished themselves by their great talents are often very large. The brain of the celebrated Cuvier weighed four pounds, eleven ounces, four drachms, thirty grains, Troy ; and that of the distin- guished surgeon, Dupuytren, weighed four pounds ten ounces Troy. The brain of men en- dowed with but feeble intellectual powers, is, on the contrary, often very small, particularly in congenital idiotismus. The female brain is lighter than that of the male. It varies be- tween two pounds eight ounces and three pounds eleven ounces. I never found a female brain that weighed four pounds. The female brain weighs, on an average, from four to eight ounces less than that of the male ; and this difference is already perceptible in a new-born child." J * Medico-Chirurg. Trftns., xix. p. 351. f Idem, p. 259. J Trans, of the Royal Soc. of London. 300 Morton's inedited mss. Sir W. Hamilton adds, that in the male about one bi'ain in seven is found above four pounds Troj ; in the female hardly one in an hundred. These results are highly instructive, and furnish the average weight of the cerebral organs at the time of death ; but whoever will examine the valuable tables of Dr. Sims, will observe that various circum- stances may affect the weight of the brain, without, at the same time, modifying its size ; viz. : extreme sanguineous congestion ; fluids contained in the ventricles ; interstitial effusion ; extravasation of blood, and softening and condensation of structure. These morbid changes sometimes take place rapidly, while the absolute hulk of the brain remains unaltered. Again, the plan of weighing the encephalon nmst always be a very restricted one ; and is not likely ever to be practised on an extensive scale, except in the Caucasian and Negro. 3. Another, but indirect, mode of ascertaining the weight of the brain, has been practised by Sir "William Hamilton, who " examined about 300 human skulls, of determined sex, the capacity of which, by a method he devised, was taken in sand, and the original M^eight thus recovered." * Eespecting the process employed in these experiments I am not informed ; and I agree with Dr. Sims, that the weight of the brain cannot be determined by ascertaining the capacity of the cranium, by awy method, however accurate in itself. More recently. Prof. Tiedemann has performed an elaborate series of experiments to determine the comparative weight of the brain in the different human races. " For this purpose," he observes, "I filled the skull through the foramen magnum with millet-seed, taking care to close the foramina and fissures, so as to prevent the escape of the seed, and at the same time striking the cranium with the palm of the hand, in order to pack its contents more closely. I then weighed the skull thus filled, and subtracted from it the weight of the empty one, and I thus determined the capacity of the cranium from the weight of the seed it was capable of containing." f The results obtained by Prof Tiedemann, like those of Sir William Hamilton, possess a great value in researches of this kind ; yet, un- fortunately, they are not absolute either as respects the size or weight of the brain ; for it is evident that the second of these objects could only be obtained by employing a medium of the same density as the brain ; and as to capacity, no method had, at that time (1837), been devised for obtaining it in cubic inches. 4. Seeing, therefore, that the several processes just described are not absolute, but only comparative in their results, without affording * Essays and Heads of Lectures : by Dr. A. Monro, xxxix. f Das llein des Negers, &c. p. 21. ON" THE SIZE OF THE BRAIN IN MAN. 301 either the true weight or true bulk of the braiu, I sohcited my friend, Mr. John S. Phillips, to devise some more satisfactory method of ob- tainino; the desired object ; and this has been entirely successful in the following manner, A tin cylinder was made, about two inches and three-fourths in diameter, and two feet two inches in height, standing on a foot, and banded with swelled hoops about two inches apart, and firmly sol- dered to prevent accidental flattening. A glass tube, hermetically sealed at one end, was cut off so as to hold exactl}- five cubic inches of water b}- weight, at 60° Fahrenheit. A float of light wood, well varnished, two and one-fourth inches in diameter, with a slender rod of the same material fixed in its centre, was next dropped into the tin cylinder. Then five cubic inches of water, measured in the glass tube, were poured into the cylinder, and the point at which the rod on the float stood above the top of the cylinder, was marked by the edge of a file laid across its top. And, in like manner, the successive gradations on the float-rod, indicating five cubic inches each, were obtained by pouring five cubic inches from the glass tube gradatim, and marking each rise on the float-rod. The gradations thus ascer- tained were transferred to a mahogany rod, fitted with a flat foot, and these were again subdivided by means of compasses to mark the cubic inches and parts.* In order to measure the internal capacity of a cranium, the larger foramina must be first stopped with cotton, and the cavity then filled with leaden shot one-eighth of an inch in diameter, poured into the foramen magnum. This process should be efiected to repletion ; and for this purpose it is necessary to shake the skull repeatedly, and, at the same time to press down the shot with the finger, or with the end of the funnel, until the cavity can receive no more. The shot are next to be transferred to the tin cylinder, which should also be well shaken. The mahogany rod being then dropped into the tin cylinder, with its foot resting on the shot, the capacity of the cranium will be indicated by the number observed on the same plane with the top of the tube. I thus obtain the absolute capacity of the cranium^ or hulk of the brain in cubic inches; nor can I avoid expressing my satisfaction at the singular accuracy of this method; inasmuch as a skull of 100 cubic inches capacity, if measured any number of times with reasonable care, will not vary a single cubic inch. On first using this apparatus, I employed, in place of shot, white pepper seed, which possessed the advantage of a spheroidical form * Crania Americana, 1839, p. 253. 302 Morton's inedited mss. and general uniformity in the size of the grains. But it was soon manifest that the utmost care coukl not prevent considerable variation in several successive measurements, sometimes amounting to three or four cubic inches. Under these circumstances, but not until all the internal capacity measurements of the Crania Americana had been made in this way, I saw the necessity of devising some other medium with Avhich to fill the cranium ; and after a full trial of the shot, have permanently adopted it, with the satisfactory results above stated.* These remarks will explain the difference between the measurements published in the Crania Americana and those obtained from the same skulls by the revised method. f In an investigation of this nature, the question arises — At what age does the brain attain full development? On this point, there is great diversit}^ of opinion. Professor Sommering supposes this period to be as early as the third year. Sir William Hamilton expresses himself in the following terms : " In man, the encephalon reaches its fall size about seven 3'ears of age. This," he adds, "was never before proved." The latter remark leads us to infer that this able and labo- rious investigator regarded his proposition as an incontestable fact. Professor Tiedemann assumes the eighth year as the period of the brain's maximum growth. Dr. Sims, on the other hand, inferred from an extended series of experiments on the brain from a year old to upwards of seventy, that " the average weight goes on increasing from one year to twenty ; between twenty and thirt}' there is a slight increase in the average ; afterwards it increases, and arrives at the maximum between forty and tifty. After fifty, to old age, the brain gradually decreases in M'eight." These observations nearly correspond with those of Dr. Gall, but are liable to various objections. Dr. John Reid has also investigated this question on a large scale and with great care. After weighing 253 brains of both sexes and of various ages, he arrives at the conclusion that the encephalon arrives at its maximum size sooner than the other organs of the body ; that its relative size, when compared with the other organs, and to the entire body, is much greater in the child than in the adult; and that although the average weight of the male brain is absolutely heavier than that of the female, yet the average female brain, relative to the whole body, is somewhat heavier than the average male brain. Finally, he observes that his experiments do not afford any support to the proposition that the encephalon attains its maximum weight at or near the age of seven years. On this latter point, which is of * Proceedings of the Academy of Nat. Sciences ot Thilad. for April, 1841. •j See my Catalogue of Skulls, 3d ed. 1849. ON THE SIZE OF THE BRAIN IN MAN. 303 great importance in the present inqniiy, I shall offer a few remarks — The most obvious use of the sutures of the cranium is to subserve the process of growth, which they do by osseous depositions at their margins. Hence one of these sutures is equivalent to the interrupted structure that exists between the shaft and epiphysis of a long bone in the growing state. The shaft grows in length chiefly by accretiona at its extremities ; and the epiphysis, like the cranial suture, disap- pears when the perfect development is accomplished. Hence we may infer that the skull ceases to expand whenever the sutures become consolidated with the proximate bones. In other words, the growth of the brain, whether in viviparous or in oviparous animals, is con- sentaneous with that of the skull, and. neither can be developed with- out the presence of free sutures.* From these considerations, and from many comparisons, I cannot admit that the brain has attained its physical maturity at the age of seven or eight years ; neither is there satisfactory evidence to prove that it continues to grow after adult age. It may possibly increase and decrease in size and weight after that period, without altering the internal capacity of the cranium, which last measurement will always indicate the maximum size the encephalon had attained at (the) period of its greatest development; for in those instances in which this organ has been observed in a contracted or shrunken state, in very old persons, the cranial cavity has remained to all ap- pearance unaltered, f "We know that at, and often before, the age of sixteen years the sutures are already so firmly anchylosed as not to be separated with- out great difficulty, or even without fracture ; whence we may reason- ably infer that the encephalon has nearly, if not entirely, attained its * I have in my possession the skull of a mulatto boy who died at the age of eighteen years. In this instance, the sagittal suture is entirely wanting ; in consequence, the lateral expansion of the cranium has ceased in infancy, or at whatever period the suture became consolidated. Hence also the diameter between the parietal protuberances is less than 4.5 inches, instead of 5, which last is the Negro average. The squamous sutures, however are fully open, whence the skull has continued to expand in the upward direction, until it has reached the average vertical diameter of the Negro, or 5.5 inches. The coronal suture is also wanting, excepting some traces at its lateral termini; and the result of this last deficiency is seen in the very inadequate of the forehead, which is low and narrow but elongated below through the agency of the various cranio-facial sutures. The lamdoidal suture is perfect, thus permitting posterior elongation ; and the growth in this direction, together with the full vertical diameter, has enabled the brain to attain the bulk of cubic inches, or about less than the Negro average. I believe that the absence or partial development of the sutures may be a cause of idiocy by checking the growth of the brain, and thereby impairing or destroying its functions. See Fro-eeJinffs of the Academy, for August, 1841. f Mr. George Combe, System. e>f Phrenology, p. 83, is of the opinion that when the brain contracts, the inner table of the skull follows it, while the outer remains stationary. 304 Morton's inedited mss growtii; and I have therefore commenced my expeimients with this period of life. I am aware that it cannot be as safely assumed for the nations who inhabit the frigid and temperate zones, as for some inter-tropical races — the Hindoos, Arab-Egyptians, and Negroes, for example ; for these people are proverbially known to reach the adult age, both physically and morally, long before the inhabitants of more northern climates. But, if the average period of the full development of the -brain could be ascertained in all the races, it would, perhaps, not greatly vary from the age of sixteen years. It is evident that this age cannot be always positively determined in the dried skull ; yet by a careful comparison of the teeth and sutures, in connection with the general development of the cranial structure, I have had little difficulty in keeping within the prescribed limit. In classing these skulls into the two sexes, I have been in part governed by positive data ; but in the greater number this question has been proximately determined by merely comparing the develop- ment and conformation of the cranial structure. T have excluded from the Table the crania of idiots, dwarfs, and those of persons whose heads have been enlarged or otherwise modi- fied by any obvious morbid condition. So, also, no note has been taken of individuals who blend dissimilar races, as the mulatto, for example — the offspring of the Caucasian and the Negro. Those instances, however, which present a mixture of two divisions of the same great race, are admitted into the Table. Such is the modern Fellah of the Valley of the ISTile, in whom the intrusive Arab is engrafted on the Old Egyptian. '^• The measurements comprised in this 3Iemoir have been derived, without exception, from skulls in my own collection, in order that their accuracy may at any time be tested by myself or by others. I have also great satisfaction in stating, that all these measurements have been made with my own hands. I at one time employed a person to assist me ; but having detected some errors in his numbers, I have been at the pains to revise them all, and can now therefore vouch for the accuracy of these multitudinous data. My collection at this time embraces [*] human crania, among which, however, the different races are very unequally represented. Nor has it been possible, for reasons already mentioned, to subject the entire series to the adopted measurement. Again, some of these are too much broken for this purpose ; while many others are embalmed heads, which cannot be measured, on account of the presence of bitumen or of desiccated tissues. ***** [* In Miiy, 1851, about 837 skulls {MIS. addenda to Catalogue of 1849). Since augmented bj otiC or tw> dozen. — G. II. G.] ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. oUO [MANUSCRIPT B.] {Origin of the Ifuman Species.) B.efore proceeding to an analysis of these materials, I pnr|")ose to make a very few remarks on the origin of the Human Species as a zoological question, and one inseparably associated with classification in Ethnology. After twenty years of observation and reflection, during which period I have always approached this subject with diflidence and caution ; after investigating for myself the remarkable diversities of opinion to which it has given rise, and after weighing the difficulties that beset it on every side, I can find no satisfactoiy explanation of the diverse phenomena that characterize physical Man, excepting in the doctrine of an original plurality of races. The commonly received opinion teaches, that all mankind have been derived from a primeval pair ; and that the differences now observable among the several races, result from the operation of two principal causes : 1. The influence of climate, locality, civilization, and other physical and moral agents, acting through long periods of time. The mani- fest inadequacy of this h^'pothesis, led the late learned and lamented Dr. Prichard to offer the following ingenious explanation. 2. The diversities among mankind are mainly attributable to the rise of accidental varieties, which, from their isolated position and exclusive intermarriage, have rendered their peculiar traits permanent among themselves, or, in other words, indelible among succeeding generations of the same stock. The preceding propositions, more or less modified and blended together, are by many ethnologists regarded as adequate to the expla- nation of all the phenomena of diversity observable in Man. If, however, we were to be guided in this inquiry solely by the evidence derived from Nature, whether directly, in the study of man himself, or collaterally by comparison with the other divisions of the zoological series, our conclusions might be altogether different : we would be led to infer that our species had its origin not in one, but in many creations ; that these were widely distributed into those localities upon the earth's surface as were best adapted to their pecu- liar wants and physical constitutions ; and that, in the lapse of time, these races, diverging from their primitive centres, met and amalga mated, and have thus given rise to those intermediate links of organ- ization whicli now connect the extremes toirether.* • The doctrine of a plurality of origiual creations for the human family, is by no means 39 306 Morton's inedited mss. In accordance with this view, what are at present termed the five races would be more appropriately called gj-oups. Each of these groups is again divisible into a smaller or greater number of primary races, each of which has itself expanded from a primordial nucleus or centime. To illustrate this proposition, we may suppose that there were several centres for the American groups of races, of which the highest in the scale are the Toltecan nations — the lowest, the Fue- gians. Nor does this view conflict with the general principle, that all these nations and tribes have had, as I have elsewhere expressed it, a common origin ; for by this term is only meant an indigenous relation to the countr}^ they inhabit, and that collective identity of physical traits, mental and moral endowments, language, &c., which characterise all the American races.* The same remarks are applicable to all the other human races ; but in the present infant state of ethnological science, the designation of these primitive centres would be a task of equal delicacy and difficulty. It would not be admissible in this place, to inquire into the respec- tive merits of these propositions ; and we shall dismiss them for the present with a few brief remarks. If all the varieties of mankind were derived from a single aboriginal type, we ought to find the approximation to this type more and more apparent as we retrace the labyrinth of time, and approach the primeval epochs of history. But what is the result ? We examine the vener- able monuments of Egypt, and we see the Caucasian and the Negro new ; for it was believed and expounded by a learned Rabbi of the Apostolic nge, in a com- mentary (the Tarfjum) on the Pentateuch. Rev. J. Tye Smith, Relation between the Holy Scriptures and Geology, p. 393. I have invariably, when treating of this subject, avowed my belief in the aboriginal diver- sity of mankind, independently of the progressive action of any physical or accidental causes. The words of the Hebrew Targum are precisely to the point : " God created Man red, white, and black." I now venture to give a fuller and somewhat modified explanation of their origin. See Crania Americana, p. 3; Crania .^gyptiaca, p. 37; Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America, p. 36; and Hybridity of Animals considered in reference to the question of the Unity of the Human Species, in Amer. Journal of Science and Arts, 1847. * Niebuhr expresses this idea admirably when he remarks, that it is "false reasoning" to say, " that nations of a common stock must have had a? common origin, from which they were genealogically deduced." History of Rome, I., p. 37. In other words, people of a common stock may have had several or many origins. Such appears to be the fnct not only with man, but with all the inferior animnls AVe are nowhere told the latter were created in pairs. "Male and female created He them" — and the same words are used in refer- ence to the whole zoological series. Prof. Biiiley of West Point, one of the most successful microscopists of the present day, has shown, that the mud taken from some of the deep-sea soundings on the coast of the United States contains, in every cubic inch, hundreds of millions of living calcareous Poly- thalmia. Will any one pretend that these animals were created in pairs, or had their •origin in Mesopotamia ? ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 307 depicted, side by side, master and slave, twenty-two centuries before Christ , while inscriptions establish the same ethnological distinctions eight hundred years earlier in time. [^^^] Abundant confirmation of the same general principle is also found on the numberless vases from the tombs of Etruria; the antique sculptures of India; the pic- torial delineations of the earliest Chinese annals; the time-honored ruins of Nineveh, and from the undated tablets of Peru, Yucatan, and Mexico. In all these localities, so far removed by space from each other, and by time from us, the distinctive characteristics of the human races are so accurately depicted as to enable us, for the most part, to distinguish them at a glance. We earnestly maintain that the preceding views are not irrecon- cileable with the Sacred Text, nor inconsistent with Creative Wisdom as displayed in the other kingdoms of Nature. On the contrary', they are calculated to extend our knowledge and exalt our conceptions of Omnipotence. By the simultaneous creation of a plurality of original stocks, the population of the Earth became not an accidental result, but a matter of certaint3^ Man}- and distant regions which, in accord- ance with the doctrine of a single origin, would have i^emained for thousands of years unpeopled and unknown, received at once their allotted inhabitants ; and these, instead of being left to struggle with the vicissitudes of chance, were from the beginning adapted to those varied circumstances of climate and locality which yet mark their respective positions upon the earth.* I. THE CAUCASIAN GROUP. The Teutonic Race. — I use this appellation in the comprehensive sense in which it has been employed by Professor Adelung ; for the great divisions established by this distinguished scholar, though based exclusively on philological data, are full}' sustained by comparisons m physical ethnology. Of the three great divisions, the Scandinavian nes chiefly to the north of the Baltic sea; the Siievic and Cimbric on the south. 1. The SuEVic nations embrace the Prussians on one hand, the Pyrolese on the other ; while between these lie the Austrians, Swiss, Bavarians, Alsatians, and the inhabitants of the Upper and Middle * See Rev. J. Pye Smith : Relsition between the Holy Scriptures and Geology, 3d. ed. pp. 398-400. Also, Hon. und Rev. William Herbert: Amyrillidacfce, p. 338. ' Les livres Juifs n'entetuleiit pas ^tablir que leur premier liomme ait (5td le pJ^re du genre humain, mais seulenient celui de leur espece privilcgie. U ne peut consdquemmeiii y avoir aucune inipietn at a loss in my attempts to classify these two great divisions of the Nilotic series. Hence it is that nine 40 314 Morton's inedited mss. skulls, v/hicli in my original analysis were placed with the Pe^asgic group I have, on a furtherand more elaborate comparison, transferred to the Egyptian series. The Greeks were numerous in Egypt even before the Persian in- vasion, B. c. 525, and their number greatly increased after ^the con- quest by Alexander the Great, nearly 200 years later (b. c. 332). "When the Romans, in turn, took possession of the country thirty years before our era, the Greeks had already enjoyed uninterrupted communication with it for five centuries. Their colonies were 300 years old ; and it is, therefore, hy no means surprising that the Egyp- tian-Greek population, which chiefly inhabited Lower Egypt, should be largely represented in the catacombs of Memphis. They are fewer in proportion in Theban sepulchres ; and yet fewer as we ascend the Nile ; and are hardly seen in the cemeteries of the rural districts. The peaceful occupation of the Delta by the Greeks, for a long period of time, must necessarily have caused an interminable mixture of the two races, and fully accounts for that blended type of cranial con- formation so common in the catacombs. It is further remarkable that these Grseco-Egyptian heads, which I have separated from the other Nilotic crania by their conformation only, and consequently without any regard to size, present an average of eighty-seven cubic inches for the size of the brain ; or, no less than seven cubic inches above that of the pure Egyptian race, and but three inches less than the average I have assumed for the Teutonic nations. Yet, no one of this series is of preponderating size ; for the largest measures but ninety-seven cubic inches, while the smallest descends to seventy-four.* Again, if we take the mean of the whole twenty-eight crania em- braced in the present division, we find it to be eighty-six cubic inches. TflE Celtic Race. — The Celts who, with the cognate Gauls, at one * Dr. J. C. Warren, of Boston, possesses two finely preserved Roman crania, from the ashes of I'ompeii. It is many years since I saw them, but they appeared to be highly cha- racteristic of this division of the Pelasgic race. The diiference between the Roman and Greek heads is familiar to all observers, but it has not been satisfactorily explained. It may have arisen from alliances between the intrusive Pelasgic and some neighboring, but dissimilar tribe, in Italy. One of the first acts of the Romans was to seize the Sabine women, in order to people their infant colony. These Sabines, however, are ssiid also to have been of Pelasgic origin ; but that the rural population of Italy, at that period, em- braced a large proportion of Celts, may be inferred from historj' and confirmed by the Etrus- can vases; for wherever these relics, now so numerous, picture the sylvan deities, whether as fauns or satyrs, they are represented with marked Celtic features ; while the higher and ruling caste, represented on the same vessels, has a perfect Grecian physiognomy. See Sir William Hamilton's Etruscan Va.ics, passim. The true Roman profile, however, is not ttnfrequcnt on the antique bas-reliefs of Persia. Flandin : Voyage en Perse, pi. 33, 48. ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 315 period, extended their tribes from Asia Minor to the British Islands, are now chiefly eonlined, as an unmixed people, to the west and south- west of Ireland, whence have been derived the six crania embraced in the Table. These rang;e between ninetj'-seven as a maximum and seventy-eight as a minimum of the size of the brain ; and the mean, which is eighty-seven cubic inches, will probably prove to be above that of the entire race, and not exceed eighty-five. France, Spain, and parts of Britain, partake hirgely of Celtic blood, but so variously blended with the Teutonic and Pelasgic branches o± the Caucasian group as to form a singularly mixed population. If a series of crania could be obtained from the old Provincial divisions of France, they would constitute a study of extreme interest; for those of tlie northern section ought to conform in a marked degree to the German type, from their long intercourse (since a. d. 420) with the Franks, Burgundians, Visigoths, and other Teutonic tribes. Tliose in the south would present a greater infusion of the Roman physiog- nomy, w^ith some Greek traits ; while the intermediate communities would retain a marked preponderance of their primitive Celtic char- acteristics. For Caesar restricts the true Continental Celts between the Garonne on the south and the Seine on the north: for although the genuine Gauls were a Celtic people, many German tribes bore the same collective name among the Romans, in the same way that all the nations of the far North were designated Scythians. Europe was successively invaded by the Celtic, Teutonic, and Scla- vonic races. The Celtic migration is of extreme antiquity, yet there can be no question that tliey displaced preexisting tribes. Among the latter may be mentioned the Iberians of Spain, who are yet repre- sented by a fragment of their race — the Basques or Euskalduues of Biscay. The Indostanic Family. — No part of the world presents a greater diversity of human races than the country which bears the collective name of India. Exotic nations have repeatedly conquered that un- fortunate region, and to a certain degree amalgamated with its primi- tive inhabitants. In other instances, the original Hindoos remain unmixed ; and beside these, again, the mountainous districts still contain what may be called fragments of tribes which have takeii refuge there, in remote times, in order to escape the sword or the yoke of strangers. That peninsular India was original!}^ peopled, at least in part, by races of very dark and even black complexion, is beyond a question. These people are stigmatised as Barbarians by their conquerors, the Ayras — a fair race, with Sanscrit speech, whose primal seats were in eastern Persia. They now occupy the country between the Himalaya 316 Morton's inedited mss. mountains on the north, the Vinclya on the south, and between the Indian ocean and the Bay of Bengal.* In this region, called Ayra- Varta, or India Proper, live those once-powerful tribes which it has taken the English more than half a century to subdue. The occu- pancy of India by these Persian tribes dates, according to M. Guigniaut, from the year 3101 before Christ, when also it is supposed the divi- sion oi castes was instituted, [^^a j Of thirty-two adult Indostanic skulls in my collection, eight only can be identified with tiibes of the Ayra or conquering race ; nor even in this small number is there unequivocal proof of the affinity in question. The largest head in the series, that of a Brahmin who was executed, in Calcutta, for murder, measures ninety-one cubic inches for the size of the brain — the smallest head, seventy-nine. Two others pertain to Thuggs, remarkable for an elongated form and lateral flatness. The mean of these Ayi-a heads is eighty-six cubic inches. Contrasted with this people, and occupying the country adjacent to the Bay of Bengal, are the Bengalees — small of stature, feeble in constitution, and timid in disposition. They are obviously an abori- ginal race, upon whom a foreign language has been imposed ; and are far inferior, both mentally and physically, to the true Ayras. Weak and servile themselves, they are surrounded by warrior castes; and perhaps the most remarkable feature of their character is the absence of will, and implicit obedience to those who govern them. Of these child-like people, my collection embraces twenty-four adult crania, of which the largest measures ninety cubic inches; the small- est, sixty-seven ; and the mean of all is but seventy-eight. All the Caucasian families of which we have spoken, belong to that vast chain of nations called Indo-European, in consequence of their having one common tongue, the Sanscrit, as the basis of their varied languages. This is also the Japetic race, and it extends from India proper in one direction to Iceland in the other. The Semitic Family. — This group includes the Chaldeans, Assy- rians, Syrians, and Lydians of antiquity, together with the Aral)ian8 and Hebrews. The immense number of Jews in Egj-pt, even after the Exode (b c. 1528), and especially during the Greek dominion of the Lagid8e,t would lead us to search for the embalmed bodies of this people in the catacombs ; and hence it was no surprise to me to identif)', with con- siderable certainty, seven Semitico-Egyptian heads, in all of which * See President Salisbury's Discourse on Sanscrit and Arabic Literature : New Haven 18^3. The Ayra race derive their name from Iran, Persia. t Joflcphus, B. XII. Chap. 2. ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 317 the Hebrew physiognomy is more or less apparent, and in some of them unquestionable. This identity is further confirmed by the fact, that the Jews in Egypt adopted the custom of embalming at a very early period of time (Genesis 1. 26). And again, the two nations appear to have fraternized in a remarkable manner ; for Adad married the sister of Pharaoh's wife, and one of Solomon's wives was the daughter of an Egyptian king, who is supposed to have been Osorkon. [^^''J To these facts we may add the marriage of Joseph, at a far earlier period of history, with a daughter of the priest of Ileliopolis. For these rea- sons, I repeat, the Hebrew nation should be largely represented in the catacombs. Five of m}' embalmed Semitic heads are susceptible of measure- ment, and give the low average of eighty-two cubic inches — the largest measuring eighty-eight; the smallest, sixty-nine.* In these crania, and also in others of existing Semitic tribes, I have looked in vain for the pit described by Mulder as situated on the outer wall of the orbit at the attachment of the temporal muscles; and conse- quently there is no trace of the corresponding elevation, also described by him, within the orbitar cavity. I have had but little success in procuring the crania of the modern Semitic tribes ; and for the three that I possess I am indebted to Mr. Gliddon. Of these, two are Baramka or Barmecide Arabs ; the third, a Bedouin. The largest measures ninety-eight cubic inches ; the small- est, eighty-four ; and the mean is eighty-nine ; but if we take the average of these eight Semitic heads, ancient and modern, it will be eighty-five inches. I also received from Mr. Gliddon three additional skulls, from Cairo, which he was assured were those of Jews ; [^'*'] but their form has induced me to class them, perhaps erroneously, with the Fellahs of Egypt, t The Nilotic Race. — In this designation I include the ancient Egyptians of the pure stock, and the modern Fellahs. For the extensive series of Egj-ptian skulls in my possession, I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Gliddon, Mr. A. C. Harris of Alex- andria, in Egypt, Dr. Charles Pickering, and Mr. William A. Glid- don,. Of these 129 embalmed heads, 83 present the Egyptian confor- mation ; and of the latter number, 55 are capable of being measured. I may here repeat a previous remark, that some of these crania present both Pelasgic and Egyptian lineaments, and thus form a transition between the two races ; but I have classed them in one group or the other, according to the preponderance of national cliar- * Crania .Egyptiaca, pp. 41 and 46, and the accompanying plates. f Catalogue of skulls, Nos. 771, 772, 773. 318 Morton's inedited mss. acters. In the great majority of instances, however, the Egyptian conformation is detected at a glance. The Egyptian skull is unlike that of any other with which I am acquainted. This opinion, which I long since announced,* has been fully confirmed by subsequent comparisons, and especially by the receipt of seventeen very ancient and most characteristic crania from tombs opened in 1842, at the base of the Great Pyramid, by Dr. Lepsius.f It may be observed of these crania (for the rest of the series has been elaborately described in the Crania Ug^ptiaca), eleven at least are of the unmixed type, and present the long, oval form, w'lih a slightly receding forehead, straight or gently aquiline nose, and a some- what retracted chin. The whole cranial structure is thin, delicate, and symmetrical, and remarkable for its small size. The face is nar- row, and projects more than in the European, whence the facial angle is two degrees less, or 78°. Neither in these skulls, nor in any others of the Egyptian series, can I detect those peculiarities of struc- ture pointed out by the venerable Blumenbach, in his Decades Cranio- rum ; and the external meatus of the ear, whatever may have been the form or size of the cartilaginous portion, is precisel}- where we find it in all the other races of men. The hair, whenever any of it remains, is long, curling, and of the finest texture. On comparing these crania with xwany fae-similes of monumental effigies most kindly sent me by Prof. Lepsius and M. Prisse d'Avesnes, I am compelled, by a mass of irresistible evidence, to modify the opinion expressed in the Crania ^gyptiaca — viz.: that the Egj'p- tians were an Asiatic people. Seven years of additional investigation, together with greatly increased materials, have convinced me that they were neither Asiatics nor Europeans, but aboriginal and indi- genous inhabitants of the Valley of the Nile or some contiguous region :| peculiar in their ph^'siognomy, isolated in their institutions, and forming one of the primordial centres of the human family. Egypt was the parent of art, science, and civilization. Of these she gave much to Asia, and received some modifying influences in return ; but notliing more. Her population, pure and pecailiar in the early epochs of time, derived by degrees an element from Euro])e and Asia, and this was increased in the lapse of ^-ears, until the Delta became a Greek colony, with an interspersed multitude of Jews. Effigies and porti'aits of Egyptian sovereigns and citizens are yet * iCrunia ^Egyptiaca, 1844. f Proceedings of tlie Academy [of Nat. Sciences.] for .October, 1844. ;}; Tliis opinion, with some niodiQcitioiis, Jias been entertained by several learned Egypt- ologists — CliamuolUon, Ileeren, Leuormant, &c. ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 319 preserved in monuments that date back 5000 years,* and they con- fox*m, in all their characteristic lineaments, with the heads from the tombs of Gizeh and other Nilotic sepulchres. Of the fifty-five Egyptian heads measured in the Table, it will be seen that the largest measures but ninety-six cubic inches of internal capa- city, the smallest sixty-eight ; and the mean of them all is but eighty. This result was announced in the Crania ^gyptiaca, and has been confirmed by the numerous additional measurements made since that work was published. Yet, on computing, by themselves, the fifteen crania from the ancient tombs of Gizeh, I find them to present an average of eighty-four cubic inches. The persons whose bodies had reposed in tliese splendid mausolea, were no doul)t of the highest and most cultivated class of Egyptian citizens ; f and this fact de- serves to be considered in connexion with the present inquiry. To this we may add, that the most deficient part of the Egyptian skull is the coronal region, wdiich is extremely low, while the poste- rior chamber is remarkably full and prominent. The Fellahs. — The Arab-Egyptians of the present day constitute a population of more than 2,500,000 ; and that they are the lineal de- scendants of the ancient rural Egyptians, is proved by the form of the skull, the mental and moral character of the people, and their existing institutions, among wdiich phallic worship is, even yet, con- spicuous. Clot-Bey has drawn a graphic moral parallel between these two extremes of .a single race, by showing that both were sober, ava- ricious, insolent, self-opinioned, satirical, and licentious. Contrasted w^ith these defects in the old Egyptians^ were the many household virtues, and that genius for the arts which has been a proverb in all ages. When the Saracenic Arabs conquered Egypt in the seventh century of our era, an unhmited fusion of races was a direct and obvious con- * Lepsius: Chronologie der jEgypter, p. 196. Dr. Lepsius dates the age of Menes, the first Egyptian king, 3893 before Christ, or 57'13 years from the present time; and yet, in that remote time, Egj-pt was already possessed of her arts, institutions, and hieroglyphic language. The researches of the learned Chevalier Bunsen furnish conclusions nearly tJie same as those of Lepsius. Of the great antiquity of the Humtm Species there can be no question. In the words of Dr. Prichard, it may have been chiliarh of years. The ancient Egyptians appear to have had no doubts on this subject ; for a priest of Sais, addressing Solon, spoke of "the multitude and variety of tJie destructions of the Human race which formerly have been, and again will be; the greatest of these, indeed, arising from fire and water; but the lesser from ten thousand other contingencies." — Ttmcuus of Plato: Taylor's Trans, ii. 466. f Dr. Lepsius did not desire to retain these crania, because they bore no collateral evi- dence of tlieir epoch or national lineage. The bones were in great mi-asure already de cuded by time; and the appliances of mummification (which, in the primitive ages, con- Bisted of little more than desiccating the body,) hud long since disappeared. As heretofore "bserved, 1 judge these relics solely by their intrinsic ctiaracters. 320 Morton's inedited mss. sequence ; but M. Clot-Bey has judiciously remarked, that the Arabs, nevertheless, present but a feeble element in the physical character of the great mass of people . — " D'ou il resulte que I'Egyptien actuel dent beaucoup plus, par ses formes, par son carac- tfere, et par ses nioeurs, des anciens Egyptiens que des veritables Arabs, dont on ne trouve le type pur qu'en Arabie."* The skull of the Fellah is strikingly like that of the ancient Egyp- tian. It is long, narrow, somewhat flattened on the sides, and very prominent in the occiput. The coronal region is low, the forehead moderately receding, the nasal bones long and nearly straight, the cheek-bones small, the maxillary region slightly prognathous, and the whole cranial structure thin and delicate. But, notwithstanding these resemblances between the Fellah and Egyptian skulls, the latter possess what may be called an osteologieal expression, peculiar to them- selves, and not seen in the Fellah. The Fellahs, however, do not appear to be the only descendants of the monumental Egyptians ; for they exist also in ISTubia, and west- ward, in isolated communities, in the heart of Africa. Of such origin I regard the Bed Bakkari, so well described by Pallme. [^^^] So, also, the proper Libyans, the Tuaricks, Kabyles, and Siwahs, who, on the testimony of Dr. Oudney, and the more recent observations of Dr. Furnari, possess at least the physical traits of the Egyptian race : — " Chez quelques unes des nombreuses [peujalades] qui habitent I'immense plaine du Sa- hara, chez les Touaricks, et chez quelques tribus limitrophes de I'Egypte, les yeux ecartes I'un (le I'autre, sont long, coupes en amandes, a moiti^ ferm^s, et releves aux angles ext^rieurs." There are other reasons for supposing that the Libyan and Miotic nations had a cognate source, though their social and political sepa- ration may date with the earliest epochs of time. A few words respecting the Copts. Almost every investigation into the lineage of these people results in considering them a mixed pro- gen}^ of ancient Egyptians, Berabera, Negroes, Arabs, and Europeans ; and these characteristics are s-o variously blended, as to make the Copts one of the most motley and paradoxical communities in the world. The Negro traits are visible, in greater or less degree, in a large proportion of this people, and are distinctly seen in the three skulls in my possession. The two adult heads, which, on account of their hybrid character, are excluded from the Table, measure respect- ively eighty-five and seventy-seven cubic inches for the size of the brain, and consequently give the low average of eighty-one. From the preceding observations it will appear that the Fellahs are the rural or agricultural Egyptians, blended with the intrusive Ara- bian stock; but the Copts, on the other hand, represent the descend- ^ Aperyu Geu6rale sur I'Egypte, i. p. 160. ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 321 ants of the old urban population, ^^■hose blood, in the lapse of ages, has become mixed with that of all the exotic races which have domi ciliated themselves in the cities of Egypt. The mercenary licentious- ness of the Copts is proverbial even at the present day. I shall conclude these remarks on this part of the inquiry by observing, that no mean has been taken of the Caucasian race? collectively, because of the very great preponderance of Hindoo, Egyptian, and Fellah skulls over those of the Germanic, Pelasgic and Celtic families. Nor could any just collective comparison be instituted between the Caucasian and Negro groups in such a Table as we have presented, unless the small-brained people of the latter division (Hottentots, Bushmen and Australians) were proportionate in number to the Hindoos, Egyptians, and Fellahs of the other group. Such a comparison, were it practicable, would probably reduce the Caucasian average to about eighty-seven cubic inches, and the Negro to seventy- eight at most, perhaps even to seventy-five ; and thus confirmatively establish the difierence of at least nine cubic inches betw^een the mean of the two races. II. THE MONGOLIAN GROUP. The learned Klaproth, in his Tableau de VAsie, has shown that before the year 1000 of our era, the Mongols w^ere inconsiderable tribes in the northwest of Asia, and hence have erroneously had their name given to the most multitudinous of the five great divisions of the human family ; but from an unwillingness to interfere with the generally adopted nomenclature of ethnology, I have used the word Mongolian in the comprehensive sense of BufFon and Blumenbach, It embraces nations of dissimilar features, among whom, however, there is a common link of resemblance that justifies the classification for generic purposes. Hence we group together the Chinese, the Kamtschatkans, and the Kalmucks. I possess but eight Mongolian crania, and of these seven are Chi- nese — too small a number from which to deduce a satisfactory result. The largest of them measures ninety-one cubic inches, the smallest seventy ; and they give an average of eighty-two. They are all de- rived from the lowest class of people ; and it is not improbable that an average drawn, at least in part, from the higher castes, would approximate much more nearly to the Caucgisian mean, perhaps to eightj'-five cubic inches. By the kindness of Prof. Retzius of Stockholm, I possess a single skull of a Laplander — a man of about forty years of age — whose brain measures no less than ninety-four cubic inches. The charact^F 41 322 Morton's inedited mss. istics are obviously Mongolian, to which race the Lappes unquestion- ably belong. Dr. Prichard has produced philological evidence in proof of an opinion maintained by himself and some other learned men, that these people are Finns, who have acquired Mongolian fea- tures from a long residence in the extreme north of Europe. Yet, it must be remembered that, in former ages they lived much further south, in Sweden, and side by side with the proper Finns ; whence has, no doubt, been derived any visible blending of the characters of the two races, and some afhnities of language which are known and admitted by all. This is a vital question in ethnology ; and, although we have alread}^ made some remarks upon it, it may be allowable in this place to inquire how it happens that the people of Iceland, who are of the unmixed Teutonic race, have for 600 years inhabited their Polar region, as far north, indeed, as Lapland itself, withput approxi- mating in the smallest degree to the Mongolian type, or losing an iota of their primitive Caucasian features.* A recent traveller,! equally remarkable for talent and enterprise, has brietly embodied the facts of this question in a manner sufficient to decide it in any unprejudiced mind. He declares that the Finns and Laplanders "have scarcelj^ a single trait in common. The general physiognomy of the one is totall}' unlike that of the other ; and no one who has ever seen the two could mistake a Finlander for a Laplander." The very diseases to which they are subject are diffe- rent; and he quotes the learned Prof. Retzius of Stockholm for the •fact, that the intestinal parasitic worms of the one race are different ifrom those of the other. Finally, they differ almost as widely in their mental and moral attributes. But, to show how little mere philology can be depended on in this and other instances, in deciding the affiliation of races, we may adduce the researches of the learned Counsellor Haartman. This eminent philologist has shown that the Carelians, who, from analogy of lan- guage, have hitherto been grouped with the proper Finnish race, belong to a totally different family, which invaded the region of the Lake Ladoga, and gave their name to the conquered country. This race, he adds, had a language of its own, which was lost in the course * Desmoulins : Hist. Nat. dcs Races Ilmnaincs, p 165. Were it not for the evidence of positive history, some future ethnologist might gravely insist that, because the Negroes of St Domingo speak the French language, they are Frenchmen, to whom a tropical sun, altered aliments, and change of habits, have imparted the black skin, projecting fa*e, and woolly hair of the African. ■)• A Winter in Lapland and Sweden: by Arthur de Capell Brooks, M. A., F. R. S. P. ■ tendon, 1827, p o3G-37. ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 323 of tiJiie, " and has been superseded by the Finnic, from the over- powering intluonce of the neighboring tribes."* Such evidence needs no commentary. III. THE MALAY GROUP. Besides the true Malays, the Malaj'^ race is composed of people of dissimilar stock; whence the opinion of M. Lesson, that those of the Indian Archipelago are a mixture of Indo-Caucasians and Mongols. That this amalgamation exists to a certain extent, there is no question ; and in other instances they are variously blended with the indigenous or Oceanic Negro. Hence the origin of the Papuas of New Zealand, who are the littoral inhabitants of that continent. Independently, however, of these mixed breeds, two great families are conspicuous — the Malays proper and the Polynesians — and to these pertain the twenty-three heads embraced in the Table. The true Malays have a rounded cranium, with a remarkable ver- tical diameter and ponderous structure. The face is flat, the cheek- bones square and prominent, the ossa nasi long and more or less flat- tened, and the whole maxillary structure strong and salient. The twenty skulls in my possession have been collected with ethnological precision, and so much resemble each other, as to remind us of the remark of M. Crawford — that the true Malays are alike among them- selves, but unlike among all other nations. The largest of this series of skulls measures ninety-seven cubic inches, the smallest sixty-eight ; and they give a mean of eight3'-six : a large brain for a roving and uncultivated people, who possess, how- ever, the elements of civilization and refinement. , Of the Polynesian Family I possess but three crania that can be measured, and they give a mean of eighty-three cubic inches. An extended series would probably show a larger average ; but the brain of the Polynesian, if measured from skulls obtained to the eastward of New Zealand and the Marquesas islands, will prove smaller than that of the true Malay. * Trans, of the Royal Societt/ of Slockhnlm, for 1847. Egypt affords a remarkahle example 0^ the mutability of language; and Niehuhr {Hist, of Rome, i. p. 37) considers it proved that the Pelasgi, all the earliest inhabitants of the Peloponnesus, and many Arcadian and Attic nations, possessed originally' a different language from the Greeks, and obtained the Hellenic tongue by adoption. He adds, that those Epirotes whom Thucydides calls Bar- barians, ^^ changed their language, without conquest or colonization, into Greefi." Diodorua and Cicero mention the same fact with respect to the Siculi, "although the Greek coloniCH in Sicily had only extended to a very few towns in the interior." — Alebuhr, loco citai. 324 Morton's inedited mss, IV. THE AMERICAN GROUP. I hav<. hitherto arranged the numberless indigenous tribes of North and South America into two great families : one of which, the Tolte- can, embraces the demi-civilized communities of Mexico, Bogota, and Peru ; while the other division includes all the Barbarous tribes. This classification is manifestly arbitrary, but every attempt at sub- division has proved yet more so. Much time and care will be requi- site for this end, which must be based on the observations of D'Or- Ijigny for South America, and those of Mr. Gallatin for the Northern [division of the] continent. These subdivisions, after all, must be for the most part geographi- cal ; for the physical character of the American races, from Cape Horn to Canada, is essentially the same. There is no small variety of com- plexion and stature ; but the general form of the skull, the contour and expression of the face, and the color and texture of the hair, together with the mental and moral characteristics, all point to a common standard, which isolates these people fi'om the rest of man- kind. The same remark is applicable to their social institutions and their archaeological remains ; for Humboldt has shown that the latter are marked by the same principles of art, from Mexico to Peru ;* and Mr. Gallatin has decided, beyond controversy, that while their multitudinous tongues are connected by obvious links, they are at the same time radically different from the Asiatic or any other languages. Mr. Gallatin finds this analogy among the American languages to extend to the Eskimaux — and he accordingly separates them from the Mongolian race, and regards them as a section of the great Ame- rican family. This view may possibly be sustained by future inqui- ries ; but the mere fact that the Eskimaux and the proximate Indian tribes speak dialects of one language, is of itself no proof that they belong to the same race. Thus, we may reasonably suppose that the Asiatic nomades, having arrived on this continent at various and dis- tant periods, and in small parties, would naturally, if not unavoid- ably, adopt more or less of the language of the people among whom they settled, until their own dialect was finally merged in that of the Chippewyan and other Indians who bound them on the south. When, on the other hand, famine, caprice, or a redundant popula- tion, has forced some of these people back again, across Behring's Strait, to Asia, they have carried with them the mixed dialect of the Eskimaux ; whence it happens that the latter tribes and the Tchutch- * Monuments, II. p. 5. ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 325 chi possess sonic linguistic elements in common : but here the ana- logy ceases abruptly, and is traced no farther.* My collection embraces 410 skulls of 64 different nations and tribes of Indians, in which the two great divisions of this race are repre- sented in nearly equal proportions, as the following details will show The Toltecan Family. — Of 213 skulls of Mexicans and Peruvians, 201 pertain to the latter people, whose remains have been selected with great care by the late Dr. Burrough, Dr. Ruschenberger, and Dr. Oakford. To the latter gentleman, I am under especial obligations for his kindness in personally visiting, on ni}' behalf, the venerable sepulchres of Pisco, Pachacamac, and Arica. These cemeteries, at least the last two, are believed not to have been used since the- Span- ish conquest ; and they certainly contain the remains of multitudes of Peruvians of veiy remote, as well as of more recent times. Every one who has paid attention to the subject is aware, that the Peruvian skull is of a rounded form, with a flattened and nearly ver- tical occiput. It is also marked by an elevated vertex, great inter- parietal diameter, ponderous structure, salient nose, and a broad, prognathous maxillary region. This is the type of cranial conforma- tion, to which all the tribes, from Cape Horn to Canada, more or less approximate. I admit that there are exceptions to this rule, some of which I long ago pointed out, in the Crania Americana, and others have recently been noticed among the Brazilian tribes by Prof. Retzius. This rounded form of the head, so characteristic of the American nations, is in some instances unintentionalh' exaggerated by the sim- ple use of the cradle-board, in common use among the Indians. * * * But on the other hand, whole tribes, from time immemorial, have been in the practice of moulding the head into artificial forms of sin- gular variety and most distorted proportions. These were made the subject of the following experiment. * * * [The] indomitable savages who yet inhabit the base of the Andes, on the eastern boundary of Peru, will no doubt prove to have a far larger brain than their feeble neighbors whose remains we have exa- mined, from the graves of Pachacamac, Pisco, and Arica. If we take the collective races of America, civilized and savasre, we find, as in the Table, that the average size of the brain, as measured m the whole series of 338 skulls, is but 79 cubic inches. In connexion with this subject, it may not be irrelevant to observe that the human cranial bones, discovered by Dr. Lund, in the cavern near the Lagoa do Sumidouro, in Brazil, and seemingly of a strictly fossil character, conform in all respects to the aboriginal American • See my Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America. p. 27. 326 Morton's inedited mss. conformation ;* thus forming a striking example of the permanence, M'e might say, immutabihty of the primordial type of organization, when this has not been modified by admixture with intrusive and dissimilar races. I have no doubt that Man will yet be found in the fossil state as low down as the Eocene deposits, and that he walked the earth with the Meo-alonvx and Paleotherium. His not having been hitherto discovered in the older stratified rocks is no proof that he will not be hereafter found in them. Ten years ago, the Monkey-tribes were unknown and denied in the fossil state ; but they have since been identified in the Himalaya mountains, Brazil, and England.f [End of Morion's MSS.'[ * Memoire de la Soc. Roy. des Antiquaires du Nord, 1845-47, p. 73. See also Dr. Meigs's highly interesting communication on the Human Bones found at Santos, in Brazil, in Trans, of the Amer. Philos. Soc. for 1830; and Lt. Strain's Letter to me, in Proceedings of the Academy for 1844. ■}■ Proofs of the vast antiquity of the earth, and of man.*s long sojourn upon it, multiply every day. The Hebrew chronology is a human computation from the Book of Genesis, and wliile it falls far short of the time requisite for the works of Man, is infinitely con- tracted when considered in reference to the creations of God. The Egyptian monuments, as we have seen, date far beyond the period allotted to the Deluge of Noah (which was evi- dently a partial phenomenon) ; and, on the other hand, the irresistible evidence of Geolo- gical Science realizes the sentiment of Plato — that Past time is an eternity. "These views," observes Sir Charles Lyell, "have been adopted by all geologists, whether their minds have been formed by the literature of France, or of Italy, or Scandi- navia, or England — all have arrived at the same conclusion respecting the great antiquity jf the globe, and that too in opposition to their earlier prepossessions, and to the popular jelief of their age." All human calculations of time are futile in Geological and Ethnological inquiries. Epochs of vast duration are fully established by the nature of the organic remains of plants and animals that characterize the different formations; while the very intervals that separate these formations are evidences of other periods hardly less astonishing. In fact, Geological epochs present some analogy to Astronomical distances : the latter have been computed ; the former are beyond calculation — and the mind is almost as incapable of realizing the one as the other. It cannot grapple with numbers which approximate to infinitude. It is stated by Prof Nichol, of Edinburgh, that "light travels at the rate of 192,000 miles in a second of time, and that it performs its journey from the Sun to the Earth, a distance of 95,000,000 of miles, in about eight minutes. And yet, by Rosse's great tele- scope, we are informed that there are stars and systems so distant, that the ray of light which impinges on the eye of the observer, and enables him to detect it, issued from that orb 00,000 years back." Westminster Revieiv, 1846. " In the beginning God created the Heavens and the Earth" — a sublime exordium, that points to an aboriginal creation, antedating the works of the Seven Days. Science haa raised the veil of that ancient world, with all its numberless forms of primeval organization ; but these are not noticed in the text, neither man, nor the inferior animals. When, how- ever, we find the fossil remains of the latter so varied and so multitudinous, it is not incon- jtistent with true philosophy to anticipate the discovery of human remains among the ruins of that primal creation. In fact, I consider geology to have already decided tliifl question in the affirmative. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. 327 [Unavailable, owing to its unfinished condition, the Table, mentioned in the foregoing Memoirs is necessarily omitted. "We cannot abstain, notwithstanding, from recalling the reader's attention — first, to the unqualified emphasis with which Dr. Morton's posthumous language insists upon an aboriginal plurality of races ; and secondlj', to the cleai presentiments (engendered by his extensive researches in Comparative Anatomy) that our revered President of the Academy of Natural Sciences avows respecting the eventual discovery of 3Ian in a fossil state. Palseontological investigation had not fallen wdthin the specialities of either author of this volume ; and, in consequence, embarrassment was long felt by both, whether to mould what materials they pos- sessed, concerning fossilized humanity, into a Chapter, or to relinquish a task in itself so indispensable to the nature of their work, no less than to the right understanding of Man's position in Creative history. The authors' hesitancy ceased w^hen an accomplished friend, familiar with geological and other scientific literature, volunteered a digest of the most recent discoveries : nor will the general reader fail to be surprised, as well as edified, through the perusal of Dr. Usher's paper ; which, with many acknowledgments on the part of J. C. N. and G. R. G., is embodied in the ensuing pages.] CHAPTER XI. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, IN CONNECTION "WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. [Contributed by William Usheb, M. D., of Mobile.] Every discovery in modern science tends to enlarge our ideas of the Universe, and to prove that the date of its creation is as far distant in the past, as the probable consummation of its destinj' is remote in the future. Sir William Herschel has shown that there are stars in the heavens so distant, that the light by which they are visible to us has been myriads of years in its passage to the earth ; and the won- derful powers of Lord Posse's telescope have not, even yet, penetrated to the circumference of the starrj^ sphere. It is the glory of astronomy to have demonstrated that the planetary bodies may retain their pre- 328 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, sent movements undisturbed througli a coming eternity ; while che- mistry illustrates the perpetual antagonism of the two great depart- ments of organical nature on our globe, by which the vital properties of the atmosphere have been preserved for ages, as they may continue forever, unimpaired ; and, iinally, geology informs us that the earth has been, from the beginning, the theatre of constant and progressive changes, having for their object the fitting it for the support of the various races of beings which, in regular succession, have been its inhabitants. The first great change in the condition of the earth was the con- densation of its surfixce to a solid state, and the contraction of the newly-formed crust during the process of cooling ; by which the Plu- tonic rocks of our system, the granite, porph3^ry and basalt, were formed in unstratified and crystallized masses. These underlie all the other rocks, and are sometimes forced up through them by the irresistible power of central heat. Their great eminences were separated by valleys filled with seas, (through the condensation of the circum- ambient vapors), along whose bottoms the stratified rocks were formed by the deposition of various mineral matters resulting from the dis- integration of the primitive formations. The metamorphic rocks were thus formed; and, after becoming solidified by the heat of the cool- ing mass below them, were finally upheaved by the central force, and composed immense masses in different parts of the globe. Most of the considerable mountain ranges belong to this system. They rest upon a basement of granite, and have been thrown by the upheaving force^ into positions inclining at all angles to the horizon. The upturned edges of these primary strata in many places show a thickness of fifteen or twenty miles — they were formed entirely from sediment produced by the disintegration of the hardest rocks, and by the gra- dual action of the elements ; while their deposition, consolidation and elevation must have required periods of time which the mind shrinks from contemplating. The Koran declares that the world was created in two days ; and "Omar the Learned," for assigning a longer period, was obhged to fly from his country, to escape the disgrace of recanting his opinions. Happily, we live now under a more enlightened dispensation- In these rocks w^e find no traces of organic remains to show thai the earth was yet inhabited by living beings. But the creation of the earth consisted of a long succession of events, each occupying a dis- tinct geological period, and leaving indelible records of its history in tlie solid crust of the globe. The creation of organized beings exhi bits a similar succession — each race appcai'ing as soon as the earth was prepared for its reception, continuing so long as the same state of IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 329 things existed, and vanisliing wlien tlic iiiiprovenieiit of the earth had rendered it fit for the maiutcnauce of a higlier type of hving creatures. All living creatures were exactly adapted through their organization to the peculiar localities they were placed in. Thcj' perished when the conditions necessary to their well-beina; were changed or ceased to exist. In the next series of strata we find the earliest traces of those tribes of organized beings wdiich occupied the primeval earth, and have left the monuments of their existence in the rocks which form their tond^s. These primary fossiliferous strata are entirely of marine origin, having been formed at the bottom of the ocean; and they contain the remains of marine animals only. The types of these animals are easily recognized — they include representatives of all the great de- partments of the animal kingdom — but the species and even the genera are entirely lost. The animals, however, all belong to the lowest divisions of the different classes. Thus the radiata are repre- sented by zoophytes, crinoidea and polyps — each the lowest in their respective classes. Mollusks, in like manner, exhibit only the lower types ; articulata are mostly confined to trilobites ; and fishes of the low^est forms are the sole representatives of the vertebrata : there are here no reptiles, no birds, and no mammals. These primary strata are many thousand feet in tliickness, and the organic remains imbedded in them, though belonging to a few species, show that animal life already existed in immense profusion, and extended over wide-spread regions of the globe. They flourished for countless generations, and their remains are found reposing in earth's earliest sepulchres. In the next stage of the earth's history we have the Silurian system. Here the forms of life are more varied and abundant — species are multiplied ; fishes now make their appearance in numbers and varie- ties corresponding with the improved conditions for their existence ; and sea-plants are found among the fossils of this era. In the old red sandstone, the same orders are continued ; new fishes are still more abundant, and all the silurian species have already disappeared. These fossils, again, are entirely distinct from the corresponding species of the carboniferous era which succeeds them. Not a single fish found in the old red sandstone has been detected, either in the silurian system on the one side or in the carboniferous on the other. Throughout all subsequent geological eras similar changes took place, and new species replaced the old at every new formation. In propor- tion as the earth approached its perfect state, the organic types became more complex; but the types originally created were never destroyed, they have been preserved through every succeeding modification and improvement, up to their highest manifestation in man. Regarding 42 330 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, only the great, predominant groups of animals, M. Agassiz lias clas- sified the "Ages of Nature" as follows: — 1. The primary or Palaeo- zoic age, comprising the whole era preceding the new red sandstone, constituted the reign of fishes. 2. The secondary age, up to the chalk, constituted the reign of reptiles. 3. The tertiary age was the reign of mammals ; and the modern age, embracing the most perfect of created beings, is the reign of man.* A more minute classification would give us, since the first appear- ance of organized beings, not less than ten or twelve great groups of animals specifically independent of one another: so many entire races have passed away and been successively replaced by others ; thus changing repeatedly the whole population of the globe. The fossiliferous strata have been estimated to be eight miles in thickness. They were formed, like the metamorphic rocks, at the bottom of the sea, by sedimentary deposits, and afterwards upheaved in their consolidated form by central heat. Such a process, doubtless, must have been very slow : e. g. the hydrographic basin of the Tigris and Euphrates is 189,000 square miles ; and the alluvial deposit along the course of those rivers, in the centre, is about 32,400 square miles in extent. The average rate of encroachment on the sea, at their mouths on the Persian Gulf, is about a mile in thirty years. During its season of flood, the Euphrates transports about one-eightieth of its bulk of solid matter ; and the earthy portion carried by the Tigris past the city of Bagdad, was ascertained by Mr. Ainsworth to be one- hundredth of its bulk, or about 7150 pounds every hour.t But these rivers are insignificant compared with the Ganges, which hourly car- ries down 700,000 cubic feet of mud ; or the Yellow river, in China, which transports 2,000,000 feet of sediment to the sea. Our own Mesha-sebe, "the Father of Waters," though purer than either of the rivers we have named, has already formed a delta 30,000 square miles in extent, and is yearly sweeping to the sea, from his many tributa- ries, the enormous amount of 3,702,758,400 cubic feet of solid matter. Yet, notwithstanding such immense deposits, it has been estimated that, if the sediment from all the rivers in the world were spread equally over the floor of the Ocean, it would require 1000 years to raise its bottom a single foot; or about 4,000,000 of years to form a mass equal to that of the fossiliferous rocks: and if, instead of merely the present extent of the sea, we include the whole surface of the globe in such estimate, the time required must be extended to 15,000,000 of years.J When we consider that these strata were formed at the * Agassiz: Principles of Zoology, p. 189. + Ainsworth: Assyria, Dnhylonia and Chaldcea ; Euphrates Expedition, 1838, p. 111. J Somerville : Physical Geography. IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 331 bottom of tlie sea, and thence upheaved by the operation of natural causes ; and that in man}- cases this process has been more than once repeated ; we may claim a very respectable antiquity for oar planet, since such changes must have required a duration wholly inctdculable. We have seen that every great geological change was accompanied by the disappearance of existing species and tlie introduction of new: while the present geographical distribution of plants and animals coin- cides with the rise of those strata constituting the surface of the globe. All has been successive and progressive ; plants and animals were produced in regular order, ascending from simple to complex; one law has prevailed from earth's foundations to its superficies; and thus our present species are autoctJtonoi, originating on the continents or islands where they were first found. Man himself is no exception to this law; for the inferior races are everywhere "glebse adscripti." Each of these orders of living beings occupied the earth for an ap- pointed time, and gave way in turn to higher organizations. Fishes ruled over the primeval waters : as land gradually formed itself, they made way for the great amphibious reptiles. Just as tishes represent the first vertebrata of the sea, so reptiles are their earliest representa- tives on land. Reptiles presided over the formation of continents, and next came the birds. As huge reptiles of the sea were succeeded by the marine mammalia — the cetaceans — so, on the land, when moun- tain chains were thrown up and dry plains formed, leaving extensive marshy borders, monstrous wading birds, which have left but their footmarks behind them, succeeded the reptiles, and were followed in their turn by the amphibious mammals. Each e]30ch of the land, as of the sea, (whilst our " earth formed, reformed, and transformed itself,") was marked b}^ the appearance of suitable inhabitants, ne- cessary to the great plan of creation in preparing the globe for the reception of mankind. The tertiary formation extends over most of Europe, and comprises those famous geological basins which are the sites of its principal cities, Loudon, Paris, and Vienna ; while, in Amejica, it embraces nearly all the level region of the Middle and the Southern States. Its fossils comprise a mixture of marine, fresh-water, and land species, occurring in such succession as to show extensive alternations of sea and land ; and giving reason to believe that large portions of the present surface of the land were covered with immense lakes, like Erie or Ontario. The animals of the tertiary period, while entirely difierent from those of the secondary, were similar to those now existing : marine ani- mals no longer predominated in the creation — the higher orders of land animals had now appeared. The same advance is visible in all the great departments of animated nature. Of the radiates, the 332 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, mollusks, and the articulata, the lower forms have entirely disap- peared ; and the tertiarj- species are frequently almost identical with those now living: among vertebrata, the enamelled fishes of the ear- lier epochs have been replaced by those with scales like the living species ; and, in a word, the whole tertiary fauna resembles our present. Another important change is noticed in the relative distribution of animals and plants. In the early history of the earth, the same ani- mals were spread widely over the face of the globe ; nearly the whole earth was covered with water, and a uniform temperature ever^'where prevailed : none but marine animals existed, and there w^as nothing to prevent a great uniformity of t^'pe. In the tertiar}' era everything had altered — the earth's surface was varied with islands and con- tinents, with mountains and valleys, with hills and plains ; the sea, gathered into separate basins, was divided b}' impassable barriers. Here, accordingly, we find another great step towards the present condition of organized nature on the earth's surface : not only have higher orders of animals appeared, but they are confined within nar- rower limits. The fossils of the tertiary system, in difterent regions, are as distinct as the present fauniB and florse of those countries. Each portion of the land, as it rose above the deep, became peopled with animals and plants best adapted to its occupancy ; and the waters necessarily partaking of the physical change, the marine species which swarmed along the shores underwent a corresponding modification. The earth was now inhabited by the great mammifers, whose con- stitution most nearly resembles that of mankind : where they existed, assuredly, man could have existed also. They approximate to humanity in their intelligence, their senses, their wants, their passions, their ani- mal functions; and when they had " multiplied exceedingly," we may suppose that man would not be long in making his appearance. Here we meet for the first time wnth fossil monkeys ; the type whose organiz- ation most closely assimilates to the human. It is onl}' within a few years that fossil monkeys have been discovered, and their supposed absence was formerly cited as a proof of their recent origin. Monkeys, in still prevalent systems of creation, are supposed to have been coeval with, or at least but little anterior to, man ; the absence of their or- ganic remains being considered as satisfactory evidence that both men and monkeys were mere creations of yesterday ! Eossil monkeys, nevertheless, have been found in England, France, India, and South America. In India, several difierent species have turned up in ter- tiary strata, on the Himalaya mountains. The French fossils, found in fresh-water strata of the tertiar}' era, belong to the gibbon or tail- less ape, which stands next, in the scale of organization, to the orangs. IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 333 The American specimen, bronglit from Brazil by Dr. Lnnd, is re- ferred to an extinct genus and species peculiar to that country. And the EngHsli fossils, belonging to the genus macacus and an extinct species, exhumed from the London chxy, were associated with cro- codiles, turtles, nautili, besides many curious tropical fruits.* Only a few fossil quadrumanes have as yet been discovered ; but a single one is suthcient to establish their existence. The number of animals preserved in rocky strata may bear but a small proportion to those which have been utterly destroyed. Thus, in the Connecticut sandstone, the tracks of more than forty species of birds and quadru- peds have been found distinctly marked. Some of these birds must have been at least twelve or fifteen feet high; and yet no other vestige of their existence has been discovered. They wore the colossal resi- dents of that valley for ages ; they have all vanished ; and had it not been for the plastic nature of the yielding sand whereon they waded along the river's banks, they would not have left even a footprint behind them. May there not be other creatures which have left no trace whatever of their existence ? f In each of the great geological epochas, life was quite as abundant as at the present day. All departments of the Animal Kingdom had their representatives, and some of them were even more numerous then than at present. Those immense tracts formed by zoophytes, and the incom- prehensible masses of microscopic shells, would almost seem to favor the theory that the whole earth is formed of the debris of organized beings. Fossil fishes are far more plentiful than their living repre- sentatives ; and more shells have been found in the single basin of Paris than now exist in the whole Mediterranean. J The remains of the giant reptiles show their exuberance ; and now-extinct species of mammals must have at least equalled in numbers, as they far exceed in size, their living successors. Perhaps the most striking example is seen in the inexhaustible multitude of fossil elephants daily dis- covered in Siberia. Their tusks have been an object of traffic in ivory for centuries; and in some places they have existed in such prodigious quantities, that the ground is still tainted with the smell of animal matter. Their huge skeletons are found from the frontiers of Europe through all Xorthern Asia to its extreme eastern point, and from the foot of the Altai Mountains to the shores of the Frozen Ocean — a surface equal in extent to the whole of Europe. Some islands in the Arctic Sea are chiefly composed of their remains, mixed with the bones of various other animals of livins^ o-enera, but of extinctt species. § • Lyell : Principles. | Hitchcock: Geology. + Agassiz 5 Lieut. Anjou's Polar Voyage. 334 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, In whatever way we may account for the series of geological changes thus cursorily enumerated, they must have required immense periods of time ; and we have Mr. Babbage's authority for saying, that even those formations which are nearest to the surface have occupied vast periods, probably millions of years.* It is only with these latest formations, however, that we shall have any immediate concern. The Diluvium, or drift, as now called, is almost universal in extent (except within the tropics) ; and is marked by deposits of clay and sand ; and erratic blocks or boulders of all sizes, from common pebbles to masses thousands of tons in weight, occur at all levels up to the summits of lofty mountains, where no agency now in operation could have placed them. The drift abounds in fossil remains of animals; such as the elephant, mastodon, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and other large mammalia: genera which, now living only in warm climates, must have then existed in England, France, Germany, and other northern countries. These animals were destroyed by the same inundations which left the deposits we call drift: yet the works and the remains of man have been found among them ! These drift-forma- tions are of immense antiquity, being in this country older than the basin of the Mississippi ; and may be regarded as the last great transi- tion in the earth's geological history. All formations of the drift do not belong to one and the same period , nor were they produced by the same causes. According to the glacial theory of Prof. Agassiz, the climate of the northern hemi- sphere, which had been of tropical warmth, became colder at the close of the tertiary era. The polar glaciers advanced towards the south, leaving the marks of their passage in the ground and upon striated surfaces of rocks and mountains, whilst distributing on every side the blocks and masses they had entangled in their course : which last, with the iiner detritus, were swept far and wide by torrents occasioned by the melting of these glaciers. At other times, a sudden elevation of mountain-chains from beneath the surface of the sea, produced violent inundations of surrounding counti'ies, and transported boulders and drift in every direction. The Alps furnish ilhistrations in point. They have been heaved up since the deposition of the tertiary strata; for those strata are found cap])ing their suinniits or lying in their mountain-vaileys ; while the "drift" is seen scattered in all directions — on the range of the Jura, and over the plains of Lombardy. Blocks of granite, 10,000 cubic feet in size, have been found in the Jura mounii.ius, 2000 feet above the Lake of Geneva. The rock in Iloreb, from w ich * Babbage: Bridgewater Treatise. IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 335 the leader in Israel miracnlon^^ly drew water, is a mass of syenitic granite, six yards square, lying insulated upon a plain near Mount Sinai. There are displays of the drift in our own country, on a mas;- niticent scale, but as our object does not require, nor our limits allow, more than a mere reference to this as an interesting stage in the earth's antiquity, we pass on. Last comes the Alluvium; that is, the formation along the margins of rivers and the deltas at their mouths, and the deposition of those superficial coverings of soil Avhich have taken place since the earth assumed its present configuration of sea and land. Of the antiquity of the older formations, fossils have afforded unerring information ; each set serving as medals to mark the epoch of their existence. The alluvium must be judged by comparison, and all we shall attempt is, to show that the earth, in its present condition, has been the habi- tation of man for many thousand years longer than people com- monly suppose. It appears, from recent observations,* that the hydrographic basin of the Nile (within the limits of rain), is about 1,550,000 square miles, and the whole habital)le land of Egypt is formed of the alluvial de- posits of the river. The Delta is of a fan-like form, narrow at its apex below Cairo, and spreading out as it extends towards the sea, until its outer border is about 120 miles in extent. The same im- mense deposits are still carried annually to the sea, yet the Delta ha3 not perceptibly increased within the limits of history. Tanis, the Hebrew Zoan, at a very remote period of Egyptian annals, was built upon a plain at some distance from the sea; and its ruins maj- still be seen, Avithin a few miles of the coast. The lapse of more than 3000 years, from the time of Ramses II., has not produced any great increase in the alluvial plain, nor extended it farther into the Mediterranean. Cities which stood, in his day, upon the coast, and were even then referred to the gods Osiris and Horus, maj' still be traced at the same localities ; and Homer makes Menelaus anchor his fleet at Canopus, at the mouth of the Egyptus or Nile.f In short, we know that in the days of the earliest Pharaohs, the Delta, as it now exists, was covered with ancient cities, and filled with a dense population, whose civilization must have required a period going back far beyond any date that has vet been assigned to the Dcliiue of Noah or even to the Creation of the world. The average depth of the Gulf of Me^^ico, between Cape Florida * Beke, in Gliddon's Handbook to the Nile, 1849, p. 29; and, Map of the "Basin of the Nile." t Wilkinson : Manners and Customs, i. p. 5-11 ; ii. 105-121 : — Gliddon, Chapters, p. 42-.J 336 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, and the moutli of the Mississippi, is about 500 feet. Borings have been made near ISTew Orleans to a depth of 600 feet, without reaching the bottom of the alhivial matter ; so that the depth of the delta of the Mississippi may be safely taken at 500 feet. The entire alluvial plain is 30,000 square miles in extent, and the smallest complement of time required for its formation has been estimated at 100,000 years.* This calculation merely embraces the deposits made by the river since it ran in its present channel; but such an antiquity dwindles into utter insignificance when we consider the geological features of the country. The blufls which bound the valley of the Mississippi rise in many places to a height of 250 feet, and consist of loam containing shells of various species still inhabiting the country. These shells are accompanied with the remains of the mastodon, elephant, and tapir, the megalonyx, and other megatheroid animals, together with the horse, ox, and other mammalia, mostl}' of extinct species. These bluffs must have belonged to an ancient plain of ages long anterior to that through which the Mississippi now flows, and which was inha- bited by occupants of land and fresh-water shells agreeing with those now existing, and by quadrupeds now mostly extinct. f The plain on which the city of New Orleans is built, rises only nine feet above the sea ; and excavations are often made far below the level of the Gulf of Mexico. In these sections, several successive growths of cj'press timber have been brought to light. In digging the foundations for the gas-works, the Irish spadesmen, finding they had to cut through timber instead of soil, gave up the work, and were replaced by a corps of Kentucky axe-men, who hewed their way downwards through four successive growths of timber — the lowest so old that it cut like cheese. Abrasions of the river-banks show similar growths of sunken timber; while stately live-oaks, flourishing on the bank directly above them, are living witnesses that the soil has not changed its level for ages, Messrs. Dickeson and Brown have traced no less than ten distinct cypress forests at diflf'erent levels below the present surface, in parts of Louisiana where the range be- tween high and low water is much greater than it is at New Orleans. These groups of trees (the live-oaks on the banks, and the successive cypress beds beneath,) are arranged vertically above each other, and are seen to great advantage in many places in the vicinity of Kew Orleans. Dr. Bennet Dowler;}: has made an ingenious calculation of the last eniergence of the site of that city, in which these cypress forests play * LycU's ri'iiicii)les of Geology, Cap. xv. -j- Lyell's Second Visit, Cmji. xxxiv. I Benuet Dowler: Tableaux of New Orleans, 1852. IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 337 ail important part. He divides tlie history of this event into three eras : — 1. The era of colossal grasses, trembling prairies, &c., as seen ill the lagoons, lakes, and sea-coast. 2. The era of the cypress basins. 3, The era of the present live-oak platform. Existing types, from the Balize to the highlands, show that these belts were successive!}- developed from the water in the order we have named: the grass preceding the cypress, and the cypress being succeeded by the live- oak. Supposing an elevation of five inches in a century, (which is about the rate recorded for the accumulation of detrital deposits in the valley of the Nile, during seventeen centuries, by the nilometer mentioned by Strabo,) we shall have 1500 years for the era of aquatic plants until the appearance of the first cypress forest ; or, in other words, for the elevation of the grass zone to the condition of a cypress basin. Cypress trees of ten feet in diameter are not uncommon in the swamps of Louisiana ; and one of that size was found in the lowest bed of the excavation at the gas-works in Xew Orleans. Taking ten feet to represent the size of one generation of trees, we shall have a period of 5700 years as the age of the oldest trees now growing in the basin. Messrs. Dickeson and Brown, in examining the cypress timber of Louisiana and Mississippi, found that they measured from 95 to 120 rings of annual growth to an inch : and, according to the lower ratio, a tree of ten feet in diameter will yield 5700 rings of annual growth. Though many generations of such trees may have grown and perished in the present cypress region. Dr. Dowler, to avoid all ground of cavil, has assumed only two consecutive growths, including the one now standing : this gives us, as the age of two generations of cypress trees, 11,400 years. The maximum age of the oldest tree growing on the live-oak plat- form is estimated at 1500 years, and only one generation is counted. These data yield the following table : — ^^ Geological Chronology of the last emergence of the present site of Neio Orleans. YeaTs. Era of aquatic plants 1,500 Era of cypress basin 11,400 Era of live-oak platform 1,500 Total period of elevation 14,4W" Each of these sunken forests must have had a period of rest and gradual depression, estimated as equal to 1500 years for the dura- tion of the live-oak era, which, of course, occurred but once in the series. "VVe shall then certainly be within bounds, if we assume the period of such elevation to have been equivalent to the one above 43 338 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, arrived at ; and, inasmncli as tliere were at least ten sucli clianges, we reach the following result : — Years. ** Last emergence, as above 14,400 Ten elevations and depressions, each equal to the last emergence 144,000 Total age of the delta 158,400"* In the excavation at the gas-works, ahove referred to, burnt wood was found at the depth of sixteen feet ; and, at the same depth, the workmen discovered the skeleton of a man. The cranium lay be- neath the roots of a cypress tree belonging to the fourth forest level below the surface, and was in good preservation. The other bones crumbled to pieces on being handled. The type of the cranium was, as might have been expected, that of the aboriginal American Race. If we take, then, the present era at 14,400 years, And add three subterranean groups, each equal to the living (leaving out the fourth, in which the skeleton was found), 43,200 We have a total of 57,600 years. From these data it appears that the human race existed in the delta of the Mississippi more than 57,000 ^'ears ago ; and the ten subterra- nean forests, witli the one now growing, establish that an exuberant flora existed in Louisiana more than 100,000 years earlier : so that, 150,000 years ago, the Mississippi laved the magnificent cypress forests with its turbid waters.f In a note addressed to our colleagues, Nott and Gliddon, April 19, 1853, Dr. Dowler says : — *' Since I sent you the ' Tableaux,' several important discoveries have been made, illustra- tive and confirmatory of its fundamental principles in relation to the antiquity of the human race in this delta, as proved by works of art underlying, not only the live-oak platform, but also the second range of subterranean cypress stumps, exposed during a recent excavation in a cypress basin." The cj'press trees of Louisiana, and the antiquity claimed for them here, naturally remind us of the longevity of other trees in connexion with the antiquity of the present era. The baobab of Senegal, as is well known, grows to a stupendous size, and is supposed to exceed all other trees in longevity. The one measured by Adanson was thirty feet in diameter, and estimated to be 5250 3'ears old. Having made an incision to a certain depth, he counted 800 rings of annual growth, and observed wnat thickness the tree had gained in that period ; the average growth of younger trees of the same species was then AGcer- * Dowler : Tableaux of New Orleans. f Idem. IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 339 tained, and tlic calculation made according to the mean rate of in- crease. Baron Humboldt considered a cypress in the gardens of Chapultepec as yet older ; it had already reached a great age in the reign of Montezuma, and is supposed to be now more than 6000 years old. If we could apply the criterion-scale of Dickeson and Brown, some of these trees might prove to be older still. These gentlemen counted 95 to 120 rings of annual growth in the cypresses of Louisiana, and say, moreover, that the ligneous rings in the cypress are remarkably distinct, and easily counted. Now the cypress mea- sured by Humboldt was 40| feet in diameter. A semi-diameter of 243 inches, multiplied by 95, the smaller number of rings to an inch, would give 24,036 years as the age of one generation of living trees. The harder woods are of very slow growth, and some of the huge mahoganies of Central America must be extremely old. The cour- baril of the Antilles reaches a diameter of twenty feet, and is one of the hardest timber trees ; and the ironwood, from the same data, may be ranked among the patriarchs of the forest. Travellers have often been deterred from attempting to ascertain the age of remarkable trees by the apparent hopelessness of the task. To fell one of these giants of the woods was evidently impossible, nor was it an easy matter even to make such a section as Mould faci- litate the calculation. This dithculty is now, happily, to a great extent removed, and scientific travellers can hereafter obtain mea- surements of the largest and hardest trees in the places of their growth. Mr. Bowman has devised an instrument something like a surgeon's trephine, which, by means of a circular saw, cuts out cylin- ders of wood from opposite sides of the tree, and thus furnishes the most satisfactory results.* Having drawn the general reader's attention to a few geological f and botanical evidences of the incalculable lapse of time required for the existing condition of things u[)on our globe, let us endeavor to raise a corner of the veil which obscures human sight of epochas an- terior to ours. Where our alluvial rivers flowed, where our present vegetation flourished, where our mammiferous animals abounded, science cannot assign, a priori, a reason why all our different species of mankind should not also have existed coetaneously. Cuvier (says Schmerling most truly,) does not contest the existence of man at the epoch in which gigantic species peopled the surface of the earth.] We content ourselves with lesser quadrupeds: Fossil Dogs. — The dog has been the constant companion ot man in • J. Pye Smith. f For tlie paiallel antiquity of the Nile's deposits, cf. Gliddon, Otia ^gyptiaca, p. 61-i>9, J Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles: Liege, 1833, i. p. 53. 310 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, ali his migrations to distant regions of the earth, and has suffered from the same injustice which ignorance metes to his lord. The wise Ulysses has been ruthlessly referred to a consanguineous origin with the Papuan and the Hottentot ; and the noble animal that died from joy on re- cognizing his master (when all Ithaca had forgotten the twenty years' wanderer), is left to choose a descent from the savage wolf or the abject jackal, and must perforce share its parentage with *' Mongrel, puppy, ■whelp, and hound, And cur of low degree." The monuments of Egypt have also shed new light upon the historical antiquity of both men and dogs, showing that the diiferent races of each were as distinct 5000 years ago as they are to-day ; and we now propose to inquire whether geology does not confer upon dogs a still more ancient origin. Few questions in the history of fossil animals are more difficult to solve than that of dogs ; for the difierences between skeletons of the dog, the wolf, and the fox, are so trifling as to be almost undistinguish- able. Indeed, some perceive no difference between them except in point of size. Consequently, when we meet with a fossil of the dog species, we are at a loss whither to refer it; and so strong are vulgar prejudices against the antiquity of everything immediately associated with man, that it is almost certain to be called a wolf, a fox, a jackal, or anything else, sooner than a common dog. It does not appear that any canidse have yet been found in the oolite, the earliest position of mammal remains ; they are rare in the tertiary strata, and are chiefly met with in the caves of the pliocene, in the drift, and the alluvium. Owen says that fossil bones and teeth extant in caves, and their as- sociation with other remains of extinct species of mammalia found in the same state, carry back the existence of the canis lupus in Great Britain to a period anterior to the deposition of the sujDerficial drift. In the famous Kirkdale cave. Dr. Buckland discovered bones of a fossil canis associated with those of tigers, bears, elephants, the rhino- ceros, hippopotamus, and other animals which Cuvier pronounced to belong to extinct species. Fossil bones of a species of canis, similarly associated with extinct animals, turned up in the cave of Paviland, in Glamorganshire ; and the Oreston cavern furnished other examples. In all these cases it was difficult to designate the species of canis the fossils belonged to, and the Dog was never allowed the benefit of the doubt. Cuvier, Daubenton and De Blainville inform us, that the shades of difference in canine skeletons are so slight, that distinctions are often more marked between two individual dogs, or two wolves, than between IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 341 the varioiie species. But, in spite of these difficulties, recognizable remains of the true dog, eanis familiaris, have been frequently ob- tained. Dr. Lund discovered fossil dogs larger than those now living, in the cave of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil ; associated, as we have else- where stated, with an immense variety of extinct species of animals, and in a position whose geological antiquity cannot be doubted. In this ease the dog was partner with an extinct monkey ; and a similar association has been found in a stratum of marl, surmounted by com- { act limestone, in the department of Gers, at the foot of the Pyrenees. Here the bones of a true dog were found, in company with the re- liquiae of not less than thirty mammiferous quadrupeds ; including three species of rhinoceros, a large anaplotherium, three species of deer, a huge edentate, antelopes, and a species of monkey about three feet high. This fact is the more interesting, because fossil monkeys are almost as rare as fossil men in the fauna of the tertiary era; and, until recently, their existence was quite as strenuously denied. In the catalogue of the casts of Indian fossils, recently presented to the Boston Society of Natural History by the East India Company, we find two crania of canine animals from the Sivalik Hills, but have no information as to their species. Dr. Schmerling has described several fossils of the true dog, which evidently belonged to two distinct varieties, notably dilFering from each other in size, as well as from the wolf and fox, whose bones, together with those of bears, hyenas, and other animals, reposed in the same locality. Cuvier, speaking of the bones of a fossil animal of the genus canis, found in the cave of Gaylenreuth, says that they resemble the dog more than the wolf, and that they are in the same condition with those of the hyenas and tigers associated with them : " they have the same color, the same consistence, the same envelop, and they evidently date from the same epoch.'' Cuvier does not posi- tively declare these remains to be those of the dog : he observes the caution which he exhibited, in 1824, when asked whether human bones had t/et been discovered and proved to be coeval with those of extinct mammalia — '■'-Pas encore,"" was his simple reply. In the quarries of Montmartre, Cuvier found the lower jaw of a Bpecies of canis, differing from that of any living species, and which M'e have the right to say belouged to an extinct species of dog. M. ^Marcel de Serres has described two species of dogs fiom Lund Vieil. One he supposed to resemble the pointer, and the other was much smaller. The caves of Lunel Vieil are situated in a niariuo- tertiary limestone. In some dogs, the froiital elevation of the skull exceeds that of the wolf, and this characteristic is useful as a di.stinc live mark. The skull of a smail variety of dog, with tins mark well 342 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, developod, was obtained from an English bone-cave, and submitted to Mr. Clifl, who pronounced it to belong to a small bull-dog or large pug. Our doinestic dog has the last tubercular tooth wider than that of the wolf; which fact, together with slighter structure of the jaw, shows the dog to be less carnivorous. The teeth of the cave-dogs ditfer only in size from those of the common dog, being larger; and it appears almost certain that many of the fossil dogs were of a greater size than any of the varieties now common among us. This circum- stance, together with their general similarity of structure, has doubt- less led to their being almost universally designated as Wolves. We read of wolves being constantly found in a completely fossilized state, associated with numerous extinct animals, and even with man him- self; and considering the difficulty of distinguishing skeletons of the wolf from those of the dog, we have no doubt that many of these fossils belonged to man's natural companion — the dog. Marcel de Serres observes, in reference to the large size of the fossil dogs which came under his observation, that they bear a stronger resemblance to the animal such as we may suppose him to have been before he came under the influence of man, than most of our domestic, canes. Their stature is intermediate between the wolf and the pointer, their muzzle is more elongated, and all the parts of the skeleton are proportionally stronger. But there is no ground for assuming a specific unity among these fossil dogs, any more than among the domesticated races. A careful examination of the bones found in the caves has shown the existence of difi:erent sizes, and probably of different species ; and inasmuch as we find, in the same caves, remains of animals which have suffered the greatest influence from man, e.g. the horse and ox, so we may reasonably infer that these dogs themselves have been contemporaneous with man; especially because no vestiges, either of domestic animals or dogs, have ever been found in countries uninhabited by mankind since the earliest human tradition. The gigantic size of fossil dogs appears less formidable to us than it proba- bly did to M. de Serres, since Rawlinson has figured an enormous dog, from the sculptures of Nineveh, as large as the largest of the extinct animals, and Vaux assures us that a similar species is still living in Thibet, \_Infra, Chap. XII.] Moreover, the skeleton of an immense dog was recently found in a cave at the Canaries, with remains of the extinct Guanches, and thence taken to Paris. Here, however the man may have met his death, " His faithful dog still bears him company." Very distinct traces exist, then, of at least four types of dogs, in fossilized state : the Canary dog, the pointer, the hound, and the bull- IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 343 dog, together with a smaller animal, supposed hy Sclimerliiig to nave been a turnspit. As we know some of these races to be hybrids, the list must be still further enlarged ; for there can be no doubt that many other fossil canidie a[)pertained to ditferent species of dogs. These species enjoy a very respectable antiquity ; sufficient, we think, to destroy the claims of the wolf or the jackal to their common pater- nity: especially, when to our list of species is added the fossil dog discovered by j\Ir. W. Mantell, in the remote region of New Zealand, associated with the bones of the Dinornis giganteus. We have no doubt that Man himself existed contemporaneously with these fossil- ized animals, and that both enjoyed an associated antiquity upon earth which has not yet been generally conceded, but cannot much longer be denied. As the hound, baying in our American woods, announces the presence of the hunter, so we may rest assured that a palaeontological "fidus Achates" noiselessly implies the proximity of fossil Man himself. Human Fossil Remains have now been found so frequently, and in circumstances so unequivocal, that the facts can hardly be denied ; except by persons who resolutely refuse to believe anything that can militate against their own preconceived opinions. Cuvier remarked, long since, that notions in vogue (30 years ago) upon this subject would require considerable modification ; and Morton left among his papers a record of his matured views still more emphatically expressed : — " There is no good reason for doubting the existence of man in the fossil state. We have already several well-authenticated examples ; and we may hourly look for others, even from the upper stratified rocks. Why may we not yet discover them in the tertiary deposits, in the cretaceous beds, or even in the oolites ? Contrary to all our preconceived opinions, the latter strata have already afforded the remains of several marsupial animals, which have surprised geologists almost as much as if they had discovered the bones of man himself." * Human bones, mixed with those of lost mammifers, have been found in several places, — in England, by Dr. Buckland, in the famous cave of Wokey Hole, at Paviland, and Kirkby. The question, whether an equal antiquity should be assigned to such remains with that of extinct inferior species accompanying them — or, in other words, whether man lived at the same time with rhinoceroses, hippopotami, hyenas, and bears, whose entire species have disappeared from earth, bequeathing but their fossil remains to tell us that they once existed — was one of mighty import ; and Dr. Buckland, Oxonian Professor, was loth to admit that these remains, human and animal, l)elonged to beings which had been swept from existence by the same catas trophe. Instances of human fossils had often been reported, but they * Morton : Posthumous MSS. 344 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, were always treated with contemptuous neglect. A fossil skeleton, found in the schist-rock at Quebec, when excavating the fortifications, excited but a moment's incredulous attention ; and the well-known Guadaloupe skeletons were pronounced recent, in a manner the most summary. Human bones are known to have been found in England, under circumstances which rendered their fossil condition probable; but, owing to prejudice or ignorance, they were cast aside as Avorthless, or buried with mistaken reverence. In some instances, they were used, with the limestone in which they were imbedded, to mend highways ; and at all times were disposed of without examination, or apparent knowledge of their scientific importance. There is an instance, recorded by Col. Hamilton Smith, which, whether true or not, will serve to show a culpable indifi:erence on this subject. A completely fossilized human body was discovered at Gibraltar, in 1748. The fact is related in a manuscript note, inserted in a copy of a dissertation on the Antiquity of the Earth, by the Eev. James Douglas, read at the Royal Society, in 1785. In substance, it relates that, while the writer himself was at Gibraltar, some miners, emplo3'ed to blow up rocks for the purpose of raising batteries about fifty feet above the level of the sea, discovered the appearance of a human body ; which they blew up, because the officer to whom they sent notice of the fact did not think it worth the trouble of examining ! One human pelvis found near Natchez, by Dr. Dickeson, is an undoubted fossil ; yet we are told that ferruginous oxides act upon an os innominatum difl;erently than upon bones of extinct genera lying in the same stratum, lest natural incidents might give to man, in the valley of the Mississippi, an anti- quity altogether incompatible with received ideas : and Sir Charles Lyell accordingly suggests a speedy solution of the difficulty, by saying that a fossilized pelvis may have fallen from an old Indian grave near the summit of the cliff. Attempts have been made to throw doubt upon every discovery of human fossils in the same manner; and the greatest ingenuity is exhibited in adapting adequate solutions to the ever-varying dilemmas. In the case of the fossils brought from Brazil, a human skull was taken out of a sandstone rock, now overgrown with lofty trees. Sir Charles Lyell again had recourse to his favorite Indian burying-ground ; although this time it had to be sunk beneath the level of the sea, and become again upheaved to its present position. But, supposing all this to be true, what ari antiquity must wo assign to this Indian vskull, when we re- iiieml)er the ancient trees above its grave, and reflect upon the fact that bones of iiumcrous fossil quadrupeds, and, among others, of a liorse (both found in the alluvial formation), must be of a more recetit oriffin than the human remains! I IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 345 Tinman fossil remains have been most commonly found in caves connected with the dikivium, usually known as ossuaries or bone- caverns. These caves occur, for the most part, in the calcareous strata, as the large caves generally do, and thoy have been, in all the in- stances we shall cite, naturally closed until their recent discovery. The floors are covered with what appears to be a bed of diluvial clay, over which a crust of stalagmite has formed since the clay bed was depo- sited ; and it is under this double covering of lime and clay that the bony remains of animals are discovered. As the famous Kirkdaie cavern may serve as a general type of caves of this description, we will here give a brief sketch of it : — The Kirkdaie cave is situated on the older portion of the oolite for- mation — in the coral-rag and Oxford clay — on the declivity of a valley. It extends, as an irregular narrow passage, 250 feet into the hill, expanding here and there into small chambers, but hardl}^ enough anywhere to allow of a man's standing upright. The sides and floor were found covered with a deposite of stalagmite, beneath which there was a bed from two to three feet thick of sandy, micaceous loam, the lower part of which, in particular, contained an innumerable quantity of bones, with which the floor was completely strewn. The animals to which they belonged were the hyena, bear, tiger, lion, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, horse, ox, three species of deer, water-rat, and mouse — appertaining wholly to extinct species. The most plentiful were hyenas, of which several hundreds were found, and the animals must have been one-half larger than any living spe- cies. The bears belonged to the cavernous species, which, accord- ing to Cuvier, was of the size of a large horse. The elephants w^ere Siberian mammoths ; and of stags, the largest equalled the moose in size. From all the facts observed. Dr. Buckland concluded, that the Kirkdaie cave had been for a long series of years a den inhabited by hyenas,* who had dragged into its recesses other animal bodies whose remains are there commingled with their own, at a period antecedent to that submersion which produced the diluvium ; because the bones are covered by a bed of this formation. Finally raised from the waters, but with no direct communication with the open air, it remained undisturbed for a long series of ages, during which the clay flooring received a new calcareous covering from the drop- pings of the roof. Such is a general description of the bone-caves : but it does not apply to all of those which contained human fossils, as we shall presently see. Apart from the geological, formation they are found in, the only * Buckland : Reliquiae Diluvianae. 44 346 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, method of judging of the age of bones is, by the proportions of ani- mal and mineral matters which they retain. Where animal matter is present, the bone is hard without being brittle, and does not adhere to the tongue ; when nothing but earthy matter remains, the bone ia both brittle and adhesive. If we wish to be more particular in oui examination, we treat the bone in question with dihite muriatic acid: the fossil bone, dissolving with effervescence, is reduced to a spongy flocculent mass : whereas the recent bone undergoes a quiet digestion, and after the removal of all the eai'thy matter, the gelatine still retains the form of the entire bone in a fibrous, flexible, elastic, and trans- lucent state. If both solutions be treated with sulphuric acid, we obtain the same insoluble sulphate of lime from each. Col. Hamilton Smith mentions several instances, occurring in Eng- land, where human bones were found kneaded up in the same osseous breccia, or calcareous paste, with those of extinct animals, wherein the most rigid chemical examination could detect no diflerence between them. In 1833, the Kev. Mr. M'Enery collected, from the caves of Torquay, human bones and flint knives amongst a great variety of extinct genera — all from under a crust of stalagmite, re- posing upon which was the head of a wolf. Caves have been opened at Oreston, near Plymouth, in the Plymouth Hoe, and at Yealm Bridge, in all of which human bones were found, mixed with fossil animal remains. Mr. Bellamy subjected a piece of human bone, from the cave at Yealm Bridge, to treatment by muriatic acid, ascertaining that its animal matter had almost entirely disappeared; while the metatarsal bone of a hyena, from the same cave, still retained such an abundance of animal matter that, after separation of the earthy parts, this bone preserved its complete form, was quite translucent, and had all the appearance of a recent specimen. Pieces of human bone, from a sub-Appenine cavern in Tuscany, (probably not less than twenty-five or thirty centuries old, and which had all the appear- ance of being completely fossilized and even converted into chalk,) when subjected to the searching powers of such muriatic-acid test, revealed their recent origin. And human bones from the Brixham cavern, in England, were in like manner pronounced recent, though it was evident that they had been gnawed by hyeiuis or other beasts of prey. Not far from the cave whence these were taken , the thoroughly fossilized head of a deer was picked up. This test was also fairly tried in the case (to be presently cited) of sundry human fossils found in the Jura. MM. Ballard and de Scrres compared them with some bones taken from a Gaulish sarcophagus, supposed to have been buried for 1400 years, but the fossil bone» proved to be much the more ancient. It may be granted, that Dr. Buckland was justified in concluding IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 347 from tlie instances which came under liis observation, that "^^henever human bones Avere discovered mixed with those of animals, they must have been introduced at a later period ; but even Cardinal Wise- man admits that there are cases of an entirely different character.* The cave of ])urfort, in tlio Jura, has been examined and described by MM. Firmas and Marcel de ISerrcs. It is situated in a calcareous mountain, about 300 feet above the level of the sea, and is entered by a perpendicular shaft, twenty feet deep. You enter the cavern by a narrow passage from this shaft, and there find human bones in a true fossil state, and completely incorporated in a calcareous matrix. A still more accurate examination, attended with the same results, was made, by M. de Serres, of certain bones found in tertiary' lime- stone at Pondres, in the department of the Herault. Here M. de CristoUes discovered human bones and pottery, mixed with the remains of the rhinoceros, bear, hyena, and many other animals. They Avere imbedded in mud and fragments of the limestone rock of the neighborhood ; this accumulation, in some places, being thir- teen feet thick. These human fossils were proved, on a careful exa- mination, to have parted with their animal matter as completely as those bones of hyenas which accompanied them ; and they fui'ther- more came out triumphantly from a comparison with the osseous relics of the long-buried Gaul, as just related. A fossil human skeleton is preserved in the Museum at Quebec, which was dug out of the solid schist-rock on which the citadel stands ; and two more skeletons from Guadaloupe are deposited, one in the British Museum, and the other in the Royal Cabinet at Paris. The skeleton in the British Museum is headless ; but its cranium is sup- posed to be recovered in the one found in Guadaloupe by M. L'Her- minier, and carried by him to Charleston, South Carolina. Dr. Moultrie, who has described this very interesting relic, says that it possesses all the characteristics which mark the American race in general. t The rock in which these skeletons were found is described as being harder, under the chisel, than the finest statuary marble. Dr. Schmerling has examined a large number of localities in France and Liege, particularly the "caverne d'Engihoul;" where bones of man occurred, together with those of animals of extinct species : the human fossils being found, in all respects, under the same circum- stances of age and position as the animal remains. J Near these relics, works of art were sometimes disclosed ; such as fragments of ancient urns, and vases of clay, teeth of dogs and foxes pierced wdth holes * Lectures on the Connection between Science and Revealed Religion, by Nicholas Wise n-.f. D. D. London, 1849 f Morton: Physical Type of American Indians. J Recherches, I. pp. 59-66 348 GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY, aud doubtless worn as amulets. Tiedemann exhumed, in caverns of Belgium, liuman bones, mixed witb those of bears, elephants, hyenas, horses, wild boars, and ruminants. These human relics were pre- cisely like those they were associated with, in respect to the changes either had undergone in color, hardness, degree of decomposition, and other marks of fossilization. In the caves of France and Belgium, we often find, in the deepest and most inaccessible places, far remote from any communication with the surface, human bones buried in the clayey deposit, and cemented fast to the sides and walls. On every side, we may see crania imbedded in clay, and often accompa- nied by the teeth or bones of hyenas. In breccias containing the bones of rodents and the teeth of horses and rhinoceroses, we also meet with human fossils. There are many other cases on record, of human remains being found associated with animal fossils, both in England and on the Con- tinelit. As well at Kitely as at Brixham, such associations have been noticed ; and there can be little doubt that human fossils exist in caverns and formations beneath the present level of the sea: e.g. at Plymouth and other places, where remains of elephants have been M^ashed up by the surf. In the caverns of Bize, in France, human bones and shreds of pot- tery turned up in the red clay, mixed with remains of extinct ani- mals ; and on the Rhine, they have been found in connection with skulls of gigantic bisons, uri, and other extinct species. The cave of Gailenreuth, in Franconia, is situated in a perpendicular rock, its mouth being upwards of 300 feet above the level of the river. Those of Zahnloch and Kiihloch are similarly elevated ; and the latter is supposed to have contained the vestiges of at least 2500 cavern-bears ; while the cave of Copfingen, in the Suabian Alps, is not less than 2500 feet above the sea. These caves contained collections of human and of animal remains; while their elevation places them above the reach of any partial inundations. Ossuaries in the vale of Kostritz, Upper Saxony, are more interesting, because they have been more carefully studied. They are situated in the gypsum quarries ; and the undulating country about them is too elevated to permit of their deposits having been influenced, in the least, by those inundations which are made to answer for such a multitude of sins. ISTo partial inundation could possibly have disturbed them since the present geo- logical arrangement ; nor were there external openings or indications of any kind revealing the existence of an extensive cave within. The soil is the usual ossiferous loarn, and the stalagmite rests upon it as in other caverns. Beneath these deposits, human and animal fos- sils have been discovered, at a depth of twenty feet. These deposits IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 349 were first describee' by Baron von Schlotheini, who concludes his account with these remarks : — " It is evident that the human bones could not have been buried here, nor have fallen into fissures during battles in ancient times. They are few, completely isolated, and de- tached. Nor could they have been thus mutilated and lodged by any other accidental cause in more modern times, inasmuch as they are always found with the other animal remains, under the same relations — not constituting connected skeletons, but gathered in various groups." Besides those of man at different periods of life, from infancy to mature age, bones of the rhinoceros, of a great feline, of hyena, horse, ox, deer, hare, and rabbit, were found ; to which owl, elephant, elk, and reindeer relics have since been added. Specimens of the human fossils are in possession of the Baron, of the Prince of Reuss, Dr. Schotte, and other gentlemen residing near the spot; and Mr. Fair- holme, who visited Saxony expressly to satisfy himself of the facts by a careful examination of the locality, brought specimens to England, which he presented to the British Museum. It is worthy of being noted here, that the above bones were not all entombed in caverns or fissures, but that some human fossils were dug out of the clay, at a depth of eighteen feet, and eight feet below the remains of a rhi- noceros.* Enough has thus been said upon fossil Man disinterred accidentally in that Old World which, in natural phenomena, is actu- ally younger than the " New." Crossing from Europe to our own continent, we behold, in the Academy of Sciences at Philadelphia, a fossilized human fragment, surpassingly curious, if of disputed antiquity : — "Dr. Dickeson presented another relic of yet greater interest: viz., tlie fossil Os innomi- natum of the human subject, taken from the above-mentioned stratum of blue clay [near Natchez, Mississippi], and about two feet below the skeletons of the megalonyx and other genera of extinct quadrupeds ; . . . that of a young man of sixteen years of age." f • • • " Ten of these interesting relics [of the fossil horse'], consisting of five superior and infe- rior molars, Dr. Dickeson relates, were obtained, together with remains of the megalomjx, ursus, the os hominis innominatum fossile, &c., in the vicinity of Natchez, Mississippi, from a stratum of tenacious blue clay, underlying a diluvial deposit." J Aware of the critical objections to this fossil put forward by Lyell, we neither affirm nor deny its antiquity by mentioning that Morton, and other palfeontologists, did not consider these demurrers conclu- sive : nor is much geological erudition requisite to comprehend that, under the atmospheric conditions in which a Jiorse and a bear could inhale the breath of life, a human mammifer might equally well have respired it with them. * Hamilton Smith : Natural History of the Human Species. Edinburgh, 1848 ; p. 93-107 f Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Philad. ; October, 1846, p. 107. X Leidy: On the Fossil Horse of America, op. ciC, Sept. 1847, p. 2G5. Vide, also, Prr ceedings Acad. Nat. Sciences ; Dec. 1847, p. 328. 350 GEOLOGY AND PAL J^ONTOLOGT, How comes it that, with the exception of brief notices by Morton, the subjoined nneqnivocal instance of American fossil man has been generally overlooked for a quarter of a century? His fossil bones were discovered bj'' Capt. J. D. Elliott, U. S. N., and are now in the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia : eight fossilized human relics, besides " A specimen of the rock of which the mound is composed, and in which the skeletons are imbedded. It consists of fragments of shells united by a stalactic matter." Dr. Meigs philosophically remarked, twenty-six years ago : — The present specimens are particularly interesting, inasmuch as they belong to the Ame- rican continent, and as adding another link to that chain of testimony concerning the early occupation of this soil, of which the remains are so few and unsatisfactory, but of which another link, a strong analogue exists in the Island of Guadaloupe, in good measure neg- lected or disregarded, on account of its loneliness or want of connection with similar facts."* Here, then, is one "homo Diluvii negator,'" to be coupled with Dr. Dowler's sub-cypress Indian, who dwelt on the site of Xew Orleans «)7,600 years ago. The next most important and valuable contribution to this depart- ment of knowledge, in every point of view, has been made by the distinguished Danish naturalist, Dr. Lund, who has given an interest- ing account of the calcareous caves of Brazil, so peculiarly rich in animal remains. He discovered human fossils in eiglit different loca- lities, all bearing marks of a geological antiquitj'. In some instances, the human bones were not accompanied by those of animals. In the province of Minas Geraes, human skeletons, in a fossil state, Avere found among the remains of fort3'-four species of extinct animals, among which was a fossil horse. This learned traveller discovered both the human and the animal reliques under circumstances which lead to the irresistible conclusion that all of them were once contem- poraneous inhabitants of the region in which their several vestiges occur. With respect to the race of these fossil men, Dr. Lund found that the form of the cranium differed in no respect from the acknow- ledged American type; proper allowance being made for the artificial depression of the forehead. The peculiarity in the arrangement of the teeth has been noticed elsewhere. In a cave on the borders of a lake called Lagoa Santa, Dr. Lund again collected multifarious human bones, in tlie same condition with tliosc of numerous extinct species of animals. They belonged to at least thirty different individuals, of every age, from creeping infancy to tottering decrepitude, and of both sexes ; and were evidently de- * An Account of some Human Bones, found on the Coast of Brazil, near Santas; latitude 24° 80'' S., lotigitude 4(i° W. By C. D. Meigs, M. D. Read 7th December, 1827 : Tran$. Amer. J'hilos. Hoc; Philad. 1830, iii. pp. 286-291. IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 351 posited wlicre the bodies lay witli the soft parts entire : immense blocks of stone with which Nature had partly covered them, bearing unanswerable testimony to the great revolutions which the cave had undergone since their introduction into it. These bones were thoroughly incorporated with a very hard breccia, every one in the fossil state. A single specimen of an extinct family of apes, callilhrix primoevus, was found among them ; but large numbers of rodents, carnivora, and tardigrades, Avere intermixed pro- miscuously with the human fossils. All their geological relations unite to show, that they were entombed in their present position at a time long previous to the formation of that lake on whose borders the cavern is situated ; thereby leaving no doubt of the coexistence, in life, of the whole of the beings thus associated in death. These facts establish not only that South America w^as inhabited by an ancient people, long before the discovery of the New Continent, or that the population of this part of the world must have preceded all historical notice of their existence : they demonstrate that aboriginal man in America antedates the Mississippi alluvia, because his bones are fos- silized ; and that he can even boast of a geological antiquity, because numerous species of animals have been blotted from creation since American humanity's first appearance. The form of these crania, moreover, proves that the general type of races inhabiting America at that inconceivably-remote era was the same ^^•hich prevailed at the period of the Columbian discovery: and this consideration may spare science the trouble of any further speculation on the modus through which the New World became peopled by immigration from the Old ; for, after carrying backwards the existence of a people monumentally into the very night of time, when we find that they have also pre- served the same Type back to a more remote, even to a geolocjical, period, there can be no necessity for going abroad to seek their origin. Thus much information, upon/o.9s?7 man in America, was common property of the authors of this volume and the writer, until March, 1853 : and such, in sul)stance, were the consequent ethnological de- ductions in which they coincided. However convinced themselves, in regard to the real fossiliferous antiquit}' of the os innominatum unearthed by Dr. Dickeson from the blults near Natchez, they were aware of the conditions obnoxious to its special- acceptance as evi- dence in court; and would, therefore, have cheerfully resigned, ro their fellow-continentals of South America, the honor of (exhibiting the oldest human remains upon the oldest continent, but for an un- anticipated event, which enables North America to claim in human palaeontology at least) a republican equality. Prof. Agassiz, during March and April, favored Mobile with a 352 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, Course of Lectures ; the sixth of which (concisely, but admirably, reported in our " Daily Tribune "*) bore directly upon the themes discussed in Tyjjes of Mankind. The subjects of the present work were passed in daily review, while the Professor sojourned amongst us. We need not recapitulate the obvious advantages its readers in consequence derive. Its authors and the writer consider the follow- ing abstract to be, in all senses of the word, a memorandum : — " Respecting the fossil remains of the human body I possess, from Florida, I can only state, that the identity with human bones is beyond all question ; the parts preserved being the jaws with perfect teeth, axidi portions of a foot. They were discovered by my friend, Count F. de Pourtalfes, in a bluff upon the shores of Lake Monroe, in Florida. The mass in which they were found is a conglomerate of rotten coral-reef limestone and shells, mostly ampul- larias of the same species now found in the St. John river, which drains lake Monroe. The question of their age is more difficult to answer. To understand it fully, it must be remem- bered that the whole peninsula of Florida has been formed by the successive growth of coral reefs, added concentrically from north to south to those first formed, and the accumulation between them of decomposed corals and fragments of shells ; the corals pievailing in some parts, as in the everglades; and in others, the shells, as about St. Augustine and Cape Sable. In all these deposits, we find remains of the animals now living along the coasts of Florida, sometimes buried in limestone as hard and compact as the rocks of the Jurassic formation. I have masses of this coral rock, containing parts of the skeleton of a large sea-turtle, which might be mistaken for turtle-limestone of Soleure, from the Upper Jura. Upon this marine-limestone formation and its inequalities, fresh-water lakes have been collected ; inhabited by animals the species of which are now still in existence, as are also, along the shores, the marine animals, remains of which may be found in the coral forma- tion. To this lacustrine formation belongs the conglomerate containing the human bones mentioned above ; and it is more than I can do, to establish, with precision, the date of its deposition. This, however, is certain, that Upper Florida, as far south as the headwaters of the St. .John, constituted already a prominent peninsula before Lake Okeechobee was formed; and that the whole of the southern extremity of Florida, with the everglades, has been added to that part of the continent since the basin has been in existence, in which the conglomerate with human bones has been accumulating. The question, then, to settle, (in order to determine the probable age of this anthropolithic conglomerate,) is, the rate of increase of the peninsula of Florida in its southward progress: remembering that the southernmost extremity of Florida extends for more than three degrees of latitude south of the fresh-water system of the northern part of the peninsula. If we assume that rate of growth to be one foot in a century, from a depth of seventy-five feet, and that every succes- sive reef has added ten miles of extent to the peninsula, (which assumption is doubling the rate of increase furnished by the evidence we now have of the additions forming upon the reef and keys south of the mainland,) it would require 135,000 years to form the southern half of the peninsula, f Now, assuming further — which would be granting by far too much — that the surface of the northern half of the peninsula, already formed, continued for nine- tenths of that time a desert waste, upon which the fresh waters began to accumulate before the fossiliferous conglomerate could be formed, (though we have no right to assume that it stood so for any great length of time) there would still remain 10,000 years, during which, it should be admitted, that the mainland was inhabited hy man and the land • «'The Lecture of Agassiz ; " Mobile Daily Tribune, April 14, 1853. •)• "Say 100,000 years, since which time at least the marine animals, now living along the coast of Florida, have been in existence; for their remains arc found in the coral limestone of the everglades, as well as in that of the keys, and upon the reef now growing up outside of them. IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 6-J6 and fresh-water animals, vestiges of which have been buried in the deposits foimed by tho fresh waters covering parts of its surface. So much for the probable age of our conglome- rate. ... L. AoASSiz." Man, absolutely fossilized, exists therefore in North America. We have shown that the alhivion of our river beds and deltas pos- sesses an antiquity, which would permit of the existence of man upon the earth at a much more remote period than has been commonly assigned to him. We have given instances of his exhumation also in the fossil state. The human fossils of Brazil and Florida carry back the aboriginal population of this continent far beyond any necessity of hunting for American man's foreign origin through Asiatic immi- gration : and the body of one Indian beneath the cypress forests at ^ew Orleans is certainly more ancient than the lost "tribes of Israel," to whom the American type has been rather fancifully attributed. Man's vast antiquity can now be proved, moreover, by his works as well as by his fossil remains. Authentic relics of human art have been, at last, found in the diluvian drift. This drift, with its beds of rolled stones, the detritus of older rocks, its masses of sand and gravel, and the traces of its passage over mountain and plain in almost everj' region of the earth, is vulgarly regarded as furnish- ing irrefragable evidence of the ISToachian deluge ; as, indeed, every remarkable geological appearance was supposed to prove the universality of that visitation. The numerous bones of the elephant, the rhinoceros, and other extinct species of quadrupeds, occurring in this deposit, were commonly denominated "antediluvian remains," and assumed to be unquestionable vestiges of the " world before the ilood !" Among such remains, in deposits clearly belonging to the diluvial epoch, traces of human industry are revealed, of an indisputable character. For these revelations from an earlier world we are chiefly indebted to the zeal and liberality of M. Boucher cle Perthes, who has given us an extraordinary work on the primitive industry of man.* In 1835, M. Ravin f published a description of a '■'-Pirogue Gauloise," found under the turf at Estrebceuf on the Somme ; and in the same year M. Picard described an ornament made of the teeth of the wild boar, and some very ancient axe-sheaths, &c., disclosed in a similar situation near Picquigny. These researches, interrupted by the death of M. Picard, were subsequently resumed by M. Boucher de Perthes ; who pursued them until 1849, when he published the result of his truly arduous labors. M. de Perthes caused numerous excavations to be made in the Celtic • Antiquit^s Celtiques et Ant^diluviennes : M^moire sur I'lndustrie primitive, et lea art* ^ leur origine: par M. Boucher de Perthes — Paris, 1849. f M6moires de la Society d'Emulation d'Abbeville — 1835. 45 354 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, burial-places, and in dilnvian beds, over the departments of the Somme and Seine ; besides examining all subterranean localities brought to light by the works of civil and military engineers, during a period of ten years. He did not succeed in finding fossil human remains in the diluvian deposits, but he has produced what he considers their equivalent: because, among relics of elephants and mastodons, and even below these fossils, at a depth ^^'here no archaeologist had ever suspected traces of man, he discovered weapons, utensils, figures, signs, and symbols, which must have been the work of a surpassingly- ancient people. Besides his researches in the diluvian beds, he opened many mounds and burial-places, Gaulish, Celtic, and of unknown origin, some of them evidently of extreme antiquity : and he describes successive beds of bones and ashes, separated from each other by strata of turf and tufa, with no less than five different stages of cinerary urns, belonging to distinct generations, of which the oldest were deposited below the woody or diluvian turf. The coarse structure of these vases, (made by hand and dried in the sun,) and the rude utensils of bone, or roughly-carved stone, b}^ which they were surrounded, to- gether with their position, announce their appertaining, if not to the earliest ages of the world, at least to a far more remote antiquity than has usually been assigned to such ceramic remains. " In th« various excavations made in the course of these inquiries, we become acquainted with successive periods of civilization, which correspond with the written history of the country. Thus, after passing through the first stratum of the soil, we come to relics of the middle ages; and tJien meet, in regular order, with traces of the Roman, the Gallic, the Cleltic, and the diluvian epochs. It is always in the neighborhood of lakes and rivers that we find vestiges of the most numerous and ancient people. If their banks were not the «arliest seats of human habitations, they were probably the most constant, and when once settled were seldom afterwards deserted. This was owing to water, the first necessary of life, and surest pledge of fertility; and to the abundance offish and game, so indispensable to a hunting people. We may add, that all ancient people had a superstitious reverence for great waters, and made them the favorite resorts of their gods. On the banks of their rivers they deposited the ashes of chiefs and relatives, and there they desired to be buried themselves. The possession of these banks was, therefore, an object of general ambition, and became the continual subject of war and conquest. This explains the accumulation of relics which sometimes covers them, and which, on the banks of the Somme and the Seine, conducts us from the middle ages, through the Roman and the Gaulish soils, back to the Celtic period." * We have nothing to do now with the comparatively-modern history of the Gauls ; the excellent works of MM. de Caumont and Thierry may be consulted on that subject : our business is with the Celtic soil, ihe cradle of the people, the earth trodden by the primordial popula- r./ou of Gaul. • Ibid. — Antiquites Celtiques. IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 355 " Here we naturally inquire, who were these mysterious Celts, these primitive inhabit- ants of Gaul ? We are told that this part of Europe is of modern origin, or at least of recent population. Its annals scarcely reach to twenty centuries, and even its traditions do not exceed 2500 years. The various people who have occupied it, the Galls, the Cells, the Belgians, tlie Veneti, Ligurians, Iberians, Cymbrians, and Scj'thians, have left no ves- tige to which we can assign that date. The traces of those nomadic tribes who ravaged Gaul scarcely precede the Christian era by a few centuries. Was Gaul then a desert before this period? Was its sun less genial, or its soil less fertile? Were not its liiils as pleasant, and its plains and valley's as ready for tlie harvest? Or, if men had not yet learned to plough and sow, were not its rivers filled with fish, and its forests with game? And, if the land abounded with everything calculated to attract and support a population, why should it not have been inhabited? The absence of great ruins would indicate that Gaul, at this period, and even much later, had not attained a high degree of civilization, nor been the seat of powerful kingdoms; but why should it not have had its towns and villages? or, rather, why should it not, like the steppes of Russia, the prairies and virgin forests of Ame- rica, and the fertile plains of Africa, have been overrun from time immemorial by tribes of men, savages perhaps, but, nevertheless, united in families if not in nations ? " Those circles of upright stones, of which Stonehenge is the most familiar example, are admitted to be of great antiquity, but no one can tell how far back that antiquity may extend. They are found throughout Europe, from Norway to the Mediterranean ; and they must have been erected by a numerous people, (being faithful ex- ponents of a general sentiment,) since we find them in so many coun- tries. They are commonly called Celtic or Druidical, but it would be hard to saj^ on what authority; or, in what circumstances and for what purpose those mysterious Druids erected them. Having neither date nor inscription, they must be older than written lano;uao;e; for people who can write never leave their own names and ex- ploits uncelebrated. The ancients were as ignorant on this subject as ourselves ; and, at the period of the Roman invasion, the origin of those monuments was already shrouded in obscurity. Neither Roman historians nor Christian chroniclers have been able to throw au}^ light upon their unknown founders. Even tradition is silent Political or religious monuments, they were probably the first temples, the first altars, or the first trophies vowed to the gods, to victory, and to the memory of w^arriors ; for among all people the ravages of war were deified before the benefits of peace : man lias always venerated the slayer of man. The people who erected them are entirely for- gotten ; and they must have been separated from the living genera- tions by an extreme antiquity, as well as by some great and over- whelming social revolution, probably involving the entire destruction of their nation. Being unable, then, to attribute these monuments either to the Romans or the Gauls, sciolists have ignorantly termed them Celtic or Druidic ; not because they were raised originally by Druids, but because they had been used in the Diuidical worship, though erected for other uses, or dedicated to other divinities. In like 156 GEOLOGY AND PALiEONTOLOG Y, manner did the temples of Paganism afterwards serve for tlae solemni- ties of Christianity. We have cited the example of these Celtic temples as a standard of comparison ; for, if their antiquity is so extreme as to be entirely lost out of our sight, what date shall we assign to human works found at a considerable distance below their foundations ? In the same soil upon which these druidical monuments stand, but many feet beneath their base, numbers of those stone wedges, commonly called Celtic axes, have been discovered ; and these, with other similar instruments, only varying in the finish of their workmanship, according to the depth at which they are found, have been collected at difierent levels, even as low down as the diluvian drift. The annexed cut represents a section of an alluvial formation at Fig. 203. AlLuviAL Deposites AT PoRTELETTE, skowinff the Arrangement of the Soil and the Sepultures. i"" 3-00... 3-00... ^.III. ...IV. gi^" Indicates the level of the actual waters of the Somme, whose depth is three metres. I. Alluvial formation. II. Vegetable soil — covering transported earth or rubble. III. Calcareous tufa — porous, and containing compact masses. IV. Muddy sand — blue, and very fine. V. Turf — containing Celtic antiquities; indicated "by = . VI. Muddy sand. Vll. Detrital diluvium — rolled silex, &c. VIII. White chalk. IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 357 Portelette, on the Sorame, where some beautiful specimens of Celtic axes were obtained. At a depth of nine feet, a large quantity of bones was found ; and one foot lower, a piece of deer's horn, bearing marks of human workmanship. At twenty feet from the surface, and five feet below the bed of the river, three axes, highly finished, and perfectly preserved, turned up in a bed of turf. Some axe-cases of stag's horn were also discovered in the same bed. Near these objects was a coarse vase of black pottery, very much broken, and surrounded with a black mass of decomposed pottery — there were also large quantities of wrought bones, human and animal. The entire bones were those of the boar, urus, bull, dog, and horse ; but none of man. In another locality, in the neighborhood of Portelette, the skull of a man was found. Here was evidently a Celtic sepulchre. The axes were entirely new, bearing no marks of use, and were doubt- less votive offerings. This case is only cited to show that the same kind of utensils extend from the comparatively recent Celtic back to far remoter diluvian and antediluvian epochas. We annex sketches of the deer's-horn axe-cases (Figs. 204 and 205), because in the more FiQ. 204. Fio. 205. Celtic buck-horn "Axe-Cases."* ancient excavations none were discovered. Fig, 204 is an axe-case made of the horn of a "stag often," and is six inches in length, two inches * Boucher, PI. I. 358 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, wide at one end, and a little more than one inch wide at the other. Aiound the opening intended to receive the stone, a line has heen drawn by way of ornament. The axe is of grayish silex, polished along its whole len'gth, and is three inches long, and one inch and a half wide. At the upper end of the case, broken remains of a large wild boar's tusk were firml}' driven into the horn; while the axe itself was very loose, and seems always to have been so — the looseness being increased by its smooth polish. It was evidently intended to be thrown, or detached from the case, whenever a blow was struck with it. The handle of this axe was twenty inches long, made of oak, and in a tolerable state of preservation ; but became reduced one- half in drying, by crumbling and splitting oif in flakes. Carelessly worked, it had been hardened at both ends in the fire. This was the only wooden handle found — some being of bone, and many others entirely decomposed. Fig. 205 was an axe-case and axe similar in most respects to Fig. 204, except its handle of horn. A great variety of other instruments, made of deer's horn, oc- curred in this and other alluvial excavations ; but as our main con- cern is with those of higher antiquity, we must pass them by without notice, and proceed to the diluvian vestiges. In the gravel-pits of Menchecourt, on the Somme, M. de Perthes found a number of stone axes and other works, associated with the remains of extinct animals. The character of this formation is marked by erratic blocks and the organic remains which it contains: the erratic blocks being here represented by boulders of sandstone, and by massive flints, which have been visibly rolled and rounded, de- spite of their weight. Its organic remains are chiefly those of the elephant, the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, bear, hyena, stag, ox, urus, and other mammalia, of races either extinct or foreign to the pre- sent climate, belonging to the diluvian epoch. In the post-diluvian or alluvial formations already spoken of, only living or indigenous species are met with ; and the human bones are mixed with scoriae, worked metals, pieces of pottery, and other vestiges of the civilization of the period to which these buried men belonged. The alluvia, whatever be the materials which compose them, are easily recognized through the horizontal position of their beds. Such regular stratifications do not exist in the Diluvial formations. Here difterent sands, gravels, marls, broken and rolled flints, everywhere scattered in disturbed Deds, and repeated at irregular distances, announce the movement of a great mass of water and the devastating action of a furious cur- rent. Indeed it is scarcely possible to be deceived in the diluvial cnaracter of these formations, or to confound them with a posterior IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 359 deposit. Everything announces the diluvial origin of these o«ds at Menchecourt : the total absence of modern relics and of any remains of recent animals ; the large lumps of silex ; the scattered boulders : the pure sands (yellow, green, and black), sometimes in distinct layers, at other times mixed with the silex whose couches^ descending to agr^^at depth, rise again immediately to the surface of the soil. Such is the character of these formations ; wherein we meet at every step the traces of an immense catastrophe, especially in valleys where the diluvian waters had precipitated the ruins accumulated in their course.* M. Baillou, speaking of this locality, says : — " We begin to find bones at the depth of ten or twelve feet, in the gravel of Menchecourt ; but they are more plentiful at eighteen or twenty feet deep. Among them are bones which were bruised and broken before they were entombed, and others whose angles have been rounded by friction in water ; but neither of these are found as deep as those which remain entire. These last are deposited at the bottom of the gravel bed ; they are whole, being neither rounded nor broken, and were probably articulated at the time of their deposition. I found the whole hind leg of a rhinoceros, the bones of which were still in their proper relative position. They must have been connected by ligaments, and even covered with muscles, at the time of their destruction. The rest of the skeleton of the same animal lay at a small distance. I have remarked that whenever we meet with bones disposed in this manner — that is to say, articulated — we also find that the sand has formed a hard agglo- meration against one side of them." Subjoined is a list of the mammifers discovered by M.Baillon in the sands of Menchecourt : namely, elephant, rhinoceros, fossil horse (of medium size and more slender form than the living species), felis spelea, canis speleus, hyena, bear, stag, and bos bombifrons of Harlan. A scale from the neck of a great crocodile was also exhumed from gravel of Menchecourt, being only the third instance in which traces of that saurian had been found, thus associated, in Europe : once at Brentford in England, once in the diluvial beds of the Val d'Arno, and once at Menchecourt. f We have said that, among these diluvian remains, (amid bones of elephants, rhinoceroses, and crocodiles, under many beds of sand and gravel, and at a depth of several feet below the modern soil,) vestiges oi human industry had been met with; and we now give a section of the locality (Fig. 106) from which flint axes, agglutinated with a mass of bones and sand, were procured. These axes were taken from the ossiferous beds ; one at four and a half metres, or nearly thirteen feet, and the other at nine metres, or about twenty-seven feet, below the surface. The character of the soil and of the superposed layers of compact sand, free from any appearance of modern detritus, forbids a supposition that they could ever have reached such a depth through accident since the formation of the bed itself, or by any infiltration from * Boucher de Perthes ; p. 217-246. f Cuvier: Ossemens Fossiles. 360 GEOLOGY AND PALiEONTOLOGT, Section of the Gravel-Beds at Menchecourt.* Fig. 206. * Modern, or Alluvial. Diluvian, or Clysmian of Brongniart. T. Superficial vegetable earth — humus. II. Lower vegetable — argillaceous. IIL Brown clay. IV. Upper bed of silex — rolled and broken, with lump* of white marl and rolled chalk, in amygdaloid fragments. V. Compact ferruginous clay. IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS, 161 a superior level : because, in such cases, some trace must have been left of their occurrence. No doubt exists that those axes had lain in the same position ever since the fossilized bones were there, or that they were brought thither by the same causes. Many other excavations were examined, as opportunities occurred ; and stones bearing unmistakeable evidence of human workmanship were discovered so frequently in the drift, as to establish the fact beyond all room for question. The occurrence of similar axes in sepulchres of the Celtic era, might otherwise support the idea that they had found their waj' by subsidence from upper to lower levels; but the character of the formation, as before remarked, renders such contingencies highly improbable, if not impossible; and it seems much more likely that old cliluvian remains were discovered by a more modern people, who adopted these ancient tools in later funebral ceremonies. But it is not necessary to assume either hj'po- thesis: the same wants would suggest similar utensils. Forms, vene- rated as symbolical of any religious rite or sentiment, are very per- manent, especially among a rude people : and, whether we suppose the more ancient race to have been entirely destroyed, and suc- ceeded by another after a catastrophe, or the same type to have con- tinued through that long period which must have elapsed between the diluvian and the Celtic epochas, the circumstance that the same instruments are found in both positions is not attended with any insuperable ditficulties. Indeed, Indian axes, discovered by Mr. Squier in our Western mounds, are so precisely similar in form and material to those we have been describing, that one should not be much surprised at seeing them adduced, by some sapient advocate of the unity of human races, as decisive proofs of the Celtic origin of American Indians. The annexed cuts (Figs. 207 and 208) represent different sections Clysmien Limoneux of Bronyniart. Clysmian detritic. '' Limono-de- trilique. Clayey and sandy. Sandy. Flinty. { VI. Marly clay, with broken flints, white externally. VII. INIarly sand, containing bones of mammifers. f VIII. Beds of rolled chalk, in pisiform fragments, mixed with siliceous gravel. IX. White clay. X. White sand. XI. Gray sandy clay. XII. Clay and sand, ochry, in veins. XIII. Pure gray clay. XIV. Ochry vein. XV. Alternate beds, slightly oblique, with she Is and dilu vian bones. XVI. Lower bed of flints, rolled and broken. These marks show the position of the flint-axes. 46 362 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, of a bank at Abbeville ; * after excavations made by military engi- neers, while repairing the fortifications of the place. Here, in a bed of gravel some eight feet below the surface, fossil bones of an elephant were found; and, immediately below them, a flint knife; while at a still lower level, stone axes were discovered. The existence of human works in Gallic diluvian drift, appears to be proven. Similar works have also been found in the alluvium of the same localities: and, inasmuch as the best geologists say that each of these formations may have occupied myriads of years, it will be inte- resting to trace connexions between the two periods. This we shall now attempt by an examination of some rude mementos of those ancient times entombed in mother earth. In later Celtic sepulchres, (besides stone axes, of regular shape and high polish,) numerous uten- sils wrought from deers' horns were discovered, of which we have given specimens when treating of axes. * 1st. Section of Diluvian Beds at the Rampaets of Abbeville. Fig. 207. Fliut knives and axes. IL^ I. Recent. — Thickness 6 feet. «. Vegetable mould. b. Rubble. IL Diluvian formation (clysmien Br.). A. First bed— 1 J. 1. Yellow sand — argillo-ferruginous. 2 Silex, rolled and broken, mixed with gravel. 3 Green sand. B. Second bed— d<5tritique Br.— 9 00. 1111. MftHses of silex, rolled and broken, mixed with gravel and ferruginous sand. Below this mass the silex tends to form oblique beds. 2. The same silex, forming a large band in green sand. 3 3 3. The same silex, forming sinuous veins in black sand, colored by carbon from the decomposition of lignite. 4 4. Vein of white sand, containing a layer of silex and bands of clay. 5. Veins of green sand — 16. =. Celtic instruments found in the dilu- vian mass. IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 363 An instance of the early use of cleers' F'o. 209. horn, (mentioned by Dr. Wilson in his Memoir on the pre-Celtic races of Scotland, read before the British Association for 1850,) may be here cited. Remains of a fossil whale have recently been exhumed in Blair Drummond Moss, seven miles above Stirling bridge, and twenty miles from the nearest point of the river Forth where by any possibility a whale could be naturally stranded. Nevertheless, a rude harpoon of deers' horn, found along with the cetaceous mamma], proves that this fossilized whale pertains to, and falls within, human historical periods ; at the same time that it points to an era subse- quent to man's first colonization of the British Isles. Sketches of other instruments, made of the same material, equally illustrate the rude state of Celtic arts. Fig. 209, made of an antler and part of the horn attached to the head, was used a? Celtic hammer, of buck-horn.* 2nd. 1. Recent. a. Vegetable earth. b. Transported earth. II. Diluvian formation (clysmien Br.). A. First bed. 1 1. Mixture of rolled silex and clay. 2. Lumps and oblique veins of white sand, mixed with gravel and silex. Bed of ferruginous diluvian grit. Sand agglutinated by a cement of hydrated iron. Second bed. (Detritique Brong.) Masses of rolled silex, mixed with gravel. 2, Sinuous band of silex (rolled) in black sand. 3. Mass of silex and gravel, in brown ferruginous sand. M. Celtic instruments contained in the mass of silex, covered with fer- ruginous sand ; one set 3^ metres below the surface, the other at 5 metres 60 centimetres. • Boucher, Plate HI Transverse Section — Abbeville ramparts. 3. B. 1. II. Fig. 208. 364 GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY, Celtic pickaxe, made of buck-horn.* Fig. 210. a hammer ; and Fig. 210 is evi- dently intended for a pickaxe. Many other specimens, equally rude in design and execution, were found in these alluvial deposits ; but, notwithstanding the most careful search, no traces of worked bones have been ever discovered in the diluvial beds ; except in two doubtful instances, where fragments of fossil deers' horn appeared to show some traces of workmanship. Among the weapons used by ancient people, axes have always been, if not the most common, at least the best known. We have spoken of those found in the Celtic sepulchres, and will now give sketches of a few of them. Figs. 211, 212 and 213 are Celtic axes. The first is composed of silex, the second of jade, and the third of por- phyry : they are all of elegant form and perfect polish. This is the prevailing form ; though the instruments vary in size from eight inches down to two inches and a half in length, with a proportionate width. An elegant little jasper axe (Fig. 214) is of the smaller size. Serpentine is another common material, from its beautiful appearance and facility of workmanship : chalk and even bitumen are also frequently found moulded into the typical form. The subjoined (Figs. 215, 216, 217) appear ^to have been intended for amulets. Fig. 215 is of grit, two inches long, con- taining a rude representa- tion of a human face, and pierced so as to be worn Celtic axes, adzes, &c.f as an amulet. Fig. 216 is Fig. 2n. Fig. 212. Fig. 213. Fig. 214. » Boucher, Plate IV. •f Idem, Plate XIIL IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 365 otM.hu'k basalt; and Fig. Fia. 215. Fig. 216. 217, which is more of the typical shape, is made of white marble, ornamented with small bas-reliefs, and pierced with holes for sus- pension as an amulet, or Celtic Amulets.* to facilitate fastening in a case. Several other specimens of different sizes, material, and finish, but all of the same general form, were found in the Celtic sepulchres, which it is unnecessary to our purpose to enumerate or describe. Besides the axes, numbers of flints, wrought in the form of knives, were found in the Celtic depositories, and instruments of both kinds were also discovered in the diluvian deposites ; the only difference between the Celtic and diluvian remains lying in the fineness of the workmanship, as the form and material were in both cases the same. Figs. 218, 219, and 220, represent axes from the diluvian deposites ; and here it may be as well to remark, once for all, that the word axe is merely a conventional term, applied generally to all stones of a peculiar typical shape, and is not intended to convey the idea that those instruments were always used as weapons or as mechanical tools, as we shall take occasion to explain. Figs. 221, 222, and 223, are sketches of Celtic knives ; and Figs. 224, 225, and 226, are corresponding instruments of the diluvian epoch. FiQ. 219. Fig. 221. Fig. 222. Fig. 218. Fig. 220. Diluvial hatchets.f Fig. 223 * Boucher, PI. XVI. t Boucher, PI. XVII. I Ibid., Pis. XXIV., XXV 366 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, Fig. 226. Fig. 224. Fig. 225. Diluvial knives.* Besides the axes and knives, there were still other specimens of wrought silex and sandstone, which appear to have been used as symbols or signs connected with the rites of religion. Some of these w^ere probably the original forms or models of the Celtic stones, so widely known ; viz., cromlechs, dolmens, lichavens, &c. The}^ certainly have the same shapes, and it is not easy to assign any other use or origin to them. Generally pyramidal or cubic in form, they are found, with little variation, from the oldest diluvian to the Celtic period. Fig. 227. Fig. 228. Fig. 229. Druidical Monuments. f and even down to near the Roman times. They are represented in Figs. 227, 228, 229, and 230. • Boucher, PI. XXVIL t Ibid., Pis. XXXIIL and XXXIV. IN CONNECTION WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 367 We should romomUer that main' of the, instruments we call axes were prohahly used onl\- in saeritiees, and some, perhaps, merely as votive oftcrings or amulets ; being too small, and made of materials too fra- gile, to have been of any use either as weapons or as tools. Moreover, they were fitted so slightly to their cases, that they must have become detached whenever a blow was struck, and would thus have been left in the wound, or, in case of sacrifice, would have dropped into the hole of the dolmen made to receive the blood of the victim. This superstition still exists among some savage tribes, Avho, in their human sacrifices, always leave the knife in the wound; and may perhaps be traced in the practice of Italian bravos, with whom it is a point of professional honor to leave the stiletto sticking in the body of the murdered man. " The triangular axe was probably a form consecrated by custom among those rude tribes, like tlie crescent among the Turks. Being never employed as an instrument of death, except in sacrifices; when the sacrifice was consummated, on funereal occasions, it would be deposited near the urn containing the ashes of the chief they wished to honor, or under the altar of the god they would propitiate. At any rate, the permanence of so rude a state of art during so many ages, or perhaps so many hundreds of ages — from a period of unknown antiquity, separated from historic times by one of the great revolutions of the earth — and disappearing, not gradually, but suddenly ; and either by death or conquest ; to be succeeded by remains of the Roman era — indicates the existence of a people in a state of barbarism from which they would probably never have emerged. Inhabiting a country full of lakes and forests, they may have resembled the Indians of North America ; or, to select a more ancient example, we may compare them to the nomadic tribes of Asia and Africa : the Tartars, Mongols, and Bedouins. The duration of their stationary state defies all speculation; since the most ancient traditions, especially of the pastoral Arabs, repre- sent them precisely as we see them to-day, and there is no sensible diflFerence between the tent of Jacob and that of a modern Shfeykh." * The supposition that these pre-Celtic populations of Europe may have resembled our North American Indians is exceedingly just, so long as similitudes are restricted merel}' to social habits, superinduced on both continents by the same natural causes ; but that the abori- gines of Europe were not, in any case, identical physiologicall}' with the trans-Alleghanian mound-builders, has been already exemplified [supra, p. 291]. This leads us to the '■'■ Pre-Celtic Annals of Scotland" — one of those sterling works, replete with solid instruction, that reflects infinite honor on the "native heath," which Dr. Daniel Wilson has recently exchanged for a Canadian home. Whilst heartily welcoming such an accession of science to our continent, we lack space to do more than present the learned archaeologist's results in the concisest form. Caledonia, in ages anterior to an}' Celtic tra- ditions, appears to have been successively occupied by two types of man (heretofore unknown to historians), distinct from each other no * M. Boucher de Perthes : Antiquites Celtiques. 368 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, less than from tlieir Celtic destroyers ; and this long prior to the Roman invasion of Britain. The most ancient of these extinct races, viz., the ^'■Kumhe-kephali" (or, men with 6oa^-shaped skulls), flourished during the earlier part of the " Primeval or Stone period ; " and their successors, the '•'• Bracliy-'keiplialV (or, short heads) lived towards the latter part. Eoth became more or less displaced by intrusive Celts, during the subsequent ''Archaic or Bronze period ;" while these last gradually gave way before the precursors of Saxons, Angli, Scoti, Norwegians, &c., who usher in the "Teutonic or Iron period." Place the Roman invasion of Scotland in the year 80 a. d., and at what primordial era did Caledonia's aborigines begin ? — With this exordium, let Caledonian archaeology speak for itself: — " Of the Allopylian colonists of Scandinavia, Professor Nillson assigns to the most ancient the short or brachy-kephalic form of cranium, with prominent parietal tubers, and broad and flattened occiput. To this aboriginal race, he conceives, succeeds another with a cra- nium of a more lengthened oval form, and prominent and narrow occiput. The third race, which Scandinavian antiquaries incline to regard as that of the bronze or first metallic period, is characterized by a cranium longer than the first and broader than the second, and marked by greater prominence at the sides. The last. Professor Nillson considers to have been of Celtic origin. To this succeeded the true Scandinavian race, and the first workers of the native iron ore.* . . . " Fortunately a few skulls from Scottish tu- muli and cists are preserved in the Museums of the Scottish Antiquaries and of the Edin- burgh Phrenological Society. A comparison of these with the specimens of crania drawn by Dr. Thurnam from examples found in an ancient tumular cemetery at Lamel Hill, near York, believed to be of the Anglo-Saxon period, abundantly proves an essential diifer- ence of races.f The latter, though belonging to the superior or dolicho-kephalic type, are small, very poorly developed, low and narrow in the forehead, aiid pyramidal in form. A striking feature of one type of crania from the Scottish barrows is a square compact form. . . "No. 7 [Figs. 231 and 232] was obtained from a cist discovered under a large cairn at Nether Urquhart, Fifeshire, in 1885. An ac- count of the opening of several cairns and tumuli in the same district is given by Lieu- tenant-Colonel ISliller, in his ' Inquiry respect- ing the Site of the Battle of Mons Grampius.'J Some of them contained urns and burnt bones, ornaments of jet and shale, and the like early relics, while in others were found implements or weapons of iron. It is selected here as Fia. 231. Fio. 232. "No. 7. Nether Urquhart Cairn.' • Primitive inhabitants of Scandinavia, by Professor Nillson of Lund. + Natural History of Man, p. 193. % Archajol. vol. iv. pp. 43, 44. IN CONNECTION T7ITH HUMAN ORIGINS, 3G9 Fig. 233. Fig. 234. another example of the same chiss of crania. . . . The whole of these, more or less, nearly agree witli the lengthened oval form described by Professor Nillson as the second race of the Scandinavian tumuli. They have mostly a singularly narrow and elongated occiput ; and with their comparatively low and narrow forehead, might not inaptly be described by the familiar term boat-shaped. It is probable that further investigation will establish thia as the type of a primitive, if not of the primeval native race. Though they approach in form to a superior type, falling under the first or Dolicho-kephalic class of Professor Ret- zius's arrangement, their capacity is generally small, and their development, for the most part, poor; so that there is nothing in their cranial characteristics inconsistent with such evidence as seems to assign to them the rude arts and extremely limited knowledge of the British Stone Period. . . . "The skull, of which the measurements are given in No. 10 [Figs. 233 and 234], is the same here referred to, presented to the Phren- ological Museum by the Rev. Mr. Liddell. It is a very striking example of the British Brachy-kepbalic type ; square and compact in form, broad and short, but well balanced, and with a good frontal development. It no doubt pertained to some primitive chief, or arch- priest, sage, it may be, in council, and brave in war. The site of his place of sepulture has obviously been chosen for the same reasons which led to its selection at a later period for the erection of the belfry and beacon-tower of the old burgh. It is the most elevated spot in the neighborhood, and here his cist had been laid, and the memorial mound piled over it, which doubtless remained untouched so long as his memory was cherished in the tra- ditions of his people. . . . "Few as these examples are, tliey will pro- bably be found, on further investigation, to belong to a race entirely distinct from those previously described. They correspond very nearly to the Brachy-kephalic crania of the supposed primeval race of Scandinavia, de- scribed by Professor Nillson as short, with prominent parietal tubers, and broad and flat- tened occiput. In frontal development, how- ever, they are decidedly superior to the previous class of crania, and such evidence as we possess seems to point to a very different succession of races to that which Scandinavian ethnologists now recognize in the primitive history of the north of Europe. . . . " So far as appears from the table of measurements, the following laws would seem to be indicated: — In the primitive or elongated dolicho-kephalic type, for which the distinc- tive title of kumbe-kephalic is here suggested — the parietal diameter is remarkably small, being frequently exceeded by the vertical diameter; in the second or brachy-keph.alic class, the parietal diameter is the greater of the two ; in the Celtic crania they are nearly equal ; and in the medieval or true dolicho-kephalic heads, the parietal diameter is again found decidedly in excess; while the preponderance or deficiency of the longitudinal in its rela- tive proportion to the other diameters, furnishes the most characteristic features referred to in the classification of the kumbe-kephalic, brachy-kephalic, Celtic, and dolicho-kephalio types. Not the least interesting indications which these results afford, both to the etlino- 47 « No. 10. Old Steeple, Montrose." 370 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY, logist and the archsEologist, are the evirlences of native primitive races in Scotland prior to the intrusion of the Celtae ; and also the probability of these races having succeeded each other in a different order from the primitive colonists of Scandinavia. Of the former fact, viz., the existence of primitive races prior to the Celtte, I think no doubt can be now enter- tained. Of the order of their succession, and their exact share in the changes and pro- gressive development of the native arts which the archaeologist detects, we still stand in need of further proof. . . . " The peculiar characteristic of the primeval Scottish type appears rather to be a narrow prolongation of the occiput in the region of the cerebellum, suggesting the term already applied to them of boat-shaped, and for which the name of Kumbeh ephalce may perhaps be convenientlj' employed to distinguish them from the higher type with which they are other- wise apt to be confounded. . . . " The peculiarity in the teeth of certain classes of ancient crania above referred to is of very general application, and has been observed as common even among British sailors. The cause is obvious, resulting from the similarity of food in both cases. The old Briton of the Anglo-Roman period, and the Saxon both of England and the Scottish Lothians, had lived to a great extent on barley bread, oaten cakes, parched peas, or the like fiire, pro- ducing the same results on his teeth as the hard sea-biscuit does on those of the British sailor. Such, however, is not generally the case, and in no instance, indeed, to the same extent in the skulls found in the earlier British tumuli. In the Scottish examples described above, the teeth are mostly very perfect, and their crowns not at all worn down. . . . " The inferences to be drawn from such a comparison are of considerable value in vhe indications they afford of the domestic habits and social life of a race, the last survivor of which has mouldered underneath his green tumulus, perchance for centuries before the era of our earliest authentic chronicles. As a means of comparison this characteristic appear- ance of the teeth manifestly furnishes one means of discriminating between an early and a still earlier, if not primeval period, and though not in itself conclusive, it may be found of considerable value when taken in connexion with the other and still more obvious peculiari- ties of the crania of the earliest barrows. We perceive from it, at least, that a verj' decided change took place in the common food of the country, from the period when the native Briton of the primeval period pursued the chase with the flint lance and arrow, and the spear of deer's horn, to that comparatively recent period when the Saxon marauders began to effect settlements and build houses on the scenes where they had ravaged the villages of the older British natives. The first class, we may infer, attempted little cultivation of the -soil. . . . " Viewing Archaeology as one of the most essential means for the elucidation of primitive history, it has been employed here chiefly in an attempt to trace out the annals of our ■country prior to that comparatively recent medieval period at which the boldest of our his- torians have heretofore ventured to begin. The researches of the ethnologist carry us back somewhat beyond that epoch, and confirm many of those conclusions, especially in relation to the close affinity between the native arts and Celtic races of Scotland and Ireland, at which we have arrived by means of archaeological evidence. . . . But we have found from many independent sources of evidence, that the primeval history of Britain must be sought for in the annals of older races than the Celtae, and in the remains of a people of whom we have as yet no reason to believe that any philological traces are discoverable, though they probably do exist mingled with later dialects, and especially in the topographical nomen- clature, adopted and modified, but in all likelihood not entirely superseded by later colo- nists. With the earliest intelligible indices of that primeval colonization of the British Isles our archipological records begin, mingling their dim historic annals with the last giant traces of elder worlds; and, as an essentially independent element of historical research, they terminate at the point where the isolation of Scotland ceases by its being embraced into the unity of medieval Christendom."* « Wilson: Archaeol. and Prehist. Annals of Scotland; Edinb. 1851; pp. 1(>.?-187, 695-6. IN CONNECTION" WITH HUMAN ORIGINS. 371 Neither in Scotia nor in Scandinavia, then, any more than in Gal- lia, are kickins: mute, l)nt incontrovertible testimonies to the abori- ginal diversity of mankind, as well as to human antiquity incalculably beyond all written chronicles. Ere long, '•'•Crania Britannica^ or De- lineations of the Skulls of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the British Islands, and of the Races immediately succeeding them," will vouch for existing evidences of the same unanswerable facts in England. The forthcoming work of Doctors Davis and Thurnam promises — "Not merely to reproduce the most lively and forcible traits of the primeval Celtic hunter or warrior, and his Roman conqueror, succeeded by Saxon or Angle chieftains and settlers, and later still by the Vikings of Scandinavia ; but also to indicate the peculiarities which marked the different tribes and races who have peopled the diversified regions of the British Islands." We conclude this imperfect sketch with remarks, truthful as they are eloquent, of M. Boucher de Perthes, on the subject of these pre- Celtic resuscitations : — " My discoveries may appear trifling to some, for they comprise little save crumbling bones and rudelj sculptured stones. Here are neither medals nor inscriptions, neither bas- reliefs nor statues — no vases, elegant in form, and precious in material — nothing but bones and rudely polished flints. But to the observer who values the demonstration of a truth more than the possession of a jewel, it is not in the finish of a work, nor in its market- price, that its value consists. The specimen he considers most beautiful is that which alfords the greatest help in proving a fact or realizing a prevision ; -and the flint which a collector would throw aside with contempt, or the bone which has not even the value of a bone, rendered precious by the labor it has cost him, is preferred to a Murrhine vase or to its weight in gold. " The arts, even the most simple, those which seem born with nature, have, like naturo herself, had their infancy and their vicissitudes; and industry, properly so called — that is, the indispensable arts — has always preceded the ornamental. It is the same with men as with animals; and the first nightingale, before he thought of singing or of sporting, sought a branch for his nest and a worm for food : he was a hunter before he became a musician. " However great the number of ages which shroud the history of a people, there is one method of interrogating them, and ascertaining their standing atid intelligence. It is by their works. If they have left no specimens of art, it is because they have merely appeared and vanished; or, even if they have continued stationary for any time, they must have remained weak and powerless. Experience proves that this total absence of monuments only exists among a transplanted people — among races who have been cast upon an abnormal soil and under an unfriendly sky, where they lingered out a miserable existence, always liable to momentary extinction. But among a people who had a country, and whom slavery and vice had not entirely brutalized, we may always find some trace, or at least some tradition of art, evanescent perhaps, but still sufficient to recal by a last reflection the physi- ognomy of the people, their social position, and the degree of civilization they had attained when that art was cultivated. "Among these specimens of primitive industry, some belong to the present, and illus- trate the material life: while others clearly refer to the future. Such are the arms anJ tmulets which were intended to accompany their owners into the tomb, or even to follow them beyond the grave ; for,'in all ages, men have longed for an existence after death. lu these tokens from the tomb — these relics of departed ages — coarse and imperfect as they appear to an artistic eye, there is nothing that we should despise or reject: last witnessed B'J2 HYBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, of the r-ifancy of mau and of his first footsteps upon earth, they present us with the only remains of nations who reared no columns nor monuments to record their existence. In these poor relics lie all their history, all their religion : and from these few rude hieroglyphics must we evoke their existence and the revelation of their customs. If we were engaged ■with Egyptians, Greeks, or Romans, people who have furnished us with chefs-d'oeuvre which still serve as our models, it would be irksome to examine the ancient oak to find whether it had fallen before the tempest or the axe, or to argue whether the angle of a Btone had been smoothed by the hand of man or the action of running water. But when the soil we explore has no other signs of intelligent life, and the very existence of a people is in question, every vestige becomes history. It is easy to conceive that of all the works of man in those ancient deposits, only such instruments of stone should remain. They alone were able to resist the action of time and decomposition, and above all of the waters which put the whole in motion. All these flints bear marks of mutual concussion and incessant friction, which silex alone could have resisted. The time when they were deposited where we now find them, was no doubt that of the formation of the bank itself: it must be sepa- rated from our epoch by an immense period, perhaps by many revolutions ; and of all the monuments known upon earth, these are doubtless the most ancient." w.v. CHAPTER XII. HTBEIDITY OF ANIMALS, VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MANKIND. [By J. C. N.] The subjects embraced in this and the succeeding Chapter apper- taining more to my individual studies than the rest, the reader will perceive that I generally speak in the first person ; at the same time that every recognition is due to my colleague (G. R. G.) for material aid in the archaeological department. Without further preface let me remark, that the importance of Hybridity begins to be acknow- ledged by all anthropologists ; because, however imposing the array of reasonings, drawn from other sources, in favor of the plurality of origin, may seem, yet, so long as unlimited prolificness, inter se, of two races of animals, or of mankind, can be received by naturalists as evidence of specific afiiliation, or, in other words, of common origin, every other argument must be abandoned as illusory. We are told that, when two distinct species are brought together, they produce, like the ass and the mare, an unprolific progeny ; or, at most, beget oflfspring which are prolific for a few generations and then run out. It is further alleged, that each of our own domestic animals (such as horses, dogs, cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, poultry, &c.) VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 373 is derived from a single Mesopotamiari pair ; and that the varieties of those, springing- up s[»ontanoou!slj in diverse climates dift'er as widely as do the races of men. Hence an argument is deduced in favor of the common origin of mankind. The grand point at issue is here fairly presented : but reasons exist for dissenting from the above foregone conclusions. In 1842 I published a short essay on Hyhridity, the object of which was, to show that the White Man and the Negro were distinct " spe- cies;" illustrating my position by numerous facts from the Natural History of Man and that of the lower animals. The question, at that time, had not attracted the attention of Dr. Morton. Many of my facts and arguments were new, even to him ; and drew from the great anatomist a private letter, leading to the commencement of a friendly correspondence, to me, at least, most agreeable and instructive, and which endured to the close of his useful career. In the essay alluded to, and several which followed it at short inter- vals, I maintained these propositions : — ? 1. That mulattoes are the shortest-lived of any class of the human race. 2. That mulattoes are intermediate in intelligence between the blacks and the whites. 3. That they are less capable of undergoing fatigue and hardship than either the blacks or whites. 4. That the mula/to-women are peculiarly delicate, and subject to a variety of chronic diseases. That they are bad breeders, bad nurses, liable to abortions, and that their chil- dren generally die young. 5. That, when mulattoes intermarry, they are less prolific than when crossed on the parent stocks. 6. That, when a Negro man married a white woman, the offspring partook more largely of the Negro type than when the reverse connection had effect. 7. That mulattoes, like Negroes, although unacclimated, enjoy extraordinary exemption from yellow-fever when brought to Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, or New Orleans. Almost fifty yeare of residence among the white and black races, spread in nearly equal proportions through South Carolina and Ala- bama, and twenty -five years' incessant professional intercourse with both, have satisfied me of the absolute truth of the preceding deduc- tions. My observations, however, during the last few years, in Mobile and at New Orleans, where the population dift'ers essentiall}^ from that of the Northern Atlantic States, have induced some modification of ni}' former opinions; although still holding to their accuracy so far as they apply to the intermixture of the strictly white race {i. e. the Anglo-Saxon, or Teuton,) with the true Negro. I stated in an article printed in " De Bow's Commercial Keview," that I had latterly seen reason to credit the existence of certain '■'■affinities and repulsions'^ among various races of men, which caused their blood to mingle more or less perfectly; and that, in Mobile, New Orleans and Pensa- cola, I had witnessed many examples of great longevity among 374 HTBRIDITT OF ANIMALS, mulattoes ; and sundry instances where their intermarriages (contrary to my antecedent experiences in South Carohna) were attended with manifest prolificacy. Seeking for the reason of this positive, and, at first thought, unaccountable diflterence between mulattoes of the At- lantic and those of the Gulf States, observation led me to a rationale; viz., that it arose from the diversity of ti/pe in the "Caucasian" races of the two sections. In the Atlantic States the population is Teu- tonic and Celtic : wdiereas, in our Gulf cities, there exists a prepon- derance of the blood of French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and other dark-skmned races. The reason is simple to the historian. Our States along the Gulf of Mexico were chiefly colonized by emi- grants from Southern Europe. Such European colonists belonged to types genealogically distinct from those white-skinned " Pilgrim Fathers" who landed north of Florida. Thus Spain, when her tra- ditions begin, was populated principally by Iberians. France re- ceived a considerable infusion of the same blood, now almost pure in her Basque provinces. Italy's origins are questions in dispute ; but the Italians are a dark-skinned race. Such races, blended in America with the imported j^egro, generally give birth to a hardier, and, therefore, more prolific stock than white races, such as Anglo-Saxons, produce by intercourse with ]S[egresses. Herein, it occurred to me, might be found a key to solve the enigma. To comprehend the present, we must understand the past ; because, in ethnology, there is no truer saying than, " Coelum, non animam, mutavt qui trans mare currunt." This sketch indicates my conceptions. I proceed to their development. Bodichon, in his curious work on Algeria, maintains that this Ibe- rian, or Basque population, although, of course, not ]^egro, is really an African, and probably a Berber, family, which migrated across the Straits of Gibraltar some 2000 years before the Christian era ; and w^e might, therefore, regard them as what Dr. Morton calls a proxi- mate race. The Basques are a dark-skinned, black-eyed, black-haired people, such as are often encountered in Southern Europe ; and M. Bodichon, himself a Frenchman, and attached as Surgeon to the French army during fifteen years in Algeria, holds, that not only is the physical resemblance between the Berbers and Basques most striking, but that they assimilate in moral traits quite as much ; moreover, that their intonations of voice are so similar that one's ear cannot appreciate any difference. Singularly enough, too, the Basque tongue, while radically distinct fi-om all European and Asiatic languages, is said to present certain affinities with the Berber dialects. The latter opinion, tiowev'er, requires confirmation. VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 375 Subsequently to my incidental notices, Dr. Mort/>n took up the entire question of hybridity, with his accustomed zeal; pnolishing his first two articles on it in S IIU man s Journal, 1847 ; after wliich he continued a series of papers, in the Charleston Medical Journal, down to the time of his death in 1851. I attach little iniporfance to my own labors on this subject, beyond that of attracting Dr. Morton to its investigation. iS'one more than myself can honor him for the glorious triumph which his publications on this theme achieved for science. My object, then, being solel}- to place the question before the public as it actually stands, I shall use not only Dr. Morton's ideas, but his language, freely, throughout this chapter ; merely ex- tending to the races of men those principles of hybridity which Dr. Morton chiefly confined to known intermixture among the lower animals. Hybridity, heretofore, has generally been treated as if it were a unit ; whereas its facts are as susceptible of classification as any other series of physiological phenomena. For the terms reinote, allied, and proximate species, there will be frequent call ; and, in consequence, the reader is requested to look back {supra, p. 81) in this volume, to understand the meanings which, in common with Morton, I attach to them. Finding that the definitions customarily given of "species" apply as readily to mere varieties as to acknowledged species, the Doctor proposed the subjoined emendations : — " As the result of much observation and reflection, I now submit a definition, which I hope will obviate at least some of the objections to which I have alluded: Species — a primordial organic form. It will be justly remarked that a difSculty presents itself, at the outset, in determining what forms are primordial ; but independently of various other sources of evidence, we may be greatly assisted in the inqviiry by those monumental records, both of Egypt and Assyria, of which we are now happily possessed of the proximate dates. My view may be briefly explained by saying, that if certain existing organic types can be traced back into the ' night of time' as dissimilar as we now see them, is it not more reasonable to regard them as aboriginal, than to suppose them the mere accidental derivations of an isolated patriarchal stem, of which we know nothing ? Hence, for example, I believe the dog-family not to have originated from one primitive form, but in many forms. Again, what I call a species may be regarded by some naturalists as & primitive variety ; but, as the diff'erence is only in name and no way influences the zoological question, it is unneces- sary to notice it further." 392 Morton himself has suggested the objection which really holds against his definition; and, for myself, I should prefer the followinsr: Species — a type, or organic form, that is permanent; or which has remained unchanged under opposite climatic influences for ages. The Arab, the Eg^-ptian, and the J^egro ; the greyhound, tlio turnspit, and the common wild dog — all of which are represented on monu- ments of Egypt 4000 years old, precisely as they now exist in human and canine nature — may be cited as examples. 376 HTBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, It is believed that the series of facts herein embodied will establish the natural existence of the following degrees of hjbridity, viz. : — 1st. That in which hybrids never reproduce; in other words, where the mixed progeny begins and ends with the first cross. 2d. That in which the hybrids are incapable of reproducing inter se, but multiply by union with the parent stock. 3d. That in which animals of unquestionably distinct species produce a progeny which is prolific inter se. 4th. That which takes place between closely proximate species — among mankind, for example, and among those domestic animals most essential to human wants and happiness : here the prolificacy is unlimited. There is, moreover, what may be called a mixed form of hybridity, that certainly has exerted very great influence in modifying some domestic animals ; and which cannot be better expressed than in the language of Hamilton Smith : — " The advances towards hybrid cases are always made by the domestic species to the wild ; and when thus obtained, if kept by itself, and the cross-breed gradually becomes sterile, it does not prevent repeated intermixture of one or the other ; and therefore the admission of a great proportion of alien blood, which may again be crossed upon by other hybrids of another source, whether it be a wolf, pariah, jackal, or dingo." 3^3 Mankind, zoologically-, must be governed by the same laws which regulate animals generally ; and if the above propositions apply to other animals, no reason can be adduced in science why the races of men should be made an exception. The mere prolificacy/, whether of human or of animal races, cannot therefore be received per se as proof of common origin in respect to either. After the lapse of so many centuries, or, to repeat Prichard's lan- guage, chiliads of years, since the last Creation, it would be strange indeed did not many difficulties surround the question of hybridity ; but one thing seems certain, viz., that as regards unity or plurality of origin, mankind, together with all our domestic animals, stand on precisely the same footing. The origin of our horses, dogs, cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, &c., no less than that of humanity, is wholly un- known ; nor can science yet determine from how many primal crea- tive centres, or from how many pairs, each may have originated. Our Chapter I., on the Geographical Distribution of Animals, has detailed (what is now conceded by naturalists whose authoritj^ is decisive), that, so far from a supposititious common centre of origin for all organized beings on our globe, there are in reality mavT/ specific centres or zoological provinces, in which the fauna and flora of each are exclusively peculiar.-"'* The present volume establishes, through evidences varied as they are novel, that history finds the difterent races of mankind everywhere under circumstances which lead irre- sisti])ly to the conclusion, that humanity obeys the same laws which Dre.-^ide over the terrestrial distribution of other or^ranized bcinffs. VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIXn. 377 " A principal cause [well observes Jaciiuinot] of varieties among domestic animals is, the blending of ilissiniilar species among themselves; ami it is this powerful agency which has contributed in tiie largest degree to obscure and entangle the question of the varieties of men and of domestic animals." Passing over, as non-essential to the point immediately before ns, the numerous examples illustrative of hybridity, in Dr. lsVovio\\& first and second degrees, we shall throw together a few of the more promi- nent instances of his tJiird and fourth, in their direct bearings upon the plurality of the human species, in order to exemplify the question at issue. Equine Hybrids. The genus equus (horse) is divided by Cuvier into five species ; viz. : the horse [equus caballus) ; the dzigguetai [eq. hemonius) ; the ass [eq. asinus) ; the zebra [eq. zebra) ; the couagga [eq. quaccha) ; the onagga, or dauw [eq. monlanus). So far as experiments prove, these all breed freely inter se ; but the degrees of fer- tility among their various hybrid oifspring, are matters yet to be determined. Our common mules, or progeny of the ass and the mare, are the best known hy- brids, and they are never prolific with each other ; but there are a few instances recorded ■where mules have produced offspring when crossed on the parent stocks : such acci- dents being, as even Herodotus observed, 395 more common in hot climates than in cold. The Hinny — OfiFspring of the horse and she-ass — is rarely seen in the United States (but, we are told, is more frequent in Egypt, and in the Levant ; where some hinnies are said to be even handsome) ; being a small, refractory, and (for draught) a comparatively useless animal, there is no practical object in our breeding them. I have seen one example in Mobile, very like a dwarfed, mean horse. The horse's likeness here greatly predomi- nated : the head and ears were sm.all, and precisely like its father's ; the legs and feet were slender and small, like those of the mother ; and the tail, as in the ass, was lank, with little hair. In the common mule, the head, on the contrary, resembles the ass. Judging bj' this example alone, it would seem as if the type of the sire predominated in hybrids. Such probable law, according to my observations, applies in some degree to the human hybrid. Ex. gr., when the pure white man is crossed on the Negress, the head of their mulatto child ordinarily resembles more the father than the mother; but where a Negi-o man has been coupled with a white woman, in their offspring the color, the features, and the hair of the Negro father greatly preponderate. We cannot state, from observation, what may be the grade of intellect in the latter hybrid ; but in a common nndatlo the degree of intelligence is absolutely higher than in the full- blooded Negroes. About this deduction no dispute exists among medical practitioners in our Southern States, where means of verification are peculiarly abundant. Not only do the female ass and the male onagga breed together, but a male offspring of this cross, with a mare, produces an animal more docile than either parent, and combining the best physical qualities, such as strength, speed, &c. ; whence the an- cients preferred the onagga to the ass for the production of mules. 39^ This opinion, Mr. Gliddon says, is still prevalent in Egypt; and is acted upon more particularly in Arabia, Persia, &c., where the gour, or wild ass, still roams the desert. Cuvier had seen the cross between the ass and the zebra, as well as between the female zebra and the horse. An important point should be borne in mind, viz. : that the ass is not tlie proximate, or nearest species, of the genus equus, compared with the horse; but that place Cuvier a.?signs to the eq. hemonius. Bell and Gray are even disposed to place the ass in a dis- 48 378 HYBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, tinct genus. If, therefore, it were desired to experimentalize fairly, with the view of producing a, prolific hybrid, the true horse should be coupled with the eg. hemonius in a proper climate, and under favorable conditions. This experiment, as far as we know, not having been properly tried, analogy warrants the suspension of a negative. From the unlimited productiveness among the different races of horses, it has been boldly inferred that all horses have sprung from a solitary pair, possessing a common Mesopotamian origin, and therefore constituting a single species ; but an assumption without proof, while valid reasons support the contrary, may be summarily dismissed. The elaborate and skilful researches of Hamilton Smith have thrown strong doubts over this superannuated idea of equine unity. He separates horses into five primitive stocks ; which appear to constitute " distinct though oscillating species, or at least races, separated at so remote a period, that they claim to have been divided from the earliest times of our present zoology." 397 go true is this, that already two distinct species, if not more, of fossil horses exist in geological formations of this Continent, independently of the others familiar in European palaeontology. 398 About horses, Morton's later MSS. enable us to quote the following textually : — "After an elaborate and most instructive inquiry into the natural history of the horse. Col. Hamilton Smith has arrived at the following conclusions, which we prefer to give in his own words : ' That there was a period when equidae of distinct forms, or closely-approximating species, in races widely different, wandered in a wild state iu separate regions, the residue of an anterior animal distribution, perhaps upon the great mountain line of Central Asia, where plateaux or table-lands, exceeding Armenian Ararat in elevation, are still occupied by wild horses ; that of these some races still extant have been entirely subdued ; such for example as the Tarpans, the Kirguise and Paraere woolly white race, and the wild horses of Poland and Prussia ; that from their similarity, or antecedent unity, they were constituted so as to be fusible into a common, single, specific, but very variable stock, for the purposes of man, under whose fostering care a more perfect animal was bred from their mixture, than any of the preceding, singly taken. These inferences appear to be supported by the ductility of all the secondary characters of wild and domestic horses, which, if they are not admitted to constitute in some cases specific differences, where are we to find those that are suffi- cient to distinguish a wild from a domestic species ? And with regard to different, though oscillating species, why should the conclusions be unsatisfactory in horses, when in goats, sheep, wolves, dogs, and other species, we are forced to accede to them ? ' " 399 Some of these races still flourish in a wild state on the table-lands of Central Asia ; at the same time that all have united to form, in domestication, very mixed and vari- able types. A singular fact, which I have never seen noticed, is worthy of mention. The thorough-bred race-horse is rarely, if ever, beheld of a cream, or a dun color, or pie- bald. My attention, directed to this point for more than twenty years, as yet meets with no example ; nor, through inquiry among turf-men, have I been able to hear of a single case where the pedigree was well authenticated. Horses of the above colors are exceedingly common in the United States ; far more so, as I know from personal ob- servation, than in England or France ; and the only solution that occurs to me is, the supposition that the early Spanish emigrants may have brought over to America some breed of horses, distinct from the Arabian stock of England, or from any of the races of France and Belgium. " When Cicsar invaded Britain he found there a race of indigenous ponies, with bushy manes and tails, and of a dun or sooty color, with the black streak on the spine which marks the wild races of northern Europe. This variety was known in a wild state for centuries after, and in every part of the island. Tliis horse was subsenui'iitly amalgamated with the Roman and Saxon breeds, whence a great diversity of size and VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 379 color in our own times 'W Tlieso native P.iitish liorses were the ancestors of the ponies now called Shetland, Scottish, Galloway, and by various otlier names."'"" Naturalists remark that those animals, such as the ass, the camel, the dromedary, llama, &c., upon which the most sensible reasons are based for alleging a community of species, do not run into those endless and extreme varieties observable in dogs, horses, cattle, sheep, goats, or hogs. Bovine Hybrids. The ox tribe occupy, among naturalists, a position identical with that of the horse, many of our best authorities contending for plurality of species. The origin of our varied domestic r.aces is wholly unknown, and tho domestication of cattle antedates the earliest Egyptian monuments, together with the writer of Oenesls [i. 24, 25, 26,] him- self. The bison or American buffalo and our common cattle produce hybrid offspring ■which is unprolific inter se ; but these hybrids reproduce without limit when coupled with the parent stocks ; and this again furnishes another undeniable degree in the his- tory of hybridity. Caprine and Ovine Hybrids. The weight of authority, as victorioiisly proven by Dr. iNIorton, decidedly favors plurality of species for our domestic goats and sheep. I shall not tax our readers with the details of the discussion, which they can find in the Charleston Med. Journal ^"^ (between his dispassionate science on the one hand, and the captious garrulity displayed by dogmatism on the other) : but one of the most note-worthy examples of a prolific hybrid anywhere to be found in the range of natural history, must not be passed over; viz. : the ofifspring of goats and sheep when coupled together. The goat and the sheep being, not merely distinct species, but distinct genera, the example therefore becomes the more precious, whilst its authenticity is irrefragable: sustaining, furthermore, the authority of Buffon and Cuvier for the fertility of such hybrids, which are not only fertile with the parent stocks, but inter sc^^s Another instance of hybridity, not less curious, and perfectly attested, is that of the deer and ra?w, quoted by Morton from Carl ]^. Hellenius, published in the Memoirs of the Eoyal Swedish Academy of Stockhohn. After going through his experiments in detail, Hel- lenius concludes with the following summary : — " I have thus, from this pair (female deer — cervus capriolus, and the male sheep — ovia aries), obtained seven offsprings: viz., "Four from the ram and deer — two of each sex. " Two from the deer's first hybrid male offspring, viz., by crossing this latter animal with the Finland ewe ; and by crossing this same male with the female offspring of the deer and ram. " One, a ewe, by pairing the Finland ewe with one of her own progeny, from the first hybrid male derived from the deer and ram." Hellenius furthermore gives a copious narrative of the form, fleece, and mixed habits of these animals, which were alive, healthy, and vigorous, when the account was published, and may be so still. It is clear, from this unmistakeable testimony of Hellenius, that a mixed race of deer and sheep might be readily produced and perpetu- ated by bringing together many pairs ; precisely as is done daily with the goats and sheep of Chili alluded to by the well-known naturalist and academician, M. Chevreul. Here we obtain a prolific hybrid 380 HYBRIDITT OF ANIMALS, again, from distinct ^^wera; and, what is singular, the female progeny resembles the mother, and the male the father. Another fact to show the absurdity of querulous arguments drawn by the misinformed from *' analogy." The old and standard authority of Molina, in his Natural History of Chili, sustains the recent assertion of Chevreul,''"* in the Journal des Savans, as to the fact that the inhabitants of Chili, for a long time have been in the habit of crossing goats and sheep expressly with the view of improving their fleece in a hybrid progeny, w^hose prolificacy knows no limits. Camelline Hybrids. Linnaeus, Fischer, Ranzani, H. Smith, Lesson, Dumeril, Desmarest, Desmoulins, Quatrefages, Bory, Fleming, Cuvier, and all well-read naturalists of the present gene- ration, regard the camel and dromedary as distinct species, and admit their prolificacy inter se. Buifon, in whose day Oriental matters were little known, denied that they are distinct species, simply on the ground that they are prolific. The Arabian camel and dromedary, no less than the camelus baclrianus, are figured on the monuments of Nineveh, at least 2500 years ago, precisely as we see them now. Our Fig. 15 [supra, p. 126) exhibits the single-humped species ; and the rest are easily verified in the folio plates of Botta and Flandin, and Layard. The following is extracted from one of many communications obligingly made to the authors by their honored friend Col. W. "W. S. Bliss, U. S. A. ; in whose person knowledge the most diversified and accomplishments of the highest order were combined with that military science and cool bravery which won universal admiration on the blood-stained field of Buena Vista. Alas ! his eyes were closed by the waiter's hands on the 5th of August, 1853. " Eversmann, who is known as an investigator of Natural History in Bochara, remarks that three different species of camel are found there, all of which copulate together and bring forth prolific young. " 1. Air is the tivo-humped bactrian (camelus bactrianus), with long wool. *' 2. Nab is the one-humped camel, which Eversmann calls camelus dromedarius, but which is camelus vulgaris, the common Arabian camel ; for the dromedary is only a particular breed, jiot a particular species. " 3. LuK is the name given to a camel with one hump, larger than the above, and having quite crisp, short, dark-brown wool. " The copulation of camels, says the above-named naturalist and traveller (Eversmann), takes place in Bucharei in March and April, and between camels and bactrians, as well as the third race : its products are again prolific, self-propagating, foals. We might from this, as Buffon and Zimmermann have already done, infer the unity of genus and mere varieties of species ; but apart from this, the number of humps at least seems to be no essential indication of species ; for, says Eversmann, it cannot be determined beforehand whether the progeny of such crossing of races will have one or two humps : they are always bastards.; and not of a pure species." 'Os BuRiNE Hybrids. We dismiss this somewhat obscure theme by merely stating that, according to the best naturalists, sustained by Dr. Morton's critical essays, the weight of authority in favor of plurality of species predominates here also. So it does again, in respect *o Feline Ilybridc. VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 381 Canine Hybrids. No question, perhaps, in natural liistory has caused more conti'o- versy than that of the origin of domestic dogs. Our highest authori- ties have expressed most opposite opinions, and many are the im- portant points yet at issue. Nevertheless, the last three years have accomplished much towards settling sundry pugnacious dilettanti, if not all scientific disputes. Some writers have derived all our dogs from the wolf: thus assigning to Noah's unaccountable predilections in behalf of a tame lupine pair ("species" unrecorded) the present existence of hyenas, jackals, foxes — laughing, or round-backed ; big, or little ; white, black, red, gray, or blue — as well as every kind and size of dog, from a Muscovite "muff-dog" to the colossal St. Ber- nard; now eaten by Chinamen and Sandwich Islanders; driven by Esquimaux; kicked by Muslim orthodoxy ; whipped in English hunts; fondled by Parisian dames ; abhorred by thieves and vagrants, if loved by shepherds, sportsmen, wagoners, and hostlers, besides all other honest men with their prattling children, universally since the Flood. Others assert that dogs are animals absolutely not descended from the wolf, and also that they comprise many distinct species, created in many different zoological regions ; whilst othei's, again, believe that all living dogs proceed from intermixtures of wolf, fox, jackal, and hyena — in short, from any canidse, except from canes. As facts now stand, the opinion of Dr. Morton may probably be deemed the most correct. His convictions are, that the origin of domestic dogs is at least threefold : viz. — 1st. From several species of lupine and vulpine animals. 2d. From various species of wild dogs. 3d. From the blending of these together, with perhaps occasional admixture of jackal, under the influence of domestication. A subject so replete with scientific interest in its general connections with other departments of natural history, and especially on account of its bearings on the physical history of man, renders it imperative that facts should here be presented somewhat in detail ; and I shall again interweave without reserve the language of Dr. Morton. Martin, in his History of the Dog, justly remarked that " the name wolf is a vague one, because there are various species of wolves in Europe, Asia, and America; and further, if each of these species has given rise to a breed of dogs in the diflFerent coun- tries where they are found, then, as all domestic dogs promiscuously breed together, the advocate of the non-admixture of species is plunged into a dilemma." ^"6 M. de Blainville, speaking of the experiments of BufTon on dogs and wolves, adopts the idea of distinct species for these animals; thereby leaving the inference that all dogs are not descendants from one primitive stock. The great naturalist tested the question as follows : 1st. He brought together a cur-dog and a she-wolf. The result of this union was a litter of four pups — two male, and two female. No difficulty occurred in procuring this cross. 2d. A male and a female of the first generation were coupled ; whence four puj'.s — of which two lived to maturitv : a male and a female. 382 HYBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, 3d. The second generation being crossed, a third generation of seven pups was the consequence. 4th. A female of the third generation, crossed by her sire, gave birth to four pups, of which one male and one female lived. BuflFon sent two of such hybrids to M. Le Roi, Inspector of the Park at Versailles. Here they bred together, producing three pups. Two were given to the Prince de Cond^ — but of these no account remains. The third, retained by M. Le Roi, was killed in a boar-hunt. The father of these whelps was then mated with a she-wolf, who bore three pups. Here the report closes. '•O''' "I have seen, in Moscow," says Pallas, "about twenty spurious animals from doga and black wolves (c. lycaon). They are, for the most part, like wolves ; except that they carry their tails higher, and have a kind of hoarse barking. They multiply among themselves : and some of the whelps are grayish, rusty, or even of the whitish hue of the Arctic wolves." *^ Crosses of this kind have been known from remote anti- quity, and are called xvolf-dogs (c. pomeranus). One of them is figured on an Etruscan medal of the second or third century before Christ. Ovid, describing the pack of Acteon, enumerates some thii-ty dogs, which appear to represent many different breeds ; and he is careful to observe that one of them [Nape) sprang from a wolf; while an- other [Lycisca] is evidently the dog which Pliny refers to similar mixed bloods. "By & feral dog, is meant a domesticated dog which has run wild. Numberless are the instances of this kind, where dogs have become wild and multiplied ; but in no instance, save through lupine admixture, have dogs ever been brought to resemble wolves. The dog of New Holland, called the dingo, is a reclaimed lupine, or wild dog. It is still found abundantly in the wild state in that country. Some naturalists consider the dingo to be a distinct species, or an aboriginal dog; others, a variety of the common dog. Australia, it should be remembered, possesses an exclusive /a;/«ff ^nd flora; and the canis dingo would seem to be the aboriginal canine element pertaining to this spe- cial zoological province. The dingo, wild or tame, preserves its own physical charac- teristics when pure, but breeds freely with other dogs. Systems of zoology mostly limit our North American wolves (exclusively of those of Mexico and California) to two species — canis lupus and canis latrans. But there is little reason to doubt that the grey wolf of Canada and other northern parts of this continent, is a different species from any of the Old World. Richardson adopts for it the name of C. occidentalis, and long ago hesitated about its relation to the C. lupus, because they differ both in conformation and character. Townsend describes the giant u-olf as a distinct species, by the name of C. giga^ ; and Peale makes the same distinction. While the dogs indigenous to North America, according to Morton, are derived from at least two species of wolves, which he considers, in common with Gray, Agassiz, Richardson and others, to be peculiar to our continent, the European race (although in some instances largely crossed by another wolf) is for the most part devoid of any such lupine mixture. The domestic dogs of Europe, when they assume the feral state, cannot be mistaken by naturalists for wolves. Besides, it will be proved further on, that the dog, the wolf, the jackal, and the hj'cna are figured as distinct animals on the monuments of Egypt, in company with many different races of dogs, as far back as 3500 years before Christ. Dr. Morton held the Indian dogs of North America to be derived from at least two (Jistinct species of wolves; that these two species have combined to form a third, or hybrid race, and that this last unites again with the European dog. Sir John Richardson travelled over more than 20,000 miles of the northern regions of America: traversing 30° of latitude, and upwards of 50° of longitude ; occupied for seven years in making observations. To him are we mainly indebted for the following facts : — VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 383 The Esquimaux Dog (O. famUiaris, Besni.) ♦' The jireat resemblance which the domesticated dogs of aboriginal Americans bear to the wolves of the same country, was remarked by the earliest settlers from Europe, and has induced some naturalists of much ohseiTation to consider them to be merely half-tamed wolves. Without entering at all into the question of the origin of the do- mestic dog, I may state that the resemblance between the wolves of those Indian na- tions who still preserve their ancient mode of life, continues to be very remarkable; and it is nowhere more so than at the very northern extremity of the continent — the Esquimaux dogs being not only extremely like the grey wolf of the Arctic Circle in form and color, but also nearly equalling them in size."4ra This f imed Arctic voyager and naturalist adds, that he saw a family of these wolves, when playing together, occasionally carry their tails curved upwards; which seems to be the principal character which Linnreus supposed to distinguish the dog from the wolf. Capt. Parry relates that his officers, seeing thirteen wolves in a single pack, mistook them for Esquimaux dogs; so complete was the resemblance. He observed, that when the wolf is tamed, the two animals will readily breed together. ■H" From these and other facts familiar to naturalists, it would appear that the Esqui- maux dog is a reclaimed northern wolf (canis occidentalis). "The common .American wolf," Richardson observes, "sometimes shows a remark- able diversity of color. On the banks of the Mackenzie I saw five young wolves leaping and tumbling over each other with all the playfulness of the puppies of the domestic dog, and it is not improbable that they were all of one litter. One of them was pied, another entirely black, and the rest showed the colors of the common grey wolves." So variable, however, are the external characters of the latter animal, both as to size and color, that naturalists have endeavored, at different times, to establish no less than five species in the northern part of America alone. Two of these, however (C. aier and C. niibihis), are generally regarded as mere varieties of the common grey wolf. Hence, it would naturally follow, that the domestication of these several varieties would develop a corresponding difference between our northern Indian and the more Arctic dogs of the Esquimaux; although both kinds may claim, in part, the same spe- cific origin. Speaking of the wolves of our Sashatchewan and Copper-mine rivers, Eichardson states : — " The resemblance between the northern wolves and the domestic dog of the Indians is so great, that the size and strength of the wolf seems to be the only difference. I have more than once mistaken a band of wolves for the dogs of a party of Indians , and the howl of the animals of both species is prolonged, and so exactly in the same key, that even the practised ear of an Indian fails at times to discriminate 1 etween them.^'i At certain seasons they breed freely with the wolf, while, on other occasions, both male and female wolves devour the dogs as they would any other prey." The Hare-Indian Dog (C. familiar is lagopus). The author just quoted observes, that similitudes between this animal and the prairie-wolf (C. latrans) are " so great, that on comparing live specimens, I could de- tect no difference in form (except the smallness of the cranium), nor in the fineness of the fur, and the arrangement of its spots and color. In fact, it bears the same re- lation to the prairie-wolf, that the Esquimaux dog does to the great grey wolf [C. occidentalis)." '•12 Like the cognate wolf, these dogs vary considerably in color, size, and shape : ^' those on the Mackenzie river being so remarkably small, as to have been sometimes compared to the Arctic fox. In the Mandan country the dogs are larger; and are like- wise assimilated by Say, the Prince de Wied, and other travellers, to the prairie-wolf " During my residence in the Michigan Territory, in the year 1831-32 (wrote Dr. J 0. FioUER to Dr. Morton), I on several occasions shot the Ojibeway or Indian dogs, by 384 HTBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, mistake, for the prairie-wolf, and supposed tliat I knew it well ; but, after the frequent mistakes I made, I became very cautious about shooting them, lest I should kill more dogs. They were the common dogs of the Ojibeway, Pottawatomie and Ottawa tribes." The North American or common Indian Dog [Q. familiaris Canadensis). " By the above title," says Richardson, " I wish to designate the kind gf dogs which is most generally cultivated by the native tribes of Canada and the Hudson Bay coun- tries. It is intermediate, in size and form, between the two preceding varieties ; and by those who' consider the domestic races of dogs to be derived from wild animals, this may be termed a cross between the prairie and gray wolves." In the Appendix to Capt. Back's Narrative, Dr. Richardson subsequently observes, that " the otfspring of the wolf and the Indian dog are prolific, and are prized by the voyagers as beasts of draught, being much stronger than the ordinary dog." ^13 "This fact is corroborated," writes Morton, "by my friend Dr. John Evans, who has recently passed some time in the Mandan country, where the dogs, however, appear to be de- rived from the prf\irie wolf; and he assures me, that frequent and spontaneous inter- course between these dogs and the wolf of that country (which is now almost exclu- sively the canis accidentalis, or common gray wolf,) is a fact known to every one." Again, the canis Mexicanus, or " Tichichi" of the INIexicans, by Humboldt said to be very much like this dog of the northern Indians, is also supposed to derive its parent- age from a wolf. The intermixture of these two species was indeed manifest to the acute perceptions of Richardson himself, who remarks, that it " seems to support the opinion of Buffon, lately advocated by Desmoulins, that the dog, the wolf, the jackal, and corsac, are, in fact, but modifications of the same species ; or, that the races of domestic dogs ought to be referred, each in its proper country, to a corresponding indigenous wild species ; and that the species thus domesticated have, in the course of their migrations in the train of man, produced by their various crosses with each other, with their offspring, and with their prototypes, a still further increase of different races, of which about fifty or sixty are at present cultivated." Such doctrines accord with that adopted by Morton, who concludes his notice of "wolf-dogs as follows: — "The natural, and to me very unavoidable, conclusion, is simply this, that two species of wolves (acknowledged to be distinct from each other by all zoologists) have each been trained into a domestic dog ; that these dogs have re- produced not only with each other, but with the parent stocks, and even with the Eu- ropean dog, until a widely-extended hybrid race has arisen, in which it is often impos- sible to tell a wolf from a dog, or the dogs from each other." AVe extract entire Morton's observations concerning Aboriginal American Dogs, from vulpine and other sources. " Besides the two indigenous wolf-dogs of the North, of which we have spoken (the Ilare-Indian and Esquimaux races), and the third or mixed species (the common Indian dog), the continent of America possesses a number of other aboriginal forms, which terminate only in the inter-tropical regions of South America. One of these was ob- served by Columbus, on landing in the Antilles, A. d. 1492. ' These,' says Buffon, ' had the head and ears very long, and resembled a fox in appearance.' They are called Aguara dogs in Mexico, and Alcos in Peru. " ' There are many species,' adds Buffon, ' which the natives of Guiana have called dogs of the woods {chic.ns des bois), because they are not yet reduced, like our dogs, to a state of domestication ; and they are thus riglitly named, hecatisc theg breed together tvith domestic races.' " The wild Aguaras, I believe, are classed, by most naturalists, with the fox-tribe ; ■ but Hamilton Smith has embraced them in a generic group, called dasicyon, to which he and Martin refer four species. The latter zoologist sums up a series of critical VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 385 inquiries with the following remarks : — 'It is almost incontestably proved, that the aboriginal Aguara tame dogs, and others of the Americ the latest. Two forms were used, which seem to have been Taken from very distinct races ; and these, again, were totally unlike the beau- tiful gr Ky-hound wliich is often seen upon contemporary monuments. *'9 VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. !87 Fig. 235. Fig. 236. Hieroglyphic writing had attained its full perfection at the IVth dynasty, and we possess abundant legends of the thirty-fifth century u. c. ; but the inventiim of writing, as every hierologist declares, must inevitably antedate these monuments by many cen- turies; ascending certainly to the time of Mknes, b. c. 38'.to; and, pictorially, to ages anterior. The pure hiero- glyphics represent things in their appropriate shapes and colors; which things are all indigenous in Egypt, to the exclusion of any element foreign to the Nile. Among them is this hieroglyphic (Fig. 235) for " dog," which, like every other primitive sign, continued to mean " dog," dowa to the extinction of hieroglyphical writing, about the fifth century after c. Thus, one species of the common dog, at least, existed in Egypt 1500 years before Usher's deluge; to say nothing of the Archbishop's fabulous era for the world's creation. This (Fig. 235) is called a. fox-dog by Dr. Morton ; not to be confounded, however, with the "fox-hound" of English kennels. It is found in the catacombs embalmed in great numbers through various parts of the country; and appears to have been " the parent stock of the modern red wild" (or Pariah) "dog common at Cairo and other towns in Lower Egypt." These dogs, Clot Bey ob- serves, lead a nomadic life, and are inva- riably without individual masters. They are also found, semi-wild, on the confines of the desert. An interesting account of these Nilotic canidse may be consulted in Martin's History of the Dog — and he pro- perly regards them as a distinct species, that, we may add. has come down unal- tered from immemorial time. A similar — we dare not say the same — species prevails throughout Barbary ; and the Levant, from Greece and European Turkey, through Asia Minorj Syria, Pales- tine, Assyria, Persia, into Hindostan. They belong to civic communities, rather than to any particular person. If taken young into domestic keeping, when adult they in- stinctively abandon the house; and, if grateful for kindnesses, tiiey will obey no master ; but hang around the localities of their birth, neither enticeable into familiarity, nor expulsitble from the precincts of their earliest associations. They are the scaven~ gers of oriental cities ; and Muslim charity, whilst shuddering at the unclean touch of a dog's.«o.«e, recognizes their utility, and protects them by municipal laws as well as by alimentary legacies. If love for their human acquaintances be not vociferous, their hatred to strangers is intensely so: and it is in the attitude of annoying intruders that the annexed wild dog of Persia (Fig. 236) is represented. Dr. Pickering, in the letter from Egypt to Morton before cited [supra, p. 245], after viewing these semi-wild dogs with the critical eye of a naturalist, aptly remarks: — "By the way, the dogs here 1 find all of one hrted, — the same, if my memory serve me, with a mummied skull presented by Mr. Gliddon [1840] to the National Institute at Washington : — with upright ears, and very much of a jackal, or small wolf, in appear- ance, — often, even in color. They bark, however, as I can well attest, like other dogs ; — and if this be, as alleged by some, a matter of education, there seems to be here no danger of the loss of the art." The Grey-hound Is a very common animal throughout all Eastern nations, and presents great divergen- cies of external form. Several varieties, probably three, are seen on the monuments of Persian Wild Dog. 388 HYBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, Grey-bound. Fio. 237. Egypt; and the specimen here delineated (Fig. 287) is from one of the tombs of the IVth dynasty, 3400 years b. 0.420 This dog is cotemporary with the hieroglyphic dog, and next to that is the oldest form of grey-hound we possess. There are now extant only the monuments of the IVth, Vth, and Vlth dy- nasties in detail; and very few of other dynas- ties to the Xlth inclusive ; or we should, in all probability, have beheld portrayed many other varieties of dogs. Again, it is quite by accident that dogs are figured at all in the early pyramid days ; because the Egyptian artist was not exhibiting a gallery of Natural History in these painted sepulchres, but merely introducing, with the likeness of the deceased proprietor, those things the latter had loved during his lifetime ; among them the portrait of his favorite grey- hound. When arrived at the Xllth dynasty we find a very rich collection, because we happen to have stumbled upon the tomb of a great dog-fancier. It is worthy of remark, however, that although the Egyptians have accidentally represented almost the whole fauna of the Nile on the monuments, yet there were some common animals which never appear in sculptures now extant — as the wild ass, the wild boar, &c. Some dogs have likewise been left out, because there was no object in drawing them. Martin [Hist, of t}ie Dog) informs us that a similar variety of grey-hound is very com- mon still in Asia and Africa ; and Mr. William A. Gliddon, who has spent years in the Indian Archipelago, informs me that a curl-tailed grey-hound of this form is quite common among the Dyaks of Borneo, and among the aboriginal inhabitants of the Ma- layan peninsula. They make good hunting dogs. Color — dark brown, with black spots. The species of grey-hound given in the above sketch is often repeated on the monu- ments of the IVth, Vth, and Vlth dynasties, with precisely the same characters — long, erect ears, curled tail, &c. ; only the tail in some specimens is much shorter than in others, having evidently been cut. Fig. 238.421 Fig. 239.422 Wolf. Hyeua. Fig. 240,423 For the instruction of orthodox naturalists, who derive all canidce from the Noachian pair of wolves, we submit the grandsire (Fig. 238) of the said lupine couple, who was alive in Egypt 3400 years b. c; together with one of their hyena uncles (Fig. 239) ; ani a jackal (Fig. 240) — their cousin in perhaps the forty- second degree. The scarcity of documents from the IVth to the end of the Xlth dynasty, compels us to descend to the Xllth — 2400-2100 years b. c. Here we stand, not merely at a pomi which is several centuries before the birth of Abraham ; but, at a day when, if Jackal. VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND, 389 F)G.242.''J the deluge occurred at B. c. 2348, tlie Egyptians, besides the wolves, hyenas, anii jackals, in a wild state, possessed many kinds of dogs running about their housea^ along with the common dog ixwd grey-hound, preceding; whereas Noah's seamanship, several hundred years afterwards, could only rescue one pair of wolves from drowning on the summit of Mount Ararat, thousands of feet above the Hue of perpetual glaciers. The subjoined specitnen (Fig. 241) of an- otlier species, is from the tomb of Roti, who Fig. 241.''2i kept his kennel admirably stocked, during the Xllth dynasty. This dog is beautifully drawn and colored on the monument, and is one of the most superb canine relics of antiquity. Mr. Gliddon informs me that tins is not only the common gazelle dog of Nubia at the present day, but that their ears are still cropped by the natives in the same way; as Prisse's drawing attestsJ26 We have not been able to find the por- trait of an ancient rough hound, alluded to by Hamilton Smith ; but here (Fig. 242) is the modern rough-haired grey-hound of Arabia, probably the same ; and which will be interesting to the reader as a con- trast to the other grey-hounds : it bears all the marks of a distinct species ; but re- sembles the Laconian breed. Another variety of grey-hound is said bj Morton to be represented with rougher faair, and bushy tail, not unlike the modern Arabian grey-hound. A grey-hound exactly like the English grey-hound, with semi-pendent ears, is seen oa a statue of the Vatican at Rome. Martin, whose work is full of instructive matter, says — " Now we have, in Modem Egypt and Arabia, and also in Persia, varieties of grey-hound closely resembling those on the ancient remains of art ; and it would appear that two or three varieties exist — one smooth, another long-haired, and another smooth but with long-haired ears resem- bling those of a spaniel. In Persia, the grey-hound, to judge from specimens we have seen, is silk-haired, with a fringed tail. They were of a black color ; but a fine breed, we are informed, is of a slat« or ash color, as are some of the smooth-haired grey- hounds depicted in Egyptian paintings. In Arabia, a large, rough, powerful race exists; and about Akaba, according to Laborde, a breed of slender form, fleet, with a long tail, very hairy, in the form of a brush, with the ears erect and pointed — closely resembling, in fact, many of those figured by the ancient Egyptians. In Rou- melia, a spaniel-eared race exists. Col. Sykes, who states that none of the domesti- cated dogs of Dukhun are common to Europe, observes that the first in strength and size is the Brinjaree dog, somewhat resembling the Persian grey-hound (in the posses- sion of the Zoological Society), but more powerful. North of the Caspian, in Tartary and Russia, there exists a breed of large, rough grey-hounds. We may here allude to the great Albanian dog of former times, and at present extant, which perhaps belongs to the grey-hound family." ''27 The grey-hound can thus be distinctly traced back in several forms for 2000, and in one for more than 5000 years ; and there is every reason to believe the Egyptian class embraced at least two, if not more, distinct species. Unlike all other dogs of the chase, they are almost destitute of smell, and pursue game by the eye alone. This deficiency of smell is connected with anatomical peculiarities, which must not be overlooked ; because you cannot, by breeding, give a more powerful organ of scent to a grey-hound, without changing the animal into something else than a arey-hound. 390 HTBRIDITT OF ANIMALS, The Hound. Like the grey-hound, the llood, stag, and fox hounds, present many forms ; and it ia impossible, at the present day, to say whether they are varieties of one species, or ■whether they are derived from several primitive species. As far back as history can trace hounds, there seems to have been several very distinct animals of this kind. Our Egyptian monuments abound in hunting-scenes, in which hounds are represented in pursuit of wild animals of various kinds. These scenes are drawn oftentimes with great spirit; and the truthfulness of the delineations cannot be questioned, because they are perfectly true to nature at the present day, as will be seen by the subjoined drawings. Fig. 243.428 Tj^j^ ^^^^^ ^^ hounds (Fig. 243) presents two varieties of the African blood-hound ; one with erect, the other with drooping ears. They be- longed to RoTi's hunting- establishment, about the 22d century before Christ, at Be- ni-Hassan. In Rosellini's colored copy of the same couple, here re- duced in size, the ofiF-dog is painted brick-dust ; the near one is a light chestnut, with black patches. Another of the same choice breed (Fig. 244), in full gaze. Fig. 244.129 Fig. 245.430 Fig. 246.431 A fourth (Fig. 245), in the act of slaying a gazelle. Here is a noble brace (Fig. 246), with the antelope they have captured, and their groom, returning to the kennel. This (Fig. 247) is a variety of the same hound, pensively awaiting hia dinner, about 4000 years ago. VIE^yI■:D ix coxxectiox with mankind. 391 FlQ. 248.435 These houiuls are a few specimens, selccteil from tlie several works of Lepsius, Rosellini, and Wilkinson. We could easily add a hundred more, not, less characteristic. It is truly wonderful to compare these delineations, conunencitig as far back as the Xllth dynasty (twenty-third century b. c), and extending down for 1000 years, wiia the common fox-hound and stag-hound of the present day — still more, with the Afri- can blood-hound. In the Grand Procession of Thotmes III. (15-50 b. c), several of them are associated ■with the people and productions of the interior of Africa. *3! Again, in a later tomb at Gourneh, near Thebes, figured by ChanipoUion. Dr. Morton says — "If we com pare the oldest of these delineations, viz., those of Beni-Hassan, with the blood-hounds of Africa lately living in the Tower Menagerie in London, we cannot deny their iden- tity, so complete is the resemblance of form and instinct." ^3* ♦'On reading Mr. Birch's 'Observations on the Statistical Table of Karnac' (p. 56), I was much pleased to find this hound designated, beyond all question, in a letter of Candace, Queen of Ethiopia, to Alexander the Great, in which the former, among other presents to the Macedonian king, sends ' ninety dogs which hunt men ' — canes etiam in homines efferacissimos nonaginta. And, that nothing may be necessary in explanation, the Queen further designates them as ' animals of our country.' " The same blood-hounds, therefore, of which tribute was sent from the Upper Nile, in the sixteenth century b. c, had preserved their blood pure, down to b. c. 325, just as it is found at this day, in the same regions, after 3400 years. Turnspit [Q. Vertagus.) Wilkinson, Blainville, Martin, and all, I believe, are agreed upon the identity of this dog. The portrait (Fig. 248), and others of the same well-marked character, are faithful representatives of the modern turnspit, which is still common in Asia and Europe. The iigure above is from the tomb of Roti, at Beni-Hassan, in the twenty-third century before Christ. To the same ante-Abrahamic age (the Xllth dynasty) belongs this slut (Fig. 249), who stands under her master's chair, in his tomb at El- Bersheh, Middle Egypt. She is another species, but we hesitate in ascribing to it a name : al- though the common-dog of the Nile approaches nearest to the design. ^37 Not only have we various other forms of dogs on the monuments of Egypt as far back as the Xllth dynasty, which, to our mind, cannot, from mere outline drawings, be satisfactorily identi- fied with any of our European or American races ; but, as we have shown, there also exist, in abundance, representations of wolves, jackals, hyenas, and foxes, each and all of which have been supposed to be pro- genitors of our domestic dogs — just as Noah is said, by the same school of naturalists, to be the father of Jews, Australians, White-men, Mongols, Ne- groes, American aborigines, &c. Wolves. As this animal has, by the majority of old-school naturalists, been believed to be the original parent of all dogs, we Fig. 249.«6 Fig. 250. «8 392 HYBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, shall introduce here one specimen (Fig. 250) of a group of four Egyptian wolves, figured by Lepsius, from tombs of the IVth dynasty (about 3400 years b. c). These Nilotic animals, which are different in species from European, are repeatedly seen, on sculptures of every epoch, sometimes chased by dogs, at other times caught in traps ; in short, accompanied by so many corroborating circumstances as to leave no doubt that they were nothing but wild wolves. They are often depicted on the same monuments with dogs, ever perfectly contrasted. Bull-dogs {0. 3I0I0SSUS.) The term molossus has been rather vaguely applied by writers ; but the type of the bull-dog is well understood. It is skilfully portrayed on a piece of antique Greek sculpture in the Vatican. M. de Blainville (in his Osteographie, Cams, p. 74), states that the form and expression of the head are pei-fectly characteristic, even to the peculiar arrangement of the teeth. This species, too, is yet the common dog of Albania. Mastiff {C. Laniarius). We have nowhere yet met with this dog on the monuments of the Nile, although it must have been known to the Egyptians, through their constant intercourse with As- syria, in early times. The magnificent original of the sketch here given (Fig. 251) was taken from the Birs Nim- FiG. 251. *39 roud, or Babylon, age of Ne- buchadnezzar,*^o and would do honor to a prince of the present day. [His duplicate, we might almost say, is still alive ; and belongs to my excellent friend Mrs. Jenkins, at Richmond, Va. — G. R. G.] Alexander, in his march to the Indus, received presents of dogs of gigantic stature, which were no doubt of the same family as the Thibetan mastiffs. To these dogs Aristotle applied the name of leontomyx ; and they are fig- ured on two ancient Greek med- als — one of which, that of Se- gestus of Sicily, dates in the fourth or fifth century B. c. ; the other, which is of Aquileia Severa, Dictator of Crete, is about two centuries later.^^i Shepherd's Bog [Q. Domesticus). This dog, being (if a Scotch or English "shepherd-dog" be meant) altogether alien to the Nile at this day, is not figured on Egyptian monuments ; but is doubtless very ancient in Europe. The earliest effigy, also mentioned by Aristotle, is preserved on an ancient Etruscan medal of unknown date, but probably as old as our Ninevite mastiff. These remarks on the difFerent species of dogs, faithfully delineated upon ancient monuments, might be very easily extended; but I have set forth enough to establish that the natural history of dogs and the natural history of mankind stand precisely in the same position. In whatever direction an inquirer may turn — wherever written history. VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 393 monuments, analogies, or organic remains, exist to direct us — in every zoological province upon earth, I repeat, a specifically diverse fauna is encountered, in wliicli distinct species, as well of mankind as of dogs, constitute a part. The earliest monuments yet puhUshed by Lepsius are those of the IV th dynasty ; and trom these we here already have borrowed the "hieroglyphic" ov fox-dog^ the prick-eared ^re?/-/iowwt?, the blood-hound^ the turnspit, with other species ; together with the wolf, the hyena, and the jackal. The Egyptian fox has not fallen under our eye at this early epoch, although it is seen on later monuments. JSTotwith- standing that the monuments of the earliest times do not exhibit every form of dogs that existed at the subsequent Xllth dynasty, their absence is no argument why these multifarious species did not exist from the very beginning; and while all the canine forms just men- tioned must ascend even beyond the date of Menes, (which Lepsius places at the year 3893 b. c.,) science can perceive no reason to doubt that other unrecorded varieties of canidse are quite as ancient as those of which fortuitous accident has preserved the pictorial register down to this day. Concerning fossil dogs, the terrestrial vitality of which antedates Egyptian monuments by chiliads of j^ears, Dr. Usher's enumeration (supra, Chap. XI.) of the numerous varieties discovered in geolo- gical formations, all over the world, precludes the necessity for saying more now, than that certain forms of true canidse are primordial organic types ; and, hence, utterly independent of alterations pro- duced, in later times, by domestication. Logical criticism will allow that, if specific differences among dogs were the result of climate, all the dogs of each separate country should be alike. Such, notoriously, is not the case ; for the reader has just beheld several species of dogs, depicted (at various epochs, during 4000 years of coeval existence) on the monuments ; which species are not only now seen in Egypt alive, but are permanent, always and everywhere, in other countries of climates the most opposite. Indeed, "like begets like," to use dog-fancy terms ; and a terrier is a terrier, and a dingo a dingo, all the world over, else language has no meaning; and wherever climatic action may be hostile to the permanency of either type, it does not transform the one into the other, nor into any species diverse from each : it kills them both out- right, or their offspring within a generation or two. Thus, New- foundlands perish within very limited periods after transplantation from American snows to African suns. Their short-lived whelps are as likely to become kittens as to be changed, by climate, into bull- pups. An interesting exception, nevertheless, should be observed: 50 394 HYBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, viz., wliere dogs, becoming wild^ return to a state of nature, they have, in the course of time, resumed very different types ; say, shep- herd's dog, Danish dog, grey-hound, terrier, and so on. "In other words, they constantly tend to recur to that primitive type which is most dominant in their physical constitution ; and it is remarkable, that in the Old World this restored type is never the WOLF, although it is some- times a lupine dog, owing to the cause just mentioned.'" Where opposite types of dogs are bred together, and their hybrid progeny becomes again intermingled, all sorts of mongrel, degene- rate, or deformed varieties arise ; such as pugs, shocks, spaniels, &e. ; which Cuvier calls " the most degenerate productions ;" and they are found, by experience, "to possess a short and fleeting existence — the common lot of all types of modern origin." Such deformities arise in nature everywhere. There is one instance of dwarfish canine mal- formation, 4000 years old, in Lepsius's plate "^ of the Xllth dynasty; and embalmed monstrosities of other genera were found by Passalacqua. Among North American Indian dogs, says Dr. Morton, " the original forms are very few, and closely allied; whence it happens that these grotesque varieties never appear. Neither have they any approximation to that marked family we call hounds ; and this fact is the more remarkable, since the Indian dogs are employed in the same manner of hunting as the hounds of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Yet, this similarity of employment has caused no analogy of exterior form. No varieties like those so familiar in Europe, spring up inter se among them. They are as homogeneous as wolf-races, from whom they are descended ; avid Dr. Richardson quotes Theodat to show that the common Indian dog has not materially changed during two hundred and twenty years. Again, the same remark applies to the indigenous aguara, alco, and techichi dogs of Mexico and South America, which, before their admixture with European breeds, conformed to the types or species from which they sprung, without branching into the thirty varieties of BufiFon, or the sixty of Brown." In the words of Jacquinot, whose "Anthropologic"*^^ is the ablest work on Man yet put forth in the French language, let me close these few, out of infinite, analogies in the animal kingdom, which space confines to the foregoing paragraphs on dogs. "II est indubitable que les varietes du chien appartiennent a plusieurs types primitifs." The facts above detailed establish, conclusively, that Hyhridity is not a " unit ;" or, in other words, they prove that different degrees of affinity exist in Nature, to be taken into account in all inquiries into the prolificacy of diverse " species." Equally certain is it, that climate and domestication affect animal species differently : some of them becoming variously modified in form and color — as horses, cattle, goats, sheep, fowls, pigeons, &c. ; while others, to considerable Gxtent, resist such physical influences — like the ass, the bufl'alo, the elk, the reindeer, pea-fowls, guinea-fowls, and so forth. Now, it is equally singular and true, that these identical species, whence Natural History deduces very strong reasons for believing VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 395 them to be derived from many primitive stocks, are those which undergo the greatest changes ; whereas, on the contrary, other spe- cies, which equally good reasons induce us to regard as simple — that is, derived from one primitive stock — are precisely those in which the experience of ages chronicles the smallest alteration. This law (if it be such) seems to apply not merely to the lower animals, but also to mankind. In America, for example, where the antocthonous popu- hition has been isolated, very httle variety is found among Indian tribes ; whereas, in Europe, Asia, and Africa (more particularly in and around Egypt and India), we encounter iniinite diversities among human beings, numifested in every form and by all colors. The perplexing anomalies that beset this investigation may be illustrated by the following resume, in which I have incorporated some very interesting facts, published by Dr. Alexander Harvey in the London Monthly Journal of the 3Iedical Sciences ;"" Instances are sufficiently common among the lower animals where the offspring exhibit, more or less distinctly, in addition to the characters of the male by which they were be- gotten, the peculiarities also of a male by v/hich their mother had at some former period been impregnated: — or, as it has been otherwise expressed, where the peculiarities of a male animal, that had once held fruitful intercourse with a female, are more or less dis- tinctly recognized in the offspring of subsequent connections of that female with other males. It is interesting to inquire whether this is a general law in animal physiology ; and if it be, whether, and how far, it is modified in its operation in different animals, and under different circumstances: and it is of still more immediate interest to us to inquire whether, or not, the fact extends also to the human species. The facts bearing upon this subject may be most conveniently noticed — 1st, in relation to the lower animals ; 2d, in relation to the human species. I. In the Brute Creadon. — A young chestnut mare, seven-eighths Arabian, belonging to the Earl of Morton, was covered in ISIT) by a quagga, which is a species of wild ass from Africa, and marked somewhat like a zebra. The mare was covered but once by the zebra; and, after a pregnancy of eleven months and four days, gave birth to a hybrid which had distinct marks of the quagga, in the shape of its head, black bars on the legs and shoul- ders, &c. In 1817, 1818, and 1821, the same mare, which had become the propertj' of Sir Gore Ouseley, was covered by a very fine black Arabian horse, and produced successively three foals, all of which bore unequivocal marks of the quagga. A mare belonging to Sir Gore Ouseley was covered by a zebra, and gave birth to a striped hybrid. The year fol- lowing the same mare was covered by a thorough-bred horse, and the next succeeding year by another horse. Both the foals thus produced were striped: i.e., partook of the cha- racters of the zebra. It is stated by Haller, and also by Becker, that when a mare has had a mule by an ass, and afterwards a foal by a horse, the foal exhibits traces of the ass. We can ourselves vouch for the truth of similar facts. A vast number of mules are bred in the United States, from the ass and the mare ; and we have frequently seen colts from horses, out of mares, which had previously had mules ; many of them were distinctly marked by the ass. In these cases, the mares were covered in the first instance by animals of a different species from themselves. But cases are recorded of mares covered in every instance by horses, but by different horses on different occasions, where the offspring partook of the characters of the horse by which the impregnation was first effected. Thus, in several foals in the royal stud at Hampton Court, got by the horse Acteon, there were unequivocal marks of the horse Colonel — the dams of these foals had been bred from by Colonel tb* 396 HTBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, previous year. Again, a colt, the property of the Earl of Suffield, got by Laurel, so resem- bled another horse, Camel, "that it was whispered, nay even asserted at New Market, that he must have been got by Camel." It was ascertained, however, that the mother of the Laurel colt had been covered the previous year by Camel. It has often been observed, also, that a well-bred bitch, if she have been impregnated by a mongrel dog, will not, although lined subsequently by a pure dog, bear thorough-bred puppies in the next two or three litters. The like occurrence has been noticed with the sow. A sow of a peculiar black-and-white breed was impregnated by a boar of the wild breed, of a deep chestnut color ; the pigs produced were duly mixed, the color of the boar in some being very predominant. The sow being afterwards put to a boar of the same breed as her own, some of the produce were observed to be marked with the chestnut color that prevailed in the former litter : and, on a subsequent impregnation, the boar being still of the same breed as the sow, the litter was also observed to be slightly stained with the chestnut color. What adds to the value of the fact now stated is, that, in the course of many years' observation, the breed in question was never known afterwards to produce progeny having the smallest tinge of chestnut color. We may here remark that it is only in a state of domestication that animals produce offspring of various colors. When left entirely to the operation of natural causes, they never exhibit this sporting of colors; they are distin- guished by various and often beautiful shades of color; but then each species is true to its own family type, even to a few hairs or small parts of a feather. It is needless to repeat examples of these facts — they .are familiar to all rearers of animals ; among cattle they are of every-day occurrence. There is another fact worthy of notice. It is well known to cattle-breeders, that the term of utero-gestation is much influenced by the sire — the calves of one bull will be carried longer in utero than those of another. 2. In the Human Species. — There are equally distinct breeds of the human family as of any of the lower animals; and it is affirmed that the human female, when twice married, bears occasionally to the second husband children resembling the first both in bodily struc- ture and mental powers. Where all the parties are of the same color, this statement is not, 60 easy of verification ; but, where a woman has had children by two men of diflferent colors, such as a black and a white man, it would be comparatively easy to observe whether the off"spring of the latter connexion bore any resemblance to the former parent. Count Strze- lecki, in his Physical History of Van Diemen's Land, asserts that, when a native woman has had a child by a European male, " she loses the poiver of conception, on a renewal of in- tercourse, with a male of her own race, retaining only that of procreating with the white men." " Hundreds of instances (says the Count) of this extraordinary fact are recorded in the writer's memoranda, all occurring invariably under the same circumstances, amongst the Hu- rons, Seminoles, Red Indians, Yakies (Sinaloa), Mendosa Indians, Auracos, South Sea Islanders, and natives of New Zealand, New South Wales, and Van Diemen's Land ; and all tending to prove that the sterility of the female, which is relative only to one and not to another male, is not accidental, but follows laws as cogent, though as mysterious, as the rest of those connected with generation." In this sweeping assertion the Count may have been mistaken : a traveller could hardly have had opportunities for ascertaining a fact, which it must require years of careful observation to confirm. It is certain that no such thing exists between the whites and Negroes, the two races with which we are the most familiar; because examples are of frequent occurrence, where a Negress, after having had a child by a white man, has had a family by a husband of her own color. Instances are cited, where a Negro woman bore mulatto children to a white man, and afterwards had by a black man other children, who bore a strong resemblance to the white father, both in features and comp''>xion. It is supposed by some, that the influence, exerted on the generative system of a female of one race by sexual intercourse with tlie male of another, may be increased by repeated connexions ; and Dr. Laing informs us of the case of an English gentleman in tlie West Indies, who had a large family by a Negro woman, and where the children exhibited successively, more and more, the European features and complexion. I have living with me a black woman, whose first child was by a white man : VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 397 she has had six children since, by a black husband, who are perfectly black, and unlike the first father; yet, it is a singular fact that these children, though strongly-marked Negroes, bear no family likeness to either father or mother— their pliysiognomy is as distinct as that of any two families of the same race. The children of a second husband may resemble the first sufficiently to attract attention, even where there is no striking contrast of color; thus Dr. Harvey cites a case where a lady was twice married, and had issue by both hus- bands. One of the children by the second marriage bears an unmistakeable resemblance to her mother's first husband; and what makes the likeness more discernible is, that there was a marked difference in features and general appearance between the two husbands. The chain of facts heroin by this time linked together, aside from many more of idejitical force that might easily be added, proves con- clusively that prolificacy between two races of animals is no test of specific affiliation ; and it therefore follows, as a corollary, that proli- ficacy among the difierent races of men carries with it no evidence of common origin. On the other hand, if it can be shown that the law of hybridity prevails between any two human races, the argu- ment in favor of plurality of species would thereby be greatly strengthened, I think that the genus homo includes many primitive species ; and that these species are amenable to the same laws which govern spe- cies in many other genera. The species of men are all proximate, according to the definition already given ; nevertheless, some are per- fectly prolific ; while others are imperfectly so — possessing a tendency to become extinct when their h3'brids are bred together. At the beginning of this chapter I referred to my own observations, mado some years ago, on the crossing of white and black races : and my investigations since that time, as well as those of many other anato- mists, confirm the views before enunciated. So far as the races of men can be traced through osteography, history and monuments, the pre- sent volume establishes that they have always been distinct. No example is recorded, where one race has been transformed into an- other by external causes. Permanence of type must therefore be regarded as an infallible test of specific character. M. Jacquinot very dexterously remarks that, according to the theory of unity of races, a mulatto belongs to a " species" as much as any other human being, and that the white and black races would be but "varieties." When two 'proximate species of mankind, two races bearing a general resemblance to each other in type, are bred together — e. (jr., Teutons, Celts, Pelasgians, Iberians, or Jews — they produce oftspring perfectly prolific : although, even here, their peculiarities cannot become so entirely fused into a homogeneous mass as to obliterate the original types of either. One or the other of these types will " crop-out," from time to time, more or less apparently in their pro- geny. When, on the other hand, species the most widely separated. 398 HYBRIDITT OF ANIMALS, sueli as the Anglo-Saxon with the Negro, are crossed, a different result has course. Their mulatto otispring, if still prolific, are but partially so ; and acquire an inherent tendency to run out, and become eventu- ally extinct when kept apart from the parent stocks. This opinion is now becoming general among observers in our slave States ; and it is very strongly insisted upon by M. Jacquinot. This skilful natu- ralist (unread in cis- Atlantic literature) claims the discovery as original with himself; althongh erroneously, because it had long previously been advocated by Estwick and Long, the historians of Jamaica ; by Dr. Caldwell ;^^^ by Professors Dickson and Ilolbrook, of Charleston, S. C. ; and by numerous other leading medical men of our Southern States. There are some 4,000,000 of Negroes in the United States ; about whom circumstances, personal and professional, have afforded me ample opportunities for observation. I have found it impossible, nevertheless, to collect such statistics as would be satisfactory to others on this point; and the difficult}' arises solely from the want of chastity among mulatto women, which is so notorious as to be proverbial. Although often married to hybrid males of their own color, their children are begotten as frequently by white or other men, as by their husbands. For many years, in my daily professional visits, I have been in the habit of meeting with mulatto women, either free or slaves ; and, never omitting an opportunity of inquiry with regard to their prolificacy, longevity of offspring, color of parents, age, &c., the conviction has become indelibly fixed in my mind that the posi- tions laid down in the beginning of this chapter are true. Ilombron and Jacquinot have asserted on their own authority, as well as upon that of others, that this law of infertility holds also with the cross of the European on the Hottentot and Australian. " Les quelques tribus qui se trouvaient aux environs de Port Jackson, vent chaque jour en d^croissant, et c'est S, peine si I'on cite quelques rares m^tis d'Australien et d'Europ^en. Cette absence de ni^tis entre deux peuples vivant en contacte sur la meme terre, prouve bien incontestableuient la diffi5rence des especes. On con9oit du reste que, si ces m6tis exis- taient, ils seraient bien faciles a reconnoitre, et a diti'(5i'encier des especes meres. "A Hobart Town et sur toute la Tasmnnie, il n'y a pas d'avantage de m^tis; tout ce qui reste des indigenes (quarante environ) a ^t^ transport^ dans une petite lie du d^troit de Bass."«6 The official reports published by the British Parliament confirm this statement as to Australia. French and Spanish writers have maintained that, when the grade of qtiinteToon is arrived at, the Negro type is lost, and that such man becoTTres no longer distinguishable from the pure white. In some of the West India Islands this grade of slave by law becomes free. Now, it must be remembered :li:it the Spaniards, and a certain propoi'tion of the population of Fiance, are themselves already as dark as any VIEWED IN CONNECTION" WITH MANKIND. 399 qninteroon, or even a quadroon ; and thus it may readily happen that very few crosses would merge the dark into the lighter race: but, when the Angk)-Saxon and the Negro are brought together, no such result has been perceived, or hinted at, in the United States, where the latter amalgamation is going on upon an immense scale. Slaves of Southern States, seduced by delusive representations, are constantly making attempts to escape to free States ; and would succeed without difficulty in most cases, were it not for their color: yet they have rarely, if ever, become so fair through white lineage as to escape de- tection. I am not sure that I ever saw at the South, one of such adult mixed-bloods so fair that I could not instantaneously trace the Negro type in complexion and feature. When we bear in mind the length of time during which the two races have been commingling in the United States, how are we to explain this fact ? The only phj'siolo- gical reason that may be assigned is this : the mulattoes, or mixed- breeds, die off before the dark stain can be washed out by amalgamation. No other rational explanation can be offered. Mr. Lyell speaks of some mulattoes he met with in North Carolina, whom, he says, he could not distinguish from whites ; but, if any such examples exist, among the multiform crosses between Anglo-Saxons and Negroes, they must be extraordinarily few ; because my half century's residence in our slave States should have brought me in con- tact with many instances. However, an Englishman, coming from an island where a Negro is a " rara avis," and running through the United States at Mr. Lyell's speed, could not become familiarized with these various grades, and therefore his eye might well be deceived. The great geologist certainly made many other decidedly erroneous observations in his American tour ; quite innocently we all admit. M. Gerdy claims [Traite de Physiologie) that primitive human spe- cies have all disappeared through amalgamations ; giving a most erudite rehearsal of the wars and migrations which have influenced races, from the earliest times downwards : but it is a hard matter to wash out blood ; and we oppose the fact, that the representatives of many original types still live: such as the Greeks (heroic type), the Basques, the Jews, the Australians, the Indians, and, above all, the Egyptians. M. Jacquinot, whose ability and great opportunities for investi- gation add much weight to his authority, lays down the following conclusions : — «' 1. A species, or race which represents it, is primitive, when all tlie individuals that com- pose it present the same physical characters, same color of skin, same type of face, same conformation, same kind of hair — notwithstanding the varieties of physiognomy of indi ■yiduals, which vary to infinitude in all species. "In a species, according to Cuvier, 'the children resemble the father and mother, as much ag these resemble each other.' 400 HTBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, " 2. It is impossible, no matter how we produce crosses between species or races on the globe, to obtain a product which represents exactly one of the primitive types ; that is to say, we shall never be able to construct, with all the pieces, a Negro, an American, a Ger- man, or a Celt. " 3. The species will separate from the primitive tj'pe, and will become the more altered by crosses with other species, in proportion as the individuals which compose it diflfer from each other, and as the types are more numerous. "4. The greater the differences among individuals, the less the species which have pro- duced them will be near [voisines) to each other, and vice versa.'" '^^'^ The laws governing hybridity have as yet been but imperfectly studied. Some points of vital interest, connected with the crossing of races, have passed by without notice ; for example, the relative influence of the male and the female on progeny. The physical characteristics of the common mule (offspring of the ass and mare) are well known. It partakes of the characters of both parents; but in the form of the head and ears, as well as in disposition, it inherits more of the ass than of the horse. The hardeau, or hinny (offspring of horse and she-ass) partakes, on the contrary, much more of the pecu- liarities of the horse — the head being small, closely resembling the horse ; the ears short ; the disposition rather that of the horse ; and the voice is not a bray, but the neigh. The mule and hinny are almost as much unlike each other as the horse and ass. How far this rule may be applicable to other infertile hybrids, I am not pre- pared to say. Where proxi7nate species are bred together, the above rule, based upon equidse, applies with less force ; e. g., the dog and wolf, or differ- ent species of dogs. I have seen pups from the cross of the cur-dog and wolf, which presented an interrnediate type ; but the following appears to show that a different breed of dog may produce a diver- gent result : — " In the recent experiments of Wiegemann, in Berlin, of the offspring of a pointer and she-wolf, two resembled the father, with hanging ears, while the other was like a wolf- dog." *'8 When the grey-hound and fox-hound, the fox-hound and terrier, are coupled, their offspring partake rather of the half-and-half type. We are unable to declare what shades of difference may arise from the manner of crossing canine males and females. A grey-hound pos- sesses great speed, has a peculiar shape, and pursues his game by sight alone ; being so destitute of smell as to be incapable of trailing it. The fox-hound, on the contrary, tracks game almost solely by scent, has little speed, but great endurance. Now, when fox-hound and grey-hound are bred together, their offspring is intermediate in form, in speed, in sense of smell, and in every attribute. Such law, I believe, holds with regard to all dogs, when thorough-bred. Some years ago, I was intimate with a gentleman who owned a VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 401 fine pack of fox-hounds;. Wisliing to retain the sense of smell, and at the satnc time procure more speed, he commenced by crossing them with grey-hounds; and continued crossing until he obtained a stock of but one- eighth grey-hound, which dogs gave him allthe* qualities desired. Now it would appear, from sundry facts already set forth under our "Caucasian" type, that even proximate species are not invariably governed by the same laws. Some species produce an intermediate type, like the dogs just cited ; while others possess a tendency to reproduce each of the parent stocks. We may instance the white and gray mice, the deer and ram, no less than the fair and the dark- skinned races of men. During a professional visit (which interrupted these lines) to the house of a friend, Mr. Garland Goode, my notice was attracted, by some curious facts respecting the crossing of races. Among his slaves he owns three families, all crosses of white and black blood, as fol- lows : — 1st. A woman, three-fourths white, married to a half-breed mulatto man. She had four children; the two fiist and the last of which were even more fair than tlie mother. The other presented a dark complexion — that of the father. 2d. A mulatto woman, half-breed, married to a full-blooded Negro man, not of the jet- tiest hue, although black. They had thirteen children; of which most were even blacker than the father, while two exhibited the light complexion of the mother. 3d. A mulatto man, married to a very black Negress. They had twelve children; and here again the majority of the children were coal-black, whereas two or three were as light in complexion as the father. With respect to these examples, it is evident that, in the first case, white-blood predominated in the parents. In the two latter, the Ne- gro blood was paramount. Thus, in three cases, the law of hybridity seems clearly to have been called into action. The children had a tendency to run into the tj'pe of the predominant blood: because, in the first example, wdiite-blood preponderated in the children ; in the two last, black-blood. Now, I do not consider this rule to be con- stant ; but such examples are common. Mr. Lyell has again, in these matters, made statements upon exceptions to rules, and not, assuredly, upon the rules themselves. Observations are w^anting to settle many of the laws that govern the mi^•ing of human species. In the United States, the mulattoes and other grades are produced by the connection of the white male with the Negress; the mulattoes with each other ; and the white male with the mulattress. It is so rare, in this country, to see the offspring of a Negro man and a white woman, that I have never personally encountered an example ; but such children are reported to partake more of the type of the Negro, than when the mode of crossing i.- 51 402 HTBRIDITT OF ANIMALS, reversed. I am, however, told that the progeny derived from a Negro father presents characteristics ditfcrent from those where the male parent of mulattoes is white ; and consequently I suspend decision. Our ordinary mulattoes are nearly intermediate between the parent stocks ; governed, apparently, very much by laws similar to those we have instanced in the grey-hound and fox-hound. They are, how- ever, as before stated, less proUfic than the parent stock ; which con- dition is coupled with an inherent tendency to run out, so much so, that mulatto humanity seldom, if ever, reaches, through subsequent crossings with white men, that grade of dilution which washes out the Negro stain. While speaking of dogs, we hinted, that the brain and nervous sj'stem, in animal nature, are so influenced by crossing, as to make instincts and senses partake of intermediate characters. The same law applies to human white and black races ; for the mulatto, if cer- tainly more intelligent than the Negro, is less so than the white man. His intelligence, as a general rule, augments in proportion to the amount of white-blood in his veins. This is invariably the case in the United States. In Hayti, mulattoes governed until exterminated by the blacks ; and it is the mulatto element which now dominates, and always will govern in Liberia, until this experimental colony be annexed by Anglo-Saxons, or annihilated by native Negroes. Com- parisons of crania alone substantiate this view, upon anatomical grounds ; the past ratilies it, upon historical data : future Liberian destinies, if deduced from such premises, are not exhilarating. Again, in Africa itself, all Negro empires are ruled by the superior Foolah races. It may be received, I think, as a fact, that in white races the intellect of children is derived much more from the mother than the father. Popular experience remarks, that great men seldom beget great sons ; and it is equally true, that dull women do not often pro- duce intelligent children. On the other hand, the mothers of great men almost invariably have been distinguished by vigorous natural intellects, whether cultivated or not. Now, it is singularly note- worthy, in connection with the above phenomena, that this doctrine eeems to be reversed where black are crossed with white races. The intellect of a mulatto, child of a white male and a Negress, is cer tainly superior to that of the Negro ; and I have pointed out, when speaking of the nmle and bardeau, that the form of the head is given by the sire. Space now precludes my doing more than suggest in- quiry intc a new and interesting point, unfortunately not illumined by ]\[orton's penetration. Again and again, in previous publications, I have alluded to the fallibility of arguments drawn from analogy alone, while insisting VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 403 that no true analogies can be said to exist. Every animal, from man to the worm, is governed by special physiological laws. Let me notice, en passant, the curious tact, that natural giants aiid dwarfs are next to fabulous in the animal kingdom, although frequent enough in the human family ; subjoining an extract from one of my earlier articles on hybridity : — " Ciitlierine de Mcdicis amused herself and court by collecting, from various quarters, a number of male and female dwarfs, and forming marriages amongst them ; but they were all unprolific. The same experiment was made by the Electress of Brandenburg, wife of Joachim Frederic, and with the same result. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, in Ids researches, has been able to discover but one exception, the famous dwarf Borwilaski, and there are strong doubts about the faithfulness of Ids wife, who was a woman of full stature. Giants are likewise impotent, deficient in intellect, feeble in body, and short-lived. It is a remark;ible fact, that giants and dwarfs proper are almost unknown in the animal kingdom, while they are common in all the races of men, and under all circumstances." ^^ Our chapter on Geographical Distribution alludes to one peculiar efi'ect in the crossing of races, as illustrated by the blacks and whites in our Southern States: viz. — how the smallest admixture of Negro blood is equivalent to acclimation against yellow fever, being almost tantamount to complete exemption. Much passes current, among breeders of domestic animals, about the improvements of breeds by crossing them ; and similar ideas have been suggested by many writers, as applicable to the human family; but the notion itself is very unphilosophical, and could never have originated with any intelligent naturalist of thorough experience in such matters. It is mind, and mind alone, which constitutes the proudest prerogative of man ; whose excellence should be measured by his intelligence and \drtue. The Negro and other unintellectual tj'pes have been shown, in another chapter, to possess heads much smaller, by actual measurement in cubic inches, than the white races; and, although a metaphysician may dispute al)Out the causes which may have debased their intellects or precluded their expansion, it can not be denied tliat these dark races are, in this particular, greatly infeiior to the others of fairer complexion. Now, when the white and black races are crossed together, the oflspring exhibits through- out a modified anatomical structure, associated with sundry character- istics of an intermediate type. Among other changes superinduced, the head of a mulatto is larger than that of the Negro ; the forehead is more developed, the facial angle enlarged, and the intellect becomes manifestly improved. This fact is notorious in the United States ; and it is historically exemplified by another: viz., that the mulattoos, although but a fraction of the population of Hayti, had luled the island till expelled by the overwhelming jealousy and major numerical force of the blacks. In Liberia, President Roberts boasts of but one 404 HYBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, fourth ]^(gro blood; while all the colored chiefs of departments in that infant republic hold in their veins more or less of white-blood ; which component had been copiously infiltrated, prior to emigra- tion from America, into that population generally. If all the white- blood were suddenly abstracted, or the fl^ow of whitening elements from the United States to be stopped, the whole fabric would doubtless 80on fall into ruins ; and leave as little trace behind as Herodotus's famous Negro colony of Colchis, or the more historical one of Meroe. From the best information procurable, we know that there has been a vast deal of exaggeration, among colonizationists at home, about this mulatto colony of Liberia abroad ; nor, much as we should be gratified at the success of the experiment, can we perceive how any durable good can be expected from it, unless some process be disco- vered by which a Negro's head may be changed in form, and enlarged in size. History aifords no evidence that cultivation, or any known causes but physical amalgamation, can alter a primitive conformation in the slightest degree. Lyell himself acknowledges : — " The separation of the colored children in the Boston schools arose, not from an indul- gence in anti-Negro feelings, but because they find they can in this way bring on both races faster. Up to the age of fourteen, the black children advance as fast as the whites ; but after that age, unless there be an admixture of white-blood, it becomes in most instances extremely difficult to cai-ry them forward. That the half-breeds should be intermediate between the two parent-stocks, and that the colored race should therefore gain in mental capacity in proportion as it approximates in physical organization to the whites, seems natural ; and yet it is a wonderful fact, psychologically considered, that we should be able to trace the phenomena of hybridity even into the world of intellect and reason." '^o To persons domiciled in our slave-States, it is really amusing to hear the many-toned hosannahs sung in Old England and in New England, over the success of the Eepublic of Liberia : while the world shakes with laughter at Frenchmen for attempting a republic, or any other stable form of government short of absolute despotism ; as if Negroes were a superior race to the Franco-Gauls ! Robespierre gave, in palliation of his cruelties, that you could not reason with a Gallic opposition : the only way to silence it being through the guillotine. It would be a curious investigation to inquire, what was the type of those turbulent spirits ? I have little doubt that each despot of the hour would be found to have been one of those dark-skinned, black haired, black-eyed fellows, depicted so well {supra] by Bodichon ; and if the imperial government were simply to cliop off the head of GWQYy demagogue who was not a blond wJiite-man, they might "get along" in France as tranquilly as in England, Ger- many, and the United States. 2)ar^-skinned races, history attests, are only fit for military governments. It is the unique rule genial to their physical nature : they are unhappy without it, even now, at VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 405 Paris. ISTono but the fair-skiniu'J tj'pes of iiiaukiiul have been able, hitherto, to i-ealize, in peaceful practice, the old Germanic system described by Tacitus — " Do minoribus rebus, principes consultant'; de majoribus, onines" — omnes, be it understood, signifying exclu- sively white men of their own type. If these remarks be true in basis, it is evident, theoretically, that the superior races ought to be kept free from all adulterations, other- wise the world will retrograde, instead of advancing, in civiHzation. It may be a question, whether there is not already too nmch adultera- tion in Europe. Spain and Ital}^, where the darker races are in the majority, continue still behind in the march. France, although teem- ing with gigantic intellects, has been struggling in vain for sixty years to found a stable government — her population is tainted with bad elements ; and wherever Portuguese or Spanish colonies attempt to compete with Anglo-Saxons, they are left astern, when not "an- nexed." It is the strictly- white races that are bearing onward the flambeau of civilization, as displayed in the Germanic families alone. Sir Walter Scott declares : — " The government of Spain, a worn-out despotism, lodged in the hands of a family of tlie lowest degree of intellect, was one of the worst in Europe ; and the state of the nobilitj in general (for thei-e were noble exceptions) seemed scarcely less degraded. The incestuous practice of marrying within the near degrees of propinquity had long existed, with its usual consequences : the dwarfing of the body and the degeneracy of the under- standing." ^si To which Mr. Percival Hunter adds, that "writers on lunacy attribute the insanity, or rather the innate idiocy, so frequent among certain Scotch families, to the old national practice of never marrying out of their clan."^52 The civilization of ancient Rome, achieved by a very mixed race, although grand in its way, was, nevertheless, characterized throughout by cruelty, a certain degree of barbarism and want of refinement. These crude elements of the laws of hybridit}^ — laws by no means clearly defined in anthropological science — derive some illustration by contrasting the aristocracies of Europe. In England, where inter- marriages between impoverished nobles of the IS^orman stock with wealthy commoners of the homogeneous Saxon, and where elevation of plebeians to the peerage, reinvigorate the breed, such patrician classes comprehend more manly beauty (Circassia, perhaps, excepted) than exists in the same number of individuals throughout the globe. " What proportion," well asks the Westminster Review, " of the old Percy blood flows in the veins of those who claim the honor of the family's representation? The fanatics ot 'blood,' i. e., those who are not content to yield that reasonable amount of regard to it, which sense and sentiment both permit, should remember that when the main Hue has merged, again and again, into other families, the original blood must be but a small consti- 'iient of the remote descendant's personality. " The great subverter of the aristocratic principle in the creation of peers, was Pitt lu ftghting his battle against the Whigs, he availed himself iniAiensely of the moneyed interest; 400 HTBRIDITY OF ANIMALS, and Tewavded the supporters of party with the honors of the crown. At every general election a batch was made: eight peerages were created in 1790; and in 1794, when a Whig defection to him took place, ten were created. Sir Egerton Brydges, a very accomplished man, both as a genealogist and a man of letters, published a special pamphlet on the point in 1798. He undoubtedly expressed the views of the aristocratic party when he said — " ' In every parliament I have seen the number augmented of busy, intriguing, pert, low members, who, without birth, education, honorable employments, or perhaps even fortune, dare to obtrude themselves, and push out the landed interest.' , . . "What then is at present the portion of genuine aristocracy in the House of Lords? Calculations have been made by genealogists on this subject, of which we shall avail our- selves. "The learned author of the Origines Genealogicm analysed the printed peerage of 1828, and found that of 249 noblemen 35 'laid claim' to having traced their descent beyond the Conquest; 49 prior to 1100; 29 prior to 1200; 32 prior to 1300; 26 prior to 1400; 17 to 1500; and 26 to 1600. At the same time 30 had their origin but little before 1700. . . . Here then we have a result of one-half of the peerage being at all events traceable to a period antecedent to the Wars of the Roses. But of these a third only had emerged at all out of insignificance during the two previous centuries. "Sir Harris Nicolas fixes as his standard of pretension in Family, the having been of consideration, baronial or knightly rank, that is, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth ; and ap- plying that test to the English Peerage in 1830, found that one-third of the body were enti- tled to it. " There still remains in the male line, up and down England, a considerable number of landed families of very high antiquity ; but the gradual decay and extinction of these is the constant theme of genealogists. Hear old Dugdale in the Preface to his Baronage in 1675. " He first speaks of the Roll of Battle Abbey, and says of it : — ' There are great errors or rather falsities in most of these copies. . . . Such hath been the subtilty of some monks of old.' But, speaking of his labors, generally, he has these more remnrkable words: — " ' For of no less than 270 families, touching which this first volume doth take notice, there will hardly be found above eight which do to this day continue ; and of those not any whose estates (compared with what their ancestors enjoyed) are not a little diminished. Nor of that number (I mean 270) above twenty-four who are by any younger male branch descended from them, for aught I can discover.' "'153 Hence ethnology deduces, that the prolonged superiority of the English to any other aristocracies is mainly due to the continuous upheaval of the Saxon element: and, at such point of view, the social aspirations of Lord John Manners would seem to be as philosophical as his poetic effusions are unique : — " Let arts and manners, laws and commerce, die; But leave us still our old nobility.' " So, again, in Muscovy. Gorman wives and Teutonic officers have metamorphosed the old Tartar nobility into higher-castes than Ivan and his court "would have reputed to be Russian. On the other hand, the recreant crew of conti, haroni, marehesi, in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Sicily, and parts of Southern Europe, include some of the most abject specimens of humanity anywhere to be found. The physical cause of this deterioration, from the historical gi-eatness of their ancestral names, is Baid to be — "breeding in and in." Now, this may be true enough, as an apparent reason; but is there not a latent one ? History shows that VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 407 the families most degraded (in Portugal especially, where the lowest forms are encountered,) are compounded of Iberian, Celtic, Arab, Jewish, and other t3-pes — pure in themselves, but bad in the amal- g''m. Pride of birth, for centuries, has prevented them from marry- ing out of the circle of aristocracy. With rare exceptions, they are too mean in person to be accepted by the white nobility of Northern Europe. The consequence is, they intermarry Avith themselves; and, as in other mulatto compounds, the offspring of such mongrel com- minglings deteriorate more and more in every generation. They cease to procreate, and there are some hopes that the corrupt breed is extinguishing itself. The Peninsular war, and the still more recent Don-Pedro-experiences, left on the mind of every foreign legionary concerned, the sentiment that, " if you take a Castilian, and strip him of all his good qualities, you will leave a respectable Portuguee." It is precisely the same with the Perotes, Greek aristocracy of Istam- boul : on whom read Commodore Porter's " Letters from Constanti- nople, by an American." Such are unsolved enigmas in the rough- hewn conceptions we can yet form of human Jiybridity. It seems to me certain, however, in human pliysical history, that the superior race must inevitably become deteriorated by any intermix- ture with the inferior ; and I have suggested elsewhere, that, through the operation of the laws of hybridity alone, the human family might possibly become exterminated by a thorough amalgamation of all the various types of mankind now existing upon earth. Sufficient having been said on the crossing of races, I shall close this chapter with a few remarks on the propagation of a race from a single pair, or what in common parlance is termed " breeding in and in.'' It is a common belief, among many rearers of domestic ani- mals, and one acted upon every day, that a race or stock deteriorates by this procedure, and that improvement of breed is gained by cross- ing. Whether such rule be constant or not, with regard to inferior animals, I am unprepared to aver — some authors having cited facts to the contrary. Science possesses no criteria by which it can de- termine beforehand the degree of prolificacy of any two species when brought together ; and so differently are animals affected by physical agents, that actual experiment alone can ascertain the com- parative operations of climate upon two given animals when moved from one zoological province to another — some becoming greatly changed, others but little, and man least of all. Recurring to oui definitions of remote, allied, and prozi7nate "species" {^supra, p. 8I3, let us inquire what are the data as respects mankind. Will any one deny that continued intermarriages among blood relations are destructive to a race, both physically and ir..tellectually '' 408 HTBRIDITT OF ANIMALS, The fact is proverbial. Do we not see it most fully illustrated in the royal families and nobility of Europe, where such matrimonial alli- ances have long been customary ? The reputation of the House of Lords in England would long since have been extinct, had not the Crown incessantly manufactured nobles from out of the sturdy sons of the people. Cannot every one of us individually point to degene- rate offspring which have arisen from family intermarriages for mere property-sake ? In early life, I witnessed a most striking example, in the upper ])art of South Carolina, where my father owned a country-seat. Al- most the entire population of the neighborhood was made up of Irish Covenanters, who had moved to that country before the Revolutionary war. They had intermarried for many generations, until the same blood coursed through the veins of the whole of them ; and there are many persons now living in South Carolina who will bear me out when I state, that the proportion of idiots and deformed was unpre- cedented in that district, of which the majority in its population was stupid and debased in the extreme. I could mention several other striking examples, beheld in higher life, but it would be painful to particularize. And do not the instincts of our nature, the social laws of man, all over the civilized world, and the laws of God, from Genesis to Eeve- lations, cry aloud against incest ? Does not the father shrink with horror from the idea of marrying his own child, or from seeing the bed of his daughter polluted by her brother ? Do not children them- selves shudder at the thought ? And can it be credited, that a God of infinite power, wisdom, and foresight, should have been driven to the necessity of propagating the human family from a single pair, and then have stultified his act by stamping incest as a crime ? ^^ I do not believe that true religion ever intended to teach a common origin for the human race. " Cain knew his wife," whom he found in a foreign land, when he had no sister to marry ; and although cor- ruption and sin were not w^anting among the patriarchs, yet nowhere in Scripture do we see, after Adam's sons and daughters, a brother marrying his sister. It is shown, in our Supplement, that many of the genealogies of Genesis have been falsely translated, and otherwise misconstrued, in our English Bible ; and that the names of Abraham's ancestors re- present countriea and nations, and not individuals. Moreover, no- where in Genesis is the dogma of a future state hinted at: and its ancient authors could have had no object in teaching the modern idea of unity of races, when those writers themselves possessed no elciir perceptions upon "salvation" hereafter. VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH MANKIND. 409 Tn my remarks, five years ago, on " Universal Terms," reproduced and extended in this volume, I showed that the only text in the New Testament which refers directly to the unity of races, is that in Acts, where St. Paul says, that God " hath made of one hlood all nations of men." I hold that no scientific importance should bo attached to this isolated passage, inasmuch as the writer of Acts employed uni- versal terms very loosely ; at the same time that he know nothing of the existence of races or nations beyond the circumference of the Roman Empire. Dr. Morton, in one of his letters to me (Sept. 27, 1850), shortly before his demise, thus emphatically expressed himself: — " For my own part, if I could believe that the human race had its origin in incest, I should think that I had at once got the clue to all ungodliness. Two lines of Catechism would explain more than all the theological discussions since the Christian ei'a. I have put it into rhyme. " Q. Whence came that curse we call primeval sin? " A. From Adam's children breeding in and in." The reader can now appreciate some of the contradictory pheno- mena that perplex the investigator of human Hyhridity. I have purposely set them before him in juxtaposition. To me they appear irrecoucileable ; unless the theory of plurality of origin be adopted, together with the recognition that there exist remote, allied, and proxi- mate, " species," as well of mankind as of lower animals. Having speculatively alluded [supra, p. 80) to a possible extermina- tion of races in an unknown futurity, I would here briefly justify such hypothesis by saying, that Nature marches steadily towards perfec- tion ; and that it attains this end through the consecutive destruction of living beings. Geology and paheontology prove a succession of creations and destructions previously to any etfacements of Man; and it is contended by Hombron and other naturalists, that the inferior' races of mankind were created before the superior types, who now appear destined to supplant their predecessors. Albeit, whatever may have been the order of creation, the unintellectual races seem doomed to eventual disappearance in all those climates where the higher groups of fair-skinned families can permanently exist. The entire race of the Guanches, at the Canary Islands, was exter- minated by the Portuguese during the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- turies ; not a living vestige remaining to tell the tale. Some of the pre-Celtic inhabitants of Britain, Gaul, and Scandinavia, seem to have shared a similar fate : 16,000,000 of aborigines in North America have dwindled down to 2,000,000 since the "Mayflower" discharged vtn Pljmiouth Rock; and their congeners, the Caribs, have long been extinct in the West Indian islands. The mortal destiny of the whole American group is already perceived to be running out, like the sand 52 tlO HYBRIDITT OF ANIMALS. in Time's hour-glass. Of 400,000 inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands, far less than 100,000 survive, and these are daily sinking beneath civilization, missionaries, and rum. In New Holland, New Guinea, many of the Pacific islands, and other parts of the world, the same work of destruction is going on ; and the labors of proselytism are vain, save to hasten its accomplishment. " Pourquoi cela ?" asks Boclichon.''55 "/jj {g because their social state is a perpetual strife against humanity. Thus, murder, deprediitions, incessant useless strifes of one against an- other, are their natural state. They practise human sacrifices and mutilations of men ; they are imbued with hostility and antipathy towards all not of their race. They maintain polygamy, slavery, and submit women to labor incompatible with female organization. " In the eyes of theology they are lost men ; in the eyes of morality vicious men ; in the eyes of humanitary economy they are non-producers. From their origin they have not recognized, and they still refuse to recognize, a supreme law imposed by the Almighty ; via. : the obligation of labor. " On the other hand, all nations of the earth have made war upon the Jews for 4000 years: the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Greeks, the Romans, &c. ; — Christians and Ma- hommedans by turns ; with innumerable cruelties, physical and moral: nevertheless, that race lives and prospers. Why ? Because they have everywhere played their part in the progress of civilization. " True philanthropy (insists Bodichon) should not tolerate the existence of a race whose nationality is opposed to progress, and who constantly struggle against the general rights and interests of humanity." Omnipotence has provided for the renovation of manhood in countries where effeminacy has prostrated human energies. Earth has its tempests as well as the ocean. There are reserved, without doubt, in the destinies of nations, fearful epochs for the ravage of human races ; and there are times marked on the divine calendar for the ruin of empires, and for the periodical renewal of the mundane features. " In the midst of this crash of empires (says the philosophical Virey), which rise and fall on every side, immutable Nature holds the balance, and presides, ever dispassionately, over 8uch events; which are but the re-establishment of equilibrium in the systems of organized beings." J. C. K COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 411 CHAPTER XIII. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. [By J. C. N.] "Craniorum inquam quibus ad gentilitias varietates distingnendas et defi- iiiendas nulla alia humani corpoi'is pars aptior videtur, cum caput os^eum (praeterquam quod animse domicilium et officina, imo vero interpres quasi et explanator ejus sit, utpote universse physiognomiEe basin et firnianientum constituens) stabilitati suas maximam conformationis et partium relativse proportionis varietatem juuctam habeat, unde characleres nalionum certissimas desumere licet." Blumenbach. In examining the physical organization of races, the anatomist of the present day possesses many advantages over his predecessors: his materials for comparison are far more complete than theirs ; and the admission now generally made by anthropologists, that the leading types of mankind now seen over the earth have existed, indepen- dently of all known physical causes, for some 5000 years at least, gives quite a new face to this part of the investigation. It has been shown in preceding chapters that ^permanence of type must be considered tlie most satisfactory criterion of specific character, both in animals and plants. The races of mankind, when viewed zoologically, must have been governed by the same universal law ; and the Jew, the Celt, the Iberian, the Mongol, the Negro, the Poly- nesian, the Australian, the American Indian, can be regarded in no other light than as distinct, or as amalgamations of very proximate, species. When, therefore, two of these species are placed beside each other for comparison, the anatomist is at once struck by theii strong contrast; and his task is narrowed down to a description of those well-marked types which are known to be permanent. The form and capacity of the skull, the contour of the face, many parts of the bke- leton, the peculiar development of muscles, the hair and skin, all present strong points of contrast. It matters not to the naturalist how or when the type was stamped upon each race ; its permanence makes it specific. If all the races sprang from a single pair, nothing short of a miracle could have pro- duced such changes as contenders for "unity" demand; because (il is now generally conceded) no causes are in operation which can 412 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. transmute one t\'pe of man into another. If, as for centuries it was supposed, the races became actually transformed when tongues were confounded at Babel, I presume this was effected by an instan- taneous fiat of the Almighty ; and when done it was " ipso facto" irrevocable. No terrestrial causes, consequently, could reverse His decree ; nor, afterwards, metamorphose a white man into a Negro, or vice versa, an}' more than they could change a horse into an ass. However important anatomical characteristics may be, I doubt whether the physiognomy of races is not equally so. There exist minor differences of features, various minute combinations of details, certain palpable expressions of face and aspect, which language cannot describe : and yet, how indelible is the image of a type once im- pressed on the mind's eye ! When, for example, the word "Jew" is pronounced, a type is instantly brought up by memory, which could not be so described to another person as to present to his mind a faithful portrait. The image must be seen to be known and remem- bered ; and so on with the faces of all men, past, present, or to come. Although the Jews are genealogically, perhaps, the purest race living, they are, notwithstanding (as we have shown), an extremely adulte- rated people ; but yet there is a certain face among them that we recognize as typical of the race, and which we never meet among any other th^n Chaldaic nations. If we now possessed correct portraits, even of those people who were contemporary with the founders of the Egyptian empire, how many of our interminable disputes would be avoided ! Fortunately, the early monuments of Egypt, Assyria, Greece, Rome, &c., and even of America, afford much information of this iconographic kind, which decides the early diversity of types : but still, science is ill-supplied with these desiderata to afford a full understanding of the subject. Our first glimpse of human races, though dating far back in time, does not (we have every reason to believe with Bunsen,) reach beyond the "middle ages" of mankind's duration. The very earliest monumental record, or written history, exhibits man, not in nomadic tribes, but in full-grown nations borne on the flood-tide of civilization. Even the writers of the Book of Genesis could not divest their imaginations of the idea of some civilization coeval with the creation of their first parents ; because the man, A-DaM, gave names, in Paradise, "to all the cattle," ^^ BellaiMall ; which implies either that, in the cosmogenical conception of those writers, some animals (oxen, horses, camels, and so forth,) had been already domesticated ; or, writing thousands of years subsequently to animal domesticity, they heedlessly attributed, to ante-historic rimes past, conditions existing in their own days present. They COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 413 could not conceive sucli a tiling as a time when cattle were untamed; any more than archtsology can admit that anybody could describe events prior to their occurrence. [This is no delusion. Open Lepsius's Denkmiiler, and upon the copies of monuments ot the IVth Memphite dynasty, dating more than 2000 years before Moses, (to whom the Pen- tateuch is ascribed,) you will behold cattle of many genera — bulls, cows, calves, oxen, oryxes, donkeys (no horses or camels) — together with dogs, sheep, goats, gazelles; besides birds, such as ffeese, cranes, ducks (no common fowls), ibises, &c. ; the whole of them in a state of entire subjection to man in Egypt; and none represented but those animals indigenous to the Nilotic zoological centre of creation. Wherever we may turn, in ancient annuls, the domestication of every domesticable animal has preceded the epoch of the chronicle through which the fact is made known to us ; and, still more extraordinary, there are not a dozen quadrupeds and birds that man has tamed, or subdued from a wild to a prolifically-domestic condition, but were already in the latter State at the age when the document acquainting us with the existence, anywhere, of a given domestic animal, was registered. In these new questions of monumental zoology, Greece, Etruria, Rome, Judaea, Hindostan, and Europe, are too modern to require notice ; because none of their earliest historians antedate, while some fall centuries below, Solomon's era, B. C. 1000. Verify, in any lexicons, upon all cases but Jeivish fabled-antiquity, and no ex- ception to this rule will be found sustainable against historical criticism. The monuments of Assyria, whose utmost antiquity may be fixed ^s'' about 1300 b. c, only prove that every tameable animal represented by Chaldseans (single and double bumped camels, elephants, &c., inclusive) was already tamed at the epoch of the sculpture. Egyptian zoology has been cited. Chinese, ^58 (in this respect the only detailed), proves that, in the times of the ancient writer, the domestication of six animals; viz. : the horse, ox, fowl, hog, dog, and sheep — was ascribed to Fou-hi's semi-historical era, about 3400 years before Christ. When Columbus reached this country, a. d. 1492, he found no animals alien to our Ame- rican continent, and none undomesticated that man could tame; and, wheu Pizakro over- turned the Inca-kingdom, the llama had been, for countless ages, a tamed quadruped in Peru. Geoffroi St. Hilaire is one of those authorities seldom controverted by naturalists. These, in substance, are his words : — There ax^ forty species of animals reduced, at this day, to a state of domestication. Of these, thirty-five are now cosmopolitan, as the horse, dog, ox, pig, sheep and goat. The other five have remained in the region of their origin, like the llama and the alpaca on the plateaux of Bolivia and Peru ; or have been transplanted only to those countries which most approximate to their original habitats in climatic conditions ; as the Tongousian rein- deer at St. Petersburg. Out of the thirty-five domesticated species possessed by Europe, thirty-one originate in Central Asia, Europe, and North Africa. Only four species have been contributed by the two Americas, Central and Southern Africa, Australia and Poly- nesia ; although these portions of the globe contain the major number of our zoological types. In consequence, the great bulk of tamed animals in Europe are of exotic origin. Hardly any are derived from countries colder than France: on the contrary, almost the whole were primitively inhabitants of warmer climates.^sa We thus arrive at the great fact, that the domestication by man of all domestic animals antecedes every history extant ; and, measured chronologically by Egypt's pyramids, most of these animals were already domesticated thirty-five centuries B. c, or over 5300 years ago. Indeed, the first step of primordial man towards civilization must have been the sub- jection of animals susceptible of domesticity ; and, it seems probable, that the dog became the first instrument for the subjugation of other genera. And, while these preliminary advances of incipient man demand epochas so far remote as to be inappreciable by ciphers, on the other hand it is equally astounding, that modern civilization has scarcely reclaimed from the savage state even half-a-dozen more animals than were already domesticated .ii every point of our globe when history dawns. 414 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. Consequently, inasmuch as all tliese domestications, together with the perfecting of those arts and sciences that enabled-king Cheops to build the Great Pyramid, occupied Egyptian humanity unnumbered ages before the IVth dynasty, or prior to b. c. 3400, we may well consider that the earliest monuments of Egypt represent but the " middle ages" of humanity, and not mankind's commencements. — G. R. G.] There was, then, a time before all history. During that blank period, man taught himself to write; and until he had recorded his thoughts and events in sonne form of writing — hieroglyphics, to wit — his existence prior to that act, if otherwise certain, is altogether unattainable by us, save through induction. The historical vicissi- tudes of each human t3^pe are, therefore, unknown to us until the age of written record began in each geographical centre. Of these documentarj' annals some go back 5300 years, others extend but to a few hundreds. Anatomy., however, possesses its own laws indepen- dently of history; and to its applications the present chapter is devoted. A minute and extended anatomical comparison of races, in their whole structure, would afford many curious results ; but such detail does not comport with the plan of this work, and w^ould be fatiguing to any but the professed anatomist. It is indispensable, however, that we should enter somewhat fully into a comparison of crania ; and it may be safely assumed, as a general law, that where important pecu- liarities exist in crania, others equally tangible belong to the same organism. While engaged on this chapter, I had the good fortune to welcome Prof. Agassiz in Mo- bile, where he lectured on the "Geographical Distribution of Animals," &c. The instruc- tion derived from his lectures and private conversation on these themes, I here take occa- sion to acknowledge. Prof. Agassiz's researches in embryology possess most important bearings on the natural history of mankind. He states, for instance, that, during the foetal state, it is in most cases impossible to distinguish between the species of a genus; but that, after birth, ani- mals, being governed by specific laws, advance each in diverging lines. The dog, wolf, fox, and jackal, for example — the different species of ducks, and even ducks and geese, in the foetal state — cannot be distinguished from each other; but their distinctive characters begin to develop themselves soon after birth. So with the races of men. In the foetal state there is no criterion whereby to distinguish even the Negro's from the Teuton's ana- tomical structure ; but, after birth, they develop their respective characteristics in diver- ging lines, irrespectively of climatic influences. This I conceive to be a most important law ; and it points strongly to specific difference. Why should Negroes, Spaniards, and Anglo-Saxons, at the end often generations (although in the foetal state the same), still diverge at birth, and develop specific characters? Why should the Jews in Malabar, at the end of 1500 years, obey the same law? That they do, undeviatingly, has been already demon- strated in Chapter IV. ; and while this sheet is passing through the press, a letter from my friend Dr. J. Barnard Davis (one of the learned authors of the forthcoming Crania Britan- mca), opportunely substantiates my former statement: — " I find you have come to the same conclusions respecting them [the Jews] as myself. See mg th;vt tiie most striking circumstance adduced in the whole of I'richard's work was that of the chinge of the Jews to black in Cochin and Malabar ; and finding Lawrence to state COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 415 Dr. Claud. Buchanan's evidence altogether on the other side, I was induced to inquire into the matter, and settle where the truth lay. I therefore wrote my friend Mr. Crawfurd, the author of the ' Indian Archipelago' and various other valuable works on the East, who cleared up the my.stery at once. He said, he had often seen the Jews of Malabar serving in the ranks of our Sepoy regiments at Bombay, and that they are as black as the Hindoos of the same country, who are amongst the darkest people of India ; that, although they have preserved the religion of Moses, they have intermixed with the natives of the country extensively, and it is probable, have little Semitic blood in their veins. He says, he knew Dr. CI. Buchanan, who spent his Indian life in the town of CulcuUa, except the single jour- ney in which he saw the Indian Jews and Christians of St. Thomas." Little value can in consequence attach to this worthy churchnian's ethnological authority. Another of the preceding chapters (IX.) demonstrates how the aboriginal Americana present, everywhere over this continent, kindred types of specific character, which they have maintained for thousands of years, and which they would equally maintain in any other country. Prof. Agassiz also asserts, that a peculiar conformation characterizes the brain of an adult Negro. Its development never goes beyond that developed in the Caucasian in boy- hood : and, besides other singularities, it bears, in several particulars, a marked resem- blance to the brain of the orang-outan. The Professor kindly oifered to demonstrate those cerebral characters to me, but I was unable, during his stay at Mobile, to procure the brain of a Negro. Although a Negro-brain was not to be obtained, I took an opportunity of submitting to M. Agassiz two native-African men for comparison ; and he not only confirmed the distinc- tive marks commonly enumerated by anatomists, but added others of no less importance. The peculiarities of the Negro's head and feet are too notorious to require specification ; although, it must be observed, these vary in different African tribes. When examined from behind, the Negro presents several peculiarities ; of which one of the most striking is, the deep depression of the spine, owing to the greater curvature of the ribs. The buttocks are more flattened on the sides than in other races ; and join the posterior part of the thigh almost at a right-angle, instead of a curve. The pelvis is narrower than in the white race; which fact every surgeon accustomed to applying trusses on Negroes will vouch for. In- deed, an agent of Mr. Sherman, a very extensive truss-manufacturer of New Orleans, informs me that the average circumference of adult Negroes round the pelvis is from 26 to 28 inches ; whereas whites measure from 30 to 36. The scapulae are shorter and broader. The muscles have shorter bellies and longer tendons, as is seen in the calf of the leg, the arms, &c. In the Negress, the mammoe are more conical, the areolae much larger, and the abdo- men projects as a hemisphere. Such are some of the more obvious divergences of the Ne- gro from the white types: others are supplied by Hermann Burmeister, Professor of Zoology in the University of Halle, '•6" whose excellent researches in Brazil, during fourteen months (1850-'l), were made upon ample materials. Space limits me to the following extract : — " If we take a profile view of the European face, and sketch its outlines, we shall find that it can be divided by horizontal lines into four equal parts : the first enclosing the crown of the head; the second, the forehead; the third, the nose and ears; and the fourth, the lips and chin. In the antique statues, the perfection of the beauty of which is justly ad- mired, these four parts are exactly equal ; in living individuals slight deviations occur, but in proportion as the formation of the face is more handsome and perfect, these sections approach a mathematical equality. The vertical length of the head to the cheeks is measured by three of these e(iual parts. The larger the face and smaller the head, the more unhand- some they become. It is especially in this deviation from the normal measurement that the human features become coarse and ugly. "In a comparison of the Negro head with this ideal, we get the surprising result that the rule with the former is not the equality of the four parts, but a regular increase in length from 416 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. above downwards. The measurement, made by the help of drawings, showed a very con- siderable difference in the four sections, and an increase of that diff"erence with the age. This latter peculiarity is more significant than the mere inequality between the four parts of the head. All zoologists are aware of the great difference in the formation of the heads of the old and the young orang-outans. The characteristic of both is the large size of the whole face, particularly' the jaw, in comparison with the skull ; in the young orang-outan, the extent of the latter exceeds that of the jaw; in the old it is the reverse, in consequence of a series of large teeth having taken the place of the earlier small ones, which resemble the milk-teeth of man. In fact, in all men, the proportion between the skull and face changes with the maturity of life ; but this change is not so considerable in the European as in the African. I have before me a very exact profile-drawing of a Negro boy, in which I find the total height, from the crown to the chin, four inches; the upper ot the four sections, not quite nine lines; the second, one inch; the third, thirteen lines; the fourth, fourteen and one-quarter lines. The drawing is about three-quarters of the natui'al size ; and, accordingly, these numbers should be proportionately increased. The strongly-marked head of an adult Caffre, a cast of which is in the Berlin Museum, shows a much greater difference in its proportions. I have an exact drawing of it, reduced to two- thirds of the natural size, and I find the various sections as follows: — the first is 11 lines; the second, 13; the third, 15; and the fourth, 18 lines. This would give, for a full-sized head of 7f inches, 15| lines for the crown; 19J for the forehead: 22J for the part includ- ing the nose ; and 27 lines for that of the jaws and teeth. In a normal European head, the height of which is supposed to be S^, each part generally measures 2 inches, while the remaining J may be variously distributed, in fractions, throughout Ihe whole. " Any difference of measurement in the European seldom surpasses a few lines, at the most: it is impossible to find a case of natural formation where the difiFerence between the parts of the head amounts, as in the Caffre, to one inch. I would not assert, that this enormous difference is a law in the Negro race. I grant, that the Caffre has the Negro type in its excessive degree, and cannot, therefore, be taken as a model of the whole Afri- can race. But, if the normal difference only amounts to half that indicated, it still remains so much larger than in the European, as to be a very significant mark of distinction between the races, and an important point in the settlement of the question of their comparative mental faculties. " The peculiar expression of the Negro phj-siognomy depends upon this difference be- tween the four sections. The narrow, flat crown ; the low, slanting forehead ; the projec- tion of the upper edges of the orbit of the eye : the short, flat, and, at the lower part, broad nose ; the prominent, but slightly turned-up lips, which are more thick than curved ; the broad, retreating chin, and the peculiarly small eyes, in which so little of the white eyeball can be seen ; the very small, thick ears, which stand off from the head ; the short, crisp,. woolly hair, and the black color of the skin — are the most marked peculiarities of the Ne- gro head and face. On a close examination of the Negro races, similar differences will be found among them, as among Europeans. The western Africans, from Guinea to Congo, have very short, turned-up lips. They are ordinarily very ugly, and represent the purest Negro type. The southern races, which inhabit Loanda and Benguela, have a longer nose, with its bridge more elevated and its wings contracted ; they have, however, the full lips, while their hair is somewhat thicker. Some of the individuals of these races have tolerably good, agreeable faces. A peculiar arch of the forehead, above its middle, is common among thein. " In the eastern part of Southern Africa, the natives have, instead of the concave bridge of the nose, one more or less convex, and very thick, flat lips, not at all turned-up. The Negroes of the East are commonly more light-colored than those of the West; their color lends rather to brown than to black, and the wings of their noses are thinner. The people of Mozambique are the chief representatives of this race — the Caffres also belong to it. Thfc nose of the Caffre is shorter and broader than that of the othei-s, but it has the convex '•»-idge. The short, curly hair shows no essential deviation. The dark, brownish-black COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 417 eyeball, which is hanlly ilistiniruishable from the pupil, remains constant. The white of the eye has in all Negroes a yellowish tinge. The lips are always brown, never red-colored ; they hardly differ in color from the skin in tlie neighborhood ; towards the interior edges, however, they become lighter, and assume the dark-red flesh-color of the inside of the mouth. The teeth are very strong, and are of a glistening whiteness. The tongue is of a large size, and remarkable in thickness. The ear, in conformity with the nose, is surpris- ingly small, and is very unlike the large, flat ear of the ape. In all Negroes, the external border of the ear is very much curved, especially behind, which is quite different in the ape. This curvature of the ear is a marked peculiarity of the human .species. The ear-lobe is very small, although the whole ear is exceedingly fleshy. " The small ear of the Negro cannot, however, be called handsome; its substance is too thick for its size. The whole ear gives the impression of an organ that is stunted in its growth, and its upper part stands ofl' to a great distance from the head." It may be objected against perfect exactitude in the above minutiae, that races run insensibly into each other; but I contend, on the other hand, that gradation is the hiw, as illustrated in our Chapter VI. Looking for a point of departure, in this brief anatomical compari- son of types, one naturally turns to Egj-pt, where the most ancient and satisfactory materials are found : there lie not only the embalmed bodies of many races, deposited in catacombs several thousand years old, but all anatomical fjxcts deducible ii'om these are confirmed by those characteristic portraits of races, on the monuments, with which our volume abounds. And here it is, that homage is more especially due to our great countryman, Morton, whose Crania Americana and Crania ^gyj^tiaca created eras in anthropology. His acumen, in this department of science, is admitted by those who have studied his works; for, beyond all other anatomists, he enjoyed the advantage of possessing, in several departments, the most complete assortment of skulls in the world. His collections of American and Egyptian crania, especially, are copi- ous, and of singular interest. In 1844, Dr. Morton had received "137 human crania, of which 100 pertain to the ancient inhabitants of Egypt." *®^ Seventeen additional of the latter reached his cabinet in the same year;^®^ the more inte- resting as they were taken from tombs opened by Lepsius around the pyramids of the IVth dynasty ; and, in some instances, may have been coeval with those early sepulchres. Through the enthusiastic cooperation of his many friends, about twenty -three more mummied heads "^ were added by 1851 : so that his studies were matured over the crania of some 140 ancient, compared with 37 skulls of modern Egyptian races. Such facilities are as unexamjiled as the analytical labor bestowed upon them l)y the lamented Doctor was conscien- tiously severe. Possessors of his works, correspondence, and inodited manuscripts, my colleague and myself can now .'^peak unhesitatingly upon Morton's testamentary views. 58 418 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. Morton very judiciously remau'ked, that the Egyptian catacombs do not always contain their original occupants ; for these were often dis- placed, and the tombs resold for mercenary purposes: whence it hap- pens that mummies of the Greek and Roman epochas have been found in those more ancient receptacles, which had received the bodies of Egyptian citizens of a far earlier date. This I conceive to constitute one of the greatest obstacles to investigation, for, save in four very probable instances, there is no positive evidence that h? possessed a single mummy-head beyond the tenth centur}' b. c. , although there are tombs that date more than 2000 years earlier, to which some of the Doctor's specimens doubtless belong, even if the proof be defective. We have shown through the portraits on the monuments that the population of Egypt was already a very mixed one in the IVth dy- nasty ; M^hich Lepsius places at 3400 b. c. Dr. Morton confirms this conclusion by his anatomical comparisons. In the Crania ^gyptiaca he referred his series of Egyptian skulls to " two of the great races of men, the Caucasian and the Negro : " subdividing the Caucasian class into three principal types, viz. : the Pelasgic, the Semitic, and the Egyptian. Referring to his work for specification of the others, I confine my observations to the last. " The Egyptian form (says Dr. Morton) differs from the Pelasgic in having a narrow and more receding forehead, while the face being more prominent, the facial angle is conse- quently less. The nose is straight or aquiline, the face angular, the features often sharp, and the hair uniformly long, soft, and curling. In this series of crania I include many of which the conformation is not appreciably different from that of the Arab and Hindoo ; but I have not, as a rule, attempted to note these distinctions, although they are so marked as to have induced me, in the early stage of this investigation and for reasons which will ap- pear in the sequel, to group them, together with the proper Egyptian form, under the pro- visional name of Austral- Egijptian crania. I now, however, propose to restrict the latter term to those Caucasian communities which inhabited the Nilotic valley above Egypt. Among the Caucasian crania are some which appear to blend the Egyptian and Pelasgic characters ; these might be called the Egyplo-Pelasgic heads ; but without making use of this term, except in a very few instances by way of illustration, I have thought best to transfer these examples from the Pelasgic group to the Egyptian, inasmuch as they so far sonform to the latter series as to be identified without difficulty." ts* On reading over this classification several comments strike me as worthy of utterance. .1st. Tiiat, out of 100 crania presented in a tabular shape [op. cit. p. 19), only 49 are of the Egyptian form, while 29 are of the Pelasgic or foreign type ; and of the crania from MpTiphis, ascertained to be the oldest necropolis, the Pelasgic prevail over the Egyptian in the proportion of 16 to 7. Those of Thebes are 30 Egyptian to 10 Pelasgic. This proves that the Egyptian population, if such classification be correct, was an exceedingly mixed one. 2d. Tlie Semitic was, at all times, a type distinctly marked; and diverse both from the Pelasgic and the Egyptian, as our previous cliapters illustrate. ?(\. Hence, the conclusion is natural, that the earliest population of Egypt was a native Africah one, resembling closely Upper Egyptian Fellahs, and assimilating to the Nubian COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 419 (Berber) population : that this stock soon became intermingled with Arab and other Asiatic races of Semitic and Pelasgic type. Therefore, little confidence can be reposed upon any very minute classification of such a mixed people. Of craniological ability to distinguish a pure Pelasgic, Semitic, or African head, as a general rule, I do not doubt ; but blended types must ever present difiiculties. It is enough to know that we possess portraits of Pelasgic, Semitic and Egyptian types ; and that the truthfulness of these portraits is attested by the crania of the catacombs. With all his acuteness and experience in craniology, it is clear that Dr. Morton felt himself much emharrassed in making this classifica- tion. He has several times modified it in his different published papers ; and it is seen above, that in his Egyptian form of crania, he " includes many of which the conformation is not appreciably diife- rent from that of the Arab and Hindoo." To exemplify how much caution is necessary in classifications of this kind, it may be proper to refer to Morton's earlier opinion, that the Aus:tral-Egyptians were greatly mixed with Hindoos, whose crania he thinks he can designate ; adding, " That there was extensive and long-continued intercourse between the Hindoos and Egyptians is beyond a question," &e. Now, so great has been the advance of knowledge within the last five years, that, were Dr. Morton now alive, euch doctrine would no longer be advocated by him ; because it is generally conceded by Egyptologists — our best authorities — that facts are opposed to any such intercourse, until after the Persian invasion, B. c. 525. D)'. Morton classified the crania procured (1838-'40) from each locality for his cabinet by my colleague Mr. Gliddon (then our Con- sul at Cairo), into the following series : — First Series, from the ^temphite Necropolis : A. Pyramid of Five Steps 2 skulls. B. Saccara, generally , 11 " C. Front of the Brick Pyramid of Dashour 3 " D. North-west of Pyramid of Five Steps 9 " E. Toora (quarries) on the Nile 1 " Second Series, from Grottoes of Maabdch 4 " Third " " Abydos 4 " Fourth " " the Catacombs of Thebes 55 " Fifth " «« Koum Ombos 3 " Sixth " " the Island of Beggeh, near Phil* 4 " Seventh " " Debod, in Nubia 4 " On the first series, Morton remarks; — "A mere glance at this group of skulls will satisfy any one accustomed to comparisons of this kind, that most of them possess the Cau- casian traits in a most striking and unequivocal manner, whether we regard their form, size, or facial angle. It is, in fact, questionable whether a greater proportion of beauti- fully moulded heads would be found among an equal number of individuals taken at random from any existing European nation. The entire series consists of sixteen examples of the Pelasgic. and seven of the Egyptian form ; a single Semitic head, one of the Negroid variety and one of mixea conformation. Of the antiquity of these remains there jau le no 4ues- tion," &c. 420 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES, Reasons are then adduced for assigning a high antiquity to some of these heads, and, as relates to Mosaic contemporaneousness, they are certainly substantial ; but still, science ia very exacting ; and I doubt that many more than the following can ascend to times an- terior to the Hyksos period, say not earlier than b. c. 2000. Excluding vi\\ hitumenized skulls, which. Birch has established ^65 cannot be older than Eg;\'ptian conquests of Assyria, sixteenth century before Christ, the question stands open in favor of four : viz. — C. — Three from the front of the Brick Pyramid of Dashour. Being in woollen wrappers, and desiccated rather than embalmed, they correspond with the human fr.agnieiits found in the Third Pyramid, which, by Bunsen,*^^ are attributed to King Menkcra. These may be of the Old Empire. E. — One from Toora, on the Nile. There are grounds for supposing that the rectangular sarcophagi, at this locality, contained the bodies of quarry-men who cut stones for the pyramids. Another criterion, in behalf of antiquity for these four crania, is the great diminution of animal matter; but, with regard to all the rest, probabilities militate against an age be- yond the New Empire ; and they range, consequently, from the sixteenth century before Christ downwards. Besides the want of any positive data for the remainder, we have the fact stated by Morton; that the great majority of them do not correspond with the Egyptian type in form, size, or facial angle ; as will be explained when I speak of the Internal Capacity of Crania. Fir,. 252. One head (Fig. 252), with Dr. Morton's com- mentary, will explain his idea of the Egyptian type. " The subjoined wood-cut illustrates a remarkable head, which m.ay serve as a type of the genuine Egyptian confor- mation. The long, oval cra- nium, the receding forehead, gently aquiline nose, and re- tracted chin, together with the marked distance between the nose and mouth, and the long, smooth hair, are all character- istic of the monumental Egyp- tian." The Crania ^gyptiaca^^'' here presents an "Ethnographic Table of 100 Ancient Egyptian Crania," arranged in the first place, accord- ing to their sepulcln-al localities; and, in the second, in reference to •their national affinities — hut, while preserving the subjoined com- ments, I prefer the substitution (overleaf) of a later and more extended synopsis. '* The preceding table speaks for itself. It shows that more than eight-tenths of the crania pertain to the unmixed Caucasian race ; that the Pelasgic form is as one to one and iwo-thirds, and the Semitic form one to eight, compared with the Egyptian ; that one- COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 421 twentieth of the whole is composed of heads in whicii there exists a trace of Negro and other exotic lineage ; that the Negroid conformation exists in eight instances, thus constituting about one-thirteenth part of the whole; and finally, that the series contains a single un- mixed Negro." [^Vide, ante, p. 2G7, Fig. 193 — the Negress.^ I have already mentioned, that, subsequently to the appearance of the Crania JEgifptiaca, a second lot of antique skulls arrived frora Egypt. They had been collected by Mr. Wm. A. Gliddon, from some of the Memphite tombs opened by the Prussian Mission, in 1842-'3 ; and, although these heads may be a secondar^^ or tertiary deposit in these sepulchres, which contained fragments of cotHns and cerements as late as the Ptolemaic period, yet among them, as Morton has well observed [supra, pp. 318, 319], there are, v^ery probably, some speci- mens of the olden time. Mr. W. A. G. took the precaution to mark, upon those skulls identifiable as to locality, the cartouches of the kings to whose reigns the tombs belonged ; and the hoaiy names of AssA, S/iORE, and Akiu {Herakuy^ carry us back to the IVth and Vlth dynasties, or about 3000 years before Christ. The reader may be gratified to peruse a condensation of Morton's digest (October, 1844) of their craniological attributes ; and I have the more pleasure in reproducing his words, as they may be unknown or inaccessible to the majority of ethnologists. " The following is an ethnographic analysis of this series of crania : — Egyptian form 11 Egyptian form, with traces of Negro lineage 2 Negroid form 1 Pelasgic form 2 Semitic form 1 17 " Remarks. — 1. The Egyptian form is admirably characterized in eleven of these heads, and corresponds in every particular with the Nilotic physiognomy, as indicated by monu- mental and sepulchral evidences in my Crania Mgypiiaca ; viz., the small, long, and nar- row head, with a somewhat receding forehead, narrow and rather projecting face, and deli- cacy of the whole osteological structure. No hair remains, and the bony meatus of the car corresponds with that of all other Caucasian nations. "Two other l\eads pi-esent some mixture of Negro lineage with the Egyptian. . . . " Of these thirteen crania, eleven are adult, of which the largest has an internal capacity of 93 cubic inches, and the smallest 76 — giving a mean of 86 cubic inches for the size of the brain. This measurement exceeds, by only three cubic inches, the average derived from the entire series of Egyptian heads in my Crania ^gyptiaca. " The facial angle of the adult heads gives a mean of 82° ; the largest rising as high as 86°, and the smallest being 78°. Two other heads are those of children, in whom the Egyp- tian conformation is perfect, and these give, respectivcdy, tlie large facial angle of 89° and 91°. The mean adult angle is greater than that given by the large series measured in the Crania JEgyptiaca. . . . '* 2. The Negroid head, as I have elsewhere explained, is a mixture of the Caucasian and Negro form, in which the \si\XQr predominates. . . . This head strongly resembles those of two modern Copts in my possession. It gives 81 cubic inches for the size of the brain, and » facial angle of 80°. . . . i22 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. " Of two Pelasgic heads, one is perfect, and well characterized in most of its proportions It has an internal capacity of 93 cubic inches, and a facial angle of 80°. . . . " The solitary Semitic head has rather the common Arab than the Hebrew cast of features. It measures internally 87 cubic inches, and has a facial angle of 79°. " The ages of the individuals to whom these seventeen skulls pertained may be proxi- mately stated as follows: 5, 7, 18, 20, 20, 25, 30, 40, 40, 40, 50, 50, 50, 50, 50, 50, 55." " The result derived from this series of crania sustain, in a most gratifying manner, those obtained from the greater collection of 100 skulls sent me from Egypt, by my friend Mr. G. R. Gliddon, and which have alForded the materials of my Crania JEgypiiaca; and, without making further comparisons on the present occasion (for I design from time to time to resume the subject, as facts and materials may come to my hands), I shall merely subjoin my Ethnographic Table from the Crania ^gyptiaca, so extended as to embrace all the ancient Egyptian skulls now in my possession. Ethnographic Table of one hundred and seventeen Ancient Egyptian Crania. Sepulchral Localities. No. Egypt'n. Pelasgic. Semitic. Mixed. Negroid. Negro. Idiot. 26 17 4 4 55 3 4 4 7 11 1 2 30 3 2 4 16 2 1 1 10 "i 1 1 i 4 1 2 4 1 1 2 "5 "i 2 Ghizeh Maabdeh Thebes Onibos Phila? Debod I 1 117 60 31 7 7 9 1 2 Internal Capacity of the Cranium. The part of Dr. Morton's work bearing this superscription, 1 re- gard as one of his most valuable contributions to science, and it demands a close examination. "As this measurement," says he, "gives the size of the brain, I have obtained it in all the crania above sixteen years of age, unless prevented by fractures or the presence of bitumen within the skulls; and this investigation has confirmed the proverbial fact of the general smallness of the Egyptian head, at least as observed in the catacombs south of Mem- phis. Thus, the Pelasgic crania, from the latter city, give an average internal capacity of 89 cubic inches ; those from the same group from Thebes, give 86. This result is some- what below the average of the existing Caucasian nations of the Pelasgic, Germanic, and Celtic families, in which I find the brain to be about 93 cubic inches in bulk. It is also interesting to observe that the Pelasgic brain is much larger than the Egyptian, which last gives an average of but 80 cubic inches ; thus, as we shall hereafter see, approximating to that of the Indo- Arabian nations." 469 " The largest head in the series measures ninety-seven cubic inches: this occurs three times, and always in the Pelasgic group. The smallest cranium gives but sixty-eight cubic inches; and this is three times repeated in the Egyptian heads from Thebes. This last is the smallest cranium I have met with in any nation, witli three exceptions — a Hindoo, a Peruvian, and a Negro." Morton then reduces his measurements of 100 ancient Egyptian crania into the subjoined tabular form :- — COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 42a Ethnographic Division. PsLASoio Form.... Semitic Form. Egyptian Form ... - Negroid Form. Negro Locality. Memphis Ahyiios .. Tliebes .. PhiliB.... Memphis Abydos .. Thebes .. Memphis Abydos .. Thebes .. Ombos... Debod.... Maabdeh Thebes .. Philse.... Number of Cruuia. Largest Brain. 14 1 25 2 3 1 5 97 8'.) 92 74 69 85 83 96 95 77 71 73 Smallest liruin. 79 89 82 74 88 69 79 85 68 68 70 71 71 89 89 86 74 88 69 79 79 90 80 73 71 81 J - An examination of this table again brings to view the fact that the Pelasgic heads (which are foreign to Egypt, and possibly belonging to some of the so-called Hykshos,) predominate at Memphis ; the point which invaders from Asia wonld first reach, and where they would be most likely to settle in ancient, no less than in present, times. The Pelasgic are here as 14 to 7, compared with the Egyp- tian form. [Thus, Cidro, on the eastern bank, has but replaced Memphis on the western ; at the eame time that Tanis {Zoan), Bubastis {Pibeseth), and Heliopolis {On), owing to their proxi- mity to the Isthmus of Suez, ever thronged with Asiatic foreigners. Here too, after the pyramidal period and the Xllth dynasty, was the land of Goshen — also, the shephtrd- capital, Avaris ; the frontier province whence issued, with Israel's host, that GouM-aRaB (exactly the same as Goum-el-Arab), " Arab-levy," 'i™ mistranslated "mixed multitude;" and the scene of incessant Arabian relations, from Necho's canal down to Omar's, from the wars of Sesostris down to Mohammed- All's. In Coptic times this eastern province, now the Sherqleyeh, was the Tarabia (the-Araby) ; in Sai-acenic, the Khaiif; i~' and iiere, at thid day, the modern Fellahs are almost pure Arabs. — G. R. G.] At Thebes, higher up the river, the reverse is observed ; the Egyp- tian form prevails over the Pelasgic in the proportion of 25 to 5. It is evident, also, that the size of the brain in the Pelasgic heads is much greater than that of the Egyptian type ; and at Ombos, and Debod in Nubia, the crania are still much smaller than those of the Egyptians. Such facts afford much plausibility to the idea, tliat the Pelasgic, as Dr. Morton terms them, or at least some large-beaded suDerior race, had come into Egypt across the Isthmus of Suez, ha«i 424 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. taken possession of the country, and probably drove multitudes of the native Egyptians before their invading swarms. These Pelasgic heads, as before stated, resemble greatly the population of ancient Hellas, of the heroic age ; and instead of migrating to Greece from Egypt in ancient times, similar tribes may have branched off from tlieir original abode in Asia direct to the Peloponnesus. The latter view is strengthened by the fact that, in Greece, there are no traces of JSTilotic customs, hieroglyphic writing, style of art, &c. ; which would have been the case had that country been colonized by Egyptians. These anatomical deductions, then, establish conclusively that, in proportion as we ascend the Nile through Middle Egypt, the Asia ic elements of the ancient crania diminish, to become replaced, after pass- ing Thebes, by others in which African comminglings are conspicuous. Craniology, therefore, testifies to the accuracy of Lepsius's opinion, that the Hyksos invasion forced a large body of the Egyptians to emigrate to, and sojourn for a long period in, the Nubias.^'^ One grand difiiculty, however, still remains with regard to the origin of the Egy2Jtian type, as formerly understood, but since dis- avowed, by Morton. Thousands of paintings and sculptures on the monuments prove that ancient Egyptian faces often present a strong resemblance to the Grecian profile ; but, according to the preceding table, there is a difference of eight cubic inches in the size of the crania of the two races ! Were not the Egyptians, then, such as are represented on the monuments of the XVIIth and succeeding dynas- ties, a mixed Pelasgic and African race ? To the authors of this volume, in common with Morton's amended views, as before and finally set forth {supra, p. 245], the Egyptians had been once an aboriginally-Nilotic stock, pure and simple ; upon which, in after times, Semitic, Pelasgic and Nubian elements became engrafted. Our comments on monumental iconography [Chapters IV., V., Vn., YIIL] have demonstrated that almost every type of mankind, of northwestern Asia, northern Africa, with some of southern Europe, is portrayed so faithfully, as to leave no doubt of the primi- tive existence of distinct races ; some of which we are enabled to date back to the IVth dynast3% or 3400 years b. c. But it has been objected that the drawing of the Egyptians was imperfect or conven- tional, and therefore not to be relied upon. Such assertions, if again obtruded at the present day, would merely argue small acquaintance with the laws of Egyptian art;"^ because, however false may be the canonical position given to the ear, however defective the non-foi'e- cjhortening of the eye, I defy Benvenuto Cellini himself to carve COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 425 profiles more etlmoloii-ioally-oxact than those bas-relief effigies we possess, in myriads, from the IVth down to the XXIId dynasties. But, I proceed to give copies of various crania from the catacombs ; which most triumphantly coiiHrm all preceding asseverations concern- ing the accuracy of tliese Egyptian portrait-painters. The materials are drawn mainly from the collection of Morton, which I have ex- amined carefully for myself. These heads, too, having been obtained in Egypt, direct from the tombs, by one of the authors of this volume, I can speak authoritatively, because all attendant circumstances are known to me. "A large, elongate-oval head (Fig. 253), with a broad, high forehead, low coronal re- gion, and strongly aquiline nose. The orbits nearly round ; teeth perfect and vertical. Internal capacity 97 cubic inches; facial angle 77°. Pelasgic form." ^''^ FiQ. 253. Fig. 254. "A beautifully-formed head (Fig. 254), with a forehead, high, full, and nearly vertical, a good coronal region, and largely-developed occiput. The nasal bones are long and straight, and the whole facial structure delicately proportioned. Age between 30 and 35 years. Internal capacity 88 cubic inches ; facial angle 81°. Pelasgic form." *"5 "Skull of a woman of twenty years (Fig. 255)? with a beautifully-developed forehead, and remark- ably thin and delicate structure throughout. The frontal suture remains. Internal capacity 82 cubic inches; facial angle 80°. Pelasgic form." ^"^ " Head of a woman (Fig. 256) of thirty, of a faultless Cauca- sian mould. The hair, which is in profusion, is of a dark-browM tint, and delicately curled. P dang ic form , from Thebes. The following series (Figs. 257, 258, 259, 260, 261), illustrates the Egyptian furm. ."..I. Fig. 256.177 Fig. 257.178 i26 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. Fig. 258.^79 Fig. 2.59.'1S0 Fig. 260.481 Fig. 261.482 Fig. 262. " An elongated head, with a broad, receding forehead, gently aqui- line nose, and retract- ed chin, together with the marked distance between the nose and mouth, and the long, smooth hair, are all characteristics of the monumental Egyp- tian." Of the Semitie form, foregoing chapters have supplied many portraits. One, out of numerous mummied cra- nia, will suffice to illustrate its existence in the sepulchres of Egypt. «' This head " (Fig. 262), says Morton, " possesses great interest, on account of its decided Hebrew fea- tures, of which many examples are extant on the monuments" of Egypt; and we have already com- pared it with those of Assyria \_supra, p. 116.] " The colossal head" from Nineveh proclaimed the existence of a higher order of Chaldaic type upon Assyrian sculptures. The reader will be grati- fied to observe how faithfully ancient Chaldsea's tombs testify to the exacti- tude of her iconographic monuments ; at the same time, he will per- ceive how art and nature conjointly establish the precision of modern anatomy's deductions. The following sketch (Figs. 263 and 264) is a faithful reduction of an Assyrian skull, recently exhumed by Dr. Layard, from one of the ancient mounds, and now deposited in the British Museum. Its fac-simile drawing has just been most kindly sent me from Eng- land, by Mr. J. B. Davis, F. S. A., one of the authors of the Crania Britaiuiica (a great work, which is shortly to be published). I have no history of the skull, beyond the facta above stated ; but it is believed to be the representative of un ancient Assyrian. Speaking of the drawings, Mr. Davis says in his letter to me, "they are of the exact size of nature, and very faithful representations of the cranium." It is much to be regretted that we have as yet no series of ancient skulls from Nineveh and Babylon, as they would throw great light upon the early connection between the raceg of Egypt and Assyria. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES, 427 Ancient Assyrian. Fio. 264. This skull i3 very interesting in several Fia. 263. points of view. Its immense size confirms history by showing that none but a high "Caucasian" race could have achieved so much greatness. The measurements taken from the drawing are — Longitudinal diameter, 7| inches. Transverse " 5| " Vertical '« 5|^ " It is probable that the parietal diameter is larger than the measurement here given ; be- cause, possessor of only front and profile views, I think these may not express fairly the poste- rior parts of the head. There are but two heads in Morton's whole Egyptian series of equal size, and these are " Pelasgic ; " nor more than two equally large throughout his Ame- rican series. Daniel Webster's head measured — longitudinal diameter, 7^ inches; trans- verse, 5| ; vertical, 5i : and comparison will show that the Assyi-ian head is but a frac- tion the smaller of the two. This Assyrian head, moreover, is remark- able for its close resemblance to several of Morton's Egyptian series, classed under the " Pelasgic form." It thus adds another pow- erful confiini:ition to the fact this volume establishes, viz., that the Egyptians, at all monumental times, were a mixed people, and in all historical ages were much amalgamated with Chaldaic races. Any one familiar with crania, who will compare this Assyrian head with the beautiful Egyptian series lithographed in the Cratiia Ji^gypiiaca, cannot fail to be struck with its resemblance to many of the latter, even more forcibly than anatomists will, through our small, if accurate, wood-cuts. To vary these illustrations, while confirming the deductions already drawn, I borrow two admirablj-preserved heads (Figs. 2G5 and 2G6) Fig. 265. Fig. 266. 428 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. from Champollion-Figeac/^^ who has reduced them from the folio- phites of Napoleon's Descriptiori de VEgypte. Fig. 266 yields the per- fect Egyptian type. From the mummy itself, now possessed by the University of Louisi- ana, at New Orleans, (and which I have personally scrutinized,) I present the most valuable specimen among all known to me ; inas- much as it is one of the extremely rare instances where the date of a deceased Egyptian can be positively determined by documentary evidence. Fig. 267. Portrait (Fig. 267) of the Mummy of Got-thothi-aunkh, " Chief of the Artificers," who died in the ' ' Yeai* X. " of the reign of OsoRKON III. A man be- tween thirty and forty years of age, who was alive in the year B. c. 900 ; or, before a single stone yet discovered at ancient Babylon was inscribed with cu- neatic characters. Here is the history of its transmission to this country : — In 1845, Mr. Gliddon inti- mated, from Paris, to his friend Mr. A. C. Harris, the most in- fluential resident in Egypt, his desire to procure a series of funereal antiquities to illustrate his Lectures in the United States. The letter fortunately overtook iSIr. Harris during one of this gentleman's archae- ological visits at Thebes ; where accident enabled him to obtain one admirable mummy, from the well-known Werda, in perfect condition. It was conveyed in his own yacht to Alex- andria, with a dozen other human mummies collected at Thebes, Abydos, and Memphis, intended for Mr. Gliddon. In 1846, after fruitless eiforts to ship them, four were sequestrated at the Alexandrian Custom-house: Mohammed Ali, since 1835, having forbidden the exportation of Antiquities by any but agents of European powers. 481 An official application, made by the United States' Consul to the Viceroy failed; and, in 1849, these four mummies were found to have perished, through damp, in the Custom-house. Happily, Mr. Harris had preserved the most valuable specimen at his own residence. In 1848, after Mohammed All's superannuation, permission to export Mr. Gliddon's collec- tion was refused by Ibraheem Pasha. On his death, 1849, Mr. Harris's personal claims upon the courtesies of the Government obtained leave from Abbass Pasha ; and the mummy, (with two others divested of their coffins), was forwarded to Liverpool, where the influential complaisance of Messrs. Baring Brothers obtained their transhipment to the United States, free of examination at the Quarantine and Custom-house. At New York, similar facilities were accorded to Mr. R. K. Ilaight ; and, after five years of disappointments, Mr. Gliddon received these specimens in November, 1849. Opened at Boston, June, 1850, in the presence of two thousand persons, bj'Prof. Agassiz, and a committee of sixteen of the leading physicians, these coffins yielded tlie embalmed jorpse of the Theban Priest Got-thotiii-aunkh, (latinici, "Dixit Thoth, vivat! ") who died in the tenth year of King Osorkon III., early in the ninth century b. c, or about 2750 years ago. The amusing equivoque of gender that occurred at its opening received satisfactory COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES, 429 Fia. 2G8. Fia. 269. elucidation in the " Letter from Mr. Gliddon about fehe Papyrus found on the Boston Mum- my," published in the Boston Evening Transcript, August 21st and 22d, 1850. A copy of this article is appended to the mummy, which, with all its documentary cerements, now lies open to inspection at the Anatomical Museum of the Louisiana University. Fac-siinilcs of all the liieroglyphical inscriptions on this mummy were forwarded by Mr. Gliddon to Mr. Bii-ch ; and tlie only material emendation of the former's readings, added by this erudite hicrologist, is, that the legend on the papyrus designates the corpse as that of the " Chief of the Artificers of the abode of Ammon," i. e. Thebes. Submitted, at Philadelphia, to the scientific scrutiny of the late Dr. Morton, this mum- mied body was not only pronounced to be " unequi- vocally identified with the reign of Osorkon IIL, by finding the cartouche or oval of that king stamped, in four ditferent places, on a leather cross, placed dia- gonally on the thorax in front; " but the same autho- rity also declares, " there are 130 embalmed Egyptian heads in the collection of the Academy, but none of them can be even approximately dated ; whence the great interest that attaches itself to the present ex- ample." ^85 And finally, on the 23d of January, 1852, the whole of these archseological facts have been con- firmed, at New Orleans, by the personal investiga- tion of Monsieur J. J. Ampfere, whose opinions in Egyptology are decisive.^se Mr. Gliddon pointed out to me, on this corpse, the only absolute confirmation, he siiys, of Scripture, with which long studies of Egyptian lore have made him personally acquainted. All male mummies comply with the ordinances of Genesis xli. 14 ; and with Gen. xvii. 11 ; Exod. iv. 25 — but GoT-THOTHi's illustrates the accuracy of Eze- kiel's description of an " Egyptian " — xvi. 26 ; and xxiii. 19, 20. These Figs., 268 and 269, are copies of the mummy-cases one is gilt ; but bitumen had obliterated the legends. Inner Shell. Outer Case. The face of the inner That the influx of Asiatics into the Valle^^ of the Nile commenced long before the foundation of the Empire under Menes — that is, prior to b. c. 4000 — there can be no further question ; and that amal- gamations of foreign with the Nile's domestic races commenced at a pre-historie epoch, is now equally certain. Hence it is evident, that it must be often impossible to define some crania of these blended Egyptian races with precision, so great is the intermixture of primi- tive types. The facts however, drawn by Morton from the monu- ments and crania, prove, that the Egyptians-proper possessed small, elongated heads, with receding foreheads, and an average internal capacity of 80 cubic inches. Such view is fortified l)y the resem- blance of this type to the modern native races of Egypt and surround- ing countries ; as the Fellahs, the Bedawees on both sides of the river and in the w^estern oases, tlie Nubians, Berbers, &c. Their skulls have been already figured [suj^ra, pp. 226, 227]. 430 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. African-Negro Crania. Bushman. Fig. 271.488 Our Chapter YIII. has already shown that Negroes are faithfully delineated on the monuments of the XVIIth dynasty, or b. c. 1600 — 1700 ; and that, although we produced no positive Nigritian portraits of earlier date, yet it is conceded Fio. 270.'487 that Negro tribes were abundant, along the Upper Nile, as far back as the Xllth dynasty ; and ergo^ they must have been also contemporary with the earliest settlers of Egypt. Although Negro races present con- siderable variety in their cranial con- formations, yet they all possess cer- tain unmistakeable traits in common, marking them as Negroes, and dis- tinguishing them from all other spe- cies of man. Prognathous jaws, narrow elongated forms, receding foreheads, large posterior develop- ment, small internal capacity, &c., characterize the whole group crani- ologieally. A few examples suffice to give the reader a good idea of their promi- nent characteristics, and will enable him to appreciate cranial distinctions between the varied Negro and other Mozambique. African types. (See Figs. 270-275.) It cannot fail Fig. 273.490 ^^ ^^ noticed that the Caffre and the Ash- antee exhibit far higher con- fo r m ation s than the rest ; in accordance with recent historical Fig. 272. Aslnintee. events. They approach the Foolah "gradation." COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. Fio. 274.401 Fio. 275. «2 431 Creole Negro. Mummied NegreM. Fig. 27fi.'i9» Figure 276 is the portrait of a celebrated Hottentot female, -wliich (seemingly, to Europeans) presents an extraordinary deformity. Some writers affirm that her bump, or hump, is an accidental freak of nature, or a peculiarity resulting from local causes. It is furthermore asserted, that such posterior development cannot be characteristic of any special race. But, while all these expla- nations are nullified by the fact that, around the Cape of Good Hope (and among Hottentot and Bushman races alone) similar retrotnberance is still quite common, it should not be forgotten that the proclivities of exotic Dutch Boors, combined with the action of local aborigines, have already modified the Hottentot and Bushman, and consequently' divested both, to some extent, of their pristine uniformity. Ritter [supra, p. 380] shows that Arabian single, and Bactrian double-humped camels (although distinct "species"), when bred together, produce offspring sometimes with one, at others with two humps; and as the Hottentots are now a very mixed race, why should not the bump, once unde- viatingly characteristic of the good old race, be frequently ab- sent, or else diminished in volume, in the present genera- tion? That the laws governing the phenomena of Nature, if as yet often inscrutable, are nevertheless perdurable, may be exempli- fied, monumentally, even through instances of idiocy or lunacy. Bosellini's plates, com- pared with Egyptian mummied skulls, and examined by the keen eyes of such comparative anatomists as Morton, furnish evidence that the natural deformities of humanity were ap- preciated, thousands of years ago, by Nilotic art ; because the " sagacity of the Egyptian artist has admirably adapted this man's (Fig. 278) vocation to his intellectual developments, for he is employed in stirring the fire ^w 277. in a blacksmith's shop." 494 FiQ. 278. Ilotteutot Venus. Sculptured Fool. Mummied Idiot 432 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. Oceanic Races. Geographers divide our globe into Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Oceanica. This last region has been subjected to many system- atic divisions by different writers ; but M. Jacquiuot's are both simple and comprehensive : — " 1. Australia — embraces New Holland, and Tasmania or Van Diemen's Land. "2. Polynesia — all the islands of the Pacific Ocean, from the west coast of America to the Philippines, and the Moluccas ; comprising what have been termed Micronesia and Melanesia. " 3. Malaysia, or East Indies — Indian Archipelago ; containing the Sunda, Philippine and Molucca Islands." The three divisions together are termed Oceanica ; and the races of men distributed over this vast area present an infinite diversity of types, which have also been variously clas- sified. Prichard very justly remarks that these Oceanic types differ so much among each other, and from the inhabitants of the Old and New World, that it is now impossible to trace their origin. 495 [Ethnographic knowledge of the whole of them does not antedate the sixteenth century. Thus, the existence of Malay tribes was unknown to Europe before their discovery by Lopez de Sequeira, in a. d. 1510, followed by Albuquerque about 1513. Micronesians were first seen by Ferdinand Magelhaens in 1520; Polynesians by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in 1543, and by Alvaro de Mendana in 1595: while Abel Jansen Tasman, in 1642-8, sailed around Van Diemen's Land, seeing " no people, but some smoaks," and afterwards had some of his men killed by natives of New Ze.aland — which seems to be the first historic notice of .4ms- tralian families. When we recollect that the second "voyage around the world" was not undertaken by Francis Drake before the year 1557,496 it will be comprehended at once how very recent is the information which ethnology possesses of Malayan, Polynesian, and Australian types; whose separate existence, nevertheless, must be as ancient as that of the animals and plants of their respective provinces of creation. — G. R. G.] As every classification of these races is wholly arbitrary, and inas- mu'ch as any attempts at emendation would here be futile, I shall merely select for illustration a few of their more prominent types. We have shown, from the monuments of Egypt and other sources, that various distinct races of men stood, face to face, 5000 3-ears ago, and that no physical causes have since transformed one type into an- other. We may, therefore, reasonably assume that these Oceanic races have ever been contemporary with others elsewhere, and were created where originally found by modern navigators. There is a more or less intimate connection, it is said, among most of the Polynesian tongues; but the Australian, whose type is altogether peculiar, Prichard declares, "is the only one whose language is kno vn to be distinct." Australians, Australia comprises such inimense superficies as to deserve the name of a continent ; and, consequently, its inhabitants present considerable diversity of types. This is inferred from tlie contradictory accounts of travellers, who have described them at different geographical points. It ^hduld be remarked, that the natives of Australia, Van Diemen's Land, New (Juim-ji, jiiiil Mime other of these islands, although differing in many particulars, are all 80 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES, 40 06 black in complexion sis to liave been termed Oceanic Keffrocs. Tliey partake of the cranial conformation of African Negroes; displaying, like them, narrow, elongated heads, defective foreheads, small internal capacity, projecting jaws, &c. Capt. Wilkes, commander of the late U. S. Exploring Expedition, thus describes them : — " The natives of Australia differ from any other race of men in features, complexion habits, and language. Their color and features assimilate them to the African type : their long, black, silky hair has a resemblance to the Malays. The natives are of middle height, perhaps a little above it ; they are slender in make, with long arms and legs. The cast of the face is between the African and the Malay ; the forehead unusually narrow and high ; the eyes small, black, and deep-set ; the nose much depressed at the upper part, between the eyes, and widened at the base, which is done in infancy by the mother, the natural shape being of an aquiline form ; the cheek-bones are high, the mouth large, and furnished with strong, well-set teeth ; the chin frequently retreats ; the neck is thin and short. The color usually approaches a deep umber, or reddish-black, varying much in shade ; and in- dividuals of pure blood are sometimes as light-colored as mulattoes. Their most striking distinction is their hair, which is like that of dark-haired Europeans, although more silky. It is fine, disposed to curl, and gives them a totally different aspect from the .A.f'rican, and also from the Malay and American Indian. Most of them have thick beards and whiskers, and they are more hairy than the whites." Jacquinot, of the French Exploring Expedition, gives a very similar description, except that " leur couleur etait d'un noir fuUgineux assez intense." ^^ M. DB Freycinet, who passed considerable time at different points of the country, de- scribes these tribes in the same manner. He says: "The people everywhere assimilate. Their color varies from intense black to reddish black. Their hair is invariably black and smooth, though undulating, and never has the woolly appearance seen in other races." ^98 Fig. 279.499 Fio. 280.500 Anstralian. Australian, Fig. 281. sui " This man (Fig. 279), whose name was Durabub, was killed in a fray, after having him- self killed two savages of a hostile tribe, a. d. 1841. His skull (adds Morton) is the nearest approach to the orang type that I have seen. /Etat. 40. I.e. 81." Fig. 281 is from la Bale Raffle, coast of New Holland ; taken from the Atlas of Du- moutier. 55 Native of New Holland. Natire of the Island of Timor. 434 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES, Fig. 282 — "Natif d'Amnoubang, He Timor." To these heads from New Holland and the Island of Timor many others might be added, from the various works on the Physical History of Mankind. Our series, however, supplies fair specimens of these races, who represent the lowest grade in the human family. Their anatomical characteristics are certainly very remarkable. While, in countenance, they present an extreme of the prognathous type hardly above that of the orang-outan, they possess at the same time the smallest brains of the whole of mankind ; being, according to Morton's measurements, seventeen cubic inches less than the brain of the Teutonic race. In my own collection I have a cast of the head figured above in Morton's catalogue ; and, decidedly, it exhibits more of the animal than of man. Tasmania, or Van Diemens Land. It is certainly an extraordinary fact, that this comparatively-small island, merely sepa- rated from Australia by a narrow channel, should be occupied by people of entirely diffe- rent type. The tribes Fig. 283.S03 Fio. 284.504 of New Holland, it has been just set forth, are more or less black, but pos- sess fine, straight and silky hair ; while their neighbors of Tasma- nia are thus described by Capt. Cook : — " The color of the people of Van Die- men's Land is a dull black, and not quite so deep as that of the African Negroes. The hair is perfectly woolly. Their noses, though not flat, are broad and full. The lower part of the face projects a good deal." The reader can se- lect from the follow- ing 4 samples (Figs. 283-286) which he considers the worst expression of the most inferior grades of hu- manity. Fig. A from Martin, and B from Dumoutier, compare well with the heads of Austra- lians : and not less disagreeably. A. — Tasmanian. Fio. 285.505 B. — Tasmanian, Fig. 286.506 C. — Tasmanian. D. — Tasmanian. Papuas, of New Guinea. New Guinea is the largest of all these islands after New Holland. Numerous navigators, the old as well as the living, have described this people at various localities on the coast COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 435 Fig. 287.-'''07 New Guinea-miin. Fia. 288.508 The tribes appear everywhere to be substantially the same : skin more or less black, features Negro, hair woolly and formed into enormous tufts. This (Fig. 287) is a fair specimen of the inhabitants of New Guinea, wiiich not only presents the Negro com- plexion, and features like the Australian, but also the woolly hair. We may consider this skull an average type of the Papuan race. Harfours, or Alforians. In Malaysia, under the names of Harfours, Alfours, Ha- raforas, &c., have been designated the inhabitants of the interior of the large islands, or mountain regions. But great diversity exists in the type of these families ; and much confusion in descriptions. They seem generally to be a true Negro race, of the lowest order; and from their position in the inte- rior, no less than from their degraded condition, they are, most probably, the true abori- gines of many of these islands, who have been Iriven back by immigrants from other islands. 3ne skull ( Fig. 288) sufficiently represents them. I shall not overload our pages with detailed de- scriptions of the various Oceanic Negro types in- habiting the smaller islands. Materials lack for satisfactory anatomical comparison. There is to be found in print very little to aid the craniologist, beyond the magnificent plates of Dumoutier, from which we have extensively borrowed ; but his text has not yet been published ; nor do drawings alone furnish the information required. All travellers and every anatomist agree, however, in placing these Oceanic Negroes at the bottom of the scale of races; and, at the same time, the Alforians are described as totally different from every group of Alfour. Negroes on the African continent. Therefore, the supposition of any community of origin between these Australasians nnd the true Nigritians — neither of them migratory races, and widely separated by oceans — would be too gratuitous to merit refutation. So also would be any hypotheses based upotj climatic influences, when the zones of their respective habitats are as opposite in nature, as the races of Malaysia are distinct from those of Africa, and, at the same time, geogra-- phically remote. Polynesian Bace. An elaborate account of this race may be found in Prichard's " Physical History of Man kind;" but I rely more particularly on the later work of M. Jacquinot: inasmuch as it is, in every respect, deserving of confidence and admiration : coming, besides, from a naturalist Vrho has seen these tribes in their various localities : — " The Polynesian race is well marked and distinct ; it inhabits all Malaysia and the greater part of Polynesia, comprising the numerous islands separated by d'Urville under the name of Micronesia. " The general characters of this race may be thus given : — Skin tawny, of a yellow color washed with bistre, more or less deep; very light in some, almost brown in otiiers. Hair, Mack, bushy, smooth and sometimes frizzled. Ej'es black, more split than open, not at ali oblique. Nose long, straight, sometimes aquiline or straight; nostrils large and open. 436 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. which makes it sometimes look flat, especially in women and children ; in them, also, the lips, which in general are long and curved, are slightly prominent. Teeth fine; incisors large. Cheek bones large, not salient ; enlarging the face, which, nevertheless, is longer than wide." Blumenbach describes the cranium thus : — " Summit of the head slightly contracted ; forehead rather convex ; cheek-bones not prominent ; superior maxillary bone rather pro- jecting; parietal protuberances very prominent." Jacquinot declares that these characters are constant in all the individuals of the Poly- nesian race ; and he says his description is confirmed by Forster,509 Moerenhout,5"> Ellis, si* Quoy et Gaimard, and others. Most authors recognize three distinct races among the Polynesians : independent of those just described, they designate the inhabitants of the Carolines, or Micronesians, and the Malays ; but M. Jacquinot regards this division as unfounded in nature. That there is considerable variety of types in these scattered islands is admitted ; and the question re- duces itself to, whether these islanders are really of one stock or of several. Anthropo- logy perceives no reason for supposing that they are all descended from one pair ; and I therefore regard them as a group of proximate races, like the numerous other groups already signalized on the earth's superficies. They have been separated, by some writers, on philological grounds ; but I hold it to be a demonstrable, even if not demonstrated fact, that zoological characters are far more reliable than mere analogies of language ; which (critically examined) are frequently less real than fanciful. After surveying the Polynesian race in detail, through all the islands, from the Philip- pines to New Zealand and the Sandwich, .Jacquinot concludes : — " Thus this race is found spread from 20° N. lat. to 50° S. lat. ; that is to say, it occu- pies a space of about 3500 miles of latitude by 4500 of longitude. Certainly, within these extremes, the climate oflFers numerous variations. Some of these islands are flat, others mountainous ; some are very fertile, others sterile ; and, notwithstanding all these circum- stances, the Polynesians remain the same everywhere. They are all in the same degree of civilization, of industry and intelligence ; their color is not more dark under the equator than without the tropics — and everywhere we find some more brown than others. " We repeat that, before such facts fall all theories respecting the influence of atmosphere and of climate. " They prove also, in the clearest manner, that the Polynesians cannot be a hybrid race ; because, if it were so, they could not preserve, in the numerous islands, a homogeneousness of character so perfect ; there would necessarily be mixed breeds in different degrees, and Bhowing every shade and grade. The Polynesian race then is primitive." The original of Fig. 289 died in the Marine hospital at Mobile, while under the charge of my friends Drs. Levert and Mastin ; and the skull was presented to Agassiz and myself for ex- amination, without being apprised of its history. Notwithstanding there was something in its form which appeared unnatural, yet it resembled more than any other race the Polynesian ; and as such we did not he- sitate to class it. It turned out afterwards that we were right; and that our embarrass- ment had been produced by an artificial flattening of the occiput; which process tlie Fig. 289. Fig. 290. Sandwich Islander. Vertical view. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 437 Islander, while at the hospital, had told Drs. Levert and M a s t i n was habitual in his family. The profile view displays less pro- tuberance of brain be- hind and the vertical view more compres- eion of occiput, than belongs generally to his race ; but still there remains enough of cranial characteris- tics to mark his Poly- nesian origin ; even were not the man's history preserved, to attest the gross de- pravity of his animal propensities. The first of these heads (Fig. 291) is an ancient Guanche from the Canary-Isles; and, though out of place here, is one of Dumoutier's series. — Besides being itself interesting, it con- trasts still more pow- erfully with American aborigines. The other five (Figs. 292-296) are Polyne- sians from different islands, presenting a strong family likeness to each other — reced- ing foreheads; elon- gated heads ; project- ing jaws, ponderous behind, &c. Fjg. 291.512 FiQ. 292.513 Ouanche. Fig. 293.5U Nouka-lIivaiaD Fig. 294 5i5 Fejee-Ialander. Saniwich-Lslander. I have pursued the Oceanic races, somewhat in detail, from the Indian seas across the whole extent of the Pacific Ocean to the shores of America; where another group of races, of entirely different type, remains yet to he described. My object in this tedious voyage has been, to place before the reader such material as might enable him to judge whether there is any proof, in this geographical direction, of migrations from the Old to the J^ew World, that could account for its primitive manner of population. We have beheld, during our Oceanic travels, very opposite types in localities near to each other. 438 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. as \\o\\ as many distinct languages ; and we have seen the same type as that of the Polynesians scattered throughout all climates, and yet speaking dialects of the same language. It now remains to be shown that, (with perhaps some very partial exceptions along the Pacific coast,) the types of America are entirely distinct from those of Oceanica; and that American languages, civiliza- tions, social institutions, &c., are utterly opposed to Oceanic influence, while diflering, too, amongst each other. It is from the so-called Polynesian and Malay races that many writers have derived the popula- tion of America; yet in no two types of man do we find cranial characters more widely diiferent. The heads which we have copied from the Atlas of M, le DocteurDumoutier, (who accompanied M. Jac- quinot in the Exploring Expedition of 1837-'8-'9-'40, of the Astro- labe and Zelee, sent out by the French government,) were all taken by the daguerreotype process, either from nature or from plaster- casts ; and are therefore not only beautifully executed, but perfectly reliable. To the eye of the anatomist, these heads will be found to present a most striking contrast with those of the aboriginal Ameri- cans which we are about to produce. It is much to be regretted, however, that we have not complete measurements of these Oceanic heads, their various diameters, internal capacity, &c., after the plan adopted by Morton ; but I presume such essentials will appear in full, when the text is published. It will be observed, furthermore, that the American heads difl'er more widely from all the Oceanic crania than the}'^ do even from those of the Chinese or true Mongol races, whence our American Indians are still supposed by fabulists to be derived. The Oceanic races, including even the Sandwich Islanders, when compared with our Indians, exhibit crania more elongated, more compressed laterally, less prominent at the vertex, and more prog- nathous, in type. American races, I shall render evident, are strongly distinguished by the very reverse of all these points, in addition to their own greatly-flattened occiput. Whilst running the eye, too, over Dumoutier's long series of Oceanic heads, I was struck by one remarkable diflference : viz., the greater amount of brain behind the meatus of the ear than in the skulls of the aborigines af America ; and the reader will notice vertical lines, rendering this fact obvious. American Group. The author of Crania Americana separated [supra, p. 276] the races of this continent into two grand divisions : viz., the Toltecan and the Barbarous tribes. That luminous paper — Inquiry into the Lis- ttnctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal llace of America^^^ — amply COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 439 justilied the traveller's adage, that " he who has seen one trihe of Indians, has seen all." " The half-clail Fuegian, shrinking from his dreary winter, has the same characteristic lineaments, though in an exaggerated degree, as the Indians of the tropical plains ; and these, again, resemble the tribes which inhabit the region west of the Rocky Mountains — those of the great Valley of the Mississippi, and those, again, which skirt the Eskimaux on the North. All possess alike the long, lank, black hair, the brown or cinnamon-colored skin, the heavy brow, the dull and sleepy eye, the full and compressed lips, and the salient, but dilated nose. . . . The same conformity of organization is not less obvious in the osteo- logical structure of these people, as seen in the square or rounded head, tlie flattened or vertical occiput, the large quadrangular orbits, and the low, receding forehead. . . . Merc exceptions to a general rule do not alter tiie peculiar physiognomy of the Indian, whicii is as undeviatingly characteristic as that of the Negro ; for whether we see him in the athletic Charib or the stunted Chayma, in the dark Californian or the fair Borroa, he is an Indian still, and cannot be mistaken for a being of any other race." And, above all anatomists, Morton had the best right to pronounce. "We have seen [^supra, p. 325] how his unrivalled " collection embraces 410 skulls of 64 different nations and tribes of Indians." Time, moreover, from ante-historical — nay, even from geological epochas, down to the present hour, appears to have wrought little or no change on the physical structure of the American aborigines. Dr. Lund's communication to the Historical and Geographical Society of Brazil,^^* on the human fossil crania discovered by him in the Pro- vince of Minas Geraes, added to the published decisions of Dr. Meigs on the Santas fossilized bones, with those of Dr. Moultrie on the Guadaloupe fossilized head, settle that matter conclusively \^supra, pp. 347, 350] : nor do the last-discovered fossilized jaws tvith perfect teeth, and portions of a foot, from Florida, now in the possession of Prof. Agassiz, negativ^e this deduction ; although such vestiges, still imbedded in conglomerate, may not be cited in the affirmative. Lund's language, as rendered by Lieut. Strain, U. S. X., is unequi- vocal : — "The question then arises, who were these people? what their mode of life? of what race? and what their intellectual perfection? The answers to these questions are, happily, less difficult and doubtful. He examined various crania, more or less perfect, in order to determine the place they ought to occupy in the system of Anthropology. The narrowness of the forehead, the prominence of the zygomatic bones, the maxillary and orbital confor- mation, all assign to these crania a place among the characteristics of the American race. And it is known, says the Doctor, in continuation, that the race which approximates nearest to this is the Mongolian ; and the most distinctive and salient character by which we dis- tinguish between them, is by the greater depression of the forehead of the former. In this point of organization, these ancient crania show not only the peculiarity of the American race, but this peculiarity, in many instances, in an excessive degree ; even to the entire disappearance of the forehead. We must allow, then, that the people who occupied this country Ln those remote times, were of the same race as those who inhabited it at the time of the conquest. We know that the human figures found sculptured on the ancient monu ments of Mexico represent, for the greater part, a singular conformation of the head-- being without forehead — the cranium retreating backward, immediately above the super- 440 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. ciliary arcli. Tliis anomaly, which is generally attributed to an artificial disfiguration of the head, or the taste of the artist, now admits a more natural explanation ; it being now proved by these authentic documents, that there really existed on this continent a race exhibiting this anomalous conformation. The skeletons, which were of both sexes, were of the ordinary height, although two of the men were above the common stature. These heads, according to the received opinions in Craniology, could not have occupied a high position in intellectual standing. This opinion is corroborated by finding an instrument of imperfect construction joined with the skeletons. This instrument is simply a smooth stone, of about ten inches iu circumference, evidently intended to bruise seeds or hard substances. ♦' In other caverns he has found other human bones, which show equally the character- istics of fossils, being deprived of all the gelatinous parts, and consequently very brittle and porous in the fracture." Fiually, the "Peruvian Antiquities" of Eivero and Tschudi^^" cor- roborate the above scientific view, viz., that the artificial disfigure- ment of the skull among the Inca-Peruvians and other South Ameri- can families, owes its origin to the prior existence of an autocthonous race, in whose crania such (to us, seemingly) a deformity was natural: and thus the contradictory materials which induced Dr. Morton at first to deem this peculiarity to be congenital, and afterwards so exclu- sively artificial, become reconciled ; while due regard is preserved to his truthful candor and craniological acumen. Of the four forms of the head among the Old Peruvians, which were produced by artificial means (as established by Mor- ton, in Ethnography and Archceology of the Avwrican Aborigines, 1846), space restricts me to one example (Fig. 297), on which the "course of every bandage is in every instance distinctly marked by correspond- ing cavity of the bony structure;" and another form (Figs. 298, 29'. ) is monu- mentally illustrated through Del Rio's Accoxint of Palenque.^'^ The learned antiquaries, Rivero and Tschudi, whose researches establish that these grotesque forms are primeval, no less than congenital (being exhibited even in the fcelus among Peruvian mummies), do not appear to have been aware that Dr. Morton had already classified the Fig. 298. Fia. 297.S21 FiG. 299. four varieties of such distortions, in a paper published five years pre- viously to their work. 523 The compression of the head practised by various Indian tribes, al- though it causes distor- tion of the cranium in different directions, does not diminish the volume of the brain. This sin- gular fact was announced many years ago by Prof. Tiedemann.and nas since been abundantly con- COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 441 firmed by tlie uiultiplieJ observations of Morton. From the measurements of twenty-six Peruvian crania, all extremely distorted, some elongated, others conical, and otliers again flattened on the forehead and expanded laterally, he obtained a mean of 76 cubic inches, or one iu'.-h more than the Peruvian average. From twenty-one native skulls from Oregon, all nioi e or less distorted by artificial means, he obtained a mean rather below the average of tKe barbarous tribes; but from the whole of his measurements of distorted crania, as derived from the Peruvian and Nootka-Columbian series collectively, he found the average ▼olume of the brain to be 70 cubic inches, or precisely the mean of the whole American group of races. I may add that, as mechanical distortion of the skull does not lessen the volume of the brain, neither does it appear to affect the intellect. These points established, I would remark, that the most striking anatomical characters of the American crania are, small size, averag- ing but seventy-nine cubic inches internal capacity ; low, receding forehead ; short antero-posterior diameter ; great inter-parietal dia- meter ; flattened occiput ; prominent vertex ; high cheek-bones ; pon- derous and somewhat prominent jaws. Such characteristics are more universal in the Toltecan than the Barbarous tribes. Among the Iroquois, for instance, the heads were often of a somewhat more elongated form ; but the Cherokees and Choctaws, who of all modern Barbarous tribes display greater aptitude for civilization, present the genuine type in a remarkable degree. My birth and long residence in Southern States have permitted the study of many of these living tribes (a hundred Choctaws may be seen daily, even now, in the streets of Mobile), and they exhibit this conformation almost without exception. I have also scrutinized many Mexicans, besides Catawbas of South Carolina, and tribes on the Canada Lakes, and can bear witness that the living tribes everywhere conlirm Morton's type. One might, indeed, describe an Indian's skull by saying, it is the opposite in every respect from that of the Negro ; as much as the brown complexion of the Red-man is instantly distinguishable from the Black's ; or the long hair of the former differs in substance from the short wool of the latter. The annexed sketches of three heads (Figs. 300-306) will, by comparison, illus- trate this type better than language. Figs. 300 and 301, a Negro; Figs. 802 and 303, the head (in my possession) of a Cherokee Chief, who died while a prisoner, near Mobile, in 1 837; and Figs. 305 and 306, the antique cranium from Squier's mound [ubi supra, p. 2*J1.] I shall now proceed oG Fio. 301 Fig. 300.524 Negro — Profile View. Vertical View. 44-J COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES, Fig. 302. Fio. 304. Creek Chief— Profile View. Fig. 305. Mound-builder — Profile View. Vertical View. Vfci-tical View. to show, through faithful copies, that the type just attri- buted to the Ameri- can races is found among tribes the most scattered — among the semi-civil- ized, and the barbar- ous — among living as well as among ex- tinct races ; and that no foreign race has intruded itself into their midst, even in the smallest appreci- able degree : availing myself of some of the original wood- cuts of the Or an i a Aniericana,'p\aee^ by Mrs. Morton's kind- ness at our disposal. Peruvians, from Temple of the Sun. This head (Fig. 307) from the Cemetery of Pachacamac, is characteristic of the American type, as will be seen at a glance : the parietal and longitudinal diameters being nearly equal ; the vertex prominent. Fig. 308. Fig. 307.-'i25 Fig. 309. Peruvian — Pronle View. Vertical View. Back View. Longitudinal diameter, 6 inches; parietal, 5-9; frontal, 4-4; vertical, 5. Internal ca- pacity, 77 cubic inches. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 443 Fig. 310, from the Inca Cemetery, is perfectly FiQ. 310.526 typioil of the race. Longitudinal diameter, 6-5 inclies; parietal, 6-5; frontal, 4 6; vertical, 5-lJ. Internal capa- city, 08o cubic inches. Morton supplies the measurements of twenty- three ailult skulls of the " pure Inca race," from the cemetery called Pachacamac, or the Temple of the Sun, near Lima; obtained and presented to him by Dr. Ruscheuberger, U. S. N. As this sepulchre was reserved for the exclusive use of the higher class of Peruvians, it is reasonable to infer that the skulls thence disinterred belonged to persons of intelligence and distinction ; al- though I am aware that Rivero and Tschudi express doubts that any of these can have belonged to royal Peruvian personages. "'27 The largest cranium of this series yields an internal capacity of 80-5 cubic inches, which is a fraction short of the Caucasian mean ; while the smallest measures but GO. The mean of the whole is but 73 cubic inches. The following examples of Mexican heads suffice to show the identity of the two races. Peruvian. Mexicans. This (Fig. 311) is a relic of the genuine Toltecan stock, hav- ing been exhumed from an ancient ce- metery at Cerro de Q u e s i I a s, near the city of Mexico. It was accompanied by numerous antique ves- sels, weapons, &c., in- dicating a personage of distinction. This cranium was brought from the city of Mexico by the Hon. J. R. Poinsett, and by him presented to the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia. Longitudinal diam- eter, 7-1 inches ; pa- rietal, 5-7; frontal, 4-4; vertical, 5-2. In- ternal capacity, 83 cubic inches. A remarkably-well characterized head (Fig. 313) from an ancient tomb near the city of Mexico, whence it was exhumed with a great variety of an- Fio. 311.528 Mexican — Vertical View. FlO. 313.S29 Fia. 312. Back View. Mexican — Vertical View. Back View. 444 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES, Fig. 315. '«' tique vessels, masks, ornaments, &c. It is preserved in the collection of tiie American Phi- losophical Society. The forehead is low, but not very receding ; the face projects, and the whole cranium is extremely unequal in its lateral portions. I had almost omitted the remark, that this irregularity of form is common in and peculiar to American crania. Let us now track the American type into the Barbarous races. Among the Iroquois and some other tribes of both North and South America, heads of more elongated form are occasionally met with ; but the type truly characteristic predominates largely among the Creeks — under which appellation were embraced most of the tribes of Alabama, Georgia and Florida. Having personally examined many of these nations, I can vouch for this fact. While Prof. Agassiz was in Mobile last spring, I took occasion to point out this cranial uni- formity ; and his critical eye detected no exception in at least 100 living Choctaw Indians whom we examined together in and around the city. The modern Creek chief [supra, Fig. 302] affords satisfactory evidence. Seminole [Creek Tribe) and Dacota {Sioux), Fig. 316. Seminole war- rior (Fig. 315) slain at the bat- tle of St. Jo- seph's, 30 miles below St. Au- gustine, in June, 1836, by Capt. Justin Dimmick, U. S. Artillery. Longitudinal di- ameter, 7*3 in. ; parietal, 5-9 ; frontal, 4 6; ver- tical, 5-8. In- ternal capacity, 93 cubic" inches. Fig. 318 is the head of a Sioux warrior ; very characteristic of his tribe. Longi- tudinal diameter 6-7 inches; pa- rietal, 5-7 ; fron- tal, 4-2; vertical, 5-4. Internal ca- pacity, 85 cubic inches. Reference to the Crania Ame- ricana will show that example* might be greatlj multiplied, to prove that our Indian aborigines are everywhere comprehended under one group. I have already spoken of the ancient mounds and the mound-builders ; have shown how numerous and widely-extended they are, and that they all belonged to the great Toltecan family. In addition to the cranium discovered by Squier [Fig. 198], I subjoin two more of these mound-skulls, selected from points separated by immense distance. Seminole — Profile View. Fig. 317. Vertical View. Fig. 318.531 Seminole — Back View. Dacota — Profile View. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 445 Skull from a Mound on the Upper Mississippi. Vertical View. Fia. 320. Skull (Fig. 319) taken Fia. 319.-'^ from a mound seated on the high bluff which overlooks the Missis- sippi river, 150 miles above the mouth of the Missouri. There were six mounds, placed over each in a right line, commencing with a small one, only a few feet high, and termi- nating in another of eight or ten feet eleva- tion and twenty in di- ameter. This skull was obtained from the fifth mound of the series. It is a large cranium, very full in the vertical diameter, between the parietal bones. Longitudinjil diameter, 7-1 inches; parietal, 5-3; frontal, 4-8; vertical, 5-5, capacity, 85-5 cubic inches. Back View. and broad Internal Fig. 322. Skull from a 3Iound in Tennessee. This cranium (Fig. Fig. 321.533. 321) was exhumed by the late distinguished Dr. Troost, of Nash- ville, Tennessee, from a mound in that State, at the junction of the French, Broad and Hol- ston rivers. Many other mounds are found in this section of country. This skull is remarkable for its vertical and pa- rietal diameters, flat- ness and elevation of the occiput. The facial angle is also unusually great. Longitudinal diameter, 6-6 inches; parietal, 5-6; frontal, 4-1 capacity, 87-5 cubic inches. To the reader have thus been submitted specimens of American skulls, from parts of the continent the most widely separated — some crania collected from the Toltecan, some from the Barbarous tribes of the present times, and others from ancient mounds and burial- places: and, although there are sundry minor varieties in the forms of crania — a few exceptions to the general rule, yet the type which I Vertical View. vertical, 5-6, Internal 446 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RAGES, laid down as characteristic of this people, largely predominates over all others. It is ever^^'here peculiar, and bears no resemblance to any known nation of ancient or modern epochas throughout the world. Mean Results, selected from Morton's Table-SS* Facial an- gle Internal capacity Toltecan na- tions, including skulls from the mouuds. 75° 35^ 76-8 Barbarous na- tions, with skulls from the Valley of the Ohio. 76° 13' 82-4 American Kace, embracing the Toltecans & Bar- barous nations. 75° 45' 79-6 Flat-head tribes of ('olumbia Kiver. 69° 30' 79-25 Ancient Peru- vians. 67° 20' 73-2 Mongol- Americans — Eskimaux. The Polar family, which are identical on both continents, display one of the strongest possible contrasts with the aboriginal Americans; and no one can compare the crania of the two, and suppose that one continent was populated from the other through the Eski- maux channel. In fact, the Eskimaux are confined to a polar zone, as well in America as in Asia. Dr. Morton obtained, from Mr. George Combe, four genuine Eskimaux skulls, of which figures are grouped below (Figs. 323-326). The eye at once remarks their narrow elon- gated form, the projecting upper jaw, the extremely flat nasal bones, the expanded zygo- matic arches, the broad, expanded cheek-bones, and the full and prominent occipital region. " The extreme Fig. 323. Fig. 324. Fig. 325. Eskimaux. FiQ. 326. Eskimaux. elongation of the upper jaw con- tracts the facial angle to a mean of 73°, while the mean of 3 heads of the 4, gives an internal capacity of 87 cubic in., a near approach to the Caucasian average. "5^-^ The diagrams here given will enable the reader to make his Eski- maux compari- sons still more in detail. Fig. 323 is '• from Davis's Strait, the larg- est head in the series, and the best frontal de- velopment. The nasal bones are COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES, 447 BO flat as to be scarcely perceptible." "On this skull (Fig. 324) is written the brief me- morandum ' Found in the snow, by Capt. Parry.' In every particular, a well-characterized Eskimaux head. " Fig. 325 was " found by Mr. John Turnbull, Surgeon, upon Disco Island, coast of Greenland, in the summer of 1825." And "this skull (Fig. 320) was ob- tained at Icy Cape, the northwest extremity of America, and is marked, 'from A. Oollie, Esq., Surgeon of H. M.'s ship Blossom.' " Nothing can be more obvious than the contrast between tlicsc Eskimaux heads and those of all other tribes of this continent. They are the only people in America who present the characters of an Asiatic race ; and, being bounded closely on the south by genuine abori- gines, they seem placed here as if to give a practical illustration of the irrefragable distinct- ness of races ; together with an example, that modifications of human types are independent of any physical causes but direct amalgamation. M. Jacquinot not only regards all the American races (exclusive of the Eskimaux) as one race, but as a branch of the same race as the Polynesians. He is very positive in thia opinion, and rests it solely upon resemblance of type; at the same time acknowjedgiiig that, to the present day, no affinity between the languages of America and Polynesia has been discovered. •''^6 it is with reluctance that we differ from an authorit}' we prize so highly ; but, apart from the strange circumstance that M. Jacquinot was unacquainted •with Morton's labors, we do so on materials furnished by M. Dumoutier, who was his co?«- pagnon de voyage ; for which we refer to our remarks upon Polynesian crania. No anato- mist, who has examined Dr. Morton's collection, or lived, as I have done, for half a cen- tury among Indian tribes, can subscribe to the opinion of M. Jacquinot ; who does not appear to have bestowed adequate consideration upon American craniology, nor, indeed, upon our Indian questions generally. Ethnography is yet unaware of its resources. The London " Times" of the 8th of Octo- ber, 1853, publishes the despatches of Commander McClure, to the British Admiralty, through which the existence of Arctic men is announced, flourishing in a higher latitude than any other Eskimaux heretofore known : — " You will, I am certain, be very happy to learn that the Northwest Passage has been discovered by the Investigator, which event was decided on the 26th October, 1850, by a sledge-party over the ice, from the position the ship was frozen in. . . . AVe have been most highly favored, ... in being able to extend our search in quest of Sir John Franklin over a very large extent of coast, which was not hitherto known, and found inhabited by a numerous tribe of Esquimaux, who had never ere our arrival seen the face of the white man, and were really the most simple, interesting people I ever met — living entirely by the chase, and having no weapons except those used for that object. The fiercer passions of our nature appeared unknown : they gave me n pleasing idea of man fresh from his Maker's hand, and uncontaminated by intercourse with our boasted civilization. All those who traded with the Company were found the greatest reprobates." A n n e X e d are Fio. 328.538 given, by way of contrast, but without com- nent, two skulls (Figs. 327, 328) of the most pro- minent .V si atic types : vii , the Tartar, and the Mongol, which will show how greatly modern races differ ; not- withstanding the Fia. 327.537 ChineBe — Mongol, Tartar. 448 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. amalgamations which have been going on foi' several thousand years. These races all, unquestionably, antedate the foundation of the Egyptian Empire — proving how difficult it is to obliterate a type. Thus far, in the Comparative Anatomy of Eaces, I have permitted myself to cull but a few of the more salient facts touching the races of Europe, America, Africa, and Oceanica, and already are my pre- scribed limits exhausted. Asia, with a population incomparably the most numerous of any division of the globe, and presenting an infini- tude of widely different types, must be abandoned ; although no ter- restrial sphere aifords a richer and more interesting field of research. However, I can scarcely regret the omission — regarding our side of the case to be suflSciently well made out. All the types of mankind known to history or monumental re- searches vanish into pre-historical antiquity ; and investigation shows that this remark applies with full force to the Mongolian group of Asia. Tartar races are distinctly portrayed on the monuments of the XlXth dynasty of Egypt ; and a reference to our chapter on Chron- ology will prove that the Chinese Empire, with the same Mongolian types now seen, together with their peculiar language, institutions, arts, &c., were contemporary with the Old Egyptian Empire. Such facts confirm the only rational theory : viz., that races were created in each zoological province, and therefore all primitive types must be of equal antiquity. Pauthier, whose work is the only veritable key to Chinese history and literature yet put forth in Europe, admirably remarks: — " Of all historical phenomena that strike the human understanding, and which it seeks to comprehend when wishing to embrace the whole of universal life, as well as the general development of humanity, the most curious and the most extraordinary is assuredly the indefinite existence of the Chinese Empire. Like the great river of Egypt, which veils to travellers one-half of its course, the grand empire of High Asia has only revealed itself to Europe after traversing an unknown region of more than forty ages of existence. It was during our Middle Ages — epoch of profound darkness in the West, and of immense move- ment in the East — that the noise of a colossal empire at the extremity of Asia reached Euro- pean ears, simultaneously with the clangor of those Tartarian armies which (like an ava- lanche) then began to fall upon our panic- stricken Occident." 539 But the deficiency of Mongolian skulls, com- plained of by Morton, may, in part, be counter- balanced through Chinese iconography. The following selections are made merely with the view to illustrate Mongolian permanence of type. A portrait (Fig. 329) of the Miao - tseu, "sons of the uncultivated fields" — the un- subdued and aboriginal savage tribes of China ; whose existence recedes to the ante- FiG. 329.540 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 449 Fig. 330. 5J1 historical times of Fo-hi (b. c. 3400), and de- scends to the present day, in various wild and mountainous regions of the empire, as well as among the hills near Canton. They have ever been reputed, by the Chinese, to be un- tameable, and, in this respect, resemble the aborigines of America. Paravey says he copied this figure from a Chinese work of 2400 plates, now in Holland. Portrait of Khoung-Fou-Tseu (Fig. 330), Confucius; born 551 years B. c. ; whom the Chinese venerate as the "most saintly, the most sage, and the most virtuous, of human Institutors." His face, while Sinico-Mongol, possesses the massive lineaments of a great man. Another form of Chinaman is beheld in the historian Sse-ma-Thsian (Fig. 331), who, born B. c. 145, composed the grand history of the Empire, in 130 books. The work of Pauthier is illustrated by an infinitude of Chinese likenesses of all ages ; and it is so very accessible in form and price, that we refer our readers to the original for proofs that, with the exception of the pig-tail introduced by the Tartars, the Chinese have not altered in the 4000 years for which we possess their records. The subjoined (Figs. 332-335) are authentic Chinese portraits ^^3 of the ancient foreign people at the foicr extremities, or four cardinal points, of the Empire : — Fig. 332 — "The men of Tai-pifig (at the east) are humane, benevolent." Fig. 333 — " The men of Tan-joung (at the south) are sage, prudent. Fig. 334 — " The men of Tai-moung (at the west) are faithful, sincere" — Indian natlonB Fig. 331.542 Fig. 332. Fig. 333. Fig. 334. 450 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES, Fig. 335. Fig. 335 — " The men of Koung-thoung (at the north) are war- like, valiant " — Tartar nations. I have merely to remark, on these foreigners, that they represent varieties of the Mongol type, such as naturally belong to that centre of human creations ; referring the reader to Pauthier's sketch of the " Relations of Foreign Na- tions with China," ^* and to Jardot's " Taljleau sj'noptique, chronologique, et par Race," ^5 for the best specification of ancient Mongol-Tartar subdivisions. I conclude these few words on crania with some comments upon the following Table, taken from Morton's printed Catalogue (Philadelphia, 3d edition, 1849) : — Table, showing the Size of the Brain in cubic inches, as obtained from the measurement of 623 Crania of various Races and Families of Man. RACES AND FAMILIES. Modern Caucasian Group. Teutonic Family — Germans «' " English " ♦< Anglo-Americans , Pelasgic *' Persians " " Armenians " " Circassians Celtic " Native Irish Indostanic " Bengalees, &c Semitic " Arabs Nilotic " Fellahs Ancient Caucasian Group. Pelasgic Family — Grseco-Egyptians (catacombs). Nilotic " Egyptians (from catacombs).. Mongolian Group. Chinese Family Malay Group. Malayan Family Polynesian " American Group. Toltecan Family — Peruvians " " Mexicans Barbarous Tribes — Iroquois " " LenapC' " " Cherokee " " Shoshon6, &c Negro Group. Native- African Family American-born Negroes , Hottentot Family Alforian Family — Australians No. of Skulls. Largest LC. Smallest I.e. Mean. Mean. 18 114 70 90 ■) 5 105 91 96 I 92 7 97 82 90 i }>0 94 75 84 ) 6 97 78 87 32 91 67 80 3 98 84 89 17 96 66 80 18 97 74 88 . 55 96 68 80 6 91 70 82 20 97 68 86 1 85 3 84 82 83 155 101 58 75 22 92 67 79 1 ■ 79 U61 104 70 84 62 99 65 83 I 83 12 89 73 82 3 83 68 75 8 83 63 75 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 451 Some classification of races, however arbitrary, seems to be almost indispensable, for the sake of conveying clear ideas to the general reader ; yet the one here adopted by Dr. Morton, if accepted without proper allowance, is calculated to lead to grave error. Like Tiede- mann, he has grouped together races which between themselves pos- sess no affinity whatever — that present the most opposite cranial characters, and which are doubtless specifically difierent. In the "Caucasian" group, for example, are placed, among so-called white races, the Hindoos, the ancient and modern Egyptians, &c., who are dark. Our preceding chapters have shown that this group contains many diverse types, over which physical causes have exercised very little, if any influence. Two important facts strike me, in glancing over this Table: — 1st, That the Ancient Pelasgic heads and the Modern White races give the same size of brain, viz., 88 cubic inches. 2d, The Ancient Egyptians, and also their representatives, the modern Fellahs, yield the same mean, viz., 80 cubic inches. The diflFerence between the two gi-oups being eight cubic inches. Hence we obtain strong evidence, that time, or climate, does not influence the size of crania ; thus adding another confirmation to our views respecting the permanence of primi- tive types. The Hindoos, likewise, it will be observed, present the same internal capacity as the Egj'ptians. Now, I repeat, that no historical or scientific reason can be alleged, why these races should be grouped together, under one common appellative ; if, by such name, it is understood to convey the idea that these human types can have any sanguineus affiliation. Again, in the Negro group — while it is absolutely shown that certain African races, whether born in Africa or in America, give an internal capacity, almost identical, of 83 cubic inches, one sees, on the contrary, the Hottentot and Australian yielding a mean of but 75 cubic inches, thereby showing a like difference of eight cubic inches. Indeed, in a Hottentot cranium, (now at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia,) "pertaining to a woman of about twenty years of age, the facial angle gives 75 degrees ; but the internal capacity, or size of brain, measures but 63 cubic inches, which, Dr. INIortou remarked, was as small an adult brain (with one exception, and this also a native Afiican) as he had ever met with ;" so that, in reality, the average among Hottentots may be still lower. In the American group, also, the same parallel holds good. The Toltecan family, our most civilized race, exhibit a mean of but 77 cubic inches, while the Barbarous tribes give 84; that is, a difference of seven cubic inches in favor of the savage. The contrast becomes still more pronounced, when we compare the highest with the lowest races of mankind ; viz. : the Teutonic with the Hottentot and Australian. Tlie former family show a mean internal capacity of ninety-two, whilst the two latter have yielded but seventy-five cubic inches ; or a difference of seventeen cubic inches between the skull of one type and those of two others ! Now, it is herein demonstrated, through monumental, cra- nial, and other testimonies, that the various types of mankind have been ever permanent: have been independent of all physical influenees for thousands of years; and, I would ask what more conclusive evidence could the naturalist demand, to establish a specific diffe- rence between any species of a genus ? These facts, too, determine clearly the arbitrary nature of all classifications heretofore invented. What reason i.s there to suppose that the Hottentot has descended from the same stem as the African Mandingo, or lolof, any more than from the Sanioides of Northern Asia? cr the Hindoo from the same stock as the Teuton? The Hindoo is almost as far removed in 452 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. structure from the Teuton as is the Hottentot : and we might just as well class reindeer and gazelles together as the Teuton and Hindoo, the Negro and Hottentot. Can any natu- ralist derive a Peruvian from a Circassian ? a Papuan from a Turk ? Dr. Morton's collection of crania, though extraordinarily copious in some races, is very defective in others; and, although his measurements doubtless approximate sufficiently to the truth to prove a wide difference in the form and size of crania, yet they are by far too few to afford perfectly accurate admeasurements. The tirst, or Teutonic group, for example, gives a mean of ninety-two cubic inches ; and this average is based on the measurements of but thirty skulls ; whereas 300 might not suffice to evolve a fair average of Germanic cranial developments. In these anatomical statistics the science of anthropology is wofully deficient; nor can the vacuum be filled without the universal concurrence of physiologists. Morton's cabinet, the largest in the world, fails to supply adequate materials. In African, American, and Egyptian, types, it leaves little to be desired ; but the great ethnographer himself frankly calls attention to its requirements : " For example, it contains no skulls of the Eskimaux, Fuegians, Californians or Brazilians. The distorted heads of the Oregon tribes are also but partially represented ; while the long-headed people of the Lake of Titicaca, in Bolivia, are altogether wanting. Skulls also of the great divisions of the Caucasian and Mongolian races are too few for satisfactory comparison; and the Slavonic and Tchudic (Finnish) na- tions, together with the Mongol tribes of Northern Asia and China, are among the especial desiderata of this collection. "546 Nevertheless, it is with some feelings of national and professional pride that I remind the reader how an American physician, unsupported by any government, and amidst in- cessant devotion to a most arduous practice, who " commenced the study of ethnology in 1830" without a single cranium, has bequeathed to posterity above 840 human skulls, and above 620 of the inferior animals, so thoroughly illumined by his personal labors, that, in the absence of fresher materials, science must pause before she hazards a doubt upon any result at which Samuel George Morton had maturely arrived. Deploring the absence of these cranial desiderata, the idea occurred to me that such deficiency might, in some degree, be supplied by hat- manufacturers of various nations; notwithstanding that the informa- tion derived from this source could give but one measurement ; viz. : the horizontal jyerij^liery. Yet this one measurement alone, on an ex- tended scale, would go far tow^ards determining the general size of the brain. Accordingly, I applied to three hat-dealers in Mobile, and to a large manufacturer in Newark, ITew Jersey, for statements of the relative number of each size of hat sold to adult males. Their tables agree so perfectly, as to leave no doubt of the circumference of the heads of the white population of the United States. The three houses, together, dispose of about 15,000 hats annually. The following table was obligingly sent me by Jlessrs. Vail and Yates of Newark ; and they accompanied it with the remark, that their hats were sent principally to our Western States, where there is a large proportion of German poj)ulation ; also that the sizes of these hats were: a little larger (about one-fourth of an inch) than those sold in the Southern States. This useful observation was confirmed by the three hat-dealers in Mobile. Our table gives — 1st, the number, or size of the hat; 2d, the circumference of the head corre- sponding ; 3d, the circumference of the hat ; and, lastly, the relative proportion of each sold out of twelve hats. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 453 Size — Tnches. Circuin. of \U-.\d — Indies. Circum. of Ilat — Inches. Rel. Proportion in 12. 6| lilt 22f 1 7 22 22| 2 n 22f 2:]i 3 7\ 22| 23J 3 7| .■ 2^ 23| 2 7^ 23i 24J 1 All bats larger than these are called " extra sizes." The average size, then, of the crania of white races in the United States, is about 22J inches circumference, including the hair and scalp, for which about IJ inches should be deducted; leaving a mean horizontal periphery, for adult males, of 21 inches. The mea- surements of the purest Teutonic races in Germany, and otiier nations of Europe, would give a larger mean; and I have reason to believe that the population of France, which is principally Celtic, would yield a smaller mean. I hope that others will avail themselves of better opportunities for comparison. Dr. Morton's measurements of aboriginal American races present a mean of but almut 19J inches ; and this mean is substantially confirmed by the fact stated to me by my friend, Capt. Scarritt, U. S. A. l_sttpra, p. 289]. Although his head measures but 22 inches, it was with great difficulty that he found one hat amid several hundred to fit him ; thus proving that the Anglo-.American mean is equal to the maximum of the Mexican Indiiins; who are here, at Metamoras, more or less mixed, too, with Spanish blood. Hamilton Smith states: — "We have personally witnessed the issue of military chacos (caps) to the Second West India regiment, at the time when all the rank and file were bought out of slave ships, and the sergeants alone being part white, men of color, Negroes from North America, or born Creoles: and it was observed that scarcely any fitted the heads of the privates excepting the two smallest sizes; in many cases robust men of the standard height required padding an inch and a half in thickness, to fit their caps; wlille those of the non-commissioned officers were adjusted without any additional aid."-^^''' My own experience abundantly proves the correctness of these facts in the United States-, and my colleague, Mr. Gliddon, who resided two years in Greece, 1828-30, informs me that he saw hundreds of the Greek regulars, at reviews, drills, or on guard, who were compelled to wind a handkerchief around their heads to prevent their newly-adopted chacos, nmde for English soldiers, falling over their noses. The modern Greek head, like the Armenian, is somewhat sugar-loafed, owing to early compression by the turban. The largest skull in Dr. Morton's collection gives an internal capacity of but 114 cubic inches; and we know that heads of this size, and even langer, are by no means uncommon in the Anglo-Saxon race. Dr. Wyman, in his post-mortem examination of the famed Daniel AVebster, found the internal capacity of tiie cranium to be 122 cubic inches: anii, in a pri- vate letter to me, he says, " The circumference was measured outside of the integuments, before the scalp was removed, and may, perhaps, as there was much emaciation, be a little less than in health." It was 23f inches in circumference; and the Doctor states that it is well known there are several heads in Boston larger than Mr. Webster's. Mr. Arnold, a very intelligent hat-dealer in Mobile, writes me in a note as follows: — " Frequently I have calls for the following sizes (measured from head) — 24, 24 1, and, about once a year, 25 inches." I have myself, in the last few weeks, measured half-a-dozen heads as large and larger than Webster's; while a reference to Morton's tables will show that in his whole Egyptian group only one reaches 97 inches internal capacity; and, out of 338 aboriginal Americ.in skulls, but one attains to 101, and another to 104 cubic inciies. It has been asserted by Prof. Tiedemann of Heidleberg, that the brain of the Negro is a." large as that of the White races ; but Dr. Morton has refuted this opinion by a mafi.s of facts which cannot be overthrown. He has, moreover, shown tliat Tiedemaou's own tables soutradict such deduction. i54 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES, RACES. I.e. Mean. I.e. Mean. Tiedemunn adopted the common error of grouping together, under the term Caucasian, all the White races (Egyptians, Hindoos, &c.) ; no less than all the African dark races under the unscientific term of Negroes. Now, I have shown, that the Egyptians and Hindoos pos- sess about twelve cubic inches less brain than the Teutonic race ; and the Hottentots about eight inches less than the Negro proper. I affirm that no reason can be assigned why the Hottentot and Negro should be classed together in their cranial measurements ; nor the Teuton with the Hindoo. I can discover no data by which to assign a greater age to one type than to another; and, unless Professor Tiedemann can overcome this difficulty, he has no right to assume identity for all the races he is pleased to include in each of his groups. Mummies from catacombs of Egypt, and portraits from the monuments, exhibit the same disparity of size in the heads of races who lived 4000 years ago, as among any human species at the present day. As Dr. Morton tabulated his skulls on a somewhat arbitrary basis, I abandon that arrangement, and present his facts as they stand in nature, allowing the reader to compare for himself. Size of the Brain in Cubic Inches. Absolute measurements array themselves into a sliding scale of seventeen cubic inches, between the lowest and the highest races. Here we behold cranial measurements as history and the monuments first find them ; nor can such facts be controverted. Let me again revert to the question of hyhridity^ in connection with endea- vors to obtain accurate cra- nial statistics. The adul- teration of primitive types, at the present day conspi- cuous among many races of mankind, renders precision, in regard to the commingled inhabitants of various countries, frequentlj^ impos- sible ; especially wherever the <7ar^-skinned races of Europe, and the lower grades of humanity elsewhere, have co-operated in mutual con- taminations. Of the latter, our own continent supplies two deplorable regions, from which real philanthropy might take warning. Tschudi's " Travels in Peru " furnishes a list of the crosses resulting from the intermixture of Spanish with Indian and Negro races in that country. The settlement of Mexico by Spaniards took place at the same time, and the intermixture of races has been perhaps greater there than in Peruvian colonics. Mexican soldiers present the most unequal char- acters that can be met with anywhere in the world. If some are Modern White Races ; Teutonic Group — Pelasgic Celtic Semitic Ancient Pelasgic ... Malays , Chinese Negroes (African) Indostanees Fellahs (Modern Egyptians). Egyptians (Ancient) American Group; Toltecan Family Barbarous Tribes Hottentots.. Australians 92 84 87 89 88 85 82 83 80 80 80 77 84 75 75 92 835 (9 (- COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 455 brave, others are quite the reverse — possessing the basest and most barbarous qualities. This, doubtless, is a result, in part, of the cross- ings of the raees. Here is Tschudi's catalogue of such amalgamations in Peru : — Parents. Children, " White father and Negro mother Mulatto. White father and Indian motlier ^lestiza. Indian father and Negro mother Chino. White father and Mulatto mother Cuarteron. White father and Mestiza mother Creole — pale, brownish complexion. White father and China mother Chino-blanco. White father and Cuarterena mother Quintero. White father and Quintera mother AVhite. Negro father and Indian mother Zambo. Negro father and Mulatto mother Zambo-Negro. Negro father and Mestiza mother Mulatto-oscuro. Negro father and China mother Zambo-Chino. Negro father and Zamba mother Zambo-Negro — perfectly black. Negro father and Quintera mother Mulatto — rather dark. Indian father and Mulatto mother Chino-oscuro. Indian father and Mestiza mother Mestizo-claro — frequently very beautiful. Indian father and Chino mother Chino-cola. Indian father and Zamba mother Zambo-claro. Indian father and China-cholar mother Indian — with frizzly hair. Indian father and Quintera mother Mestizo — rather brown. Mulatto father and Zamba mother Zamba — a miserable race. Mulatto father and Mestiza mother Chino — rather clear complexion. Mulatto father and China mother Chino — rather dark. " To define their characteristics correctly," adds the learned German, "would be impos- sible ; for their minds partake of the mixture of their blood. As a general rule, it may be fairly said, that they unite in themselves all the faults, without any of the virtues, of their progenitors ; as men, they are generally inferior to the pure races ; and as members of society, they are the worst class of citizens." In Peru, be it also observed, these mongrel families are produced by the intermixture of two distinct types (Indians and Negroes) with a third [Portuguese and Spaniards), which I have shown to have been already corrupted by European comminglings, previously to their landing in South America. After all, in the United States, the bulk of mulatto grades is occasioned solely by the union of Negro with the Teutonic stock — Indiun .imalgamations being so unfrequent as to be rarely seen, save along the frontier. This leads me to substantiate previous remarks on Liberia. " Gov. Roberts, of Liberia, a fair mulatto, and Russwarm, of Cape Palmas, are clever and estimable men ; and we have in these two men unanswerable proofs of the capacity of the colored people for self- government. " The climate of Western Africa cannot be considered as unwholesome to coioree? colonists. Every one must pass [owing to the imacclimated exotic blood in his veins] through the acclimat- ing fever ; but, now that more convenient dwellings are erected, so that the sick may be properly attended to, the mortality has considerably decreased. Once well through this sickness, the [mulatto] colonist finds the climate and the air suitable to his constitution; noi 80 the wuiTE man. The residence of a few years on this coast is certain death to /am." So far Commodore M. C. Perry, U. S. N., in his report on Liberia. Miss Frederikn 456 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. Bremer adds, with that charming simplicity so peculiarly Swedish (Jenny Lind, Ole Bull, &c., have familarized Americans with its philanthropical self-sacrifices): — "It thus ap- pears as if Liberia and Sierra Leone would become the nurseries from which the new civi- lization and more beautiful future of Africa would proceed. I cannot believe but that these [mulatto] plants from a foreign land must, before that time, undergo a metamorphosis — must become more African." ^'^ The most inveterate anthropologist could not better foreshadow Liberian destinies ! And, as concerns the " beautiful" likely to arise in Africa when tlie half-civilized mulatto becomes re-absorbed into the indigenous Negro population, let me add, that, were authority/ necessary at tliis day to rebut the good-natured Abbe Gregoire's testimony in favor of mulatto-poesies, (and such posies !) ethnography might begin with Mr. Jefferson's. His Notes on Virginia contain this sentence : — " Never yet could I find that a Black had uttered a thought above the level of plain nar- ration ; never saw even an elementary trait of painting or of sculpture." I have looked in vain, during twenty years, for a solitary exception to these characteristic deficiencies among the Negro race. Every Negro is gifted with an ear for music ; some are excellent musicians ; all imitate well in most things; but, with every opportunity for cul- ture, our Southern Negroes remain as incapable, in drawing, as the lowest quadrumana. As before stated, the plan of this work does not permit a complete anatomical comparison of races ; and I have merelj' selected such illustrations as I deem sufficient to demonstrate plurality of origin for the human family. A few others are subjoined, with a brief com- mentary. The " Caucasian," Mongol, and Negro, constitute three of the most prominent groups of mankind ; and the vertical views of the following crania (Figs. 336-338) display, at a glance, how widely separated they are in conformation. How they differ in size and in facial angle has been already shown. So uniform are these cranial characters, that the genuine types can at once be distinguished by a practised eye. If, as we have reiterated times and again, those types depicted on the early monuments of Egypt have remained permanent through all subsequent ages — and if no causes are now visibly at work which can transform one type of man into another — they must be received, in Natural History, as primitive and specific. When, therefore, they are placed beside each other {e.g. as in Figs. 336-338) such t^^pes speak for themselves ; and the anatomist has no more need of protracted comparisons to seize their diversities, than the school-boy to distin- guish turkeys from peacocks, or pecaries from Guinea-pigs. Our remarks on African types have shown the gradations which, ever ascending in caste of race, may be traced from the Cape of Good Hope northwai-d to Egypt. The same gradation might be followed through Asiatic and European races up to the Teutonic ; iind with equal accuracy, were it not for migrations and geographical COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 457 displacements of these last, to wliich aborigines in Africa have been less subjected. FiQ. 336.6*9 Fia. 837.550 Fig. 338.551 Caucasian. Mongol. Negro. Although I do not believe in the intellectual equality of races, and can find no ground in natural or in human history for such popular credence, I belong not to those who are disposed to degrade any type of humanity to the level of the brute-creation. Nevertheless, a man must be blind not to be struck by similitudes between some of the lower races of mankind, viewed as connecting links in the animal kingdom; nor can it be rationally affirmed, that the Orang-Outan and Chimpanzee are more widely separated from certain African and Oceanic Negroes than are the latter from tlie Teutonic or Pelasgic types. But the very accomplished anatomist of Harvard University, Dr. Jefi:nes Wyman, has placed this question in its true light: — " The organization of the anthropoid quadrumana justifies the naturalist in placing them at the heiid of the brute-creation, and placing them in a position in which they, of all the animal series, shall be nearest to man. Any anatomist, however, who will take the trouble to compare the skeletons of the Negro and Orang, cannot fail to be struck at sight with the wide gap which separates them. The difference between the cranium, the pelvis, and the conformation of the upper extremities, in the Negro and Caucasian, sinks into insignificance when compared with the vast difference which exists between the conformation of the same parts in the Negro and the Orang. Yet it cannot be denied, however wide the separation, that the Negro and Orang do afford the points wliere man and the brute, when the totality of their organization is considered, most nearly approach each other." •''^2 The truth of these observations becomes popularly apparent through the following comparative series of likenesses. There are fourteen of them ; and, by reference to the works whence they are chosen, the reader can verify the fidelity of the major portion. For the remain- der, taken from living nature, the authors are responsible when vouching for their accuracy. 58 FlQ. 339. — Apollo Belvidere.553 Fig. 341. — Negro.s** Fig. 343. — Young Chimpanzee.^ Fig. 340.556 Greek. Fig. 342.357 Creole Negro. Fig. 344.558 Toung Chimpanzee. (458) Fia. 346.5fii Fig. 345.559 Orang-Ontan. Fig. 347.560 Chimpanzee, Mobile Negro, 1853. Fig. 3.51. Hottentot AVagoner — Caffre War. Fig. 348,'^62 Hottentot from Somerset. Mobile Negro, 1853. Fig. 352. Negro, 3200 years old [mpra, pp. 250-251]. Nuliian, 3200 years old. (459^ 460 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. It will doubtless be objected by some that extreme examples are here selected ; and this is candidly admitted : yet, each animal type has a centre around which it fluctuates — and such a head as the Greek is never seen on a Negro, nor such a head as that of the Negro on a Greek. Absolute uniformity of type is not a law of Nature in any department : in the gradations of species, extremes meet, and are often confounded. Morton's manuscripts supply an extract which shows, that " skep- tical physicians" are not the only honest men who cannot descry unity of human origins in Nature's phenomena: — " We fully concur with a learned and eloquent divine (the Hon. and Rev. William Her- bert), that we possess no information concerning the origin of the different races of man- kind, ' which are as different in appearance as the species of vegetables.' No one of these races has sprung up within the period of historical certainty ; nor are we any better in- formed in respect to their 'innumerable languages, which cannot be reunited ; and no person can show how or when any one of them arose, although we may trace the minglings of one with another in the later years of the world.' "5^3 Intellect. I had intended to publish an entire chapter on the " Comparative Mental Characters of Races;" but our Part I. has alread}^ swelled beyond its prescribed limits ; and, in consequence, although this field is a broad and fertile one, I must be content with a few brief remarks. It has been admirably observed by Dr. Robert Knox, that " Human history cannot be a mere chapter of accidents. The fate of nations cannot be always regulated by chance ; its literature, science, art, wealth, religion, language, laws and morals cannot surely be the result of mere accidental circumstances." •''6' It is the primitive organization of races, their mental instincts, which deterniine their characters and destinies, and not blind hazard. All history, as well as anatomy and physiology, prove this. Reason has been called the "proud prerogative of man" — being the faculty which disunites him from the brute creation. ]\Ietaphy- sicians propose many definitions of instinct and of reason ; and learned tomes have been written to show wherein the one difters from the other: and yet no true mental philosopher will contend that the line of demarcation can be drawn, nor can he point out where animal intellect ends and that of man begins. Even Prichard admits that animals do reason, and I might quote observations of the ablest natu- ralists to support him ; but the following resume suffices. To judge the true nature of a "species" of animnls, it must be viewed in its natural etate ; that is, unchanged either by domestication, or through foreign influences. To judge u "type" of the human family, it must also be studied separately; unadulteiated in blood, and in the natural condition in which its instincts and energies have placed it. Our domestic animals, influenced by artificial causes, now differ exceedinyily in p/it/sique and in J COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 461 morale from their priinitLve wild progenitors. The races of men are governed by similar laws. Intelligence, activity, ambition, progression, high anatomical development, charac- terize some races; stupidity, indolence, immobility, savagi.sm, low anatomical development distinguish others. Lofty civilization, iu all cases, has been achieved solely by the " Cau- casian" group. Mongolian races, save in the Chinese family, in no instance have reached beyond the degree of semi-civilization ; while the Black races of Africa and Oceanica, no less than the Barbarous tribes of America, have remained in utter darkness for thousands of years. Negro races, when domesticated, are susceptible of a limited degree of improve- ment ; but when released from restraint, as iu Ilayti, they sooner or later relapse into barbarism. Furthermore, certain savage types can neither be civilized nor domesticated. The Bar- barous races of America (excluding the Toltecs), although nearly as low in intellect as the Negro races, are essentially untameable. Not merely have all attempts to civilize them failed, but also every endeavor to enslave them. Our Indian tribes submit to extermina- tion, rather than wear the yoke under which our Negro slaves fatten and multiply. It has been falsely asserted, that the Choctaw and Cherokee Indians have made great pro- gress in civilization. I assert positively, after most ample investigation of the facts, that the pure-blooded Indians are everywhere unchanged in their habits. Many white persons, settling among the above tribes, have intermarried with them ; and all such trumpeted progress exists among these whites and their mixed breeds alone. The pure-blooded savage still skulks untamed through the forest, or gallops athwart the prairie. Can any one call the name of a single pure Indian of the Barbarous tribes who — except in death, like a wild cat — has done anything worthy of remembrance ? Sequoyah, alias George Guess, tlie "Cherokee Cadmus," so re- nowned for the invention of an alphahet, was a half-breed, owing hia inventive genius to his Scotch father. My information respectiug these Cherokee tribes has been obtained from such men as Governor Butler, Major Hitchcock, Colonel Bliss, and other distinguished offi- cers of our army — all perfectly conversant with these hybrid nations. While, on the one hand, it must be admitted, that animals possess a limited degree of reason, it is equally true, on the other, that the races of men also have their instincts. They reason, but this " reason," as we term it, is often propelled by a blind internal force, which can- not be controlled. Groups of mankind, as we have abundantly seen, diifer in their cranial developments ; and their instincts drive them into lines diverging from each other — giving to each one its typical or national character. The Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Jews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Celts, the Chinese, or the Hindoos, have not been solely guided by simple reason. Each type possessed, at the start, mental instinct, which, driving reason before it, determined each national character. The earliest civilization known to us is that of Egypt ; and from this foundation, it is com- monly said, all more modern civilizations are derived. Of this, science is by no means certain. From Egypt, the stream is supposed to have flowed steadily on, through Assyria, Palestine, Tyre, Persia, Greece, Rome, Gaul, Germany, Spain, Britain, until it crossed the Atlantic to our Federal Union. Certain it is, that Western Europe has rifted the bonds of barbarism only within recent historical times. European races, notwithstanding, possessed those cranial developments, and those moral instincts, which forced them to play their parts in the grand drama, as soon as the light penetrated to them, and that forms of government and stability became secured. The Celtic and the Germanic races required no 462 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. gradual "expansion of brain," through successive educated generations. Created with the fullest " expansion," they only awaited opportunity to practise it. But, what has been the history of the dark races ? When the stream originating in old Oriental civilization bounded across the Atlantic, instead of emulously drinking of its glorious waters, the abori- gines of America have succumbed beneath its eddy, as though it exhaled an epidemic pestilence. The Black-African races inhabiting the South of Egypt have been in constant intercourse with her, as we prove from the monuments, during 4000 years ; and yet they have not made a soHtary step to- wards civiHzation — neither will they, nor can they, until their physical oro-anization becomes changed. With our verbal reservations about the term "Caucasian," [supra, p. 247,] the following paragraph, from the trenchant pen of Theodore Parker, speaks incontestable truths : — "The Caucasian differs from all other races : he is humane, he is civilized, and progresses. He conquers with his head, as well as with his hand. It is intellect, after all, that con- quers — not the strength of a man's arm. The Caucasian has been often master of the other races — never their slave. He has carried hfs religion to other races, but never taken theirs. In history, all religions are of Caucasian origin. All the great limited forms of monarchies are Caucasian. Republics are Caucasian. All the great sciences are of Caucasian origin ; all inventions are Caucasian ; literature and romance come of the same stock ; all the great poets are of Caucasian origin ; Moses, Luther, Jesus Christ, Zoroaster, Budha, Pythagoras, were Caucasian. No other race can bring up to memory such cele- brated names as the Caucasian race. The Chinese philosopher, Confucius, is an exception to the rule. To the Caucasian race belong the Arabian, Persian, Hebrew, Egyptian ; and all the European nations are descendants of the Caucasian race." It is vehemently maintained, that mankind must be of common origin, because all men are endowed with more or less of reason, with some moral sense, and are impressed with the idea of responsibility to a Supreme Being ; but the ver3' statement of such proposition car- ries with it the conviction that it is simply an hypothesis, unsupported by facts. No line can be drawn between *nien and animals on the ground of "reason," and more than one of the savage races of men possess no perceptible moral or religious ideas. If the Bible had been so construed as to teach that there were, from the beginning, mant/ primitive races of men, instead of one, the psychological grades would doubtless have been regarded by everybody as presenting the plainest analogies when compared with the species of inferior animals. It would have been allowed at once, that beings so distinct in physical chiiracters should naturally present diversity of mental and moral traits. All the species of equida exhibit certain habits and instincts in common, whilst differing in others. Amongst carnivora, the felines — such as lions, tigers, panthers, leopards, lynxes, cats — piesent a unity of moral and intellectual character, so to say, quite as striking as that dis- played by the human family; and, scientifically speaking, there is just as much ground, at this point of view, for saying that all the felines are of one " species," as all the various types of mankind. Nor can any valid argument be drawn from credence in a God, or in a future state. There exists among human races not the slightest unity of thought on these recondite points. Some believe in one God ; the greater number in many : some in a future state, wliilst others have no idea of a Deity, nor of the life hereafter. Many of the African, and COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. 463 all of the Oceanic Negroes, as missionaries Ijoudly proclaim, possess only the crudest and most grovelling superstitions. Such tribes entertain merely a confused notion of "good spirits," whose benevolence relieves the savage from any fatiguing illustration of his grati- tude ; and an intense dread of "bad spirits," whom he spares no clumsy sacrifice to propi- tiate. Did space permit, I could produce historical testimonies by the dozen, to overthrow that postulate which claims for sundry inferior types of men any inherent recognition of Divine Provuhncc — an idea too exalted for their cerebral organizations : and which is fondly attributed to them by untravelled or unlettered "Caucasians;" whose kind-hearted simplicity has not realized that diverse lower races of humanity actually exist uninvested by the Almighty with mental faculties adequate to the perception of religious sentiments, or abstract philosophies, that in themselves are exclusively " Caucasian." Men and animals are naturally imbued with an instinctive fear of death; and it is per- haps more universal and more intense in the latter than the former. INIan not only shud- ders instinctively at the idea of the grave, but his mind, developed by culture, carries him a step further. He shrinks from total annihilation, and longs and hopes for, and be- lieves in, another existence. This conception of a future existence is modified by race and through education. Like the pre-Celtse of ancient Europe, the'Indian is still buried with his stone-headed arrows, his rude amulets, his dog, &c., equipped all ready for Elysian hunting-fields ; at the same time that many a white man imagines a heaven where he shall have nothing to do but sing Dr. AVatts' hymns around the Eternal throne. It matters not from whatever point we may choose to view the argument, unity of races cannot be logically based upon psychological grounds. It is itself a pure hypothesis, which one day will cease to attract the criticism of science. In a Review by Geo. Combe of Morton's Crania Americana,^ may be found a most interesting comparison of the brains of American aborigines witli the European. Comparisons of any two well-marked types would yield results quite as striking. A few extracts are all we can afford from an article that, commanding the respect, will excite the interest of the reader. "No adequately-instructed naturalist doubts that the brain is the organ of the mind. But there are two questions, on which great difference of opinion continues to prevail : — 1. Whether the size of the brain (health, age and constitution being equal,) has any, and if 80, what influence, on the power of mental manifestations ? 2. Whether dififerent faculties are, or are not, manifested by particular portions of the brain." I believe that all scientific men concede that brains below a certain size are always indicative of idiocy, and that men of distinguished mental faculties have large heads. " One of the most singular features in the history of this continent is, that the aboriginal races, with few exceptions, have perished, or constantly receded, before the Anglo-Saxon race ; and have in no instance [not even Cherokee] either mingled with them as equals, or adopted their manners and civilization." " Certain parts of the brain, in all classes of animals [says Cuvier^ee ] are large or small, according to certain qualities of the animals." " If then there be reason to believe that different parts of the brain m.nnifest different mental faculties, and if the size of the part influence the power of manifestation, the ne- cessity is very evident of taking into consideration the relative proportions of different parts of the bruin, in a physiological inquiry into the connection between the crania of nationo and their mental faculties. To illustrate this position, we present exact drawings of two casts from nature; one (Fig. 353) is the brain of an American Indian; and the other (Fig. 354) the brain of an European. Both casts bear evidence of compression or flattening 464 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF RACES. .lut, to some extent, by the pressure of the plaster ; but the European brain is the flatter of the two. We have a cast of the entire head of this American Indian, and it corresponds closely with the form of the brain here represented. It is obvious that the absolute size of the brain (although probably a few ounces less in the American) might be the same in both; and yet, if different portions manifest different mental powers, the characters of the indi- viduals, and of the nations to which they belonged (assuming them to be types of the races), might be exceedingly different. In the American Indian, the anterior lobe, lying between \ D D American Indian. A A and B B, is small, and in the European it is large, in proportion to the middle lobe, lying between B B and C C. In the American Indian, the posterior lobe, lying between C and D, is much smaller than in the European. In the American, the cerebral convolutions on the anterior lobe and upper surface of the brain, are smaller than in the European. " If the anterior lobe manifest the intellectual faculties — the middle lobe, the propensi- ties common to man with the lower animals — and the posterior lobe, the domestic and social affections — and if size influence the power of manifestation, the result will be, that in the native American, intellect will be feeble — in the European, strong; in the American, ani- mal propensity will be very great — in the European, more moderate: while, in the Ame- rican, the domestic and social afi"ections will be feeble, and, in the European, powerful. We do not state these as established results ; we use the cuts only to illustrate the fact that the native American and European brains differ tviclehj in the proportions of their different parts ; and the conclusion seems natural, that if different functions be attached to different parts, no investigation can deserve attention which does not embrace the size of the diffe- rent regions, in so far as it can be ascertained." Prof. Tiedemann admits that " there is, undoubtedly, a very close connection between the absolute size of the brain and the intellectual powers and functions of the mind ; " as- serting also that the Negro races possess brain as large as Europeans : but, while he over- looked entirely the comparative size of parts, Morton has refuted him on the equality in absolute size. The above comparison of two human ])rains ilkistrates anatomical divergences between European and American races. Could a com- plete series of engravings, embracing specimens from each type of mankind, be submitted to the reader, his eye, seizing instantaneously comparative' ANATOMY OF RACES. 465 the cerebral distinctions between Peruvians and Australians, Mon- gols and Hottentots, would compel liini to admit that the jthysical dift'erence of human races is as obvious in their internal brains as in their external features. Let us here pause, and inquire what landmarks have been placed along the track of our journey. The reader v^^ho has travelled with us thus far will not, I think, deny that, from the facts now accessible, the following must be legitimate deductions : — 1. That the surface of our globe, is naiuralli/ divided into several zoological provinces, each of which is a distinct centre of creation, possessing a peculiar fauna and jlora ; and that every species of animal and plant was originally assigned to its appropriate province. 2. That the human family offers no exception to this general law, but fully conforms to it : Mankind being divided into several groups of Races, each of which constitutes a primitivf, element in the fauna of its peculiar province. 8. That history affords no evidence of the transformation of one Type into another, nor of the origination of a new and permanent Type. 4. That certain Types have been permanent through all recorded time, and despite the most opposite moral and physical influences. 5. That PERMANENCE of Type is accepted by science as the surest test of specific character. 6. That certain Types have existed [the same as now) in and around the Valley of the Nile, from ages anterior to 3500 years B. c, and consequently long prior to any alphabetic chronicles, sacred or profane. 7. That the ancient Egyptians had already classified 31anlcind, as known to them, into four Races, previously to any date assignable to 3Ioses. 8. That high antiquity for distinct Races is amply sustained by linguistic researches, by psycho- logical history, and by anatomical characteristics. 9. That the primeval existence of Man, in widely separate portions of the globe, is proven by the discovery of his osseous and industrial remains in alluvial deposits and in diluvial drifts ; and more especially of his fossil bones, imbedded in various rocky strata along with the vestiges of extinct species of animals. 10. That prolificacy of distinct species, inter se, is noio proved to be no test of coMMtiN ORIGIN. 11. That those Races of men most separated in phy&ical organization — such as the blacks and the whites — do not amalgamate perfectly, but obey the Laios of Hybridity. Hence 12. It follows, as a corollary, that there exists a Genus Homo, embracing many primordial Types or "Species." , Here terminates Part I. of this volume, and with it the joint responsibilities of its authors. It remains for my colleague, Mr. Gliddon, to show what light has been thrown by Oriental researches upon those parts of Scripture that bear upon the " Origin of Mankind." J. C. N. 59 PART II. CHAPTER XIV. THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. •' Consilium igitur fuit tractatui de Paradise pro appendice subnectere breu^ expositionem decimi capitis Geneseos de humani generis propagations ex stirpe Noae. Ex qua non veteres modo sed et nouitios interpretes horum ignoratione a sacri Scriptoris scopo scepe aberasse pater et Itaque hoc restat vnicum, vt ad sacram anchoram hoc est ad Scripturara confugiamus : Quse non solum in genere docet omnes homines ex vno semine esse editos, nempe ex Adamo in creatione, et post diluuium ex Noa et tribus filiis, sed et recenset nepotes Noae, et qui populi ex singulis ortum duserint." (Phaleg seu De Dispersione Gentium et Terrarum divisione facta in cedificatione turris Babd — auctore Samvele Bocharto: 1651.) 567 Preliminary RemarTcs. Tavo centuries intervene, as well . as many thousand miles of land and water, between the completion of Bochart's unsurpassable labors and the seemingly-audacious resumption of his inquiries in the present volume. The author of Geographia Sacra would smile, with more complacency perhaps than some of our readers, did he know that the edifice raised by his enormous erudition, in old scholastic Belgium, had been taken to pieces stone by stone ; and, after a scrutinizing, but frugal, rejection of time-rotted superfluities, has been reverentially rebuilt, in the piny-woods of Alabama, on the rough, though beaute- ous, shore of JMobile Bay. It 's with some regret that, in order to compress their work into a portable tome, the authors. lop away unsparingly the evidences of studies to which many months were conjointly and exclusively de- voted : but, at present, they must content themselves with the briefest synopsis of results. Their references indicate the sources of all emen- dations proposed — by far the greater bulk of which (with the sole exception of MiciiyELis's criticisms of seventy years ago)''"' arise from discoveries made by living Egyptologists, Hebraists, Cuneatic-stndeuts, ( 406 ) PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 467 and similar masters of Oriental lore. These references will establish, that, in the conscientious application of enlig-htened learning to the Hebrew Text of Xth G-enesis, commentaries of the genuine EngHsh evangelical school have ever played an insignificant part. Where the latter sometimes happen to be right, their facts are taken — generally at second-hand, and mostly without acknowledgment — from Bochart; and wherever, more frequently, they are wrong, they have either ignored his text or the very-accessible criticism of Continental archse- ologists. Of trivial value in themselves, such popular commentaries possess less weight in science ; and, having wasted their own time in hunting through dozens of them for a new fact or an original obser- vation, the authors will spare the reader's by leaving them unmen- tioned. " Priscorum mendax commenla estfabula vatum, Sincerumque nihil, nil sine labe fuit. Sordibus ex islis densa et caligine lucent Eruere, humanoe non fuit arlis opus. Desperata aliis iinus tentare Bochartvs Ausus, et ignotus primus iuire vias." "The ethnographic chart -^s contained in the tenth chapter of Genesis, presents," saya Dr. Eadie, "a broad and interesting field of investigation. It carries us back to a dim and remote era — when colonization was rapid and extensive, and the princes of successive bands of emigrants gave their names to the countries which they seized, occupied, and divided among their followers. This ancient record has not the aspect of a legend which has arisen, no one can tell how, and received amplification and adornment in the course of ages. It is neither a confused nor an unintelligible statement. Its sobriety vouches for its accuracy. As its genealogy is free from extravagance, and as it presents facts without the music and fiction of poetry, it must not be confounded with Grecian and Oriental mythe, .which is so shadowy, contradictory and baseless — a region of grotesque and cloudy phan- toms, where Phylarchs are exalted into demigods, born of Nymph or Nereid, and claiming some Stream or River for their sire. The founders of nations appear, in such fables, as giants of superhuman form — or, wandering and reckless outcasts and adventui'ers, exhibit- ing in their nature a confused mixture of divine and human attributes; and the very names of Ouranos, Okeanos, Kronos, and Gaea, the occupants of this illusory cloud-land, prove their legendary character. In this chapter there is, on the other hand, nothing that lifts itself above vulgar humanity, nothing that might, nothing that did not happen in those dis- tant and primitive epochs. The world must have been peopled by tribes that gave them- Belves and their respective regions those several names which they have borne for so many ages; and what certaiidy did thus occur, may have taken place in the method sketched in these Mosaic annals. No other account is more likely, or presents fewer difficulties ; and, if we creilit the inspiration of the writer of it, we shall not otdy I'eceive it as authentic, but be grateful for the information which it contains. Modern ethnology does not contradict it. Many of the proper names occurring on this roll remain unchanged, as the appellations of races and kingdoms. Others are found in the plural or dual number, proving that they bear a personal and national reference {Gen. x. 13) : and a third class have that peculiar termina- tion which, in Hebrew, signifies a sept or tribe (x. 17)."^™ The above scholar-like definition of what Dr. ITales styles "that most venerable and valuable Geographical Chart, the tenth chapter of Qeneui^"'^ indicates the absolute impossibility of obtaining satisfactory 46S THE TENTH CHAPTER OF GENESIS. glimpses (;f a large portion of humanity's earliest migrations without discussing, at the very threshold of inquiry, that antique document. Apart from this fundamental classification of some human primordial wanderings, bootless indeed would be attempts to follow the cobweb threads of our own ancestral creepings, backward from America to Europe, and thence to their primitive European or Asiatic starting- points. Every aboriginal tradition we Anglo-Saxons cherish, is but a ray of morning light, flitting though it be, projected from the Au- rora of our Eastern homes. "The Orient, with her immense recollections that touch the cradle of the world, as this itself touches the cradle of the sun, with her seas of sand, beneath which nations lie for- gotten, endures still. She preserves, yet living in her bosom, the first enigma and the first traditions of the human race. In history as in poetry, in religious manifestations as in philosophical speculations, the East is ever the antecedent of the West. We must therefore seek to know her, in order to become well acquainted with ourselves." ^'^^ But, before the historical character of this Ethnic map can be appre- ciated — before our unhesitating acceptance of it as a witness demon- strably credible — its antiquity, its nature, and its authorship, are indispensable points of preliminary inquiry. The authors of the present work, impressed with the necessity of using the Xth chapter of Genesis as a "ground-text" for a large sec- tion of their anthropological researches, coincided in the opinion that an "Archaeological Introduction to its study" ought to preface their adoption of its data. In consequence, it was decided, that the labor involved in such undertaking should be allotted to that one of the writers whose Oriental specialities naturally indicated him as per- former of the task. Too complex in nature, no less than too bulky in size, to serve for a chapter in the text of "Types of Mankind," this Archseological Introduction now becomes a S'upplement to the work itself; thereby preserving its own unity, at the same time that to the reader it is equally accessible, being bound up in the same v^olume. The perusal, then, of the Supplement is recommended to the reader previously to his further continuation of this work ; because the para- graphs upon Xth Genesis, hereto inmiediately following, are projected under the impression that such will be the natural course. Which taken for granted, we place before us Cahen's Genese,^'^ for the Hebrew text of Xth Genesis, and proceed to its critical dissection. The method we shall adopt, if at first sight novel, will be found strictly archaeological. It would be unphiloso]3hic to set forth with any theory as to age, authorship, or true place, of this document, in the arrangement of the canonical books. These points can resile solely through exegetical analysis of the document itself; which — written in the square-letter Hebrew character (not invented prior to HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 4C9 the third century after c.) ; divided into words (a system of writing not introduced in the earUest Hebrew MSS. — tenth century after c); punctuated by the "Masora" (commencing in the sixth, and closing about the ninth century after c.) ; and subdivided into verses (not begun before the thirteenth century after c.) — now presents itself to our contemplation. Section A. — Analysis of the Hebrew ITomenclature. Omitting, for the present, any comment upon verse 1 : " Behold the generations of the children of Noah, Shem, Ham, and Japheth ; they had children after the deluge " — our point of departure is verse 2. " The children of Japheth," eldest of the three brethi'en ; whose descendants, upon grounds to be justified hereinafter, we denominate Iapetid^, or White Races. [ Before proceeding, let me mention that, after our Genealogical Table was in type, Prof. Agassiz favored me with the loan of by far the most important work I have ever met with on Japethic questions: viz., Voyage aulour du Caucase, chez les Tcherkesses et les Abkhases, en Colchide, en Georgie, en Armenie, el en Crimee,^''^ par Frederic Dubois de Montpereux. Extreme was my satisfaction to perceive that our results not only had been anticipated, but that they were so accurate as to demand no alterations of the Table. Following the pro- found researches of Omalius de Hali,oy,5"5 and of Count John Potocki,^"^ the personal explorations of M. Dubois supersede everything printed on " Caucasian" subjects. I have made the freest use of his ethnological inquiries, as will be perceived under each Japethic name ; but it is not in my power to convey to the reader adequate knowledge of the aiaps with which this magnificent folio Alias is profusely adorned. On these, the successive dis- placements occasioned by the migrations, &c., of ancient " Caucasians" are so skilfully shown, that one's ej-e seizes instantaneously some 2500 years of history. To take GoMeR, or Kimmerians, as an example. Beginning in the 6th cent b. c. — PL Villa, gives •' Primitive Georgia before the invasion of the Scythians (Khazars)." " Scythia and Caucasus of Herodotus." " Periplus of Scylax Caryandinian." "Tauride, Caucasus, and Armenia of Strabo." " Tauride, Caucasus, and Armenia of Pliny.' " Arrian's Periplus of the Black Sea." " Wars of the Romans and Persians." " Massoudi's description of Caucasus," &c. Now, on such maps, the transplantations of these Kimmerians can be followed, almost sta tion by station: so minutely, that one might infer that GoMeR-wn.? became known to the Hebrew geographer after they had abandoned the northern Tauride to the Scythians, B. c. 633, and had settled about Paphlagonia, on the south-eastern side of the Black Sea. And so on with all the lapeiidcE of Xth Genesis. It need hardly be said that, in common with Bo- chart and ourselves, Dubois perceives nations and countries, and not individuals, in the Hebrew chart. — G. R. G.] n-D* 'J^—BXI-ff^T^ — " Affiliations of Japiiet." — (5^m. x. 2. L -10:1 — GMR — 'Gomer.' Essentially Indo-Germanic, this name, as well as all those of Japethites, is irresolv able into Semitish radicals ; and its Hebrew lexicographic aiSuities, such as to • cum plete, consume,^ &c., are rabbinical, spurious, and irrelevant. 6th " IX. 3d " " X. 1st « « XIa. Igt cent. A. a " XII. %i " " XIII. 6th « " XIV. 10th « « XVo. 470 THE TENTH CHAPTER OF GENESIS. ^] Chron. i. 5, 6) — " Gomek, and all his hordes — " (Ezek. xxxviii. 6). In Homer and D Diodorus, Ki/z/jcpio) ; in Herodotus, Bomropos Yiimxipios. In Josephus the Galatce are culled Vofxapcti ; possibly also understood in the Scytho-Bactrian Chomari, Comari, of Ptolemy. These are, undoubtedly, the Gomerians, Cimmerians, Crimean^, who, under the various forms of Cymr, Kymr, Kuwero, Cimbri, Cambri, and Galatw, Gael, Gauls, Kelts, Celts, figure as a branch of Celtic migrations in later European history. If Celtic migrators be considered anterior to the age of Xth Genesis, we should not hesitate in adopting the Germanic Sigambri, Sicambri, or the Gambrivii, or the Gama- briuni, as memorials of ' Gomer.' Rawlinson evolves 'Tsimri' from the cuneatic legends of Khorsabad. The name Gi^le'Rian, in endless forms, is scattered from Asia Minor to Scandinavia, for the following historical reason. About the year b. c. 633, the Scytho-Khazars ex- pelled the Kimmerians from Kimmericum. One set of fugitives sought asylum in "Western Europe; while the other skirted the eastern shores of the Black Sea; and, settling in and around Phrygia, became known to the writer of Xth Genesis. Bochart had happily remarked " Itaque omnibus expensis terra Gomer mihi videtur esse Phrygia, cujus portio est regio KaTaKtKavffrri." This word signifies the ' 6«r?i<-district:' and Dubois thoroughly establishes that the volcanic nature of such Kimmerian localities explains all their mythic associations with the infernal waters, Styx, Phlegethon, Co- cytus, Acheron, &c., which cluster around the naphtha-springs and mud-volcanoes of the present leriikaU. The Tauric Chersonesus, north of the Black Sea, would seem to have been the ex- tremest geographical boundary assumed by the Hebrew writer; and by a simple trans- position of letters, GMR (GRiMea) is still apparent in the name of this early Kimmerian halting-place, viz. : the Cnmea.^'^ 2 :iJO — MGrG — ' Magog.' Indo-Germanic, or Scythic; and, therefore, not the Hebrew "he who covers and dis- solves." {Gen. X. 2; Chron. 1. 5; Uzek. xxxviii. 2; xxxix. 6). Magog is not associated with Goo until the times of Ezekiel, during the Captivity, from about ' the 30th year' of Nabopolassar, 595 b. c. down to 572 b. c. (Ezek. i. 1 ; xxxix. 17). In the post-Christian but uncertain age of the writer of the Apocalypse (between a. d. 95 and the Council of Laodicea, which rejected it as apocryphal, 360- 369, A. D.,) ' GoG and Magog' appear together as nations {Rev. xx. 20); whereas, seven to eight centuries previously. Goo, "the Prince of Rhos, Meshech and Tubal," would seem to have been understood as the proper name of a kinff. King James's version {Ezek. xxxviii. 2, 3, &c.), by " Chief pri?ice of Meshech and Toubal," effaces RAS (J. e. Rhos ; the river Araxes, and the nation Rhox-Alani, or Alains), and perpet- uates an error detected by Bochart 200 years ago. Arab tradition, under the appellatives Yadjooj and Madjooj, prolongs the union down to the seventh century after Christ; with the commentary, that they are two nations descended from Japheth ; Gog being attributed to the Turks, and Magog to the GeeUln, the Geli and Gelre of Ptolemy and Strabo, and our Alani. In ancient Greek and Latin, Tiya^, Gygas, read also Grig-as, signified giant; and oriental legend associated giants with Scythians in the north of Asia. Magog has been assimilated to the Mussagelce (perhaps Massa-Getx, 3Iasian-Getx, of Mount Masius) who are to Getce what Magog is to Gog ; the prefixes of ma and massa being considered intensitives to indicate either the most honored branch of the nation, or the whole nation itself. Tacitus and Pliny mention the ^Chaucomra gentes,' and the Chaiici, among powerful tribes in Germany at their day ; and Gog may underlie these migrations. Ezekiel groups Gog with Rhos, Toubal and Meshech; and, inasmuch as Roxalani, Tibarcni, and Moschii, no less than the transplanted Crimeans (Gomer), were geo- (;ra^hically located in Asia Minor, between the Black Sea and the Caspian, the habitats HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 471 of them all lay in that region. By Strabo, the country of Gog-arene (Gog-aiVanian? air = man ; ' man of CAUC-asus ' ?) is phiced near that of the Moschi. Josephus renders the name of Magog by Scythians ; and Jerome, " Magog esse gentes Scythicas inunaiies et innumerabiles, qute trans Caucasum moutem et Ma;otidem paludem, et prope Caspium mare ad Indiam usque tendantur." But, ingenious as they are, such etymologies become henceforth superfluous through Dubois's excellent suggestions. The Hebrew word is Ma-GUG. The first syllable refers to the Ma'ioles, Mceles, Mates, Meotes: tribes of the Sarmates, roj/ai-Medes, Sauro- Madai', {i. e., Tauric Medians, transplanted from the Taurus to the east of the Caspian,) of the Sea of Azof. The second syllable, GUG, is simply the Indo-Gei-manic word Khogh, 'mountain' (as in the celebrated diamond, Koh-en-noor, ^mountain of light'); which has been preserved in the Ilellenized name Kauk-a.sos, or Cauc-nans, from the time of Herodotus, b. c. 430 ; as also in the " inscription de P^risades, premier archonte du Bosphore, en 3J9 avant J.-c." Having thus fixed GUG to a 'mountain,' Cawc-asos. the root of asos is instantly recognized in the national name of the Osses, Osseth, Vases, Aas, Asi; whence the continent of 'Asia' derives its European designation. These Osses, or As, are traceable in the ancient Jaxamates, or Yas-Meotes, as perfectly as in the modern Jazigees, Yasyghes (or Fa^-Djiks), ' Jaz-Djiks ' ; who now call themselves Tcherkesses, by us corrupted into ' Circassians.' They have been likewise termed Ovsni, Adas, Akas, and even Kergis, by the old travellers ; and while the first syllable of their ante-historical name yet floats over the Sea of ASo/(Azof ), and lives in the Abkh-^.«M-mountaineers, it has been borne to Asaland (land of the Asa) no less than to Asgard (city of the Asa), in old Scandinavia. In this manner ably sums up Dubois, "As far back as history mounts, she finds within the angle circumscribed between the Cauc-asus, the Palus Meotis, and the Tanais, an Asia-proper, inhabited by a people, 'AS,' of Indo-Germanic race: " and we discover, in the i/a-iotes of the 'mountain' Cauc-asus, the long-lost and mystified nation, Ma-GUG, of Xth Genesis. Thus, this collective name of Magog designated one of many barbarous Caucasian hordes, roaming of yore between the Euxine and the Caspian, including, probably, Gothic amid Scythic families ; and Gog has left, even to this day, besides the living Osses, a trail still visible in the very etymon of his ancient homestead, the CAIJG-Asian mountains.5~8 ^ 3. nt: — MDI — 'Madai.' Indo-Germanic, or Scythic. Not Hebrew, ' covering,' ' coat,' &c. The LXX transcribe Maioi, in lieu of MtSoi. The Persian word madhya, the ' middle,' its supposed derivation. Herodotus counted seven nations, and says their ancient name was Arioi, the 'braves'; that is, Arii, 'Arians.' It is probable, however, that the root air, which in Scythic tongues means 'man,' may have been assimilated to^n, • lion,' in the alien speech of Semitic nations. The name is spread over a vast area, from Arkan, 'Armenia,' through Irdn, 'Persia,' to the conquering ^ryas, Ayras, of Hindostan. In primitive times, the origines of all nations were personified ; and, according to Strabo, Medus, son of the mythological Jason and Medea, was the progenitor of the Medes. The name Madah occurs in the seventh century, written in Assyrian cunei- form, on sculptures from Khorsabad ; and Rawlinson transcribes Mddiya from the in- numerable legends of Behistun and Persepolis, deciphered through his acumen. RagcB 'Media,' was called Ruka by the Egyptians of the XVIlIth dynasty; and perhaps Malai is Media itself. The name i)/c(/e still survives in Hamadan (Ecbatana), just as that of ylna« (Aria, Arii) in the HaRA of 1 Chron. v. 26. They are the Medes: and further reference to Scriptural or to classical passages, in their case, is superfluous.^'S 472 THE xth chapter of genesis. 4. JV_IUI^ — 'Javan.' Indo-Germanic ; and not from the Hebrew, ' mud,' or ' oppressor.' In this instance, the Masoretic points (not added to the Text until after the fifth cen- tury of our era), and the modern Jewish reading of V for U, alone obscure a name whose literal meaning springs out at first glance. •'The barbarians called all Greeks by the name of Ionia ns," says the Scholiast on Aristophanes : and the Greeks revenged themselves by terming all other people bar- barians. The LXX correctly transcribe Iwuav; for laovc; is the older form in Homer; a name to be distinguished from the later Iwve;, according to Pausanias. Herodotus recounts how the Athenians, previously called Pelasgi, received the name lonians, from ION, son of Xuthus ; the traditionary ancestor of the Ionian race. In Daniel xi. 2, where King James's version renders Grecia, the original has lUN ; but the age of this document not ascending earlier than b. c. 175-160, in the reign of Antiochus Epiplianes, we go back to the 27tli March, b. c. 196, date of the coronation of Ptolemy Epiphanes at Memphis, recorded on the Rosetta Stone; where the word "EXKriviKoii, in Greek, is rendered, on the corresponding demotic and hieroglyphic texts, by lUNiN : a name given by Egyptians to the Greeks at every age, back to the earliest records we possess in which lonians are mentioned — documents anterior to Xth Gen- esis by some centuries, because ascending to the XVIIIth dynasty. Upon the Assyrian monuments of Khorsabad, the same name, Jaounin, is read by cuneiform scholars, as early as the eighth century b. c. ; and upon the Persian sculp- tures of the Achoemenidan dynasty, in the sixth century b. c, the Greeks, as YUNA, or Ionia, frequently appear. Javanas, or Yavanas, is the Hindoo appellative of the Greeks, in the " Laws of Manou," who therein are classed among the Soudras, or 'degenerates'; and, although the fabulous antiquity of these Sanscrit records has sunk far below the pretensions of the so-called Mosaic, their compilation certainly ascends to the fourth century of our era, if not beyond. While, finally, among the Arabs, ancient and modern, Yooncin is the generic name for Greeks in general, and lonians in particular. By lUN, or Ionian, the writer of Xth Genesis seems to class the Greeks collectively, as far as they were known to him ; and Ionia, on the western coast of Asia Minor, is the approximate limit of its geographical application.sso Snn TtBJj — ' Tubal.' Indo-Germanic. Not the Hebrew, ' he who is conducted,'' &c. The LXX place before Thubal another son of Japheth, called Elisa; but Isaiah, by exiling "those who escape" to " Tubal and Javan, the states afar ofi^," shows that, in the idea of the wi'itcr of the second (or spurious) part of the oracles ascribed to this pro- phet, Thubal ranked among distant northern nations of the gentile world. Connected, in EzEKiEL, always with 3Ieshcch, by whom Tubal is immediately followed in Xth Genesis, these two nations of the " uncircumcised " must have lain close together in Hebrew geography. Iberia, from the roots ebr, and wcp, ' beyond,' or, so to say, ' the i/07iderer,' was the name of an Asiatic country east of Colchis, south of Caucasus, west of Albania, and north of Armenia ; in short, corresponding to Georgia of the present day ; classically deno- minated Imeriti. The substitution of b for m, at once changes the Imerili into the Ibe- riti: to which prefixing the antique particle t, we obtain the t-lbarencs of Herodotus and Strabo : a designation equivalent to w/f/ra-Caucasians. The word Iberian, in the 8ensc of ' yonderer,' was given to many remote nations by aliens to the formers' autoc- tbonous traditions. . Identified as the Ttiaprivoi of Strabo, who, by Herodotus, are located with the J/o«c^o». HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 473 they seem to have been subject to Gog, Cauc-.'1,vrote A, L, I, S, H, in the unknown alphabet he used. Elishah, is not older than the Masora Rabbis. The LXX read 'KXiad. Either view, however, establishes a close affinity between lonians arid Hellenes, or Eleans ; and Greeks in general, as well along the shores of the Morea as on the islea of the Archipelago, would adequately represent the geography of Alish ; but, in view of restricted knowledge (and no Sh), it seems more probable that jEoles and jEolia, in \sia Minor, were the nation and country intended by the writer of Xth Genesis.-'^'' HEBREW NOMENCLATURE, 477 12. JT^Cnn — TmSTS — 'Tarshish.' Indo-Germanic ( ?), or Semitic (?) ; not, 'contemplation.' Perhaps, in endeavoring to attain the exact point of view of the anthor of Xi\i Gen- esis, this is the most enigmatical problem left to modern solution ; although commen- tators of the present day slide over its difficulties, and range themselves under one of two schools : the first of which claims Tartessus on the Spanish, the second. Tarsus on the Cilician coast, to be the true locality. The question is so far important, that in it is involved the occidental limit of the geographical knowledge of the Hebrews at the time when Xth Genesis was compiled; and, as customary, modern orthodoxy, which discovers the Chinese in the SIMM of Is. xlix. 12 — the Negroes in KAaM, Ham, of Gen. x. 1 ! and the "ten lost tribes of Israel " in the American aborigines, contends for the widest interpretation. Scriptural texts require the word Tarshish to be classed under three categories : — A. — Tarsus, Tapaos — now Tarsous, on the coast of Caramania — an ancient city on the river Cydnus : birth-place of Paul, and sepulchre of Julian. Between T/aRSIS of Xth Genesis, or other passages of the text, and TaRSoS, there is no difference, philo- logically, except a "mater lectionis, " or vowel, which, in palaeography, is vague. The iVasorelic points, hke the Greek tonic accents, are unauthoritative, beyond indicat- ing the traditionary phonetism of post-Christian writers in either tongue : and the Masora commences only six centuries after Christ. The amphibious adventure of Jonah, which, the Rev. Prof. Stuart says, "plainly savors of the miraculous," might possibly indicate the Spanish Tartessus, as the cor- respondent of Tarshish during the uncertain, but recent, age at which this prophetic book was composed — a treatise that must not be confounded with the scientific and more ancient document — Xth Genesis. [The NaBI, ' Jonah,' Tebelled against leHOuaH's command, "go to Nineveh," and therefore encountered the fate from which Perseus delivered Andromeda, viz. ; that of deglutition by "a great Jish," or monstrous cetus — the Tr^a/e ; which became a sempiternal emblem of icthyophagy, when, assuming the forms of Cepheus and Cassiepea, it ascended to the heavens, or, as Glaucus, descended to the sea. In 1850, a paragraph, started in the New York "Sunday Messenger" by Major Noah, ■went the rounds of the religious and profane newspapers throughout the Union. It asserted that the portrait of the Prophet Jonah had been found on the walls of Nineveh ! Here he is (Fig. 355). OvavK, Oannes (of Berosus) as lOANw,- and Jonah, 'Jonas,' as lONAS ; both being «-ON-fs == 'the sun' — were identified long ago with Dagon, DAG-ON ; i. e. the "sun in pisces," incarnated in this Assyrian fish- god. The same mythe lies in AUrgatis, or Derceto, and especially in those Christian forgeries called the "Sibylline verses," beneath the acrostical Ix^^s- I should not hesitate, but for the above praeternaturalities, in reading the Tarsus of Cilicia as the destination of the ship whereupon Jonah took his passage, and ^'paid the fare," on an obedient voyage from Joppa to Nineveh, (as a convenient route anciently, before «^e(777i-navigatiou, as now "caeteris paribus"), for compliance with the " tetra- grammaton's" behests: but he spitefully "rose up to flee unto Tarshish, from the presence of ADONAI"; and, in consequence, while Jonah was righteously punished for his obduracy, it seems that his intention was to escape through a western, in lieu of proceeding in an easterly, direction ; and therefore Tartessus of Hispania. or else- where so long as Jonah could realize a contrary, would appear to have been the country for which the vessel cleared, and wherein dwelt her consignees. — G. R. 1 Fig. 355.5S8 478 THE xth chapter of genesis. B. — Tarteasiis, TapTrjaaof, probably a Phoenician emporium, whether among the Tartessii in the vicinity of the present CatUz, or at some other point witliin the Medi- terranenn, lay unquestionably in Spain. Hither Solomon and Hiram dispatched their commercial navies (1 Kings x. 22 ; 2 Chron. ix. 21); and thence, about the time of the Babylonish captivity [Ezekiel xxvii. 12; Jeremiah x. 9), silver, tin, iron, and lead, ■were imported, through Tyre, into the Levant. The presence of silver, tin, and lead, upon Egyptian mummies of every age back to the XVHIth dynasty, establishes, beyond dispute, epochas far earlier than those of any Hebrew writers, Moses in- clusive, for relations of trade between the Nile and whatever western regions, probably Spain, whence those articles were introduced : so, no doubts on relative anti- quity need arise upon Iberian Tarlessus. It corresponds perfectly to Tarshish in later parts of Hebrew annals. But there is a third element in the discussion, unknown to Anglo-Saxon divinity, which it is due to our contemporary Michel-Angelo Lanci, Pro- fessor of Sacred Philology at the Vatican, not to overlook. C. — Tarsis does not proceed from Tur-sus ; but from the old Semitic root rasas, pre- served in Arabic, meaning ' to wet,' ' to lave.' With the primeval feminine article T prefixed to it, Tarshish means 'land laved by the sea,' that is, the sea-shore; and, in consequence, " vessels of Tarshish " often signifies coasters, irrespectively of any geogra- phical attribution. For example — we should read, "thou breakest the coasting- vessels" (not ships of a place called Tarshish,) "with an east-wind." {Ps. xlviii. 7.) Again, " The kings of maritime states (Tarshish) and of inland regions (Iim) shall pre- sent off'erings." {Ps. Ixxii. 10.) And finally, not to digress here on that most prolific theme, the mistranslations consecrated in King James's Version, compare " Sheba and Dedan, and the merchants of Tarshish, with all the young lions ( ! ) thereof" — (Ezek. xxxviii. 13) — with Land's lucid Italian rendering: "The inhabitants of the strong places of terra-firma, Saba and Dedan, and the maritime merchandizers and their colo- nists will say to thee " — {Gli abitatori de! forti luoghi di terra ferma, Saba e Dedan, e i mercatanti marittimi e i loro coloni diranno a te.) This derivation of Tarshish, from T-rasas, bears upon the geographical inquiry so far as concerns the marine position of a territory to which the name is applied. The following passages are note-worthy in our discussion : — 1st. — (2 Chron. xx. 36.) Jehoshaphat "joined himself with him (Ahaziah) to make ships to go to Tarshish ; and they made the ships at Etsion-gaber." Now, this arsenal lay near Elath, on the Elanitic arm of the Red Sea, not far from Akaba ; and there- fore, in those days, the Jews were not likely to have intended a circumnavigation of Africa to reach Tartessus in Spain ! Nor is it probable that, after building galleys at enormous cost on the Red Sea, the Hebrews contemplated transportation backwards over the Isthmus to launch them again on the Mediterranean. 2d. — (1 Kings xsii. 48.) But we learn that "Jehoshaphat made ships of Tarshish to go to Ophir for gold : but they went not ; for the ships were broken at Etsion-gaber." What other construction but " coasting voyages" will suit Tarshish, in the former pass- age? What other than "coasting vessels" could go by sea from Akaba to Ophir (on the Persian Gulf, as we shall see,) in the latter? Here, then, without question, Tarshish refers to "coasters," or "maritime merchan dizers," sailing down the Red Sea towards India, and not to Spain. 3d. — (2 Chron. ix. 21.) " For the king's (Solomon) ships went to Tarshish with th( servants of Huram ; every three years once came (back) the ships of Tarshish, bringing gold and silver, S//iN-IIaBIM {teeth, of elephants?), KUP/dM (apes), and T/;K1IM (peacocks?)." The parallel passage 1 Kings x. 22, enumerates the same articles, but has "fleet of Tarshish." So, "coasting vessels," and not a locality, seems intended by both writers. This is confirmed bj' Gesenius, who says that "a ship of Tarshish" meant •'any large merchant vessel in general." All the article" named, with one exception, might have been imported equally well from the African coast of the Gates of Hercules, opposite to the Spanish Tarlessus, as HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 479 from Southern Arabia, Ophir, &c. ; because elephants abounded in Barbary, even in Roman times; while "Apes-hWl," at Gibraltar, even now corresponds to the opposite Atlantic range, where apes are as common as African baboons in Arabia ; whence the latter are brought now-a-days to Cairo. But the exception excludes Spain, and all Northern Africa. The singular TiK, pointed Thid; like its homonyme Taodk, and Taoos, in Arabic, Turkish, &c., is con- sidered to mean 'peacock.' If so — and there is no actual inipo.«sibility that such a " rara avis" should have been bri)Ught via Arabia by the coa.stiiig trade — India is the country 0^ peacocks ; and therefore these birds were not procurable at Tarlcssus, in Spain, 1000 years b. c. PeacocJcs are not impossible ; but a new reading is submitted, equally destructive of Spanish Tartessii in these texts. It is certain that cocks and hens (the common fowl), as well as geese, are never men- tioned in the canonical writings of the Hebrews. Nor fowls in authentic works of Homer ; nor by Herodotus. The Pharaonic Egt/ptians knew not the common fowl ; using geese, ducks, and these birds' eggs, instead. But one instance of possibly a '^cock^s head," and that a stuffed specimen, occurs on Nilotic monuments. It is in the *' Grand Procession" of tributes to Thotmes III., as Pickering first indicated. Etruscan vases, being of later manufacture, are no exception to the rule that the common fowl had not reached Europe, or Asia west and north of the Euphrates, or Africa, before the conquests of the Achemsenians, B. c. 540, downwards. It is also positive, that the centres of creation for this bird are Indo-Chinese and Australasian ; and that, like peacocks, they had to be imported into Arabia from India. Now, in Arabic, a cock is called ' Deyk,' DiK. Stripped of the modern Masora, the Hebrew word is T^K, or DiK. May not the common fowl, in lieu of peacock, be alluded to in the above pass- ages? It is as probable as pheasant, proposed by others; and about the same ages (B. C. 1110) white pheasants, probably from C'affraria, were received at the court of Tching-wang, in China ; according to Pauthier. Bochart, followifi'g Eusebius's Qapadi l^ ou 'iBTjpt; — the Iberians of Spain — and the generality of English commentators, fix upon Tartessus as the equivalent for Tarshish of Xth Genesis. Continental orientalists of our day lean towards the Cilician Tharsis, Tarsus; upon the earlier authority of Josephus, and of Jonathan, the Chaldee para- phrast. And, without dogmatizing in the least upon either view, the order in which Ionic affiliations succeed each other — jEolia, Tarshish, Kittim the Cyprians, and Rho- danim the Rhodians — coupled with the geographical proximity of Rhodes and Cyprus to Tarsous, on the Caramanian coast, seems confirmatory of those opinions which select TarstiSf in Cilicia, as the locality indicated by the writer of Xth Genesis for T.\RSHiSH. There is no difficulty with regard to the antiquity of Cilician Tarsous ; because Mr. Birch read, long ago, " This is the vile slave from Tarsus of the sea," inscribed in hieroglyphics, during the thirteenth century b. c, over a captive of Ramses III.589 13. D'ilD — WTtTsl — ' Kittim ' ; plural of KiT^. Language uncertain. Not, 'they that bruise,' or gold ; nor, 'hidden," &c. Three Mediterranean countries have been supposed by commentators to be figured by the various etymons of this word : Italy, Macedonia, and Cyprus ; besides many "islands." The first, resting solely upon the fanciful analogies of Kena, in Latium, and KcTOi, a river near Cumse, although supported by the erudition of Bochart, may now be dismissed without ceremony. Kittim, as Maxcna, after Alexander's conquests had made Macedonia renowned, Is the acceptation in which it appears in two latest books of the Hebrews — Daniel (xi. 30) and 1 Maccabees (i. 1) ; equally canonical in archreology. The books belonging mainly to the period between Alexander (b. 0. 330) and the Babylonish captivity — say, from Hilkiah's high-priesthood, about b. c. 630 down- 480 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. ■jyards — give to Kittim a wider extension than can well be deduced from Xth Genesis ; for Jeremiiih (ii. 10) and Ezekiel (xxvii. G) speak of the states or "isles oi Kittim: " the latter with reference to works in ivory thence imported. Greece was celebrated for chryselephantine manufactures, certainly in the 30th Olympiad, 6G0 B. c, and per- haps before. In the Hebrew text of the doubtful parts of Isaiah (Ixvi. 19), Tarshish (Tarsus), Phul (probably Fam-phylia), Lud (Lydia), Thuhal (Paphlagonia), Javan (Ionia), and Kittim, are grouped together ; bene? their proximity is inferable. Josephus adopts the Oriental form of personification when he relates that ^'Kethimus possessed the island of Kelhima, which now is called Cyprus ; and from this, by the Hebrews, all islands and maritime places are termed Kethim." Hence, modern researches unite upon the island of Cyprus as the centre-point of probabilities — Citium, xtnov tto\ii;, of Ptolemy, a city in Cyprus, novr Kiti; and the Phoenician Ci/iaci, applied by Cicero ; justifying the adoption. Confirmed, moreover, by Boeckh's Greek inscriptions, wherein TiD t^'X, a ' man of KiT^' is explained by KtTuv; : a Kitian, or Cypriote. But the true position of Ki Hum, as Cyprus, is now fixed by "coins of the anonym- ous kings of Cittium ; " no less than by a cuneatic inscription of the time of the Assy- rian king Sargon (recently found at Larnica, and conveyed to Berlin), which carries the name back to the eighth century b. c. Egyptian monuments, elucidated by Birch, enable us to behold it again in hieroglyphics of the thirteenth century B. c, where the " Chief of the Khita, as a living captive," surmounts one of the prisoners of Piamses III. Nor is this our earliest record; because the KeFa, portrayed in the "Grand Proces- sion" of Thotmes III. \_mpra, p. 159, Fig. 82], are said to come "from the isles in the sea," i. e. Cyprus ; and, again, "Khefa (Cyprus), Khita (Kettisei)," stands registered in the sculptures of Amunoph III., at Soleb. So the people, and their island, are as old as the XVIIIth dynasty, or the sixteenth century b, c. The inhabitants of Cyprus in particular, and of the adjacent coasts and islands in general, are undoubtedly the KiT^IM (Cypriots) of the later projector of Xth Genesis — a conclusion ratified by their propinquity to the nation immediately succeeding. 590 14. D*J"!"T — DDNIM — ' Dodanim ' ; plural of Bodan. Between Dodanim of Xth Genesis, and 'Rodanim of 1 Chron. i. 7, a literal discordance, produced by the error of some unknown transcriber, leaves the decision for posterity (as Cardinal Wiseman declares in respect to 1 Tim. iii. 16) to "rest on what judgment it can form amid so many conflicting statements! " AVho, from the text alone, can tell whether we must read 'Rodanim in Xth Genesis, or Dodanim in 1 Chronicles ? In con- sequence, conjecture has had full scope; and Bochart's ingenious assimilation of the river Rhodanus, Rhone, has been seized upon by a standard Anglican divine (Bishop Patrick, to wit), who beholds in France the country of the Rodanim ! " Our old chron- iclers," says Champollion-Figeac, " equally robust etymologists as able critics, do they not found the realm of France by Francus, one of the sons of Hector, saved expressly from the sack of Troy ! " The Hungarians caused Attila to descend from Nimrod in a straight line ; the Danes, from the Danai issuing from Dodona, crossed the Danube, to which they gave their name, and finally settled in the country they named Danemark ! Dodanim possesses advocates ; and of course Dodona, in Epirus, site of Grcecia's most ancient oracle, at once suggests that the Dodoncei must be the people intended. Nor, except its remoteness from the neighborhood of other proper names whose geography is tolerably positive, can a negation be absolutely demonstrated. However, the Samaritan Pentateuch, reading Rhodians where the LXX have Pfi^ioi, affords a preponderating vote in favor of the R. And, other conditions being equal, this fixes attention on the isle of Rhodes ; by excluding the possibilities of D. Its early Grecian occupancy; its location between Cyprus and yEoHa ; and their common affiliation from Ionia; support the view that Ru^oj, the roseate island of the Rhodians, was the habitat of the Genesiacal RopanIm-^oi HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 48J Hamid^, or Sivarthy Races. on 'JD — BNI-KAM — " Affiliations of Ham."— Gen. x. 6. 15. riD — KITS — 'CusH.' By the LXX, sind in the Vulgate, this fvord, whenever translated, is made to figure under the Greek form of AcOioma, Ethiopia. Through Cruden's Concordance, it appears that Cmh is transcribed in King James's Version as if in the primary Hebrew Text the name had occurred only five times : whereas, if we restore to its relative passages ia the Text the original KUS, in every instance where in our version we tind its supposed equivalents, ' Ethiopia,' '■Ethiopian,' ^Ethiopians,' it will be perceived that Cash is re- peated, (5-j-34 = ) thirty-nine times in the canonical Hebrew Scriptures. It may occur to a simple believer in plenary inspiration to inquire, why, and upon •what principle of logic or philology, the translators of our authorized version — " By Her Majesty's special command — appointed to be read in Churches" — took upon them- selves the suppression of the Hebrew word KUSA thirty-four times, and its preserva- tion only five ? How happens it, that strict uniformity was not adopted ; and that they did not either substitute Ethiopia all the way through, or preserve the original Kusk in every instance; according to the consistent method of Cahen, in his much more accurate translation? To answer such queries is beyond human power, because the aforesaid translators did not know themselves : but some explanation may be found in the fact that, little versed in Hebrew literature, the fifty-four revisers, in 1G03, followed the versions, and not the Text; as our Part III. thoroughly establishes. Investigation must first "be directed towards the Hebrew triliteral KUS. Its trans- lation by the Greek word Ethiopia is a secondary inquiry. K?D, KUS, are its radicals ; and must have been its components, at whatever time, and in whatever alphabet, ante- rior to the Hebrew square-letter (not invented until the third century after c), the Xth chapter of Genesis was first written. The diacritical points, added by the Masoretes after the sixth century of our era, make its sound KUS/j; whilst, as regards its ori- ginal Hebrew phonetism, the terminal Sh is (Chaldaically) likely, and we adopt it in the form KUSA. What did KUSA signify, in the mind of the compiler of Xth Genesis ? There is not one joer mil of our contemporary divinity-students who will not glibly reply — " Ethi- pia, to be sure — Africa, above Egypt " ! [ Five years have passed since the authors of the present volume denounced such answer to be simply ridiculous (J. C. N. : Biblical and Physical History of Man, 1849, pp. 138-146;— G. R. G. : Otia ^gyptiaca, 1849, pp. 16, 133-4). Between replies so diametrically opposed there can be no reconciliation. One of the two must be abso- lutely false. Among the many, however, who have felt themselves called upon to con- travene our assertions, not having hitherto met with one person really acquainted with the Hebrew alphabet, we may be excused by Hebraists from recognizing as " Biblical authorities" those teachers who (even the articulations of J<, 3, Jl> being to them un- known) are yet ignorant of the A, B, C, of Scriptural language, meanings, and history. It was the authors' intention, when projecting " Types of Mankind," to publish an investigation of Ethiopian questions, sufficiently copious and radical as to leave few deductions ungrounded; and their MSS. were prepared accordingly: but, so much extra space has been occupied by Part 1., that "copy," to the extent of some 200 of these pages, must be suppressed for the present. The reader will, in conse- quence, be lenient enough to accept dry references, in lieu of logical argument. If "truth" be the object of his search, we feel confident that our bibliographical indices will at any rate place such reader on the easiest route of verification. — G. R. G.] Bochart's words show that we were not the first, by more than 1000 years, to claim 61 482 THE xth chapter of genesis. " Arabia" for KUS/i, instead of "Ethiopia." " Chus alii ^thiopiam, alii Arabiam explieant. Priorem interpretationem praster Hebrseos fere quotquot sint, etiam Graeci sequuntur, et vulgatus interpres, et Philo, et Josephus, et Eusebius, et Hieronymus, et Eustathius in HexaBirieron, et author Chronici Alexandrini, et chorus patrum vniuersaa. Arabs etiam nuper editus qui hie habet f^mX Abasenorum seu Abissinorum terram, id est Ethiopian!. Posteriorera h veteribus, quod sciam, solus Jonatlian, in cujus para- phrasi Gen. x. 6, pro HebrEeo Chus est N'SIJ? Arabia. . . . Ex iis quse hactenus a nobis disputata sunt, credo constare luce clarius Chusseos in iis locis habitasse quae supra indicauimus, nimirum supra ^gyptum ad Rubri maris sinum intimum, in parte Arahice. Petrwa. el Fetiris." Circumscribed within a few pages, our part limits itself to the production of such atoms of new data as have been attained since Bochart's day : beginning with the four rivers of Eden. " The name of the second river, Gihon ; that which encompasseth all the land of KUSA" (Geji. ii. 13) — part of the Jehovislic, and consequently later document — may be dismissed from the discussion ; because, relating to ante-dihivian epochas, its geography is unknown. If there ever was an universal Deluge, all land-marks were necessarily obliterated. If there was not, as some geologists now maintain, the Bere- shith (from Gen. i. 1 to Gen. vi. 9, rabbinical division) ceases to contain history; and, •when not accepted in the allegorical sense maintained by learned Christian fathers, must be abandoned, by science, to thaumaturgical ingenuity; while the KUSA of Gen. ii. remains to be sought for "near the isle Utopia of Thomas Morus. Utopia! expressive name! — invented by the satirical Rabelais (Pantagruel), and afterwards applied by the great Chancellor of England (Sir Thomas More) to the beautiful land (Oceana) of which he dreamed — this Greek noun seems made expressly to indicate the sole degree of latitude under which the poetic marvels of the grand Atalantic island (and of the four rivers in Eden) could have ever been produced. It has been believed," continues Martin, the ablest critic upon Plato, "that it [the river Gihon\ might be recognized in the New World. No : it belongs to another world, which exists not within the domain of space, but in that of fancy." In the geographical nomenclature of Xth Genesis, KUSA is the "son of Kkam ;" a name applied to Egypt and her colonial affiliations : of which some are African, and others, such as Canaanites, indisputably Asiatic. To which continent did the Hebrews refer the name KUSA ? In 1657, Walton, the upright and most proficient compiler of Bihlia Polyglotta, inveighed against the notion that KUS/i could be the African "^Ethiopia;" citing the •best scholars of his day to the same effect. So, again, Beroaldus, Bochart, and Patrick, following the Targum of Jonathan, the Chaldee paraphrast — third to eighth century after Christ — render KUSA by Arabia, on the subjoined, among other grounds : — 1st. Moses' wife is termed a KUSAfow [Num.. xii. 13). Tsipora was a daughter of Jethro, the Cohen (priest) of Midian {Exod. ii. 16, 21; iii. 1); and Midiaiiites being Arabians, here KUSA is Arabia. No other wife is given to Moses in the Pentateuch; nor can any supernaturalist so torture the plain words of its text as to prove, to a man of common sense, that Mosea ever visited Ethiopia above Egypt. The Abb6 Glaire, Doyen de la Sorbonne, whose two volumes — models of erudition and style that protestant divines would do well to imitate — lie before us, never resorts to such pitiful subterfuges. 2d. " I will make the land of Mitzraim a waste of wastes, from the tower of Syene even unto the frontier of KUS/t" (Ezek. xxix. 10). Syene being Assoi/dn, at the first caifiract, on the border-line of (Ethiopia) Nubia and Egypt, the writer cannot mean "from Ethiopia to Ethiopia," but from Syene to KUSA, beyond the Isthmus of Suez, on the north-eastern frontier of Lower Egypt, and consequently here indicates Araoia. HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 483 Modern researches furnish moi-e ciitic;il light. In the first place, Dr. Wells sustains, and, to a certain extent, demonstrates, that the word KUSA refers exclusively to the Asiatic " Ethiopia," and never to African localities; summing up his reasonings with, " the nation of Cush did first settle in Arabia ; and the word is, generally, to be so understood in Scripture." In the second, believers in the unilt/ of all mankind's descent from " Noah and his three sons," must concede that Nimrod, and many other affiliations of KUS/(, settled in Assyrian vicinities; even if offshoots did afterwards cross through Ara/iia into Africa, and there, owing to " effects of climate," originate Niijritian rjices ; beginning witii the comparatively high-caste Berber, and descending down to the lowest grade of Bo^jesvian — alwaj's along a sliding scale of deterioration, from the valley of the Nile to the Cape of Good Hope — where, unfortunately, 200 years of occupancy have not yet transmuted Dutch Boers into animals different from those left behind them in Holland and Flanders. The text most triumphantly quoted to prove the African hypothesis is Jerem. xiii. 23. — " Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots ?" A glance at the Hebrew shows that here, as in other instances, the fifty-four revisers of King James's version blindly copied the LXX, or the Vulgate; because "Can the KUS/;fan change his skin" leaves the question vague until the real application of KUSA be determined. The same proclivity leads many divines to cite another text, from the so-called "Song of Solomon," in behalf of their negrophile theories. — " I (am) black, but comely. . . . Look not upon me, because 1 (am) black, because the sun hath looked upon me: my mother's children were angry with me; they made me keeper of the vineyards; (but) mine own vineyard have I not kept." {Cant. i. 5, 6.) The absence of notes of inter- rogation in Hebrew palaeography, coupled with the philological inanity of modern translators of this ancient erotic ballad, perpetuates a delusion, removeable by Land's rendering: — "I (am) browned, but comely. . . . Look not [disparagingly] upon me that I (am) browned [" fosca" = tawny, dark], because the sun has tanned me: the sons of my mother \_i. e. my step-brothers] becoming free to dispose of me [according to Oriental usage], posted me (as) custodian of vines; my own vine, have I not guarded [taken care of] it?" Besides, as it has been remarked on the above interrogatory of Jeremiah, — "If Cush means a Negro, then we have revelation to prove that climate will not change a Negro into a white man; if it means an Arab (dark) Caucasian, then it will not change a white man into a Negro!" — Indeed, the ultra-high-church orthodoxy of a living English divine, and profound, whilst fantastic. Orientalist, unhesitatingly endorses this critical view. — "Among the great land-marks of national descent, none, it may safely be affirmed, are surer, or more i)ermane}it, than those physical varieties of form, countenance, and color, which distinguish from each other the various races of mankind. ... In Arabia, one of the earliest seats of post- diluvian colonization ; a country rarely violated, and never occupied, by a foreign conqueror; and peopled, in all ages, by the same primitive tribes, . . . peculiarity of form and feature may be justly received, in any specific or authentic example, as evi- dence of identity of origin, little, if at all, short of demonstration. This principle we are enabled, by Scripture, to apply as an index to the Arab tribes descended fiom Cush, and especially to the posterity of his first-born, Seha." If we had penned the above paragraph ourselves, we could not have embodied more forcibly Morton's decisive opinions on those "primordial organic forms," which are perpetuated to this day, as the Rev. Charles Forster, B. D., justly remarks, arming " the various races of mankind." After the citation of "Can the Cttshite change his skin?" the geographer of Arabia proceeds: — "This indelible characteristic of race would seem to identify with the families of Cush the inhabitants of the southern coast" of Arabia. "Now, .siiico the Cushites gener.illy were distinguished by the darkness of their skin, and the Sebaim {Isa. xlv. 14), particularly, were noted for the procerity of their stature, if we find, in Arabia or its vicinity, a race uniting both distinctive marks, the probability cer- 484 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. tainly is not a low one, that, in that race, we recover a portion of the family of Seba." In testimony whereof, the reverend author quotes Burckhardt's description of the Do- waser ti-ibe of Arabs — '■'very tall men, and almost black" — as well as passages from Chesney, Niebuhr and Wellsted, corroborating the dark complexion observed by these authoritative travellers among Bfedawees of the Persian Gulf; to whom we could add multitudes, were they needed. Having indicated to the reader suflBcient sources to substantiate the existence at this day, in Southern Arabia, of tribes dark eno^igh to justify Jeremiah's simile (xiii. 23), we might proceed at once to the identification of KUSA in its geographical affiliations. Inasmuch, however, as one of the objects of the present work is to bring the archaeo- logical and ethnographical facts contained in Hebrew literature from out of a deplorable mysticism into the domain of science, there are other scriptural passages that claim priority of analysis. 1st. Isaiah (xi. 11) — "from Assyria, and from Egypt, and from Pathros, and from KUSA, and from Elam, and from Shinar, and from Hamath, and from the islands of the sea." Circumscribed within the geographical limits to be established for the He- brew writers. Southern Arabia is here the equivalent of KUSA, because, otherwise, an immense peninsula, very familiar to them, would be omitted. 2d. Isaiah (xviii. 1, 2) — the prophet in Palestine here apostrophises Egypt. We have given Rosellini's rendering in Part III., and need merely now remark that "The rivers of KUSA" have no relation to the Nile, nor to " Ethiopia" above Egypt, but are the torrens ^gypti, the "streamlets of Mizraim" — the Besor, Corys, now " Wadee el- Arish ; " the winter-brook, or Seijl, which divides Palestine from Egypt at Pvhinocorura. Indeed, this is, and has ever been, the boundary-line ; the extremest West ; beyond which, towards Africa, the word KUSA never passes, in the geography of the earlier ' Hebrews : and, from that occidental line, it stretches backwards to the Euphrates and its lower territories south-east of Syria. The term " earlier " Hebrews is used ad- visedly, to distinguish those parts of their literature that belong to times preceding the Captivity, from others composed during and after, when KUSA may have possessed a less restricted sense. The most formidable objection to the Asiatic restriction of KUSA would seem to originate from 2 Chronicles (xiv. 9, 12 ; xvi. 8), where the rout of " Zerah the KJJSkean," with a million of combatants, by Asa, is described — events attributed to the year 941 B. c. But this has been ably overthrown by Wells, sustained by the later work of Forster; who shows that Gerar, whither Zerah the KUS/iean fled, "lay on the border of the Amalekites and Ishmaelites, between the kingdom of Judah and the wildernesses of Shur and Paran ; " and, consequently, the scene lies in Arabia, and Zerah was some marauding potentate, probably Shiykh of a powerful Arab horde, whose foray was repelled into the "land of KUSA," Southern Arabia, whence he came. Saracus, moreover, (the classical transcription of Zerak-us,) was a proper name among Knshean dynasties descended from Nimrod, and also in Arabian traditions. To the Egyptologist, in consequence, the now-preposterous identification of Zerah the KUSAean with OSORKON (as oSoRKow, or SRK), second king of the XXIId dynasty of Bu- bastites, has long ceased to be of interest, because this text has no relation to Egyptian, any more to " Ethiopian," events. The narrow circle of geography comprehended by all ancient nations situate around the Mediterranean as late as the Persian period, in the sixth century b. c, to which the Hebrews form no exception, forbids any such deduction as Jewish acquaintance with Nigritia. That analogy and comparison of the literal texts do not require KUSA to be sought out of South-western Asia in general, and Arabia in particular, in any Scrip- tural passages, could be shown text by text, did space allow. The "onus probandi" of the contrary may now be left to "le theologien" — for, as Letronne philosophically observed, "ici le role de I'hagiographe commence ; celui de I'arch^ologue finit." " Le theologien," neatly declares Cahen, " en traduisant, ne perd jamais de vue son ^glise. HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 485 eon temple, sa synagogue ; borne? par cet horizon, il allonge, raccourci, taille, cntre- taille, contretaille, les pens^es de son auteur, jusqu' a ce qu'elles aient la diinensioa voulue pour entrer dans Tenceinte sacr(5e. Tel est le fairc du theoloyien ; nous ne le bl&mons pas ; t/iais ce n^estpas le noire," The reader, who may be pleased to verify the exactitude of the following results, will be enabled to do so through the references appended to this condensation of a com- plete chapter of our work, which lack of room compels us to curtail. In hieroglyphics coeval with the Xllth dynasty at least, or 2200 years b. o., an African nation, situate immediately south of Egypt, always bore the following desig- ,, .-.-/^ r^ nation, in one of many dialectic forms — as Fig. oOo.*=* ^ " KS/(I, barbarian countri/'" ; or spelt K AS/i, KeS/t, ^<^Z^^^^^ K KiSA, or KS/t ; with or without the terminal I. I — ^^ 1 „■ The human portraits, wherever accompany- . ing this name on the monuments, are invari- *\ ^ I ably Africans, but more generally of the dark ft^^^ I — country, barbarian, mahogany-colored Nubian tlian of the jet-black ° Negro type. We contend that this proper name, which, indigenous to African Nubia, was ascribed by the ancient Egj^jtians to Nubians alone, has no i-elation (except through fanciful resemblances, produced in modern times, through corrupt vocalizations of Rabbis on the one hand, and of Copts on the other.) to the Hebrew word KUS, conventionally pronounced Rush, which, to the Jews, meant "Southern Arabia,'' and no country or nation out of .\sia. To render this clear, one must commence with a query — When, and how, was the Old Testament translated into Coptic? Quatrem^re, sustained by the old Coptologists, claims, "que la Bible avait ^t^ traduite sur le tezle hebreu en langue Egyptienne.". De Wette and the Hebrew exegetists aver, that " the origin of these versions (Memphitie and Sahidic) is probably to be referred to the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth century ; for at that time Christianity seems first to have been extended to the Egyptian provinces [it had not even then reached the temple of Osiris at Philae]. Both follow the Alexandrian version, but it is doubtful which of the two is the oldest." The question is somewhat important, inasmuch as upon it hinges whether the Cojits followed the LXX's Greek mistranslation of At5ioir«a, or the original Hebrew word KUS. There can be little doubt that such translators imitated the Alexandrian Version, and not the Text; and substituted Ethaiuh and Koush for " ^Ethiopia." ChampoUion gives P-KA-N-NGHOOSH, NEGOOSH, and ETHAUSH, from various Coptic topographical MSS., as synonymes for the Greek ki^tona, the Arabic el-HabeJih (Abyssinia), and the vulgar Ethiopia; while Lenormant states — " the Coptic books employ the same ex- pression (Kousch) that is frequently met with in its altered form, Elhosch.'" I'eyron and Parthey establish the same fact ; but Land's deeper philology traces Elhaosh into two Semitic radicals, heet = 'form,' and abes = ' to-be-black." CharapoUion's Granimaire, Dictionnaire, and Notices Descriptives, prove that the great master, whose discoveries were made through Coptic, always transcribes the ancient hieroglyphical KSA by the modern Coptic form of Kousch, or Khoosh. Hence, it has been universally taken for granted that Champollion's Coptic transcript of the old hiero- glyphical African name of KiS/( is identical with the Hebrew Asiatic KUS — that both are comprehended under the Greek maltranslation of "Ethiopia" by the LX\ — and thus Arabs and Nubians, the Arabian Peninsula and the Upper Nile, Hamitic and remitic distinct roots, have become jumbled up into "confusion worse confounded! " Now, it so happens that the old hieroglyphical KS/t is never written with a medial 'm,' which is a radical " mater lectionis" in the Hebrew kUs — a strong point of dis- similarity to begin with. On the former word, Birch had critically remarked — "The term Kash is a fluctuating and uncertain territorial appellation : it is supposed to be the Kush of Scripture, the Thosh or Ethosh of the Copts, which, after ail. is m^relj 486 THE Xth chapter of genesis. 'the frontier.'" We have already \_snpra, pp. 25fi-9] furnished abundant extracts from Mr. Birch's more recent definitions of KSA's localities above Egypt. But, in addition to the perplexing difficulties of archaic Egyptian and Hebrew nnmeg, and the anachronisms of modern philologers, there is a third element of medley, on •which it behooves us to say a few words: viz., Ethiopia, and Ethiopians. Indeed, it is the prevalence of misconceptions upon the latter which lies at the bottom of mistakes concerning the former. Already in a. d. 1657, the scholarship of Walton protested against " Ethiopian" de- lusions, with a citation from Waser — " Groeci JElhiopiam deducunt ab at$-ij) cremo, vro, et 3\J', i^oi, fades, aspectus, quia a solis vicinitate ita uruntur et torrentur, ut atro sint colore." Hence it is immediately perceived that Ethiopian, meaning simply a ' sun- burned-face," possessed at one time a generic application to the color of the human skin, and not an attribution to one specific geographical locality. During Homeric ages, by Ai9id\l, the fair-skinned Hellenes merely meant a foreigner darker than themselves; and, by Aldiiirta (the existence even of true Negro races being then utterly unknown to the Greeks) early Grecian geographers understood (not onr modern "Ethiopia" above Egypt) the countries of all sivarthy Asiatic and Barbaresque nations — Persians, Assy- rians, Syrians, Arabs, Phoenicians, Canaanites, Jews, Egyptians, Carthaginians, and Libyans — especially those situate along the coast of the Mediterranean from the Orontes to Joppa. This fact has been established beyond all controversy by the vast erndition of a Letronne, a Raoul-Rochette, and a Lenormant.''93 Its etymological truth can be verified in any Greek lexicon ; while it is adopted, although not with sufficient arch geological rigor, in the popular cyclopedias of Anthon and Kitto. Want of space alone compels us to suppress many pages of extracts from the three first-named savans ; through which it would become demonstrated that ktOidTrt^, in all writers down to the fifth century b. c, meant nothing more than "visages bruits"; that is, " snn-burn(-faces." By way of example, take Memnon, who by Hesiod is termed AI$i6ttu)v ^aai'Sria, and by Homer, the most beautiful of men. Pausanias, Strabo, Di- odorus, jEschylus, and Herodotus, affirm that he was an Asiatic demigod, probably from Shitsan, or Chiizistan, on the confines of Persia. Now, Hesiod never meant that modern interpreters should understand that Memnon was " king of the Ethiopians" — of our Ethiopia above Egypt I The poet wrote that Memnon was "king of the burnt- faces;" that is, his followers were a dark-skinned people, such as the (7w*Aj7e-Arabiana are on Persian confines to this day. It is the same in Homer's "Eastern and Western .Ethiopians" — again the same in Herodotus's Ethiopians, enrolled in the Persian army of Xerxes ; some of whom were Asiatics, and others Africans — and, not to enumerate instances by the dozen, it is the same in ^Elian's Indians (Hindoos), whom he terms .Ethiopians also. In all these cases, the writers meant " sun-bur/iedfaces" of the so- called " Caucasian" type : and it is but the inanity of modern litterateurs which ascribes any of the above Ethiopians to countries south of Egypt. However, the time came, (after the Persian conquest, b. c. 525, and hardly before Ptolemaic days,) that Greek geographers, having discovered that there was a race "nigro nigrior" whose habitat lay south of Egypt, began to restrict .Ethiopia and .Ethiopians to the mahogany-colored Nubians and to the jet-black Negroes ; and it is in this, the later specific, not in the older generic, sense, that scientific geographers understand a name which, without such reservation, is as vague as Indians (East and West Indies, and American aborigines!) ; as Scythian (from the Himalaya to the Bal- tic !) : or, as that wretched term " Caucasian." Now, it was during the prevalence of such geographical misconceptions^ — when Africa meant little more than Carthaginian and Cyrenaic territories along the face of Barbary ; when Asia signified Asia Minor — in the interval between Eratosthenes the first scien- tific geographer, and Strabo the second — whilst Hindostan was terrued Ethiopia, or mcc-vcrsa — pending the notions that the Nile and the Indus were one and the same HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 487 stream; ami that a circunianiljient iH'caii sunoiiinled what little of aflat and sta- tionnr}' earth was kruiwii to Alexaiiilrian science: — during such, and hundreds of similar cosniographicul views since proved to be false, it was, we repeat, that the Jews of Alexandria, (having forgotten not only their parental Hebrew, but even the Chalde** dialect subsequently acquired through the Captivity,) caused the books of tlie Oid Testament to be translated into Greek; in the form preserved to us under the mystic No. LXX, and by us consecrated as the Sepluaginl : translations fluctuating in date between b. c.260, and b. c. ISO. Books of different origins, translated at different epochas, and by different persons, necessarily teem with imperfections; nor can uniformity be expected from literary labors under those circumstances, and in such uncritical times. Geographical criticism ■was certainly not a paramount object with any of these "uninspired" translators. They never foresaw archasological discussions that occur now, 200U years after their day, in a language not formed for 1500 years later, by a distinct people, (whose infan- tine traditions attain not their Alexandrine lifetimes,) and on a Continent (0000 miles from Alexandria) whose existence was still undreamed of, even sixteen centuries after the original Septuagint MSS. were completed. In consequence, some of the Hellenizing Jews, or Judaizing Hellenes, when they met with the Hebrew word KUS/«, simply transcribed it into Greek characters as Koiif, KiiC, or KCS : others translated KUSA by Aidioirta — a word at that time equally applicable, etymologically in tlie sense of ' a\in-bur7ied faces,' no less than geographically, to India, Persia, Arabia, and the Nu- bias, indifferently to its Asiatic or African association. And this explains why, after 2000 yeai's, the imaginary sanctity of Hebrew and Greek words, accidentally preserved in recent MSS., or through Latin and other re-translations, and despite innumerable recensions, enables us yet to admire in King James's version the English transcript of Cush only five times, and its Alexandrian substitute, Ethiopia, some thirty-four [ubi supra] ; at the same time that, in the far elder and original Hebrew Text (copies of which, only about 800 years old, have come down to us), Providence permits our counting the triliteral KUSA in about forty different places. Under these circumstances (notoriously accessible to anybody who can read Eng- lish), to quote the Septuagint authoritatively on doubtful relations of " Ethiopia," as if it had applied to Africa exclusively at the time when this Greek literary work was in progress, may be exceedingly praiseworthy on the part of professional hagiogi-aphers, but, archaeologically, is " vox, et praeterea nihil," leaving the radical issue untouched. But there is yet one more rock of confusion to be indicated, upon which the adopters of Wilford's Puranic delusions, Faber's fantastic reconciliations, and Delafield's Ame- rican extravaganzas, have always split. It occurs when, through disregard of phi- lology and palaeography, they prefix an S, or other sibilant, to the Hebrew KUSA; and, reading SKUCH, Scuthi, Xxvdui, &c., make this patriarch the father of Scythians, Sacce, Saxons, Scotchmen, and even of American Indians! One blushes to treat such absurdities seriously in a. d. 1853. Nevertheless, the disease is inveterate with many writers "a qui il ne manque rien que la critique;" and it behooves us to note our "caveat," because, as Bishop Taylor says, "it is impossible to make people under- stand their ignorance ; for it requires knowledge to perceive it, and therefore he that can perceive it hath it not." A dry recapitulation of the results of studies, that could not be presented in full under half this volume, together with references through which the reader may verify exactness, is all that the authors can now offer on the hieroylyphical KSA, the Hebrew KUS, and Greek AWtozm. 1st. That the KeSA were African aborigines — probably similar to the Bardbera of the present day ; but were not NAHSI, Negroes. 2d. That their habitat, from the XVIIth dynasty downwards, was closer to Egypt than that of any other Africans — probably Lower Nubia, because the KeSA are the first people encountered in Egyptian expeditions above Philae. 488 THE xth chapter of genesis. 3d. That their name, still preserved at Tutzis in Kish, was never KuSA, but KeSA, Kish, or Kash. [Lower Nubia, nearest to Egypt, would seem to have been the residence of the Kish, or KeSA, anciently; just as we find a similar people, the Burahera (who present striking similarities), there now. A curious little fact comes in opportunely to sup- port this position. The ruins of the ancient town of Tutzis, or Tusis, the military station " Dodecaschoeni," are identified in the modern Gerf Husseyn. A Coptic papyrus, found there in 1813, established that its former name was Thosh ; and the similarity of this word with " Ethaush," the Coptic form of " Ethiopia," or Koitsh [ubi supra], was long ago pointed out by Wilkinson, who ascertained, moreover, that the present Nubian name of Tutzis is Kish.] 4th. That this appellative, KeSh, in hieroglyphics, refers to a special Nubian people, without the slightest relation, linguistically, geographically, or anthropologically, to Tirhaka, beyond the fact that, like his pharaonic predecessors, he conquered and ruled over them \_s%ipra, p. 264, Fig. 186.] 5th. That the African KeSA of the hieroglyphics are totally distinct from the Asiatic KUSA of the Hebrew writers, and are never implied by the latter in this term. 6th. That the confusion, still prevalent on this subject, proceeds from an insufiBcient examination of old Hebrew ethnic geography on the one hand, and of Egyptian records on the other, after starting with a fundamental error as to the Greek word •'^Ethiopia." 7th. That KUSA of Xth Genesis denotes Arabia in its widest sense, and Arabian tribes of dark complexion. 8th. That, except perhaps in two or three doubtful instances, in the later biblical books, where geographical precision is sacrificed to poetic license, the biblical word KUSA never crosses the Red Sea into Africa; and, even if it be sometimes coupled by a conjunction to Phut, and to Lud, it never embraces those races we term. Negro — the context, in every case, being susceptible of more rational exegesis. 9th. That KUSA in Hebrew is radically distinct from the Nubian KeSA of hiero- glyphics, as well as from the Kish of our present day. 10th. That KUSA is not 'ZxvBai, Skuth, or Scot 1 does not include Scythic, Indo- Germanic, Tartar, Mongolian, or other races outlying the boundary of ancient Hebrew geography. 11th. That, excepting as regards its application to Asiatic tribes of dark complexion, KUSA cannot be rendered by Aidio^ria, in the sense in wTiich this Greek word was used during Ptolemaic times at Alexandria, and by ourselves, without leading to equivoque ; but, if we restore to " .("Ethiopia " its old Homeric meaning of '^ snn-burnt-faced- people," there is no doubt that the KUSA, mentioned in parallel ages by Hebrew writers, were sometimes included among the Eastern, i. e. Asiatic, ^Ethiopians of Hesiod, Homer, and Herodotus. 12th. That, in archaic anthropology, jEihiopian is as vague an adjective (without specific warning, on the author's part, of the meaning he attaches to it) as Scythian, Indian, or Caucasian, and therefore had better be avoided by ethnographers. 13th. That the Coptic KHOUSH, and Thaush, or Ethosh, belong to post-Christian days, and represent " Ethiopia" in the corrupt sense in which the Hebrew name KUSA was already understood by the Hellenistic Jews called the LXX, and by Josephus. The former word, meaning dark, was naturally applied by Egyptian (Copts) Jacobites to African families and localities above the first cataract of the Nile; the latter, meaning " the frontier," and also {through dialectic mutations of K and TA), being a homonyme of KIIOUSA, was a natural transcript of " Etliiopia ; " a name which, from similarity of sound as much as from identity, in Coptic days, of association with Africa above Egypt, had been previously given to the Nubias by Alexandrian writers. 14th. Finally, that, unless words and names are restricted to the acceptation in which they were used by each writer iu his own age, the natural history of humanity, HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 489 greatly depcmlcnt as it is upon historical plieiioiiiena, can never rise to the level of a positive scicncQ ; and that sublime sentence, "the proper study of mankind is waw," mouthed by rote without perceptions of its lofty import, and still overlaid by theo- logical clap-trap, will never reach practical realization. To us, therefore, KUSA of Xth Genesis means Asia geographically, Arabia topo- graphically, and the dark Arabs ethnologically. We pass on to classify KUSAeaw affili- ations, in hopes that they will justify our (i priori assumptions. *3* KUSA as Arabian. We have shown in the foregoing resume that, amid geographical personifications of the Hebrews, KUSA was Asiatic generally, no less than Assyrian and Arabian espe- pecially. In consequence, it seems rational to seek for KVShcan origins among Arabic traditions, and Arab localities. And here it is that the Kechcrchcs Nouvelles of Volney take precedence over all those made during the first (quarter of the nineteenth century. Volney: " Un des hommes les plus pendtrants de ce sifecle. ... Si, parmi nous, Volney a profits des Merits de Richard Simon, ce n'est pas parceque Volney dtait inibu des principes de I'dcole ma- t^rialiste, mais a cause de I'instinct scientifique qu'il poss^dait profonddment et qui, dans ses Merits, s'est souvent fait jour, en ddpit meme de ses prdjug^s philosophiques." Orthodoxy can find no fault with the words of Lenormant, whose views are eminently catholic, even in archaeology. We gladly follow bis example, when taking departure, in Arabian inquiries, from Volney. Nevertheless, since the peace of 1815, multitudes of scientific Europeans, profoundly versed in Arabic lore through arduous studies, or far more adventurous travels, have given to Arabian researches a propuLro\icY, according to ancient opinions, now corroborated by zoological facts, being far more Asiatic than African in its natural history and phe- nomena. What group answers all these conditions but the one to which, from imme- HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 491 morifil time, the name of KUSA lias been apiiropriutely referred? Even as late as the fifth century after Christ, Syrian authors, cited by xVsseniani, designated JlimyariU Arabs by the name of KM^Inies. And this brings us to the point where Fresnel's discoveries establish the entity of a fourth group of " Arabs," distinct from Semitish families, dating in Southern xVrabia irom ante-historical ages to the present hour. Carsten Niebuhr, in 17G3, first announced to Europe the positive existence in South- ern Arabia of inscriptions which old Arab authors had characterized as Mu.fiiad, 'propped up,' and had considered anterior in age to Islam, no less than to the present Neskee and its parent the Ciiphic writing of Mohammed's day. De Sacy, 1805, with his usual acumen, investigated the subject; Seetzen, 1810; Gesenius, 18H); Kopp, 1822; and Hupfeld, 1825; chiefly from Elhiopic (Abyssinian) data, advanced its study; until Wellsted, 1834, and Crittenden, (officers attached to the East India Company's surveys,) discovered inscriptions of the highest interest, cut in the old Ilimyaritic alphabet, at Hisn Ghordb, &c. The learned critique of our friend Prof. W. W. Turner would greatly simplify an expo- sitory task, could we herein digress upon these Himyaritic inscriptions, the earliest date of which falls far below the Christian era. To his scatliing refusal of " one par- ticle of sympathy for ^Ir. Forster " viewed as translator (!) of the llimynritic, we beg leave to add ours in respect to this gentleman's more recent " Sinaic Inscriptions — Voice of Israel from the Rocks of Sinai " ; and to apply Turner's just strictures to both of the Rev. Mr. Forster's fabrications. " His wholly false and inconclusive method of deciphering the insci'iptions, the bombastic strain in which he dilates on his achieve- ments, and above all the disingenuous artifices by which he seeks to disguise the hollow- ness of^his pretensions, render his performance [whether Himyaritic, or Sinaic, or, worse than either, his last Tpsendo-hieroffh/phical !'] deserving of all the ridicule and censure it has met with." It is sufficient now to mention, that Hunt's refutation also lies before us ; together with the Recherches sur les Inscriptions Himyariques de Saii'd, Khariba, Mareb, &c., through which Fresnel's claim to the resuscitation of ancient Himj'ar is universally acknowledged. M. Fresnel's IVth and Vth Letters to the Journal Asiatigue, " Djiddah, Jan. and Feb. 1838," give a sprightly account of his rencontre with a "piratical grammarian" yclept Moukhsin; through whose and other fortuitous aids, he constructed the voca- bulary of a still living tongue, spoken at Zhafar and Mir belt, in Southern Arabia; which speech, now unintelligible to Semitic Arabs, is called EhkMi by native speakers, and Mahri, or Ghrflwi, by surrounding tribes. This extraordinary language, whose exist- ence was unsuspected until 1838 by modern philologers, possesses thirty-four to thirty- five consonant articulations, six pure vowels, and as many ?iasal — approximately, some forty-seven different sounds ; among which three are utterly inexpressible in any Eu- ropean alphabet ; and one is altogether too inhuman for any man but a true Zhafarite to enunciate ! Of the twenty-eight articulations current during Mohammed's time in the Hedjas, two have become superfluous in the vernacular Arabic [Ddrig) of Cairo ; never- theless the old Arabic alphabet of twenty-eight articulations is too poor, by nine- teen phonetics, for tribes living at Mirbilt and Zliafar ! [They completely destroy, Fresnel states, "la sym^trie du visage." Even Moukhsin thought the facial contortion ridiculous; though he told M. A. d'Abbadie that none of his tribe pronounced three of those letters on the left side of the mouth. " Pour rendre le son du __y il faut chercher k prononcer un Z, en portant I'extrerait^ de la langue sous les molaires sup^rieures du cot6 droit" — such is " Himparitic euphony " ! Having humbly endeavored, " in auld lang syne " at Cairo, to imitate my friend M. Fresnel's attempts to rival Moukbsin's mode of oral articulation, I was, and still am, at a loss to define the agonies of its intonation, otherwise than by reprinting how, " while (this letter) somewhat resembles the ' LL ' of the Welsh, (it) ca?i be articulated only on the riffht side of the mouth — being something between 'LLW,' a whistle and a spit! " — G. R. G.] 492 THE xth chapter of genesis. Gesenms had divided Semitisli languages, classified as they are too vaguely, into three main branches : — 1st. The Aramcean, spoken in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia. This is again divided into East and West Aramsean ; that is, the Chaldee and Syriac. 2d. The Canaanitish, or Hebrew, spoken in Palestine and Phoenicia. Of this the Punic is a descendant. 3d. The Arabic, of which the Ethiopia is a parallel branch. The Samaritan is a mixture of the Hebrew and Aramsean. To the above, Fresnel's discoveries add n fourth: viz., the " Ehkeelee " of the inha- bitants of Alirbat and Zhafar ; one which he considers among the richest and most ancient in the world — allied to the Ethiopic, but more archaic; preserved in Arabia by a peculiar family (long cut off from the rest of mankind by wild Bedawees of the Semitic stock, with whom, it is said, the Zhafarites never intermarry) — descended probably from the Homeritce ; in whose name classical annalists have preserved to us the original word Himyar (Arabicti, Ahmar), ' the rerf-men,' as the distinguishing title of the once-great Himyarites of Saba and Mariaba. " He who enters Zhafar Himyarizes" is an ancient Arab proverb, which shows that the Zhafarites were different, in some striking peculiarities, from Semitish tribes, and that visitors were constrained "to speak the language of the country ; " as unintel- ligible even now to Ishmaelite and .Joktanide Arabs as the Basque is to Frenchmen or Spaniards. Now, this tongue and the tribes that speak it, are considered by M. Fresnel to be the true relics of KUSA; owing as much to the abundance of words foreign to Arabic contained in its dialects, as to the singular characteristics of the speakers themselves ; whose antiquity at Zhafar reaches beyond all history. The daring of Dr. Arnaud, (who, at Fresnel's instigation, penetrated where no European ever reached previously to 1844, and copied multitudes of Himyaritic inscriptions on the ruined edifices of Sana, Khariba, and Mareb,) has confirmed, in all important respects, the existence of these human vestiges of KUSAiVes in their earliest Arabian homestead "even unto this day": and the men, their language and monuments, having now been found, our results on Xth Genesis may be finally tabulated as follows : — 1st. That by KUSA the Hebrew chorographer meant dark tribes of Southern Arabia, who probably inhabited that section of the peninsula prior to immigrations of strictly Semitish Arabs. They are the Homeritoe of Greek and Roman writers ; Himyarites of Arab history ; remnants of whom, speaking EhkiU, still residing at Mirbat and Zhafar, are living witnesses of the indelibility of primordial types. 2d. That other compilers of Scripture corroborate this view, and prove that in He- brew geography the KUSA5/?i — bounded at the extreme west by the "rivers of disk" on the Isthmus of Suez — spread across the peninsula to the banks of the Euphrates; perhaps eastwardly to Chuzistdn and Susiana. Their settlements, as Forster has shown with commendable felicity, lay dotted around the Arabian coasts of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf; separated originally from the intrusive Jokianides, (as the writer of Gen. X. accurately remarks, v. 30), by a line drawn from '^ 3fesha, as thou goest unto Sephar" — the former being the. Zames Mons in Central Arabia of Ptolemy the geo- grapher; the latter. Mount Sephar, at the extreme south-west of the peninsula, where in Ptolemy's time dwelt the Sapharitce ; and where at Zhafar, Fresnel's reseai'ches (unquoted by Forster) prove their EhKMi descendants to live still. 3d. That before future hagiographers place KUSA in Africa, as the Hebrew name for Nigritian races (of whom Cush, scripturally and physically, is no more the father than Abraham himself), it might be well, perhaps, if they re-read their " Bibles" with a little attention ; and not perversely close their eyes to the new lights" that Oriental science is continually shedding upon an ancient code which, Lanci emphatically and truthfully observes, "is the more honored and revered as thought dives into it to illustrate and comprehend it." As Southrrn Arabia, and as dark (^himyar, ' red ') Arabian tribes, KUSA takoo hifl rightful position once more in Xth Genesis. ^^^ HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 493 16. OnVO — MTsRIM — ' MizRAiM.' Semitic ; but certainly not the Hebrew 'tribulation,' &c. As it stands, is the plural of MTsR. With the Masoretic points, added since thn sixth century after Christ, it is a dual, Mitsraim, meaning the two MTslls. In the singular, MT.sUR, it is the name (by modern natives referred also to the city of Cairo,) through which i^gypt is designated in the form Muss'r, not merely by her present Arabicized people, but by all Oriental nations : and there being no dispute as to the application of MT.sUR by Semitic races to the land of Egypt, from the present hour back to the remotest period for which we possess records, our genesiacal purposes would be served sufficiently on reading Egypt for MTsIlalm, were it not for foolish rabbinical notions, vulgarly current, that, misunderstanding the principle of Oriental personifications, still treat of '^ 3Iizraim" in Xtli Genesis as if he had been really a man, "son of Ham," another individual! One might as reasonably maintain that all the Russias, or the '' tuo Russias," mean a human being actually resident in Muscovy ! Pandering to no such historical falsehoods, we briefly set the reader on the " royal road" to their refutation. The earliest personification of Malzur, the singular of MTsRIM, is not in the Bible, but in Sanconiathon; a very ancient Phoenician writer, who flourished (none will dis- pute) some time before Philo Byblius, about the second century after c, translated into Greek such fragments of his works as reach our day through Athenseus, Porphyry, Eu- sebius, and other transcribers. Whether Sanconiathon be a mythe, as some maintain, or whether such a person really lived and wrote between St. Martin's adopted era, 1400 B. c, and Philo Byblius's age, is indiff'erent ; so long as it remains historical, that, under the name " Sanconiathon," we possess some ezuvice of Phoenician tradi- tions antedating Christian harmonizings, that cannot have been written alphabetically, according to the laws of paloeography, earlier than the seventh to tenth century b. c, nor later historically than the second century after the Christian era. We have no hypothesis to sustain beyond establishing, through these fragments, that " Misor " was the ancestor of the Egyptian god Thoth, Hermes-Trismegislus [Her-Mes = 'begotten of Horns') of the Greeks; and consequently, that this Groeco-Phoenician legend is our most valid authority for making a vian out of the " two Egypts " — Upper and Lower — personified in Xth Genesis by commentators as Mitzraim. The context of Ps. cv. 23, (and wherever else in canonical Hebrew records the sin- gular form MTaUR occurs,) suifices to prove that, by MT«UR, each Jewish writer meant Egypt as a country. If the singular number, MTsUR, in Hebrew grammar and history, signifies merely a geographical locality, upon what principle can the dual or plural forms of the same word constitute a man ? Among the multitude of appellatives given to Egypt by other foreigners, the present name Muss'r reappears in the Phoenician Mua^a — suspected to be an error of copyist for Mtisra — of Stephanus Byzantinus; in the McaTpaia of George the Syncellus ; in the Mkssreuj of the Persian " Boundehesch-Pahlevi " ; and so on backwards to the Persepolitan cuneiform inscriptions of Darius, carved at Behistiin early in the fifth century b. C, where it is orthographed M ' u d r a y a. Two centuries earlier, the name MASR, or Ma dr (also Mesrahouan), is chiselled in Assyrian cuneatics on the thresholds of Khorsabad, among the conquests of Asarhaddon, between b. c. 709 and 667 ; and it may exist perhaps on older sculptures of the ninth century b. c, discovered by Rawlinson. Albeit, 700 years b. c. are ample for our object ; inasmuch as they prove that a singular form of the name Muss'r existed in Asia, in days parallel with, and probably anterior to, those passages in the Hebrew Text where MTaUR is its homonyme. Its dual or plural representative in Xth Genesis, MT.sRBI, is either a later amplific.ition, or meaning simply the Muss'rites, people of Muss'r, Egypt, excludes the supernatural idea that Mizraim was a man. In this concrete sense of Egyptians, we find the correspondent of Mizraim in the 494 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. Mccrpaioi of Josephus, and of the Sjncelhis; but the latter uses it in his preface to a document, the Old Chronicle, which every scholar repudiates in some mode more or less decisive. Those who now pretend to accept the Old Chronicle, or the Laterculus, as genuine Egj'ptian, slur over Letronne's blighting criticisms. The hand of Judaizing Christian imposture stands out undisguisedly in the other portion of the Syncellus's chronography — where he commences his "Laterculus" with McarpiKit o Kat ^rit/m — Meslraim (for Mizraim) the same as AIenes ! That the first Pharaoh of Egypt, Menes, should be metamorphosed into MT«R1M, the Eiji/ptians, of Xth Genesis, 1?y a harmoniz- ing monk of Byzantium some 800 years after Christ, and at least 4500 after the death of Menes, is not extraordinary, when one remembers the pious frauds of a school in which the Syncellus was neither the first nor the last ornament; but that writers in our day should reason from such and similar Greek-church literary juggleries, that Milsraim of Xth Genesis was a man, instead of an Oriental personification of Egypt, merely proves such writers to possess, as Bunsen has it, " little learning, or less honesty." Our note^ys indicates volume and page wherein complete destruction of rd TTaXnibv xpoviKov, 'the Chronicle of the old times, or events,' may be found; and we are content to follow in the wake of Letronne, Biot, Matter, Barucchi, Bockh, Bunsen, Raoul-Rochette, Lepsius, Kenrick, Alfred Maury, &c. — all of whom, more or less earnestly, reject the Old Chronicle, uniting with Bunsen's condemnation of it and " similia, quje hominis sunt Christiani, parum docti, at impudentissimi." All Grecian antiquity, from Homer to Strabo, has designated Egypt by names in which no form of MitHraim plays a part ; nor can it be yet said that any true equiva- lent for the Semitic Muss'r has been discovered amid the numberless appellatives given to their own country by Egyptian hierogrammates. Leaving aside old fanciful analo- gies that might be retwisted out of Champollion's Grammaire and Diclionnaire, Ur. Hinck's ingenious TO-MuTeRI, ' Land of the tico Egypts,' fell beneath the knife of Mr. Davyd W. Nash, who substituted TO-MuRE-KHAFTO, 'the beloved land of the tu-o Egypts.' Syncellus's " Mestraeans " was supposed by Lenormant to be a compound ■yjord. — MES-n-RE, 'son of the sun': but, 1st. this has not been found as a proper name in hieroglyphics ; and, 2dly, the word Mt^rpaja is but a modern Greek transcriber's corruption (not of an Egyptian name, but) of the Hebrew and foreign word Milsra-im. Mr. Birch's ^' Merler (Mitzraim), is red under thy sandals," is the nearest approxima- tion to Muss'r hitherto suggested: and saves discussion here of the various Hebraical solutions proposed by Rosellini, Portal, or Lanci ; some of which would admirably explain why the Ilebreics gave to Egypt the name of MTsRlM, but none of which prove that the Egyptian natives ever recognized such foreign designation — any nearer, phi- iologically, than " Americus Vespucius" might, by some etymological gladiator, be wrenched out of our " Uncle Sam." We return, therefore, as in so many other instances, to Champollion's fiat of forty years ago: viz., that Muss'r, MT«UR, and MTsRIM, in all their forms, were probably alien to the denizens of the Nile, but were names given to Egypt and Egyptians by Semitic populations. But one query remains. In the original idea of the writer of Xth Genesis, was MT.sRIM a dual or a plural? The surviving punctuated Text (written or printed in the post-Christian square-letter) reads, dualistically, Mitsra'im ; which would correspond perfectly to the Pharaonic division into " ^wo Egypts," Upper and Lower — preserved still in the SaeM and Bahrehjeh of the modern Fellaheen. We would submit, notwith- standing, that the Masorete diacritical marks float between a. c. 60G, and the eleventh century (age of the earliest MSS. extant) ; and therefore such minute contingencies as a dual or a plural become, archaeologically speaking, rather problematical. . For ourselves, we think the plural form, Milsrhn, most natural — 1st, because it is the Hebi-ew literal expression without the later and superfluous points; and, 2d, because the plural MiT.sHiM, as the Israelitish name for Egyptians, amply satisfied all chorographic and ethnological exigencies whensoever Xth Genesis was projected. " Misrajiro," Bochart declared 200 years ago, " non est nomen hominis. Id non HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 495 patitur formn dtialis " ; wlicroforo. denying that tliere ever was a ?7iaw tailed " Miz- raim," we read simply, for MiTsIlI.M — ^//f Eiji/ptiuns.^-''' 17. D1-D — r/tUT — TiiuT.' Ilamitic : not the Hebrew ' fat,' ' despicable,' &c. ! That this is Barbary — ;. ^., 'the African coast along the Mediterranean west of Egypt — no one doubts. Differences of opinion here resolve themselves into mere conjectures as to space. The most salient feature of PJuit, observable in Xth Genesis, is that this personifica- tion has no children — i.e., colonies, or affiliations; which, coupled with the va^ue demarcations of Phul in other Scriptural passages {Nahiim iii. 9). shows that to the Hebrews this name meant generally North-western Africa; embracing families of man too remote to be described. The word has since spread very extensively over Africa if Foute, Fouta-Toro, Fouta-Bondou, /oM/(7-DjaIlon, &c., names of Fellatah States and tribes, be its derivatives; as Fas, the kingdom of Fez, is, without question; nomin- ally replacing the Hegio Phutensis of Jerome's time; Ptolemy's city of Fou/is; and Pliny's river Phuth flowing in Mauritania, the country which Josephus considers the equivalent of Phut. Indeed, there is no lack of old names, throughout the Moghreb, (part of which containing " Putea urbs, Phut flumen, Phthia portiis, Pi/(his extrema," was anciently called Fule>/a), like Phthamphu, Phthemphuti, Phau/usii, &c., to establish Phut'.i existence at all recorded ages, close to the Lou bhn, Lehabim, and similar Libyan designations in Xth Genesis. Bunsen reads Phut as Mauritania; considering that the river Phut of Pliny is equi- valent to the Pimt of hieroglyphics; the n or m left out, as in Mojyk for Memphis, or Shishak for Sheshonk. Birch holds the hieroglyphical sign (which ascends in anti- quity to the earliest monuments) to mean the ^^ nine boivs. This word has been read Feli, and supposed to be the Scriptural Phut, the Libyans or Moors ; but it must be observed that the hieroglyphical word Peli is always applied to a large unstrung bow, in ethnic names." Upon the cuneatic sculptures of Assyria, and among the conquests of Asarhaddon, De Saulcy has read — •' Populum Pout, hos et gentes fcederatas." As " PAeT-^ff/(," or bow-country, or as "NiPAT — countries," determined by nini hows, this name for the last quarter of a century has been identified with Phul, (or rather, confounded with the NiP/^aiaT — true representatives of the Nuphtukhlm of Gen. X. 13,) in Egyptian sculptures of every epoch; and, without doubt, refers, in hieroglyphics, to Libyan families of Amazirc/hs, Shillovhs, &c., that under the present general denomination of Berbers stretch westwards from Lower Egypt to the Atlantic. Deferring some critical minntia; until we reach the Naphtukhim, our opinion on Phut is, that ill Xth Genesis it means those countries now called Barbary; while in other biblical texts it covers Ilamitic affiliations along the Mediterranean face of Africa; to the exclusion of the more inland Negro races, by Hebrew chroniclers unmeutioned.598 18. inD — K^AaX — ' Canaan.' Hamitic; not the Hebrew 'merchant,' 'tribulation,' &c. Upon no terrestrial personification in Xth Genesis, except CtTsir and Nimrod, has more theory been piled upon hypothesis, than in respect to this luckless cognomen and the historical nations that bore it. Assuming that the Jehovistic document of Genesis IXth was penned by the same in- dividuality who compiled the chart of Genesis Xth, orthodox commentators, from the Rabbis and Fathers down to the uninspired annotators of otir own generation, sorely Tex themselves with Noah's inebriate malediction — "accursed be Kanaan. Let him be aBD-./BDIM, slave of slaves, to his brethren " — (Gen. ix. 25) — whereas, in the Text itself. Ham the father, not Kanaan the son, was the graceless offender. In Fiesiod'a 496 THE xth chapter of genesis. Greek version of the same Chaklfpan mytlie, hapless Oipavdi, Cains, had infinitely more serious reasons for swearing at his unnatural son K/jovoj, Saturmis ; while, as Cahen has duly noted on the Noachian curse, "this is the fourth malediction that one encounters in Genesis : the first being against a snake, the second against the earth, and the third against Cain." Setting forth thence with a moral non-sequitur, commentators next attempt to justify a supposititious extermination of the guiltless grandson's innocent posterity, recorded by " writer 2d " — " but of the cities of these people (the Canaanites), which leHOuall thy God gives thee for heritage, thou shalt spare nothing alive that breathes " [Deut. XX. 16). Yet, despite this and similar omnipotent injunctions to obliterate poor KNAaN, we find "writer 3d" (Josh. xv. 63) attesting how "the children of Judah could not drive out" the Canaanites from Israel's holiest abode, Jerusalem, even " unto this day!" A fact explained by " writer 4th" [JudA. 19,21), " because (the Canaanites) had chariots of iron" ; at the same time that "writer 5th" (2 Sam. v. 7, 8, 9) bears witness that one band of Canaanites maintained the stronghold of Mt. Zion, Jehis, down to the reign of David. Even then, unscrupulously heroic as that monarch was, he was constrained, through political exigencies, chronicled by "writer 6th" {2 Sam. xxiv. 18, 24), to buy from a Canaanitish land-holder, " Aravna, the Jebusite," the identical "threshing floor" on the site of which Solomon, according to "writer 7th" (2 Chron. iii. 1, 3), erected a little paganish temple (smaller than its duplicate at Hierapolis) that, although only 90 feet long by 30 front, is estimated to have cost about 4000 millioTis of dollars — United States' currency. Other sticklers for plenary inspiration who, in direct contravention of the plain words of Genesis IXth (favoring the notion that Ham, and not his son Canaan, was accursed), contend that, in consequence of such malediction. Ham became the pro- genitor of black [Negro) races, may be set aside as entirely ignorant of Scripture. Followers of the learned Dr. Cartwright's " Canaan identified with the Ethiopian" may be pleased to refer to the fac- simile portrait [^svpra, p. 127, Fig. 19] for con- firmation of a doctrine which has the double misfortune of being physiologically and historically impossible, as well as wholly anti-biblical. We appeal to the sober author of Xth Genesis for relief from such mental aberra- tions. His chorography (constructed some time after Joshua the son of Nun, or Nau, had expelled such Canaanitish tribes as survived massacre, or tolerated under the con- queror's yoke, along Israel's roads of march from Mount Sinai to Palestine) attests, ex post facto, that already in his time " the families of the KNAaNI (had been) dis- persed." [Gen. X. 18.) Large bodies of these people emigrated to Libya, whergf their names, traditions, and tongues, exist to this day. Procopius, in the sixth century a. c, mentions an inscription wherein /'^ft'nic?a«« recorded their flight into Africa, "from before the face of the brigand Joshua son of Naue : " and in the fourth century, St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, relates how, in his diocese, " Our rustics, being asked whence they were, responded, Punically, Chanani." Now, it is a fact as certain as any in history, that the Punic-Carthaginians, their parents the Phoenicians, the Ca- naanites and the Hebrews, spoke one and the same tongue, but with slight idiomatic provincialisms of diff"erence. " The term ' Hebrew language ' does not occur in the Old Testament," says Gesenius, "though it must have been common when part of it was written. Instead of this name, the language is usually termed the language of Canaan [Isa. xix. 18)." So far, indeed, from Hebrew, as philological science nowadays under- stands the term, deserving honors, owing to its supposititious antiquity, as the "lingua sancta" of Paradise (according to Usher, exactly b. c. 4002-3!), it is positive that Abraham, grandfather of Israel, when he emigrated from " Ur of the Chaldees," spoke, not in Hebrew, but, like his Mesopotamian tribe, in an Aramcean dialect. Israel's de- jfcenUants, forgetting their mother-tongue, adopted afterwards, in Palestine, the speech of KNA«N ; and, calling it " Hebrew," unwittingly sanctified the language of the "slave of slaves," instead of that of the true Abrahamida! During the Captivity, the HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 497 Jews ngrtin forgot Kanaanitiah " Hebrew." Retempered by some seventy years' sojourn in the Eiiphratic regions of their primitive origin, they brought back with them a biter idiom of that Ckuhla-an language which, moditied by about 1500 years of time, was a lineal descendant of the pristine speech of Abraham, son of Terah, son of Nahor, son of Serag, son of Reu, son of Peleg; son (that is, affiliation) oi Eber — not a man, but the geographical personification symbolized in Xth Genesis (21) by EBR, eber; a name which, like its Greek form, uirtp, and its Latinized equivalent, Iberian, originally meant simply '' the yonder land;" that is to say, Talestiue ; a country west of and bei/ond the river Euphrates! "Hebrews," as the foreign corruption of El'.R, signifies nothing more than men from or of the other side — the Yondcrcrs. Every effort, therefore, made by orthodox Rabbis, Doctors, or Moolilhs, Jewish, Christian, or Muslim, to enhance the antiquity and holiness of the tongue they call Hebrew, onlv renders more venerable "the language of KNA«N": and thus, by exalt- ing as theologians do, unintentionally, but positively, the "slave of slaves" above the chosen master, they enable the retributive justice of science to make inhumanity and superstition vindicate, in our nineteenth century, the memory of a much-injured people, who called themselves KNAaNI from ante-historical times down to a period far more modern than the Christian era. The unceasing proclivity of the Israelites to adopt Canaanilish customs and worship, to intermarry with Canaanilish females, to dwell in peace with or among them — despite denunciations attributed to Moses and the Prophets — no less than the existence of Canaanites everywhere in Palestine after the Christian era: these facts (evident to every possessor of a "Concordance of the Old and New Testaments") merely prove the strong natural afiBnities of language and of physical organism common to both. families. Nay, apart from supernaturalistic caprice, the only satisfactory mode of justifying such vehement declamations of hatred towards KNA«N, found in the writings of Hebrew reformers, is to acknowledge frankly, that human nature, rebelling against these homicidal proscriptions, often rendered them nugatory in practice. Of the eleven affiliations of KNAr/N, only five, the Ilethites, Yeboiisites, Emorites, Guir- gasites, and Jlivtles, were established within the petty territory of Palestine. Add to these the Canaanites (possibly descendants of another KNAaN) and the Pherizites, who •were merely peasants ; and we have the seven peoples which the Hebrews were enjoined to expel. {Deut. vii. 1 ; Josh. iii. 10.) The desire was stronger than the deed, for the Jews never entirely drove the Canaanites out, even of Jerusalem. By classical historians, the KNAaNI were known under the general name of *o(if»£j, Fhcenicians ; and the LXX often substitute the latter name where the Hebrew Text reads Kanaaniles. Herodotus and later authors assure us, that the Phoenicians came originally from the Persian Gulf; and the Kanaani, therefore, would not be indigenoua to Palestine; but, nevertheless, they were " already in the land " [Gen. xii. 5) at the advent of the Abrahamida;, and we regard them as autocthones. Eusebius quotes Sanconiathon and his translator, Philo Byblius, for the fact that the Phoenicians called their country Xva, a contraction of KNAoN. On Phoenician coins the city of Laodicea is called mother of Kanaan. Older than numismatic record, more ancient than Hebrew annalists (Moses not excepted), more positively authentic than any source to wbich archajolcgy can appeal, are the Egyptian monuments of Setliei- Meneptha I. and Ramses II. ; whereupon KANANA-Zo/if/is frequently mentioned among conquered Asiatic nations, from the seventeenth — sixteenth century B. c. downwards. And it may assuage pruriency in those who fancy the KNA«NI to have been African "^Ethiopians," (though as " sun- burned -fares " they were certainly Asiatic,) to take an- other look at our portrait of a Canaanile, copied from sculptures anterior to the century in which the Mosaic Lawgiver is erroneously believed to have written tlie book called Genesis — a portrait, wherein the features establish that (apart from Canaan's priority of speech in the Hebraical "lingua sancta," as, eventually, "beatorum in coelis") the iii<>j- 63 498 THE xth chapter of genesis. tinguishable laws of lype prove the KNAaNI, as history also testifies, to belong to the same zoological province of creation, though to a lower gradation of type, as the Abra- hamidee. Indeed, the root of KNS meaning 'low,' and that of Abram, 'high,' one may perceive the real cause of early antipathy between the Canaaniies and the Abra- hamidce to lie in mutual repugnances between the indigenous " low-lander " and the intrusive "high-lander." Palestine, in its widest geographical, no less than in its restricted rabbinical sense, is written history's cradle, and natural history's birth-place, for KNAaN.599 ^^2 03 — BOT-KUSA — " Affiliations of Kush." 19. NDD — SBA — ' Seba.' Perplexities are here occasioned by palaeographical and phonetic differences between the letters S, SA, and Ss. Four separate nations or places, as Bochart reminds us, are mentioned in Genesis by names transcribed through Seba or Sheba : viz. — A. — Genesis x. 7 — N3D — SBA, or Seba, affiliation of KJJSh. B. — " X. 7 — NDty— SsBA, or Sheba, affiliation of KUS/j through Raamah. C. — " X. 28 — X3ty — S«BA, or 5Ae6a, affiliation of SAeM through JoKTAN. D. — " XXV. 3 — X3Cy — SiBA, or Sheba, affiliation of SAeM through Abraham. On these discrepancies Fresnel has wisely noted, that post-Mohammedan Arabs have likewise forged genealogies to match some of those in Xth Genesis ; at the same time that different Hebrew annalists often contradict themselves, no less than current Ara- bian traditions. Various are attempts at reconciliation, to be consulted under our references to Volney, Lenormant, Munk, Jomjird, and De Wette ; but, upon the whole, Forster's appear to be the most successful, viewed geographically. To us, neverthe- less, the only apparent difference between the fot/r above-cited names is, that one (A.) begins with the letter sa meg, S; and the other three (B., C, D.) with sheen, Sh ; that is, according to the Masorete points added to the modern square- letter manuscripts after the sixth century ; because, those stripped away, sheen remains Saeen, or Ss. Abraham's grandchild, through Ketoura, the fourth SABA (D.), is excluded from Xth Genesis, and, therefore, appertains not to our researches ; except when noticing the confusion he produces in Arabian genealogies. Nor, for similar reasons, do we speculate on which of the four names might apply to the unknown region whence jour- neyed Solomon's "Queen o{ Sheba" ; whom Josephus makes sovereign of Egj'pt and Ethiopia; and whom the Abyssinians have ever claimed as their own ; her illegitimate son, by Solomon, being the legendary progenitor of all their kings. The gifts which tins " illustrious inquirer after truth " made to King Solomon (1 Kings x. 10 ; 2 Chron. ix. 9) — estimated at $2,917,080, of U. S. coinage; besides any quantity of spices and precious stones — are enlarged upon by Forster, who considers this lady to have been "Queen of Yemen" in Southern Arabia. Indeed, "the offerings of the Queen of Sheba " are believed, by Mr. Wathen, to have enabled Khamsinitus to build " the inde- structible masses of the pyramids " of Egypt. Hoskins, of course, appoints this ubiquit- ous dame Queen of African Meroe : but Fresnel, commenting upon inscriptions brought by Dr. Arnaud from the Ilariim-BUkis — a great elliptical temple, considered to be the " Sanctuary of the Queen of Sheba " — seems to have determined her Yemenite locality, as well as the name B-Ahnakah ; by which, representing a form of Venus, she became subsequently deified by the Sabncans. Oriental tradition has consecrated, elsewhere, the voyages of princesses, about the same period that Sheba's queen and King Solomon interchanged affectionate courtesies. So struck, indeed, were the Jesuit missionaries with the resemblance between the journey made, about 1000 b. c, by "a princess Oamed Si-w^ng-mou, the Mother of the Western king (who afterwards went to China. HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 499 bearing presents to King Mou-wang") and Solomon's "queen of Sheba," that these pietists supposed the CIdnese account to be a mere travesty of the Hebrew books of Kiiujs or Chroiiieles J The era; many of the presents; the miraculous facilities of transportation over similar immense distances; and the manner in which the " Mother of the Western King and Mou-wang abandoned themselves, even at the end, to all the delights of joy and songs," curiously correspond. Still more singularly; — the Chinese book, in which these parallelisms are recorded, is called C/ii-i [i. e. collection of what is neglected) — a name identical with the Hebrew Di/rre fiaiamim, and the Greek J'ura- lipomena (things left out) : in which latter volume, under our English designation of "Chronicles," the queen of Slubas visit was registered, like the Chinese story, by far later scribes, until copies became multiplied ad infinitum, through the blessing of moveable types. Deeming, in common with the highest biblical exegetists of our age, Solomon's "queen of Shi'ba" to be less historical than Mou-wang's, we are fain to leave her out of the argument; no less than Josepiius's opinion that African Meroe was intended by any " 5(/6a " of Xth Genesis. Which doubts submitted, let us remember how Pliny assures us that the Subceans stretched from sea to sea ; that is, from the Persian to the Arabian Gulf: and, inasmuch as four distinct nations of Arabia are recorded under the appellative Scba, Sheba, Sseba, or Saba, it is uncertain whether any one of them can be specially identified at this day. Nevertheless, they are all circumscribed by the " Gezeeret-el-Arab," or Isle of the Arabs ; and Seba (A.), the first of Genesis Xth, as a KVShite affili.-ition, belongs to the hitnydr (red), or rforAr-skinned race; — not im- probably now represented by the tribes at Mirbdt and Zhafar, who still speak the old EhkMee tongue. No objections militate against Forster's skilfully elaborated conclusion, "that the Seba or Sebaim of the Old Testament, and the Sabi or Asabi of (Ptolemy) the Alex- andrine, denote one and the same people; " and that " the tract of country between Cape Mussendom and the mountains of Sciorm was originally the seat of Cushite colonies; " because, as Forster's maps and reasonings establish, Cape Mussendom was styled, by Ptolemy, "the promontory of the Asabi," near which now lies the town of Cmcan {Cushan of Hebrew writers) ; and a littoral termed, by Pliny, "the shore of Ham,'''' Liltus Hamwceum, now Maham [Ma-KAaM? place of Ham] ; adjacent to which is a Wctdee-IIam, Valley of Ham ; prove that, all around this centre, many local names, commemorative of KUS/iiVe settlements, even yet exist. Not to dogmatize, we conceive that Oman, province of Southern Arabia, suffices for the pristine habitat of our Seba (A.).*^"*) 20. nSnn — K/iUILH — ' Havilah. Two Havilahs, both spelt exactly the same way, one KUSA?Ve (v. 7), and the other Joktanide (v. 29), occurring in Xth Genesis, their separation is difficult; without harassing ourselves about the third — "Land of K/iUILH," in Gen. n. 11 — which, being ante-diluvian, concerns not human history. Here again Forster is an excellent guide, because he does little more than copy Bochart. Assigning to the .Joktanide Ilavilah the several districts bearing this name in Yemen, he naturally seeks for the KUS//?ible, by its being there spelled according to the Rabbinical pronunciation. The Hebrew word, written llctiluk by adoption of the points, without points would read Huile, or Ilauile ;" and thereby its identity with the Iluaela of Ptolemy; the Huala of Niebuhr; the Aval. AHal, Iluale, 500 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. Khav, lihaJt, Khaitl, Khaulhn, of modern Arabic, becomes transparent to general readers. Thus, enlarging Bochart's ingenious comparisons, tlie Eii/XfJr of the LXX ; the Cha- blasii of Dionysius (Periegetes) ; the EhUloian mountains of Ptolemy, still called Aual ; the Chaidothei of Erastosthenes, and the Chaldcei of Pliny; become resolved, by Forster, into the powerful tribe of the Beni-Klidled : whose encampments dot the Peninsula from Damascus to the Straits of Bab-el-mandeb ; from Mekka, on the Arabian coast, round to the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia ; often on sites where some remembrance of their parental Havilite appellatives is traditionally preserved "unto this day." " Se non h vero, almeno h ben trovato " : and, in the present state of knowledge on Central Arabia — wonderfully small, our nineteenth century considered — if Carlyle's "hammer of Thor" might, perhaps, demolish Forster's picturesque edifice, we doubt that Thor himself could erect a substitute more solid. Albeit, ethnology may well be content when Arabia, and especially the shores and islands of the Persian Gulf, preserve so many reminiscences of three " Havilahs ; " among which, through closest application of the "doctrine of chances," some local habitation must still exist for the .name and lineage of a KUSAiie Kh.'IUII.ah.^oi 21. nn^D — SBTdl — ' Sabtah.' What may have been the origin of the word Saba, which, simple or compound, has been preserved in Arabia by Hamitic and Semitic afiBliations, from primordial times to the present, there appears to be no means now of ascertaining. Gesenius derives Sabaism from Tsaba, the heavenly ' host ' ; which, as concerns the root Saba, appears somewhat ex post facto. Arab migration carried this name into Abyssinia, if the SabcB of Strabo be now represented by a town called ^ssa6; so too Josephus imagines Meroe to have been called Saba, previously to its adoption of the name of Cambyses's sister ; but Lepsius's Meroite discoveries prove the whole story to be fabulous. Bochart, cau- tiously, traced Sabatha, Sobota, of Pliny, through Sophtha, an island in the Persian Gulf, to the Massabathce on Median frontiers. Pliny, however, says "^4 i, and coipled with all the reservations due to philological intricacies of this archaic nature. The word NMRD is nonsense when wrung out from the verb MRD, to rebel. It is a compound of two distinct monosyllables, NM and RD. The former proceeds from the radical, preserved in Arabic, Ne.M, "to spread a good odor:" the latter from RmD, ♦'to be responsible." NjMRoD means, Semitically (whether such was its pristine Assyrian acceptation or not), ^'■he-whose-royal-aclions-correspond-to-lhe-yood-odor {f>f Ida famey But, difficulties cease not here ! In King James's version, as in all its MS. ances- tors back to the LXX (where yiyas Kvvijydi, a huntiny- giant, is its wondrous para- , 508 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. phrase), the next verse {Gen. x. 9) states that NMRD was a "mighty hunter !" Upon this translation hang chiliads of commentaries. Leaving them in suspension, we again present Lauci's etymologies. The Hebrew word TilD (translated hunter) is not in this case derivable from Said, a huntsman ; but comes from the Arabian verb WSD ; instead of Arabic^ SUD, He- braicfe TsUD, to hunt. Now, WaSaD means " to be firm," to possess consistency and gtability; which quality, applied to the vast domains assigned in Xth Genesis to Nimrod, makes the words GiBoR-T«ID mean ^^ great-in-landed-tenements" ; and not "vigorous in the chase." What of Assyrian mythology, on the question of Nimrod, may become exhumed eventually through cuneiform researches, it is useless yet to speculate upon. In the pre- sent state of science, Lanci's exegesis, grammatically as to Hebrew, philologically as to Semitish tongues, and far more sensibly in connection with the probable meaning of the writer of Xth Genesis, stands of itself, quite as well as, if not better than, the modern rabbinical notion of a "hunter." [Always ready for my own part to surren- der any hypothesis the moment its irrationality is proven, I submit (for what I con- ceive to have been one of the intentions of the compiler of Xth Genesis) the following retranslation of his sentences, accompanied by notes to some extent justificatory. — G. R. G.] The personage who wrote Xth Genesis is unknown. The language he adopted was Cajiaanitish, afterwards called " Hebrew." The age in which he flourished is obscure: the alphabet used by him still more so. His individual biases, beyond a supposable Chaldaic tendency, enter, as respects ourselves, into the vast family of human conjec- tures. The media through which this document, Xth Genesis, has been handed down, are, in a scientific point of view, suspicious. The vicissitudes (even when restricted to the Hebrew Text) through which the original manuscript has passed, in order to reach our eye in printed copies of King James's version, are not few : because, the oldest Hebrew manuscripts of Xth Genesis now extant do not antedate the tenth century A. c. ; the Masorete diacritical marks, upon which orthodox commentaries mainly repose, were not invented before 5U6 a. c, nor perfected until some 800 years ago; and, finally, the Axhouri, square-letter, character of present Hebrew MSS. cannot pos- sibly ascend to the second century of our era. It will therefore be conceded that, before the personal ideas of the first editor of Xth Genesis could have reached our individualities, some elements of uncertainty intervene ; independently of errors of transcribers and of translators, from Hebrew into Alexandrian Greek ; from both of these languages into Latin ; from the three, in unknown quantities, into English : all conditions of doubt that cannot, nowadays, archteologically (and neither hagiogra- phically nor evangelically) speaking, be altogether dodged. Upon such historical con- siderations, we opine, the algebraical chances of mistakes, in respect to Xth Genesis, are rather more numerous than those of exactitude in interpretation : albeit, He- braically, the subjoined attempt at an English restoration can withstand criticism quite as well as, according to St. Paul, " Jannes and Jambres withstood Moses." ■3d. Biblically. — Genesis X. Verse 8. " And KUS/t begat NMRD (Nem-Rud = he-whose-royal-actions-correspond- to-the-good-odor of his fame) ; he first began to be mighty upon earth : " Ver. 9. " He was a great-landed-proprielor before (the face of ) leHOunH; whence tne saying — 'like NMRD, great-landed-proprielor before (the face of) leHOuaH:' " Ver. 10. "And the beginning of his realm was BaBeL ; and AReK, and AKaD, and KaLNeH, in the land of S//iNAdR." Ver. 11. "From this land he himself (NMRD understood) went forth (/o) ASAUR {Assyria), and built NINUeH and ReK/(oBoT^AaIR and KaLaK/*." Ver. 12. "And ReSeN between NINUeH and between KaLaK/« ; (he) she (Nineveh Uudersto^jd) the great city." [The text, it verse 11, is ambiguous. It may be read, as in King James s >craJon. HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 509 •'Out of that land went forth Ashnr;" but such rendering leaves out an essential member of the phrase, the word HIIUA, 'he himself,' before the verb "went forth," which can only refer to the antecedent Nimrod. On the other hand, as the literal text has " went forth Ashur," the preposition to must be interpolated ; but not alto gether arbitrarily, because learned Hebraists aver that this preposition is omitted in Num. xxxiv. 4, and in I)eul. iii. 1, and yet its interpolation is obligatory to make sense. Indifferent to either reading, I will merely mention that three new and distinct translations of Genesis, by eminent Hebraists (Glaire's, Cahen's, and De Sola's), read, "Nimrod went to Ashur (Assyria)" — that this last vindicates such explanation by unanswerable arguments, while most of them quote high scholarship in its favor: and, finally, that the Hebraical profundity of " N. M.," who defends this view in Kitlo's Cydopcedia, is of more Germanic hue, and consequently deeper in Hebrew, if not per- haps in "geological" lore, than that of "J. P. S.," who opposes it. Non nostrum tantas componere lites; which future cuneiform discoveries alone can settle. — G. R. G.] The probable ideas of the constructor of Xth Genesis on NMRD, may now be summed up : — 1st. That Nimrod was an affiliation of KAaM (Egypt?), swarthy, or red, race of man- kind, through KUSAiVff, Arabian, lineage. 2d. That, unlike every other proper name, after " Shem, Ham, and Japheth," in Xth Genesis, each of which is a geographico-ethnological personification, NMRD is an individual ; the only one in the whole chapter. Whether an actual hero, or a mytho- logical personage, cannot be gathered from the text. 3d. That, whether "great in the chase" or not, neither Nimrod's name nor his deeds, nor any thing in Scripture, justifies our assumption that the writer of Xth Genesis did not entertain high respect for Nimrod's memory : on the contrary, 4th. This writer distinguishes NMRD from all his geographical compeers, as pro- minent "before leHOuaH." 5th. That Nimrod Yms positively the earliest " great-landed-proprietor " known to the writer of Xth Genesis; who ascribes to NMRD the foundation of eight of the proudest cities along the Euphrates and Tigris — Babel, Erech, Accad, Chalne, Nineveh, Rehoboth-A'ir, Kalah, and Eeseti. 6th. And, finally, that the practical writer of Xth Genesis is innocent of the sin of causing those incomprehensible delusions about NMRD, which, commencing with Jose- phus's hypotheses, only 1800 years ago, pervade all biblical literature at the present day. Two inferences might, however, be drawn from the said writer's peculiarities : — One, that the document, being Jehovistic, belongs to a later age than that immediately after Joshua ; earlier than which, as shown further on, the mention of Canaanitish expulsions renders it archteologically impossible to place the writer : — the other is, that the writer not only was better informed upon Babylonish traditions than (to judge by his silence) upon those of other countries, but that he derived pleasure from' the elevation of the former above the rest. Would not this imply Chaldcean authorship ? Now, whether Nimrod was originally a demigod, a hero, or a "hunting-giant;" whether, under such appellative, lie associations with Ninus, Belus, or Orion ; or (were we to "travel out of the record," what we should first examine), whether he was not another form of the Assyrian Hercules, to be added to those so skilfully illus- trated by Raoul-Rochette — these are speculations foreign to our subject, and we refrain from their present obtrusion. The compiler of Xth Genesis, whose meaning we strive to comprehend, was satisfied to ascribe to NMRD the foundation of four Babylonish and four Assyrian cities; and, although the positions of some of these eight are not yet so positively fixed as might be desired, they group together in Mesopotamian vicinities; and thus the last aflilia tion of KUS/f becomes placed in Asia — further removed from .\fricau " Ethiopia " th&p the whole, or any, of his geographical brethren 609 510 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. "Affiliations of the MTsRIM," or Egyptians. 27. nmS — LUDIM — ' LuDiM.' We have already seen that Mitsra'im, read according to the Masorete punctuation, ia a dual referable to the "Two Egypts," Upper and Lower; but, stript of the points ■which, after all, are but recent and arbitrary embellishments, that MTaRIto is a plural, meaning the Miss'rites, or the Egyptians. The writer of Xth Genesis, therefore, in his system of ethnic geography, deemed these personified off-shoots from Egypt to be so many colonies or emigrations from that principal stock ; and as such, we perceive that he suffixes to each name the plural ter- mination IM ; thereby testifying that he never foresaw modern assumptions in King James's version, that the LUDs, the A«NMs, the LHBa, &c., should have been men; one yclept Lud, another Anam, and so forth. As grand-children of KAeM {Ham), the hoary ithyphallic divinity of Egypt, these outstreams class themselves under the generic denomination of Ilamitic families ; and their habitats ought naturally to be sought for in regions contiguous to their ascribed focus of primitive radiations : without disregarding either, that the writer of Xth Genesis, by making them cousins of Palestinic Kanaanites, and of Arabian KUSAjVea (all issues from the same Hamite source), never supposed that they were, or could ever become, Nigritian races: upon which last "Type of Mankind" he, as well as every other writer in the Old Testament, observes the same judicious silence manifested throughout the Text towards Tuiigouses, Esquimaux, Caribs, Patagonians, Papuans, Oceanians, Malays, Chinese, and other human races ; the discovery of whose terrestrial existence appertains to centuries posterior to the closure of the Hebrew canon, Xth Genesis inclusive, at some period not earlier than Alexander the Great, b. c. 332 ; nor posterior to b. c. 130, when the LXX translations were probably complete at Alex- andria. Hence, to judge by existing nomenclatures of tribes and places, LUD appears both on the Asiatic and Libyan flanks of lower Egypt. Thus, on the Syrian frontier, a few miles east of Yalfa, lay the site of Loud, Lydda, Diospolis : inhabited afterwards by Benjamites. So also Ava.h\co- Berber traditions comprise the LoOUToA among Sabian tribes of Yemen, reputed to have immigrated into Barbary. But, whether as exotics or terrcegeniti, it is on the Libyan side of the Nile, prolonged on the southwestern litto- ral of the Mediterranean to the Atlantic — districts cut off through the absence of camels during primordial ages and by Sahnran wastes, from contact with Nigritian fami- lies of remote austral latitudes — that the LUDlm have left memorials of ancient occupancy. Michselis long ago corrected Bochart, and suggested the probabilities that the Luday, situate near the river Laud, in Tingitana, were the Ludim : latterly confirmed by Graberg de Hemso; who shows that the Oluti, Ololi, Louat, exist among Amazirgh tribes in those Mauritanian neighborhoods to this day; still admitting, too, the na- tional prefix ait, "sons of," to their mimes (like Mac, Fitz, 0', Ap, among ourselves), as they did of yore, when the Carthaginian Anion registered in his Periplus the Ait-o- LUD, "sons of Lud," or Aitoloti; resident in the same Barbaresque vicinities where the Ludayas of Spanish writers are now succeeded by the Beni-how. There is no lack of vestiges of primeval LUDs to be met with in the very regions where analogy ■would lead us to look for them ; and it is surprising that high authorities have alto- gether overlooked the facts. FMy former " Excursus (in Otia ^ygyptiaca) on the origin of some of the Berber tribes of Nubia and Libya," suggested a ventilation of some disregarded ethnological data, preparatory to that of Xth Genesis, which, after five years' suspension, I am now endeavoring to accomplish. 1 then submitted authorities on two grand divisions of Barbaresques — a noun not derived from Barbari, barbarians, but from the «;borigi- HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 511 nal African nnme of HUBR — the Shilhii/i^, and the i-Amazirgh or Amazirpih-T : both readily traceable tlirougrh the Mazices, Macii, &c., of Latin authors, back to the Ma^utj of Herodotus. —G. R. G.] To render perspicuous the view -we take of Barbaresque anthropology, it would be necessary to enlarge here upon generalities before scrutinizing each genesiacal name in detail ; but space being wanting, we must curtail our MS. investigations. Two human families, the S/iiUoufis and the Mazirijhs, now called Berbers, have lain, either aboriginally or from anti(|uity beyond record, scattered from the Cyre- naica and oases west of Egypt, athwart the northwest face of Africa to the Moghreb- el-Aksa, or extremest west, of Marocchine territories on the Atlantic; and formerly even to the Guanches, now extinct in the Canary Isles. Estimated by Grsiberg de Hemso at four millions of population in Morocco alone, these Berber families present differences as well as resemblances comparable to those visible between the French and the Belgians : they speak dialects of the old "lingua Atalnntica," subdivided into Berber and Shilha ; and intermarrying rarely between themselves, have also imbibed little or no alien blood through amalgamation with others. Anciently they occupied exclusively that Atalantic zone of oases, littoral or inland, which lies between the Sahara deserts and the Mediterranean; now called Barbary ; "Land of Berbers," Berberia: and the remoteness of their residence along that tract 80 far surpasses historical negation, that geology alone may decide whether the Ber- bers can have witnessed those epochas when the now-arid Sahara was an inland sea. In any case, we may suppose that, in proportion as its salt-lacustrine barriers to com- munication with Nigritian plateaux became desiccated, the Berber tribes, driven from the coast by Punic, Kanaanitish, Greek, Egyptian, and other early invaders, spread themselves southwards; and, whilst their former invaders have been replaced by successive Roman, Vandal, Saracenic, Ottoman, and French establishments, that they themselves gradually crossed the Sahara ; and now, under the name of Tiiaricks, some oflFshoots of this main Atalantic stock, modified by the facilities such passage has afforded them of possessing JVegresses in their hareems, roam along both banks of the Niger and around Lake Tchad. But the southerly expansion of Berber families, except in partial and conjectural instances, is bounded chronologically by one great fact, overlooked though it be by most writers; which is, that, until the camel was introduced into Barbary from Arabia, the Saharan wilderness presented obstacles to nomadism almost insurmountable. Now, the camel was not imported into Barbary until Ptolemaic times. Mentioned in hiero- glyphics only as a foreigner, and never used by the Pharaonic Egyptians, the earliest historical appearance of camels in Africa dates in the first century b. c. The vulgar notion of camel-dififusion over Barbary before the Ptolemies, is nowadays archseologi- cally erroneous. 610 It therefore follows that, whenever Xth Genesis was compiled, the Barbaresque affiliations of the MTsRlm could not have penetrated to the latiiude of Negro races, south of the Sahara, by any other route than up the Nile — Negroes never h.iving existed, in a state of nature, north of the limit of tropical rains. This long journey was not undertaken by the powerful MTsKJw themselves much before the Xllth dynasty, about b. c. 2300: so that the LUDlwi, for example, like all their uncivilized brethren, driven away from the Nile by the Egyptians; restricted from southerly pro- gress by the Sahara and the absence of camels, from northerly by the Mediterranean and the absence of ships {Berber habits being the reverse of nautical, and Tyrian pri- vateersmen hovering on those coasts) ; were, down to Ptolemy Soter, b. n. 320 (as the utmost antiquity), confined in their nomadisms within Barbary between Egypt nmi the Atlantic littoral of Morocco. The lowest historical age possible for the compilation of Xth Genesis attains to the Esdraic school — the earliest (if the document be ChalfJuic] may untedatv Ezra by some centuries: but, logically, the more remote the antiijuity 512 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. "laimed for this ethnic geographical chart, the less possible, physically, becomes intercourse between Berber tribes (athwart the Sahara and without cavieh) and the true Negro races of Central Africa. Content with ofiFering this dilemma, we pass onwards, and remark, that the Berbert were generically termed Mauri by the Romans, and Moors by " moyen age " writers ; whilst, if we adopt Egypt as the geographical pivot of eccentric radiations, we shall find, that these Mauritanian Berbers on the west are to the Egyptiavs what we have shown the Arabian Kushites to be on the east, viz., " gentes subfusci coloris " ; iErnio- PiANS, in its Homeric sense of sun-burned-faces. All of them were possibly distinguished by the red color on Nilotic monuments ; and the term Ilamitic would be, genesiacally, ethnologically, and geographically, the best designation for these races ; were it not for modern Negro theories, which ignorance and charlatanism have foisted upon that mystified name we now spell "Ham." "One almost blushes," Agassiz has sarcas- tically observed, "to state, that the Fathers of the Church, in Northern Africa, have even more recently been quoted as evidence of the high intellectual and moral developments of which the Negro race is supposed to be capable, and that the monu- ments of Egypt have been referred to with the same view. But, we ask, have men who do not know that Egypt and Northern Africa have never been inhabited by Negro tribes, but always by nations of the Caucasian race, any right to express an opinion on this question ? " [Five years ago, Luke Burke's Ethnological Journal, and the writer's Otia ^Egypiiaca, pointed out several analogies between some names of twenty-five Berber tribes men- tioned by Ebn Khaledoon, and various other ethnic cognomina preserved by the writer of Xth Genesis. The former are certainly reliable, inasmuch as Ebn Khaledoon was a Berber himself and the historian of his nation : who contests their common descent from such legendary sources as Abraham, Goliath, Amelek, Afrikis, Himyar, and other fabulous origins; claiming, however, that the Berbers "descend from Kesloujim (Casluhim), son of Mitzraim, son of Ham." So, also, through Mohammedan har- monizing, we meet, in the " Eozit ul Suffa," with a similar example of pious genea- logical frauds — " God bestowed on Ham nine sons : Jlind, Sitid, Zenj, Noicba, Kanaan, Kush, Kopt, Berber, and Habesh ! " It will be seen, further on, that the Casluhim undoubtedly dwelt in Barbary when Xth Genesis was written, as their descendants do " unto this day ;" but it need scarcely be insisted upon, with the reader of these pages, that Ebn Khaledoon, an Arabicized Berber, no less than a most learned and conscientious Muslim, naturally felt anxious to connect his own pedigree with that of the genesiacal Patriarchs, to him rendered orthodox and respectable through the Kordn : and the fact that, overlooking the He- brew plural terminations, he deemed Kesloudjim (the ShiUouhs !) to be a man, son of MiTSBAiM (the Egyptians !), another individual, indicates his literary sources; while it serves to illustrate what we have maintained elsewhere, viz. : that the Berbers (their own indigenous traditions being unrecorded) appropriated instead the language and reli- gious ideas of their civilizers, the Arabs ; who certainly, when the Koran was com- posed, had never taken Berber origins into consideration. Nevertheless, this sentimental bias of Ebn Khaledoon does not touch the archoeo- logical fact gained from his pages that, in his time, the LAOUTE are recorded, as one of twenty-five Berber tribes then inhabiting Barbary. " Six hundred lineages of Berbers" — the enumeration of Marmol and of Leo Afri- canus — resolved themselves, about the fifteenth century of our era, into five main stems ; who, already imbued with longings after Islamite respectabilities, said that their progenitors were S.abacans of Yemen : at the same time Leo adds the noteworthy remark, '^subfusci coloris sunt." The same quintuple division reappears in the " quinque- gentani Barbari" of Roman writers of the fourth century ; which is important, because ii establishes an identical quinary repartition of Berbers prior to Mohammedan impres- sions ; and, although it does not contradict, this fact renders it less likely that pagans or HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 513 aemi-Christians should have leaned towards an Arabian origin, before religions motives lor such honorary attribution existed in Berber minds. To trace whence liarbari, or Berbers, from about 1400 years ago, through the " Misulani Sabarbares, Massylii " of Pliny; the Sabouboures of Ptolemy; and possibly, in some instances, the Barbaroi of Strabo, Diodorus, and Herodotus : to resolve the Zilia, Zilca, Zelis, Salinsi, ZilzaclcB, Massyli, Xilohes, into the MaffauiXi/Juej = A.MAZIO -ZeiytMs, or the Masscesylli into AyiAZlG-S/iillouhs ; and then to deduce tlie Amazirijhs of the present dny from the M.a^\ici of Herodotus, B. c. 430: — these are tasks which, following chiefly Custiglione, tiave been already executed. Histvry, philology, and analogy unite, therefore, in establishing that the T-Ama- tirghs, or real Berbers, distinct in that day from Asiatics or Negroes, existed, about the fifth century b. c, in their own land of Berberia, now called Barbary. With the exception of their having embraced Islim ; exchanged the bow, for which they were celebrated long before that age, for the musket ; added the camel to the horse ; and appropriated Arabic words to make up for deficiencies in their native vocabulary ; the Berbers of Mt. Atlas are precisely the same people now that they were twenty-five centuries ago ; dwelling in the same spots, speaking the same tongues, and called by the same names, as we shall see presently. We are now prepared to accept an opinion pronounced by a man of science emi- nently qualified to judge; which, coupled with Forster's attestation \_sitpra, p. 483] of the indelibility oi color as a criterion of type, when we recall how all Berbers " sub- fusci coloris sunt," ought to possess sufficient weight. There is but one verilably indigenous race in Barbary, says Bodichon ; viz., the G.iE- TULIAN : — " Ainsi, Atlantes, Atarantes, Lotophages, Occidentaux, Troglodytes, Maurusiens, Maures, Pharusiens, Garamantes, Aug^liens, Psylles, Libyens, meme Canariens, et toute cette multitude de peuples a qui les auciens donnent I'Afrique sep- tentrionale pour patrie, se confondent en une seule et meme race, la GETULIENNE." The Arabs, foreigners in Barbary, call the present descendants of this race " Berbers and Kubyles." Indeed, as tillers of the soil, i. e., as human animals brought into direct contact with the earth of Barbary (rank with exhalations so mortiferous, even now, to Europeans), no type of humanity could have outlived, not to say flourished amid, the climatic and geological conditions of Atalantic Africa, but a few furlongs from the sea-beach, except the Gcetulian. For proofs, read Dr. Boudin's Letlres sur VAlgerie. Cut off from escape on the west by the ocean ; on the north by the Mediterranean ; on the south by the Sahara (once a sea also), and, until the Christian era, by the ab- sence of camels; and on the east by the MTsRIM ; these " quinquegentani Berberi" have survived the extinction of the elephant, together with the depressions of temper- ature consequent upon the destruction of their primeval forests : and, repugnant through natural constitution to any alien institutions but those of the Kordn (con- strued after their own liberal fashion), they remain now, what they were at their unknown era of creation, Gcetulians, and nothing else. Inquire of history. Phoenicia planted her standards at the Carthaginian ports she occupied : Greece built her strongholds on the littoral of the Cyrenaica : Rome, prostratitig all, sent her eagles further into Africa than any Europeans: Persia inscribed her westernmost tablet at Tripoli : Byzantium, after Belisarius's triumph, has been obliterated, even in name : Vandals, massacred in detail, or extinguished by climate more murderous to white races than Numidian arrows, have vanished, physiologically, like other heteroge- neous foreigners on the sea-board : Ottoman and Frank invaders still surround their tem- porary havens with bastions strongest towards the mainland ; and French prowess over the Berber race is confined to the latter's preparations for th» next razzia. The Saracen* alone, themselves " gentes subfusci coloris;" apostles of .m genia' polygamous religion 65 514 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. speaking dialects of a tongue long familiar to Berberic ears through anterior Punic intercourse : — the Arabs, I repeat, cognate with the Berbers in nomadic restlessness and social habits, have ridden over the Gcetulians, through them, and around them: but whilst from the first hour, a. d. G44, that the lances of Islam penetrated into £er- beria, the wise policy of its Arabian votaries associated the native Berbers in spoils and benefits mutually agreeable; the Arab himself, after twelve centuries of Barbaresque sojourn, has become far more Berberized as a MOGHRABEE than the Berbers have been Arabicized. And (asks the reader) what is the " ultima ratio " of all these suc- cessive influences upon mankind's Atlantic type ? Merely this : — that wherever the Ga'tulian has not (he has in Morocco) revindicated his national supremacy, he rather tolerates Arab encampments in the domains of his birth-right, than hospitably welcomes Arabian presence by practical fusion. " Mo- hammed" is their moral bond of Barbaresque unity — their common battle-cry. Implacable detestation of Turks and Frenchmen is the only chord of sympathy between Abd-el-Kader (slave of the Puissant), the heroic and betrayed Shemite, and that mulatto- cross between Arabico-Berbers and Negresses, exhibited in a beastly individuality called "the Emperor of Morocco." Hatred to aliens — to anybody but one of them- selves, a Berber — is still the banner of GcBtulian instincts. If, then, Gsetulian populations cannot have originated through imaginary importa- tions of Negroes from the interior of Africa, nor from imaginary colonizations of white races from Europe, whence came they ? History being impartially silent, our alternative lies between Arabian immigrations as one possibility, and the autocthonous creation of Berbers for Barbary as the other. My own inquiries lend no support to the scientific probabilities of the former contin- gency. The latter it is not my province to discuss. — G. R. G.] Viewing, therefore, GceluUan families as " une race apart," we proceed to ascertain their relation to the chart of Xth Genesis. Their present name is Berbers in Mauritania, and Shillouhs towards the Cyrenaica. In Ebn Khaledoon's " History of the Berbers," we have already noticed that one tribe of this race was called LAOUTE, or Laouteh. Cutting off the Arabic plural termination, there remains LAOUT ; which, reduced to its simplest expression, vowels being vague, is LUT, or LUD ; an appellative, as we have shown, traceable in Barba- resque nomenclatures at all times, back to where history is lost. In Xth Genesis, the eldest-born of the affiliations of the MTsRwra (or Egyptians), and who, therefore, in the idea of the writer, issued first and went furthest from the supposed parental hive, are the LUDIM. Removing the Hebrew plural suffix IM, there remains LUD. All commentators unite in deeming Barbary the geographical sphere of these emigrations. To have shown that the Laouteh, LUDs, of Ebn Khaledoon, can be no others than the Ludim, LUDs, of Xth Genesis, is likewise to prove that Gcetiilian families are included in that ancient system of geography, and that the LUDIM probably occupied Mauritania. A conclusion which our inquiries into the habitats of their fraternal affiliations will fortify. In the meanwhile, we rejoice to learn from Griiberg de Heniso that the Ludaya tribe still fiirni.«hes the Sultan's body-guard in Morocco, and that their river Tagassa is yet called Laud and Thaiuda ; at the same time that it is satis- factory to find such scholarship as Quatremere's sustaining how, "Dans les Loudes de Moise, je "econnais la grande nation des Letcata, la plus puissante des tribus de race Berbere;' and thus ratifying our views upon the LUDlwi of Xth Genesis. su *i8. D'OJ;,* — AaNMIM — 'Anamim.' Of course, this is a tribe which (plural termination IM cut off) was called A5NM. Viewed as Adtiams the analogies falter, unless we adopt Bochart's speculative idea, that the Semitic word for shec^^ GNM, be the root of this name. The 7V«77i-idianBj I HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 515 Ifomades, have also fiiriiislied comparisons ; which wo dispute not, because it is in Barbary tliat commentators locate the people called ANMlm. Referring the reader to the "causes of verbal obscurity" in Oriental names, ably set forth by Forster and De Saulcy, there are few literal permutations more frequent than tliose of M and N: and hence it has been long remarked, that ANM is but an anagrammatic form of AMN. Under such view, the AMN-em become at once Amo- nians ; and, from the ancient worshippers of the Egyptian deity AMN-A'«ep/i, or NUM, at the "Oasis of Ammon" (now Seewah) ; through the Nasamonitis, Nasamones ; to the Amonians, or the Garamantes, whether on the river Cinyphus near Tripoli, or on the Gir ; the transition is more rapid than the results may appear precise. Castiglione gives solid reasons why the Macoi- Ammonii, or Macce-Arnnii, should refer to Amazirgh-Ammonians ; which term he supposes became in Greek mouths Mes- ammones, and thence Nus-ammones. Hence, the ANMJm would naturally take their places among Berber tribes next to the LUDs, their kinsfolk. The Nasamones of Herodotus and of later writers, read by Birch iVoAsw-Amonians (A'eyro-Amonians?), weie a very roving predatory race ; who carried their name all over Barbary : but, without insisting upon any one family in whose name AMN is a component, it is for objectors, after perusing what follows, to show that the Barba- resque Anamim of Xth Genesis, cannot be represented by some offshoot of the Goetu- lian stem yet stretching between the Sahara and the Mediterranean. For ourselves, while descrying the Anamim in the Berber tribe of ^^ Enine" cata- logued by Ebn Khaledoon, we suggest that AaNM may underlie both the words " Nasa- mones " and " Numidians ; " and this for a reason that no Orientalist acquainted with hieroglyphical permutations will disregard. Bunsen, following Ewald, proposed to read the name GUB, Chub [which nation Ezekiel (xxx. 5) associates with " KUS/;, and Phut (Barbary) and Ludhn (the I.udayas, as shown above. No. 27) and all the mingled people,"] as if such name had been written gNUB; and thence to apply it to Nubia — a country, we have proved, altogether unmentioned by Hebrew writers. Voluey had perceived GUB in the Barbaresque Cobbii of Ptolemj', and we adopt his view as by far more natural, according to the context of Ezekiel. Nevertheless, Bunsen's very just remark of the frequent suppression of the.N before G or K, in the transfer of Hamitic into Semitic proper names (ex. gr., Sheshonk, Shiahak), allows us to behold the cNuM of AaNM-IM in the o^iVSl-idians of classical history. If, however, with Bochart, we transcribe the Greek Naaaixovcs into Hebrew letters, ?- JDX 'Jyj ; NaSI AM-N, or other- wise NaSI-ANuM-lm ; we observe that N^s means "people" in Semitish tongues, and thereby such compound name becomes, in English, *' People of 'NU'Midia;" or else, "People of (the oasis of) AMoN:" in either case, the Anamim of Xth Genesis. But Bochart declared that these tribes were " Solinus's Amanles, and Pliny's Ham- manientes, peoples beyond the Greater Syrtis ;" and, reminding us that IJ, GaR, means ''to inhabit," he discloses at once the famed " Garamantes near to the fountains of the river Cyniphus." Now, let us add that this river is still called the Gir, or Gar, by living descendants of these very Amanles, who once were the Berber AaMaN-IM alluded to by the ancient Hebrew geographer.^'''' 29. n'2rh — LIIBIM — ' Lehabim.' The first orthodox English work we chanced to open, in quest of etymological mean- ings, has, " Lehabim, _/?a//i«.s ; or, which are inflamed ; or, the poitits of a sword T^ and just below, "Libya, in Hebrew Lubim, the heart of the sea; or, a nation that has a heart .'" Let us seek elsewhere. Detaching the plural IM, through which the writer of Xth Genesis indicates that he means a tribe, the singular number of whom is LHB, we realize instantaneously how ignorant of Hebrew were the forty-seven translators of King James's version. This may be at once seen by their writing " Mizrr.im I egat Ludim, and Anamim," &c., instead of "the Luds and the Anams" and so forth Had 516 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. they even suspected that IM was already a plural termination, they •would not haye doubled it by printing "Cherubims" for Cherubs, or "Serapliims" for Seraphs! What should we think of the French scholarship of a person who wrote tableauxes ? That these people were Libyans no commentator now doubts, although Bochart dis- sents ; and that in LHB, the soft aspirate he, H, may be equivalent to such vowels as a, e, i, o, u, no palaeographer will contest : nor that the LUB3ffi of 2 Chron. (xii. 3 ; xvi. 8), of Nahum (iii. 9), and of Daniel (xx. 43), are the same as the LHB3to; espe- cially in Nahum's text, where a conjunction couples them to PAUT ; already shown to have been a generic appellative for the whole of Barbary. Atfivj] of the Homeric Greeks possessed a wider territorial extension than the Libya of the Romans ; the former signifying Barbary in general ; the latter the coast from Egypt to the Greater Syrtis : hence we may infer that the more precise information of Roman geographers rested upon better acquaintance with the localities where the LHBs were domiciled. T-LIBI is the homonyme in Coptic MSS ; but perhaps in a sense restricted to tribes on the immediate west of the Nile's alluvium ; which also suggests the easternmost limit of Libyan encampments. Among the Berber tribes enumerated by Ebn Khaledoon occur the LeWaTaH ; which word in Oriental palieography is the same as LeUaB-atah ; and its analogies with LeHaB-3m are salient. Arab tradition invests the present ^«i«-LeWA, of Amazirgh stock, with sufficient correspondences to resolve all these appellatives into the Xtvaiai, Ac(iav6at, of Procopius, about the sixth century b. c. ; not forgetting the Languantan of Corippus. Any one investigating such subjects, without preconceptions, will recognise in the LHBs of Xth Genesis a nomadic population of Gceiulian race, and of Barbaresque habitats. 613 no. D^nriiDj — npat^kabi — ' mpHTumM.' Before commencing analyses that arise through new resuscitations of Egyptology, it is desirable to remind the reader of a principle that governs our philological inqui- ries into 10th Genesis. Extremely, simple, it is still, even where known, more or less disregarded by rabbinical writers. The genesiacal writer's classification of nations is tripartite, under the titular head- ings " Shem, Ham, and Japheth ; " and his lists, therefore, embrace Semitic, Hamitic, and Japethic families ; corresponding [supra, pp. 85, 86] to the yellow, the red, and the white colors given by Egyptian ethnographers to such varieties of man as were known to them about the sixteenth century B. c. : but the Hebrew map excludes the Negro; which race, the fourth in the quadripartite ethnography of Thebes, is, on the monu- ments, painted black. Arabian languages are necessarily represented in the proper names of nations be- longing to the Semitic stock; the Egyptian "sacred tongue" is the most ancient and reliable nucleus for those of the Hamitic; while those of the Japethic, almost a dis- tinct world, must belong either to the Indo- Germanic or to the Scythic class of human idioms. To suppose that the "speech of Kan a On" (misnamed Ilebretv) can answer the pur- pose of an " open Sessame " to the significations of all proper names in Xth Genesis, which the writer himself has carefully segregated from each other into three groups of tongues, spoken by three groups of Immunity (in his day as in ours, from each other entirely distinct), is one of those aberrations that no educated person of our generation would be likely to boast of; if he reflected that, in considering Hebrew as a fitting key to any thing more than to one, the Semitic, of these three linguistic portals, he would be as great a dolt as if he sustained that English might be contained in a Chinese radical or in a Mandingo root. No philologist at the present day, when he beholds in Xth Genesis the proper I HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 517 name NPAT/KAIM, would seek foi' its cxjilaiiation in a Hebrew vocabulary ; because a proper name belonging to the IFamilic group of languages ought first to be examined within the sphere of its own positive domiciliations; and it is only when these are wanting, or when comparative philology is the investigator's object, that speculative analogies of such an anti(iue cognomeu may be hunted for in the modern Arabic Qa- nidos, or other Shemitish lexicon. NP/iT/KAlM is a plural, of which the singular expression is NP^T/KA. In Coptic days, according to authentic MSS., the western skirts of Lower Egypt, on tlie south of Lake Mareotis, Marea, Mariout, were called NIFAIAT ; whence, deduct- ing the plural prefix, NT, we obtain FAL\T as the Coptic vocalization of the hierogly- phical root F-T; or PAeT, meaning a bow; as we explained under the head P/(UT. The occupants of these localities, along the desert ridges from Marea to Pliminhor (now Danmnhoor) spoke a Berber dialect, and not pure Egyptian ; in this, resembling the inhabitants of the nearest oasis, that of Ammon, or Seewah, who, already in the time of Herodotus, 430 b. c, were a mixed "colony of Egyptians and Ethiopians," i.e., sun-burned-fuces : *' subfusci coloi-is," like all Berber derivations. We have settled that the preceding affiliations of the MTsRem occupied parts of Barbary, and belonged to branches of the great Gcetulian trunk. We shall see that others of the Hamitic brethren did so likewise. AVhat, then, more natural than to find, on the western flank of MT«R (Egypt) herself, the NIPHAIAT nomads of that race, speaking their national tongue, the Berber f As usual, Champollion was the first to carry back the NIPHAIAT of Coptic Christian literature to the ancient Pharaonic monuments ; confirmed by Rosellini, Peyron, &c., and since universally accepted by Egyptologists as designations of Libya and Libymis. But, without doubting in the least the Barbaresque application of the word, whether in its Coptic or in its hieroglyphical form, the original name Pk-T-hah sometimes occurs in the singular number, "Bow-country," or plural "Nine-bow-country." Now, the same distinction holds in Xth Genesis, where PAUT refers to Barbary as a whole; and NPATv\oi. Munk supports this hypo- thesis by the Ethiopic name of Jewish Abyssinians, the Falashas, or emigrants, (/"their name be Semitic. These appear to be the most rational etymologies of many producible upon the old system, before hieroglyphics were translated ; or rather, in Munk's instance, before rumors of Egyptian translations had reached an erudite Conservator of the Royal Li- brary at Paris, even in 1845. Such attempts at solution must be abortive, because, revolving within a vicious and narrow circle of ideas, they all lean upon Hebraical explanations of that which the Hebraicized "language of Kanaau " cannot explain; and for the following reason : — Upon Egyptian monuments, at a date long anterior to the compilation of Xth Genesis (never supposed by us to be Mosaic), the PLSTz-lm are recorded. Their name is ortho- graphed " POLISz'TE — incn and women." Allowing vowels to be as vague in hiero' glyphics as every one knows they are in Hebrew, here, notwithstanding, is a word of three or four syllables, represented by at least /our radical letters, P, L, S, T ; as well in the old Egyptian as in the very modern square-letter calligraphy. To this primitive name the Jews added IM, in order to make their plural, PLSTl-lm ; the Philisl-ines : •which word by the Masora is read Phelesheth in the singular; the final letter "tau" being inherent: that is, tlie T was already inseparable from the name thus chronicled at Thebes some three to more centuries before the consolidation of the Hebrew lan- guage itself; taking Solomon's era as the earliest and the Captivity as the latest points for pure Hebrew literature. This historical fact thrust before them, rabbinical scho- lars must pause, and settle with comparative philology the vital question of bililerala and monosyllables, ere they can make Egyptologists concede that the triliteral FLS, or PLS, is the root, not of a Semitic, but of an Uamitic nomen of this Barbaresque afiiliation of the KSiLouKA-lm ; because, in the Ilamitic "language of KNAaN " (falsely called Hebreic) ; in cognate Berber tongues ; and in old Egyptian ; the prefix P, PA, F, no less than its Berber gradation into OU, wa, w, &c., is almost invariably the masculine article the, put before the noun it determines. We hold, therefore, that the hieroglyphical POLISiTE is " m issued primarily from the Egyptians, or whether they are a secondary formation fi-om among the KSAiLouK/is. of Barbary ; Gaetulians who, like their brethren the I'hilislines, aban- doned their birthplace, and went whither? Nobody knows! Bochart pointed out a road to Cappadocia, along which English orthodoxy follows him as sheep do their leading-rams — chiefly because, having fixed the Negro Casluhlm in Colchis on the Euxiue, Protestant divines consider that his brother, or his son, '^Caphtorim," naturally took lodgings next door. Our restoration of the KSAiLouK/o to Barbary shatters that hypothesis, unless Cappadocia, like Colchis, can show to some Halicarnasian a population also " black in complexion, and Moo//y-haired." Strabo tells us that the Leuco-Syrians, wA?7c-skinned-Syrians, resided there. Michaelis thought of Cyprus, which Volney rejects; Calmet, first Crete, and afterwards Cyprus, which second thought is favored in Kitto's cycloptedia by "E. M." Crete, however, is adopted by the Germanic scholarship of "J. B. R." ; and, based upon similar sources, by that of Munk. One regrets to disturb this happy uniformity ; but, let a query or two bo propounded — after recalling that, our preceding analyses having vindicated Barbary as the region, and Gmtulian as the race, of seven " affiliations of the MTsRJw," the eighth, our KPAT^Rs, whether as offshoots of Shillouhs or of Egyptians, must have been likewise "gentes subfusci coloris"; speaking a dialect oi Ilamitic tongues; whose birthplace was also Northern Africa. 1st. How, in the remote age of these ante-historical migrations, could Berber races have got to Crete? By navigation? Not impossible, certainly; but, it is one thing to suppose a Mr. Caphtorim tacking his frail bark, not along shore, but straight out 400 miles (against Etesian gales) to windward, to the Island of Candia ; and another to explain the embarkation of a whole tribe of KPAT^Pvs, for aught we know, as numer- ous as the Pharusii or the Fhilistines. Such a voyage, at such unnautical epochas, is rather more difficult to be conceived, in archaeology, than some mistake of a copyist in writing that name which, as KPT^R (save in the Text, versions, and rabbinical com- mentors thereon), has never yet been localized. 2d. What vestiges are there in Crete, or in her traditions, of any such Barbaresque visitation ? And why, after they had landed at Candia, did the KPAKRs abandon that splendid island en masse, and so thoroughly, that not a suspicion of their sojourn is to be found in Cretan, in classical, or in Hamitic traditions ? When these two questions have received a reasonable answer, we shall put our 3d, and last interrogatory — How comes it that, after all these improbabilities, the second voyage, from Crete to Palestine, is unrecorded ? It is true that three texts are quoted to identify the Philistines with Crete: — Ezek. XXV. 16, " I will stretch out my hand upon the Philistines, and I will cut off the KARTMm." Zeph. ii. 5, " Woe unto the inhabitants of the seacoast, the nation of the KhKTt-lrn! the word of lellOuaH against you; Kanaan. the land of the Philistines." 1 Sam. XXX. 14, 16, " We made an invasion south of the KKKTt-lm, . . the laud of the Philistines." Now, if the resemblance of KARTd to Crete be the only reason for making those Shillouh affiliations, called P-OLlSiTE in hieroglyphics, navigate from Barbary to Can dia, and thence to Palestine — if this be all, why the same palwographical analogy might bring the K/tRTM/n from KhaRT/-ouw, the modern city on the juncture of the 526 THE xth chapter of genesis. Blue and White Niles ! Unluckily for Crete, these texts merely show that KhTXTi-\m was another nauie — a nickname perhaps — for a sept of Philistines in Palestine. David's life-guards were composed of K/iRTd and ThLTtl (2 Sam. viii. 18; 1 Chron. xviii. 17). They, with the GT/1 (2 Sam. xv. 18), made up a corps of "GOO men." Now, the latter being citizens of Gath, the union of all three tribes into a cohort renders their homogeneity, as native Palestinians, more than probable. But, none of these passages touch the Kaphiorim ; whose name is distinct from that of the Kherethlm. But, it is said, three other texts confirm the Cretan theory : — Deul. ii. 23, " The Avim that dwelled in villages as far as (Gaza?) Aza, the KPATcRs who issued from KP/(T^R destroyed them and established themselves in their place." Jerem. xlvii. 4, "leHOunH will spoil the Philistines, the remnant of the country of KPAT^R." Amos ix, 7, " The Philistines from KVhTtR." One must employ double-magnifying spectacles to see anything more here than that Kaphtor was some place whence Philistines came (far, or near, unrevealed) ; but, in ■what does all this concern the "Island of Candia"? Herodotus and Tacitus are quoted. The former merely says, that Creta was occupied by barbarous tribes until the time of Minos. This citation does not help Caphtorim out of the mire. The latter has ^^ Judceos, Cretd insula profugos, novissima Libyce insedisse memorant." He speaks oi Jews, driven out of Candia, taking refuge in Libya. What has that incident to do with " Philistines from KPAT/R" in Palestine ? Those who fancy that Hitzig or Movers, spite of their immense learning, and dexterity in placing one Indo-Germaiiic hypothesis alongside of another, have mended matters, will be edified by the perusal of Quatre- mere's critique of both. From it we translate: " It seems to me probable that the Kreli inhabited to the south of the country of the Philistines, upon the shores of the MediteiTjinean Sea, on the side which looks towards the frontiers of Egypt. And a passage of Herodotus (iii. 5) comes perfectly in support of my opinion. According to the Greek historian, 'from Phoenicia to the environs of Kadytis [Jerusalem], the country is inhabited by Syrians, called Palestinians. From Kadytis to the town of lenusos, the market-places appertain to the Arabs; tlience after, to the Lake Serbonis, dwell the Syrians.' This curious passage demonstrates that to the south of the country of the Philistines there was a coast sufficiently considerable occupied by Arabs. Now, inasmuch as the passages of the Bible show us these Kreti established in the same dis- tricts, I think they constituted an Arab tribe that the love of gain had fixed upon the shore of the Mediterranean, that they (the Kreti) had nothing in common either with the Philistines or with the Cretans." Orthodox lexicography encourages a searcher with "Caphtor — a sphere, a buckle, a hand, a, palm, doves, or those that seek and inquire." We do, " et hinc illse lachrymae." The roots Kah-P-T/oR might signify ^^ the- Bull-land" : but neither these, nor any others hitherto oiFered, having furnished a clew to the genesiacal KaP/iT/oR-IM, we humbly place the name upon our " Table" coupled with the word '■'unknown." Volney, whose acuteness of perception is beyond all pr.aise, simply says, "\es Kaph- torim peuvent etre les habitans de Gaza." Wherever may have been their abode in Palestine during later times, Xth Genesis makes them so many affiliations of \ihaM. the dark (red) race, through the Egyptians ; and consequently points to Barbary for their origin. Our " Afliliations of the MTsRh/t" now arrange themselves as follows. Stock and Tongue. Il;ibitat. Origin. 1. The LUD,s Berber Mauritania Barbary. 2. " AMaN,8 " Oases, &c " 3. " LHaB.s " Libya '. '« 4. •' NiP/«iiaT^s " Mareoticum •' 6. " P/(T/HiS,s " Pharusia «« 6. " KSALoiiK/(,s " All N.-W. Africa..., «« 7. " P/nLiST/,s " Palestine "? 8. " KaP/(T!S of 534 THE Xth chapter of genesis. AA IL iVI, cognate if not identical with the Persians, are Arinn. It seems to us, how- ever, that Lowenstern's solution is satisfactory. He shows how the primitive Elamites ■were of Semitic extraction, but that, in after times, Scythic conquerors superimposed in Elam their extraneous blood, tonnes, and traditions ; as the reader can verify iu this author's learned papers. In the meanwhile, De Saulcy has read upon cuneatic inscriptions of the age of Asar-haddon, eighth century b. c, that this monarch was •'rex populi Assur," and "rex populi Elam": and this is confirmed by Layard's Second Expedition, for " Sennacherib speaks of the army which defended the workmen being attacked by the king of Elam and the king of Babylon." Our confidence in the compiler of Xth Genesis stands unshaken. If, as we have proved, his tabulation of the distant Hamites is so correct, how much better must a Chaldccan chorographer have been acquainted with the legendary origins of a Semitish AfilLM-aw .? K30 47. nirrx — ASUR — ' AssHUR.' While admitting the equivocal nature of the text of Genesis x. 11, we have given reasons [snpra, p. 509] for reading — " From this land {Shinar) he himself (NiMRoD) went forth (to) ASUR (Assyria) and builded Nineveh," &c. Such lesson indicates that we have now before us a geographical name. "It would be strange," critically remarks De Sola, "if Ashttr, a son of Shem {^Gen. X. 22) were mentioned among the descendants of Cham, of whom Nimrod was one. It would be equally strange if the deeds of Ashur were spoken of (in verse 11) before his birth and descent had been mentioned." The writer of Xth Genesis, a plain sensible man, compiling the Assyrian department of his chart not impossibly in ASUR itself, was not likely to have committed such a needless anachronism. Let us examine another te!xt. King James's version. Genesis ii. 14 — "And the name of the third river is Hiddekel: that is it which goeth toward the east of Assyria." This text has opportunely received recent ventilation at Paris, in discussions between De Longperier, an Orientalist aa profound in biblical as in all archaic lore, and a learned dogmatist, M. HoefFer. The ante-diluvian river, miswritten Hiddekel in our version, is, in the Text, H-DKL, the- DiKLe — a name that, through various historical transmutations, such as DiGLe, Did.JLeh, TiGLe, and TiGRE (Tigrdm, in Persepolitan inscriptions), is inherited by us in its euphonized Latin form — the TIGRIS. The Text therefore reads literally — the Tigris, " ipse vadens KDMT;; {ante) ASUR ;" Parisian debate turned upon the meaning of KDMT/l; by English interpreters ren- dered "East;" — a translation which, if true, (as dogmatism had maintained,) would place the city of Nineveh, built in the land of ASUR [Gen. x. 11), on the west bank of that river ; supposing always that the river lay to the east of it (Assyria). And thus " Holy Scripture" was triumphantly quoted to prove that, inasmuch as Nineveh was situate west of the Tigris, the vast exhumations of Botta, Layard, Place, and Rawlinson, on the eastern bank, which people fondly supposed to have been executed in ante-diluvian Assyria, not having been made on the site of Nineveh at all, the whole of these discoveries, in regard to Nineveh, fell to the ground ! But, Mrs. Rich and St. Jerome naively tell us — " It is one thing to write history, jind another to write prophecy under the immediate effect of inspiration." If "a prophet is not without honor, but in his own country, and among his own kin, and in his own house " [Mark vi. 4) ; that is, among those mortals who happen to know him best; — the unfortunate scholar alluded to can hope for little" elsewhere; since De Longperier established: — 1st. That Herodotus has nowhere connected the Tigris with Assyria. 2d. That neither the Septuagint, nor the Vulgate, any more than the Hebrew Text, justifies such a reading as " East" in Genesis ii. 14. 3d. That KDMT^ here meaning simply " en avant vers," the true signification of HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 535 this passage must be, in English, " tlie Tigris, flowing in front towards (say opposij") Assyria." Our digression introduces another difficulty. Between the land of ASUR in lid Gene- sis, and ASUR in Genesis Xth, rolls the Flood ; wliich, contrary to the sophistries of the Rev. Dr. J. Pye Smith, we wholly agree with tiie " Friend of JNloses," and tlie ■writer of Genesis Vllth, in considering to have been universal. If geology, in the XlXth century after Christ, discovers phenomena whicii prove Diluvian inomentaneous univer- sality to be impossible, so much the worse fov geologists. But to attribute to Hebrew authors living long subsequently to the XlXth century b. c, the intrepid concep- tions of modern geology, is to commit a most gross historical anachronism ; besides inventing a doctrine utterly irreconcilable with the plain square-letters of the Hebrew Text. We would therefore merely inquire of the orthodox geologist whether he con- siders the land of ASUR, along which ran the river Tigris before the universal Flood, to have been specified (by iNIoses) proleptically or retroleptically ? His reply would enlighten us upon one of two propositions. If this Hebrew "scholar and statesman," as^he Friend of Moses terms him, had before his eyes, as some maintain, certain docu- ments written by ante-diluvian patriarchs, then ASUR, in such manuscripts, must have been the gej)graphical appellative of a country existing before the Flood ; which country, after the waters had passed away, emerged as ASUR, along with its river Tigris. on the same terrestrial area, in order to be catalogued by the writer of Xth Genesis among other countries existing in his later day. Or, if Moses was enlightened upon events anterior to his lifetime through " Divine inspiration," then we possess the authority of the Most High (through Moses) for sustaining that, ASUR, having been the geographi- cal name of a country years before the Deluge, and centuries before " Ashur, son of Shem," was born, the writer of Xth Genesis was right in mapping the " land of ASUR" as a country, according to its ante-fluviatile acceptation in Genesis ii. 14 — a country, too, wherein the masterly geological researches of Ainsworth could discover no traces of any Noachian Flood. That which remains certain is, that ASUR was already a country, according to the letter of Scripture itself, whensoever, or by whomsoever, or wheresoever, Xth Genesis was written ; and, for our researches, " for us, that is enough." — " That you should wish to call Mosks author of the Pentateuch, or Esdras the restorer of this same work, I do not object," philosophically wrote St. .Jerome. The name of ASUR, in unpunctuated Hebrew, becomes ASAUR through rabbinical marks ; and passing through different dialects and ages, as AT^UR, ATUR, ATURm, A^AURA, ASSURm, &c., it is now written Assyria by ourselves. But, while modern Chaldee Jews have preserved in Athour the correspondent of Ashour as intonated by their forefathers, cuneiform scholars have discovered, in the land of AS/tUR itself, the indigenous name, petroglyphed Assour, upon innumerable records disinterred from the mounds of Khorsabad and Nimroud. Kings of the "country of ASUR" are now well-known personages to readers of Botta, Layard, Rawlinson, De Longpdrier, De Saulcy, Hincks, Birch, Grotefend, Lowen- stern, Oppert, Norris, Vaux, Eadie, or Bonomi ; and having been found upon sculptures coeval with the epoch of Jehu, king of Israel, ASUR was already the name of Assyria early in the ninth century b. c. : an age, we think, nearly parallel with the compilation of Xth Genesis. These now-familiar topics need no pause ; but some of those things which are less so demand notice in tracing ASUR to its primeval source. Rawlinson finds in Assarac, (Assarak, Asserah,) "god of Assyria" — the deified proto-patriarch of that land — called in the inscriptions "father of the gods," "king of the gods," " great ruler of the gods ; " whose mythological characteristics are those of Kronos or Saturn. " I should suppose him, as head of the Pantheon, to be represented by that particular device of a winged figure in a circle, which was subsequently adopted by the Persians to denote Oumuzd, the chief deity of their religious system." And we may now leave hagiography to rejoice over possible connections between the divine Assarac and Ashur the son of Shem, among those of other genealogies of Xth Genesis ; which doc- 536 THE xth chapter of genesis. ument Rawiinson does not consider anything more than *'an historical representation of the great and lengthened migrations of the primitive Asiatic race of man." More recently we learn from Layard how — " Asshur, the king of the circle of the great gods," heads the list of the thirteen great gods of Assyria, at Nimroud. At Babylon, however, the god Marduk is termed "the great lord," "lord of lords," "elder of the gods," &c. ; and Asliur no longer appears, being the god of upland Assyria, and not of the Babylonian plains. The cuneiform documents upon which ASAUR figures as a native mythological per- sonage approach in antiquity the era of Moses. The hieroglyphical records in which A-su-ru occurs as the Egyptian name of Assyria, surpass, by two hundred years, the age of the Hebrew lawgiver, because Birch discovers it upon inscriptions of the time of Amunoph ni[si/^7-a, p. 133, fig. 32]. Space now prevents the demonstration that, among its various symbolical meanings, A-SUR signifies also " Me-^i/W-land;" but the writer (G. R. G.) will publish the reasons elsewhere. In the interim, to the author of Xth Genesis, ASAUR meant the country by us called Assyria — nothing more nor less.632 48. i::OD"lN — ARP/iKSD — ' Arphaxad.' "Arphaxad (ARPAaKSaD; Sept. 'Ap^al-i^), the son of Sheip, and father of Salah; born one year after the Deluge, and died b. c. 1904, aged 438 years [Gen. xi. 12, &c)." Requiescat in pace ! Such is the terse obituary notice, — unaccompanied by the customary poetical regrets, or general invitation to attend the funeral, — a divinity student encounters when, seek- ing for instruction about the Savior's genealogy, he opens Kitto's cyclopaedia or Tay- lor's Calmet (the best English biblical dictionaries) at the name Arphaxad : and this is all. A noble cenotaph ! We close those devout, not to say laborious, compendia, and turn to Volney's Recherches Nouvelles. " A fifth people of Sem is Araf-Kashd, represented in the canton Arra-Pachitis of Ptolemy, which is a mountainous country, at the south of the Lake of Van, whence stream forth the Tigris and the Lycus or great Zab. This name signifies boundary of the Chaldcean, and seems to indicate that the Chaldteans, before Ninus, had extended themselves even thither. This Araph-Kashd, according to Josephus, was father of the Chaldaeans ; according to the Hebrew, he produced Shelah, whose trace, as city, and country, is found in the Salacha of Ptolemy. Shelaii produced Eber, father of all the peoples on the other side of the Euphrates ; but if we find him on this side, rela- tively to Judffia, we have the right to say that this antique tradition comes from Chal- dsea." Our analyses of Xth Genesis entirely corroborate Volney's deductions of its Chaldaic derivation ; and justify Lenormant's orthodox eulogies of him as " un des hommes les plus p^n^trants de ce siecle." From the latter we take the following note — "Josephus had made, before Mich^elis, oi Arphaxad, the father of the Casdim or Chaldasans. M. Bohlen explains Arrapachitis by the Sanscrit: Aryapakschala, the country bordering upon Aria. This etymology is not unworthy of attention." There is little to be added to Volney's definition ; and that little confirms him. ARPA-KaSD — after dividing into two words that which in the Hebrew ancient Text (Synagogue rolls) runs letter after letter, " continua serie," along the whole line — yields us, as Michaelis first suggested, ARFA, the Arabic for boundary, and KASD, Chaidaan. The etymology is in unison with Aramajan origines ; and Arphaxad was the brother of Aram: while Bochart's identification of it with the province of Arrapa- chitis of Ptolemy's geography also stands; but perhaps not with "nam quod Josephus et alii voluiit Chaldasos olim ab eo dictos Arphaxadwos merum somnium est." It is strange how Oriental tradition clings to the vicinities of Ararat as the moun- tainous birthplace of Chaldaic races. There we find the Ileden (Eden) of Genesis lid, and " the house of Eden " extant in the time of the prophet Amos (i. 5) ; while an- other writer tells us how " Haran Canne, and TIcden, have made traffic with what came Irom Seba, and Assyria learned thy traffic" [Ezek. xxvii. 23). HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 537 There, too, was the Ilatasdan of the Armenians : and there the Iladeneche wliich Zoroaster ennobled by the title of the "pure Iran" because his birthplace was at Ourmi, on the border of Lake Ourmiah. "There," continues Dubois, "is the antique native-land of Arpacmd and of the Hebrews: and their patriarch Abraham, like Zo- roaster, was born at Our, on the shores of Lake Ourmiah, in Chaldiea. There touches also Iran, Arhan, the land of Persian mythes." In which connection let us likewise add, that the river Akhourean, whose sources lie on the same chain, still bears the name of ARPA-Tchai. But we suggest a melioration. Arphakasd, as a country in Xth Genesis, is the parental source, through the province of Salacha, of Eber, the yonderer ; and from the latter, according to the other docu- ment (Gen. xi. 13-26), sprang Abraham, progenitor of the Abrahamidce ; born pro- bably at Our Kasdlm, " Ur of the Chaldees," whence they issued "to go to the land of Kanaan." It is true that Mr. Loftus considers the enormous ruins of Werka to be the real " Ur of the Chaldees," now traditionally called " the birthplace of Abraham;" nor would the establishment of this fact result in any further alteration of our view than by proving (what is very likely) that ARPAa-KaSD was a different place from AUR-KaSDlM. The name " Chaldsean" is also ancient enough, having been found in cuneiform on the monuments of Nineveh. Be all this as it may, there still remains one " Ur of the Chaldees," AUR-KSDIM in the text, which is unquestionably, as shown by Ritter and by Ainsworth, the pre- sent city and district of Urhoi, now Or/a, or URPAA (called, in Greco-Roman times, Chaldceopolis, Aniiochia, Callirhoe, and Edessu), in Didrbeklr. Allowing very common mutations of vowels, we behold in Urfa, or ARPA^t, ARPAa-KaSD, " Orfa of the Chaldcean," the absolute solution of Arphaxad, no less than the earliest geographical source of the Abrahamidce. Thus, at every step, the chorographic exactitude of Xth Genesis is vindicated ; and ARPAaKaSD, no more a fabulous human being, regains its legitimate heritage among the countries of the earth. To the "late Mr." Arphaxad, "aged 438 years," we repeat our valedictory, " requiescat in pace ! " ^33 49. -T)S — LUD — 'LuD.' The high road from Nineveh, in the land of ASUR, Assyria, conducts a traveller towards Asia Minor, through ARFA-KASD, Chaldcean-Orfa, into Lydia ; — a name which, in its Greek spelling of Aui^m, faithfully transcribes the Hebrew LUD-?a. This country derives its name, according to traditions collected by a native of Asia Minor, Herodotus of Halicarnassus, from Lydus, son of Atys ; whose crown passed into the keeping of Hercules. This legend indicates the ante-historical ground we tread upon ; and probably the intrusion of Hellenic Ilieraclidce upon an aboriginal Lydian population, affiliated with the Shemites. The recent explorations of Fellows and the Lycian monuments now rescued from perdition, establish, in the most con- vincing manner, the transitions of art in all its symbolism, through Asia Minor, from Assyria to Greece; and the my the of the Assyrian Hercules serves as a faithful thread through the mazes of this labyrinth : which mythe, Grote observes, exhibits but the " tendency to universal personification" — being merely " MuOoj, Saga — an universal manifestation of the human mind." But, from the premises, one deduction is solid, viz. : that Herodotus, than whom in Lydian questions there is no higher authority, makes Hercules succeed Lydus — the personified land of Lydia. Now, inasmuch as the mythe of Jlerculcs antedates all chro- nology, it follows that Herodotus, who says that Lydus preceded the LLieraclidce, looked upon the autocthonous name and traditions of Lydia as still more remote from his own day ; b. c. 484-430. To us, therefore, the Halicamassian's testimony, upon the ante- historical aflFairs of his Lative Asia Minor, would ipso facto outweigh any notices of 68 538 THE xth chapter of genesis. Lydia issuing ft-oni the "School of Esdras " in Palestine (foreign to Lydian blood, lan- guage, and traditions), should the latter contradict him : which, happily, they do not. The compiler of Xth Genesis, educated, as we now begin to feel assured, amid the "learning of the Chaldees," attributes no affiliations to the geographical locality he designates LUD; any more than, in his classification of the senior Hamidce (yer. 6), he ascribes descendants to PAUT ; which, we have seen, is Barbary. This engenders the supposition that he knew little beyond the names of either; and that just as to him, composing his ethnic chart in some University of Chaldsea, P/iUT appeared to be the most western geographical range of Hamitic migrations, so LUD probably seemed to lie among the most northerly of Semitic. As such, then, he duly registered them in his inestimable chorography. Some centuries prior to the age of this venerable digest, the Lydians are mentioned in Egyptian hieroglyphics. In the Asiatic conquests of Sethei-Meneptha, and of Ramses II., to say nothing of later Pharaohs, associated with lonians, Riphceans, and other well-known families of Asia Minor, we find the oft-recurring " Land of Ludenu," or "land of the upper Lvden,^' and " of the lower Luden." This establishes the exist- ence of Lydia and of Lydians at the XVIIlth dynasty, fourteenth — sixteenth centuries B. t,. ; in days anterior to and coeval with Moses ; i. e., much earlier than the compilation of Xth Genesis. But (to avoid Mosaic conflictions with Egyptian records) it is best perhaps to ascend a few generations beyond modern disputes upon the era of the He- brew " scholar and statesman ; " when by pointing out LUD and Ijydians in chronicles appertaining to the anterior XVIIth dynasty, we show that Amunoph II., Thotmes III., and Amunoph III., successors of that "new king over Egypt which knew not Joseph" (Ex. i. 8), could not readily have heard of Moses's Lydian geography before the great lawgiver was born. Posterior in epoch to the former, and anterior to the latter dignitary, these Pharaohs of the XVIIth dynasty knew nothing about either Joseph or Moses. Nor is history wanting to support the early spread of Egyptian arms into Asia Minor; for besides a confused aggregation of events of different ages to be met with in every classical lexicon under the head of "Sesostris," we have the authentic ac- count of Tacitus that the Priests of Thebes read to the Emperor Germanicus, from hieroglyphical inscriptions, how " Ramses overcame Libya. Ethiopia, the Medes and the Persians, Bactriana, and St^ythia, and held sway over the lands which the Syrians, Armenians, and neighboring Cappadocians, inhabit from Bithj'nia up to the Lycian Sea." We cannot quote authority for the discovery of the name LUD in cuneiform writings; unless Ludenu be the same as the " Rutennu " of the " Grand Procession of Thotmes III." [supra, p. 159], which Birch fixes, in hieroglyphical geography, "north of the Great Sea," and compares with the Assyrian king Sargina's prisoners at Khorsabad. However, LUD, being identical with Lydia, enters, like the rest, as a geographical appellative into the catalogue of Xth Genesis; and the cyclopeedic notion that, from a ma7i called LUD, "the Lydians in Asia Minor derived their name," ranks among the childish postulates belonging to an age of which science now hopefully discerns " the beginning of the end." 63i 50. D"1N* — AEM — ' Aram.' Orthodox lexicography informs us that Aram means ^^ highness, magnificence; other- wise, one that deceives, or their curse." In this instance the erudition of " N. M." com- pensates for the meagre article by "J. P. S." in Kitto's cyclopaedia.. It has been shown already that Quatrerafere doubts Mover's derivation of ARM; which the latter considers to mean a high land, in juxtaposition to KNAoN, a low land. Still, the objection assigned by the former is inconclusive, because RM does actually signify high : and with the primeval masculine article aleph, A, prefixed, A-RM is the-high. Certain it is, also, that the geographical brother of Arpha-Kasd, ^'Orfa of th« HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 539 Chaldsean," and of Lydia, must be sought for along the same Tanric uplands of Asia Minor; where ARM lay among the "mountains of the east" (iVnmh. xxiii, 7) la Punic, also, the same word means hi(/h ; for M. Judas reads on Numidiau coins, Juba KOUM mel/cat = "Juba, hiyhness of the realm." Dioilorus's Api/ia opri or Arimi Monies, suggest themselves at once ; although authorities disagree upon their location, in Phrygia, Lydia, Mysia, Cilicia, or Syria: but Strabo and Josephus inform us that the Greeks called Syrians those people who called them- selves ^rt/wosans ; and when Homer and Hesiod wrote, the Api/^oi extended to Phrygia, which thej termed Arimaia. Syria, therefore, in its widest acceptation, seems best to correspond to ARM, because the latter merges into Mesopotamia ; and in Pliny and Pomponius Mela the name of Syria is applied to provinces even beyond the Euphrates and Tigris. As the grand centre of Shemitish families, Syria still preserves the name of S/^eM in its Oriental appellative ; being known to Syrians and the populations around them by no other title than BiiR-Es-SAaM, land of Shem. Arab geography explains this coincidence by reasons worthy of attention. Sham means the left hand, and Yemeen (Yemen in Arabia), the riyht; as, face directed to the East, an Arabian worshipped the rising sun ; or looked back to ARM as the traditionary birthplace of his ancestry before, by emigration to Arabia, they had acquired the right to call themselves aRB, weslern-va^n. Damascus, Es-Shdrn el-keheer, " the great Sham," may perhaps be the focus of these ancient radiations: for its identity with Aram is marked in the passage — " The ARaMi'awi- of Damascus came to succor Hadadezer king of Sobah, &c. (2 Sam. viii. 5. 6) — the versions generally substituting Syrians for Aramceans. So extensive was the range of ARM in ancient geography that, to distinguish its divisions, a qualifying name was generally appended to it : thus, Sedeh-A.^X'Sl, the "field of Aram," Padan-A'R.'Sl, the "plain of Aram," and ARM-iVc/Aaraiw, "Aram of the two rivers," refer to parts of Mesopotamia: h.'R^l-Damashk was a Damascene territory; ARM-S'oiw/i, probably Cilicia; ARM-J/t/a^aA, east of the Jordan; and ARyi-beth-Rfik/uib, on which authorities vary. ARMI, an Aramcean, is a Syrian in one scriptural text (2 Kinys v. 20). It is a Mesopotamian in another [Gen. xxv. 20). Aramcean was the speech of the patriarchal Abrahamidse, when abandoning ARPAa- KaSD, or its equivalent AUR-KaSDh?j (Chaldasan Or/a, or Ur of the Chaldees), they arrived in the land of Kanaan ; where, forgetting their ancestral idiom, they adopted and misnamed Hebrew " the language of Kanaan," or Phanician. Thus, from Arabia Deserta to the confines of Lydia, from Syria, over Mesopotamia, to Armenia, do we meet with infinite reliquice of Aram: without being able, after four or five thousand years of migrations, to mark on the quicksands of Aramcean geography any more specific locality for ARM, than Sykia in its most extended sense. Hieroglyphical researches do not aid us to a more definite ascription of ARM. In the Vatican Museum, the statue of a priest bears the inscription — "His majesty, King Darius, ever living, ordered me to go to Egypt, while his majesty was in ARMA" : supposed to be Assyria. Nor, in Persepolitan cuneiform records or in those of As- syria, has anymore positive identification of ARM been discovered and published than •what may exist in Arvi'ina, Araina, &c., considered to be Armenia — a country in whose name ARM is also preserved. The writer of Xth Genesis may or may not have had more precise views upon ARM ; which he set down with its parallels, Assyria, Or/a, and Lydia, on his invaluable chart, and then proceeded to tabulate those tribes of the Semitic stock that looked back upon the land of ARM as their birthplace. 6^^ "And the affiliations of ARM." .51. p;»_(iUT«— 'Uz.' In Gen. x. 23, the four names after ARM are called BeNI-ARM; i. e., "sons of 540 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. Aram"; but, in 1 Chron. i. 17, the same four are catalogued as BeNI-SAeM; that is, *' sons of She7n." Hence one of two conclusions is submitted to hagiography. Either the writer of Chronicles follows a different genealogical list from that of Xth Genesis — in which case we are at a loss to whicli document to ascribe "plenary inspiration" — or (as we maintain with every Orientalist) the word BeNI (sons) does not mean, wliether in the former or in the latter text, the bona Jide offspring of a tnan called Aram, or of a man called Shem ; but simply a general affiliation; such as in English we comprehend by Wilkin-sow ; or by i^^Vz-Gerald, jJ/c-Donald, O'-Brien, ^^-Shenkyn, &c. aUTs, first of the four, cannot well have been Shem's son and grandson at one and the same time; unless it be claimed that Shem wedded his own daughter : an escape not provided for in either text ; and if it were, what becomes of Aram's paternity ? Again, an imaginary human being called SAeM could not physically have been progenitor of a country called Aram. Common sense, however, based upon the spirit of familiar Oi"i- ental personifications, finds no contradiction between the authors of Xth Genesis and of 1 Chronicles ; to whom «UTs and his three figurative brethren, as BeNI, "affilia- tions," were colonies or emigrants from an especial land termed ARaM ; itself classi- fied generically among countries occupied by Shemitish families. This example, we presume, suffices to show the absurdity of seeing human indivi- duals where the writer of Xth Genesis catalogued naught but countries, cities, and tribes, after the symbolical names "Shem, Ham, and Japheth." — But, our difficulties end not here. Genesis X. F. 23— And sons of ARaM, aUTs, and KAUL, and GT^R, and MaSA. A third alJTs occurs among the de- scendants of Esau i^Gen. xxxvi. 28). Genesis XXII. V. 20 — Milcah has also given sons to Nahor thy brother. " 21— rtUT« his first born, and BUZ his brother, and KM UAL, Father of ARaM. " 22 — And KaSD— (i. e. Chaldoea) &c. With three distinct personifications (above exhibited), each called aUTs, it is next to impossible for a commentator to avoid equivoques ; and the country, or tribe, of ^one aUTs may be erroneously assigned to either of the two others ; even without sup- posing mistakes in the two later genealogical lists: which discrepancies, however, do not otherwise concern us. Xth Genesis, in every instance, has stood the test of critical geography heretofore ; and errors in this case are ours, not its venerable compiler's. Nevertheless, in the second list (Gen. xxii.), SJJTs becomes the uncle of ARAM; whereas in Xth Genesis he is the' latter's son: while KaSD, Chesed, (singular of KaSDIM, Chaldceans,) unmentioned by the former author, figures, in tlie latter's list, among the descendants of Nahor, Abraham's brother. It is to the land, called «UT« in Xth Genesis, that .Job's residence is generally assigned, owing to its proximity to Chaldaea ; wherefore the latter passage indicates a country, rather than a tribe — but in no case a man. These triple chances of error, above noticed, compel archaeology to be extremely wary in deciding to which of numerous Arabian resemblances of name we are to attri- bute the flUTs of Xth Genesis — or really " land of «UT«." Bochart ingeniously guessed the JEsitcB, Ausitis, Ausile, of Ptolemy, in the Syrian desert towards the Euphrates; where the Iduma3an Arabs Beni-Tamln liave dwelt; to whom Jeremiah exclaims — - "Rejoice thee, daughter of Edom, who livest in the land of (?UTs." Lenormant fol- lows Michajlis in selecting Damascus. In Arab tradition, Owz was the parent of the lost Addite tribes ; and, assuming this wild legend to be historical, by dint of mistranslations Forster has raised a fabric of delusion exceeded only in extravagance by the same enthusiastic divine's Sinaic inscrip HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 541 tions ! It is in the ill-advised Appendix to his excellent Geography, entitlrd " Iladra- miitic Inscriptions," that this erudite Orientalist lost his balance when supposing that, in these very modern Ilimyaritc petroglyphs, he found himself " conversing, as it were, •with the immediate descendants of Shem and Noah, not through the doubtful medium of ancient history, or the dim light of Oriental tradition, but in their own records of their own annals, ' graven with an iron pen, and lead, in the rock for ever ! '" He translates the second line of Wellsted's short inscription as follows : " Awa assailed the Beni-Ac, and hunted [them] down, and covered their faces with blackness." Happy, indeed, though not perhaps to the pious extent of the Rev. Mr. Forster, should we be to recognize 5UTs in these inscriptions ; but some trifling obstacles inter- vene. Suppose, for instance, that the Hadram;iutic inscription (No. 4), read into Arabic, should say nothing of the kind? Ex. gr., that which Forster translates '■'■Aws assailed the Beni-Ac," &c., should be, according to Hunt, "the effeminate youths are adorned and perfume their garments and strut proudly"! And suppose, that the language in which these inscriptions of Hisn Ghorab are written, being the old Ehk^elee or Cush- ite tongue, does not admit of their being transcribed directly into Arabic idioms at all ! Fresnel, the Himyarite discoverer " par excellence," gives the same inscription (No. 4), in Arabic letters, but has ventured no translation. These suppositions Forster, so far as we can learn, has never taken notice of; but goes on translating anything and everything into an Arabic " sui genei'is," with the same serene composure that Father Kircher, two centuries ago, read olf at sight ( ! ) those identical Sinaic inscriptions on which Forster has latterly exercised his orthodoxy without mentioning the labors of his Herculean prototype. SUTs, under these circumstances, remains on our hands. Probabilities favor the yEsitce, Ausitis, of Ptolemy the geographer ; and Job's '• land of alJTs," on the Arabian frontier of Chaldsea, seems to answer best to the Aramwan analogies of Xth Genesis. aUTs, we infer, was a tribe.^^ 52. ':5in— KAUL — 'HuL. We enliven the reader with orthodox lexicography as we proceed — " HuL, pain, infirmity, bringing forth children, sand, or expectation ! ^' Most authorities abandon KAUL in despair : but Grotius indicated that a Ccelo- Syrian city called Chollce. by Ptolemy might represent KAUL ; and Bochart noticed the frequency of this word in the Armenian localities of Cholua, Choluata, Cholimma, and Cholobetene; which last might be an Hellenic corruption of KhML-Belh, "house of KAUL." Recent researches favor the adoption of the "land of Huleh,'' in which is the Lake Huleh, at the north of Palestine.637 53. -^n;i — GTm — ' Gether.' Koranic tradition execrates the memory of " Thamoiid, son of Gather, son of the Aram," among ante-historical tribes distinguished for their idolatry : but nothing can exceed the vagueness of these legends. Gadara, the metropolis of the Peraea, east of the Jordan, and one of the cities of Decapolis, has been assumed to represent GT/R. Here the well-known miracle of the " swine " is said to have been performed. There are many other places whose names, with the slightest modifications, answer equally well: among them, Katara, a town and district placed by Ptolemy on the Persian Gulf, sufficiently important to have become the bishopric of Gadara. Gaddir, in Kanaanitish dialects (according to Pliny and Solinus, also in the " Punica lingua") meaning a hedge, limit, boundary, or "a place walled-round," renders the confusion still more perplexing ; for in countries traversed by Phoenician caravans, and occupied by their factors, any form of GT/R is as likely to have signified Jrontier or station, as to be derived from the tribe called GT/R in Xth Genesis.638 542 THE xth chapter of genesis. 54. t^^r) — MS — 'Mash.' Besides the discrepancy, above removed, between Xth Genesis and the parallel in 1 Chrotiicles (i. 17), in regard to the affiliations of these four names from Shem, or from Aram; here is another, that cannot be explained save through an error of some copyist. Who can really tell whether we should transpose MSKA into Xth Genesis, or MS into 1 Chronicles? [Supra, p. 473.] Two reasons, however, seem to justify the accuracy of the former text : one that a MSK is already mentioned among the " sons of Japheth " (ver. 2); and therefore the repetition of a similar name amid the Shem- ites is improbable: the other that the chart of Xth Genesis is the " editio princeps," of older and more standard authority than the books called Chronicles. The Macce, on the peninsula of the Persian Gulf whereon now stands the derivative city of Muscat — the jVasa-t Arabs in Mesopotamia; ihe, Masani near the Euphrates ; and the Massoni/ce of Yemen ; might entice inquiries : but, we think their habitats some- what distant from the localities where Aramcean tribes appear to group; especially as MSA, Massa, descended from Ishmael (Gm. xxv. 14), may well assert its right to the latter lineage. We cannot amend the old view of Bochart and of Grotius, that this Aramaean tribe survives about Mt. Masius ; along Xenophon's river Masca ; in the Masieni of Ste- phanus, and perhaps the Moschcni of Pliny ; all of which point to Upper Mesopotamia as the camping-ground of MaS/(.639 " And ARPAa-KaSD engendered SLK/t, and SLK/i engendered aEBR " {Gen. x. 24). 55. nScr— SLK/i — 'Salah.' Orfa in Diarbekir has been already demonstrated to be the fountain-source Arpha- Kasd, "Chaldsean Urfa," and no other than the true AUR-KaSDIM, " Ur of the Chaldees ; " whence flow the earliest traditions of the Abrahamidae. (JEBR, the yoriderer, third in descent, seems to show either that a displacement had taken place before the name itself could well have been assumed; or that the appel- lative "yonderer" is an ex post facto attribution — the consequence of a migration that had previously taken elfect. Between these two names, Orfa as a fixed geographical point, and Eber "he who has gone beyond" stands SLKA; transcribed Salah in king James's version: perhaps in this instance with more propriety than according to the vulgar Masoretic Shelah; ■which is suggested as the marginal reading. Sela of Ammianus Marcellinus, or Sele of Ptolemj% a city in Susiana, has received the concurrence of many commentators. Others consider SLK/j unknown. If Volney's suggestion of the ciln and territory called Salacha by Ptolemy be not the most probable halting-place of the EBFjRi when they had left Chaldsoan Orfa, the ignorance of every body consoles us for ours.fi'io 56. ^-^V — "&BR, or rather eiBR — ' IIeber.' [The impossibility of transcribing the letter Gnain of the Hebrews, i2 58. [top* — IKTN — ' JOKTAN.' The compiler of Xth Genesis closed the ancestral line of the Ahrahamidw, abruptly, ■with PeLeG, a " split." Yet to the pedigree of IKTN he devotes particular attention ; for, besides cataloguing thirteen of the latter's descendants, he adds, "all these are eons of IKTN " : and then fixes their dwelling-places. Why this difi"erence ? Were his partialities Arabian ? Did he know all about Arab migrations, and nothing of those of the Abrahamidce ? Had the writer been a " He- brew of the Hebrews," he would scarcely have blocked the "royal line of David " at PLG, "a split"; and thereby left to another hand, in another document {Gen. xi 18-26), at a later age, the task of linking Abraham's genealogy to his own ethnic map of nations and places. Here again, a foreigner to .Judaism and Jews, our conjectural Chaldfvan chorographer, " laisse percer le bout d'oreille." Such alien would not have greatly concerned himself with i\\Q Abrahamidce, a petty tribe that had wandered oflf to Kanaan ; and the writer of Xth Genesis did not: such alien would have taken much interest in the proceedings of the ever restless Joktanidoe, always harrying the Mesopotamian frontier; and the writer of Xth Genesis did. loKTaN, Joktan, Yoktan, or correctly Qahtcln, the Beni-Kahtdn — most ancient and renowned of all Semitish intruders upon the domains of Cushite-//im//f)r — need no panegyrist. They have ground their lance-heads upon every pebble "from Havilah to Shur, that is before Egypt, as thou goest towards Assyria." Their woollen tents are pitched from " Sephar, a mount of the east," at the south-western extremity of Arabia. even unto the declivities of Persian Uplands. Their Nedjdee horses still chase the wild 69 546 THE xth chapter of genesis. ass, "gour," over the wildest tracts of Arabia's hdgar, "stone," desert: their drome- daries are precious at Cairo, Mecca, Aleppo, Bagdad, and Ispahan. From them issued Mohammed ; whose Kordn is the monotheistic code of religious and moral law to above one hundred millions of mankind in Europe, Asia, Africa, and India's islands, their tongue, " the pure Koriysh," for twelve centuries has been the envied attain- ment of poets, historians, and philosophers, of their own exalted race, and of its Arabian contemporaries during consecutive generations. By '■'■Beni-Qahtan," sons of IKTN, we have hitherto implied the Joktanides in general ; but the great tribe in Arabia now calling \tse\f Berii-Kaktdn claims the direct lineage of this son of EBR. They are traced in the Kataniice, Kithebanitce, nnd Kottabani, of Ptolemy; the Kaiabeni of Dionysius ; back to the Callabanes, Kattabaman, of Eratosthenes in the third century b. c. : while their existence in Arabia is attested by the compiler of Xth Genesis many generations anterior to the age of the Cyrenian geographer. With the admirable tabulation of the " Settlements of Joktan," and the maps that Forster has appended to his geography, the reader can verify for himself the accuracy of the following schedule of loKTaN's afl&liations.6*3 "And loKTalST engendered" 59. n-nO^N — ALMUDD — ' Almodad.' The AUumaeotce, Almodceei, A'XXou/ioi&irai, of Ptolemy, a people of central Arabia Felix, represent ALMUDaD by general consent. W4 60. t^ht:^ — SLP — ' Sheleph.' Ftolemy's Salapeni, Salupeni, the Greek transposition of " ^f«i-SeLePA," sons of Sheleph, are equally certain : now represented by the tribe of 3fetiyr?^^ 61. niOIVn — KATsRMUT^ — ' Hazarmaveth.' Who, unacquainted with corrupt Chaldee vocalizations, foisted in the sixth century after Christ upon the old Hebrew Text (under the name Masoretic points), would see that the writer of Xth Genesis here wrote Khadramaut? the very name which the Arabs still give to their province of Hadramoiut, or Khdzramot. This name, "in the Septuagint version, is written Sarmoih, the first syllable being dropped; by St. Jerome (a well-versed Orientalist), in the Vulgate, written Asarmoth; the article being incorporated with the name, or the aspirate omitted, conformably with the dialect of the Nabathajans; by Pliny, Atraviita, and Chatramotitce ; and by Ptolemy, Adramilcp^ Chathraviitce, and C/iatramotitce or CaihramojnttE " : no less than by Strabo. "So Hadramaut," comments Forster upon Bochart, "is modulated into Hazarmoveth, merely by the use of the diacritic points, ... an artifice," says this learned and reverend Orientalist, "allowedly, of recent and rabbinical invention." The tribe and territory of Hadramaut being fully identified in Xth Genesis; the only salient point of interest connected with its later history, is the mission — we fol- low Mr. Plate — of a " priest of Nagrane, tlie capital of Christian Hadhramaut," to China, in the seventh century of our era ; whose successful voyage is attested by the bilinguar stone, in Cliinese and -Syriac (dated a. d. 782), discovered at Si-Gan-Fu in 1625 ; which inscription is reputed to be genuine.^6 02. m^ — TBJUi — ' Jerah.' This tribe of Arabia, under the Arabic title of Ydreb-ben-Qdhtin, " Ydrch son of Joktan ;" or oi Aboo-V-Yem>en, " father of Yemen;" was pointed out by Golius, upon Arab authority, as " Pater populorum Arabice Felicis ; primus Arabioce lingujE a'lctor." Forster, continuing his emendations of Bochart, states that IRK/j " in the LXX, is written '\nji<\x {Jiirach) ; by St. Jernme, Jare; by the modern Arabs, Jerhii or Sfr/id {pronounced Jercha, Hcrc/ia); and also, as shall presently be shown, Sherah or Sherac(/e, HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 547 Serene or Zohran .- " — a name thrice registered by Ptolemy, " in his Insula Jerachceo- rum, on the Arabian Gulf, S. of Djedda, and in his Vicus Jerachceorum, on the Lar .»r Zar river, in the vicinity of the Persian Gulf; a town and an island bearing in comnioa this proper name, although separated from each other by a space of 15°, or more than one thousand geographical miles ! " It was Bochart's acuitj', as our author honestly remarks, that restored Ptolemy's viiaoi 'Upax^iv, previously rendered insula acci/jitrum, or " the Isle of Hawks," to its patri- archal origin ; insula Jcrachaorum, i. e., " the island of the Beni Jerah." But this father of European coniuieiitators on Xth Genesis did more. He showed that the Alilcei of Agatharcides were identical, not merely with the tribe Bem-IIilal of the Nubian geographer; but also with Ptolemy's " insula lerakiorum ;" for the reason that Ililal means " moon " in Arabic, just as lerakh does in Hebrew. Most successfully does Forster exhibit the settlements of leRaKA within " a vast triangle, formed by the mouth of the Zar river, on the Persian Gulf; the town of Djar (the Zaaram reg. of Ptolemy) on the coast of the Hedjaz, twenty English miles south of Yembo ; and the district of Beni Jerah (part of the ancient Katabania), or the southwestern angle of the peninsula, terminating at the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb ;'■ and the probability that the great tribe, known as the Mincei in classical geography, belonged to leRaKA-ean affiliations, is also by him perspicuously elucidated. 6*' 63. D-inn — IIDURM — ' Ha CORAM.' By Fresnel this name is considered to be the same as Djourhoum ; of whom Arabian tradition reckons an elder branch, the old Jorhamites, among extinct, and a younger, the Koranic Jorhamites, among existing families. Jorham is the " Arabum Hejazensium pater" of Pococke ; and Bochart associated the name with the Drimati of Pliny, and with Cape Corodamon ; which last, by the facile transposition of D for R, is Cape Hadoramun, or of HDURM. Volney accepts Adrama for their natural representative; confirmed by Forster in Iladrama . and thus, carried onwards through the classical Chatramis, Dacharcemohce of Ptolemy, to the Dora and Dharrce of Pliny ; they are perpetuated in the modern town and tribe of Dahra: at the same time that Ras-el- Had now preserves one abbreviation of the name, and Biinder-DoviAM another — oa the very promontory " Hadoramum " at the mouth of the Persian Gulf.^^s 64. SnX — AUZL — ' Uz.' AL. The nutive Jews of Sanaa, capital of Yemen, have abundantly borne witness that AUZaL was its ancient Arabian appellative, as, to this day, it is among themselves. The " Javan from AUZaL" of Ezekiel (xxvii, 19,) must be, therefore, as Volney and Forster unite in indicating, not Grecian fonia, but a town in Yemen, now called Deifdn. Ocelis of Ptolemy, Ocila of Pliny, recognizable in the modern Cella ; together with Angara, a town of the GcbanitcR or Yemenites; are relics of AUZaL long patent through the scholarship of Bochart.6)9 65. nSpi — DKLH — 'DiKLAH.' In the Dulkhelilce of Himyar, and the tribe Dhn-U-Kalaah of Yemen, Orientiilists perceive this affiliation of Joktnn ; that, perhaps, has carried along with it some re membrance of an ante-historical sojourn on the Dikle, or Tigris: if, as Bochart sug gested, its name have no affinity to nukid, a " palm tree." ^50 66. S^U* — fll^L — 'Obal.' Among nine names of existing Arab tribes identified by Fresnel with biblical appel- latives (after tne rejection of more than forty of the latter as irrecognizable) Ahd is one. But, it seems more than probable that a brauch of these Joktanidoe crossed the 548 THE xth chapter of genesis. narrow straits of B^b-el-Mandeb into Abyssinia, "Arabia Trogloditica;" and gave tlieir patronymic SUBaL, to the Aualites Sinus, Abalites emporium, Avalitce, and per- haps Adoulitce (D for B), on the African coast of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, recorded in classical geography. Volney sees them in Edreesee's Uobal; or in El-Hamza's Obil, that, with nine other tribes, succumbed, about 230 years a. c, in ■wars Tvith Ardouan, Radowan, king of Persia, better known as the Sassanian Ardi- 67. SnO'DN — ABIMAL — ' Abimael.' ABI-MAL, in Arabic, is ^'■Father of MAL;" the meaning of which is also "posses- sion of properly ;" in allusion, perhaps, to the wealth accruing to this tribe from theii occupancy of the myrrh, incense, balsam, and spice districts of Yemen. They are the 3Iali of Theophrastus, the Malichce of Ptolemy ; surviving in the town Malai, or el-Kheyf; not far from the tomb of Mohammed at Medeeneh.^^^ 68. N3:r — SBA — 'Sheba.' The perplexities accruing to ethnic geography from the presence of four SBAs in the book of Genesis, three of them in the Xth chapter, have been set forth in our analysis of the Hamitic Saba of Himyar \_ubi sitpra, p. 498] : nor is it possible to escape from confounding this Joktanide's properties with some of those that appertain to the former's inheritance. Nothing daunted, Forster says, " the Joktanite Sheba gave its origin, and his own name, to the primeval and renowned kingdom of the Sabseans of Yemen.'' Perhaps he did. Possibly the Cushite SaBA may have done so before him. " Qui en sabe?" Nevertheless, " the concurrent testimonies of Eratosthenes, Dionysius Periegetes, Priscian, Festus Avienus, and others of the ancients," collected by Bochart, place the Sabmans between the Minsei and the Katabeni, at Sdba and Mdreb : whilst the notice by Aboo'l-Feda that " Mareb was inhabited by the Beni-Kahtan,^' or Joklanidce, really favors our author's somewhat peremptory identification of this SBA.653 69. -|£nN* — AUPR — 'Ophir.' A volume would not suffice to display the aberrations of intelligence printed on this name ! Some are exposed in Kitto and in Anthon. Munk very properly cuts short discussion by reminding those who see Opkir at Madagascar, Malacca, or Peru, that the winter of Xth Genesis places AUPR in the midst of the Arabian Joktanidw : which doctrine Volney had previously sustained, and supported by vigorous researches that identified it with the ruined site of Ophor on the Persian Gulf. Bociiart and Michaelis held the same judicious views ; and Forster has left nothing more to be desired ; by proving, once for all, that Ofor, a town and district of Oman, is the true AUP^iR of the Old Testament — that Pliny's "littus Hammseum ubi auri metalli " is the true Gold Coast of Solomon's expeditions — and that the whole of them are comprehended within the domains of the Joktanidce.^^ 70. nSnn— lauiLii— 'IIavilaii.' Our prefatory remarks on ASUR, and its ante-diluvian existence, apply with equal force to that "land of Ilavilah where (there is) gold," which, an universal Flood not- withstanding, now reappears exactly where it stood, antefluvially, on the gold-coast of -Arabia. We are not free, either, from chances of error in attributing to the present KAUILH • tne Joktanide affiliation of Shem) some possessions that may have belonged to his namesake, KAUILH the Cushite. HEBREW NOMENCLATURE. 549 However, the Nubian geographer indicated to Bochart (father of gcnesiacal geo- graphers) the country of Chaulan in Arabia Felix ; and Forster, with propriety selects the province of Kfiatil, soutii-east of Sanaa ( Uzal) ; site of Pliny's tribe of Cagulatce ; now inhabited by the Z^tHe-KiioLAN. Its topography, moreover, in the immediate prox- imity of Omanite gold regions, satisfies the mineral ogical exigenda of the pra'dil avian "land of Havilau" demanded by the letter of Gen. ii. 11, 12; and insisted upon, as a preliminary step towards precision, by Volney.655 71, :33V_IUBB — 'JoBAB.' The lobaretai of Ptolemy, through the ready change of the Greek 6 into the Latin r, by a mistake of copyists, revealed themselves to Bochart as the Jobabitae of Xth Genesis. But, " the flexible genius of the Arabic idiom" suffices to explain such dif- ference of pronunciation ; and Forster triumphantly points out " the lobaritae of Ptolemy, in i!^«7U-JuBBAR, the actual name of a tribe or district, in the country of the Beni-Kahtan, south-east of Beishe, or Baisath Joktan, in the direction of Mareb ; and the original, or Scriptural form of this name, in ^ewt-JoBUB or Jobab, the existing denomination of a tribe and district situated in the ancient Katabania, half-way be- tween Sanaa and Zebid " — Kalabania being the Greek inversion of Beiii-QafMn, the old JoKTANiD^;. " All these are sons of Joktan ; " wrote the venerable compiler of this precious ethnic chart, Xth Genesis, above 2500 years ago. 656 We have shown that every name (but NIMROD's, which is mythological) in the Xth chapter of Genesis, excepting those of Noah and " Sheni, Ham, and Japheth," is a per- sonification of countries., nations, tribes, or cities : — that there is not a single " man " among the seventy-nine cognomina hitherto examined. [N. B. The number 79 is obtained by adding the 8 cities, founded by Nimrod, to the 71 names above enumerated.] Abundant instances are patent, even in king James's version, where Israel, or Jacob, is put for all the Jewish community ; and so ASUR, for example, means Assyria in such pas- sages as " ASUR shall come as a torrent; ASUR shall arise like a conflagration; Jehovah will raise up ASUR against Moab, against Ammon, against Jiidah, against IsraeV Now, none will suppose that Asur, Moab, Ammon, or Israel, are individuals, human beings. It is evident that these are collective names, employed according to the genius of Oriental minds and tongues. And upon whose authority, let us ask, must we modern foreigners offend the spirit of old Oriental writers (apart from common sense itself), in order to find men in the seventy-nine ethnico-geographical appellatives of Xth Genesis ? That, in some instances, the name of an ante-historical founder of a nation has been pei petuated by the nation itself, no one denies. Classical history teems with such ; e. g. Hellas for the Hellenes ; DoRUS for the Dorians ; Lydus for the Lydians ; but they are, in general, about as historical as Afeikis of the Arabs; whom the Saracens made the "Father of Africa,''' after they had learned the Latin name of this continent! In most cases, how- ever, the nation or tribe invented a founder; to whom they gave the name of the couninj they happened to occupy: nor does archieology concede to the Hebrews any exemption from this universal law, merely for the sake of conformity to time-honored caprice. But, if seventy-eight of the seventy-nine names in Xth Genesis are those of countries, nations, tribes, or cities ; such is not the case with four others, catalogued as the parental NuKA, Noah, and his three sons SAeM, K/taM, and laPAeT^ Our observations on these names limit themselves to guessing, as nearly as we can, what may have been meant by the writer of Xth Genesis. 1st. NuKA — (Noah), or NUKA, in Hebrew lexicons, among its various meanings, signities Repose and also Cessation. We place the word " oii.'^cuniTY " beneath it on our Genealogical Tableau. To the chorographer of Xth Genesis this name NKA 550 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. syinbolizeJ, pro'iably, a point of time so remote from his own day that he ceased to inquire further; and reposed from his labors in blissful ignorance, after having com- prehended the vanity of human efforts to pierce that primordial gloom. If he did not, ■we do : and with the less regret, because an expounder (who says he knows all about it) can be met with at every street-corner. 2d. From the unknown, then, in the supposed idea of a Chaldsean writer, proceeded three grand divisions of mankind ; already distributed, at tiie age of the compilation of Xth Genesis, each one "after his tongue, in their lands, after their nations." It became necessary, for his chorographic and ethnic objects, to classify them. He saw they ■were apparently divided into three cuticular colors ; just as the Egyptians before him had perceived the same thing, when they classified three, of the four human varieties known to them, by the colors red, yellow, and ■white. 8d. lie gave to them, or adopted through preceding traditions, the three names " S/^eM K/(aM and laPAeT^ " ; and called the nations within his horizon of knowledge by these terms, as much for convenience sake, as on account of their several and probable lin- guistic, physiological, geographical, and traditionary relationship to each other. The meaning which he attached to each of these proper names is utterly unknown; but modern lexicography speculates upon their acceptation as follows : — \. KAaM is the ancient name of Egypt ; centre point of the populations "which the ■writer of Xth Genesis classified as BeNI-KAaM, "sons of Ham; " and which we call Ham- ilic. In Hebrew, K/(M means hot : but, in Arabic, while HaM has the same accepta- tion, KAaM signifies dark, swarthy : perfectly applicable to the peoples that this name embraces in Xth Genesis. The Egyptians designated themselves as the red race; wherefore, for Hamitic types, we adopt the red color. B. S^eM, in Hebrew, means name "par excellence." It is also supposed to possess the sense of left hand, in contrast to Yemen, the right; but this seems to be an "ex post facto" Arabian commentary. The Egyptians always gave shades of yellow to Shemitish races, in accordance with their cuticular color ; and ■we adopt it for our classification. C. laPAeT^ Such rabbinical explanations as "the man of the opening of the tent" belong to the domain of fable. Iapetus, son of Coelus and Terra, was the Titanic progenitor of Greeks in their ante-historical MUTHOI; the " audax genus 7(7jo«^i" is a symbolical periphrasis for white races ; and an ancient Greek proverb, tov laiztrov ■npiofivrspos, " elder than Iapetus," indicates that the sense in which Grecians used it corresponds to our saying " older than Adam." It is not impossible that the writer of Xth Genesis, in his anxiety to discover an ancestor for white families, asked some Greek traveller, who replied "loTrtTos." To ourselves, as anciently to the Egyptians, these families are white. We conclude in the language of D'Avezac — " Far from admitting that Genesis wished to make all the ramifications of the great human family descend from the unique Noah, we ■would voluntai'ily sustain the thesis, that tlie geqesiacal writer only wished to designate the three great branches of ivhite races, individualized for us in the three types Greek, Egyptian, and Syriac ; whose respective traditions have preserved athwart ages, as an indelible testimony of the veracity of Moses [or, only of that of the unknown writer of Xth Genesis], the names of Japheth, of Ham, and of Shem : but, without entering digres- sionally into a question so vast, let us hasten to say that, to our eyes, the Biblical texts are very disinterested upon any doubts arising from that [doubt] as to the unity or multiplicity <»f species in the human genus." GENEALOGICAL TABLEAU. 551 Section B. — Observations on the annexed Genealogical Tableau OF the " Sons of Noah." So far as the authors' reading enables them to judge, here, for the first time since Xth Genesis was composed, are tabulated, in a true genealogical form, all the ethnic and geographical names contained in that ancient document. After the foregoing analysis of each name under Section A., the reader requires no prolix remarks to perceive the utility of our Tableau; which, at a glance, exhibits Father ]^uKA (Noah), and his three Sons — his Grandsons, Great-grandsons, Great-great-grandsons^ Great-great-great-grandsons, and Great-great-greai-great-grandsons, ac- cording to their natural order. In this manner (the geography of the Hebrew Text being, once for all, defined,) it is to be hoped that science will be relieved from further discussion of main principles, whatever may be the light which future Oriental researches cannot fail to shed upon details. Each Name is first displayed in the "square-letter" of the Hebrew Text, without the Masoretic points. Below it, in "Roman" capitals, is placed the conjectural vocalization of our modern, and colloquial, English imitation of ancient foreign words. Beneath is put, in "Italics," the spelling of each name as printed in king James's version. This is followed, in " Gothic " letters, with the geographical attribution of the several cognomina, conformably to the results attained through our Section A. And finally, under every one, in common " Roman " type, is rej)resented the probable country, nation, tribe, city, citizen, and personage historical or mythic, to which the authors' studies ascribe each name. ^^ Humanum est errare." [The best parallel I have met with in ancient history of the conversion of symbolical and national names into personages, that might be assimilated to the Hebrew map in Genesis Xth, occurs in Tacitus. 657 Speaking of the Germans, he gives one of their antique mythes (which, during his time, was current among them) in explanation of their figurative origins and tripartite distribution into races. " Celebrant carminibus antiquis, quod unum apud illos memoriae et annalium genus est, Tuisconem deum, terra editum, et filium jNIannum originem gentis conditoresque. Manno tres filios assignant e quorum nominibus proximi oceano Ingcevones, medii Herminones, cseteris hlcevones vocantur." Tuisco is the god Mars. Man^us the Latinized form of our word " Man," in German Mann: ^^ ones," is the euphonizing sufl5x to the primitive words Ingcev, Hermin, Istcev. The learned Zeuss^ss has shown that LigcEv is the same as Yngvi, "noble;" ancient title of the royal race of Sweden. Istcev, also meaning " illustrious," is traced in Astingi, royal race of the Visigoths and Vandals : and Hermin, in old Gothic airmun, meant " the mighty ones." 1. Hermin-onea, (in Pliny, JTermiones,) comprehended four tribes: the Suevi, Hermudiri. Chatti, and Cherusci. These clans occupied inland Germany. 552 THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 2. Inff(Bv-oues. These embraced the Cimbri, the Teutones, and the " Chaucorum gentes ;" inhabiting west and north-west Germany. 3. IstcBv-oues — as the Vindili of Pliny, included the Burgundiones, Varini, Carinj, and Guttoues. Their place was north-eastern Germany. For our purpose of simple illustration, it is not essential to detail the geographical terri- tories assigned to these names ; which, mutilated and corrupted by Roman orthography, preserve as little relation to an ancient German pronunciation as the Indo-Germanic names of GoMeR, MaGUG, &c., do in our authorized version after passing through Hebrew trans- criptions, Septuagint corruptions, and the fabulous vocalizations of Jewish Rabbis of the Masora. What we are driving after becomes evident at once, so soon as we tabulate the genealogy of these tribes as we have done that of those in Xth Genesis. Tuisco MARS. Mannus MAN 1 Ir.gcev. Hermin. Istcev. "Noble." " Puissant." " Illustrious." 1 NbrtJi-ivest Germany, Central Germany, JVortfireast Germany. Cimbri, Suevi, Burgundians, Teutones, Hermundiri, Carini, Chauci. Chatti, Varini, Cherusci. Gothones. It would be easy to carry this method of illustration, which classifies the mj'thical, the geographical, and the patronymic personifications of nations in their true historical order, through the traditions of different races all over the world. We content ourselves by indi- cating to fellow-students the utility of a simple process that has solved many a '"vexata qufestio " encountered in our personal researches : especially when studying the Persian genealogies of Firdoosi's Shah-Nameh; as we hope to show elsewhere. — G. R. G.] Section Q, — Observations on the accompanying "]Map of the World." 1st. The parts in hlach indicate what the writer of Xth Genesis knew not : those shaded represent where his knowledge decreases ; it being unfair, no less than impossible, to define his information by a sharp line. Other explanations are given on the Map itself. 2d. The great alteration, which our results superinduce, is the pro- longation of his geographical knowledge (hitherto unsuspected) along the whole of Barbary, between the Mediterranean Sea and the Sahara desert. Former African delusions are curtailed at the First Cataract, Syene ; soutliern extremity of the Egyptians, MiTsRIM, proper. The compiler of Xth Genesis knew nothing of "Ethiopia" above; nor is any austral land beyond Egypt mentioned by a single writer in the Old Testament; because Chuh (EzeJc, xxx. 5), GUB, conjectured by Bunsen, after Ewald, to be gNUB, Nubia, is an unnecessary effort when wo can identify it with the Barbaresque Cobii of Ptolemy the geographer [supra, p. 515] MODERNIZED NOMENCLATURE. 553 3(1. The coast of Abj^ssinia is dotted red and yelloio, because some KUSAiVes, besides the Joktanide, aUBaL, may have crossed the Red Sea. The hitter lent his name to the Avalites Sums, kc, on the African continent. Section D. — The Xth Chapter of Genesis modernized, in its Nomenclature, to display, popularly and in modern English, THE MEANING OF ITS ANCIENT WrITER. Verse 1 Now these (are) the T^oLDTt-BNI-NuKA, (generations of the sons of Ces- sation); SAeM yellow races, K^aM swarthy races, and laPeT/ white 2 races: unto them (were) sons after the deluge.* (The) affiliations of IaPeT< white races; — Cr imea ^ GoMeR, and Caucasus = MaGUG, and Media = MeDI, and Ionia =^ lUN, and Pontus =^ T nians."f»t 2d. Clemens Alexandrinus — "For your Genesis in particular was never the work of Moses. "Gw^ — " Iloruni ergo scripta (Orphei et Hesiodi) in duas partes intelligentiff dividuntur; id est, secundum litteram sunt ignobilis vulgi turba conlluxit, ea vero quaa secundum allegoriam constant omuis philosophorum et eruditorum loquacitas admi- rata est." 686 gt. Clement applies exactly the same principles to Genesis (xxvi. ), wheru he exclaims — "0 divine jesting ! It is the same that Heraclitus attributes to Jupiter. I 566 BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. • Abimelech is Jesus Christ, our king, who, from the heavens above, considers our sports, our actions of grace, our transports of joy."687 3d. St. Augustine — "There is no way of preserving the true sense of the &Tst three chapters of Genesis, without attributing to God things unworthy of him, and for which one must have recourse to allegory. "6P8 4th. St. Jerome — who, in his commentary upon Jeremiah, enforces the allegorical method — " Sive Mosen dicere volueris auctorem Pentateuchi, sive Esdram ejusdem instauratorem operis, non recuso."689 Let the most philosophic of many truly-learned Rabbis close the list : — Maimonides — " There are some persons to whom it is repugnant to perceive a motive in a given law of the (divine) laws ; they love better to find no rational sense in the com- mandments and prohibitions. That which leads them to this, is a certain feebleness they feel in their souls, but upon which they are unable to reason, and of which they know not how to give any account. This is what they think. If the laws should profit us in this (temporal) existence, and that they had been given to us for such or such a motive, it might very well be that they are the product of the reflection and of the intelligence of a ma?! of genius: if, on the contrary, a thing possesses no comprehensible sense and that it produces no advantage whatever, it emanates, without doubt, from the Deity, because human thought could not lead to such a thing. One would say that, according to these weak minds, man is greater than his Creator ; because mar^ (according to them) speaks and acts while aiming at a certain object; whereas God, far from acting similarly, would order us, on the contrary, to do that which to our- selves is not of the least utility, and would forbid us from actions that cannot cause us the slightest damage." (Arabic^, 'DeUdlat el Khctyereen ; Hebraice, More Neboukhim ; "Guide to the Strayers," ch. xxxi. : Munk's Translation, Paris, 1833.) They all — i.e., the Fathers of the first centuries — attributed a double sense to the words of Scripture, the one obvious and literal, the other hidden and mystical, which lay joncealed as it were under the outward letter. The former they treated with the utmost ieglect;690 following St. Paul's authority — "For the Zei^er killeth, but the spirit giveth jfe." — (2 Corinth, iii. 6.) Section G-. — Cosmas-Indicopleustes. But, in the proportion that Hellenic learning faded in Alexandnan schools, so patristic talent and scholarship also deteriorated. That " Genesis" which, by the earlier Fathers, had been ascribed to Ezra rather than to Moses, and the language of which, to more refined Grecian intellects, appeared too contemptible for Divinity unless con- strued in an allegorical sense, at length began to be accepted verbatim et litteratim by Christian writers : the strenuousness of orthodoxy, in any creed, increasing always in the ratio that mental culture declines. At last, arose a Monk who, unjustly forgotten by the Church though he be now, did more to petrify theological stolidity in Europe, for 800 years, with respect to the first three chapters of Genesis, than any human being but himself — Cos,iAAQ-Indicopfeustes. " He is," says the learned Mr. Sharpe, " of the dogmatical school which forbids all inquiry as heretical. He fights the battle which has been so often fought before and since, aud is even, still fought so resolutely, the battle of religious ignorance against scientific COSMAS-INDICOPLEUSTES. 567 knowledge. lie sets the words of the Bible against the results of science ; he denies ihai the world is a sphere, and quotes the Old Testament against the pagan philosopliers, to show that it is a plane, covered by the firmament as a roof, above which he places the kingdom of heaven. . . . The arguments employed by Cosmas were unfortunately but too often used by the Christian world in general, who were even willing to see learning itself fall with the overthrow of paganism. All knowledge was divided into sacred and profane, and whatever was not jlrawn from the Sci'ij)tnres was slighted and neglected ; and this per- haps was one of the chief causes of the darkness which overspread the world during the middle ages." ^si To comprehend the force of these observations it may be well to preface our description of the Topographia Christiana by a few excerpts from Matter. 692 The only Christian Father whose writings evince the humblest acquaintance with Egyp- tian studies, Clemens Alexandrinus, expressly says, that the '-Egyptians taught the Greeks the movement of the planets round the sun;" and, since 1848, Egyptology can proudly add the extraordinary discoveries of Lepsius in hieroglyphical Astronomy, which are likely to be carried to results little expected, through Biot.^ss About B. c. 603, Thales had observed an eclipse of the sun. He taught the spheroiditt/ if not the sphericity of the earth ; he knew the obliquity of the ecliptic ; knew that the moon was illumined by the sun ; and explained solar eclipses by the intervention of the lunai disc between the earth and the sun. In the succeeding century, Pythagoras sustained the sphericity of the earth, and its movement, with the planets, round the sun ; and his disciples Leucippus and Democritus added some acquaintance with the rotary motion of the earth upon its axis. Eudo.xus advocated similar doctrines. Now, Thales, Pythagoras, and Eu- doxus, had studied under genuine hierogrammatists in Egypt. The grand Stagyrite (who had not drunk of Nilotic waters) maintained the contrary ^ viz., that the sun revolved around the earth. In vain did Aristarchus strive to bring science back to truer principles. His voice was unheard for sixteen centuries. Hipparchus deter- mined the precession of the equinoxes, &c., during the 2d century b. c. ; but, his more im- portant works being lost, " tulit alter honores;" because Ptolemy, a far better geographer than astronomer, has not revealed what of his great predecessor's views militated against his own celestial dogmas. In the early part of the 2d century, after c, Ptolemy had wo- fully retrograded from ancient Greco-Egyptian science; for he held to the absolute immo- bility of the earth, and made the sun revolve around our globe. Denouncing the contrary system as too ridiculous to merit attention, he gives his own reason for opposing it, viz. , " that one always sees the same half of the sky" ! " The earth," says Claudius Ptolemy, "is not only central, but also stationary. If it had an individual motion (upon its axis) such move- ment would be proportioned to its mass. It would, therefore, leave behind it the animals and other bodies, which would be carried into the air, — it would fly away from them, and escape from the sky ! No object not fixed to the earth, no bird, could advance to the east- ward with the same rapidity as the globe " ! Unsuspected before Newton, the laws of gravi- tation and attraction could not ease Ptolemy's perplexities. We have seen that the older and wiser Fathers of the Church (who must have been more or less read in the higher Grecian classics), unable to reconcile the letter of "Genesis" with what they well knew to be positive philosophy, had recourse, like Philo, to allegorical expla- nations : which means, simply, that they disbelieved genesiacal stories as revealed in the Septuagint, and therefore nullified them by inventing mystic hypotheses. They sustained, however, in their writings, no especial theory upon astronomy or geography : but, that with which Clemens, and Origen, and Anatolius, and Synesius, and Theophilus, and even Cyril, had refrained from meddling, was grasped, with Promethean audacity, by an itine- rant trader of the sixth century after c. ; whose temerarious zeal, when he had adopted monastic vows, was exceeded merely by his delicious stupidity ; as we now proceed to prove. Cosmas, setting a Greek copy of " Genesis " before him, composed, upon that poor version's literal language, his Topographia C'hrinlianaS'^' Of Iltbrcw he had not an idea 568 BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. Fio. 857. He, Cosmas aforesaid, commences with a practical de- monstration of the absurdity of " Antipodes," — by draw- ing a figure lilie this — He then acutely observes : — " Cum figura hominis recta sit. qui fit ut quatuor illi eodem tempore stantes recti non sint ; sed quocumque vertas eos, quatuor illi simul nun- quam videantur ; quomodo ergo fi^ri potest ut vanas illas mendacesque hypotheses admittamus? Quomodo ergo fieri potest ut eodem tempore pluvia in quatuor illos decidat? Quod ergo nee natura nee mens nostra admittere potest, id cur frustra suppoiiitis ?" — "Thus," continues Montfaucon, "Cosmas here and throughout Topographia Christiana, ut et mulli alii ex SS. PP. qui nee gravitatis centrum, nee astrono- micas observationes, cullebant." ^'^^ St. Augustine it was who had ^^ seen folks with an eye in the pit of their stomachs; " so his testimony is unsafe ; but Lactantius had beheld fewer marvels, and we quote him : — " Ineptum credere esse homines quorum vestigia sint superiora quam capita, aut ibi quae apud nos jacent inversa pendere, fruges et arbores deorsum versus crescere. . . . Hujus erroris or'igmem philosophis fuisse quod existimarint rotundum esse mundum." For the sake of contrast with later patristric ortliodoxy, let justice be meted out to some old rabbinical capacities. The most ancient authors of the Guemara were acquainted with the spherical form of the earth; for they say, in the Jerusalem Talmud, that Alexander the Great, going over the earth to conquer it, ascertained that it was round; and it is on that account that statuary represents him with a globe in his hand.696 Albeit, there are Judaical authorities of higher antiquity in the Zohar — a book which probably antedates, but in any case approximates to, the Christian crabs'? — whose knowledge of the more an- cient systems of cosmogony led them to write as follows: — " In the book of Chamnouna the Old one learns, through extended explanations, that the earth turns upon itself in the form of a circle; that some (people) are above, and others below; that the aspect of all creatures changes according to the appearance of each place, while preserving nevertheless the same position; that such a country of the earth there is that is lighted, whilst such (Others are in darkness ; the former have day when to others it is night ; and there are some •countries where it is constantly day, or, at least, where night lasts but a few instant8."698 But such profanity was unintelligible to Cosmas. No ray of light, from scientific sources, .could penetrate into a blockhead. To him, the habitable earth is a plane surface, having the form of a parallelogram, of which the sides are double in length to the top and bottom. Inside this oblong square are four basins, the Mediterranean, the Caspian, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf. Outside the parallelogram the circumambient ocean surrounds the inner oblong-square, and sepa- rates it from the outer continents (primitively inhabited by Adam's family), from paradise, and from the "garden of Eden," which are situate upon a mountain at the East. Here dwelt our first parents, until the ark of Noah, during the deluge, ferried them over to the inner continent where we ourselves reside unto this day. Cosmas ignored whatever he «ould not find in the Bible ; and, wiser than our modern theologers, this modest pattern for prurient orthodoxy never discovered China, Northern Europe, Central Africa, America, Poly- nesia, or Australia, in the canonical Scriptures. Let his map, and his own perspicuous language, explain true Mosaic cosmology. He begins with the exact Greek letter of Genesis i. 1: but his editor kindly furnishes i\\& 'Vulgate: — " Scriptum est In principio rKCiT Dkus co^him et terram. Priniuni itaque cadum fornicatum."^J99 [N. B. My own tracing (made at the British Museum, in 1848, for personal remem- brance) being too rough, we are indebted to the accomplished Mrs. Luke Burke for the /ac-«m»!7e transcript, of which the above is a copy ; reduced slightly more than one half. Typographical exigenda compel us also to transfer Cosmas's explanations from the mdp COSMAS-INDICOPLEUSTES, 569 CosMAs's Map. — Fig. 358. — "I. T A B U L A." 1 2 3 I 570 BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. itself into our text; but the letters A, B, C, &c., indicate the place of each. As the work of Cosmas is exceedingly rare, we hope theological students will appreciate the pains taken to furnish them with so clear an illustration of what they still call " Mosaic" cosmogony. — G. R. G.] CosMAs's Geeek Explanations. A — Adulis city {Abyssinia). B — the road from Adulis to the East — Ethiopians travelling. C — Ptolemy's chair. D — Firmament. ^1 F J ""I H J Waters which are above the Firma- ment. G ) Columns (to support the Firma- ment). I — inhabited earth. J — land beyond the Ocean, where men dwelt before the Deluge. K — land beyond the Ocean. L — Caspian Sea. M — River Phison. N — 4 Points of the compass, — Mediterranean Sea. P — Arabian Gulf. Q_ Tigris. R — Euphrates. S — River Gihon. T — land beyond the Ocean. U — the Sun Occident. V — the Sun Orient. X — the Sun Occident. y — the Sun Orient. Z — is Cosmas's picture of the Almighty looking down, and seeing that **it was good." In the IVth book of " Topographia Christiana," the pious Cosmas describes his hydro- graphic and ecclesiastical principles ; but, rich as they are, his argumentation is too prolix for our purposes, which are served by translating Montfaucon's synopsis of his author's elucidation of Plate I. "Fig. \. In the first figure, the city Adouli or Adulis [in Abyssinia] (for it is so called in both ways by Cosmas) is shown. Axumis, which is two miles distant from the Red Sea, is situated to the East ; for which reason an Ethiopian is represented, in his Ethio- pian costume, taking the Axumis road to Adulis. Then Ptolemy's chair is delineated in the form it is said to have had by Cosmas. That [part of the chair] however, sculp- tured all over in characters, had only the last portion of the inscription added. But the inscription on the stone tablet placed opposite was finished — a fragment of which from the lower part together with its characters or letters had been destroyed. Above the stone tablet king Ptolemy Evergetes himself is represented in his military attire as he appears in the picture. These things you will find more fully explained in page 140 and the following. "Fig. 2. In the second figure the shape of heaven and earth is delineated according to the opinion of Cosmas and the old Fathers, who thought the earth, as it were, &flat surface, extending beneath and inclosed by icalls on all sides ; and that these walls were raised to an immense height, and finally arranged themselves into the form of a vault; ■while the firmament pervaded the higher part of the vault so that it (beatorum sedes) might be the seat of the Blest. [The same idea ('firmament,' Hebraic^ SKAKIM K/iZKIM — literally, solid skies) occurs in Job xxxvii. 18. Thus Cahen renders — 'As-tu etendu avec lui les cieuz, solides comme un miroir m^tallique ?' And Noyes — ' C.inst thou like him spread out the sky Which is firm like a molten mirror? ' 700 But, under the firmament, they thought the sun, moon, and stars, were put in mo- tion; and that a coniral mountain of wondrous height rose up in the northern parts of the earth ; and while the sun, performing his circuit round the earth, stood behind this mountain, there was night to those inhabiting the earth ; but, on the other hand, it was day when the sun shone upon us on the reverse [i. e., on our side] of the moun- tain : and, in a similar way Cosmas reasons with respect to tlie moon and stars ; see page 186 and the following. '' Fig. 3. Exhibits a prospective view of the universe ; that is to say, of the heavens COSMAS-INDICOPLEUSTES. 571 and the earth in the part where they are more closely drawn together; for Cosmas thought the earth was square and oblong, and the same is assumed with respee^ to the heavens. See page 180 and following. •' Fig. 4. Represents a conical mountain, and the earth, together with the sun and moon, under the firmament. But on the sides [Jo6 ix. 6 — flMUDIH — ' Pillars (of the earth)' ; Job xxvi. 11 — 'pillars of the skies'] are represented the pillars of heaven, with an inscription [in Greek. '^ upon the plan here presented — oi iv\oi tov olpavov — • the columns of the sky ; which columns, according to the opinion of Cosmas, I think to be those walls which arise on the sides from the earth up to the heavens (^Psalma cxlviii. 4 — ' Ye waters that be above the akies'). " Fig. 5. The outline of the earth and its invoypafiav are traced out. You may observe that Cosmas conjectured that the immensely-high conical mountain presented an obsta- cle where our earth could not, at the northern part, be so well inclosed by a right line ; because its foundations on that side are round, as if they proceeded from a great pro- montory in the ocean. •' Fig. 6. Displays the rugged plain of the earth, such as Cosmas explains in many places ; for he thought, as we have said before, that the earth was oblong, and ita length twice as long as its breadth, and that an ocean surrounded the entire earth, as is here represented. But, beyond the ocean, there was yet another land adhering closely, on all sides, to the walls of heaven. Upon the eastern side of this tra7ismarine land he judges that man was created; and that there the paradise of gladness vras located, such as here, on the eastern edge, is described : where it received our nrst parents, driven out of paradise to that extreme point of land on the sea-shore Hence, upon the coming of the deluge, Noah with his sons was borne by the ark to this earth wo now inhabit. The four rivers, he supposes, to be gushing up the spouts in paradise ; with subterranean channels through the ocean, to our earth, and in certain places that they gush out anew. He considers that the Hyrcanian Sea [Caspian] is joined to the ocean ; wnich we have elsewhere shown was the opinion of certain ancients. " Fig 7. He briefly dispatches the whole machinery of the world, which, as the an- cients thought, was composed of the skg and the earth. Its form he represents, with the conical mountain above alluded to. But Cosmas-J3gypticus deemed that the earth which we inhabit was always inclining from the north to the south. Albeit Cosmas contradicts himself. How can such a mass as that of heaven and earth stand, sup- ported by nothing, since it is always pressed downward? He answers — the earth, inasmuch as it is ponderous matter by nature, seeks the bottom ; but the igneous parts tend upward ; therefore, when sky and earth are thus joined and cannot be torn asun- der, the. one pressing from above and the other from below, neither yielding to the other, the whole machine remains immovable and suspended. [' This is a grand argu- ment,' says Mr. Burke, commenting in a private letter, ' and beats the Newtonian theory out and out ! Only fancy ; two forces shut up in a box, one pulling up, and the. other pulling down, and the box, in consequence, remaining ' immota et suspensa ! ' This is, beyond exception, the brightest mechanical idea I have ever come across']. " Fig. 8. He represents the conical mountain on that side which is turned adversely to the earth ; where, when the sun arrives, night is produced to the earth's inhabitants. In the same place the revolutions of the sun are indicated by lines [upon the conical mountain] ; whereby the various seasons of the year are caused. When, therefore, the sun arrives at the lower line, the nights then are longer, and it makes winter, rpoirr,, or revolution : the sun performing the major portion of his course behind the mountain. When, however, the sun comes to the middle line of the mountain, then the equinox is produced; the sun in performing his course having reached the equinoctial line When, finally, the sun touches the uppermost line, then the summer revolution takes place, and he attains to the tropic. This is in conformity with the opinion of Cosmas. ■who describes the revolutions of the sun in these words — pcyiXn vli, great night; uta^ v6(, middle night ; yuKpa viif little night; as you behold in the picture." 572 BIBLICAL ETHNOGRAPHY. Tbrough the above parody upon nature, Cosmas explained all celestial phenomena^ the course of the moon, its phases and eclipses, as well as the sun's rotation round the earth's flat plain. The Topographia Christiana became the text-book of ecclesiastical ortho- doxy, for above 800 years, down to Galileo ; and Cosmas's caricature on the one hand, coupled with ignorance of the Hebrew text of Joshua (x. 12-14) on the othor, induced the murder of Giordano Bruno. Nevertheless, according to the literal language of the first IX chapters of "Genesis," Cosmas was not far from the truth. Were the ancient writers of those chapters to arise from the grave, and were they respectfully requested to indicate which commentary best represented their meaning — that of the Topographia Christiana ; or those recent attempts *' to make Moses sound in the faith of the geological section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science '■™' — they would unanimously claim the former as their own. Happy middle-ages ; when Europe made up in credulity what it lacked in intelligence! ♦'They had neither looked into heaven, nor earth; neither into the sea, nor the land, as has been done since. They had philosophy without scale, astronomy without demonstra- tion. They made war without powder, shot, cannon, or mortars ; nay, the mob made bon- fires without squibs or crackers. They went to sea without compass, and sailed lacking chronometers. They viewed the stars without telescopes, and measured altitudes without barometers. Learning had no printing-press, writing no paper, paper no ink ; magnetism no telegraph, iron no rails, steam no boilers. The lover was forced to send his mistress a deal-board for a love-letter, and a billet-doux might be of the size of a trencher. They were clothed without manufactures, and the richest robes were the skins of formidable monsters. They carried on trade without books, and correspondence without postage : their merchants kept no ledgers ; their shopkeepers no cash-books. They had surgery without anatomy, physicians without materia-medica ; who gave emetics without ipecacuanha, and cured agues without quinine. They dispensed with lucifer-matches, coifee, sugar, tea, and to- bacco" "02 — and, never having heard of the first three chapters of " Genesis," they believed in Topographia Christiana ! The book is scarcely known, now-a-days, to tlieologers : but its commentary (orally trans- mitted from father to son) survives all around us. We have conceived it our duty not to let the one continue without the other ; and therefore have rescued from further oblivion the Mosaic chart of Cosmas. Section H. — Antiquity of the name "ADaM." After what has been already set forth, there seems scarcely reason to answer an interrogatory, above propounded, relative to "human creation " as narrated in Genesis. Archaeological criticism might finally rest upon one Hebrew word ; viz. ADaM. The philological law of (riliterah, in Semitic tongues, has been touched upon during pre- vious examinations of Xth Genesis. " Non omnia possumus" — and the authors must reiterate that, in order to keep within one volume, they have been forced to expurgate redundancies, often, they fear, at the sacrifice of perspicuity. In lieu of extracts from the pages of Lanci, Meyer, Gesenius, Neumann, Ewald, Wilhelm von Humboldt, Prichard,' Bunsen, — in addition to those previously drawn from Rawlinson, De Saulcy, &c. — all cor- roborating our correctness, we must substitute references to their authoritative works. The reader will observe, notwithstanding, that the bisyllable ADM cannot be a primitive but must be a secondary formation, according to the progressive scale of linguistic develop- ment To reach the primary root, or monosyllable, within this triliteral word contaitied, an affix, a stij/ix, or a media lAettar, must he first removed. Among ilebr.iists of the highest modern school, on the European continent, the fact that "Adam" is a dissyllabic name alone ANTIQUITY OF THE NAME ADAM. 573 suffices to prove that its possessor appeared on earth thousands of years subsequently to the primordial ages of humanity ; because in prindpio man articulated but mo7io.ii/llables. Or else (what is the same thing in result, no less than more positive) the Israelite who (in some form of eo»j-letter) wrote the word ADM, of Genesis, lived at a philological epoch when the pristine monosyllubles had already (organically through development) merged into words of two syllables; and therefore, that writer committed an egregious anachronism when he retro-leptically ascribed a trilileral proper-name, or rather noun, to his first human progenitor. The word ADM, or with an additional vowel, ADaM, is consequently to be divided into two separate words, A and DaM ; or A-DaM. Now, A, aleph, is the primeval, Semitic, masculine article A = "the" r""^ an article that, in Scripture, is prefixed t.o above forty masculine substantives ; although, until recently, the fact was unperceived by Hebrew gi-ammarians, or Jewish lexicographers. In the next place, the word ADaM does not proceed, as the Rabbis suppose, from ADaMaH"(G'fn. ii. 7) — a lisi/llable from a trisyllahle ! — but the latter is an extension of the former root, DaJI (Arabic^, Dem), meaning blood ; the color of which, being red, originated the secondary signification of DaM, as " red ; " and " to be red" Consequently, A, the letter '^ aleph," being the masculine article the; and the noun DaM meaning blood, or "red," we have only to unite these two words into A-DaM, to read the- blood, or THE-RED, in " Genesis ;" which duplex substantive, applied to man, naturally sig- nifies " ology proposed by the sage Millin, (4), (4) Introduction d Cttude de VArchiologie; Paris, 1796; pp. 2,. 20, 22. 578 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION adopted by Leriormant, (5) and recognized by all true scholars from Niebuhr to Letronne; especially among those intellectual giants who since ChampolHon's era have solved the chief enigmas of hieroglyphical and cuneatic records. Archceography, as distinct from archae- ology, according to Fabricius, (G) is a term which should be limited to the study of ancient monuments especially, whereas archaeology embraces every process of investigation into all historical subjects. Dionysius Halicarnassensis, in the first century before C, and Josephus in the first century after, treated upon Archceology, but entirely neglected Archaeographj', or the study of monuments ; whence their several incoherencies : the former, however, had some clear perceptions of the truth when he named Archaeology •' the science of primitive origins." Albeit, the word has deviated somewhat from its pristine sense ; for among the Greeks an archceoloyist signified a man who brought together the most ancient recollections of a given country ; whereas, at the present day, the name is applied exclusively to him who, possessing intimate acquaintance with the vioiniments of a given ancient people, strives through the study of their characteristics to evolve facts, and thence to deduce logical con- clusions upon the ideas, tastes, propensities, habits, and history of departed nations ; many of the greatest and most essential of whom having left but fragmentary pages of their stone-hooks, out of which we their successors must reconstruct for ourselves such por- tions of their chronicles as are lost ; no less than confirm, modify, or refute such others as have reached us through original, transcribed, or translated annals. Archteology, so to say, has now become the "backbone" of ancient history; its relation to human traditions being similar to that of Osteology to Comparative Anatomy ; or to what fossil remains are in geological science. An Anliquan/ is rather a collector of ancient relics of art, tlian one who understands them; but an Archceologist is of necessity an Antiquary who brings every science to bear upon the vestiges of ancient man, and thus invests them with true historical value. In short, an Archaeologist is the monumental historian — the more or less critical dealer in and discoverer of historical facts, according as by mental dis- cipline, diversified attainments, and the study of things, he acquires thorough knowledge of each particle preserved to his research among the debris of antique humanity. "Were the simplest rules of this science popularly taught, we should not have to prolong the lamentations of Millin at errors prevalent for want of a little archaeological knowledge. He narrates how Baronius took a statue of Isis for the Virgin Mary — how the apotheosis ■ of the Emperor Germanicus was mistaken for St. John the Baptist's translation to heaven — and how a cameo called " the agate of Tiberius," which represents the triumphs of this j)rince and the apotheosis of Augustus, came to be long regarded as the triumphal march ,of Joseph ! Neptune and Minerva giving the horse and olive to man would not have been metamorphosed into Adam and Eve eating the forbidden apple ; nor would a trumpery pottery toy have been considered by His Eminence Cardinal Wiseman (7) as a Roman me- mento of Noah's Ark after the universal flood, although among its animals were "thirty- five human figures!" Without archaeology, says Millin, one is liable with the historian Rollin to speak of the Laocoon as a lost monument — to dress up Greek heroes in Roman ■garments — to adorn Hercules with a perruque d la Louis XIV! .lEsop, at the court of Croesus, would hardly have addressed himself to a colonel in French uniform ; nor Strabo, in " D<)mocrite Amoureux," have pointed his quizzing-glass at steeples, and amused his leisure by making almanacs; neither would Horace call Servius Tullius "Sire; " nor Ra- cine have invoked a goddess as " Madame" in his classic plays. (8) More than half a century has elapsed since Millin wrote. Hundreds of archasologists have made their works accessible to the literary public. Yet so slow is the diffusion of (6) ArchColngie, par M. Ch. Lenormant, de I'Institut: Sevue Archtol.; Paris, 1844; Ire partie, pp. 1-17. (6) Bibliolheca. Anliquaria; p. 181. (7) Omnecdnn between Science and lierealnl Belipinn; 1840; vol. ii. pp. 139-143. (8) See many rpcent in.'itaTices of aiiti(iU!oiim sliani.s o.xposi-d by I.etronne — "I/amiilettc de .Tules Wsar, le rncliet do Supnllius Macer, le niCdaillon de Zeiioliie, Ic colTrot d'Aiitinoiis, lo sabre de Vespasicii, et d'autrel *niiiiaMbs modernes " — Minwires et iJocumciits ; Hev. Archiol. ; Paris, 1849; pp. 192-223. TO xnE Xth chatter of genesis. 579 critical knowledge, that in our own land and hour, there are still some not uncultivated minds ■who imagine the Altorii/iites of this American continent to have descended from the " Lost Tribes of Israel "(9) — who see the Runic scribhlings of Norsemen upon the Indian-scratched Bock of Dighton(lO) — who, regardless of Squier'sexposure,(l 1) yet suppose the local pebble manufactured for that musi^tni since 1838, to attest Phoenician intercourse with the mound- builders of Grave Creek Flat (12) — and who, disdaining to refer to the long-published deter- mination of its pseudo-antiquity, (13) still believe that the gold seal-ring of RA-NEFER- HET, a functionary attached to a building called, about the sixth century b. c, after King Shoophu, should have once adorned the iiiiger of Cheops, builder of the Great Pyra- mid in the thirty-fourth century b. c. (14) ; thereby becoming 5300 instead of only some 2500 years old ! The instances around us of the misconceptions, which the slightest acquaintance with the rudiments of archaeology would consign forever to oblivion, are inexhaustible. Would that some of them were less pernicious to moral rectitude ! They offend our vision under the prostituted names of '■^Portraits of Christ "(15) — they excite one's derision in the ludicrous anachronisms of modern art current as " Pictorial Bibles" (16) — they bear wit- ness to theological ignorance when Cldncse are asserted to be referred to in the SINIM of Isaiah (17) — and they amount to idiocy when ecclesiastics continue disputing whether Moses wrote a resh, R, or a daleth, D, in a given word of the Hebrew Pentateuch, notwithstanding that every archteologist knows that the square-letter characters of the present Hebrew Text (18) were not invented by the Rabbis before the second century after Christ ; or 1600 years posterior to the vague age when lellOuaH buried the Lawgiver " in a valley in the land of Moab opposite to Beth-peor ; but no man has known his sepulchre unto this day."{\9) But — "point de fanatisme meme contre le fanatisme: la philosophic a eu le sien dans le sifecle dernier; il semble que la gloire du notre devrait etre de n'en connaitre aucun." (20) The above illustrations suffice to indicate some of the utilitarian objects of the science termed " Archseology ;" which furnishes the only logical methods of attaining historical certainties. Its indispensableness tcf correct appreciations of biblical no less than of all other history, nevertheless, remains to be proved by its application. We shall endeavor to be precise in our experiments ; but, must not forget that " precision is one thing, certainty another. An absurd or false proposition may be made very precise; and, on the other hand, although the sciences vary in degree of precision, they all present results equally certain." We propose to test the principles of archisological criteria by applying them to biblical studies, and to test the authenticity of one chapter of the Hebrew records through the former's application: and inasmuch as Truth must necessarily harmonize with itself, if arclueology be a true science the Scriptures will prove it to be so incontest;ibly ; and if the Bible be absolute truth, archneology will demonstrate the fact. We need not perplex ourselves with apprehensions. It would imply but small faith in the Bible were we to suppose that arch- (9) Delafikld : American Antiquities. (10) Transactions of l/ie Royal Society of Antiquaries of Copcntiagen, 1840-'43. AntiquUates Americanos, l^ZI ; Beet. XT. (U) London EttinrilngicalJoumal : "Monumental Evidence of the Discovery of America by the Northmeu critically examined" — Dec IS+S; pp. 3i:',-;i.;4. (12) Schoolcraft: New York Ettmolngicul Sonety's Trans. 1845; vol. i. pp. 386-.397. (13) See " A Card'": New York Courier and Enquirer, V2 Feb. 1S53. » (14) Abbott: Calul/xjue of a Collection of Egyptian Antiquities, now exhibiting at the Stuyvesant Institute; New York, 18.53; plate No. 1061, p. 64. (1.5) Founded exclu.sively upon no more lii.storical ba,ses than the .spurious "Letter of Lkntui.us" — oi deriveil from "Veronica's Sudarium "; Albkrt Durkr, 1510, — vide Coi.e: I'assitm of our Lord; London, 1844. (16) Harpers*, for instance; New York, lS4'i-'45. (17) Rev. Dr. Smvthe: Unity rf Itie Human Racfs; 1840 — " And while even China {h. li. [.si'e] 12, Sinim, a remote country in the S. E. extremity of the earth, as the context intimates) and the islands of the sea ww ipecified" — p. 43. and note. C*^ Gliddox: Olia ^yjyptiaca; p. 112; and infra, further on. (19) Deuteronomy xxxiv. G — Caiiex's translation. (20) Amp£r£: Rec/ierclies, Ac. ; Rev. des Deux Mondes; Sept. 1846, p. 738. 5S0 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION aeological scrutiny could affect the divine origin insisted upon for the book itself by those who make it the unique standard of all scientific as well as of all moral knowledge. Instead, however, of the ordinary mode in which biblical history is presented to us in books bearing the authoritative title of professed " Christian Evidences," the requirements of archaeology demand that we should reverse the order of examination. In lieu, for in- stance, of asserting d, priori that the Creation of ike world took place exactly " on October 20th, B. c. 4005, the year of the creatioii "(21) — or sustaining, ex cathedra, with universal orthodoxy, that Moses wrote the Pentateuch — it is incumbent upon us, while we deny nothing, to take as little for granted. If such be the era revealed by the Test, our process will lead us to that date, with at least the same precision through which Lightfoot (by what method is unknown), ascertained that A7ino Mundi I, " Vlth day of creation . . . his (Adam's) wife the weaker vessell : she not yet knowing that there were any devils at all . . . sinned, and drew her husband into the same transgression with her ; this was about high noone, the time of eating. And in this lost condition into which Adam and Eve had now brought themselves, did they lie comfortlesse till towards the cool of the day, or three o'clock afternoon.'" {22) If the Pentateuch was originally penned in the Mosaic autograph, the proof will resile to our view, through archEeological deductions, with the force of an Euclidean demonstration. The analytical instruments of archaeology are purely Baconian ; viz : proceeding from the known to the unknown ; through a patient retrogressive march from to-day to yester- day, from yesterday to the day before ; and so on, step by step, backwards along the stream of time. Each fact, when verified, thus falls naturally into its proper place in the "world's history ; each event, as ascertained, will be found tabulated in its respective stratum. It is only when our footsteps falter, owing to surrounding darkness or to trea- cherous soil, that we may begin to suspect historical inaccuracies ; but, at present, we have no right to anticipate any such doubts, considering the averments of oecumenic Pro- testantism, of the orthodox sects, that the Bihle is the revealed ivord of God. Our inquiries are directed to a single point. We desire to ascertain the origin, epoch, writer, characteristics, and historical value of but one document: vizi — T'/ig.Xth Chapter of Genesis ; familiar to every reader. It is presented, however, to our inspection as one of fifty chapters of a book called " Genesis " — this book being the first of thirty-nine (23) books that constitute the compendium entitled the " Old Testament ;" and the latter is bound up in the same volume with another collection to which the name of "New Testament" is given: the whole forming together that literary work to which the designation of '■'■The Bible" is reverentially applied in the English tongue — a name derived from byhlos, the Greek name for papyrus, being the most ancient material out of which its derivative paper was made. Byblus, the Egyptian plant, gave to the Greeks their name for paper, and paper their name for " the book " in to (iifi'Xtiov. On adopting Christianity, the Greeks designated their earliest translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, TO BIBLEION, as the book — "par excellence;" which words we moderns have adopted into our national tongue in the form of "Bible." With every desire on our part to obtain solution of our queries by the most direct road and in the shortest method, we do not perceive the possibility of detaching a solitary chapter of the Bible from the volume itself, until by archaeological dissection we are enabled to demonstrate that such separation is feasible. In consequence, it behooves us to examine, with as much brevity as is consistent with perspicuity, the entire Bible; and, if we hold " all the books of the Bible (24) to be equally true," the Xth chapter of the first book will be found unquestionably to be true likewise. Soliciting that the reader should divest his mind, as far as in him lies, of preconceived biases ; we invite him to accompany us patiently through an investigation, in which the (21) Rev. Dr. Noi.an: The R/i/ptian Clirmtolngy Analyzed; London, 1848, p. 392. (22) IIarm(my, Chrnnide. and Order of the Old Testament, &c.; London, 1647, p. 6. (2.3) Mystic origin of tiic XXXIX "Articlos" of the Anglican Ciiurnli. (24) Pooie: London JUlerary QazttU, 1849, p. 432 — unaccountably suppressed in Horm jEgyptiacm, 1S51. TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 581 Bohject banishes all ornament, but that cannot fail to elicit some portions of the truth. The incipient steps of our analysis do not call for much expenditure of eradition. In popular Encyclopiedias most of the preliminary information may be verified by the curious reader ; for Calmet, Kitto, and Home, contain catalogues of the various editions of the Bible, done into English, that have been put forth, during the last four centuries, from A. D. 1526 down to the present year. At the sight of such catalogues of different translations said to proceed from one and the same original, few can refrain from asking, in all humbleness, why, if any one of them were absolutely correct, should there have been a necessity for the others? In the course of studies carried over many years, we liave been at pains to compare sundry of the most prominent English translations (among them ancient as well as modern editions), not only with themselves, but often with the Latin, Greek, or Hebrew originals, of which each pur- ports to supply a faithful rendering. They all differ ! some more than others ; but in each one may be found passages the sense of which varies essentially from that published by the others. Hence arose in our minds the following among other doubts. Some of these Translators can have known little or nothing of Hebrew — or they must have translated from different originals — or, they did not consult the Hebrew Text at all, but rendered from the Latin or the Greek versions — or (what recurs with far more fre- quency), each translator, wherever the original was ambiguous, rendered a given passage in accordance with his own individual biases, or with the object of fortifying the peculiar tenets of his Church, Kirk, Conventicle, Chapel, or Meeting-house. Now, these discordant Bibles being thrust upon us, each one as the only and true "Word of God," it is humanly incon- ceivable that Gou should have uttered that Word in so many different ways, and thereby have rendered nugatory the comprehension of one passage, by permitting a translation,in sig- nificance totally distinct, of the self-same passage in other modern editions. For instance, that the reader may at once seize our meaning : there are few texts more frequently quoted, especially under circumstances where consolation is administered ; there are none perhaps that have originated such Demosthenian efforts at pulpit-oratory, or have produced in some minds more of those extatic emotions " that the world cannot give," than the verse wherein Job ejaculates — "For I know that my Redeemer liveth." (xix. 25). The "Multitude of those who are called Christians," as Origen termed them in a. d. 253 (25) ; the " Simple- tons, not to say the imprudent and the idiotic," of Tertullian, a. d. 245; (26) the " Igno- rant" of St. Athanasius, a. d. 373(27); and the "Simple believers" of the milder St. Jerome, a. u. 385 (28) ; have always imagined, in accordance with the lower scholarship of orthodoxy, that Job here foreshadows the Messianic advent of Christ. (29) The context does not appear, philologically or grammatically, to justify such conclusion; inasmuch as the preceding verses (1 to 22) exhibit Job — forsaken by his kindred, forgotten by his bosom friends, alien in the eyes of his guests and of his own servants — overwhelmed with anguish at the acrid loquacity of Bildad the Shuhite, protesting vehemently against these accusations, and wishing that his last burning words should be preserved to posterity in one of three ways. To support our view, and to furnish at the same time evidences of different translations, we lay before the reader three renderings of verses 23 to 26. He can, by opening other translators, readily verify the adage that "doctors differ," although the Ilebrew Text is identically the same throughout. (25) Onmmintary uprm John: and Gmlra Cds., lib. vUi.. (26) Ad Prax«am, sec. iii. ^2V) De Inborn. Verb. — contra Paul. Samosaice. (28) Comm. in Es. xxxii. (29) Notes : Op. cit., p. 147 — " That there is no alhision to Christ in the term [riulfemer], nor to the resur- eection to a life of happiness, in the passage, has been the opinion of the most judicious and learned orities Pv the last three hundred years; such as Calvin, Mercier, Grotius, Le Clerc, I'atrick, VVarburton, Durell, Heath. Keuuicott, Docderlein, Datbe, Eicbhorn, Jabn, De Wette, and many others." 582 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION I. King James's Version. Tlie italicized words are the Translators'. i3 " 0I-. thai my words were now written ! oh that they were printeU [sicl'\ in a book I 24 ISiat they were graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever! 25 Fur I know tliat niy redeemer liveth, and titat he shall stand at the latter day upon the earth. 26 And though after my skin wwms destroy this bodt/, yet in my flesh shall I see God." The marginal reading, authority unknown, substitutes — " Or, After J shall awake, though this body be destroyed, yet out of my flesh shall I see God." In the authorized version, by the interpolation of "worms," Job is made a believer in the resurrection of the body: in the margin, he believes that he shall behold God " out of the flesh; " that is, in the spirit! What did he believe? II. Notes, New Translation of the Book of Job ; Boston, 1838; p. 37. 23 "0 that my words were now written! that they were inscribed in a register! 24 Thai with an iron pen, and with lead, Tliey were engraven upon the rock for everl 25 Yet I know my Vindicator liveth, And will stand up at length on the earth ; 26 And though with my skin this body be wasted away, Yet in my flesh shall I see God." Noyps (Notes, pp. 144-6) says — " Or we may render, Yet ivithout flesh 1 shall see God" — and enumerates cogent " objections to the supposition that Job here expresses his confident expectation of a resurrection." III. Cahen, "Job;" La Bible, Traduction Nouvelle, avec I'Hebreu en regard; Pans, 1851 ; pp. 86-7. We render the French literally into English. 2.3 " Would to God that my words were written! Would to God that they were traced in a book 24 With a burin of iron and with lead! that they were engraved for ever in the rock! 25 But I, I know that my 'redemptor' is living, and will remain the last upon the earth : 26 And after that my skin shall have been destroyed, this delivered from the flesh, I shall see God." In the foot-note, Cahen explains that the Hebrew word 'IXJ, GALI, which he renders " mon r^dempteur," proceeds from the verb GAL, " to deliver ;" meaning likewise " reven- diquer ;" which corresponds to the Vindicator of Noyes. The idea of Job's hope of a resur- rection, itself a mj'thological anachronism, is popularly derived from the LXX and the Greek Fathers, with ideas developed in the Latin Church after St. Jerome. Thus the reader has now before him three specimens, amid the wilderness of Translations, •wherein are involved theological dogmas of "resurrection of the body," "redemption of the soul," and the antiquity of "Messianic prefigurations" — questions of no slight reli- gious importance; and yet, withal, unless he be profound in Hebrew, his opinion upon the merits of either rendering is alike worthless to himself and to others ; nor can he con- scientiously distinguish which is veritably the "word of God" among these triple contra- dictions. The ridiculous anachronism perpetrated in king James's version [v. 23) that makes Job wish that his words were "printed" (probably 2-500 years before the art was invented !) (30) has long ago been pointed out ; and is alone sufficient to destroy the alleged ins>piration of that "authorized" verse. For ourselves we mourn that want of space com- pels the suppression of some archaeological remarks on the "book of Job" (aylUB — meaning " L'uomo iracondo che rientra con rossore in se stesso "). We derive them from studies at Paris, under our honored preceptor Michel-angelo Lanci, to whom we here renew the warmest tribute of respect and admiration. To Anglo-Saxon Protestantism the biblical profundities of the "Professor of Sacred and Interpreter of Oriental Tongues at the Vatican "(31) since the year 1820, are entirely im- (30) Nott: Biblical and Physical History of Man; 1849; pp. 136, 137. (31) Gaetano Deminicis: Biografw, del Cavaliere D. Michel-angelo Lanci, Fermo, 1840; p. 10. TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 583 known. AYritten in the purest Italian exclusively for the lettered — restricted to one edition of 125 copies for each work, at a cost of \'lb francs ($25) per copy — and, for manifold rea sons, artistically fashioned upon a plan not easily comprehended without an oral key — Land's enormous labors upon Semitic palaeography, to the " profanum vulgus" of theology must long remain sealed books. In 1848-9, no copy of the Paralipomeni, (32) nor of the Seconda Opera Ctijica,{'3-i) both published during 1845-7, at Paris (the latter at the expense of Nicholas, Czar of Muscovy), existed within the Library of the British Museum : not- withstanding that Land's volumes were for sale at two leading booksellers' in London ; and that their absence at the Museum-Library had been formally notiiied to its unnatioiial "Powers that be." (34) The Vie Simboliche delta Bihbia (known to us in its author's manu- script) will not be published for a period incalculable, because dependent upon human longevity. Our mutual friend, Mr. 11. K. Haight of New York, is, in the United States, the sole possessor of Land's works that we know of. (35) History records that it was in consequence of the discrepancies, notorious among such translatiotis into English as existed at the beginning of the seventeenth century, that, in the reign of king James, a new version of the Scriptures was published : which duly received the royal, ecclesiastical, parliamentary, and national sanction, and is now consecrated amongst us Anglo-Saxons as the unique and immaculate "Word of God" — the standard of faith among Protestant communities of our race throughout the world. It is, and ought to be, in the hands of every one ; so that no obstacles to the verification of such quotations, as we shall have occasion to make, exist at the present day among readers of English. As the document we are in quest of, Xth Genesis, is contained within this volume, we are compelled by the rules of archeology first to examine the book itself; in order to obtain some preliminary insight into its history, its literary merits as a Translation, and the repute in which the latter point is held by those most qualified to judge. To avoid mistakes arising from confusion of editions, we quote the title-page of the copy before us. — " THE HOLY BIBLE, containing the Old and New Testamenis : translated out of the original Tongues ; and with the former Translations diligently compared and revised, by His Majesty's Special Command. Appointed to be read in Churches. London; (32) Paralipovteni aW Ulustrazione deUa Sagra Scrittura; Paris, qto. 2 vols.; 1S45. (33) Seconda Opera Cufica — Trattato delU simboliche rappresintame Arabiche e della varia generazionc rfe' Mu- gulmani caratteri sopra differenli materie rrperali; Parigi, lS4t>-'47 ; qto. 2 vols. (34) Gliddon: Otia J^gyptiaca ; London, 1S49; p. 17, note; see also p. 110. (35) Through the Chevalier's epistolary kindness, I am enabled to correct a former mistake, into which other authority had led me; and I gladly seize occasion to quote from one of numerous Italian autographs in my possession : — « Roma, 18 Oltohre, 1851. " Car'^ A mico ! "You say, in Otia Mgyptiaca (p. 31), that 'pyramid' is derived from pi and haram; the former being a Coptic article, the latter an Arabic word, combined even nowadays among the Arabs in [their name, EL-llaRaM, for] pyramid. This is not according to grammatical exactness; because haram is not altogether radical. The demonstrative [letter H] he. is prefixed to it, which serves in lieu of the Coptic pi. Ham [Arabice], KM, is the root {altitude). Haram. HRM, says, therefore, the-altiiude ; and it is a synonyme of the Coptic pt-ram, in which the he, H, that you have yoked to it, plays no part. The word ram, besides being a Semitic, Is also a Coptic ■word, with the sense of heig/it. . . But very huge seems to me the error of Ewald, in Bunsen, who presumes to explain a text of Job (iii. 14) by changing a b into m, and making a Hara^lot of his own out of the biblical HaraTM. ... I transcribe for you the complete article of mine, which on some occasion may be of aio vostro, MlCH£I,-A.N0EL0 L/V.NCI.*' 534 ARCII^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION Printed by George E. Eyre and Andrew Spottiswoode, Printers to the Queen's >[nst Ex- cellent Majesty, and sold at their Warehouse, 189, Fleet Street, 1844. [Nonpareil Re- ference, 12mo.]" The Dedication "To the most higli and mighty Prince, James," states that His " Highness had once out of deep judgment apprehended how convenient it was, that out of the Original Sacred Tongues, together with comparing of the labours, both in our own, and other foreign Languages, of many worthy men who went before us, there should be one more exact Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue." It thus becomes patent that our copy is not printed in one of "the Original Sacred Tongues," but merely professes to be a " more exact Translation " into English than, at the date of its publication, 242 years ago, had previously appeared. Even conceding that the Holy Scriptures in the " Original Sacred Tongues " may have been revealed word for word by the Almighty, and granting that their edilio princeps was a manuscript in the autographs of divinely-inspired Scribes, no reasonable person will deny the possibility that this English translation may embrace some errors — none among the educated will be so unreasonable as to insist upon the infallibility of its English translators, however erudite, however conscien- tious ; nor perchance willclaim inspiration for these worthies. Childishly credulous as we are by nature, and uncritical though the generality of us remain through education, no sane Anglo-Saxons, since the middle ages, allow " divine inspiration " to men of their own race. We accord the possibility of "inspiration" solely to members of a single family that lived a long time ago, and a great way ofl"; whose descendants (although nowadays ranking among the best citizens of our cis-Atlantic Republic) are still abused by our kins- folk across the water ; and who, although contributors to our own and the latter's welfare and glory, are yet debarred, as unworthy, from a voice in the British Parliament : and all this, forsooth, in the same breath of acknowledgment that we derive our most sacred Code of Religion, Morals, and Laws, from their inspired ancestors ! and whilst, based upon our modern notions of their ancient creed, we nasally vociferate that they and ourselves are " of one blood as brothers " ! Our copy, such as it is, may be accepted without hesitation as a lineal descendant of the primary authorized version in the English language, wrested from the Lords Spiritual and Temporal through the intelligence of our ancestors, quickened by the Reformation ; who bled for the same rights that we their posterity can now assert, in the free United States of America and in Great Britain (without even the merit of boldness), viz. the right to examine the Scriptures, and everything else, for ourselves, and to express our opinions thereon in the broad light of heaven. Archseologically speaking, in order to insure minute exactness, it would be imperative to collate, year by year, and edition by edition, the whole succession of copies of our " au- thorized version" ; and, by retracing from the exemplar on our table backwards to that first printed in black-letter during the reign of king James, to ascertain whether any and what changes, beyond variations in typography, may have been introduced. But such dreadful labor is, to the writer, impossible for want of the series; ungenial to his tastes as well as unnecessary for his objects. He contents himself with the assertion that there are many differences between such copies of divers editions that have fallen in his way, although con- sidered by others of little or no moment; being chiefly marginal, as in the superadded and spurious chronology : or capitular, as in the apocryplial headings to chapters, &c. ; neither of which can have any more to do with the original " word of God," than the printer's name, the binding, or the paper. As positivists in Philosophy wliile archmologists in method, we clear the table of these com- paratively-trivial disputations; and bounding retrogressively over the interval that divides our generation from that of His Majesty King James, the reader is requested to take with us the historical era of the promulgation of the "authorized version" as a common point of departure; viz.: A. i). IGll. The most ancient printed copy of king James's version, that has been accessible to us, lies in the British Museum. It contains a memorandum by the Rev. Dr. Home to the effect tliat the title-pages are of the primary edition of the year IGll, but that the rest appertains TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 585 to tli:it of 1613. The wliole fdlio is printed in black-letter. Its frontispieces are literary gems ; and so faithfully portraying the symbolism of Europe's "moyen age" in their astrolo- gico-theologieal emblems, that every antiquary must deplore that castigating zeal which has eftaced such quaint expressions of ancestral piety, to substitute for them, in some of our current copies, typographical whims that cannot pretend even to the venerable halo of bygone days. The title-page to the Old Testament is embellished by vignettes, among which figure the Lion, Man, Bull, and Eaffle;(SQ) ancient signs for the solstices and equi- noxes. Moses is truthfully represented, as in Michel-angelo's statue, with his character- istic horns; according to the Vulgate of Exod. (xxxiv. 29, 30, 35), " cornuta esset faciea sua," which preserves one sense of the Hebrew KRN, horn. The zodiaco-heraldic arms of tlie "12 Tribes" of Israel are also preserved : (37) together with a variety of other symbols, archaeologieally precious. That of the New Testament is still more curious, inasmuch as it exhibits the esoteric transmission (perceived even as late as at that time by learned reformers in England) of certain antique symbolisms of Hebrew Scriptures into those of the Orientalised Greeks or Hellenized Jews. The "4" solstitial and equinoctial signs of the «'4 seasons" remain, but are now attached to the figures of the "4" Evangelists; while the zodiaco-heraldic arms of the "12 Sons of Jacob" (Gen. xlix. 1, 28), whence the "12 Tribes of Israel," lie parallel with and officiate as "pendants" to the "12 Apostles," each with his symbolical relation to the "12 months" of the year, &c. — the whole, indeed, saving its uncouth artistic execution, so vividly solar and astral in conception, as to betray that pri- meval JE^y^to- C/ialdaic source whence students of hieroglyphical and cuneiform monu- ments, — exhumed and translated more than two centuries subsequently to the publication of our English " editio princeps " — now know that the types of this imagery are derived. The reader, who seeks throughout our modern editions in vain for the once-consecrated embellishments of ages past, may now perceive that we are not altogether ill-advised when hinting that great liberties have been taken with the authorized English Bible between A. D. IGll, era of its first promulgation, and those copies ostensibly represented in the current year (18-53) to be its lineal and unmutilated offspring . Theologically, however, these variants through omission or commission are not of the same importance as they seem to be archteologically, nor need we dwell upon them now. The accuracy of this English version, and its fidelity to the original Hebrew and Greek MSS., must rest upon the opinion we can form of its Translators; legalized by the royal seal and confirmed by an act of Parliament. With the value of the two last authorities, regal or parliamentary, in questions of purely-philological criticism and of strictly-literary knowledge, we American Republicans may be excused in declaring that we have nothing to do. Until it is proved to our comprehension that the acquaintance of those worthy M. P.'s with the " original sacred tongues " was profound, and that they devoted one or more Sessions to the verification of the minute exactness of the volume they endorsed, their fiat upon the literary merit of the book itself carries with it no more weight in science than, to bring the case home, could the Presidential signature to an act of Congress author- izing the printing in Arabic, at national expense, of the Mohammedan Koriln, in the year 1853, be accepted as a criterion or even voucher of such huge folio's historical or philological correctness. To us the only admissible evidence of the exactitude of king James's version, as a faithful exponent of the " word of God" (originally written, and closed some 1500 years before that monarch's reign, in Hebrew and in Greek), must be twofold — historical, and exeyctical : the former, by establishing the learning, oriental knowledge, critical skill, and integrity of the men; the latter, by demonstrating that rigid examination will fail to detect errors in the performance itself. Of this duplex evidence we now go in quest; remarking at the outset, (36) Conf. Salverte: Sciences OccuUes; i pp. 46, 47. Comp. Ezekiel i. 10, with Apocalypse iv. 7. Riohei, UJTi: Franc-mafonnerie ; Parts, 1842; i. p. 324, pi. 4, fi},'. 1. (37) Conf. KiRCHtR: (Edipiis ^yypliacut ; Home, 1653; vol. ii. part 1. p. 21. Drummom): (Wipiis Judaicus; Loudon, 1811; plate 15 — '-Dissertation on XLIXth Chapter of Genesis": — and La.nci: Furaiipdmeni, passm 74 586 ARCH^OLOGTCAL INTRODUCTION that. inai?iHuch as (precise date unknown) the gift of "divine inspiration" is said by Pro- testants to have ceased about 1750 years ago with the b^st Apostle, nobody cbiima for these Eno-lish Translators any supernatural assistance during the progress of their pious labors; and, therefore, in matters appertaining to the merely-human department of linguistic scholarship (whilst we doubt not their excellence as men, their attainments, nor their good faith), we must concede the chance that their production, owing to man's proneness to err, may be found to fall short, in a literary point of view, of the standard by which a similar performance would be judged were a 7iew Translation of the Old Testa- ipent "authorized," after the same fashion, at the middle of this XlXth century. I. The Historical Testimony. In the year 1603, owing to the enormous defects recognized in all popular translations then current, the revision that had been ordered in the days of Elizabeth was carried into effect by James. Fifty-four of the most learned graduates of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge were appointed to the task, seven of whom died before the work was completed : (38) among the last. Lively, (39) the best if not the only Hebraist on the translation, whose labors were of short duration; and, "much weight of the work lying upon his skill in the Oriental tongues," his loss was irreparable ; because the sur- viving forty-seven translators rejected the assistance of the only remaining Hebraist in England, viz., " Hugh Broughton, fellow of Christ College, Cambridge, who had certainly attained a great knowledge in the Hebrew and Greek tongues." Indeed, says the very learned Bellamy, (40) from whom we derive the fact, "it was well known that there was not a critical Hebrew scholar among them ; the Hebrew language, so indispensably neces- sary for the accomplishment of this important work, having been most shamefully neglected in our Universities; and, as at this day [1818], candidates for orders were admitted with- out a knowledge of this primary, this most essential branch of biblical learning. It was, as it is at present, totally neglected in our schools, and a few lessons taken from a Jew in term-time, whose business is to Judaize[\'\, and not to Christianize, serve to give the charac- ter of the Hebrew scholar," in England. In consequence, then, of the inability of ihe forty -seven translators to read one (and the oldest, the aboriginal "divine word") of those "sacred tongues" of which their servile dedication makes parade, "it appears they confined themselves to the Septuagint (Greek) and the Vulgate (Latin) ; so that this was only working in the harness of the first transla- tors : no translation (excepting perhaps Luther's, 1530 — 1545), from the original Hebrew only, having been made for 1400 years," says Bellamy. " If we turn," continues elsewhere this outspeaking writer (whose erudition nemo nisi imperitus will contest), " to the translations made in the early ages of the Christian Church, we approach no nearer the truth ; for as the common translations in the European lan- guages were made from the modern Septuagint and the Vulgate, where errors are found in these early versions they must necessarily be found in all the translations made from them." Whether the Vulgate and the Septuagint versions are faultless will be considered anon. Our present affair is with king James's translation, and certainly appearances are njt flattering. We learn from Fuller, (41) how at once, on its first apparition, objections were raised against its accuracy in England; but as these emanated chiefly from Romanist scholarship, in those days of reformation at a discount, their validity is slurred over by Protestant ecclesiastics. Gradually, as Hebraical scholarship struggled into existence — that such (38) Fuller: Church History; 1655; pp. 44-46. (391 Ihid, p. 47 — ana IIokne: Intrnd. to tite Cril. Stud, of IT. Scrip.; 1838; ii. pp. 70, SO; note 5. (40) The ITiily Jiihte, nctvlii transkited from lite Original Hebrew; with notes criliml and explanatory; London, IS18, 4to — publi.shcil by the suKwriptions of Koyalty, Nobility, and Clergy; but never completed, and now out of print. Our quotations are from the ''i^eneral profaw." (41; Church History ; pp. 58, 59 — also IIurne: Introd.; 11. pp. 76-78. TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 587 giants as Walton, (42) 1657, had redeenicd tlie Oriental wisdom of Oxford — the voice of the great Dr. Keniiicott (43) was uplifted a century later, 1758-9, protesting vehemently against the perpetuation of fallacies which the forli/seoen translators' ignorance of Hebrew had spread over the land through king James's version. Me commences — " The reader will be pleased to observe, that, as the study of the Hebrew language has only been reviving during the last hundred years," (44) &c. — that is, only since the time of Walton, his prede- cessor: — which passage implies that fifty j'ears previously to the hitter's epoch, 1657, (j. e., at the time of the forty-seven translators, 1603-11), the study of Hebrew was all but defunct, or rather it had scarcely yet begun to exist ; that is, in Eiujhind. Tliis point was considered so familiar to every general reader, that no hesitation was felt when stating it, 1849, with reference to the same question, (45) in the following words; "Now tlie Hebrew language in 1011 had been a dead language for more than two thousand years, and though these men (the forty-seven translators aforesaid) were renowned for their piety and learning, yet very few, if any of them, were competent to so important a task. In fact, the Hebrew language may be said only to have been recovered within the last century by modern Orientalists : and from the ignorance of these very translators of the original language, the Old Testament was taken mostly from the Greek and Latin versions, viz : the Sepluagint and Vulgate. Being, then, a translation of bad translations, which had passed through numerous copyings, how could it come down to us without errors ?" Nevertheless, want of ordinary information on Scriptural literature prompted a reviewer, (with intrepidity characteristic of that undeveloped stage of the reasoning faculties which, in accordance with Comte's positive philosophy, has been already classed as " the theolo- gical,") to indite these remarks: — "Dr. Nott, again, speaks disrespectfully of the English version of the Scriptures. He makes the astounding assertion that ' the Hebrew language may be said only to have been recovered within the last century, by modern Orientalists.' Most surprising is it that any one should believe that the Jews should have wholly lost a knowledge of their ancient and sacred tongue; and that a knowledge of it should only have been recovered by modern Orientalists, displays an amazing want of reading and scholar-like accuracy, and a credulity exceedingly rare, except in an unbeliever.''' (^A&) " Mutato nomine, de te fabula narratur!" Under the head of KNaAN \_siipra, p. 490], the "Association " may find a series of facts on the permutations, which the so-called "Lingua Sancta" of the Israelites has undergone, still more " astounding," where we took occasion to repeat and enlarge upon the positions of Dr. Nott's "Reply." In the meanwhile, the " ipse dixit " above quoted of Kennicott, that a century and a half posterior to the forty- seven translators of king James's version, the study of Hebrew was only "reviving," may, by some, be considered as authoritative as that put forth, in 1850, in proof of the united scholarship of an "Association." " This only is certain, that, in Neheniiah's time, the people still spoke Hebrew ; that, in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes and the Maccabees, the Hebrew was still written, though the Aramasan was the prevalent language; and, on the contrary, about this time, and shortly after Alexander the Great, even the learned Jews found it hard to understand diffi- cult passages of tlie old writings, because the language had ceased to be a living speech. The reign of the Seleucida;, and the new influence of an Aramaan people, seem gradually to have destroyed the last traces of it ;" (47) and this about two thousand years ago ! (42) Biblia Sacr" Pohjglnlta — complutentia Textns Originalis — Hebraieos cum Pentat. Samarit, Chaldaicos, Graecos. Versionumque Antiquarum — Samarit., Graic. Sept., Chaldaicae, Seriacte, Lat. Vulg., Arabics;, jEthio- picsB, I'ersicae. (4.3) Autlior of Vettis Testamentum Hehraicum; cum variis Lectionibus; Oxon. 1780; and oi THsserlatio Gene- ralii in rdm Test. Jieb.; 1780. (44) I. Dissertation — State of the printed Hebrew Text of the 0. Test, considered; Oxford, 1753; p. 307. (45) Nott; Op. cit.; p. 134. (46) The Rev. Dr Howe, in The Southern Presbyterian lievifw, "conducted by an Association of Ministers;" Columbia. S.C; toI. iii. No. 3.; Jan. 1850 — refuted by Dr. Xott: "Clironology, Ancient and Senptuiul," lu Southern Quarterly Remew ; Nov. 1850. ^»7) Gese.mls, apud Parker's De }y'dte: i., Appendix, p. 457 — compare also p. 221. 588 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION Such is the position of Hebrew in the world's philological history as a spoken tongue: yet, "a knowledge of that language which is contained in the scanty relics of the Old Testa- ment has been preserved, though but imperfectly, by means of tradition. Some time after the destruction of Jerusalem in the Palestine and Babylonian scliools, and after the eleventh century in those of Spain, this tradition was aided by the study of the Arabic language and its grammar. Jerome learned the Hebrew fiom Jewish scholars. Their pupils were the restorers of Hebrew learning among the Christians of the sixteenth century ;" (48) that is, on the continent; for, with the exception of Lively, who died, and Hugh Broughton, ■whose aid was refused, history does not record any man deserving the name of a Hebraist in England, even during 1603-11. Finally, "the name lingua sancta was first given to the ancient Hebrew in the Chaldee version [made long after the Christian era, when Hebrew had orally expired,] of the Old Testament, because it was the language of the sacred books, in distinction from the Chaldee, the popular language, which was called lingua profana. " (49) These citations here seem indispensable, lest dogmatism, peeping from out of its theolo- gical chrysalis, should feel itself again called upon to "astound " a reader by charging us with errors of its own commission: otherwise an apology would be due for this excursus. We return to Dr. Kennicott. After setting forth the causes of mistaken renderings in king James's version, he declares — "A New Translation, therefore, prudently undertaken and religiously executed, is a blessing, which we make no doubt but the Legislature [!] within a few years will grant us. "(50) Six years later, finding his humble prayer unheeded, he comes out clamor- ously against "our authorized version": claiming that some of the earlier English trans- lations were more faithful and literal, (51) and backing his appeal with the subjoined among other examples : Luke xxiii. 32. Christ made a malefactor ! " And there were also two other malefactors led with him to be put to death;" instead of "two others, malefactors." The Greek reads simply, " And two others, evil-doers." (52) Judges xv. 4. Three hundred foxes tied tail to tail, instead of wheaten sheaves placed end to end ! " And Samson went and caught three hundred foxes, and took fire- brands, and turned tail to tail, and put a firebrand in the midst between two tails." The Hebrew is, " And Samson went and gathered three hundred sheaves of wheat, and taking torches and turning (the sheaves) end to end, set a torch in the midst between two ends." (53) 1 Kings xvii. 6. Elijah not fed by ravens, but by Arabs! "And the ravens brought him bread and flesh," &c. In the Hebrew, " And the ORBIM (aRaB-im) brought him bread and flesh." Kennicott thinks Orblm, inhabitants of Oreb, or Orbo — " villae in finibus Arabum," says St. Jerome: but, Arabs seem to us more natural and correct. In no contingency " crows " ! (54) It is superfluous now to continue our excerpta from Kennicott, or narrate how it comes to pass that, owing to nice appreciations of the Text that none of them could construe, the forty-seven (in Psalms cix.) have made pious king David (disputed author of that (4^j Dk Wette: Purler's tratisl.; Boston, 1843; i. p. 128 — cited by Nott, in the "Reply." Comp. also, Pal- niEY: Academical Lectures on ttie Jewish Scriptureji; Boston, 1S38 ; i. pp. S-20 — " It is out of the question for any man lo suppose, that lie can be acquainted with Hebrew as familiarly and thoroughly, as he may be with Latin and Greek." (49) Con'ANt's Gei'oims; Hebrew Grammar; New York, 1846; p. 23. (50) Op. cil.; p. SfiT. Cf., also, Munk: Palestine; Paris, 1845; pp. 433-436. (51) II. Dissertation; Oxford, 1759; pp. 579, 680, seq. (52) Sharpe: N. Test.; p. 165. (531 JoriN Dove: Viruiicatinn of the JJelrrew Scriptures; London, 1771 — in his furious assault upon the "Aiv Uiorized Version," and lamentations at Knj^lish ignorance of Hebrew, also derides the "foxes"; p. 71, se^. Glairk: Livres Saints Vengi's; Paris, 1845; ii. pp. 57, 58, contests the "fagots" — but vide Cahen: vi. pp. «8, 69, note 4. (54) Gi.aire: Op.cit.; ii. p. 85, reads " Aral^is"; but Cauhn, viii. p. 77, "corbeaux" — acutely ailuing, '' Unt versa historia fabularum plena est." TO THE THE Xth CHAPTER OF GENESIS. 589 rhapsody) (55) utter such fearful imprecations against liis foes; when, in the "original sacred tongue," he actually complains that his enemies are heaping these outrageous male dictions upon himself! Well might the Reverend Doctor quote Michaclis — "I am amazed when I hear some men vindicate our common readings with as much zeal as if tlie editors had been inspired by tJie Holy Ghost!" Still better does he terminate his earnest work with supplications for a new Hebrew Text, and for a new English " authorized " translation. Reader, these things were published at Oxford and disseminated over Great Britain about ninety- four years ago — not in expensive folios veiled through the dead languages, but in two English octavos — not by a "skeptic" whose indignation at any kind of impos- ture impels him to spurn it, but by that Church of England Divine, collator o£ six hundred and ninety-two ancient Hebrew biblical manuscripts, (5G) whose folios, together with the BiMia Polyglotta of his illustrious precursor, Walton, are the only English labors on the Scriptures that receive homage from continental erudition, as performances on a par with the colossal researches of Germans, Frenchmen, and Italians, even unto this day ! Kennicott passed away. Other scholars followed in his footsteps. From a few of the latter we extract what they have left in print respecting king James's version, with a pre- fatory citation from Bellam}', to whom we owe the collection. (57) " It is allowed by the learned in this day and every Christian nation, that the authoi'ized translations of the sacred Scriptures, in many places, are not consistent with the original Hebrew. A few extracts are here given, from some of our most learned and distinguished writers, who were decidedly of opinion, that a New Translation of the Scriptures was abso- lutely necessary ; not only on account of the great improvement in our language, but because the Translators have erred respecting things most essential. The following are some of the eminent men who have left their testimony concerning the necessity of a new translation : — ' Were a version of the Bible executed in a manner suitable to the magnitude of the undertaking, such a measure would have a direct tendency to establish the faith of thou- sands. . . . Let the Hebrew and Christian prophets appear in their proper garb : let us make them holy garments for glory and for beauty ; . . . the attempts of individuals should be pro- moted by the natural patrons of sacred learning.^ — (Bishop Newcombe.) ' Innumerable instances might be given of faulty translations of the divine original. . . . An accunite translation, proved and supported by sacred criticism, would quash and silence most of the objections of pert and profane cavillers.' — (Blackwell's Sac. Class. Pref, 1731.) 'Our English version is undoubtedly capable of very great improvements.' — (Watek- Land's Script. Vindicated, Part 3, p. 64.) ' Nothing would more effectually conduce to this end, than the exhibiting the Holy Scrip- tures themselves in a more advantageous and just light, by an accurate revisal of our vulgar translation.' — (Dr. Lowth's Visitat. Sermon, at Duriiam, 1753.) ' The common version has many considerable faults, and very much needs another review.' — {Bihlioth. Lit., 1723, p. 72.) 'The Old Testament has suffered much more than the New, in our Translation.' — (Dod- dridge's Pref. to Family Expositor.) ' Many of the inconsistencies, improprieties, and obscurities, are occasioned by the trans- lators' misunderstanding the true import of the Hebrew words and phrases, showing the benefit and expediency of a more correct and intelligent translation of the Bible.' — (Pilk- jj"k: Examen, in Cahen's Exodus; p. iv. (64) Op. cU. ; i. pp 281, 283. (65) Annual Obituary ; vj. p. 352; — Op. cU.; p. 283, note. 75 594 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION sentiment that reposes upon suppositions, has no voice in scientific discussions ; and, every time that it would meddle with them, it ought to be called to order through the simple dic- tum: Taceat luulier in ecclesia." (66) II. — The exegetical Evidence. " Eh ! datevi pace, o teologoni di vecchia scuola, che la verita vuol risplendere anche a traverso di quel denso velo che la ignoranza di alcuni di vol si presume di opporle. Intanto per apprendiniento vostro fatevi or nieco a leggere qualche altro versetto in cui . . . sara pure una di quell' esse novita che a' preoccupati leggitori fanno strabuzzare occhi e naso aggrinzare." (67) The foregoing section has prepared the reader for the " experimentum crucis " to which we now propose submitting various passages of king James's version, hy way of testing the vaunted accuracy of its forty-seven translators. Three of these instances have been already indicated ; (68) one of which, wherein Job longed that his speech should be *^ printed in a book,'''' was noticed above. For convenience sake, having now a few more of these literary curiosities to present, we will tabulate them under alphabetical signs, and prefix to this initial gem the letter A. — Job xix. 23. One almost blushes to make this imbecility more palpable to general intelligence by recall- ing to mind that ifocA--printing was unknown to Europe prior to a. d. 1423, and printing in types before 1457 — although the former invention existed, according to Stanislas Julien,(69) in China at a. d. 593, and the latter about 1041. Yet, by this "translation," the patriarch must have foreshadowed the art six to ten centuries previously to the advent of Christ ! Like every writer comprised in the Old Testament Canon, Job knew as much of China as they all did of America; that is, to be frank, just nothing at all. Hovf forty-seven able- bodied men could have overlooked this blunder while " correcting proof," surpasses com- prehension ; unless we ourselves perpetrate another anachronism, as well as a pitiful conun- drum, and suppose that " Job-printing" may have suggested some inappreciable affinity between the Anglo-corrupted name of that venerable Arab and the glorious art. What more simple than to have printed what the " original sacred tongues " read, " inscribed in a register ? " B. — Job xxxi. 35. [N. B. The first citations always present the textualities of king James's version.] "Oh that one would hear me! behold, my desire is, that the Almighty would answer me, and that mine adversary had written a book." Can human intelligence understand what possible connection Job's supplication, that God should reply to him, can have with his individual craving that his own unnamed enemy should have indited a book? If this text be "divinely inspired" in king James's version, then "the Lord have mercy upon his creature" archaeology ! Because, were these words authentic, logic could prove: — \. That, at least 2500 years ago, polemical works in the form of "books" were not unknown even in Arabia. 2 That, inasmuch as Job could have no benevolent motive in such wish, vexed as he felt at the aggravations heaped upon his distressing afflictions by his proverbial comforters, and knowing, as he must necessarily have done, the power which a Reviewer has over an author, he longed, with vindictive refinement, as the most terrible retribution to be inflicted upon an adversary, that his particular enemy should actually write a book, in order tliat Job might review him ; probably,as Horace Smith conjectured," in the Jeru- salem Quarterly.'" (66) Paul. 1 Corinthians xiv. 34; — Stradss: Vie de Jesiis; Littr6's transl., Paris, 1840; ii. p. 378. (67) Lanci: Op.cit.; i. p. 150. ,(68) Nott; Op. cit. ; pp. I.'i6, 137. (69) Communication to L'Acmlcmie; June 7 — London Athenceum; 19 June, 1847. TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 595 Cahen renders — "Alas! tliat I have not one who hears! Behold my writing — let the Almighty answer me — and the book edited by my adverse party." (70) This version (for reasons to be elaborated elsewhere) is unsatisfactory, like all we have Been, but Lanci's ; because among other oversights it does not afford due weight to the word TaU; vaguely rendered "sign" or "mark" iu Ezekiel ix. 4. TaU is the name of the last letter in the post-christian squf, xii. p, 115, also reads differently from our version ; but see his note 11. (86) Sag. Scrit. ; ch. ii. § 1 ; — Cahe.v, xii. p. 156, follows the Rabbis. (87) Paralip.; i. p. 144. (88) Sag. Scrit. ; ch. vii. 4. The note, 1.3, of Cahen, tU. p. 76, shows how the text puzzltd him. Lanci, op. cit., proves that in no place are TieRaPAIM "idols." 600 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION Humiliated at this sight, the assassins remembered that Michal was a royal daughter whose husband, escaped frooi their clutches, was just the man to reward them with a hempen neckcloth on his accession to the throne ; so, apologizing for their intrusion, the emissaries withdrew. Goats appear to have been favorites with our translators. Not content with transmuting jewels into " goat's hair " and filling the royal " bolster" with this rare, elastic, and odori- ferous article, they must needs metamorphose one of the sublimest Hebrew names of Deity into a '■'■scape-goat " .' N. — Leviticus xvi. 8, 10, 26. "And Aaron shall cast lots upon the two goats; one lot for the Lord, and the other for the scapegoat. . . . But the goat, on which the lot fell to be the scapegoat, shall be presented alive before the Lord, to make an atonement with him, and to let him go for a scapegoat into the wilderness. . . . And he that let go the goat for the scapegoat, shall wash his clothes," &e. AZAZL — azazel — is the Hebrew word. "This terrible and venerable name of God (says Lanci) through the pens of biblical glossers has been a devil, a mountain, a wilderness, and a he-goat ! " (89) It will give an idea of the lucidity of Rabbinical criticism, to quote the following : — " Aben Esra, according to his habitual manner when he is in trouble, enunciates in the style of an oracle : ' If thou art capable of comprehending the mystery of Azazel, thou wilt learn also the mystery of his name ; for it has similar associates in Scripture ; I will tell thee by allusion one portion of the mystery ; when thou shalt have thirty-three years, thou wilt comprehend us.' He finishes abruptly without saying anything more alle- gorically or otherwise." (90) The ante-Christian Hebrew text was undivided into words. Our preceptor re-divides AZAZeL into two distinct nouns ; AZAZ and EL. The latter, every sciolist knows, means the strong, the puissant par excellence, the Omnipotent. AZAZ, identical with the Arabic dzdz, has its radical monosyllable in aZ, "to Conquer" and "to be victorious;" wherefore, AZAZ-£'L signifies the "God of victory" — here used in the sense of the "Author of death," in juxta-position to IcHOi/aH, the "Author of life:" to the latter of which Authors the Jews were enjoined to oiFer a dead goat ; while, by contrast, to the former they were to oflFer a lii^e one. Thus, death to the Life-giver — life to the Death-dealer. The symbolical antithesis is grand and beautiful. For the sake of perspicuity we submit a free translation to the reader: — "And Aaron shall place lots upon the two he-goats ; one lot to leUOuaH, and one lot to AZAZ-^L. . . . And the he-goat upon which the lot has fallen to AZAZ-^L shall be placed alive before leHOwaH, to become exempted by him, to be sent forth to AZ\Z-EL in the desert. . . . And he who shall have led forth the he-goat to AZAZ-£'L shall cleanse his clothes," &c. In verse 9, the other he-goat offered to leUOuaR was to be killed. Having thus entirely misapprehended the sense of the above passages, it was quite natural that our gifted translators, one Divine Name having vanished through their skill, should have been blinded to many others. Here is one of them : — O. — Job xxi. 15. " What is the Almighty, that we should serve him ? and what profit should we have, if we pray unto him?" We have illustrated, under the preceding letter N, the splendor of antithesis which He- brew literature conceived in the selection of Divine Names ; and herein leniency maybe accorded to the English interpreters, because neither they nor early or later scholiasts, could have anticipated a discovery due to the profoundest Semitic savant of our genera- ^89) Sagra Scrittura; ch. iii. g 1 ; — Paralipomeni; ii. p. 354. (90) Cahen : iii. p. 68. It may bo well to warn cavillers that this subject has been studied. We do not agree ■ m IlENOSTENnEUG's idea (Hjupt and the. Books of Moses; pp. 109-184), that ilzazd is " Satan." For paruUelisma on the sacrifice of he-goats to the Ood-I'reserver and the Ood-Destroyer, conf. Riohelum {Examen ; ii. p. 246); Movers (IHc J'hanirier ; i. p. r.iu): and Maury (GUnies rsydiopmnpes ; Aug. 1845 ; pp. 295, 296 — and J'ersonnag* ■if la MoTl; Aug. li>47 ; pp. 325, 320) In the Kaiue. ArchMoguiue. TO THE THE Xth CHAPTER OF GENESIS. 601 tion, the affable Professor (for thirty-uine years) of Sacred Philology at the Roman Vatican.(91) The original of the substantive rendered "profit" is NUt/IL — a noun which, occurring but once amid the 5G-42 (92) words preserved, in the Hebrew and Chaldee Bibles, to our day (fragments, so to say, of the ancient tongue) — is unique ; and conseijuently its significa- tion is recoverable solely through its extant radical in Arabian dialects. Its true root is K&al, " to be eminent" ; and its sense, '* the most sublime." The prototype of " Almiglity " is testually S/iaDal ; literally, " the most valorous." Let the reader now compare king James's version with the subjoined : — "Who is the most Valorous (SAaDal), that to him we must be servants? who the most Sublime (NUalL), that we should go [out of our way] to meet him?" Variety is pleasing, so we skip over to P. — Micah, V. 2. "But thou Beth-lehem Ephrata, though thou be little among the thousands of Judah, yei out of thee shall he come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel." The emendation suggested relates principally to the word rendered " thousands," of which the singular, in the unpunctuated Hebrew, is ALUPA. ALePA, X- first letter of the Hebrew alphabet, in its Phoenician original is the tachygraph of a Bull's head; and its name is derived from that of the animal, because the bull is "leader" of the herd. (93) Hence ALePA became a title as the "leader," general, dux, or chief; of which examples are numerous in the discrepant so-called "Dukes" of Edom, &c. ; corruption of the Latin "dux, duces"; which, with more propriety in English, should be rendered chiefs. Copying the Latin and Greek versions, without archaeological know- ledge of the Hebrew tongue, our translators have read Elf-tm "thousands," when Chiefs is its real meaning ; thus : — " And thou Bethlehem of Euphrata, [even] if thou art little among the Chiefs of Juda, I will cause to issue from thee the dominator of Israel." (94) Without regard to the fantastical and spurious headings to this Chapter in our version, we may add, that the reading of Chiefs is as old as the second century b. c, when the LXX Greek version was made by the Hellenistic Jews of Alexandria ; because about 68-69 A. D. the author of the " Good Tidings according to Matthew," in citing the above passage from Micah, read " Princes " ; (95) and he does not appear to have been acquainted (96^ with the Hebrew Text. Paulus and De Rossi even contend that the speech of Christ, Xptaros, was Greek. (97) But, we wander from our theme. Q. — Isaiah xviii. 1, 2. "Woe to the land shadowing with wings, which is beyond the rivers of Ethiopia; — That sendeth am- bassadors by the sea, even in vessels of bulrushes upon the waters, saying. Go, ye swift messengers, to a nation scattered and peeled, to a people terrible from their beginning hitherto; a nation meted out and trodden down, whose land the rivers have spoiled." We cite this passage not with a view of destroying the interpretation of the forty-seven, in this instance excusable enough, but by way of elucidating how meritorious it would be to reconstruct their time-worn edifice, guided by the lights which Oriental, and particularly Egyptian, researches of our living generation cast upo*i subjects until this century utterly dark. All interpreters here have been at fault. The LXX render 'Ovai y^? jrXo/ui' irTipvyct — i. e. Vce terrcE navium alts. The Vulgate — Vce terrce cymbalo alarum. Cahen substitutes — "Ah! (91) LA.\-a: Op. cit.; p. 354, &c. • (02) Leusden, apud Gesenius, in Parker's De Wdte; i. p. 439 ; — MrxK: Palestine; p. 436. (9-3) Ge-senius: Script. Ling. Phamicia:; 1838; p. 19. (94) Sagra Scrit.; ch. i. g 2; — "Trop petit pour etre parmi les chefs de lehouda," Cahen: xai. pp. 96, W ••- ♦e noU 1. (9.5) Matt. n. 6; Sharpe's Xcw Test.; p. 3. (96) Henneu,: Origin of Christiunity; 184.5; pp. 123, 124: and Cttristian Theism; pp. 82, 83. (97) Gese.mus; Heb. Spraclu und Schrifl; 1815; p. 46. 76 602 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION pays sous rombrage des voiles'; (98) and the late Major Mordecai Noah actually read — "Hail! Land of the (American) Eagle"! Rosellini (99) was the first to indicate that here the prophet apostrophizes Egypt under *^^- •^'^^• the metaphor of her national symbol — B^° ^^^^ p, - ,, i^^' — the "winged globe"; as Birch defines it, '^a^^gS^^^^^^^^^ "emblem of Kheper, the Creatfir ^^(/^".(lOO) We subjoin the learned Pisan's emendation, with a few additions : — " Ho ! Land of the Winged Globe [Egypt] ! which art beyond the rivers of KUSA [i. e. the " torrens jEgypti," on the Isthmus of Suez ; supra, p. 484] : that sendest into the sea, as messengers, the canals of thy waters ; and that navigatest with boats of papyrus on the face of the waves. Go, ye light messengers, to the elongated people [i. e. stretched out along the narrow alluvials of the Nile,] and «/iavec? nation [the Egyptians were essentially a shaven population — vide Genesis xli. 14,]; to a people terrible from the time that was, and also previously ; to the geometrical people [Geometry originated in Egypt], who treading [with their feet cultivate their fields] ; whose lauds the rivers will devastate [referring to some unfulfilled prophecy]." R. — Ecclesiastes xi. 1 — 2. " Cast thy bread upon the waters, for thou shalt find it after many days. . . . Give a portion to seven, and also to eight ; for thou knowest not what evil shall be upon the earth." Unless there was some cabalistic key to the latter portion of these sentences, through which the Translators understood what they wrote, the super-refined meaning they attached to the numerals 7 and 8 surpasses our feeble comprehension : even Solomon, reputed author and great magician, could not unravel their knot. Let us substitute: — "Cast thy bread where fruits are borne, because time will restore it with usury. . . . Give the measure {porzione) even to saturity and abundance, because thou knowest not what evil may come upon the earth." Here, comments Lanci, (101) the sage exhorts man to do good, and to charitable acts towards the poor who, satiated with abundant food, will cause to rain upon him, through the fervor of their prayers, ample benedictions during bad seasons. But, what can be expected from men who translate " Tor, Sus, and Agilr" — vt T^UR ve SUS ve aGUR, S. — Jeremiah viii. 7, — by " the turtle and the crane and the swallow," — when the prophet meant "the hull and the horse and the colt" ? (102) T. — Zechariah v. 1, 2, 3. " Then I turned, and lifted up mine eyes, and looked, and behold a flying roll. . . . And he said tome, What, seest thou ? And I answered, I see a fiyinir roll ; the length whereof is twenty cubits, and the breadth thereof ten cubits. . . . Then said he unto me, This is the curse that goeth forth over the face of the whole earth ; for every one that stealeth shall be cut off, as on this side according to it ; and every one that sweareth shall be cut off as on that side according to it." If the prophet had been so unfortunate as to receive the words of this angelic vision in English, he would have required a second revelation to understand its Translators' impene- trable meaning. A "flying roll"! Think of a parchment synagogue roll (MeGiLall, 3IeghiUa), of such proportions, actually /ym^ through the air! Consider the amount of inspiration it must (98) IX. pp. 66, 67. (99) Monummli Cinli; ii. pp. 394-403. (100) Gudiion: Olia JEgypl.; pp. O.'i. 96: — "It is the Morning Sun: it is often called the beam of light which rises, or ' comes out,' of the horizmi" — Bincn: fijypiian Inscription at Vie Bibliothique Nationode; K. Soc. Lit.; 1852 ; iv. p. 3. (101) Sag. Scrit.; ch. iv. g 64. Cahkx: xvi. p. T29, notes 1, 2. (102) I'aralip. ; ii. p. 391. The " seasons " should be " rutting-times — although Cahen, x. pp. 30, 31, pre- fers the old reading. TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 603 have required to conipreliend ichich side was niortiferous to thieves, which to swearers ; for in Aristotelian logic, "if the one is the other, the otiier must be the one:" and remember that in the phrase "according to it" lies lost, forgotten, and entombed, one-half of the iiifffable Tctritgriimmaton IHOH (Jehovah)! that most terrible, the most occult monosyllable of the palindromic name vocalized as Adonai, the "Lord"! Here is the sense, verbatim el litteratim : — " And turning myself, I raised my eyes, and saw : and behold a whirling disk [of fire — having a mystic relation to the Egyptian 'winged-globe,' emblem of Kheper, the Creator- Sun]. (103) Then the angel said to me : ' What seest thou ?' I answered, ' I see a whirling disk of twenty cubits in length and of ten in height' [its wings enlarging the lateral diame- ter]. And he said to me: ' This is the malediction [of God] which spreads itself upon the surface of the whole earth ; verily, every thief by this [the whirling disk] as ( //') by OH [deuterosyllable of IH-OII] shall be destroyed; and every perjurer by this \_the whirling disk] as (if) by OH shall be destroyed.'" (104) " The which, philologers will recognize as common sense and justness, if as much was not perceived by those wr(^tched theologists [teologaslri) who, in philological knowledge not surpassing the Hebrew alphabet, go hunting about through lexicons in order thence to spit forth a doctoral decision in people's faces " ; says Lanci.(105) But, as the time for the exposition of these recondite biblical arcana has not yet arrived, our meaning is best conveyed to the Illuminati (lOQ) by amending U. — Psalms xxxvii. 7, "Rest in the Lord, and wait patiently for him; fret not thyself because of him who prospereth in his way, because of the man who bringcth wicked devices to pass " as follows: — " Keep silence in (the secret of) IHOH, and take delight in it: dispute not with him who seeks to penetrate into the acquiring of it, nor with any vain man who attempts it." (107) V. — Psalms ex. 1 — 7. "The Lord said unto my Lord, Sit thou at my right hand, until I make thine enemies thy footstool.— The Lord shall send the rod of thy strength out of Zion; rule thou in the midst of thine enemies, — Thy people shall he willing in the day of thy power, in the beauties of holine.ss from the womb of the morning ; thou hast the dew of thy youth. — The Lord hath sworn, and will not repent. Thou art a priest for ever after the order of Melchisedek.— The Lord at thy right hand shall strike through kings in the day of his wrath. — He shall judge among the heathen, he .shall fill the places with the dead bodies; he shall wound the heads over many countries. — He shall drink of the brook in the way : therefore shall he lift up the head." This superb ode has by some been suspected to have been derived from hymns of pagan origin, sung during the season that Ezekiel (viii. 14) saw the " woman weeping for T/aM-UZ," about the winter solstice, or 21st December, where the Church almanacs place the anni- versary of the unbelieving St. Thomas. They refer to the foct that St. Jerome's Vulgate renders T/aM-UZ by Adonis, favorite god of the Phoenicians in Palestine and Syria, to justify their reading of "Says Jehovah to Adonis" (108) ! Others, again, take Melchi- sedek to be the Melek-Sadyc, the "just king," whose name Sydyc, with the title of "just" is preserved, by Sanconiathon, as the father of the Cabiri, &c. (109) St. Paul, however, cites this Psalm frequently in his Epistle to the Hebrews; and whoever put the headings to the former in our authorized version has asserted that its language can apply to no other than the Messiah. With all deference, the subjoined paraphrase of Land's close Italian (103) See preceiJing page, under Q. (104) Lanci : Stig.Scrii.; ch.iii. ^7; — Parol ipomeni; i. p. 97, seq.; ii. p. 354; and Lettre dM.Prisse; 1847, p. 33. The.se views are later than Cahen's, xii. p. 144. (105) Paralip. ; i. p. 3. (106) Mackat: Free-MasmCi Lexicon; 2d edit.; Charle.ston, S. C; 1862; voce Jehovah, and Name: — also, Kockweil: Discourse before the G. L. of Georgia; Oct. 30, 1851; p. 27. (107) Paralip.; i. p. 149; — Caren: xiii. p. 84, no<« 7. (lu!ic<.; 1841 ; pp. 26. 27; — also R. P. Kmoht, to be cited hereafter. (109) CoEr: Anc. Frag.; pp. 8, 9, 13, 16; " Sanconiatho." 604 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION translation of the "Dixit Dominus," while it removes the senilities oi i\\B forty-seven, shows that the composer of that ode dedicated it to some contemporary joyeesi called Melchise* DEK, living at the time of its composition. "Said leHOuaH to my Lord: 'Sit thou on my right until I make of thy foemen a stool for thy feet'. — leHOuaH from Zion will send the wand of thy glory: go, rule in the midst of thy foes. — Thy people will behold spontaneously, when thou shalt understand thy powerful qualifications for the splendor of the priesthood ; from the womb, the germ of thy birth was mysterious. — leHOuaH swore, nor does he retract his oaths: '■Thou, Mdclme- delc, shall be, upon my xcord. Priest (a Cohen) /orecer.' ' — My Lord at thy right hand slew kings in the day of his furor — At the ruling amid the Gentiles, the confines having been passed by force, the chief of vastest land swooned — He will pour himself out more than a torrent through (its) course; wherefore will he raise his head." (110) As every departure from the literal Italian entails another remove from the original Hebrew, grace is here purposely sacrificed to fidelity; but, from the general tenor of the context, owing to the distinctions observed by the writer between the use of the terms "Jehovah" and "my Lord," one might infer, that this poetical effusion commemorates some conquest over foreigners, with which the composer and his sacerdotal friend Melchi- SEDEK were familiar; scenes in which the latter personage (named after the long-anterior " King of Salem") (111) had been an actor. AVe must console ourselves (under the expected charge that all this is mere conjecture) by reflecting how, if Land's shaft may have missed the bull's eye, the arrows of forty-seven able-bodied men flew wide of the target; and that another nail has been driven into the latters' version, which we shall have the satisfaction of " clinching" under the succeeding letters. According to Cruden's laborious work, (112) the words "grove" and "groves" are " authorized " to re-appear in the English Bible about thirty-six times. Theologians of the lower grade naturally suppose that, in the "original sacred tongue," one single noun, repeated throughout the Text, as its substitute is in our version, must be the latter's repre- sentative. Vain illusion ! W. — Genesis xxi. 33. "And Abraham planted a grove in Beer-sheba, and called there on the name of the Lord, the everlasting God." He did nothing of the kind ! He, Abraham, " set up (iWiH., ASeL) a tablet (or stele) in Beersheba, and (X'lp, KaRA, read; also, wrote) engraved it with the name of leHOuaH to perpetual duration." (113) Here, take note, the original for " grove " is ASeL. X. — 2 Kings xxiii. 6. "And he brought out the grove from the hou.oe of the Lord, without Jerusalem, unto the hrook Eidron, and burned it at the brook Kidron, and stamped it small to powder," &c. A word occurs frequently in the Text, written in two ways, aSTiURT/, and oSAT^RUT^; which is punctuated, by the Massora, Asloret, and Ashtarbt. At other times, according to the peculiar provincialism (patois) of each biblical writer, the same word appears in the form of ASeRA, or plural AS/icR-IM. These are all proper names of one person ; and that person is no other than the goddess Astabte of the Palestinians ; Hathor of the Egyptians; «tyr of the Himyaritic Arabs ; the VENUS of Grseco-Roman mythology, and of our vernacular. Now, here the word for " grove " is ASAeRaH : and our Translators' deed in rendering ASeL by " grove " in one place, and AS/teRaH by " grove " in another, (110) Paratip.; ii. p. 110. How extensively obscure is the sen.^e of this Psalm may be seen from Ca/ien's notes, xiii. pp. 251-256, 365, 356. (ill) GVnpjsts xiv. 18. "Salem," commentators tell us, was the name of Jerusalem — YeRuS7~) were procurable by our Translators in the year 1603; independently of such manuscripts as they may have consulted; from the number of which last must be deducted the Codex-^/fxaw- (134) Kenxicott; Dmert. Gen.; p. 475. (13fi) Ihid ; i. p. 257, stq. (136) De Wette: i. pp. 183-191. (137) De Wette: i. pp. 81-82. 612 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION drinus, (1 38, uow in the British Museum ; because it did not arrive in England until the year 1628. (119) The prm^etf editions issued during the sixteenth century -were naturally oopies resulting from the collation of such manuscripts as to their respective editors were more or less accessible ; and if the originals were defective the transcriptions must be still more so. We can utter no opinions on the critical value of the printed editions, before ascertaining what scholarship may have decided upon the archjfiological merits of the manu- scripts themselves ; nor is it in our power to enumerate what copies of the latter may or may not have been consulted by our translators ; chieily because our own note-books do not afford the dates at which many celebrated Greek MSS. wei-e known throughout Eu- rope. (140) We presume they used copies of the Codex -Vaticanus (printed in 1587, by Cardinal Caraffa), of which the antiquity is estimated by Kennicott at a. d. 387, while others suppose " a few years later: "(141) among them Montfaucon and Blanchini, who refer it to the fifth century. None of other Greek Codices extant can possibly antedate, in any case, the fourth century; for even the oldest, the Codex- C'oitonia7ius, once conjec- tured to have been Origen's property, is now proved to have been calligraphed towards the end of the fourth or the commencement of the fifth century. Its fragments lie in the British Museum. (142) This falls within the lifetime of St. Jerome, a. d. 331-422; (143) who laments that, in his day, " the common (Greek) edition is different in different places, all the world over;" and reiterates, "It is corrupted everywhere to meet the views of the place and time, or the caprice of the transcribers." (144) " Thus it seems that, in the time of Jerome, three different editions of the LXX were in use under the sanction of the several churches, and with their authority, viz. : Origen's flexapla in Palestine, the text of Hesychius in Egypt, and that of Lucian in Constantinople and its vicinity. No wonder the existing manuscripts have come down to us with so many corruptions." (145) Such asseverations, when once recognized to be ti-ue in fact, suffice to damage the accre- dited uniformity of the Greek versions ; but a little further inquiry will evince that it was impossible, through the very nature of human things, that any Hellenic translation from the Hebrew could be "inspired." If, then, only four centuries after the Christian era, the Greek translation (finished about the year 130 b. c, at Alexandria) no longer existed in its " editio princeps," but its later recensions alone had flowed down to St. Jerome's time in three turgid streams, each one essentially corrupt, it follows that all MSS. now extant, no less than all printed editions made from such MSS., must be still more blemished, owing to later mistakes, than even the best exemplar known to St. Jerome. It is in this vitiated state that the Septuagint reached our translators in the year 1603 : — " No one of these recensions is found pure ; for they have flowed together, and become mixed also with the other Greek versions. . . . The criticism of the Seventy has hitherto advanced no farther — and perhaps it never can — than to a collection of the various readings. The editions hitherto published do not afford the true and exact text of the manuscripts." (146) But, not merely does the Greek version falter in its historical traditions. Its deviations from the Hebrew original render objections to its plenary authenticity unanswerable. " As a whole, this version is chargeable with want of literalness, and also with an arbi- (1.38) WorDE thinks it.s ngc to lie towards the end of the fourth; but if Kennicott selects a. d. 395, he reports other opinions as low as the ninth century (1st Dissert., pp. 306, 307). (>'9) Taylor's Calmel; voce " Bible." (.40) Porter {Pi-indpUs of Textnal Crilicism, Dublin, 1848) might supply deficiencies ; but memory is treacher- ous, and we have not now his most excellent worlrt vide Otia, pp. 111-113. (141) Kennicott: lid Dissertation ; p. 407. (142) IIORNE : Intrnd. ; i. pp. 105-107. (14.3) Antiion: Clasx, Diet.; voce " Hieronymus " ; p. 625. (144) De Wetie.- i. p. 181. (145) rind.; p. 180. (146) Db White; t pp. 181-183. TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 613 trary method, whereby somethiii<:!; foreign to the text is brought in. In general, it betrays the want of an accurate ac([uaintance with the Hebrew huiguage, though it furnishes many good explanations. (147) " The character of this version is different, according to the different books. It is ea.sy to distinguish tive or six different translators. . . . Indeed, the real value of the Septuagint, as a versiou, stands in no sort of relation to its reptitation. All the translators engaged in it appear to have been wanting in a proper knowledge of the two languages, and in a due attention to grammar, etymology and orthography. Hence they often confound proper names, and appelhitions, kindied verbs, similar words and letters, &c., and tliis in cases where we are not at liberty to conjecture various readings. The whole version is rathwr free than literal," &c. . . . The Taxi of tiie Septuagint lias suffered greatly. Through thsi«x (" Origin and .Structure of the Septuagint" — Christian Ex^iminer ; Boston, March, 18.^3; pp. 165-187), who truthfully observes— "Such a version — if it ehould be thus designated — is not only conformable to the spirit of those times, but there are many indica- tions that the Greek version was originally intended only as an auxiliary book for the use of the AlexandriiiTi Jews." (132) So also Cahen, xiii. p. 229, and note 4 — "des flammes brQlantes, ses ministres." St. Paui, too, althougl Raid to have been "a Hebrew of the Hebrews," follows the Septuagint in quoting this pa.ssage (Epist. to the /7. tvews; i.') e\eu.U) Jewst (^Sharps? s New Test. ; p. 395) — a passage non-existent in the fleirstt) Text. 614 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION Bentence into a philosophical description of the spiritual nature of angelic beings, and say (in the Greek), ' He maketh his angels into spirits, and his servants into a flame of fire.' Again, when the Hebrew text, in opposition to the polytheism with which the Jews were sur- rounded, says (Text, Dcut. vi. 4), ' The Lord is onr God, the Lord alone' [literally, ' Hear, Israel! leHOuaH, our God, leHOuaH (is) onel'^ ; the translators turn it to contradict the Egyptian doctrine of a plurality of persons in the unity of the Godhead, (153) by which the priests said that their numerous divinities only made one God; and in the Alex- andrian Greek this text sajs, ' The Lord our God is one Lord.' " (154) Should the reader now turn to the above passages in our " authorized " version, he will perceive that X\\e forty- seven have rendered into English the exact words of the Greek; and thus he will behold a little of the damning evidence produceable that these worthies could not construe a simple line of the Hebrew Text; but have palmed off upon us, as genuine "inspiration," language that, being Alexandrian forgeries, cannot be Divine; confessioiis of creed that, not being in the original Hebrew, cannot be "inspired." Here, as concerns king James's translation in its relations to the Greek versions, we might bring our inquiries to a close : the seal of condemnation has been so legibly stamped upon it. But, inasmuch as some data respecting the origin of these Grecian documents may be useful to our researches into the Hebrew Text, it is desirable to reach that epoch when the S^pluagint had not yet been manufactured. Ascending from St. Jerome in the IV th century to the great Origen in the lid, we find him complaining of the corruptions manifest in the Greek iMSS. of his day — "But now there is obviously a great diversity of the copies, which has arisen either from the negli- gence of some transcribers, or the boldness of others — or from others still, who added or took away, as they saw fit, in making their corrections." (155) "From the time of the birth of Christ to that of Origen," continues Eichhorn, "the Text of the Alexandrian version was lamentably disfigured by arbitrary alterations, inter- polations, omissions, and mistakes. Justin Martyr had a very corrupt Text, at least in the minor Prophets." (156) He was decapitated in a. d. 164, having been converted about the year 132; thus sealing his convictions with his blood. The works of Origen's predecessors in the first century. Flavins Josephus, born a. d. 37, and of Philo JudsBus, who flourished about a. d. 40, exhibit through their citations, (both being Hellenized Jews writing in Greek rather for Grecian and Roman readers than for their own countrymen,) that some alterations had already been made in the copies of the Septuagint respectively used by them : at the same time that the writers of the New Testament, by quoting the Greek version, in lieu of the Hebrew, have invested the former with a tradi- tionary sanctity, fabulous when claimed for extracts from the Old Testament not cited directly from the Hebrew Text. (157). Its discussion would lead us astray from the inquiry as to when and by whom the Original Greek translations were made ; and the fiict is noted merely to establish the existence of the latter, in what state of literal preservation no man can tell, at the Christian era. "All we can determine with certainty is, — that the whole, or the greater part of the Old Testament, was extant in the Greek language in the time of Jesus the son of Sirach. [Sirach presupposes that 'the Law and the Prophets, and the rest of the books,' wer© already extant in his time; that is, in the 38th year, which is probably the 38th year of Evergetes II., about 130 b. c] " (158) This year before Christ 130 is recognized, nowadays, by all biblical scholars, to be the minimum epoch at which Greek versions of certain books of the Old Testament canon were already in circulation at Alexandria. Tradition, itself, claims no date for the existence of (153) Compare Bubnap: Expository Lectures; Boston, 1845; p. 9;— and CflENEViiiRE: SysUinie Tliiohcfiqut ^ \a TriniK; Geneva, 1831; passim. (154) Sharpk: Hist, of Egypt f \UG; p. 196. (1.^5^ Df Wkttr : i. p. 165. (160) De Wette: i. p. 166, (157) Strauss: Viede Jesus; and IIenneli,: Origin, &c.; enlarge \ipon these tliemes, fl68) Db Wette: p. 146; — also, Stuart; Crit. Hist, and Defence; pp. 241, 423. TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 615 same circums-tnnces earlier, as the maximum, than the reign of Ptolemy PliilaJelphus ; and about 2G0 years b. c. suffice for a chronological stand-point that reconciles scientific proba bilities. The medium suits well with the dispersion of some Hebrew exemplars after the saocage of the temple by Antiochus, B. c. 104 ; and is parallel with the literary restora tious of the Maccabees. To read (as we ourselves formerly did with confidence) the works of some leudnig Eng lish Divines in quest of information about the Septuagint, and tiie chronology erectea noon ita numerations, one would actually suppose, from the positive manner in which statements are put forward, that they had studied the subject ! Hales, ( 159) for instance, assures us that Seventy, or Seventy-two, elders of the Jewish congregation, after the reception by the king of a copy of Laiv from Jerusalem written in letters of gold, sat down at Alexandria, and did the Hebrew into Greek in 72 days, " d 'una sola tirata"; with many episodes equally romantic. Half a century has elapsed since any Continental critic of biblical literature who ventured to give further currency to such wretched stories would have been jeered into silence and overwhelmed with literary obloquy. The reader is referred to De Wette for facts and authorities,(160) and to Bunsen (161 ) for endorsement of the following sketch ; after remarking that wherever the number "70," or its cabalistic eijuivalent "72," occurs in Jewish connections, it carries with it more cogent evidences of historical untruth than even the forties, or " Erbai'nat," so common in Hebraical literature. (162) The origin of the Greek version, stripped of verbiage and exaggerated traditions, was the natural consequence of the great influx of Jews — a people ever partial to the fleshpots of Egypt — into Alexandria, immediately upon the foundation of that city by Alexander the Great, about b. c. 3-32. Enjoying privileges under the early Ptolemies, the number of Jewish colonists constantly augmented : at the same time that incipient intercourse with their Greek fellow-citizens superinduced first the disuse and next the oblivion of that Sgro- Chaldee idiom the Israelites had brought back with them, from Babylonish bondage, in lieu of the Old Hebrew orally forgotten ; and led their Alexandrine descendants to adopt the Greek tongue, together with much of Grecian usages and Philosophy. They became Hel- lenizing-ifews (163) at Alexandria, without ceasing to be Hebrews in lineage or religion ; just as their present descendants are Germanizing, Italianizing, or Americanizing Israelites, according to the country of their birthplace or adoption. The conquests of the Macedonian are to us the most salient causes of the transmutations that took place throughout the Levant owing to the wide-spread of Grecian influences ; but Pythagoras, Plato, and Herodotus, are earlier prominent expressions of Greek infiltration into Babylonia and Egypt during the fifth and sixth centuries b. c, which was far more exten- (159) Analysis of Chronologi/. (160) Op. cU.\ i. pp. 136-144. (IGl) EgypCs Place in Universal Hist.; 1S4S; i. pp. 184, 185. (162) Lepsius: Clironologie der ^r/ypter; 1849; i. p. 365. We find the subjoined to the purpose among "Tal- mudical statements : — In Megilla, ix. a, we read the following account : ' Ptolemy the kini; called seventy-two old and wise men to Alexandria, and confined each in a separate room, without telling them the reason of their being called. He afterwards visited each of them, and directed them to write down in Greek the words of Moses. God inspired them with a sameness of ideas, so that their translations literally agreed.' In Siiphrini, gl, we read another passage: 'Five sages were called to Alexandria by the king Ptolemy, to translate the law into the Greek language ; this day was as oppressive to Israel as the one when the golden calf was made, for they were unable to do justice to the subject. Then the king assembled seventy-two sages, and .set them in seventy-two cells,' &c In Taanilh occurs the following pas.sage, which also De Rossi quotes (Imrai Binali, § 7): 'There are certain days on which we fast on account of the law: such a day is the eighth day of Thel)eth, because on that day the law was translated into the Greek under the second Ptolemy, king of Kgyjit. and dark- ness covered the earth for three days'" — (•' Greek Vermms of llie Bible — the passages extracted from IjANTMl's Vorwort zum Aruch" — Tlie. Astnonean; New York, 5 Aug. 1853.) Little historical criticism is required to per- ceive that the writers of the.se TnJmudic legends, several centuries after Josephus, had merely given another Bhape to the same ba.seless tradition of the false Arlsteas: and we may class .Tustin Martyr's evidence {Admoni- tione ad Groecos) that "he .law the 72 cells into which the translators were locked up"; and Ei>il hanius'8 (Dr menstiris el ponderihus) that the.se cells were 30, each for two translators; — with St. AuonsTlNs's, where he Bays " Vidimus — vs'e have seen " men with an eye in the pit of their stomachs. (163) According to Philo, the .Jews exceeded a million at Alexandria alone (lUp.iPORT'3 Ereih Milin; quoted m The Asnumean; New York, July 20, 1853). 616 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION sive commercially than until recently accredited ; -while Greek condol/ieri had heen employed in Egypt from the seventh century by Psametticus : nor was Xenophon the first General, nor Ctesias the first Doctor, who volunteered their services to the Achaemenidse of Persia. Into Jerusalem itself, Greek ideas had penetrated very soon after the erection of the Second Temple in the fifth century. These result from the history, and are stamped upon the proper names of the Jews of Palestine, particularly after Alexander's era. Nor were such Hellenic infiltrations without a certain influence upon the canonical literature of Judaism ; for the "political satire" (164) entitled the '^ Book of Daniel" betrays, through its Greek words, as much as by its exegetical adaptations, an author of the age of Antiochus Epi- phanes, not earlier than the plunder of .Jerusalem by that king about 164 years B. c. Con- tinental scholarship long ago placed this fact beyond dispute ; (165) and the Hebraical eru- dition of the late Rev. Moses Stuart (166) induced him to fortify it with his customary skilfulness. So much nonsense still passes currently, in regard to the various dialects spoken by the Jews after their return from the Captivity, that we must here digress for a moment. Inde- pendently of books read and others cited, we have sought for information on these subjects from some of the most cultivated Hebrew citizens of the United States, and have invariably met with the kindest readiness to enlighten us. We possess not (merely because we omitted to ask for it) the sanction, of the many very learned Israelites consulted, to publish their honored names ; but not on that account are the hints with which all have favored us the less appreciated by ourselves nor the less useful to readers. No interdict being laid by one of the writer's valued friends, jNIr. J. C. Levy of Savannah, upon the many^ndices to knowledge for which his goodness has rendered us his debtor, we condense the substance of two recent communications ; coupled with regrets that certain inexorable limits of typo- graphical space should compress what ought to be in " Brevier" into " Nonpareil." (167) (164) New York Daily Tribune; Feb. 10, 1853. The attribution to "Discoveries" at Babylon is fabulous. For that of the Decalogtti, conf. GlhiDON, Oiia, 1849 ; p. 19 : — extended in New York Sun, " Historical Sketches of Egypt." Nos. 6, 7 ; Jan. 19 and 25, 1850. (165) Munk: Palestine; p. 420; — De Wette: ii. pp. 4S3-512; — Cahen: Notes on Daniel. (166) Hints on the Interpretation of Prophecy ; Andover, 1842; pp. 71-108. (167) Extract 1. — ■' The information T promised barely is. that the Babylonian Captivity lasted from 538 — 186 B. V,., when Zerubabcl, with 60,000 men, went to Palestine with the permission of Cyrus. A second colony fol- lowed in the year 45S, led by Ezra, under the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus. He was, again, followed by Nehemiah, 444. During the Captivity, by good treatment, they adopted Babylonian cufitonis and manners, and amalgamated with their conquerors (Ezra v.; Neliemiah xiii. 1-3), and forgot their native Hebrew. Besides this, the Samaritans speaking an Aramaic (Chaldaic) dialect, as well as the Syrians who ruled for a long time in Palestine, exercised great influence over the Jews ; so that the Hebrew soon disappeared as the vernacular {Nehemiah xiii. 24) to yield to the Chaldaic, and the mother-tongue probably was the language of their real mothers. This may be best proved by the fact, that all civil acts, official documents, and legal formulas, were written in that language, and that the Talmud itself is written, to a great extent, in this tongue. Further- more, numerous proverbs originating at this time, and popular books of that age, are all in the same language The chief prayers of the Jewish Service, composed by Ezra, are in the Chaldaic language. Already at the con- secration of the Temple on the 1st of the 9th month and in the 24 days of its duration, it was found necessary to accompany the reading of the Law with translations and explanations (Nehemiah viii. 8, 12) ; tiie latter being the beginnings and foundation of the Talmud, or traditional oral law. which was first prohibited to be written down, in order to preserve life and motion for the letter of holy writ. That this prohibition was afterwards tran.sgresseU much to the injury of the development of .Tudaism, and caused all schisms among the Jews, is well known. Had thes'- explanat'ono which are mostly contradictory of each other, not been collected and made a code of, all strife might have been avoided. " Written Cliahlaic transtatirms were in existence in the time of the Maccabees — the first known is that of Onkeioh, disciple of K. Gamaliel (53 after X), and fellow-student of the Apostle Paul. Tliis tran.slation is para- phrastical. especially in the prophetic and poetical parts of the Bible, More explanatory is that of Jon'ATHAn- liEX-NoooziEl.. A third translation is the Tari/nia Jerushalme (Jerusalem tran.ilation), fragmentary, and exhi- biting a commentary in accordance with the reigning ideas of the age. Macedonian and Egyptian rule in Palestine produced among the Jews Grecian ni:;nnors, customs, and idf.as, also language; so that translations of the Bible were .soon necei<.sary. The oldest mentioned is that of Akilas, often referred to in ancient writings, tM explain Chaldaic parts of the Bible; there you have the Greek translation of the LXX. Philo, Josephus, and other Jewish authors wrote in Greek, jiroving their ignorance of Hebrew by the blunders in tran;bis (taken in reverse) had no resource but to proscribe the Sepluagint, and ostracize its reailers. " The law in Greek ! Darkness ! Three days fast ! " (170) Because, says the Talmud, " on that day, in the time of King Ptolemy, the Law was written in Greek, and darkness came upon the earth for three days." (171) Little by little, however, their perceptive faculties expanded to the true posture of affairs ; and by proving incontinently tliat many things, which looked one way in the Greek, looked quite another in the Hebrew, the Rabbis soon defeated their assailants ; routing them so repeatedly, that gradually the latter thought it safer to let such doughty controversialists alone : a method of repulsion continued with never-failing success by Israel's wide-spread posterity even now ; who, when summoned by anxious " Missionaries for the Conversion of the Jews" to adopt a Trinitarian faith which Semitic monotheism (172) despises, have merely to show such well-meaning persons that king James's version does really copy the Septuagint rather than the Hebrew, to see these itinerant simplicities pocket their English Bibles and slink off. Some day, perhaps, when the rules of archaeology through popular diffusion have augmented, all over Anglo- Saxondom, that mental element termed " common sense," sundry excellent persons, in the language of Letronne, " sentiront, je pense, I'inutilite, la vanite de leurs efforts." (173) The above conclusions on the Septuagint, long known to scholars, if not previously ex- pressed in print with the same " brutale franchise" habitual to writers who believe they speak the truth (so far as ratiocination can deduce logical results from known premises, — humamim est errarc), have enfeebled its value — except for purposes of archaeological restora- tions of the Hebrew text — to such degree that, in this discussion, the ablest theologians have advanced into the positivisms stage of philosophy. No scientific exegetist of the present generation — save for purposes aforesaid — perils his Continental reputation on the letter of any Greek version, unless chronological computations be the objects of his research. An- other Essay (III. ) of this book gives parallel tables wherein the Septuagint system is compared with others ; but, to evince the numerical discrepancies between Text and versions, it suf- fices here to note, that, from the creation of Adam to the " Deluge," computations (based upon the Hebrew original, as now extant) generally yield 1656 ; upon the Samaritan Pen- tateuch, 1307; and upon the Septuagint, 2242 years. The indefatigable labors of a profound Hellenist and Egyptological scholar, enable us to sweep away any chronological superstitions, yet in fashionable vogue, built upon the Sep- tuagint : — " The chief disagreement between the [Hebrew] original and the [Greek] translation is in the chronology, which the translators very improperly undei'took to correct, in order to make it better agree with Egyptian history and the more advanced state of Alexandrian science. They only made the Exodus of Moses 40 years more modern ; but they shortened (170) BUNSKN : Op. cit. ; p. 185. (171) De Wettk: Note, p. 150; — Hennell: Origin of Cliristianily ; pp. 454, 455, note. (172) "B«ar witnessl God is one. He is the God eternal. lie never has begotten, and was never begot" (Kur'iin; Sura cxii). (17.3) Kenwil ili:s Inscriplirms ; Paris, 1843; Introd., i. p. xliii. We clip the following from the London /«- quirer, 185;!: " Tlie Cost of Cimvertirig a Jew. — After some twenty years of labor — after the erection of a church on Mount Zion, at an enormous cost — after the expenditure of hundreds of thousands of pounds, the 'London Society for promoting Christianity among the .Tews ' (a mission presided over by a bishop and endowed by the joint efforts of the kingdoms of Prussia and England) produces as its fruits, according to its own statistics, a congregation of just tliirty se.vi'.n Jewish converts. During the whole of last year, the result of its labors was the conversion oi one Jew. The cost of this one convert was the annual outlay at Jerusalem alone, besides tho bishop's stipend, of £1228 expended on the mission. £445 on the church, £1173 on the hospital, and £400 (wc beg pardon, £o99 19.t at tiie time of Abraham, seemed to cjill for. Accordingly, tliey added to the genealogies of the patriarchs neitlier more nor less tlian a whole Egyptian cycle [So(hic-pcrio(l][,~4) of 14G0 years; or 580 between Adam and Noah, and 880 between Noah and Abraham, though in so doing they carelessly made Methuselah outlive the Flood. (115) This plain matter-of-fact solution of the reasons why the Bcptuagint chronology differs from that of the Hebrew — between Adam and the Ddiige — upon popular computations only 580 years! — relieves us from the bootless trouble of attaching any importance to opinions current at Alexandria among those successors of the Founder of chronology ; who, with the original copies of Manetho(176) before them, paid homage to his accuracy in their endeavors to assimilate their own foreign estimates of time to his. ArchjBological rules also permit two deductions to be drawn from these premises : — 1st. That the differences of numerical results among early Christian and Judaical com- putators of the Septuagint proceed less from wilful perversions of numbers (as here- tofore attributed to Josephus and others), than from radical discrepancies then existing between the manuscript consulted by one coinputator, and those exemplars whose numeration was followed by his compeers. This becomes obvious by comparing the eras severally reached by modern computations upon manuscript and printed copies now extant. Hales's Septuagint computation — edition to us unknown — Atexandrinus MS. ...... Vaticanus MS. ....... Josephus, on some lost MS. — probably .... 2d. That already in the time of Josephus, during the first century after Christ, the manuscript he followed must have differed in numeration from the parental exemplars of those transcriptions that, under the modern names of various codices, Coltonianus, Alezandrimis, Vaticanus, Bezoe, &c. (none earlier than a. d. 500), have reached our day ; and ergo there must have been many corruptions and variants among Septuagint MSS., about and prior to the Christian era. Hence we conclude, that it is as vain a task for computators, now-a-days, to recover more than a vague approximation of chronological notions (deducible from the Septuagint) current at Alexandria before the Christian era, as, after the foregoing analysis of the natural origin, history, and manifold corruptions of Greek codices, it would be to insist upon Divine authenticity for king James's version ; on the plea that, in the majority of cases, its forty- seven translators rendered from the Greek of editions, or manuscripts, so rotten in basis as those of the Septuagint. We proceed to the Hehreio Text; with the remark that, although we now know that it could have had little to do with the formation of our " authorized version," we shall examine it under the hypothesis (customarily put forward) that it had a great deal. In the year 1G03, at the time when king James authorized a new English translation, there were numerous printed editions of the Hebrew Text familiar to biblical scholars. That of Soncino, 1488, the first printed; of Brescia, 1494, used by Luther for his transla- tion; Bomberg's, 1518-45; Stephens's, 1544-46; Munster's, 1546; are the most promi- nent of the number. Whether the translators consulted any, or what, Hebrew manuscripts, does not appear from works within our present reach. We have shown how trivial was their acquaintance with the language of the editions, and may be persuaded that they did not (174) Champolliox-Figeac : Egypte Aneienne; 1S40; pp. 236-240; — Gliddojj: Clinptera on Early Egyptian Bi» tory; 1843; pp. 50, 51, 52, 61 : — Lepshjs: CItronoloijie; 1849; i. pp. 106-1*0. (175) Siiarfe: Op.cit.; p. 196. (176) BUNSEN : Op. cil. ; pp. 56-96. ition B. c. Deluge B. 0. 5586 3246 5508 5270 5555 3146 620 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION greatly distress themselves about the latter ; for, a century and a half elapsed before Ken- nicott proclaimed how — "the Hebrew Bible was printed from the latest, and consequently the worst manuscripts;" (177) thus corroborating his previous acknowledgment^ " that the Sacred Books have not descended to us, for so many ages, without some mistakes and errors of transcribers.' \\1%) He enlarges upon the certainty of corruptions in ihQ printed Hebrew Text, powerfully refuting those who claim textual unity; and then passes on to establish the absurdity of attributing perfection, either, to the manuscripts.. (179) Of all men down to his epoch, 1780, Kennicott had the best right to speak decisively; his conclusions being drawn from the collation of no less than 692 manuscripts of the Hebrew text ; whereof about 250 were collated by himself personally, and the remainder by Mr. Bruns, under his direction. Of the most ancient relics, but two were assigned by him to the tenth century after Christ ; to the eleventh or twelfth centuries, only three; while all the rest ranged between the years 1200 and 1500 a. d. (180) The bulk of his work, its costliness and comparative rarity, combine with its Latin idiom to render it inaccessible to ordinary readers, save at second-hand. But few of the facts established by this great and upright scholar are popularly known ; or they have been misrepresented, more or less, by some of the ecclesiastical mediums (181) through which they have reached the public eye. Cardinal Wiseman, (182) for example, would lead his readers to infer, that the innumerable variants and corruptions of the Hebrew Text, verified by Kennicott, were of small import- ance; and even the Rev. Moses Stuart (183) slurs lightly over those depreciatory results which it will be archseology's duty presently to enumerate, in saying: — " Indeed, one may travel through the immense desert (so I can hardly help naming it) of Kennicott and De Rossi, and (if I may venture to speak in homely phrase) not find game enough to be worth the hunting." So again, " Have they (the Jews) added to, or diminished from, their Scriptures during all this period of 1800 years? Not the least. . . . Their Bible has remained inviolate." Now, to continue the sagacious Professor's simile, the quantity of game to be found in a given wilderness frequently depends upon the keenness of the huntsman ; its quality upon his individual tastes; some sportsmen being partial to tomtits, whilst others sigh that nothing fiercer than grizzly-bears encounters their ferine combativeness. And, with respect to the " inviolate " state of the Text, Kennicott shall speak for himself, after we have opened a volume of De Rossi. G. Bernardo de Rossi, of Parma, was that august Italian critic who resumed investiga- tion into the actual condition of the Hebrew Text at the point where his English prede- cessor had left off; recasting also (wherever the same MSS. could be reached by him) the ■woi'k of the illustrious Oxonian. Written in Italian, and intended solely for the lettered, his books are not very familiar to the general reader. A quotation or two, therefore, may place matters in their proper light: "Here it suffices to observe, that the totality of manuscripts collated is 1418, of editions 374; that to the English 577, and 16 Samaritan, I have added 825; of which my cabinet alone furnished G91, and 333 editions; besides the ancient versions, the commentaries, the works of criticism and other sources that are also themselves in the greatest number." (184) In another work he states: — "Of the manuscript codices most ancient of the sacred Text" . . . the oldest, that of Vienna, dates in a. d. 1019; the next is Reuchlin's, of Carls- ruhe ; its age being a. d. 1038. There is nothing in manuscript of the Hebrew Old Testa- (177) State nfiheprinted Hebrew Text; 2d Dissert; Oxford, 1709; p. 470. (178) Ibid.; Ist Dissert.; 1753; Introd. (179) Ibid. ; pp. 234, 263. (180) Dis.teiiali/) Generalis in Vetus Testamentum tfebraicum ; Oxford, 17S0; in folio; pp. 110-113. (ISl) " 15y 'ecclesiastical persons' are understood such as are indeed subjects, yet their office and works iM \inc!] in matters of Religion; tlicy act between God and man, as messengers, and mediators between thetn. Tliey deliver Ood's mind to men; and offer men's prayers and ffi/ts to Gob"; says the Kev. George Lawsoa. i^rotestant Rector of More (Politica Sac7-a el Cii'ilis ; London, 1(560; p. 2.30). (182) Cimnectiim betweev Science and lievealed Religion; 1R44; ii. pp. 168, 169. (183) Crit. Hist, and Defence nf ttie 0. T. Canon; Andover, 1845; pp. 193, 239. (184) Coinpendio di Critica Sacra; Parma, ISll ; ii. p. 37. TO THE Xtu CHAPTER OF GENESIS. G21 mentnow extant of an earlier date than the eleventh century after Christ. (185) And, "of the most ancient niauuscrijits of the Greek Text of the Xew Testament," . . . tlie oldest are the Alexandrian and Vatican, which may ascend to the fourth, but cannot be much later than the fifth century after Christ. Considering such circumstances, our credulity is not strained by accepting what De Rossi asserts, as rather more authoritative tlian the fiats of some "teologini" we might name ; for he, at least, had advanced by studious discipline to the positive stage of philo- sophy. These are his Italian views rendered into English : — under the head of " Premure degli Ebrei per loro Testo : " — " It is known [ ? ] with what carefulness Esdras, the most excellent critic they have had, had reformed [the Text] and corrected it, and restored it to its piiuiary splendoi-. Of tlie many revisions unilertaken after him none are more celebrated than that of tlie Massorett's, who came after the sixth century [annis d.]; wlio, in order that the Text should not in after time become altered, and that it might be preserved in its integrity, numbered all the verses, the words, the letters of each book, togetlier witii tlieir forui and place. But their fatigues being well analyzed, one perceives tliat they had more in aim to fix the state of their Text, than to correct it: that, of infinite interesting and grave variants they do not speak : and tliat, ordinarily, they do not occupy themselves but with minutiae of oitliography of little or no weight : and all the most zealous adorers and defenders of the Massora, Christians and .Jews, while rendering justice to the worthiest intentions and to the enor- mous fatigues of its first authors, ingenuously accord and confess that it [the INIassoretic Text], such as it exists, is deficient, imperfect, interpolated, full of errors ; ... a most unsafe guide." (186) Why, "the single Bible of So?icino [earliest printed Text] furnishes more than twelve thou- gand (variants) ! " Which said, our authority continues through above eleven Svo pages to deplore and make manifest "the horrible state of the Text," resulting from his own compa- risons of 1418 Hebrew manuscripts, and 374 printed editions. Such being the truth, published a quarter-century before the Rev. Dr. Hales's "Analysis of Chronology," (187) the reader can qualify the following attestation of an ecclesiastic by what epithet he pleases : — " It is not more certain that there are a sun and vioon in the heavens, than it is, that not a single error of the press, or of a Jeuish transcriber, has crept into the present copies of the Masorcte Hebrew Text, to give the least interruption to its chronological series of years." And yet, so devoid of consistency is this theologer, that he designates the Hebrew chro- nology as "spurious," and actually follows that of the Septuagirit! From the loud denunciations of one of the most learned Church-of-England Protestant divines, and the sterner sorrow of an Italian Catholic cenobite, turn we to the wild despair of the Hebrew Rabbis: — " Peruit consilium! Computruit sapientia nostra! Oblivioni traditte sunt leges nostrse! Multte etiam eorruptelce, et errores, ceciderunt in Legem nos- tram sanctam! "(188) But Kennicott substantiates that the disorderly condition of the Hebrew TiSt, and its multitudinous vitiations, resile from the works, or are lamented in the language, of all claimants to biblical knowledge for 1700 years previously to the Rabbis and himslf; equi- valent to 1730 prior to De Rossi. Here is a skeleton of his list, omitting citations: — "Justin Martyr, died a. d. 165 — Tertullian, 220 — Clemens Romanus, 102 — Origen, 254 — Eusebius Caesarienensis, 340— 'Eusebius Emisenus, flourished 350 — Ephraim Syrus, dieJ 378 — Hieronymus, 420." We pause to illustrate. Ist. King James's version. — Paul, Galatians, iii. 13: — "for it is written. Cursed ii every one that hangeth on a tree." [The English of the Greek passage in Griesbach't text is, apud Sharpe, "(for it is written : cursed is every one that is hanrjed on a tree;Y^\. (185) Introduzione alia Sacra fkritlura ; Parma, 1817 ; pp. 34, 47. (186) Oimpendio; ch. iv. p. 7 ; and pp. 9-22. De Rossi furthermore proves these positions in his " Sperimeu Tariarum Lectionum Sacri Textus"; Kome, 17H2. (187) Analysis; 2d edit. ; 1830; i. p. 277. (188) Hebrew edition of 1751; the preface, cited ia Dissert. Gentralia : p. 27. 622 ARCH^OLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 2d. This is a quotation by the Apostle from Deuteronomy xxi. 23 ; -which, in king James's version stands — " (for he that is hanged is accursed of God;)" [The French of Cahen reads — "car un pendu est une malediction de Dieu " (v. pp. 93, 94); which conforms better to the context, and resembles current superstitious aversion to c/ihbets.] Apart from illiteral citation, the New Testament, in this passage, leaves out the word ELoHlM. ' God.' Theologists who combat for " plenary inspiration" can doubtless answer the following interrogatories. If those words be Paul's (always provided for), did lie quote from memory ? then his recollection was faulty. If he copied the LXX, then, in his day, the Greek already differed from the Hebrew ; and who can tell wliich of the two transcripts preserved the original reading? The catalogue continues with — "Epiphanius, 403 — Augustine, 430" — but we abridge twenty-two folio pages of extracts from later Christian writers, who protest to the same effect, into aline: epitomizing the series by one name — Ludovicus Capellus, founder of sacred criticism in 1650. All the subjoined commentators vouch for inaccuracies in the Text: viz — " R.aymond de Pennaforti, 1250 — Nic. Lyranus, 1320— Rudolphus Armachanus, 1359 — Tostatus, 1450 — Jacob Perez de Valentia, 1450 — Marsilius Ficinus, 1450 — Baptista Mantuanus, 1516 — Zuinglius, 1528 — Martin Luther, 1546 — Bibliander, 1564," &c. The same corruptions are certified through the decrees of the Council of Trent, 1546 ; through the Vulgate of Sixtus v., 1590; and through king James's version, 1604-1611: on which the Oxonian critic remarks (p. 50, § 108): — "To the Authors of the English version that which is due: many examples prove that they did not always mind what they found in the Hebrew, but what they thought ought to be read therein : tantamount to that, in their opinion, the He- brew Text was corrupt. This the reader evolves from tAventy places: — Gen. xxv. 8: xxxv. 29: Ex. XX. 10: Dent. v. 14; xxvii. 26; xxxii. 43: Jos. xxii. 34: Jud. vii. 18 — vid. com. 20—1 Sam. ii. 23: 2 Sam. iii. 7; v. 8 ; xxi. 19; xxiii. 8: 2 Kings xxv. 3: 1 Chron. vii. 6; ix. 41; xxiv. 23: Ps. xxxiv. 17: Ixx. 1: Isa. xxviii. 12: Ezech. xxvi. 23." After citing "Jos. Scaliger; the Buxtorfs, father and son, defenders of the purity of the text; Capellus; Glassius; Joseph Mede ; Usher, Morinus, Beveridge, Walton, Hammond, Bochart, Hettinger, Huet, Pococke, Jablonski, Clericus, Opitius, Vetringa, Michaelis, Wolfius, Carpzovius, Josepli Hallet, Francis Hare" — Kennicoit concludes (§ 132): — "Id autem a me maximfe propositum fuit, ut ostenderem — produci posse testimonia multa et insignia, per intervallum fere 2000 annorum, ad probandas mutaliones in Hehrai- cum Textum inrectas: quanquam in contrariam seutentiam, annis abliinc triginta, docti fere omnes abierint."(189) One would have thought (to return to Prof. Stuart's metaphor), that this "immense desert" contained "game enough," in all conscience! but, in some men, the love of chase is insatiable. " Defence," as he justly observes, " would seem to be needed. The contest has become one pro arts et focis" — "truly become one, as I have said, pro a^is et /o«s."(190) "It has become plain," frankly declares this lamented Hebraist, "that the battle which has been going on over most European ground these forty or fifty yeais past, has at last come even to us [alluding to the exegetical works of his learned and reverend New England colleagiK'S, Noyes, Palfrey, Norton, Parker, &c ], and we can no longer decline the contest. Unbelief in the Voltaire and the Thomas Paine style we have cofied with, atnl in a mea.«ure gained the victory. l?ut now it comes in the shape of philosophy, litei-ature, criticism, philo- logy, knowledge of anti([nity, and the like [!] Hume's arguments against miracles have been ixhuttud, clothed with a new and splendid costume, and commended to the world by many among the most learned men in Europe. Before them, all revelation falls alike, both Old Testament and New." (191) And, cjnsidoing who these "most learned men " veritably are, it is not for us to ques- tion the uprightness of his outspoken recognition, that — (180) Disseiiatin GentraUs; 1780; pp. 7, 8, 33-43, 65, seq. O'M) Op. cit.; pp. .S, 422. (191) Op. cU.; p. 420. TO THE Xth chapter OF GENESIS. 623 " The unbelief that consistently sets aside the whole, shows a more man!;/ and energetic attitude of mind; and, in my opinion, it is much more likely to be convinced at last of error, than lie is who thinks that he is ali-eady a believer and is safe, while he virtually rejects from the Gospel all which makes a Gospel, in distinction from the teachings of Socrates, of Plato, of I'lutarch, of Cicero, and of Seneca." (192) We have quoted the highest contemporary authority of the Calvinist school ; and impar- tiality requires that a member of the "Chiesa Cattolica Apostolica Komaua" should make up for the mild notice taken of Kennicott's and De Rossi's researches by His Eminence the Cardinal. If the man of science mourns, with as much fervor as the most devout, over the irre- coverable loss of Hebrew fiianuncripls of the Bible — of those precious documents that would have linked the Bodleian codex (about 800 years old, said to be the most ancient) (19o) with the transcripts of Ezra's copy; and filled up the frightful chasm that now divides, in Hebrew palffiography, the tenth century after Christ from the fifth century before his advent — to whose acts is he indebted, and by whom are his sorrows caused ? Lacour shall answer: — " At the commencement of the thirteenth century, it was expressly forbidden to the laity to possess the books of the Old and New Testament. The Church permitted only the Psalter, the Breviary, or the Hours of the Sainted Mary: and these books were required not to be translated into the vulgar tongue. Decrees of Bishops interdicted the use of grammar." (191) Other sources confirm this assertion. Gregory the Great, a. d. 590, censured Didier, Archbishop of Vienna, for suffering grammar to be taught in his diocese; " boasting that he (himself) scorned to conform hia latinity to grammatical rules, lest thereby he should resemble the heathen." (195) In the ninth century, Alfred the Great laments that there was not a priest in England who really understood Latin, and, for ages after, English Bishops were termed " marksmen," because they could not sign their names otherwise than by a cross! " In 1490, the Inquisition caused the Hebrew Bibles to be burned, that is to say, the work in default of the author; in the absence of Moses, his Pentateuch." At Salamanca, the fiendish Dominican, Torquemada, reduced some 6000 Hebrew volumes to ashes ; and besides such as were ravished from libraries in Spain and Italy, about 12,000 Talmudic rolls perished, circa a. d. 1559, in Inquisitorial flames at Cremona. (196) These un- nameable deeds were induced by orthodox doubts that, the Hebrew Text, as represented in the square-letter copies, was ever quoted by the Apostles; (196) but, in those ages of darkness, little respect could have been paid to MSS. even of the New Testament ; for such ancient copies as had been preserved, down to a. d. 1749, at Alcala in Spain, were sold to one Toryo, a pyrotechnist, as materials for sky-rockets. (197) Quintillian {Inst. Orat. i. T), in the first century after Christ, complains that writing was neglected ; but it was not until after the barbarian irruptions of the eighth century that "la crasse ignorance" prevailed in Western Europe. It is uncertain if even Charlemagne could write. The tenth to twelfth centuries exhibit Bishops, Abbots, Clerks, &c., incredibly ignorant: as even in earlier times, before the seventh century, at the Episcopal Conference of Carthage, the "brigandage" of Ephesus, and the Council of Chalcedon — at which last there were forlt/ most incapable Bishops (Labbk, Concil, iv). Few Romish monks could read, in the eleventh; the laity began about the end of the thirteenth; but in the fourteenth, the number was small. (198) From these fearful destructions (the IiKjuisitorial agents having acted in obedience to orders sent from Rome), Lacour draws a singular argument in behalf of his own free resto- rations of the Hebrew Text, maintaining: — (192) Op. cit. ; p. 320. (193) Kk.vnicott: 2d I>is.-SEN's iy/.'/K 5 Ptoc ; 1848; i. pp.448-C00; — and in GLrocox: Otia ^ICgypliaca ; 1849; pp. 113-115. (219) Bnir..=cii: Scriptura Aigyptiorum demotira ex papyris et inscriptiombusesplansLta.; Berlin, 1848; — and fhimerorum apud vfteres ACgyptins demoticirum doctrina ; Berlin, 1849. (220) De Sailct: Lftire a M. Guigniitut ; Paris, 1843; — and Analyse grammaiicale du Texte Dtmnlique du J>ecrel de Mosetie ; i., premiere partie, 1845. s - a i O -«: £. u S t:3 M 1 m E - << .c 'Z « " 1— c 4) 2: s i P.J 1^ i! cr p^ S n C-) s *:, H-5 W S °' t=- W i t ii^ m cr (^ C5 ^ P^ a '^ w « S « PS CD w se .s 31; ■- r b- s — . P=H = s = ■£ >-■ w c p:S W. t^ W 63 1 m Er-i e .2 Ft a "^ 1 a S S C3 a s 1 ci ■< e £? A s = g ^ s 8 o -s ■s 3 S ^ A 1 as p. <1^ ■s 1 0. a '>< 5< ^0 a c '& j= J3 ,a J3 ^ 1 ^ c j: ^ >> *© « n ^ '? & p. E ^ H 1 a. C3 .y s C 3 Uj a ■" K •3 ^ ^ 5; 1 60 g > 1 p. » c; 2 — •g W s rt I ^ W 9 5 I i-i ^ i 8 1 T3 O C * ^C ^ »- I S .2 O 3i "" >> OS — •- >J s. ^ 2 55 iSf o. ci 1.2.5 = * S-gH < X ■~ N » a M s H S p. r/? 3 >, s 3 O K S P K fr^ ^ o 2 « ^ :^ I S 5 o s -^ a a >^ •a ^ K S k S p. <2 fcl f;> p, i3 J3 •3 a S s e^ E 3 (630) 6 3 a •SJ C3-3 ' a s g 2 2 •2. S U 3 h = 5' H m W x = D X a =■ s o 5 5 g ^^ s tH n !/J a. S Xl 3 = w tw ►39 i 3 fc 5 d g " • 5 H ^"3 = -=29. S3 c . S =) S "=1 a Lycian. ■< scan, rian. n. lite. •g p n ^ ■s ^ !: a. e a (631) 632 PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS Martin, Rask, Burnouf, Lassen, and Westergaard ; the possession of the major portion of the folio plates and texts of Botta, Flandin and Coste, Layard, Texier, &c. ; and the inspection of what of Assyrian sculptures were in London and Paris during 1849: (221) — our views upon Assyro- Babylonian writings take their departure and are derived from the series at foot, appended in the order of our studies. (222) Egyptian hieroglyphical discoveries had long ago revealed the fact that, as early at least as Thotmes III , of the XVIIIth dynasty, about the sixteenth century b. c, the Pha- raohs had overrun "Naharina," or Mesopotamia, with their armies. Accepted, like all new truths, with hesitation, since Rosellini's promulgation of the data in 1832; or at first entirely denied by cuneatic discoverers, who claimed a primeval epoch for the sculptures of Nineveh and Babylon ; nothing at this day is more positively fixed in historical science than these Egyptian conquests over " Nineveh" and "Babel," at least three centuries before Derceto (the earliest monarch recorded in cuneiform inscriptions) lived ; assuming Layard's last view to be correct, (223) that he flourished about b. c. 1250. At foot we present the order in which an inquirer may investigate the discoveries that have finally set these ques- tions atrest ; (224) while the following extracts from Rawlinson will render further doubts irrelevant : — " That the employment of the Cuneiform character originated in Assyria, while the sys- tem of ivriting to which it was adapted was borrowed from Egypt, will hardly admit of ques- tion : . . . the whole structure of the Assyrian graphic system evidently betrays an Egyp- tian origin. . . . The whole system, indeed, of homophones is essentially Egyptian.''^ (225) It is upon such data that, without adducing other reasons derived from personal studies, we have made the earliest Semitic stream of our Table flow outwards from Egypt into ancient Mesopotamia — assigning the period of its Eastward flux, according to well-known conditions in Egyptian history, as bounded by the Xllth and XVIIIth dynasties : that is, between the twenty-second and sixteenth century b. c. ; — which age, placed parallel with Archbishop Usher's scheme of biblical chronology, implies from a little before Abraham down to the birth of Moses. No Egyptologist will contest this view : the opinions of those who deny, without acquaintance with the works submitted, are "vox et prseterea nihil." (221) Three Archaeological Lectures, on " Babylon, Nineveh, and Persepolis," delivered before the Lyceum of the. 'M Municipality at New Orleans; 6th, 9th, 13th April, 1852; by G. R. G. (222) Botta : Lettres a M. Mohl ; Paris, 1S45 : — De Longp£rier and De Saulct, in Rev. Archenl. ; 1844-1852 ; — LowENSTERN ; Essui de Dechiffrement de VJ^oiture Assyrienne; Paris, 1845; — Botta: Sur V&riture Ouneiforme; 1849; — Rawuxson: Tablet nf Behistun ; 1846; — and Commentary on Cuneiform Inscriptions ; 1850; — Hincks: On the Three kinds of Persepolitan Writing ; Trans. R. Irish Acad., 1847; — NORRIS : Memoir on the Scythic Version of the Behistun Inscription ; and Rawlixson's communications; in Jour. R. Asiat. Soc, 1863; xv. part 1. Many other works upon this speciality, no less than upon the writings of erery historical nation of antiquity, are cited in the manuscripts we suppress for lack of space. But, by anticipation of their future appearance, it would be injustice to an author " qui a puise k des bonnes sources," not to recommend earnestly to the sincere inquirer after truth, a perusal of the first and only work in the English language which has grasped this vast subject in a manner commensurate with the progress of science. It arrived at the Fhiladelpliia Library, and was kindly pointed out to us by our accomplished friend Mr. Lloyd P. Smith, after our own "Table" was already stf.reotyped. We have read it with admiration ; and although upon tliree points, the hieroglyphical, the cuneiform, and especially the Hebrew, we might suggest a few critical — that is to say, more rigidly chronological — sub- stitutions ; yet, upon the whole performance we are happy to offer the warm commendations of a fellow-student. The reader will find it, in the meanwhile, an excellent adjunct to our "Table"; and the following extracts, with an interlineary commentary, suffice to indicate that Mr. Humphrey's views and our own differ upon but a single point : — " The world has now possessed a purely alphabetic system of writing for 3000 years or more [eay rather, about 300 years Uss\, and iconographic systems for more than 3000 years longer [say, considerably more'] There can be little doubt that the art of writing grew up independently in many countries having no communication with each other [entirely agreed]" : (vide Henry Noel Humpurets: The Oi-igin and I\ogress of the Art of Writing; London, 1853; pp. 1, 3). (223) Bahylmi; 2d Ex.; 1853; p. 623. (224) Lktronxe: La Civilisation i'gyptientie ; pp. 1-55; Extrait de la Revue des Deux Mondes; Feb., April, 1S45 ; — Birch; Statistical Tablet of Karnac; — Obelisk of Thotmes III.; and on Two Cartoxicbes fnmd at Nim^ roud; Trans. R. Soc. Lit, lS46-'48; — Gijddon: Otia; p. 103; — Layard: Nineveh; 1848; ii. pp. 153-235 ; — SnARPE, in Bmomi's Mneveh; pp. ;— Layaiw: Babylon; 1853; pp. 153-159, 186-196, 280-282, 630; — and, partiiMilarly, BiRCri: Annals of Thotmes III.; London Arclutologia, xxxv., 1853; p. 160, &c (225) Commentary; 1850; pp. 4-6. OF THE ART OF WRITING. 633 Scholars, guided by the books cited for justificatory details, will find little to alter in the general features of these several alphahelical streams as their respective monumental rocks first pierce through the mists of traditionary history: except in one direction; viz.: ■where we have made a Semitic rivulet (probably through Chaldtean channels) commingle with " Arian elements" in Ilindostan. " Indology " will protest against profaning the sanctified soil of Indra and Brahma with the mere " tail-race " of a Semitic pond, originally filled by the Nile! Shades of Wilford, Faber, Hales, and spirit of Edgar Quinet ! In Ger- many, appeal will at once be made to Von Bohlen ! In Wales, to Arthur James Johnes, Esq. ! (22G) Does not every body know, it will be said, that primordial civilization (unce- remoniously kicked out of Ethiopia Meroe by Lepsius,) first dawned upon the Ganges? that Memphis, (if not also Palenque, and Copan,) received her holiest Penates at the hands of Siva, Vishnu, Bhairava, Crishfia, or any other Indian Deity a pundit may invent? (22fr) With all deference, after the first horrors excited by our outrage sliall have calmed down into philosophical contempt, we beg to oflFer a quotation : — " The people of Hindostan and the ancient nations of Europe came in contact at a single point. The expedition of Alexander the Great begins, and in some sort ends, their con- ' nexion. Even of this event, sn recent and remarkable, the Hindus have no record ; they have not even a tradition that can with certainty be traced to it." (228) Our author, who stands out in bold relief among the Sanscrit scholars of England, won- ders at the credulity of those who reject Chaldaean and Egyptian antiquity to worship Hin- dostanic; administering stern rebukes to writers who trust in the " absurdity of Hindu state- ments," — a people utterly " destitute of historical records." The same historian, in Notes on the Mudra Rdkshana, says : — " It may not here be out of place to oflFer a few observations on the identification of Chandragupta and Sandracottus. It is the onhj point on which we can rest with anything like confidence in the history of the Hindus, and is therefore of vital importance in all our attempts to reduce the reigns of their kings to a rational and consistent chronology." r Turnour, (229) sums up his review of Hindoo literature with saying, — " That there does not noiv exist an authentic, connected, and chronologically-correct Hin- doo history; and that the absence of that history proceeds, not from original deficiency of historical data, but from the systematic perversion of those data adopted to work out the monstrous scheme upon which Hindoo faith is based." The preceding extracts, we hope, may serve to break the fall of huge Indianist edifices from the highest peak of the Himalaya to a level but little expected by general readers. That we are not altogether freshmen in these Hindoo demolitions may be inferred from a passage, printed five years ago, which we now take the liberty of repeating, with its Italian preface : — "Cadono le citta, cadono i regni, E I'uom d'esser mortal par che si sdegni! " (230) "That the peninsula of Hindostan, thronged with varied populations, possessed great Empires and a high state of culture, in ages parallel with the earliest monuments of Egypt and China, upon whose civilizations India exerted, and from which she experienced influ- ences, in the flux and reflux of Humanity's progressive development, no one, nisi imperitus, (226) PhUntngical Prnnfs of the Original Unity and Hecent Origin of Vie Human Race; London, 1846; p|). 131- 13.3. For "Celto-niania," this work out-Herods Uf.tbam's! We can only observe with CHAMPOLUO^f {V tgypte imts Its Fharanns, 1S14), of a philohigist who derived the Greek name of Egypt from the Gaelic dialects of Lower Brittany — "Certainly, even admitting that the Greeks spoke Bas-breton, there is some distance from Aiguptos to £cnu-v-vel." (227) Prichard: Egyptian Mythology ; 1819; p. 35, se^.; — IIeere.v: ffist. Res., Indian Nations. (22S) WasoN: Bistort/ of British India ; 1840; "Chronology and Uistory of the Hindus;" i., hook 2, ch. 1, pp. 163-169. (229) Author of the " Buddhist Pali Historical Annals of Ceylon," called MaJiawanso, "Royal ChroniVlcs", compiled from earlier sources in A. D. 302: if not later. (iJO) Metastasio: paraphrase of S. Sulpiciiis's LetUr to Cicero; epist. v. lib. 4. The second line has been latterly rliyroed — " E nel cader un c*****n par che si sdegni." The English is — " Cities fall, kingdoms fall ; Mid (j'et I man seems to scorn that he is mortal ! " ' 80 634 PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS will (f eny : but the h nil uci nations about early Brabmnnical science in Astronomy, when their Zodiacs are Greek, their Eclipses calcuhited backwards, and their fabulous chronology is built upon Chaldean magianism, leave the historical antiquity of India prostrate beneath the axe of the s/(or/-chronologist. ' Un astronomo pu5, se vuole, far le tavole dell'ecclissi che avranno luogo di qui a cento-mila anni, se il tnondo esistera ; e pu5 ugualmente deter- minare lo stato, nel quale sarebbesi trovato il cielo centomil'anni fa, se il mondo esisteva: ' (Testa, ' Dissertazione sopra due Zodiaci,' &c. ; Roma, 1808, p. 23.) The Hindoos, in con- cocting their primeval chronology, merely added a navght to Babylonish cyclic reckon- ings ;— 4,320,000 years, instead of 432,000! (De Brotonrie, 'Filiations des Peuples,' 1837; vol. i., pages 234 to 251, and 414.) See ample confirmations of the above view in the critical work of Wilson (' Ariana Antiqua,' 1841 ; pages 17, 21, 24, 419; 44, 45; and par- ticularly page 439, wherein it is shown, that numismatic studies cease to throw light on Indian antiquities about the middle of the third century B.C."). " When, therefore, the contenders for the ante-diluvian remoteness of the foriy-eigTit- lettered Sanscrit Alphabet can produce any stone, or other record older than the 'column of Allahabad in honor of Tchandra-Goupta, Sandracotttis,' cotemporary with Seleucus NiCATOR, B. 0. 315, it will be time enough for Hierologists, Sinologists, Hellenists and He- braists, to take into account the pseudo-antiquity of Sanscrit Alphabetical literature." (231) Our profession of faith in these matters, identical with the doctrines we hold at this day, shocked some literary prejudices. Nevertheless, it was based upon tolerably extensive perusal of works on Hindoo antiquities; and it is supported by the cuts and thrusts of a swordsman, whose trenchant blade, notched on the battle-fields of Hindostan, still preserves its keenness amid the bloodless strifes of archaeological polemics — Lieut. Col. Sykes. (232) From his matchless overthrow of European superstitions, in regard to Indian antiquity, we have already extracted two paragraphs containing the decisions of Wilson and Tur- nour. We now condense his own applications of cold steel to some of the vitalities of Hin- dostanic pretension. There exists but one Sanscrit composition that can be called "history; " viz. the Baja Taringini, compiled a. d. 1148. It contains anachronisms of 796, and of 1048 years! Prior to the fifth century after C, "inscriptions in pure Sanscrit are entirely wanting" — the earliest Sanscrit inscription ascends to the fourth century, but it is impure in language and not orthographic. Between the tenth and seventeenth centuries of our era, Sanscrit inscriptions "roll in thousands!" The very Sanscrit language, m the polished form in which its literature reaches us, can no more be found monumentally in India, before the fifth century after C, than the English of Byron could appear in the days of Gower or Chaucer. In consequence, those Germanic writers who, in their assimilations (which are positive enough) of Greek, Latin, German, or other Indo-European idiom, forget that Sanscrit has undergone even greater transmutations than our Saxon vernacular has since the reign of Alfred, often commit philological oversights of sublime magnitude ! " Why are there not," asks Sykes, " the same tangible and irrefragable proofs extant of the Sanscrit as of the Pali language : the more particularly so as Brahmanism and Sanscrit have hitherto been believed to emanate from the fabled ages ? " Commencing his deep researches with the more recent Sanscrit inscriptions, and tracing them backwards as far as they recede, Prinsep (233) resolved the modern forty-eight Deva- Nagari characters absolutely into the primitive letters of the old inscriptions written in the ♦' Lat" character and Pali language — the rencontre of graphical forms that approximated to the ancient Pali type increasing exactly in the ratio of the antiquity of each Sanscrit inscription. Of these last, the most ancient known dates a. d. 309 ; being just 624 years posterior to the oldest Pali inscription discovered throughout the Hindostanic peninsula! Now, this oldest Pali inscription is found on the "column of Allahabad,'' whereupon it (2.31) Otia Mg. ; p. 110, and note. (232) "Notes on the Religious, Moral, nnd Political State of Ancient India before the MohammedaJi Invasion" —Jour. R. Asiatic ^c; London, 1841; vol. vi. pp. 248-484. (i'.'S) Journal Asialix: Soc. of Jlenri"l; 1834-'41. Couf. Jour. H. Asiatic Snc., 1853; xv. part i. p. xxv; for '•NaBsik Inscriptions," the date of the cave b<'ing only A. n. 338 I Also, concerning Arian superpositions upon a Jark imtocthonous population of Hindostan, Gen. Bkiggs'b Lecture "On the Abori1unk: Palestine; p. 429. (248) Babylon ; 2d Exped., 1843 ; pp. 340, 591, COl, 606. 638 PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS Fig. 362. fear of misapprehensions, let us also note that the ahovo ancient characters are entirely distinct in age from those on the modern and rabbinical "Bowls "(249) from Babylonia which Mr. Ellis's remarks might lead others than archaeologists to invest with the halo of antiquity. They cannot attain even to the third century after C. ; and, indeed, may descend to days after the Mohammedan conquests. Until we can resume the subject, the reader will find a place assigned to them in our Table under the heading of "Hebrew Babylonish." 2d. MONGOLIAN ORIGIN. — AVe give this designation to a system of writings distinct organically, chronologically, linguistically, geographically, palseographically, ethnologically — in short, aboriginally — from any affinity with Semitic streams, or with the latter's com- mon Hamitic source. To comprehend us, the reader need but open the works of Pau- thier;(250) without perplexing himself with other definitions, until he finds the former inconsistent with science, history, reason, and probability. It is, however, from his Sinico-JEgyptiaca that the principles and examples of our author's critical results must be gathered; and, having advocated them on a former occasion. (251) we return to them with pleasure increased by subsequent verifications of their accuracy. Pauthier's Three Ages of Writings. "1st Age. — The figured representation of objects and ideas; otherwise the pictorial a,gQ. "Of this age we possess nothing that can be safely referred to primeval antiquity. All barbarous nations, like the tribes of North America, still strive to perpetuate their simple traditions by pictures. "To this age, with a probable infusion of the symbolical element (although, as yet, whether of their lost languages, undeciphered writings, or chronology, it may be said that we literally know nothing), may perhaps be referred the pictures and so-called hieroglyphs of the ante-Columbian monuments of Mexico, Central America, and Peru. " 2d .\gk. — The altered and conventional representation of objects ; otherwise the transition- period ; when the pictorial signs pass into the symbolical, and thence gradually into the syllabico-/'Ao??e/«c. " To this age belong the ideographic writings of the Chinese secondary period, classified «,s follows: (2-52) 1st. — High Antiquity; b. c. 2637 to 3369 — according to the Chinese annalists, the KOU-WEN. or antique writing. 2d. — Medium Antiquity; b. c. 820 — the TA-TCHOUAN, or altered image of objects. 3d. — Low Antiquity ; b. c. 227 — the SIAO- TCHOUAN, or image still more altered of objects. 4th. — Modern Times; b. c. 200 to a. d. 1123, and still in use — four kinds of current writing and typography. " The above are formed upon principles presenting some few analogies, but in the main remarkable differences, when compared with the Egyptian phonetic system. (253) Under the same age may be classed the hierogli/phical and hieratic system of Egypt, the latter being a tachygraphy or short-hand of the former. " Albeit that we have but very vague data in this respect, it is exceedingly probable that all writings began by being figurative and syllabic before they became purely alphabetical. Many alphabets, such as the Sanscrit alphabet, the Ethiopic alphabet, the Pcrsepolilan (without speaking of the Japanese and Cora-an alphabets), are still almost completely syllabic, and bear evident traces of a. figurative origin. (254) "3d Age. — The purely-pAo»e//c expression of the ai-ticulations of the human voice: other- wise the strictly alphabetical age ; to which belong all writings which repi'esent no more than the vocal elements of human articulations, reduced to their simplest expression ; i. e., A, B, C, D, &c. (249) Op. cit; pp. 503-526; fisa. 1, 3, 5, 6. (2r)0) 1st. Sinion-JEgyptiaca — E.ssai sur I'Origine et la Formation Similaire dp.s ficritures Fii;uratives Otiinoise et Ki;yptienn(! ; I'aris, 1S42. 2d. Systimes cf^crilHrex Orkntal/:s et Occidentales ; 1838. 3(i. CliineAncienm d'aprSfl los dociinuMit.s CTd'nwi.?; 1837. 4th. Civilisation ^Cliirutise — containing tlie Chinese Books, Chou-Kino, V Kisb, Ta-hio, Tchouno-Ymino. Lun-yu, and Menq-tseu; 1843. (251) Otia; pp. 100-102. (252) Pauthikr: Sinicn-.,1<:gyp.; p. 24. (253) Op. Cit.; pp. 98 to 110. (254) Op. cil.: p. 34; and on each alphabet, consult nis "Orig. des Alphabets," ^Jassrw. ON THE ART OF WRITING. 039 '* To this belong the Enchorial, Demotic, or Epislolographic characters of Egypt, detached from occasional figurative and symbolical signs." Nothing to the student of Pauthier's work can be more clear than that the primeval type of Mongol man, whose centre of creation lies along the banks of the Hoang-ho, and that other (orgiuiically distinct) Hamitic type ■whose centre is the Nile, after each one in its own region had passed through all preliminary phases of its individual development, reached, at an age on either side equally beyond /radilionn, the power of recording things by pichires; just as the American Indian around us, spurning every inducement to profit by our graphi- cal art, still traces on the bark of trees, on rocks, on buffalo-robes, those rude designs whereby he hopes to annihilate space and time in the transmission of his thoughts. If it be granted that an Egyptian, or a Chinese, could singly arrive at the discovery of this the humblest stage of letters for himself, why refuse the same capacities to the other? One nation of the two, at least, must have discovered this pictorial art for itself, most cer- tainly: how then attribute tuition of another world of man to either, when the graphical systems of both are radically different? Nearly a century ago, after applying vigorous strictures to the theories of Needhara and De Guignes (we might add Kircher, De Pauw, Paravey, Wiseman, indeed orthodoxy gene- rally), who claimed that either China taught Egypt, or Egypt China, Bishop Warburton thus emphatically placed the question in its only philosophical light: — " To conclude, the learned world abounds with discoveries of this kind. They have all one coniniun original; the old inveterate error; that a similitude of customs and manners, amongst the various tribes of mankind the most remote from one another, must needs arise from some communication. Whereas human nature, without any help, will, in the same circumstances, always e.\hibit the same appearances." (255) How, it may be asked, do we know that the pictorial was the first, or rather the anterior, age of writing in Egypt, or in China? Aside from all arguments of analogy that pictures are the ruJimental writings of semi-barbarism at this day — already a vast step higher than the savage Bonjesman, Pajruan, or Patagonian, has ever attained — it is proved, in Egyptian hieroglyphics of the most ancient and pure style, (256) by their being, as far as perfection of sculpture and vivid coloring can make each thing, the exact representatives of natural and artificial objects, every one indigenous in nature to the valley of the Nik: and utterly foreign elsewhere. In China, the pictorial epoch is reached by tracing backwards each mutation of characters, age by age, to the primitive Kou-wen ; which is a tachygraph, or abridgement, of natural or- artificial productions, all autocthonous to the region of the Uoang-ho. Of course, copies however rude of the same things must present certain identities, ■whether delineated in China, Egypt, or America; but just as a parent instinctively detects which of his children has scrawled a given form ; or that a nijin betrays to others his indi- viduality by his handwriting; so archaeological practice enables an observer to point out the distinctive peculiarities of a given people's designs. The latter, moreover, tell whence they came by the very subjects figured. Thus, if, in a series of characters called '' Egi/ptian of the IVth Memphite dynasty," a camel, a Aor.sc, a cock, were designed, the presence of either of these animals would prove the document to be a forgery; because camels, horses, and cocks, were unknown in the valley of the Nile for a thousand and more years later. In China, cocks and horses (257) were indigenous, like the silkworm, from the commence- ment of creation in this geological period; but, in her primitive pictures, there are no Egyp- tian ifiises, nor papgrus-p]nnts. No rattlesnakes, magnolias, or bisons, can be discovered in (255) T/ie IHvine Legation of Moses demonstrated; 1766; 5th €d. ; iii. p. 99. (25fi) Lepsiis: DenlcmUIer; for illustrations. (25V) There seems to be some doubt about the horse in China proper at an early period, because, about B. o. 900, this animal wa.s imported from Tarlary [Cliine, p. 100). Nevertheless, Fi>ni is said to have taught hU people to raise the six domestic animals — /iwsc, ox, fowl, pig, dog, and sheep: and under the three mythical «' Uoau',-s," his antecedents, there was a period of time called the horse (Pauthikr: Te.mps Anttrieurs an Ctufu king; Liv. Sac.; pp. 20, 33). We cite ihc pkturial horse merely by way of popular illuitration. 640 PALiEOGRAPHIC EXCURSUS the pictures of China, or of Egypt, because these things are indigenous to the American continent — until Columbus, segregated from the entire Old World : neither will the Grecian acanthus, the African lion, or the Asiatic elephant, appear in the sculptures of Yucatan or Guatemala ; simply because, to American man, these objects were unknown. Each centre of creation furnished to the human being created for it the models of his inci- pient designs. It was materially impossible for him, without intercourse Vi'iih other centres, to be acquainted with things alien to the horizon of his nativity. An ornilhorhynchus, or & kangaroo, if found in a picture, would establish — 1st, that such picture could not be Egyp- tian, Chinese, or American; and 2d, that it was made within the last two centuries — that is, since the discovery of Australia by European navigators. Payne Kuight laid down the rules : — " The similitude of these allegorical and symbolical fictions with each other, in every part of the world, is no proof of their having been derived, any more than the primitive notions which they signify, from any one particular people ; for as the organs of sense and principles of intellect are the same in all mankind, they would all naturally form similar ideas from similar objects; and employ' similar signs to express them, so long as natural and not conventional signs were used. . . . The only certain proof of plagiary or borrowing is where the animal or vegetable productions of one climate are employed as symbols by the inhabitants of another. ... As commercial communication, however, became more free and intimate, particular symbols might have been adopted from one people by another without any common origin or even connexion of general principles." (258) These few remarks suffice as suggestives, to the thoughtful and educated, of the radical distinctions which the first glance perceives when comparing the ancient sculptures of three aboriginal worlds of art, Egyptian, Chinese, or American. But, just as a physician's writings presuppose that his readers have passed beyond the elementary schoolroom, so it is not in "Types of Mankind" that any one need expect to find an archaeological " Primer." We return to the ante-monumental pictures of the Nile and the Hoang-ho — the former, long anterior to B. c. 3500 ; the latter, to b. c. 2300 ; being the minimum distance from our generation at which the graphical system of each river's denizens first dawns upon our view. Impelled by the same human wants, though absolutely without inter-communication, the Mongol Chinese for his part, and the Hamitic Egyptian for his, attained, at periods unknown, the power of representing their several thoughts picio7ially. Where they copied the same universal things — the sun, a star, a poat, a pigeon, a snake, a tree (though here even, in Flora and Fauna, already the two countries exhibit distinct "species"), — those copies necessarily resemble each other ; although, in each, art betrays the individualities of a separate human type. Where the Chinaman, however, portrays a man, that man is a Mongol: where the Egyptian draws a human being, that being is an Egyptian. No stronger exemplification of human inability to conceive that which is beyond the circumference of local experiences, can be met with, than in Squier's exhumations from the primeval mounds of the West. (259) Not merely is the skull, divested by time of its animal matter, osteologically identical with those of American Aborigines of this day; not only does every fragmentary relic which accompanies it limit that antique man's bounda- ries of knowledge to a space longitudinally between Lake Superior and the Gulf of Mexico, and laterally within the Alleghanian and the Rocky Mountains ; — but, every pipe-bowl, or engraved article, that bears a human likeness, portrays an American Indian, and no other type: because man can imitate only what he knows. And finally, to bring the case home to our biblical researches, does not every line of the first nine chapters of Genesis prove that Hebrew writers never conceived, in speculation upon creative origines, anything alien to themselves and to their own restricted sphere of geography ? At their point of view, the first pair of human beings conversed, at once, in pure Hebrew : — nay, the Talmudic books (458) R. Patnf, KKiani: Inquiry into the Symhnlical Language of Ancient Art and Mythology ; Valpy's 8vo ed, JfilS; par. 2.10, 2.';i. (259) Ancient M/«/•<;- writing: yet, after casting a retrospective look at the relative epochas of both achievements, we behold that the difl'erence between their chronological eras is almost as immense as when we, who in this day actually ^^ print by lightning," see an Indian spend hours of lifetime in the effort to adorn a deer-skin with the uncouth record of his scalping exploits. At the time when Prince Mer-het (2G1) caused his sepulchre to be carved and painted with those exquisite hieroglyphs, that, through IQ phonetic, many figurative, and a few symbolical signs, relate his immediate descent from King Shoopho (262) builder of the mightiest mausoleum ever raised by human hand, — under the shadows of which great pyramid this (probably) son reposed : at that time, which, it is far more likely, ascends rather beyond than falls within the thirty-fifth century B. c, or 5400 years backward from our day — what was the state of civilization in China? Now, the most exacting of native Chinese archsologists will confess that their first Emperor Fo-hi (whose name emblematizes to the Chinese mind above 1000 years of meta-history, as that of Moses did to the Hebrew intellect in the age of Hilkiah the high-priest), (2G3) that this Fo-hi — ??u'e?i^or of writing, (264) through the legendary "8 koua" — scarcely floats upon the foam of tradition's loftiest surge: because, no Chinese scholar claims for Fo-hi's semi- mythical reign a date earlier than b. c. 3468 ; while conceding that perhaps it may have begun GOO years later. And, if we compare monuments, then the oldest {2Qb) written record of China claims no higher date than the " Inscription of Yu," estimated at b. c. 2278 — being above 1000 years posterior to the Egyptian tomb of Mer-het, now in the Royal Museum of Berlin. All earlier Chinese documents being lost, the times anterior to Yu are, pala-ographicalbj, blanks ; but skepticism (scientific, not, the most obdurate, theological,) has no more reason to reject what of rational story pierces through the gloom of generations preceding, as concerns China, than we have to consider fabulous the British periods of the Heptarchy, although we cannot now individualize many events, and possess no Saxon " Saga" coeval with their occurrence. A moment's pause will illustrate in what respect Egypt's monuments tower as loftily above Chinese antiquity, as St. Peter's at Rome above New York "Trinity Church." Our remarks are not directed to personages who, stifled beneath ante-metaphysieal strata, read little and know less ; but to readers who have perused, or will examine, the writings of at least Bunsen, Lepsius, Birch, and De Rouge ; without disparagement of these scholars' ardent colleagues, too numerous for specification. AVhilst the pyramids and tombs of the IVth Memphite dynasty in Egypt stand, about B.C. 3500, at the uppermost terminus of that lengthy monumental chain — the coils of which, within a range of twenty miles, may still be unwound from Mohammed-Ali's mosque at Cairo, link by link, century by century, and stone by stone, back through all the vicis- situdes of Nilotic annals, for 5400 years, till we touch the sepulchre of Prince Merhet — these pyramids, these tombs, themselves reveal infinite data upon ages to their construction long anterior ; but, how long? Utterly unknown. For instance, we here present the hieroglyphic for scribe, writing, or to n-rite. It is compounded of the reed, calamus, or pen ; the i/i/c-bottle ; and the scribe's palette, with two little cavities for his black and red inks. It may be seen ti (260) Walton : Prohgrmiena ; ii. par. 26, p. 19. (261) Lepmis: Denkmiiler; and supra, p. 238; fig. 154. (262) lOid.; Brifife atis ^gypten, ^thiopien, &c.; Berlin, 1852; pp. 37, 38 — "Superintendent of all constni» Gons of the king." (353) Atom n. c. 625—2 Kings xxii. 8; 2 Cfiron. xxxiv. 14. (264) Pauthier-; C/iifie; pp. 24-26. (265) llnd.; p. 53. 81 642 PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS on all monuments of the IVth Dynasty: (266) and its presence proves that writing must liave fa been common enoiigh in Egypt during ages antecedent. So again, here is A — a roll of joo'/'.yre/.s-paper, a volume, tied with strings — meaning a "Book." Its presence upon the monuments, not merely of the Xllth, but of the Vlth, and even of the same old IVth dynasty, establishes that the invention ot paper, and the usage of written volitvies, antedate the earliest hieroglyphics now extant. It would require an especial treatise to convey to readers any adequate idea of the copi- ousness of ancient Egyptian documents written on papyrus-][>a^er existing and deciphered at the present day. There are some of the IVth (b. c. 3400) and succeeding dynasties down to the Xllth b. c. 2200) in legible preservation; but the great "age of the Papyri" belongs to the XVIIth and following dynasties ; (267) that is, from the 17th century B.C. downwards. Independently of the thousands of copies of the " Book of the Dead," there are poems, account-books, co?itracts, decrees, chronological lists, histories, romances, scientific essays, — in short, it is really more difficult now to define what there is not, than to catalogue the enormous collections of Papyri, some written ages before Moses's birth, existing in European cabinets. At foot we indicate where the curious inquirer may satisfy himself upon the accuracy of this statement. (268) And if he wishes to behold the transitio?is of Egyptian writing from the hieroglyphic into the hieratic, he need only open Lepsius's Denkmiilcr. {2Q9) We have no space to enlarge upon these facts here, which the writer's Lecture-rooms have exhibited in most of the chief cities of the Union. All which premised, as facts at this day open to everybody's verification, the reader comprehends that, if picture-\f r'liing, as well on the Nile as on the Hoang-ho, was the first stage towards phonetic orthography ; nevertheless, according to monumental evidences, the Egyptians had already been inscribing their thoughts in perfect hieroglyphics, "sacred sculptured characters," a thousand years before the Chinese had perfected a system of ideo- graphics, to us represented by their primitive character Kou-wen. It is from Champollion's Grammaire Egyptienne {270) that the reader must draw clear definitions of Nilotic classifications into the phonetic, figurative, and symbolical, elements of calligraphy: and Mr. Birch's definition of Egypt's pristine 16 monosyllabic articulations — ^> ^1 /) 9' ''' ^ ^'' '"' '*' J*' '" '^ ^' *' ^ *^' ^^'' "' — ^^ *^^® most accessible to the English reader. (271) For Chinese analogies and discrepancies, as said before, there is no satisfac- tory work but the Sinica-^Egyptiaca. Through their study the reader will glean how — starting both from the same springs, although chronologically and geographically distinct, viz., PICTURE-WRITING — the Egyptian rivulet, gushing forth naturally in one direction, formed the hieroglyphics; whence, in due time, through Semitish channels, streamed those mighty rivers that, from Chaldea, have watered Europe, Hindostan, Northern Asia, Africa, America, and Aus- tralia, with the refreshing rills of Phcenicia's alphabet: and how the Chinese fountain, its waters taking an opposite direction, created the ideographics ; which, cramped within gutters artificially if ingeniously conceived, have enabled the Chinamen to attain a system, it is true, essentially phonetic, and which, originating in a Mongolian brain, suffices for all the necessities of Mongol articulations: notwithstanding that ABC are as alien to its complex construction as our English language is remote from the agglutinations of an Indian, or the " gluckings " of a Hottentot. The Chinese never have had an alphabet. It is impossible, without organic changes which human history does not sanction, that the Sinico-Mongol ever can possess that, to us the simplest, method of chronicling our thoughts. (266) Lkpsius; Chronologie ; i. p. ?.."?: — Todtenbuch; 1842; Pref. p. 17; — B[.\SL>. Eg's PI.; i. p. 8. (267) IIlNCKS: Trans. Ji. 7risli Acad. ; 1S46. (2GS) Select Piipyri; publi-shed by tlie British Museum; —Lepsius: Chronologic; i. pp. 39, 40 ; — Prisse, Db Rouofc, iind CiiAMi'oi.i.ioN-FiGEAC's papers, in the Rcvae Archcologiqite ; — and Birch's in Trans. X. Soc. Lit., and Id the Arcliceolngia ; Ac. (269) Ahtli. ; ii. bl. 98, 99. (270) A syuoptira! sketch is in Guddon : Chapters; 1843. .{27 IJ Gliddon: Otia- pp. 113-115; but better in Lepsius: Vorlaujlgt Nachricht ; 1849; p. 35. ON THE ART OF WRITING. 643 In consequence of wliich reflections, fortified by tlie pliysical deiluctions elsewhere em- bodied in "Types of M.uikiinl," we have assigned to MoNOOL-oriy/vi* a distinct column in our tlieoretical Tableau of human palteogiaphic history. For tlie objects of anthropology, the above explanatory remarks would be sufficient, were not notions current among those readers, who look to theology for biblical ci'iteria, to metaphysics for archeeological — Ist., that the " Chinese" are recorded in Scripture; and ergo, that Mongolian races were familiar to Jewish writers; 2d., that "Chinese vases" have been found in tombs of the XVIIIth dynasty at Thebes; and ergo, that Egypt and China were in positive communication about the time of Moses. (272) So we digress. Once upon a time an adage prevailed in literary controversies — Cave hominem unius libri. Through what impairing causes is to us unknown, but certain it is, that in proportion as one ascends in English theological literature to the Kennicotts, Warbui-tons, Lowtlis, Cud- worths, Stillingflcets, Waltons, and other intellectual giants of that deceased school, so one's respect for divines and one's reverence for Scripture augment. They had one book to study professionally, and that book they knew well ; because they actually read it. It would appear that there are cycles of deterioration, as evident in theology as in the weather, to judge by what took place in China about a. d. 1368; and inasmuch as our inquiries first concern the Chinese, it is but fair that they should open proceedings. The Emperor Iloung-Wou, appalled at the degradation of scholarship consequent upon the tragic events that preceded him, one day convoked the "Tribunals of Literature" (equivalent to the French Ministere d'Instruction Publi(iue),(273) and made to them a com- mon sense speech, the pith of which is here in extract : " The ancients," said he, " the ancients used to write but few books, but they made them good. . . . Our modern Utterati write a great deal, and upon subjects that cannot be of the slightest real utility. . . . The ancients wrote with perspicacity, and their writings were suited to the comprehension of everybody. ... In former times their works were read with pleasure, and one reads them at this day [a. d. 1308, in China!] with the same. . . . You [addressing himself to the Censors of the Press], you, who stand at the head of literature, make all your efforts to restore good sense: you will never succeed but by imitating the ancients. (274) In the days between Walton and Kennicott, a theological student who might have ven- tured to opine that the Chinese are mentioned in the Bible, would have been sent inconti- nently to read the Hebrew text of Isaiah. (275) When this task was executed (and, for- merly, divinity students could read a little Hebrew), the young man would have found a place on the lowest form, by command of the Professor of History, for ignorance of the rudiments of his class. Shame would soon have impelled an ingenuous youth, of those days gone by, to cram his head with simple facts of which some of his elders in theology now seem unaware. (27t)) Chinese history — in this question the most valid — proves that, until the year 102 after Christ, the Chinese never knew of the existence of any countries situate north and west of Persia. Between the years 89-106 a. d., in the reign of Ho-Ti, a vast Chinese army, under General Kan-Ying, detached by the Commander-in-Chief, Pan-tchao, halted on the shores of the Caspian Sea: (277) receiving the submission of the Tad-j'ks (Persians) and (272) Vide Oijddon's IVth LKcture — reported in "Daily Dispatch," March 18; and in "Richmond Examiner," March 21; Jiidimond. Va., 18.51. Also, more cxten.eively, in "The Union," Washington, D. C, April 26, 1851. The abufive writers alluded to in that di?cour.«e, as " Mere youths in science, and to fame unknown." were the reverend authors of "Unity of the Human Races," 1850; of an article in the Privcelrm Jteview, i851 ; and of a third article, the one prclauded [supra, p. 587]. afl emanating from an Ass. of Miu. at Col., S. C. (27.3) Ed. Biot: Essai sur f litslriKtinn publi/jue en Chine ; 1846. (274) Pauthier : Chine cTapris Us Documents Chinois; pp. 393, 394. (i7.5) Isaiah; xlix. 12. (276) Rev. Thomas Smtthk, D.D. : Unity nf the TTuman Races; 1850; p. 43; — Rev. Dr. Howe: Southern Pre*- hyterian Revievj ; Columlria. S. C, No. 3, Jan. ISil ; &c. (277) Remusat: Mem. sur Extension de P Empire Chin, du coU de V Occident; — Pauthier, Chine; pp. 258-260 644 PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS of the Asi [svpra, MaGUG, p. 471]. A powerful interest, however, incited these last to withhold correct information on western countries from the Chinese oiBcer ; viz. : that, hitherto, they had held the monopoly of the raw silk trade, by caravan, between China and the West ; wliich silk, dyed and woven into then-priceless raiments by the Parthians, found its way occasionally to the grandees of Europe ; and, on the other hand, one of the prac- tical motives which carried Roman eagles to the Tigris, was a hope to discover the un- known source whence the crude material of these exquisite fabrics had reached Persia. It was during this, the most distant military expedition ever undertaken before Genghis- Khan, that the Chinese heard, for the first time, of the existence, far west from the Asi, of the Roman Empire. Deterred from advance for its conquest by the discouraging report of the Parthians that his commissariat ought to be supplied for three years, the Chinese General renounced the enterprise, and returned to headquarters at Khotan. From the opposite direction, the arms of Rome had not been turned towards Persia until, about b. c. 53, Pro-Consul Crassus perished by Parthian arrows on the western fron- tier of Persia; some 155 years before the Chinese had penetrated to its south-eastern pro- vinces. Within four years after the retrograde march of the Chinese armies, Parthia was invaded by Trajan, a. d. 106 ; and it was about that generation, a few years more or less, that the Romans first heard, through the Persians, of the remote country whence the silk came. (278) In a. d. 166, Antoninus sent the first Roman embassy to China; the hospitable reception of which is chronicled, by contemporary Chinese annalists, in the reign of their Emperor Houan-Ti. No nations, then, situated to the north-west of Persia, so far as history or monuments relate, had ever heard of China ; nor had the Chinese known anything about such nations until after the Christian era. Surmises to the contrary require, nowadays, to be justified by something more substantial than the ipse dixit of moderns, however erudite, whose opinions were formed before geographical criticism had fixed the boundaries of antique intercommunicational possibilities. With this historical basis, let us take up the only word in the entire canon of Scripture, upon which living theologists have erected a fable, that the Chinese are mentioned in the Old Testament. Even king James's version suffices for this discussion : — " Behold these [the Jewish Babylonian exiles] shall come from far ; and, lo, these from the north and from the west; and these from the land of Sinim.'\279) "Our modern Iittera!i," says the Em- peror Houng-Wou, "write a great deal; " and sustain that Sinlm means the Chinese; be- cause, after stripping away the Hebrew plural IM, there remains the word SIN ; and the native name of China is THSIN. Now, the whole context of the prophet refers to the return of the Jews from bondage in Babylonia. It must, therefore, be in Mesopotamian vicinities that the SIN* — "inhabitants of SIN ;" or, otherwise, "cities, districts, localities of" SIN — should be sought for, before traversing Central Asia, in such impassable ages, to recall from China unknown Jewish fugitives who might have escaped thitlier from Babylonia. The root SIN of Isaiah is not SINI ; (280) and, furthermore, that SINzow was a Ca- naanite. Nor is it either of the "wildernesses of SIN " familiar to the Mosaic Israelites; because the first, (281) spelt with the letter sameq, lay close to Egypt: and the second (282) was T.siN, near the Dead Sea. Far less could it have meant the Egyptian city of Pelusium; called Sin, (283) or dialectically T/tIN, anciently, as Teen now by the Arabs. Why travel to China, when Mesopotamia itself oflfers to every eye, in an excellent map, (284) at the (278) On " Serica," and the fact that little or nothing was known about it by writers antecedent to ClaudiuB Ptolemy, in the second century after Christ ; compare the excellent critique of Anthon, Class. Did., voce " Seres." (279) Isaiah i xlix. 12. (280) Genesis; x. 17: supra, p. 031. (281) Kxnehts; xvi. 1; xvii. 1. (2S2) Numbers; xiii. 21; — Deuterorwmy ; xxxii. 51; &c. (283) K/.KKIEI,: XXX, 1.5, 16. (284) Frasek: Mesopotamia; 1841 ; — Xenophon : Anab.; lib. il. 4. ON THE ART OF WRITING. 645 mouth of the river Lycus, the vestiges of a city termed Kainai by Greeks, Ccence. by Ro- mans, and Senn by Arabians? Or, if it be absolutely necessary to obtain SINIM (more SlNs than one), add to the preceding Smn the site of Sina^ (285) about fifty miles north- eastward of Mosul; together with the "large mounds" called Sen, ou the banks of the Euphrates, opposite Dair. One, or two, or all of these localities, amply sufiBce for the extreraest points whence the Jews were to be summoned from captivity ; and, singly or collectively, they are compre- hended in the LXX translation; where )j Ilepcraiv — "from a land of the Persians." Aside from the obvious adaptation of these places, near the Euphrates or the Tigris, to the natural sway of Nebuchadnezzar who captured the Jews, no less than of Cyrus and Artaxcrxes who released them ; it is physically impossible, as well as unhistorical, that ancient Jews should have been expatriated to China: a country none of their descendants ever reached until centuries after the Christian era. (286) It is equally out of the question that the Septuagint translators could have known anything of China — a land bej'ond the horizon of Alexandrian knowledge previously to the time of Trajan, about a century after c. ; or some 230 years after the various Hellenistic-Jews, called the LXX \\Lbi mj)Ta^, had completed their labors. Indeed, they pretend to nothing of the kind ; for they well knew that the SINIM were in the "land of the Persians; " while Orientalists of the present day always understand, with the Chaldee paraphrast, "from the southern country" of Assyria, in that passage. (287) We forbear from reagitating here the question elsewhere treated, whether there were really " twelve tribes " of Israel before the times of Sennacherib ; nor what became of the ten said to have remained — where ? Some moderns (288) claim that these Israelites marched round by Behring's Straits into America ; and, after building the cities of ancient Mexico and Peru, have run wild in our woods — in short, unaccountably become our Indians. Others have sought for them in Aflfghanistan; (289) although the portraits of Dost-Moham- med, Shah-Soojah, and their fierce cavaliers, are as little Jewish in lineaments as are their speech, and still more their bellicose habits : for the Bible shows that the Jews of Pales- tine, except under supernatural circumstances, were beaten and enslaved by any adjacent tribe that happened to covet their persons or property. If ever supposititious offshoots of the "ten tribes" wandered as far as Cabul, Bokhara, Balkh, or Samarcand, they were Jews at their migration, and Jews they would have remained in type and in religion, if cer- tainly not in language. Wolff found his compatriots everywhere. Indeed, we know, pei'- sonally and positively, that had the reverend renegade not been a true Hebrew, he could never have traversed Central Asia in I832-'5. But he narrates that the fathers of those who kindly welcomed him, on the score of his inextinguishable Judaism, had established themselves in Affghan provinces very long after the fall of Jerusalem. We also know that Arabs (to the Abrahamidte clo.sely allied) settled in Persia, Khorassan, Balkh, &c., ever since the Muslim invasion, one thousand years ago, having rarely intermarried with Tartars, remain physiologically distinct to this day. Yet while they have preserved the name, reli- gion, and appearance of Arabs, they have lost their Arabian language. (290) So it is with the HeVjrew nation in every clime — indelibility of physical type, coupled with a most pliant faculty for change of tongue. If, then, exactly "ten tribes" of Israel were swept away into Chaldea, they did but return to their aboriginal centre of creation ; and (mixing volun- tarily with no type of mankind but their own) they have naturally disappeared amid the (285) Latard: Se.cnnd Expedition, Bahyltm ; 1853; Map of Journeys ; and p. 297 (286) About 60,000 .Jews are reputed to be there now; others reached .Malabar about A.o. 490; — See Nott: Phys. Hist, of the Jewish Race; 18.i0; pp. 12, 13; and supra, pp. 117-12-3. (287) Cahex: Bihh; ix. p. 176, note 12. (288) Delafield: American Anti'iuities. (289) DtBEUx: AfijlianiMan ; pp. 65, 66. (290) Malcolm: Jlislnry of Persia; 1815; p. 277 ; — Morier : Second Journey through Persia ; 1818; i. pp. 4" «»; — Pickering: Races; 1848; p. 240. 646 PAL^OGRAPHIC EXCURSUS •B-aves of a homogeneous population. These opinions, long avowed by the authors, are confirmed by the views and new facts of Layard.(291) But we finish with orthodoxy's "Chinese": — From !i previously small feod of the Celestial Gates, called Thsin, given by Hiao-Wang, about B. c. 909, to one of his jockeys, issued a line of piinces whose constant acquisitive- ness had enabled them, by the year b. c, 249, to incorporate a fifth part of the Chinese realm, and to extend over it their patronymic title of Thsin. Out of this stock sprung Thsin- Chi-Hoang-Ti, at once the Augustus and the Napoleon of China — founder of the fourth or Thsin dynasty, whose name signifies " the first absolute sovereign of the dynasty of Thsin." .About B. c. 221, all the principalities of China were consolidated under his supreme sway; and, as a consequence, the name Thsin became, in common parlance, synonymous with the ■whole empire. Proud of his mighty exploits, although detesting the individual, the Chinese, from and after his day, adopting the word Thsin as typical of China itself, origi- nated the Hindoo appellative " Tchina," whence we inherit our corrupt designation "China." Under these circumstances we tender to future sustainers of Chinese in Scrip- ture a many-horned dilemma : — Either the Prophet Isaiah (whose meaning is so naturally explained above) by the word SINIM does not refer to the Chinese, or inasmuch as the Chinese empire was not called Thsin previously to b. c. 221 — which is about 450 years after Isaiah wrote — the verse 12 of chapter xlix of the book called "Isaiah" cannot possibly have been penned by Isaiah, but is the addition of some nameless interpolator: who must have lived, too, later than the first century after Christ, when the existence of China first became known, under its recent name Thsin, to nations dwelling west of the Euphrates. The writers called the "Seventy" knew nothing of this absurd Chinese attribution, as their "Land of the Persians " attests. Were it not for them who thus had paraphrased SINIM between b. c. 260 and 130, the interpolation of a mere verse, after the year a. d. 100, in a prophetic book wherein whole chapters had been previously interpolated, would excite small surprise among biblical exe- getists. " If, for example," writes the great Hebraist of the " Bibliotheque Imperiale," (292) " in a prophetic book, bearing the name of Isaiah, they speak to you of the return from Babylonish exile ; if they go so far as even to name Cyrus, who is posterior to Isaiah by about two centuries, be assured that it is not Isaiah who speaks." And if that explanation does not satisfy theological exigencies, then let some people bear in mind that the word SINIM occurs in the forty-ninth chapter of Isaiah ; and that, according to the highest biblical critics of Germany, whose mouth-piece is the eminent Professor of Theology at Basle, (293) " the whole of the second part of the collection of oracles under Isaiah's name (xl. — Ixvi.) is spurious." But they say Chinese vases have been found in tombs of the Mosaic age in Egypt; and, ergo, that China was known some 3300 years ago to the ancient Egyptians. The archaeological interest of this alleged fact has been revived in the present year by two new phases : — First. The presence at New York, among a variety of Egyptian antiquities, less authentic, of — "No. 626. — A Chinese vase, with 17 others of different forms. All found in tombs. Some from Thebes; others from Sakharah and Ghizeh. " These vases are curious, inasmuch as they prove the early communication between Egypt and China. Vide Rosoleni [.v/c for Rosellini] ; Sir Gardner Wilkinson's Manners ami Customs; Sir John Davis's Sketches, of China, p. 72, and llevue Archoeologique, by Ml. E. Prisse. " No. 627. — A Chinese padlock, found in the tombs at Sakharah." (294) This last bijou is a confirmation of ancient intercourse between Pharaonic Egypt and (291) Op. cit. ; pp. 373, 38.3-386. (29-2) Munk: Pahstine; p. 420. (2VX) Dk Wette: Parker's tran.sl. ii. p. 336; and also IIenxell: Orig-inof Christianity ; 1845; pp. S54, 355 (294) "Catalogue of a Collection of Egyptian Aniiquilie.s. the property of Uenry Abbott, M. D., now exbibiting »t the .Staiyvesant Institute, No. 609, Broadway, New York "; 1853 ; p. 44. ON THE ART OF WRITING. 647 China, of which orthodox navigation may well be proud, especially now that two additional vases have been discovered since Joseph Bonomi, in his sly way, indicated the extreme rarity of such antiques at Cairo, 1843. "No. 254. — Padlock, Chinese, said to be found at Sakhara. " No. 255. — Thirteen Chinese bottles, of the usual form, and with the inscription in the Chinese characters : and three bottles of ditferent shape, found in Egyptian tombs, both in Upper Egypt and Sakhara. The larger portion of this collection was found in Sakhara. Bottles exactly similar may be purchased in the perfume bazaar of Cairo; and in 1842 the JaLuissary of the Prussian Mission purchased ten of them." (295) Sfcond. The deterration of two similar Chinese vases by Layard, one from the mound of Arban, and another from its vicinity. These are the more precious as they show the ortho- dox and primeval overland route of Egypto-Chinese intercourse by way of Assyria, in ages preceding the discovery of the monsoons, about a. d. 45, by the Greek pilot Hippalus.(290) " In a trench on the south side of the ruin, was found a small green and white bottle, inscribed with Chinese characters. A similar relic was brought to me from a barrow in the neighbourhood. Such bottles have been discovered in Egyptian tombs, and considerable doubt [not the remotest] exists as to their anti(juity, and as to the date and manner of their importation iuto Egypt. [Note. — Wilkinson, in his 'Ancient Egyptians,' vol. iii. p. 107, gives a drawing of a bottle precisely similar to that described in the text, and mentions one which, according to Rosellini, had been discovered in a previously unopened tomb, believed to be of the eighteenth dynasty. But there appears to be considerable doubt on the subject.) The best opinion now is, that they are comparatively modern, and that they were brought by the .Irahs, in the eighth or ninth century, from the kingdoms of the far East, with which they had at that period extensive commercial intercourse. Bottles pre- cisely similar are still oifered for sale at Cairo, and are used to hold the kohl or powder for staining the eyes of the ladies." (297) Since the conquest of Algeria, Parisian naturalists have been constantly employed by the French Government to collect every specimen of natural history that region affords. One of these enthusiastic savans, lamenting that his predecessors had exhausted the resources of the country, was supplied by the Zouaves with sundry live examples of a wild rat, the species of which was entirely unknown at the Jardins desPlantes. The soldiers called it rat d trompe. On arrival of these novelties at the Museum, (298) it was perceived that each rat was adorned by a flexible and hairy proboscis. In time these appendages hap- pening to drop off, some assistant ascertained that the malicious Zouaves had inserted an amputated tail of one species of rat into the nasal cartilage of another! It behooves archaeologists, therefore, to view any such marvels as Sinico-Nilotic "padlocks" with more than caution ; for, as De Longp^rier, the Conservator of the Louvre iSIuseum, writes to De Saulcy, Director of the Musi^e d'Artillerie, "above all things, now-a-days, gardons nous des rats d trompe." Chinese vases, of the genus mentioned, having been familiar things to the writer ever since his boyhood's visit to Cairo in 1823, no less than during his official residence there from 1831 to 1841, it was against his wishes (while aiding his revered friend Morton with a few hieroglyphical indices in 1842-3) that the following passage ever saw the light without some qualifying reservation : " That the Chinese had commercial intercourse with the Egyp- tians in very early times, is beyond question ; for vessels of Chinese porcelain, with inscrip- tions in that language, have been repeatedly found in the Theban catacombs. (Wilkin- son's Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii. p. 108.)" (299) But Dr. Morton relied upon the accuracy of Wilkinson, and the latter upon that of Rosellini, (800) as to the matters of fact; at the (295) BoNOsn : Catalogue of ditto : Cairo, 1846 ; pp. 25, 26, 35. [Printed in London. We saw its proof-sheeta there.] (296) Punt: lib. vi. p. 26. (297) Babylon : p. 279. (298) Vide Uistmre NaturdU de M^f. Us Professeurs avsc Jardins des Plantes: V2ino, Paris, 1S47. (299) Crania Ai:gyptiaca : 1844; p. 63. (300) Compare Ciiampoi.lio.n-Figeac: £gi/pte Ancienne : 1840; voce "Nechao," p. 369; and SVolice sur deur Orammaires de. la tangue Cnpte: June, 1842; pp. 7-10. The perusal of these two critiques might benefit th» author of Hora .lEgyptiaae. 648 PAL^OGRAPIIIC EXCURSUS same time that, in the United States, there was no sinologist to whom we could refer the inscriptions themselves. Nor, indeed, was it until the writer studied at Paris, (301) in the winter of 1845-6, that appeal had ever been made from the learned opinion of Davis. (302) In the letter cited at foot, the Chinese scholar defends his view against the " Quarterly," (February, 1835) ; which maintained that these vases could not have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs — that the supposition of their being so found depended upon hearsay; neither Lord Prudhoe, Mr. Wilkinson, nor Mrs. Bowen (quondam Mrs. Col. Light), having seen those specimens they had purchased at Coptos and Thebes, extracted from any ancient tomb. To repel which attack, Davis exhibits a letter from Rosellini to the effect, that he saw one withdrawn from an ancient tomb during the Tuscan excavations at Thebes, in 1828-9. And thus, the only archasological process of determining the vastly important fact ' of Pharaonic intercourse with China, so far as depended upon these vases, stood over until, at the writer's suggestion, and in his presence, /o?. 13(> 3751 Rabbi Lipman 3616 Cliristian Divines. Clemens Alexandrinus, A. D. 194 5624 Hales, Rev. Dr 5411 Origen, , K. D. 2.30 4830 Kennedy, Bedford, Ferguson 4007 Usher, Lloyd, Calmet 4004 Ilelvetius, Marsham 4000 Melancthon 3964 Luther 3961 Scaliger 3950 These are mere excerpts of 120 different opinions, on the date of Creadon, tabulated by "Hales. (337) This list can easily be swelled to above 300 distinct and contradictory hypo- .theses. Between the highest epoch, B. c. G984 (the Alphonsine tables), and the lowest, ■B. c. 3616 (Rabbi Lipman), there is the trifling difference of 3268 years! It is but fair to set off Catholic against Protestant authorities, so we cull a few more instances from the learned pages of De Brotonne (338). — "Among authors who deny the eternity of the world, not one, from its creation to the advent of Jesus Christ, counts more than 7000 years, nor less than 3700." He also supplies a schedule of 70 more disputants, ranging between b. c. 6984 and 3740, from Riccioli ; (339) but the subjoined are some of his own, extra. Suidas 6000 TJici-phorus, Constantinopolitanus 5500 Kusebius Caesariensis 5200 8t. Jerome, and Beda 3952 Hilanon 5475 fit. Julian, and the LXX 5205 B.C. Hehrew Text 3834 St. Isidore 6336 Montanus 3849 Vossius 5590 Petavius (Romanist authority) S983 (335) Gospel of Nicodemus : chap. xxii. — Apocbryphal New Testament, pp. 51, 62. (336) General Epistle of Barnabas; xiii. 4: op. at. ; p. 101. (3.37) Analysis: i. p. 212. 338) Filiations et Migrations des Paiple.i: Paris, 1827; 428-436. (339) Chronologiarefomiata: pp. 290-292, 293. INTRODUCTORY, 659 Riccioli shows that computations upon different exemplars of the LXX oscillate, also, between a maximum of 5904 years b. c, and a minimum of 5054, for the Creation alone! Nevertheless, "Coelura ipsum petimus stultitia." Not satisfied with human inability to define, through biblical or anysoever methods of reckoning, the age when Creative Power first whirled our incandescent planet from the sun's fire-mist, some intelligences, at the supernatural stage of mental development, have actually fixed the month, day, and hour.! " And now hee that desireth to know the yeere of the world, which is now passing over us this yeere 1644, will find it to bee 5572 yeeres just now finished since the Creation; and the year 5573 of the world's age, now newly begiiiine this September at the /Equinox." (Z^O) Anno Mundi I; " Vlth dtiii of Creation, . . . his (Adam's) wife the weaker vessell : she not yet knowing that there were any Devils at all . . . sinned, and drew her liusbaiid into the same transgression with her; tliis was about high noone, the time of eating. And in this lost condition into which Adam and Eve had now brought themselves, did they lie ccmifort- lesse till towards the cool of the day, or three o'cloc/f af'ternoone. . . . (God) expelleth them out of Eden, and so fell Adam 07i the day that he was created." (341) " We do not speak of the theory set forth in a work entitled Nottveau Si/.stime dex Temps, byGibert father and son. This system, which is not so new as its title seems to announce, gives to the world only 3600 years of duration down to the 1st July, 1834; and makes Adam's birth 1797 years before J. C, on the 1st July." (342) " It is, besides, generally allowed by Chronologists, that the beginning of the patriarchal year was computed from the autumnal equinox, which fell on October 20th, b. c. 4005, the year of the creation." (343) But the Promethean intrepidity of orthodoxy is not content with mathematical demon- strations of the year, the month, the day, nor the hour of Creation. It ascends, in some extatic cases, far beyond.' Thus, Philomneste heads an especial chapter with " Anteyenesie — What God was about before the creation of the world." (344) Albeit, none of these profanations of science contain one solitary element, in regard to Creation, that is strictly chronological. " Passons au Deluge" (345) — let us descend to the Flood; and see what resting-place a "dove" could find amid these wastes of waters and of time. For the Epochas of the Deluge, out of sixteen opinions published by Hales — maximum, b. c. 3246; minimum, 2104; differ- ence 1142 years — the following are singularly in accordance: — B. c. Septuagint version 3246 Samaritan Text iegs English Bible 2348 Hebrew Text 2288 Joseph us 3146 Vulgar Jewish computation 2104 Hales 3155 Usher 2348 Calmet 2344 So are also the intervals of time assigned, by the subjoined computators, to mundane existence, between the Creation and the Flood. AVe borrow them from De Brotonne. Cre.\tion to Deluge. TEARS. Josephus 2256 Suida.', Nicephorus, Eusebius, St. Julian, St. Isi- dore 2242 Clemens Alexandrinus 2148 nilarion 2257 Vossius, Ricio'i 22.i6 Cornelius a Lapide 1657 YE.4RS. Later Rabbis, St. Jerome. Beda, Montanus, Sca- liger, Orifraiius. Emmius, Petaviu.-. Oonionus, Salianu.s, Torniellus, Hervartus, Pliilippi, Ti- riiius, Riccioli 16M St. Augustine — "From Adam to the Deluge, a., upon MSS. of the Samaritan Pentateuch, which generally yield an interval between the Creation and the Deluge of years 1307. The basis of all these calculations lies in the hyperbolical lives of the ten antedihivian Patriarchs. It will be seen, through the skilful synopsis of a learned divine, how admir- ably the numerals of the Hebrew and Samaritan texts correspond, not merely with each other, but with those of the Septuagint version, and of Josephus: — " The following tabular schemes exhibit the variations ; the numbers expressing the parent's age at the son's birth, except in the cases of Noah and Shem.(346) Ante-Diluvian Patriarchs. 1. Adam 2. Helh 3. Enos 4. Cainan 5. MahalaJeel.... 6. Jared 7. Ennch 8. Methuselah.... 9. Lumech 10. JVoah (at the Flood) * 165 is (iouM-l less the correct > Total reading. J Hebr. Samr. LXX. Josep. 130 130 230 230 105 105 205 205 90 90 190 190 70 70 170 170 65 65 165 165 162 62 162 162 65 65 165 (1)65* 187 67 187 187 182 53 188 182 600 600 600 600 1656 1307 2262 2256 Post - Diicvian Patriarchs. 11. Shem (aged 100 at the Flood) 12. Arphaxad [Cainan spurious... 13. .SWn/i U. Bfljpr 15. l^dcg 16. Beu 17. Serug 18. Nahor 19. Terah (Gen. xi. 32, xii. 4.) So to Abraham . Hebr. Samr. Lx?;. Josep. 2 2 2 12 35 135 135 130 135 30 130 130 130 34 134 134 134 30 130 130 1.30 32 132 132 130 30 130 130 132 29 79 79 120 130 130 130 130 352 1002 1002 1053 The above, like all other tables compiled by theological computators to illustrate so- called "Biblical chronology," assumes the numerals of current printed exemplars to be correct ; but, if we set to work, archaeologically, to verify the original Hebrew, Greek, and Samaritan manuscripts, we find even this apparent uniformity to be a delusion — indeed, another orthodox figment. A few instances pleasingly exhibit this fact (347) : — " In one of the manuscripts collated by Dr. Kennicott, and which is marked in his Bible, codex clvii., this century [in the Hebrew generation of Jared] is omitted, and there is much probability that it was also omitted in the copies used by the eastern Jews. According to the testimony of Ismael Sciahinshia, an eastern writer, all these copies reckon only 1556 years from Adam to the flood, instead of 1656. . . . According to the numbers still existing in the vast majority of [Greek] manuscripts, Methuselah dies 14 years after the deluge, and had not the fifty-three, of the generation of Lamech, been changed to eighty-eight, he would have died 49 years after the deluge. . . . The deluge occurred, according to the Sep- tuagint, in the year of the world 2242, and by adding up the generations previous to his, we shall find that he was born in the year 1287. He lived 969 years, and therefore died in 2256. But this is 14 years after the deluge ! . . . And had they [the theologers] not, by a previous system of changes, added a century [in Greek iMSS-l to all the generations, he would have died 249 years after it. . . . Origen appears to have been the first who gave notoriety to the contradiction ; and for a long time, the fact greatly disturbed theologians. The reader will be hardly surprised to learn that in a subsequent age some manuscripts were found with the error corrected. . . . Some [Greek MSS.'\ make the generation of Adam 330 years ; one makes it 240. Another gives 180 to Canaan, a third 170 to Jared, while others allow 177 or 180 to Methuselah. . . . One [Hebrew] manuscript, codex Ivii. of Holmes, makes the age of Methuselah 947 : three or four other authoi-ities make the gene- ration of Lamech 180 : the two corrections conjoined, bring the death of Methuselah to the year of the deluge. We also find three other authorities making the generation of Methuselah 180 years; this connected with the 188 of Lamech, places the death of Methuselah onli/ one year after the deluge, even allowing him full age. Another manuscript makes his generation 177 years, three other authorities give the number 165. wiiile one manuscript makes his total age 965. . . . Dr. Kennicott has given readings of 320 Hebrew manuscripts of the book of Genesis. 97 of these have been collated throughout, 223 in part only. . . . One manuscript (codex clvii.) omits the hundred years in his [Jarku's] generation; two others (codices ci. and clxxvi.) omit it in that of JNIethuselah : and one (codex xviii.) in that of Lamech. Codex clxxvi. makes the generation of Lamech 172 and his total age 772, and codex xviii. makes his total age 909. . . . We also find that, in three (346) Uev. K. B. Elliott, A. M. : /faraApncalypticm; I^ondon, 1846; iv. p. 254, note. Compare '' Tables of the discrepancies of the three Texts with regard to the Ante-diluvian Patriarchs" in Wallace: DUsertatvm on the True Age rf the Wurld; London, 1844, pp. 14-10. (.347) Uuiikk: Ettinulogical Journal; 1848; pp. 27, 28, 82, 83, 84, 87, 78-91. INTRODUCTORY. 661 or four manuscripts, some of the numbers of Methuselah are written over erasurrx. This, of course, looks suspicious. One manuscript (cotlex civ.) makes Enoch live after the t)irth of Methuselah ' five and sixty and three hundred jears ' [i. e., the old 3G5 dai/s of an Egyp- tian vague year !] , instead of 300 years simply." Thus far Luke Burke in his studies of the Hebreic variations exhibited by Kcnnicott. (348) The annexed Table shows how he found matters iu the Gretk of Holmes. (349) "Table III. Adam Seth Enos Cainan Mahal.u,eel Jared Enoch Bkfore Genkration. 2. 3. 032 \806 flSO \ 140 ( 95 180 65 170 /MSS. 31,121, Aid.- 1 Theop. p. 13. .MS.77 Slav., Arm. Ed MS. 127 . Coptic... MS. e5... .MS. 75... MS. 127 . MS. 106. MS. 127 . MS. 75... MS. X. (MS. 106,107, Com- \ pi., Georg. MS. 75 f MS.71.SIav.,The- ^ op. p. 1.33. MS. I, X. 15,16,55. 59,64.68,83,120, 121,131,135,187. Aid., Alex., Chry- sos. IV., Arm. Ed. and a few others. fMS.75,187,Chry- t PCS. IV. /Arab. 2. Chron. 1 Orient. After Generatiox. 1705 (.800 (705 J 916 (soo 800 830 MS. 135 Slav., Ostrog., 12; MS. 135 " 14, 78, 130,133* MS 127 MS. 127.. MS. 127. 'MS.I.,X.,14,15, 20,25,65,57,59. 64,68.71,73,75, 77.78.79.83.121, 128.130,131,133 135, Aid., Cat Nic. Arm. 1, Arin.Ed.,Arab. 1.2.Alex.,SlaT., & perhaps an- other examin'd by Vos.sius. Arab. 2.. r910 ^902 1.772 795 847 (■947 (965 f 733 755 765 768 f Corrected in the niarein to •! 930, 3011 having been acnvloa, ISS."?; pp. 9, 10, and pi. i. (3fi0) De Area Not'-; 1 vol. fol., Amstenlani, 1675. (301; T/ie Uarmtmy, CImmidc, und Onter tions, one may end in imagining all the periods that one wishes, and in giving them a certain appearance of truth to the eyes of persons who can discuss but the results. A work thus based must pass for non-avenu." But, after all, Ilorce has no " fear of interfering with the Deluge ;" so the work becomes only another thorn in the side of oi'thodoxy. Mr. Wilkinson (1835, supra), devoutly fol- lowing archbishop Usher and the margin of king Jarnes's version, says the date of thn Flood " is 2348 b. c." In its author's first articles, Ilorce had declared — ♦* The date of the accession of Menes, the first king of Egypt, is probably that of the commencement of the first great panegyrical year and first capital year. Eratosthenes and Josephus [say, modern compittators on these ancient writers] place his accession some- what later — namely, about 2300 years b. c, instead of 2715. The history of.the 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, and otli dynasties [of the IV-Vth dynasties, Lepsius found the amplest details, while the author of Horoi dwelt only 15 miles off, at Cairo !] is but scantily furnished us by Manetho and the monuments, and the latter give us but one date [and that fabulous !], that of the commencement of what / have called the second great panegyrical year in the time of Suphis I., the builder of the great pyramid, and second king of Manetho's fourth dynasty, B. c. 2350." (454) Horce thus fixed the building of the great pyramid two years before Wilkinson's Deluge ; and set Mexes on the throne, in Egypt, 367 years before the same authoi-ity's catastrophe. But, it was promptly shown, that Horce, in selecting the year B. c. 2715 for Mexes, had merely stolen another man's thunder (455) : wherefore, when its author came to reprint those twelve articles in an octavo volume, he so translated his hieroglyphics, astronomically, as to obtain two years' difference! — "The commencement of the great panegyrical year which preceded that of the Suphises, / have already shown to be in the year b. c. 2717" (456); and -then he informs us that " the Septuagint chronology dates the Dispersion of Mankind about the year b. c. 2758 ; that is, about 41 years before the era of Menes"! Computations upon the different copies of the LXX, every one of them as rotten as the MSS. themselves, cause the Creation to fluctuate between b. c. 5904, and b. c. 5054. (457) And the above sentence merely shows its penman's incompetency to discuss Septuagint questions. To the reader of our disquisition on Xth Genesis [PeLeG, supra, p. 545], the following specimens of Horce' s biblical knowledge will be amusing; as much as, to use its author's favorite adjective, the latter's credulity is "remarkable": — " / therefore believe that the Vague year was instituted in the time of Noah ; probably by Ham [!]. not by Noah. . . . / have only to notice one other important epoch of Bible history — the dispersion of nations. The division [read "split"] of the earth is indicated as having occurred at the birth of Peleg [a " split"] ; when we are tolii, (Gen. x, 25), ' unto Eber were born two sons ; the name of the one (was) Peleg (or division) ; for in his Jays was the earth divided.' [Vide supra, what tiie Hebrew writer meant!] Now, it was a common custom of Hebrews to name their children from circumstances which occurred at their birth ; and the custom of ancient Arabs was precisely the same, and has continued to the present day. We cannot reckon as exceptions to this the few cases where God changed a name, or imposed a new one ; and in the latter case the old name was retained tvith the new one [I]. The birth of Peleg, according to Dr. Hales, liappened b. c. 2754; (454) Art. XII.; Literary Gazette, Dec. 15, 1S49; p. 910; — compare Art. VII., p. 522. (455) "By my reduction of 'Mauetho'— 2715" B.C.; Guddo.n, Chap., 1843, p. 51 :— and ZTancWooi-, 1849, p. 4' (456) Op. cU.: p. W, and p. 97. (457) RicCTOLi: Cfironol. re/ormata ; p. 293. 86 682 MANKINDS CHRONOLOGY. but, calculated from my date of the Ex- odus, B.C. 2758."(458) — "/say that the Pliaraoh of the Exodus reigned un- doubtedly not more than about one year ; for, although his being drowned in the Red Sea is not expressly men- tioned by MosES, it is so mentioned in the 136th Psalm [what a clinching argument !], and / hold all the books of th'i Bible to be equally true."(459). It is to be deplored that, after being promoted for his Hebraism to a post in the British Museum, " my kind young friend," as the Friend of Moses affectionately terms him, should have expunged these delightful samples of pious feeling from the republication of Horcz in its octavo form. So imbued, we fear, is he likely to become in that enlightened institution with self-immo- lating principles, that it would not sur- prise us to learn through newspapers that Hurce likewise — as Scaliger says, "ut signatius loquar" — for the sake of Oriental literature were to turn Mohammedan. No inclination remains to follow Horce's farthing-rush-light any further. We leave the pupil for the teacher, when we here exhibit on the margin a table printed by AVilkinson in the pamphlet-text accompanying the lat- ter's truly- valuable contribution to archaeological science — The fragments of the Hieratic Papyrus at Turin : con- taining the names of Egyptian Kings, with the Hieratic inscription at the back. Here is that "magnificent error" which the Friend of Moses could not discover by going to Egypt : "Respecting the construction of the table, he observes : ' The relative po- sitions and the lengths of most of these dynasties are founded upon some hind of monumental authority. The rest / have placed within approxima- tive extremes. There are several points of exact [!] contemporaneous- riess, as in the 2nd and 4th and 5th dynasties, again in the fjth and 15th, and in the 9th and 11th; and these, with other evidence of the same nature, enable us to adjust the general scheme of all the dynasties.' " (4(!0) Reader! Suppose a Chinese archas- ologist, with a little red button on his cap, were to come all the way n.c.i 2700 from Pe-kin to America, and tell ug that good old king Eodeut was a 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2G00 •spMqcfoyg ^t^' t^§' f^a r458) Art. X.- Lit. Gaz.; p. Ml. (459) Art. V.; Lit. Gaz.; p. 432. (4G0) llicr. Papyr.; pp. 30, 31, and lahU, p. 31. EGYPTIAN. 683 mythe — tliat the consecutive dynasties of our common English father-land could fit no Hot- tentot's estimate of the chronology of John-Chinaman's sacred book, the Chou-kiny ; unless, after rejecting Boudicea and Caractacus, we were to permit his reduction of Danes, Saxons, Normans, Plantayenels, Lancastrians, Yorkites, Tudors, Stuarts, Orangites, Hanoverians, &c.; together with all Hritish, Scottish, and Irish, periods of anarchy ; not forgetting Cromwell and the Commonwealth ; into one century. Suppose that, after proving why every Anglo- Saxon had erroneously classified, as distinct, those personages, epochas, and historical events, •which the "Tribunals of Literature" of China had pronounced to be identical, the said mandarin were to show us how beautifully the whole could be reduced, through electro- magnetic typography, into one line of a table, and expressed algebraically by an x, repre- senting an infinitesimal fraction of a second of Creative time. What should we say to Hia Excellency " Uncle Josh ".^ Now, whatever the American reader might be pleased to hint to such Chinese mandarin, •would be uttered in demotic tongue with " brutale franchise" by old Maxktho (could his mummy arise) to Sir Gardner Wilkinson, at the first glance over the above table : where in wilful disregard of Lenormant, ChampoUion, Bockh, Barucchi, Bunsen, Henry, Lesueur, Lepsius. Hincks, Kenrick, Pickering, Ampere, De Rouge, Birch, and of every hierologist past, present, and to come, the gallant Knight has made the Illd, IVth, Vlth (VII), Vlllth Egyptian dynasties (consecutive in Manetho and, where mentioned, serial upon all monu- ments), contemporaneous ! — has actually jammed eleven dynasties, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII, XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, into a space (2200 a 1700) of 500 years! And perpetrated, too, all these inexplicable vagaries with theological applause, when, by placing Mexes (1st dynasty, Thinites) at 2700 b. c, he shows that valiant knighthood, in a. d. 1851, no longer creeps all over " for fear of interfering with the Deluge of Noah ; which [teas) 2348 b. c." before an aspirant to ecclesiastical patronage had won his gilded spurs. We dismiss, therefore, Uorce, ^gijptiacai as beneath scientific notice, reserving to our- selves the privilege of a reviewer's criticism, whenever circumstances may demand its annihilation. With it we snap ofiF the last published peg upon which short-chronology can suspend its clerical hat ; because Mr. Sharpe's arrangement of Egyptian dynasties anterior to the XVIIIth has been respectfully disposed of. When other writers, with hieroglyphical handles to their patronymes, adventure into the rude arena of archaeology as champions of s/ior^chronography, may their armor be well tempered and their lances tough ! The list of Zon^-chronologists, above given, comprehends the "preux chevaliers" of archaeological science at this day. The minimum of their respective dates for Mexes is B. C. 3643 ; the maximum approaches the 6th chiliad B. c. By each authority all biblical computation.s, Hebrew, Samaritan, and Septuagint, are thrown aside among the rubbish of the things that were. " The sum of all the dynasties varies according to our present sources from 4685 to 5049 years ; the number of kings from 300 to 350, and even 500. It is evidently impossible to found a chronology on such a basis, but Syncellus tells us that the number of generations included in the 30 dynasties was, according to Manetho, 113; and the whole number of years, 3555. This number falls much short of what the summation of the reigns would furnish according to any reading of the numbers, but is nearly the same as 113 generations would produce, at any average of 32 years each." (461) Fifteen years ago, the learned ethnographer, De Brotonne, reasoning upon this very number, "3555 de Manethon," obtained b. c. 3901 as " le chifiFre le moins 61ev6 " for Mexes. (462) To neither of the present writers have these results been unknown : — • . " On my return to Cairo [.^pril, 1840, from a voyage with Mr. Harris to the .second cata- ract], I devoted a twelvemonth's leisure to the verification of the solidity of the basis upon which hieroglyphical revelations had placed Egyptian moruimenlal chronology. The result ■was a conviction as profound then, as subsequent researches, — echoed by the voice of uni- versal erudition, and embodied in the works of a host of savans whose names gild the (461) Kenrick: Ancient Egypt umler tlie 2'haran/is: 18G0; ii. p. 93. (462) Filiations et Migrations: i. p. 203. 684 mankind's chronologt. brightest page illuminated by science in the XlXth century, — have since clemonntratcd its accuracy, of the utter impossibility of reconciling AV/v/'/iV/n/c/c/s, geological, topographical, ethnological, hieroglyphical, and historical, with Archbisliop Usher's system of patriarchal chronology. " A inanuscript compilation, over which an old and valued colleague, M. Prisse, and myself wiled away at Cairo many delightful weeks in reciprocal exchanges of our several gleanings, under the title of " Analecta Hieroglypliica," condensed every cartouche, with references to most of the historical monuments, known to hierologists up to April, 1841 ; and, as many personal friends are aware, this manuscript is still a most important ground- text and manual to those who, like myself, are anxious to ascertain the stability of prior investigations, before hazarding the erection of a theoretical superstructure." (403) What, then, is the present state of scientific opinion on the era of Menes ? The reader has it before him in the list on p. 682; and, without perplexing himself with vain speculations founded upon ignorance of the stupendous materials transferred from Egypt to Berlin by the Prussian Mission, let him do as we do, await patiently for the publication, hourly due, of Lepsius's "Book of Kings." The authors may be pardoned when stating that, in books, manuscript-notes, and epistolary communications from Egypt, Italy, France, Ger- many, and England, they probably possess as much specific and detailed information here at Mobile, on Egyptian monumental chronology, as most men in the world, less a dozen European hierologists — with whom they are in agreeable accord. When, therefore, they put forward no dogmatical system of their own, but wait for the " Book of Kings," they act themselves in accordance with the counsel offered to fellow-inquirers. Should Lepsius's work reach their hands before the issue of the present volume, a synopsis of its chron- ology will be appended to our essay. We may also look forward to Biot, the scholarlike astronomer of France, for a profound investigation of the astronomical data, revealed by Egyptian monuments, in their relations to mundane chronology ; (464) which will supersede any future recurrence to the cyclic reveries of such youthful star-gazers as Ilorce. Should, however, a qualified student desire to prepare himself for thorough mastery of Lepsius's "Book of Kings," he should commence with Rosellini's 3Ionumenti Storici ; and, that being fundamentally acquired, his next guide is Bunsen, JEgyptens Stelle in der Weltge- schichte ; wherein most of the royal Egyptian names, discovered up to 1845, are compared with the classical lists, and in which the grand alteration produced by Lepsius's resuscita- tion of the Xllth dynasty (unknown to the lamented Pisan Professor, or, in 1847, to Wil- kinson), is abundantly set forth. " There is no royal road to the mathematics," nor is there a straighter path to the comprehension of Egyptian chronology than the one we indicate ; but, after these two works, the study of Lepsius, Chronologic der j^gypter, " Einleitung, 1849," becomes imperative. Such reader will appreciate the general correctness of the following method of verifying, archeeologically, the progressive layers in which Egyptian history stretches backwards from the Christian era, assumed at 1853 years ago: until the unknown-commencements of Nilotic humanity merge into an undated, but ante-alluvial, period of geology. (465) AVe gladly borrow the first points of departure, in our journey from the Christian era backwards, from Sharpe (466) : — " The reigns of Ptolemy, of Darius, of Cambyses, and of Tirhakah are fixed by the Baby- lonian eclipses. Ilophra and Shishank are fixed because they are mentioned in the Old Testament, since the length of the Jewish reigns, after Solomon, is well known, while those Jewish dates are themselves fixed by the earliest of the Babylonian eclipses in tiie reign of Tirhakah. Thus are fixed [by Mr. Sharpe] in the Table of Chronology the dynasties of Sais, Etliiopia, and Bubastis. Petubastes lived in the first Olympiad; this fixes the dynasties of Tanis." Thus, king by king, and event by event, we ascend with precision back to Alexander the Great, b. o. 332 ; and thence, through the XXXIst, XXXth, XXIXth, XXVIIIth, XXVIIth, (403) Gi.todon: ITuml-bnol- ; London, Madden, 1849; p. 40;— conf. Nott: Biblical and Ptiysical History of ifan: 1849 ; pp. 60-86; — also Chronology, Ancient and Scriptural: South. Quart. Rev., Nov. ISOO. (464) De Kouo15 hev. ArctiCol., Feb. 1853; pp. 656, 686. (46.5) Oliddov: otia; pp. 61-69. (466) ( 'hronology and Geography; 1849; p. 13, and table, pp. 14, 15. EGYPTIAN. 685 XXVIth, XXVth, XXIVth, XXIIId Egyptian consecutive dynasties, back to S/(eS/(oNK, Shishak, founder of the XXTId dynasty; who, conquering Jerusalem "in the Vth year of king Kehoboani," (4(J7) as is hieroglyphically recorded in Karnac, (4G8) enables us to estab- lish a perfect synchronism, between Egyptian and Judaic history at B. c. 971-3. Prior to this date, Egyptian monuments never once refer to the Hebretvs, throw not a glimmer of light upon Jewish annals ; and with Sheshonk also ceases the possibility of fixing any Pharaoh, to him anterior, within 5 or 10 years. Chronology, year by year, stops in fact at B. c. 972; as well in Israelitish as in Nilotic chronicles: although the foundation of Solomon's temple cannot be far removed from b. c. 1000. Leaving Hebrew computation to ascend along its own stream, innumerable Egyptian doc- uments — tablets, papyri, genealogical lists, public and private, together with an astounding mass of collateral and circumstantial evidence, — carry us upward, through the XXIst, XXth, XlXth, and XVIIIth dynasties, reign by reign, and monument by monument, to Ramses I. (Ramesu); whose epoch belongs to the century 15th-lGth b. c. Here intervenes a period, though for a few years only, of anarchy ; represented in the Disk heresy, and by sundry royal claimants ; at the head of whom stands Atenra-Bakhan, or Be^-en-aten ; (4:69) called by Lepsius "Amenophis IV." But upward from his father's reign, Amenoph III, every king is known, with many events of their respective reigns, through hieroglyphical sculptures and papyri, back to the beginning of the XVIlth Theban dynasty, in the reign of AAHMES, Amosis, I; computed, by Lepsius, to be about the year 1671 B. c. At this point, which begins the " Restoration," or " New Empire," after the expulsion of the Hyksos, we lose the thread of annual chronology, for times anterior to the 17th century, before c. We refrain from discussion of the Hyksos, or shepherd kings. (470) They are supposed to occupy the XYIth and XVth dynasties ; and, according to Manetho, their duration covered 611 years of time. The XI Vth dynasty has not been disentangled clearly from the muti- lated lists ; and the hieroglyphical records have not yet spoken intelligibly, although they are numerous. We pause for Lepsius ; and in the meanwhile refer the reader for a sum- mary of the monumental edifices of the Old and the New Empires to his published travels. (471) To us at present this " middle Empire" is chaos ; but, even supposing the XlVth, XVth, and XVIth dynasties could, by a sAor^chronologist, be expunged from Egyptian records, it must be remembered, by Zow^-chronologists, that the XVIlth dynasty stands erect in the 17th century b. c. We leave the "middle Empire's" duration to be adjusted along a sliding scale from zero upwai'd ; and next proceed to show that we possess above 1500 years of positive monuments, behind this "middle Empire," by which all Septuagint computations of the Deluge, at b. c. 3246, or 3I4G, or 3155, encounter a "reductio ad absurdum." The mists begin to clear ofi" as we commence ascending to the latest representatives of the "Old Empire" in the land of K^aM, Ham, Chemmis : viz., the Sebakhetps and Nepherhetpa of the Xlllth dynasty (472) : but, at the Xllth dynasty, the glories of the olden time blaze forth again effulgently; (473) thanks to Lepsius's investigations of the Genealogical Papyrus of Turin. (474) (467) 1 Kingi xiv. 25; 2 Chron. xii. 2. (408) GuDDO.N : Cliapters ; p. 9. (469) Prisse: Leyendcs de Sckai ; Rev. Arch^ol., 1845; pp. 472-474; also his arrangement of these kings, in Wii.Ki.NSOs, Iland-hnok, p. 393 ; — Lepsics : GiJUerkreis ; 1851 ; pp. 40-43 ; — De Roug£ : Lettre d M. Alfred Maury ; Rev. Archeol., 1849; 120-124. (470) GuDDOX: Otia; pp. 44, 45. (471) BrUfe aus ^gyptcn ; pp. 364-369. (472) Bmcn, in Otia JCgyptiaca ; p. 82; and his ITistnrical Tablet of lianises II.; 1852; p. 19; — De Rouafi. Rochers de Semnl ; Rev. Archeol., 1848; pp. 312, 313. (473) BCNSEX : .^yptins Slelte ; ii. p. 271, seq. ; — De Rouof: : Annalfs de r/iilo.ioptiie Chretiennes ; xiv., xv., x vi. , and IIiNCK.s: Turin Book of Kivgs; R. Soc. of Lit. ; iii., part i., pp. 128-150; but con.eiderably emended in WU/- wxson's Papyrus of Kings; 18.')0; "Observations of Dr. E. IIixcKs"; p. 55: — De Roug£: Le Sesostris de la Douziime Dynastie ; Rev. Archeol., 1847 ; pp. 481-489. (474,1 Juswald; Taf. iii., iv., v., vi.: — most superbly recopied by Sir J. O. 'VTilkinson : Fragments of the Hie- ratic Papyrus at Turin; 1851 : but consult also the critical history of this document as displayed by CnAMPOt/- UOX-FlGEAC (Rev. Archeol.), with the caveat that the luckless disposal of these fragments is due to Sevf.uitu alonK 686 MANKINDS CHRONOLOGY. The hieroglyphical names of some of these kings may be consulted in Bunsen ; but we borrow from Lepsius this table of the Xllth dynasty; which cannot become more than slightly modified in his " Book of Kings." (475) " The XIIth Manethonian Dynasty. Accnrding to Maiietho. 1. Amenemhe I alone 9 y'rs 2. Sesurtesen I and Amenemhe I. 7 " Sesurtesen I alone 35 " Sesurtesen I and Amenemhe II 4 " 3. Amenemhe II alone 28 4. Sesurtesen II & Amenemhe II. 10 Sesurtoaen II alone 28 5. Sesurtesen III 38 6. Amenemhe III alone ,... 41 Amenemhe III & Amenemhe IV 1 7. Amenemhe IV alone 8 8. Ea-Sebeknefru 4 Accnrding to the Turin fapyrv^. [Afr.16 Eus.iej 9 y'rs Highest year on the Monuments. 46Ses. I [Afr.46 Eus.46J 45 8. of Am. and Ses. I. 44.ofSes.I=2of Am.II. |.38Am.II [Afr.38 Eus.38] 3(7) « 35. Am. 11=3. Ses IL 28 Ses. II [Afr.48 Eus.48](2)9« 11. — — 38 Ses. Ill [Afr. 8 Eus. 8] 3(7) " 26. — — |42 Am.III[Afr. 8 Eus.42]4(l) « 43. — — 8 Am. IV [Afr. 8 4 Sebek. [Afr. 4 9 y'rs 3 m. 27 d. 6. 3 " 10 " 24 " Total 213 " 1 " 24 " " The XIIth dynasty ends, according to Lepsius, about b. c. 2124. What relics are extant of Xlth dynasty belong to the Enuantefs, (476) including perhaps Ra-nub-Cheper, discovered lately by Mr. Harris. Little can here be related about the Xth, IXth, VIITth, and Vllth dynasties, to be intel- ligible without a lengthy argument ; but the duration of this last is felicitously suggested by Maury. (477) Solid as a rock, however, is the Vlth dynasty ; (478) so is the Vth on the Turin Papyrus and through the recovery of all its kings (but one?) from the tombs opened by the Prussian Commission at Memphis. (479) Of the IVth the vestiges surpass belief, to persons who have not opened the folio plates of Lepsius's Denkmdler ; wherein the petroglyphs of these three dynasties, earliest and grandest relics of antique humanity, are now preserved for posterity, so long as the pyramids of Geezch shall endure. With the Illd dj'nasty Egyptian monuments cease. There is nothing extant of the lid, nor coeval with the 1st dynasty. Their existence is deduced from the high state of the arts, and the extensive knowledge possessed by the denizens of the Nile, as demonstrated by the pyramids, sepitlchrcs, and hierogJyphed records, of the IVth dynasty, compared with the frag- mentary catalogues of Manetho and Eratosthenes, and supported by Graeco-Roman tradition. MENES — Egypt's first Pharaoh — is recorded, in hieroglyphics carved, during the 14th century b. c. at the Theban Ramesium, by Ramses II. as his earliest ancestor; and, in hieratic, on the Turin Papyrus, a document written in the twelfth — 'fourteenth century b. c, "king MeNfli, of a firm life," is twice chronicled. (480) By Lepsius. whose computations we adopt, Menes is estimated to have founded the 1st dynasty of Tldnites about the year B. c. 3893. "There is notliing incredible in such an antiquity of the Egyptian monarchy. "(481) Indeed, long before hieroglyphical discoveries had demonstrated its natural adaptation to all the circumstances of Egypt (when due allowance is made for pre-Menaic chiliads of years for alluvial existence), the researches of mathematicians had pointed to similar results. " On supputing the 11340 years of Herodotus, taken for the Egyptian seasons of three months, we should have 2794 solar years, according to Freret, and 2835 years, according (476) XTcher die Xtui'ilfte JEgyptische. Kiinigsdynastie ; 1853: p. 28. (470) Lekmans: Lettrp a fkdvolini: 18.18; No. 22; — and Lcttre d M. De Witte: Rev. Archfol., 1848, pp. 718- 720; — Bnion, in Olia JEgyptiuca; pp. 80, 81 ; and Tablet nf Siimses 11.; p. 18. (477) Clironnloyie des Dynasties ^gyptiennes: Rev. Archfiol., 1851 ; pp. Ifi6, 167. (478) BiNSF.N: yJCgyplens Slelle: il. p. 191, si>.q.\ — M.^nrBTTE: Fragment du Papyrus linyal de Turin ei li Vlt Oynaslie de ManeJhnn: Rev. Areheol., 1849; pp. 306-315 ;— Hincks : Trans. H. Soc. Lit., Mar. 12, 1S46; p. 137 , and "Observations" in Wilkinson's Papyrus; pp. .5.% 54. (470) Guddon: Otia; p. 38. For all detjiils see authorities in the preceding note. (4S0) Column \., fragment 1, lines 11 and 12; Sir Q. Wilkinson's copy. (481) Kunrick: Op.cit.; p. 110. EGYPTIAN. 687 to Bailly. These fiiiislieil at the reiRn of Sethos ami with the war of Sennacherib, in the year 710 before J. c. Following this hypothesis, the commencement of Menes fell about the year 350-1 b. c, acconling to Freret; and in 3545 B. c, according to Bailly." (482) Having thus indicated to junior students of Egyptian chronology the order in which they should read the works of our common seniors in tiiis technical speciality of science, we will now reverse the process, and exhibit, from MENES downward, the stratifications in which Time's hour-glass has marked, historically, the consecutive events witnessed, during above forty-tiiree centuries, by the Egyptian "Type of Mankind" down to the 4th century after the Christian era; assumed at 1853 years ago. It is a convenient plan to group several portions of Egypt's history into the following separate masses, like the primary, secondary, and tertiary formations of our earth's crust; and to view the dynasties, in those masses included, as if they were so many distinct strata contained in such formations. We thereby divest the subject of the perplexities and du- biousness of arithmetical chronology ; because, the viril existence of Menes, as an historical entity, is no more dependent upon ciphers, than Owen's Dinornis gigantem (in palaeontology) hangs upon a " a. c. 2320 " of a Knight's, or upon a " b. c. 2348 " of an Archbishop's diluvian phantasms. I. — The ANTE-MONUMENTAL period. This of course is an utter blank in chronology. Sci- ence knows not where geology ends, nor when humanity begins ; and the definitive, or artificial systems, current on the subject, are of modern adoption and spurious deri- vation. At what era of the world's geological history the River Nile, the Bdhr-el-abiad in par- ticular, first descended from palustrine localities in Central Africa, along the successive levels of Nubian plateaux, through its Egyptian channel to the Mediterranean (beyond the indisputable fact that its descent took effeot after the deposition of the so-termed diluvial DRIFT upon the subjacent limestone) is a problem yet unsolved. But were proper investiga- tions, such as those commenced in 1799 by Girard, (483) and cut short by European belli- gerent interference, entered upon, in the valley of the Nile itself, by competent geologists, the alluvial antiquity of the " Land of Khem'" could be approximately reached. (484) The very rough estimates heretofore made by geologists yield a minimum of 7000 years for the depositions of the present alluvium by the river Nile. The maximum remains utterly inde- finite ; but, nevertheless, we are enabled to draw, from the data- already known, the fol- lowing among other deductions, of primary importance to Nilotic chronology : — 1st. — Previously to the advent of the "Sacred River" no deposition of alluvium having taken place upon the limestone, Egypt was uninhabitable by man. 2d. — Since the deposition of this alluvium, there has been no Deluge, in the literal Hebrew and genesiacal sense of the term, whether in Egypt, or in Asiatic and African countries to the Nile adjacent. 3d. — Humanity must have commenced in the valley of the Nile, under conditions such as exist at this day, after a sufficiency of alluvium had been deposited for the production of vege- table aliment, but at a time when the depth of this alluvium was at least twenty (fifty, or more, for aught we can assert to the contrary) feet below the level of the highest portion of the Nile's bed at this hour; but how much soil had been previously depo- sited — that is, what its thickness was over the limestone when humanity first developed itself in Egypt — it is yet impossible to define. 4th. — Many centuries (in number utterly unknown) must be allowed for the multiplication of a human Type in Egypt, from a handful of rovers to a mighty nation ; and for the acquirement, by self-tuition, of arts and sciences adequate to the conception and exe- cution of a pyramid: thus yielding us a blank amount of chronological interval, bounded on the one hand by the unknown depth and surface of the Nilotic alluvial, C-tS'J) De Brctosxb: Filiations et Adgratums; i. p. 198, 199. (4?;-.) Descnpnor. de V£g;ipte: torn. xx. p. 33, seq. (48-4) Guodon: (Aid; pp. 6'2-69; and "Geological Sections." For the botanical argument, vide I'lCKERUia. 688 mankind's chronology. sufficient for the growth of human food, at the time of man's introduction ; and on the other (after this nomad had been transmuted by time and circumstance into a farmer and then into a monument-building citizen) by the pyramids and tombs of the IVth Memphite dynasty; placed by Lepsius's discoveries in the thirty-fifth century B.C. II. — The PYRAMIDAL period, or Old Empire. — Occupying, according to late scientific views, about fifteen centuries ; probably beginning with Manetho's first dynasty (king OuKNEPHis) ; and endiug with the Xllth or Xlllth, about twenty-two centuries prior to the Christian era. The Xllth dynasty is marked architecturally by the employment of obelisks. III. — The period of the Htksos, or Middle Empire. — There being few monuments for this period extant, we are dependent, apart from Greek lists, upon the Turin Papyrus, and on the names chronicled long after on the "Chamber of Karnac" &c. Here is the grand diificulty in Egyptian chronology ; it having been hitherto impossible to deter- mine its duration; which is now generally considered to be far shorter than is esti- mated in Bunsen's " .^Egyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte," and perhaps to embrace all Scriptural connexions with Egypt from Abraham to the Exodus inclusive; on every one of which the hieroglyphics are utterly silent. It includes, however, the XlVth, XV th, and XVlth dynasties. IV. — The positive historical period, or Neiv Empire. — Commencing about 1600 to 1800 years b. c, with the Restoration (after the expulsion of the Hyksos tribes), under Aahmes, the founder of the XVIIth dynasty. It may be called the 7'e???^;e-period ; because, although temples existed in the Old Empire, all the grand sanctuaries standing at present upon the alluvia belong to the XVIIth dynasty downward. Dated hieroglyphical records descend to the third century after Christ, with the name of the Emperor Decius : (485) but demotic papyri and mummies are extant as recent as the 4th century of the same era. (486) Greek inscriptions at Philae corroborate Priscianus, who relates how, about a. d. 451, a treaty, between the Christian Emperor of Constantinople and the heathen Blemmyes, stipulated that — " every year, according to ancient customs, the Ethiopians were to take the statue of Isis from Philse to Ethiopia ;"(487) and a Grecian traveller bears witness, in an inscription, that he was once present at the temple when the goddess returned. In fact, history proves that ISIS was yet worshipped at Philse, if not throughout Egypt, even in the year a. d. 486 : and the pagan emblem of " eternal life," Ankh, continued still to be inscribed, in lieu of the Christian cross, over orthodox churches; as in the following instance discovered by the accurate Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson (488): — " KAeO-'f-AIKH + EKKAH-^CIA" Catlio^Uc + Chief rch. Finally, to enable the reader to classifj', chronologically, the Egyptian data comprised in " Types of Mankind," a table is subjoined which the forthcoming " Book of Kings" will show to be in the main correct. It is made up, in part from the first volume of the Chro- nologie der JEgypter, and in part from Chevalier Lepsius's oral communications to the writer at Berlin, in May, 1849.(489) To it are added such excerpts of the Chevalier'o Bubsequeiit epistolary correspondence with the authors as may give a general idea of Mv cvKtem, Miul a precise one of his scientific liberality. (485) Lepsius: Yorlmfigt NachrxcM,\%,i^; pp. 17, 29. (486) BiKCH, in Otia ^gypliuca. p. 87. (487) Lktronne : MutCriaux pour servir d VITistnire. du Christiamsme. (48S) Lf;TBONNE : Examen ArchaHog-ique, "Croix AnsC'C lOjiyptienne," 1846; p. 23. (489) Gubdon: IJandrbook to tlve NiU: London, Madden, 1849; pp. 20-2, £1. CHINESE. 689 Manetho's Systkm of Egyptian Ciiuonology, as kestoeed by Lepsius. Epochas anterior to AIenes — Cyclic Periods : — Divine dyuastius :— 10 gnds reigned 13,870 Julian years = 19 Sothic (?emi-ppriods. 30 demi-ffocls " 3,('>50 " = 30 toeZ/Wis of a Sothic-period. 1",5'20 " = 12 Sothic-periods of 1400 years. Ante-histrrrical 6yn.: 10 3/«nes, Thinitep, 350 " — commencement of a neiw Sothic-period- Epoch of Menes — commencement of /i<'s/an'caf period ; tti'rty dynasties : — Old Umpire: — 1st dynasty — Accession of Menes 3893 B.a Commencement of mmmmenlal period; third dynasty. 4th dynasty — Pyramids and tombs extant — beijan 3426 •• Subdivisions : — 5th dynasty — Began about 3100 " 7th " " 2900 « 10th « " 2500 « 12th " Ends about 2124 « 13th " " 2100 » Invasion of the Hi/ksos — comprising the 14th, 15tb, and 16th dynasties — from about B. c. 2101 to about „ 1590 " Aeio Empire — Restoration : — 17 th dynasty — Began 1671 " 30th " Ending on the «eco?icZ Persian Inyasiou 340 " Conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great 332 « Ptolemaic dynasty began B. c. 323 — ends 44 « Homan dominion began 30 " Hieroglyphical records of the Emperor Decius 250 a.d. Thus, from an indefinite period prior to the year b. c. 8893, down to 250 years after the Christian era, the hieroglyphical character is proved to have been in uninterrupted use ; while, from the year b. c. 3893, modern hierology has determined the chronologic order of Egyptian dynasties, through present archfeological re-construction of the Nile's monuments. The Romans held Egypt from the 27th year b. c. until 395 a. d. ; when the sons of Theodosius divided the Empire. Egypt lingered under the sovereignty of the Eastern Emperors until a. d. 640-1 ; when, subjected by Aamer-ebn-el-As, she became a province of Omar's Saracenic caliphate. In the year a. d. 1517 — Hedjra 953 — her valley was over- run by the Ottoman hordes of Sooltan Seleem ; and has ever since been the spoil of the Turk :— 01 Egypte, Egypte! . . . Solce supererunt fabulce et ceque incredibiks posteris . . . sola supe- rerunt verba lapidibus incisa. Et inhabitabit ^gyptum Scythus aut (ANGLO-) Indus, aut aliquie talis. (490) CHRONOLOGY — CHINESE. "The Philosopher said: San I (name of his dhc\p\e Trseng-tsev) my dodrt'm; is simple and easi/ to be understnr>d. Thseng-tseu replied: 'that is certain.' The Philosopher haying gone out. his disciples asked what their master had meant to say. Thseng-tseu responded : ' The doctrine of our master consists uniquely in possessing rectitude of heart, and in loving one's neighbor as oneself.' " (491) Such were the ethics put forth in China by that " pure Sage " whom three hundred and seventy millions of humanity still commemorate, after the lapse of 2330 years, as the "most saintly, the most wise, and the most virtuous of human legislators:" this was Chinese "positive philosophy" in the Vlth century before Christ; already at the second period of its historical development. (492) About a century later, in a distinct Asiatic world, the school of Ezka at Jerus.tlem embo died a similar conception in the compilation termed Deuteronomy, or " secondary law:" (493) (490) Boohs of riermes — MERCimius Trismeoistus's dialogue with Asdepius; — Guddon : Appeal to the Anti- quaries: London, Madden, ^Sil, passim. (491) The LXJN-YU, or The J'hilosophical Conversations, of Khouno-tseu (Confucius); ch. iv. t. 15; Livres Sacres de I'Orient, p. 183. (492) PACiniER: Hustoire de la PhUosophie Chinoise ; Revue Independante, Aug. 1844; tirage k part, p. 9. (493) N. B. My justification of this date is contained in the suppressed portions of our vol.; supra, pp. 626-'7 87 690 mankind's chronology. " But if any man hate his neighbor. &c. . . . then shall ye do unto him, as he had thought to have done unto his brother." (494) At an epoch approximate, this idea became simpli- fied into a maxim: "Better is a neighbor that is near, than a brother far off:" (495) and it is still more concisely expressed in Leviticus: " Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." (496) During the same fifth century B. c, the simultaneousness of moral as well as of other developments among Types of Mankind radically distinct, and remote from each other's influences, encounters a parallelism in the beautiful dictum of a Grecian Isocrates — " Do unto others as ye would they should do unto you." About three generations earlier there flourished in Persia the philosopher Zoroaster; some of whose elevated doctrines have reached our day, although through turgid Grecian, Jewish, and Persic streams. " Gate the 71st" of his Sadder contains the following: — " OS'er up thy grateful prayers to the Lord, the most just and pureORMUZD, the supreme and adorable God, who thus declared to his prophet Zardusht (Zoroaster): ^ Hold it not meet to do unto others what thou u-oiildst not have done to thyself : do that unto the people which, when done to thyself, proves not disagreeable to thyself.' " (497) Five hundred years afterwards, the writer of Matthew ['i'd^) reported — "Ye have heard that it was said : Thou shall love thy neighbor and hate thine enemy ; but I say unto you, love your enemies." The writer of Luke{AQ%) considerably extends the idea in language and contextual circumstances — "And he answering said: '■Thou shall love the Lord thy God [Hebraice, lellOuaH ELoHeK] ivith all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy strength, and with all thy vmid, and thy neighbor as thyself:" thus combining, into one dis- course, two citations from the Old Testament (500) slightly varied; owing probably to the evangelists' habit of following the Greek LXX in lieu of the Hebrew Text. But, among the more exalted of the Hebrew nation, in the schools of Babylon and Jeru- salem, such pure ethics had been taught long previously. Thus (as our learned friend, Dr. J. J. Cohen of Baltimore, opportunely reminds us while writing) : — " Let us recall the celebrated reply made by the Pharisee Hillel to a pagan who came declaring to him that he was ready to embrace Judaism, if the Doctor could make known to him in a few words the resume of all the law of Moses : — ' That ivhich thou likest not [done] to thyself,^ said Hillel, ' do it not unto thy neighbor ; therein is all the law, the rest is nothing but the commentary upon it.' " (501) These comparisons made, we can revert with more pleasure to China and to Confucius. " The lessons of Khoung-tseu were often less indirect. His moral [doctrine] is summed uj) in the following lines : ' Nothing more natural, nothing more simple, than the principles of that morality which I endeavor to inculcate in you through salutai-y maxims. . . . 1st. — It is humanity ; which is to say, that universal charity amongst all of our species, without distinction.' " Father Amiot, the great Sinicized Jesuit, commenting upon this passage, observed — •'Because it is humanity, and that humanity is nothing else than man liimself." Which I'authier explains : — "In Chinese, JIN TCHE : JIN YE: word for word; hiimavitas quce, homo quidem. . . . To render comprehensible how much humanity, or benevolence, universal charity, was recommended by Khoung-tseu, it sufl5ces to say that the word which expresses it is repeated above a hundi-ed times in one of his works, the Lun-yu. And it is pretended, with as much levity as ignorance, that this grand principle of universal charity for mankind had only been revealed to the world five hundred years after the Chinese philosopher, in a little corner of Asia! Quelle pitie! " (502) We have deemed it expedient to preface an inquiry into the archteological bases of (494) Deuteronomy, xix. 11, 19. (495) Proverlis, xxvii. 10. (496) LeriUcus, xix. 18. (497) DaUstan, i. 338: and soe the same quotation In Hybe, De Helig. Yet. Persarum, p. 471. " (498) Good Tidings, v. 43 . Sharpe's N. T., p. 9. (499) Good Tidings, x. 27, 21 — Jljid., p. 132. (600) neitteronnmy, vi. 5, with Leviticus, xix. 18. (501) Munk: Palestine; p. 505; from Babylonian Talmud (Shabbath, ch. 2). Jbid.: Rlfkxions in Appendix IaCauen's liible; 18;i3: iv. p. 20. (602} Ctiine; pp. 146, 147, and note. CHINESE. 691 Chinese chronology with the above extracts. They will furnish at once to the reader a very different idea of the teachings of Confucius (five hundred years before any Greco-Judseau writers of the Gospels lived) than he can gather from Macao supercargoes, Hong-kong opium-smugglers, or Canton missionaries. Whatever practical developments the latter may diurnally give to the sublime principle of "universal charity;" whatever merit may be due to tlie first human being who enunciated this exalted sentiment; or whatever thorough knowledge of humanity's best and loftiest interests such sentiments may imply; all these ascriptions, history attests, equally belong to a Sinico-mongol, Confucius ; who "Jied B. C.479, or about 2332 years ago. [See his portrait; supra, Fig. 330, p. 449.] AVhether among the Ilong merchants " universal charity" (and there are noble instances) be unexceptionably practised, any more than in Wall street, Lombard street, or in the Place de la Bourse, concerns us not. These commercial princes are taught to reverence its principles as much as the Dorias or the Medicis of Christendom; and they are exposed to infinitely greater temptations toward its violation, than are those Chinese archaeologists, who, scattered throughout the empire, pursue, at national expense, their historical studies of their own monuments; in lettered seclusion, but with every honorable recompense scholarship may aspire to. (503) For above twenty-three centuries, moreover, the 4th and 5th maxims of Khoung-tseu have been instilled into each generation of them from earliest infancy. " It is nprightness ; that is, that rectitude of spirit and of heart, which makes one seek for truth in everything and to desire it, without deceiving oneself or deceiving others : it is finally sinceriiy or good faith ; which is to say, that frankness, that openness of heart, tem- pered by self-reliance, which excludes all feints and all disguising, as much in speech as in action." That the moral influence of such principles has not perished, even through the transitoi-y irruption of the present and expiring dynasty of Mantchou Tartars, is testified by Sir Henrj' Pottinger in the eulogiums pronounced by him, at London, upon the high Chinese diplomatists with whom he concluded the Treaty of 1844. Nor should Americans foi-get the excellent conduct which such principles have already exhibited among thousands of our Chinese fellow-citizens in the State of California. We have not the slightest right to doubt, therefore, whatever reasonable account Chinese scholars may furnish us of their nation's indigenous history ; of which, otherwise, not a syl- lable is known to us prior to the fourteenth century after Christ; and, where not irrational, such annals, from such sources, may be received in the more good faith, that the Chhiese arch^ologue, having none of our hagiographers' motives for chronological curtailment or extension, cares nothing about "outside barbarians," their alien history or superstitions, and did not compose his national chronicles with a view to such foreigners' edification. The day is evermore passed that modern science should strive to reduce Chinese chro- nology, for the mere whim of adapting it to the spurious computations on a Hebrew Text, and Samaritan, Septuagint, or Vulgate version ; as was the case before Egyptian monumental annals were proved to ascend, at least, to the thirty-fifth century b. c. (504) And we shall presently show (sketched also in our table of Alphabetical origins, supra, p. 638), how the highest point claimed by Chinese historians, for their nation's antiquity, falls centuries below that which hierologists now insist upon for Egypt: so that, if Egypt and Egyptians were a civilized country and populous people in the thirty-fifth century, B. c, it would be preposterous not to feel assured that Sinico-mongols (indeed every human type of Mongolia) were already in existence, in and around China, their own centre of creation, duiing tlie same parallel ages. What is tlie objection to believing that China was populated, by her Mongolian autocthones, chiliads of years previously? Reader! "one blushes" redder than St. Jerome to mention, that, now-a-days, the acceptance of this fact is questioned by the Rev. Dr. This, or the Rev. Mr. That: neither of whom, perhaps, has ever studied Sinology — never even opened a Sinological work! .S0.3) Chine; pp. 194, 218, 22S, 2.36. 248, 2S0, 308, 336, 352, 359, 388, .397, Ac: also, BiOT, .S'ur la Constitutwn I\)- lUiqt^ de la Chine au 12cme siecle avant noire ere; 1845 ; pp. 3, 9, &c. (504) Pr Broto.tne: Filiations et Jligratujtis . 1321 ; which covers history from the twenty-fourth nentury b. c. down to the twelfth after c. Copies exist in European libraries. After the death of Chi-Hoang-ti : — " The tombs, the ruins of cities, the canals and rivers, saved some moneys, some bronze vases, some urns and other ol)jects of his proscription. A certain Jiumber of these has been found since the fall of the Thsin-dynasty. They have been carefully collected and preserved in museums or in private cabinets ; descriptions have been madi (615) CUine; pp. 24&-248. CHINESE. 695 of them, accompanied by figured designs that faithfully reproduce them with their ancient inscriptions. Tlie emperor Kien-loung, who reigned from a. d. 1736 to 1711(5, caused to be published, in 4li Chine.se folio volumes, a description and engraving of all the antique vases deposited at the Imperial Museum. An exemplar of this magnificent work, which has no rival in Europe, being at the Bibliothfeque Royale of Paris." Pauthier has selected, out of 1444 vases of diflTerent species contained in these " Memoirs of the Antiquities of Occidental Purity," those beautiful specimens we behold, reduced in size, in his work. (51G) The earliest originals, now extant in China, go back in date to the Chanff-dynnsty, B. c. 1766: — an epoch when Abraham, according to Lepsius's computation of biblical chro- nology, was yet unborn. One more ancient inscription, upon a rock of Mount Ileng-chan. yet remains to vindicate the engineering ability of Yu. It dates about the year b. c. 2278; (51 7) and is therefore parallel in age with the thousand records we possess of Egypt's Xllth dynasty. Its translation, given by Pauthier, disconnects it from any diluvial hypotheses . ■with which, moreover, no geologist or archaeologist need distress himself further. We trust the reader has now attained to our point of view, and perhaps perceives three things — 1st, the historical meritoriousness of Chinese literature; 2d, the nature of the materials examined by Jesuits whose evangelical prepossessions were essentially hostile tc the literature they laud ; and 3d, that there are Sinologists living in the world competent to liberate historical truth from chances of error. We now proceed to lay before him a brief summary of Chinese time-registry ; commending to his perusal the "Researches upon times anterior to those of which the Chou-kinf/ speaks, and upon Chinese mythology," by Father de Pr6mare, together with an old rule of Vico's.(518) "We have heard Diodorus Siculus declare, in respect to \.\\q pride of nations, that these, 'whether they may have been Greek or barbarian, have pretended, each one, to have been the first to discover all the comforts of life, and to have preserved their own history since the commencement of the world.'" (519) Greece, Rome, and Judaea, possess first their fabulous and then their semi-historical periods. Tradition alone pierces through the gloom of the latter, in the ratio of approxi- mation to the several epochas at which given nations first began to chronicle their events. In later days, progressive science invests such fables ai^ faintly-shadowed incidents of a nation's childhood with the garb of mythico-astronomical sanctity. Thus does the founder of chronology, Manetho, preface his historical dynasties with cycles of Gods, Demigods, and Manes; thus do the compilers of Genesis antecede Abraham with symbolical names of mythic patriarchs gifted with impossible longevity; and so do the Chinese place mythology before history. The sole difference being that neither did Manetho nor the Chinese arch^- ologues ever believe their respective mythologies to be otherwise than unhistorical : at the same time that the whole of these antique systems represent that instinctive consciousness of nations who feel that an unrecorded national infancy must have preceded a recorded national adolescence. Chinese Ante-histokical Periods. (520) Pan-kou — first symbolical man — followed by the three Hoang, viz. : — 1st. — Reign of the Shj. 2d.— " " Earth. 8d.— " " Man. They are comprehended in a grand cyclic period of 129,000 years; composed of twelve parts called conjunctions, each of 10,800 years. (516) Chine; p. 201 ; Plates 38-44. (517) Ibid.; pp. 53-54. (518) JAv. Sac. de V Orient; pp. l.'5-12. (519) Vico: Sciema .Xuova ; Principles, axiom HI. (520) Chine; pp. 22-24 ; — iiii>r« Sacrcs, pp. 16, 19. 696 MANKINDS CHRONOLOGY. Meta-historical Period. Fou-Hi — first Emperor — estimated at B. c. 3468 Several of his descendauts are named, with traditionary discoveries in arts affixed to each personage. Fou-hi, however, is a collective name under which the Chinese figure many centuries of national existence coupled with progressive developments in civilization, marked by con- secutive artistic inventions: just as the Hebrews ascribe all legislation to their noun of multitude, Moses. This traditionary and semi-mythical 7?r«< Emperor stands parallel with the Egyptian IVth dynasty, during the thirty-fifth century b. c. The latter is positively historical: to reject the former, on the imaginary ground of recent mundane antiquity, is rendered futile by existing pyramids at Memphis. Fou-hi, Menes, and Abraham, to us appear equally historical, as human individuals who once lived ; although of none of the three are contemporaneous monuments, carved by their respective people, now extant. Historical Period. Chronological Table. — AVe condense into dynasties that chronology of all the Sovereign* who have reigned in China,(from b. c. 2637 down to a. d. 1821), which Father Amiot trans- mitted from Pe-kin to Paris in 1769; and which is printed "in extenso " at the end of Pauthier's Chine, after collation with the learned Jesuit's manuscript notes, and with parts of the 100 volumes of the Chinese chronographic work Li-tai-ki-sse. The 61st year of the Chinese emperor Hoang-ti, corresponding to our b. c. 2637, falls, according to Lepsius's computation, within Egypt's " Old Empire," and between the Vlltb and Xth dynasties of Manetho, in any case during the pyramidal period. 1st Dynasty — 1st King, Hoang-ti, "Yellow Emperor," eistyear , Five successors down to Yao, b. c. 2337. « 6th « Yao, 81st year " 8tk " Chun, 9th of his synthronism [Monuments commence — " Inscription of YU," B. c. 2278.] lid " "Hia" — 1st King, Yu, 10th year of his synthronism 2205 « " " 4th " TcnouN6-KANG 5th year of his reign, edipse of the SuTl, B.C. 2155(521) 2155 " md « "Chang" '. 1783 " [Contemporary vases exist, dating from b. c. 1766.] IVth " "Tcheou" 1134 « Vth " "Thsin" [whence the name of "China"] 255 " TIth « "Han" 202 « King YocAN-Ti, of the "Wei," a. d. 292. Vllth « "T^in" 265 a.b Vlllth " "Northern Soung" 420 « IXth " "Tsi" 479 " Xth " "Liang" 502 « Xlth « "Tchin" 557 " Xllth " "Soiii" 581 «■ Xlllth « "Thang" 618 « The Five Little Dynasties. XlVth " 1st, "Posterior i!an«7" 907 " XVth " 2(1, "Posterior Tlianff" 923 " XVIth " 3d, " Posterior Tsm " 936 " XVIIth " 4th, " Posterior i/(m " 947 « XVnith " 5th, "Posterior rc/ieou" 951 « XlXth " "Soung" 960 « XXth " "A'in, simultaneously with &)«??£?" 1123 " XXIst " Commencement of "Youan," J/ojig'oZs 12G0 *♦ XXIId " Mmgols 1295 « XXIIId « "Ming" '... 1368 « XXIVth " "Tai-tlising," 3/an8t Uiumpb- antly, ''Le Tij^re coule en avant vers Acsour." (WO' MiCHAcr Ilift. (Us Croisades ; iv. p. 274. 700 mankind's chronology. In that part of our work discussing Alphabetic Origins, the student will find a sufficiency of authorities cited to verify the accuracy of those results to which this volume is confined. Recapitulation here is needless : but, should ever such inquirer follow the developments of palseographical discovery, book by book, backwards from to-day, his bark will not ground until he reaches the year A. D. 1797, and touches the Memoire sur les antiquites de la Perse, et sur lef medailles des Rois Sassanides. Its author, De Sacy, is to palaeography that which his colleague Cuvier is to palseontology : each being the inventor of the only true method of ratiocination in either science. From the former's Memoir we have borrowed many of the citations above presented ; and, our remarks being but introductory to Assyrian chro- nology, a reference to the excellent compendium of Vaux (531) indicates the shortest road to summary annals of cuneiform investigation ; no less than corroborates our assertion that monumental Assyria was a blank down to 1843. Paul-Emile Botta (whose surname is dear to all American readers of his uncle's Storia dell' Independenza), appointed French Consul at Mosul in 1842, was the first to resuscitate Nineveh since her fall in b. c. 606. Proficient as an Orientalist and Eastern traveller, through residence in Syria, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Arabia, since 1829-30, none possessed higher qualifications for the task ; yet, with rare modesty, he attributes his own discoveries (as Newton to an apple his finding the laws of gravitation) to an accident ; viz., to a couple of bricks, brought to him by a Nestorian dyer, who unearthed them whilst digging a founda- tion for stoves and boilers on the mound of Khorsabdd. (532) But, these two forlorn bricks were impressed with arrow-heads — things which Botta's education at once permitted him to appreciate. Ten years have since elapsed. The Louvre proudly displays his sculptured deterrations — national typography splendidly perpetuates his unaS'ected narrative — and, those who weigh science by "dollars and cents" may sneer at legislative munificence on learning that France, in 1849, bad already voted $150,000 to eternalize Botta's Assyrian deeds ; without either forgetting an individual's future, or considering the balance of an account-current between a man and his country thereby stricken. His consulate is now at Jerusalem. An intimate friend, and enthusiastic spectator of the French Consul's achievements, com- menced operations where the latter relinquished them. Henry Austen Layard — of noble Huguenot extraction — born at Ceylon, and brought up at Florence, is essentially a man of the East. Leaving England in 1839, he reached Mosul, 1842, by way of Germany, Russia, Dalmatia, the Bosphorus, Asia Minor, Persia, and Kusistan. His performances are familiar to all readers of Nineveh and its Remains, 1849 ; and Babylon and Nineveh, 2d Exped., 1853. The letters LL.D. and M. P., and the ofiBce of Under Secretary of Foreign Alfairs, tell how a nation can reward living merit: at the same time that "Eastern questions" point to eventualities not less nationally important. The British Museum consecrates for science the innumerable exhumations of Layard. Great as have been, however, the exploits of these discoverers, they must not dazzle our vision from beholding the less ostentatious if archaeologically superior researches of Raw- linson and of Hincks; but for whom, the cuneiform records of Nineveh and Babylon might have yet remained sealed books : although, so closely followed have these savants been by a Lowenstern, a De Longp6rier and a De Saulcy ; so materially aided by Birch, Norris, and other skilful pala30graphers ; that by grouping them all into a "Cuneiform School" the invidious task of assigning a place to any one is cheerfully avoided. Our inquiry simply is, what have they all done in Assyrian chronology ? Let it first be observed "en passant," that the long lists of ChaldEean, Arab, Assyrian, and Babylonish sovereigns, preserved by Ctesias, Ptolemy, and the Hebrews; (533) coupled with the pseudo-antiquity popularly assigned to the Xth Chapter of Genesis; had occasioned the most exaggerated notions, about 1844-50, of the epochas to which these sculptures of (531) Nineveh and Pi'.rsepaUs ; London, ed., 18.52. (532) Leilres d JIf. Mold; Decouvertes h Khorsabad, 1845, p. 2: — Mnnument de, Ninive, chap, ii., p. 23. (5.^3) FitASEii's excellent Mcsitpulamia, pp. 47-50; awl Couy's Ancient Fragments; supply the cliisstcal authorities. ASSYRIAN. 701 Assyria should be attributed. Nowhere was this sentinicntalitj' exhibited more strongly than at the British Aluseum. Ninevite bas-reliefs of tlie 7tli century b. c were reverenced by pious crowds who looked upon them as if tlieir carving had actually been coeval with the "Tower of Babel"; at the same time that Egyptian relics of- the IVth Memphite dynasty, belonging to the 4th chiliad before c, and those stupendous granites of theXVIIth- XVIIIth dynasties, positively dating in the 16th-13th centuries prior to the same era, were passed over in contemptuous silence ; although displayed in gigantic halls, whilst Assyria (for want of room) lay in an underground cellar! And yet, withal, the only monumental proof of the existence of either BaBeL, or NINWE, 1500 years b. c, depended then, as it does now, upon Thotmes Illd's "Statistical Tablet" of Karnac ! (534) Nor, excited by the magnificence of their monumental resurrections, can we be sm-prised that the two explorers jtimewhat participated, at that time, in the general feeling. But, the habit of dispassionate comparison of art (upon itself alone) among sculptured antiquities of every period and region collected in European Museums, had instinctively led thorough archaeologists to pronounce the word " modern," over every fragment brought to London and Paris from Nimroud or Khorsabad ; and this before a single Assyro-cuneatic inscription had been deciphered. First to undertake this thankless office was De Longp^- rier ; (535) who proclaimed, to shocked orthodoxy, that nothing found or published of As- syrian bas-reliefs could possibly ascend beyond the 9th century ; at the same time that Khorsabad had then not yielded anything older than the 7th-8th century b. c. Nevertheless, it was published — " On the most moderate calculation, we may assign a date of 1100 or 1200 before Christ, to the erection of the most ancient [palace] ; but the probability is, that it is much more ancient :" (53(3) and maintained — " There is no reason why we should not assign to Assyria the same remote antiquity we claim for Egypt" [b. c. 3500?]. Col. Rawlinson too, whilst conceding that " the whole structure of the Assyrian graphic system evidently betrays an Egyptian origin: first organized upon an Egyptian model, "(537) formerly considered the Obelisk of Nimroud to date about the l-th-13th century b. c. Now, this age for Assyrian monumental commencements harmonizes perfectly with Egyp- tian conquests and dominion over much of that country, during the XVIIth dynasty, 15th- 16th centuries b. c. It is merely the archiEological attribution of any sculptures, yet found and published, to such an epoch that we contest. We are the last to curtail any nation's chronography ; but, misled so often by hypotheses, we cease to depend any further upon arithmetic where not supported by positively archaeological stratifications. Lepsius, it seems to us, has fairly stated the possibilities of Chaldaic chronology; (538) and future researches by cuneiform scholars will doubtless determine the relative position of each historical stra- tum as firmly for Assyria as has been already done for Egypt. With these provisoes, we may safely present a synopsis of the last chronological results put forth by Layard. Possessing all the resources at present attainable, and profoundly versed himself in Assyrian studies, his tabulation of the monumental series of reigns inspires full confidence, at the same time that his results accord naturally with the histories of adjacent countries and people. (539) Ante-monumental Period. Into this category are cast the vague and semi-mythical traditions of Nimrod, Ninus, Belus, and their several lines ; which, according to classical writers, may ascend to 1903 years before Alexander, equivalent to 2234 b. c. (540) (534) Birch: Op. cit.; 1846; p. 37: — Two Egi/plian Cartouches found at Nimroud; 1848; pp. 161-177: — Guddon: Olia; p 103. \\ile aUo TSikch, Ayinals of Tlmtmes III. ; Archaeologia, 18fi3, xxxv. p. 160. (63S) Revue ArcMoJngique, Oct. 1847: — Galerie Assyricnne, Musee du Louvre, 1849; p. 16; — Jievue ArchioL Oct. 1850. (536) Layard: Nineveh and iU Jfemains; Am. ed., 1849; pp. 176, 179, ISo. (537) Commentarij on the Cuneiform Inscriptions, &c. ; 1850; pp. 4, 7, 21, 71, 73, 74. (538) Chronnlngie der jF^ypter ; i. pp. 6-12. (5?9) Babylon : pp. 611-025 : — already Rawunson extends Assyrian antiquity to the 14th century B. c; Jour R. AsuU. Soc., 185.3, p. xviii.; note. (540) Lepsius : i. p. 10 702 mankind's chronology. Genealogical Period. This class embraces those Assyrian Kings, of whose reigns no contemporaneous monuments have been discovered, but who are recorded in the pedigrees or archives of their succefl- sors: distinguishing Rawlinsou's reading by R, and Hincks' by H, King (conjectural reading). About B. 0. I. Derceto(R.) 1250 11, DiVANUKHA (R.), DlTANlTKISH (H.) 1200 III. Anakbar-deth-hira (R.), Shimish-bal-Bithkhira (H.) 1130 IV. Mardokempad? I V. MESESSIMORDACnS? j VI. Adrammelech I. (R.) - 1000 VII. Anaku Merodak (R.), Shimish Bar (H.) 9(J0 Monumental Period. VIII. Sardanapalus I. (R.), Ashdrakhbal (H.) — North-west Palace, Nimroud 930 IX. Divanubara (R ), Divancbar (H.) — Obelisk; cotemporary with Jehu 900 X. Shamas Adar (R.), Shamsitav (H.) 870 XI. Adrammelech II. (R.) 840 XII. Baldasi? (H.) XIII. ASHURKISH? (H.) XIV. ? PuL, or Tiglath-Pileser 750 XV, Sargon 722 XVI. Sennacherib 703 XVII. ESSARHADDON 690 XVIII. Sardanapalus III. (R.), Ashurakhbal (H.) XIX. (Son of preceding) XX. SUAMISHAKHADON? (H.) Fall of Nineveh 606 The chronological approximations of our sketch hinge upon the name of Jehu, king of Israel, who, on the Obelisk of Nimroud, is made tributary to Divanubar ; thus establishing a synchronism about the year 885 b. c- Everytliing yet discovered on the site of Bahel seems to belong to the reign of " Nabu- kudurruchur (i. e., Nebuchadnezzar), king of Babylon, son of Nabubaluchun, king of Baby- lon " — not earlier than about B. c. 604 Time, the performer of so many marvels in archcBology, will assuredly enable us soon to attain greater Assyrian precision; already foreshadowed through the pending excavations of M. Place, and the personal studies of M. Fulgence Fresnel and of Col. Rawlinsou, on the sites of Mesopotamian antiquity. CHRONOLOGY— HEBREW. " For a thousand years in thy sigtit are but as yesterday when it is past." — (Psalms xc. 4.) " One day is with the Lord [lellOuali] as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day." (2 J'eter iil. 8.) It would be affectation if not duplicity, on the part of the authors of " Types of Man- kind," after the variety of shocks which the plenary exactitude of Hebrew chronicles has received at their hands, not to place everything Israelitish on precisely the same human footing as has been assigned to the more ancient time-registers of Egypt and of China, and to the more solid restorations of Assyria. Tlie reader of our Essay I, in the present volume, can form his own estimate of the histo- rica' weight that Hebraical literature may possess hereafter in scientific ethnography. Monumental history the Hebrews have none. Even their so-called " Tnmbs of kings," owing to the absence of inscriptions, have recently occasioned a discussion among such deep archneologists as De Saulcy, Quatremfere, and Raoul-Rochette, (541) that shows upon how tremulous a foundation their attribution rests. The "arch" and massive basements of Jerusalem's temples (discovered by ditherwood, Arundnle, and Bonomi, 18.^)2-3) may (641) litrue Archcologviue ; 1851-52. Also, De Saulcy: Jourmy round the Dead Sea; 1S63; ii. p. 131. HEBREW. 703 belong to Zeruhbabel's oi- to Solomon's edifices; or, in part, to the anterior Jcbusilcs, for any- thing by tourists imagined to the contrary. In the absence of monumental criteria, we are compelled to give the Hebrews but a. fourth place in the world's history ; at tlie same tinij that justice to a people whose strenuous efl'orts to preserve their records has encountered more terrible obstacles and more frequent effacements than any other nationality, demands the amplest recognition. The numerous citations and tables with which the subject of chronology has been already ushered, spare us from recapitulation of the manifold instances whereby the Text cou- ti'adicts the versions; the numerical designations of a given manuscript, those of another; and the modern computations of one individual, the estimates of almost every other indi- vidual ; whensoever the date of any Jewish event, anterior to Solomon's semi-pagan temple, is the object sought after. In fact, we may now realize with Lepsius, that the strictly-chronological element was wanting in the organism of Hebrew, as of other Semitish, minds ; until jNIanetho the Sebennyte, about B. c. 260, first established the principles of chronology through Egyptian indigenous records; and, by publishing his results, in Greek, for the instruction of the Alexandria School, first planted the idea of human "chronology" upon a scientific basis. All systems of computation (heretofore followed by Christendom) take their departure, his- torically, from Manetho. It is deeply to be lamented, for the sake of education, that no qualified translator has yet honored Anglo-Saxon literature with an English version of Lepsius's "Introduction" to his Chronology of the Egi/ptians; of which the writers, through the Chevalier's complai- sance, have possessed the first-half since December, 1848, and the second since May, 1849 Impossible, we fear, until such translation be accessible, is it to convey to the majority of our readers, the entirely-neio principles of chronological investigation this wonderful grasp (of a mind at the pinnacle of the culture of our time) has condensed into 554 pages quarto. Erudition stands humbled at the aspect of this volume's conscientious and universal probity of citation: at the same time that its perspicacity of arrangement is such, that those who, like ourselves, possess no acquaintance with German, can track the footsteps of its author almost paragraph by paragraph. Through the kindness of many Allemanic friends, the writers have been enabled to annotate their copies of the Chronologie der jEgypter with mar- ginal and other notes that justify whatever assertions they respectively make upon an authority otherwise to them Germanically concealed : and, in consequence, with reference to Rabbi Hillel and many of the facts subjoined, they may confidently refer the reader of " Types of Mankind " to Lepsius's compendium ; (542) as a ground-text which the writers' comparative studies of works in other tongues, more or less familiar, have resulted in deeming the highest, in these peculiar branches, of our common generation. In any case, a German scholar can easily verify our desired accuracy by opening a printed book ; four copies, at least, of which are now even at Mobile, Alabama. We have said that Manetho is the founder of the science called " chronology." We mean that he is the first writer who developed through the Greek tongue, at his era the language of Occidental science, those methods of computation in vogue from very ancient times among the sacerdotal colleges of the Egyptians. He is the exponent, not the inventor of his country's system: Eratosthenes, ApoUodorus, &c., are his successors; together with Josephus, Africanus. Eusebius, and the Syncellus ; whose Judaico-christian theories have been the sources of that fabric of superstition heretofore reputed to inform us concerning the epoch of God's Creation. No doubt remains any longer that, centuries prior to Manetho, the Egyptian priesthood did possess chronological registers ; because, aside from inferences patent in his prede- cessor Herodotus's "Euterpe," we have before our eyes in the Turin hieratic papyrus (dating in the I2th-14th century u. c, or 1000 years before Manetho) the same system, often with the Slime numerals, of reigns of Gods, Demi-Gods, and Men, that this chronographer sub- sequently expounded to the Alexandrian schools. Alas! Manetho's mutilators, not his (542) FdnUilung; 1849; pp. 14-20, 359-404, 406-410. 704 mankind's chronology. own imaginary inaccuracies, are the cause of that confusion of personages and dates, from out of which modern archaeology is now beginning, through hieroglyphical collations, to emerge. Of course, Chinese computations are distinct: being the production of other lands, other races, other histories, other worlds of tliought and action. So, likewise, may be the lost ChaldiBan systems, of which fragments survive through scanty extracts of Sanconiatho and of Berosus ; or, as we shall see, tlirough the more recent Sanscrit astrologico-cyclic fables of the Hindoos : but, with the above exceptions, and (if you please) of Mexico and Peru, there is no system of what we call " chronology " but is historically posterior to Ma- netho, whose era stands at the middle of the 8d century b. c. This is facile of comprehension to the reader of our Essay I. He therein perceives that the oldest computatory data based upon Judaic traditions are found in the Greek Sep- tuagint ; being itself a collection of translations manufactured at Alexandria after B. c. 250, and before b. c. 130; in which, Alexandrian .Greek dialects and Alexandre-Egyptian "sothic periods " of 1460 years, betray a people, an age, and a fusion of philosophical notions, such as could have been produced, through natural causes, in no locality upon earth but Alexandria ; and that too during Ptolemaic generations subsequent to Manetho. The next in order is the Hebrew Text. Its canonical antiquity, in its oldest and last form, cannot reach up to Ezra in the 5th century, and descends unto the Maccabee princes in the 2d century B.C., i. e. after the writer of the book called "Daniel." But, oxxr Introductory has effaced the validity of textual numeration in any Hebrew codex (no MSS. being 900 years old) ; because, while on the one hand its radically discordant numbers show that, when the Septuagint was translated, the original Hebrew exemplar in its patriarchal enumeration either did not then exist, or must have been identical with its copied Greek version ; on the other, the Hebrew square-letter character, of this Text's present form, not having been invented until the 2,d century after c, the chronological elements now in the Text must originate from manipulations made above 400 years after Manetho. Thirdly, and lastly, there is the Samaritan Pentateuch. Its numerical system altogether departs, for patriarchal ages, from both the Septuagint and the Hebrew Text. The age of its compilation is utterly unknown; but the palEeographic shape of its alphabetic letters bring such MSS. as exist now to an epoch below that of our Hebrew Text itself. Sup- posing the rumored estimate of one Nabloosian codex did make that unique copy attain to the 6th century after c, such fact would merely prove our view to be correct ; but, in Eu- rope, no Samaritan MS. is older than the 13th century. In consequence, we cannot accept, in scientific chronology, any more than Siracides, the modern hypotheses of that "stultus populus qui habitat in Sicimis." These facts being posited, one can understand the apparatus and the efforts made upon them by the learned Rabbi Hillel, about the year 844 after c, to place Jewish chronology upon a scientific basis that it never possessed before his labors. He was acquainted with Grecian calendrical computations; probably with the cycles of Meton and Callippus, the mathematical formula of Tlieon of Alexandria, and with the chronography of Africanus, perpetuator of Manetho. A quotation from Lcpsius has been submitted on a preceding page. Another extract will illustrate his views (543) : — " But then it is very improbable that Hillel went to work in the manner that Ideler believes. 'Evidently,' says Ideler, 'he started from tlie then-still-geiierally used (by the Jews) Seleu- cidan era, viz. : the autumn of the year 312 b. c. Calculating backwards, his next epoch w.Ts the destruction of the second Temple. This epoch he fixed at only 112 years (before) ; thn.s counting more than 150 years too little, and making Nebuchadnezzar contemporary with .Vi-tiixerxes I. Going back to the Building of the first Temple, the Exodus, the Deluge and the Creation, partly according to the express dates of the Bible, partly according to his explanation of those dates, he found, as tiie epoch of the Minjan Shtaroth beginning of the year 3450 of the World.' So gross and inconsistent an error of 160 years in so modern a time was impossible to a savant of the 4tli century. But there is not much difficulty in explaining it, if we suppose, that the Rabbis, after the great hiatus in Jewish literature (643) C/ironologie — " Kritik der Quellen" ; i. pp. 363, 364. HEBREW. 705 (which began with the conclusii)ii of the T.-ilmud, ")00 a. d. to the 8th century,) did re- ceive the few general points, wliich Hillel had connected with his universal calendar, from hiui, and that then, only then, they began to fill up their universal history of 5000 j'ears according to the records of the Old Testament. Indeed, \vc find neither in the Talmud nor even in the ante-Talmudic writings, — ex. gi-. in the Srdur O/am Hahha, one of the most ancient of these writings — the whole chronological fillings up. This seems to have taken phice in the 12tli century ; consequently at the epoch of a long-previously commenced scientifico-literary barbarism. From tlie Creation to the Deluge, and the Exodus, they had only to follow the numbers of the Pentateuch to attain the given date (a. m.) 2448 = 1314 (B. c). But thenceforward they based themselves upon the convenient number of 480 years to the Building of the Temple (in the 1st Book o^ Kings), and according to this they arranged the chronology of the time of the .fudges. By this, then, was the real link of chronology dislocated for 1(50-170 j-ears, which occasioned the displacement of all the succeeding mem- bers. Only when arrived at the next fixed point, in the year (a. ji.) .'ySO ^ ?>'\'l{n. c), was it found, that the chain of events, for the given space from the Building of the first to that of the second Temple, was much too long. The history of the second Temple, built under Darius Hystaspis, down to Alexander, from whom the Greek era took its name, shrunk then at once from 184 to 34 years. At first this created little sensation, but after- wards the difficulties becoming greater, they were removed by the simple means of adopt- ing Darius II. and (Darius) III,, as one and the same person. In this manner alone can we explain the singular phenomenon of an entirely dislocated and mutilated chronology, which notwithstanding possesses two firm and only-sure points; and at the same time oflTers us the most important and probably most accurate determination of the epoch of the Exodus by a really learned chronologist." It is from the original that the reader must gather, what our space and objects permit us not to transcribe, the citations, &c., through which the author establishes his view con- clusively. To us the impoi-tant facts are these — 1st, that the Jews had made no attempts at scientific chronology prior to the 4th century after c. ; nor did they complete such as their later schools adopt until the 12th. — 2dly, that, through their childlike prepossessions, and owing to their superstitious notions that the era of "Creation" could be humanly attained, they ciphered out a fabulous number, equivalent to " b. c. 3762," for a divine act, which their ignorance of the phenomena of astronomical and geological unceasing progres sion, led them to imagine instantaneous — "Fiat lux!" — and 3dly, that, having blundered by 160-170 years, only between the Exodus and Solomon's temple, they sank deeper into the mud when, in efforts to account for their own imbecilities, they made one man of two Dariuses in order to rob the world's history (184 minus 34) of 150 years! And it is such wretched stuff as this rabbinical arithmetic which is to be set up, forsooth, against the stone-books of Egypt and Assyria, the records of China, the annals of Greece and Rome at the age of Alexander the Great, and every fact in terrestrial history! Well might Le- sueur indite the passage above quoted — "Nous sommes, depuis dix-huits cents ans, dupes de la sotte vanite des Juifs : " and justifiably may archaeological science hold cheaply the acumen of the whole series of those who, amid other conceits, have adopted 480 years between Solomon's temple and the Exodus. Before examining which fact, it may be expedient that we should set forth our own point of view, founded upon the same principles hitherto pursued, viz., that our process is always retrogressive; ever starting from to-day, as the known, and going backwards, in all ques- tions of human registration of events. The era of Nabonassar, if astronomy be certainty, is a point fixed, by eclipses, &c., in the year b. c. 747. Thence, backwards to the "5th year of Rehoboan)," when Jerusalem was plundered by the Egyptian Sheshonk (of which event the hieroglyphical register stands at ThebesV we have a positive synchronism about the years 971-3, " b. c. ;" for, in ancient chronology, asserted precision to a year or so is next to imposition. Thence, taking Solo- mon with his "chariots dedicated to the sun," and his Masonico-zodiacal Temple, for granted, we accept the era "1000 years b. c," as an assumed fixed point when that temple was already completed. We say "assumed," because Calmet's date for the completion of this edifice is b. c. 1000; whilst Hales's is b. c. 1020: and, rather than trouble ourselves with ascertaining which of these computations may be the least wrong, we would greatly prefer discussing whether Solomon ever built a Temple at all. Why, if for the second, or 89 706 mankind's chronology. Zerubbabel's Temple, we have to choose among 19 biblical chronologers, whose maximum is B. c. 741, and minimum 479 — if, for a Jewish event of scarcely 2400 years ago, we cannot through Judaic books get nearer the truth, according to "chronological" arithmetic, than 262 years, up or down — how much nearer are we likely to get to another Jewish event (itself fraught with preternatural dilemmas), supposed to have happened somewhere about 2853 years ago, when the epoch of the building of the first Temple depends upon what computation we may elect to adopt out of 19 different orthodox authorities for the age of the second ? Thus much for the sake of furnishing our colleagues with practical means of rendering ecclesiastical opposers of " Types of Mankind," if not less supercilious, at least more mal- leable; whenever these maybe pleased to obtrude Jewish " chronography " — or, as it is fashionably termed, " the received chronology" — into the rugged amphitheatre of Egyptian time-measurement. Archffiologically speaking (not "chronologically"), there is no material objection to such assumption as Solomon's Temple at {circa) B. C. 1000 ; a few years more or less. Under this historical view, apart from episodic circumstances (to be discussed hereafter), archae- ology may rationally concede that Hebrew tradition, through alphabetic facilities developed not much less than three centuries posterior, does really contain chronological elements back to about 2g53 years ago — say to b. c. 1000. We continue with Lepsius — " The question is now whether we must give up, for lost, the number 480 (to which we cannot attach greater importance than to the numerous simple "Arba'indt," or forties [40s], in the same parts of Israelitish history) ; and with it, also, every chronological helm for events anterior to the Exode? But such is not the case, because we find, in the [so-called] Mosaic writings themselves, a true chronological standard, by which we can compute [the chronological weight of] the views hitherto held, and confirm anew the truthfulness of Egyptian record. Such a standard I conceive to be the Registers of generations." Allusion has been made, in other parts of this volume, to the Nos. 7, 12, 70 or 72, as mystic in original association ; and how the latter always, the former two frequently, are unhistorical wherever found. To these numbers (of cabalistic employment since the days of Jeremiah), we may now add, as equally vague in Hebrew chronography, all the "ariaenfJi" or "forties." By opening Cruden's Concordance the reader can see a list of above 50, out of many more instances, where the presence of "forty" renders the narrative, in this •respect at least, unsafe. Here is a schedule of some that are positively apocryphal; especially when, through a conventional No. 40, an event, in itself prseternatural, is ren- dered still more impossible by the numerals that accompany it. Apocryphal Forties. Otd Testament. 1. ffen. vii. 4 " 40 days an.d 40 nights." 2. iJrod. xxiv.18 " 40 days and 40 nights." 3. Numlj. xiii. 25 "40 days." 4. Deut. ix. 25 " 40 days." 5. Josli. V. 6 " 40 years." 6. Jud.m.ll "40 years." 7. 1 .Su?n. iv. 18 "40 years." 8. 2 Slim. V. 4 " 40 years." 9. 1 Kings xix. 8 " 40 days and 40 nights." 10. 2 A'mgis xii. 1 "40 years." 11. 1 Chrnn. xxvi. 31.. "40th year." 12. 2 Chron. xxiv. 1... "40 years." 13. Ezra ii. 24 " 40 and two." 14. Nehem. v. 15 " 40 shekels." 15. Job xlii. 16 " hundred and 40 years." 16. Psalms xcy. 10 " 40 years." 17. Ezel:. iv. 6 " 40 day.s." 18. J mos ii. 10 " 40 years." 19. Jon. ii. 4 " 40 day.s." Hew Testament. 20. Matt. iv. 2 " 40 days and 40 night*." 21. Marki.'iS " 40 days." 22 John ii. 30 " 40 six year.s." 2.3. Acts \. 3 "40 days." 24. //eh. iii. 9 " 40 years." 25. i?eu.vii.4, xiv.1,3 "hundred and 40 four thousand." "It is evident from the narratives in the Pentateuch, as well as in other books of the Holy Scriptures, that in ancient times the number 40 was considered not merely as a round number, but even as one totally vague .and undetermined, designating an uncertain quan- tity. The Israelites remained in the desert during 40 years; the judges, Athniel. Ehud (Septiiag.), Debora and Gideon, governed each 40 years. The same did Eli, after the Phi- listincs'had ravaged the coiuitry during 40 years. The 40 da.>s of the increasing and the 40 days of decreasing of the waters of the Deluge are well known. But one Df the most HEBREW. 707 striking instances of this use of the number 40 is 2 Sum. sv. 7, y?herc, (luring the 40 years of David's reign it is said : ' And after 40 years it happened that Ahsak)na went to the king and said, Let me go to Hebron, tiiat I may fultil tlie vow which I have made to Jehovah.' '• The Apocryphic bool/wn to us." (548j All theological conjectures about this unhistoric interval are merely conjectures tneo- logical; because the Jews used the expression "forty," as we do "a hundred," for a vague number of anything uncounted. To Lepsius's numerous illustrations of the utter impos- sibility that uneducated nations or individuals can possess any clear ideas about dates for circun)stances that may have happened during their respective lifetimes, we might add two oarallels — the first (or Oriental) is that, in Egypt, if you ask an intelligent but illiterate (544) Lf.psics: C/irono?*)^ der .<4>7i^pt»'»nj30 >00 The practical result of which is, that all chronologers, by not perceiving the surplusage due to these absurd generations of 40 years, have assigned about 160-170 years too much between Solomon and Moses; and erffo, the Exodus must descend from b. c. 1491, its date in the English version, to b. c. 1314-22, circa. After studying the above Table, the reader may perhaps perceive with us several things not generally known : — 1st. — That the whole of this .Jewish chronology is unhistorical ; because it is not based upon positive records of the number of years each personage lived, but it was fabri- cated, long after their times, by semi-scientific, semi-literary, computators; whose process was to assign impossible generations of 40 years to their country's pre-historic heroes; and then, having obtained a maximum-period in which the lives of such wor- thies were thereby inclosed, these modern computators (probably about the 3d cen- tury after c, when the Books were re-transcribed into the square-letter alphabet) apportioned to each hero, in the anew-manipulated Hebrew Text, those irrecon-' cileable numerals that have come down to our time. 2d. — That, whether the genealogical catalogues be right or not, the chronology is a later intercalation. HEBREW. 711 FROM ABRAHAM TO DAVID. IV. V. Generations Generations Elkana-AMAS.u. Meruri- 1 Chron. vii. 25- Maheli. 28. 1 Chron. vit (=V1I.) 29, 30. VI. VII. IIeman'8 Parentage to Jf.zf.h.\r. to Amasai. 1 Chron. vii. 1 Chron. vii. 36-38. 33-36. (=111,) (=IV.) 'V^II. IX. David's Parent- Assaph'8 Parent- Ethan's Parent- age to Judau. age to Jahath. ago to Musi. J{ulh iv. 18; 1 Chron. vii. 1 Cliron. vii. 1 Chron. ji. 4-13; 39-43. 44-47. Mallh. i. 3-6; (=-lI-) Lide iii. 32, 33, I. [Levi] 1. Levi 1. Levi 1. [Levi] 1. Levi 1. Levi 1. Judah 2. Elkana 2. Jlerari 2. Kahath 2. Elkana 2. Gersom 2. Merari 3. Amasai (and) 3. Mah£u 3. Jgzehar 3. Amasai 3. (Jahath) 3. Musi 2. Perez 1. Ahimoth 30 1. Libni 1. Korah 30 1. Mabath 30 1. Simei 30 1. Maheli 30 1. Ilezrom 30 2. Elkana 30 2. Simei 2. [Assir] 30 2. Elkana 30 2. Sim a 30 2. Samer 30 2. Ram i^ 3. Elk.Zophai30 3. Usa 4. Nahatb 30 4. Simea 3. [Elkana] 4. Ebjasfaph 30 30 3. Zuph 4. Thoah (Thohuj 30 iso 1 ' 3. Ethan 4. Adaja 5. Serab 30 30 30 3. Bani 4. Amzi 30 30 3. Aminadat 4. Nahesson 1 39 30 5. Eliab 6. Joram 30 5. Hagija 30 6. Asaja 5. Assir 6. Thahath 39 30 5. Eliel (Elihu) Iso 6. Ethni 7. Malcbija 30 30 5. Ililkia 6. Amazia 30 30 5. Salma 30 7. Elkana 8. Samuel 30 30 7. Zephanja 8. Asarja 30 30 6. Jeroham 7. Elkana 8. Samuel 30 8. Baesaja 30 9. Michael 30 10. Simea 30 39 30 7. Ilasabja 8. Malucb 9. Abdi 30 30 30 6. Boas 7.0bed 30 30 9. Vasni 30 9. Joel 30 9. Joel 30 11. Berechja 30 10. Kisi 30 8. Isai 30 10. 30 10. [Heman] 30 10. Heman 30 12. AssAPH 30 11. Ethan 30 9. David 30 300 300 300 360 330 270 3d. — That, as said before, there are no recorded dates in the Jewish Scriptures that are trustworthy ; that, it is we moderns who must make Hebrew chronology for the antique Jews — who, until Rabbi Hillel, had not thought of doing it themselves; — and that, in these restorations, we cease to tread upon historical ground so soon as we retrograde to Solomon's era, said to correspond to b. c. 1000. Beyond that cipher, Jewish chron- ology is all conjecture, within a few approximate limitations. Moses, or the Hebrews, being unmentioned upon Egyptian monuments of the 12th-17th centuries b. c, and never alluded to by any extant writer who lived prior to the Septuagint translation at Alexandria (commencing in the 3d century b. c), there are no extraneoua aids, from sources alien to the Jewish books, through which any information, worthy of historical acceptance, can be gathered elsewhere about him or them. With these emphatic reservations, we are quite willing to consider Lepsius's computa- tive synchronisms as not merely the most scientific but the only probable. His estimates place the Jewish Exodus in the reign of Pharaoh Menephthes, of the XlXth dynasty, about the year 1318 b. c. : (557) or rather betn-een the years 1314 and 1322 b. c. : if we have understood our authority correctly : (558) to which we add the following comparative view (557) ChroiuAogte; p. 379, compared with pp. 335-337. (558) VideGuDBiN: JIand-book- 1849; t). 44 712 mankind's chronology. of daie-1 for the Mosaic Exodus, as computed by Usher from the Hebrew Text, and generally appended to the English translation authorized since the reign of king James, A. D. 1611 ; and by Hales from the Greek Septuagint version. The new synchronisms between Hebrew and Egyptian events, put forward by Lepsius, may assist the hierological student in authen- ticating monumental history through what are still called the established dates of Scripture. It will be remarked that, while Hales extends, Lepsius reduces the antiquity assigned to each Israelitish era by archbishop Usher. Biblical Synchronisms. A. D. 1 660. A. D. 1 830. A. D. 1 849. Usher. Hales. Lepsius. Epoch of Pharaonic Contemporaries. Abraham Amcnoph III. (il/emKora) B.C. 1920 2077 about 15'Xl Joseph Ssn 1. (Sethos) " 1706 1863 « 1400 Moses Ramses II. (Jewish oppression ) ,, . ^„, ,^,^ (1394—1328 J- " 1491 1648 < Ikcodus (B.C.IZ22J) Meneptha J (.1328—1309 Jewish computation by " forties " ceases so soon as we ascend beyond Moses ; who was 40 1/ears old when he fled from Egypt ; 40 i/ears older when, after dwelling with Jethro, he returned to liberate his people ; and oldest hi/ 40 more years when he died at the age of 120 — " but no man knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day."(£>59) Vico supplies a formulary: I. — The indefinite nature of the human mind is the cause that man, plunged in ignorance, makes of himself the rule of the Universe. It is from this truth that are derived the two human tendencies thus expressed : Fama crescit cundo et miniiil prcesentia famam. Fame has travelled, since the world's Creation, a very long road ; and it is during the voyage that she has collected opinions so magnificent, and so exaggerated, upon epochas which to us are but imperfectly known. This disposition of the human intellect is indicated to us by Tacitus, in his 'Life of Agricola,' where he tells us : — Omne ignotum pro magnifico est." (560) From Moses backwards to Abraham, post-Christian Jewish computation assumed 100 years for each generation; but every dozen MSS. of the Text or versions differ; and the general principle followed seems to have been, to make generations the longer, in the ratio that the lifetime of a given hero was more and more distant from each Judsean writer's day. The model copied was a Grecian theogonic idea, because the Esdraic Jews proceeded by the four Hesiodic ages ; considering their own period to be the Iron ; the Davidic the Brazen ; the Mosaic the Silver ; and that from the Abrahamic to the Adamic, to have been the Golden age of Hebrew humanity. To Moses, in consequence, they assigned only 120 years of longevity ; but his worthier antecedents had their holier lives extended along a sliding scale, of which the numbers 240, 480, and 960, are the simple arithmetical proportion : their divisor being "40." Here, then, we have finally arrived at the great fact; which, in different or less out- spoken words, all the scientific authors we have quoted are at this day agreed upon : viz. : that the Jews knew not an atom more of " Humanity's Origins " than we do now ; and that, as they really had no human historical ancestor before Abraham (whose epoch floats between Lepsius's parallel at 1500, and Hales's at 2077, b. c), there is no chronology, strictly so- called, in the Bible, anterioi-ly to the Mosaic age ; itself vague for one or more generations. This posited, we shall close further argument with a Table of Hebrew Origins; conform- ably to the same principles upon which we have already tabulated the distinct histories of Egypt, China, and Assyria. Each of these nationalities possesses its historical, semi-histo- rical, and mythical times. And, inasmuch as it is conceded by every true historian that the Israelites (under the literary aspect in which they first present themselves to the gentile world), had been previously educated in Chaldcea ; it will be interesting to place the ante-diluvian "patriarchs" of the preceptors alongside those of the pupils. Berosus, Philo Byblius, Julius Africanus, Alexander Polyhistor, Eusebius, and the Syncellus, have preserved for us transcripts of the original Chaldeean catalogues: the whole texts of which are accessible in Cory's Ancient Fragments, or in Bunsen. (561) ;j>a9) Deut. xxxiv. 6. (500) Vico: Scicnza Nuova; 1720; "Elemento lino." (561) Egypt's 2'lacc; i. pp. 704-719. HEBREW. 713 Mythological Periods. Symbolical Ante-Diluvian Patriarchs. Orwco-Cfmldcean D'.eade. 1. Alorus years 3C.000 2. Aliiparu8 " 10,800 3. Almelon " 46.800 4. Auimonon " 4.'!,200 6. Amolegarus " 64,800 6. Daonus " 30,000 7. Edoranchus.... " 64.800 8. Ameni)>sinus... " 30.000 9. Otiartes " 28,800 10. Xisuthrus « 64,800 Years 432,000 HebriZO-ChaWaMn Decade. Phoinico-Chaldaan Decade. 1. — First-born. 2. =: Genus, family. 3. — Fire, light, flame. 4. = Ca.sKiu8, Libaiiu8(7?M*un<'«), 5. — Colsus, '-par coelo," wood. 6. = Peasant, hunter, fisher. Vulcan, fire, artificer, = { ADaM I'rotogonos SeT< Genos, Genea ANoS/i Phos, pur, phlox KINaN Cassios, Libanos Mallal-aLeL Memrouuos, ousoos lUnD Agrios, alieus K/h'NUK Chrusor, hcpbaistos, MeT^USeLaKft artifex, geinoa ' ( earth-worke LaMeK Agros, agroueros 8. = Rustic, agriculturist. NuK/t Amuuos, magos 9. r= Warrior, magician. Mi&or (Sydyc, Saduc) 10. = Egypt, and the "just" IHng, Melchisedek. CHALD.^AN DELUGE. 1st iVofe. — The 36 Decans of the Zodiac, (562) multiplied by the 12 months of the year, give the mystic number 432. The "grand year " of Astronomy — or the time anciently supposed to be required for the sun, planets, and fixed stars, to return to the same celestial starting-point — was at first 25,000, then 36,000, and la.stly 432,000 years; being the supposed duration of the ten Grreco-Chaldaean generations. A Deluge terminated the cycle. (563) 2d Note. — The Phoenico-Chaldnan list, derived from Sanconiatho, presents us with the Greek tixmdalions, > not with the real names of its lost Oriental original. The Phoenicians had originally crossed from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, and their intercourse with Chald»a was inces- sant; while the two people spoke Semitic dialects. More saliently than the other two forms of the same theogony, this Phcenician stream exhibits the rationale of its "ex pest facto "con- struction. According to it, we have the stages of family, hunter, fisherman, artizan, hmhandr man, soldier, priest, and king, through which antique humanity developed itself. Aparalleli.sm seems to be preserved in the offshoots of the Adamio stem in Genesis, where Abel tlie wandering sliep/ierd is hateful to Cain the sedentary peasant. Chaldaic Ethnological Division — [contained in Xth Genesis.] Theoretical Post - Diluvian Commencements. KAaM. Swarthy raoes. Babylonish Theory for Diversity of Tongues. "City and Tower of BaByL"-on = confusion = " B a B e L - babblingB." Hebrew Geographical Origins. ARPTjarKaSD = OKf\-the-Chald(ean (District). SaLaKA =z Salacha (City). AeBeR — the-yonderer (Tribe). PeLeG = H-split (Earthquake ?). Earliest Legendary Ancestors. ReC. SeUUQ. NaKftUR. TteKaKA. (562) Lepsius: Chronologic; i. pp 66-76, (563) De Brotonne: op. cU.; pp. 234-2*6. 714 mankind's chronology. Judaic Meta-Histokical Period. "Thou shalt no more be called AB-RaM (Father of the HiGH-Iand = Aranuna)-^ Thy uame shall be AB-RaHaM" (Father of a multitude). (564) Abrahamidce. ITsKAaK = "laughter." laKoB, surnamed Israel. (12 Signs of the Zodiac, 12 Sons, 12 Tribes of Israel.) Levi. Kohath. Amram. Hoses. Judaic Historical Period. Moses — assumed epoch 14th century B.(i [Interval between Exodus and the first Temple, about 314-322 years.] Solomon — (Chronological times begin) about B.C. 1000 i^rst monumental synchronism, Rehoboam and Sheshonk " 971-3 lAIphabetic-writing does not begin until the 9th-8th century B. c] HiLKiAH — " found a book of the Law " " 620 Jerusalem burnt, and Captivity commenced " 586 Ezra — Second Temvle — " Vllth year of Artaxerxes" " 457 Esdraic School — "Renaissance" begins " 400 Alexander — visits Jerusalem " 332 Alexandria School: Manetho — the earliest known chronologist '• 260 Septuagint translations commence " 250 X^tiocnva- Epiphanes — plunders Jerusalem, and burns the books " 164 Daniel, the Satirist, wrote " 160 Jddas, the Hammerer — restores the books " 150 Maccabee coin-letters extant — Simeon " 142 Septiiagint translations finished " 130 SiRACiDEg, Canon closes ** 130. (Roman dominion — B. 0. 49.) Christian Era. Between b. c. 7 and a. d. 3 ; but assumed at 1853 years ago. Herob — decorates the Third Temple with pagan Hellenic architecture A.I>. IS Fall of Jerusalem: Titus razes the Temple to its foundations " 74 Josephus — receives the Templar-mpy of the Hebrew Text, as a present from Vespasian at Rome, about " 76 (Earliest citation of " Gospels " — Justin Martyr, died about 166.) Controversies between the Fathers and the Jiahhis here commence. The Oriental Jews transcribe the Text into the square-letter alphabet, during the 3d century after c. 3I1IXL Hanassi — computes Jeivish chronology " 844 The Masoretic points begun by Rabbis of Tiberias " 606 Oldest Manuscripts of Greek LXX extant, 5th century after c. OldfM Manuscripts of Hebrew Text extant, 10th century after C. King James's Engliili Version, printed a. d. 1611. (564) Genesis : xvil. 5 ; — Cahen : i. p. 42, note 5. HINDOO. 715 CHRONOLOGY — HINDOO. " Orieinally this [Dniverse] was naught but Sodl: nothing else existed active for passive]. Hb bad this thought — I will create worlds. It is thus that He created these [diversj worlds, the water, the Ught, the mortals, and the waters. This water is the [region] above the sky, (36.5) which the sky supports; the atmosphere contains the light; the earth is mortal; and the regions beneath are the waters." — (Vedas, " Aitareya A'ran'ya" — P.iuthier: Liv. Sac, p. 318.) Although, in our Table of Alphabetical origins, we have dealt as sternly with unhistorical Indian documents, as with the metaphysical fables of all other nations, it may be well to Bay a few passing words upon Hindoo chronologies ; lest it be supposed that we are not pre- pared to reagitate that which, to us, is no longer a "vexata qusestio." Referring the reader to the citations from Wilson, Tumour, and Sykes, therein adduced, we repeat, that there is no connected chronology, to be settled archseologically by existing monuments, throughout the whole Peninsula of Hindostan, of a date anterior to the fifth century b. c. That vast centre of creation swarmed with varied indigenous and exotic populations, from epochas coeval with the earliest historical nations; but, if any of these Indian phi- losophers ever composed a rigidly-chronological list of events, we have lost the record ; or, what is more probable, the chronological element was wanting in the organism of Hindoo minds, until the latter received instruction (from Chaldsean magi scattered by Darius) through the Persians ; — tuition greatly improved after contact with the Bactrian Greeks during the third century b. c. In any case, the extract subjoined will show that the antiquarian dreams of Sir W. Jones and of Colebrooke are now fleeting away. "Whether safe historic ground is to be found in India earlier than 1200 b. c, according to the chronicles of Kashmere [Ruiljtarangim, tivad. par Troyer), is a question involved in obscurity; while Megasthenes (Imlica, ed. Schwanbeck, 1846, p. 50) reckons for 153 kings of the dynasty of Magadha, from Manu to Kandragupta, from 60 to 64 centuries; and the astronomer Aryababhatta places the beginning of his chronology 3102 b. c. (Lassen, Ind. Alterthumsk., bd. I., s. 473-505, 507, and 510)." From Humboldt (506) we pass on to Prichard; whose Hindoo prepossessions of 1819(567) have not only been nullified by Egyptian discoveries, but, with the learned ethnographer's usual candor, have become greatly modified by his own later reflections. (508) The inquirer can judge from the perusal of the passages referred to whether he can make out a fixed chronological idea, in India, prior to the age of Budha in the sixth century b. c. Lepsius (569) contents his objects (confined to a general review of the world's chronolo- gical elements) by mentioning, that the Hindoo astronomical cycle kali yuga falls on the 18th Feb. 3102 b. c. ; that the Cashmeerian king Gonarda I. is supposed to have reigned about B.C. 2448; and that king Vikramaditya's era is fixed at B.C. 58. But he also shows that the 4th-5th centuries b. c. comprise all we can depend upon, archaeologically, in Hindoo history. However, by opening the excellent work of De Brotonne, (570) the reader will easily perceive how the Chaldsean astrological cycle of 432,000 years became extended by later Brahmanical pundits to one, equally fabulous, of 4,320,000 years: and inasmuch as this fact merely invalidates Sanscrit hallucinations the more, we are fain to leave Hindoo chro- nology in the same " slough of despond" in which we found it. Reader! — the task proposed to myself in the preparation of these three supplement ary Essays here ends. It was assumed under the following circumstances : — (5G5) This is the same cosmogony as that of CosMAS-IndicopIeustes, herein-before descrilx;d. Indeed, the notion was universal ; and, in theography, is so still. (566) Cosmm; transl.Otte; 1850; ii. p. 115. (567) Analysis of Mytholngy . (568) Bfsearches into the IViydcal History of ManlHnd; 1844: iv. pp. 98-139. (569) CJironologie ; i. pp. 4-5. (670) FUUdions; i. pp. 23S, 239, 414-433. 716 mankind's chronologt. Within the past five years, various sectaries (momentarily suspending polemics amongst one another) had entered into a sort of tacit combination to assail those who, like Morton, Nott, Van Amringe, Agassiz, and others, were devoting themselves to anthropological researches. Each of the above-named gentlemen has successfully repelled the intrusions of dogmatism into his especial scientific domain. In these literary "melees," it has so happened that my surname has been frequently made the target for indiscreet allusions on the part of certain teologasiri ; without any provo- cation having been given on my side, through a single personality, in the course of ten years' lectureship upon Oriental archjeology in the United States. To treat such in any other manner than with silent indifi^erence would have been unbecoming, as well as, at the moment of each offence, unavailing. I preferred abiding my own convenience ; and, in the foregoing Part III., have indicated an easy method of carrying " the war into Africa." I believe that, thereby, good service is done in the general cause of the advancement of knowledge, and in the special one of my favorite study, Archceology. Geologists, Natural- ists, and Ethnologists (absorbed in the promotion of positive science through the discovery of new facts), have rarely devoted time adequate to the mastery of Ilebraical literature ; and, in consequence, they are continually laying themselves open to chagrin and defeat in the arena of theological wrangling?. My former pursuits (in Muslim lands) were remote from Natural Science, and as they disqualify me from sharing the labors of its votaries, I have thought that a contribution like the present, to the biblical armory of scientific men, might be of utility; even if it should merely spare them the trouble of ransacking for authorities generally beyond the circumference of their higher sphere of research : at the game time that a work such as "Types of Mankind" would be deficient unless the Hebrew department of its themes were to some extent complete. To future publication [^supra, pp. 626, 627], I reserve further analyses which, without these preliminary Essays, would be unintelligible to ordinary scriptural readers. Confident of her own strength. Archaeology (let one of this science's thousand followers hint to her opponents) neither courts nor depre- cates biblical or any other agitation, and will prosecute her investigations peaceably while she can, otherwise when she must. Repeating the direct and manly language of Luke Burke — to whose conception of a real "Ethnological Journal" scientific minds will some day accord the homage that is its due: — "For all our arguments, there is the ready answer that our statements directly contra- dict the express words of Scripture, and must therefore be false, however plausible they may appear. We may reply that the word of God cannot be in opposition to genuine his- tory, any more than it can oppose any other truth, and that therefore the passages in question cannot be a portion of this word, or if so, that they cannot have hitherto been properly understood. But experience has abundantly proved that such answers as these give satisfaction to very few, until facts have become so numerous and uneijuivocal that further opposition is madness. In the meantime, a war of opinion rages, embittered by all the virulence of sectarian partisanship, and the credulous and simple-minded are taught to look upon the advocates of the new doctrines as the enemies of morality, religion, and the best interests of man. For ourselves, we have no ambition to appear in any such light, nor shall we quietly submit to be placed in such a position." (571) And for myself — whilst thoroughly endorsing the sentiments of a valued friend and colleague — I cannot better express the feelings with which I close my individual portion of an undertaking that has occupied the thoughts and hands of some men not unknown in the world of science, than by applying to our antagonists the last words ever written by me at the dictation of him to whom, with being itself, I owe all that mind and heart still bold to be priceless after more than forty years' experience of a wanderer's life : — " La medicina divenia amara. Spero che sard, salutifera. Intanio, si pre7iderd." [572) G. R. G. (HowAKD's — MoBn-E Bat, 20th July, 1853.) (5/1) •'Critical Analysis of the Hebrew Chronology" — Elhn. Jour.; London: No. I., June, 1848; pp. 9, 10. (572) John Oubdon, United States' Consul for Egypt (T8.32-'44): Letter to H. Ex. Boauos Youssouf JSty — Mo HAMMED Aij'8 JYime Minister — " Cairo, li 6 I'ebbrajo, 1841." APPENDIX I. REFEEENCES AND NOTES. Kb. (Of jVote. (fc.) 1 Ethnological Journal, London, 1848 ; June 1, No. I. 2 Op. cit., pp. 1, 2. An excellent precis of the meaning and scieniific attributes of " Ethnology" hag long been published by (he venerable Jomard, in Mengin, Histoire d'Esvpte. 1839, iii. p 403. 3 Nat. Hist, of .Man, London, 1848. p. 6. 4 Varieties of Man, London, 1851. 5 North British Review, Aug., 1849. 6 Op. cit., p. 6. 7. Knox, Races of Man, Philadelphia ed., 1850. 8 Burke, op. cit., p. 30. 9 Researches, v. p. 564. 10 Jacquinot. Considerations generales sur rAnthropolngie (Voyage au Pole Sud), Zoologie, 1846. ii. p. 36. 11 Nott, Two Lectures on the Biblical and Physical Hist, of Man; New York, 1849. p. 64. 12 The Friend of Moses. New York, 1852; Preface viii, and Te.xt, pp. 442, 446, 449-51, 492-7. (3 Briefe aus iEgypten und ^Ethiopien, Ber- lin. 1852. p. 35. '4 Genesis, vii.. 19-23. We quote the He- brew Text; referringthe re ider to Cahen, La Bible, Traduction Nouvelle, Paris, 1831 ; Tom. i. p. 21. t.5 Cf. Jacquinot, op. cii., chap. i. From this remarkably scientific work we have borrowed freely in this chapter, and elsewhere. 16 We ought to mention that Dr. Pickering favored us with the sight of his pages while they were vet in "proofs." 17 Op. cit., pp. 161, 163. 18 Op. cit., p. 41. 19 Races of Men, pp. 75-99. 20 Des Races Humaines. p. 169. 21 Christian Examiner, Boston, July, 1850. 22 Nott, Two Lectures. 1849. 23 Researches, ii. p. 105. 24 Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sciences; Philadel- phia, 10 Sept., 1850. p. 82— Additional Observations on Hybridiiy in Animals. " Reply to the Rev. John Bachman, D. D.," Ch irleston .Medical Journal, 18.50, p. 8. 25 Bodichon. Etudes sur I'Algerie, Alger, 1847. p 135. 26 Jacquinot, op. cit., p. 173. 27 Wood-cut. fig. 1. L'Egypte Ancienne, 1840, PI. L. and Champollion-le-Jeune's descripiion in pp. 29-31. 28 Rosellini. Mon dcU'Egitto, M. R. civii., clvi., Ix., (fee. .Mon. Sior., iv. pp. 238- No. (of Notes, rfc.) 44 ; iii. pp. 1, 433, seq. Lepsius, Denk mjiler, Abth. iii, Bl. 136. 29 See the discussion in Bishop Warburton's Divine Legation of Moses; and in Munk, Palestine, pp. 146-150. 30 Hennell, Origin of Christianity, 1845, pp. 8-21. 31 Amedee Thierry, Histoire des Gaulois, Paris, 1844. 32 Strabo, lib. iv. p. 176— Fr. ed. 33 Thierry, p. xxxv., Inlrod. W. de Hum- boldt held the same opinion. 34 Hist, de la Filiation et des .Migrations des I'euples, Paris, 1837; i. pp. 294-336. 35 British Association for the advancement of Science, 1850; reported in London Literary Gazette. 36 Antiquites Celtiques Antediluviennes. 37 Retzius, cited in Morton's MSS. 38 Schinerling, Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles, Liege, 1833, i. pp. 59-66: re- ferred to in our Chapter XI. 39 Vide infra. Part II.. pp. 469, 470. 40 Edwards, Des Caractcres Physiologiques des Races Humaines, &c., Paris, 1839. 41 Op. cit., p. 22. 42 Paulmier, Aper§us genealogiques sur les descendants de Guillaume, Rev. Archeol., 1845, p. 794, seq. 43 Virey, Hist. Nat. du Genre Humain. Disc. Prelim., i. pp. 14, 15. 44 On the question of hair, consult the mi- croscopic experiments of Mr. Pete, et la Mesopotamia, Paris, folio, 1842, pi. 113: — compare pi. 126. 320 Botta et Flandin, Mon. de Ninive, folio, 1847-50, pi. 88. 321 Virgile.Moreium. "The Salad," Nisard's ed., Paris, 1843, p. 463. 322 Wood-cuts, figs. 177, 178— Rosellini, M R., xliv. l.is, qualer. 343 Abth. iii. Bl. 120. 324 Archaeologia, xxxiv. pp. 18-22. 325 Compare Gliddon's assertions of the same fact in 1843, Chapters, pp. 47, 59; in 1849, Otia, pp. 78-81 ; and Hand-book, p. 35. 326 Hist. Tablet of Ramses II., London, 1852, pp. 1822. 327 Hincks, Hieroglyphicai Alphabet, p. 16 ; pi. i. figs. 23, 26, 27: — Gliddon, Otia, p. 133. 328 Wood-cut, fig. 181— Mon. Civ., pi. xxii. 3..'9 Travels, plate, part i. line 3. 330 Man. and Cust., i. pi. iv. line 3. 331 Egypie Ancienne, pi. 55. 332 Wood-cut, fig. 182— Rosellini, Hoskins, Wilkinson, and ChampoUion - Figeac, supra No. 331. 333 Races, 1848, p. 224 — compare "Abyssi- nian," in plate xii. 334 Gallery, pp. 94, 97; pi. 38. 335 Topog. of Thebes, 1835, pp. 135, seq.: — Man. and Cust., i. pp. 58, 404 ; iii. 179 : — ChampoUion, Monuments, pi. 158. 336 Gliddon, Otia, p. 148. 337 Gliddon's MS. Diary, "Thebes, February, 1840": — Wilk.. Materia Hieroglyphica, "A nuintuonch " : — Rosellini. Appen- dice. Oval No. 13: — Leemaiis, Lettre a Salvolini, p. 75. Compare Birch, Ta- blet of Ramses II., Tomb of Hui, p. 24. 338 Wood-cuts, figs. 183, 184 — Denkmaler, "Neues Reich," Dvn. XVIIl., A bib. iii. Bl. 117.— N. B. The children some- times are red — see ihe same paternity exemplified in Hoskins, Eihiop., "Grand Procession," lowest line. REFERENCES AND NOTES. 723 JVo. (of Notes, y, pp. 37-43, No. (of Notes, <£c.) 123-5, 154. — Champollion, Lettres, pp. 76-7. — De Saulcy, Inscriptions de Van, p. 26. 622 AMoRL On " Nephilim," cf. the Para- lipomeni. — Talmud, apud Rabbi Ben- Ouziel ; Cahen, iv. p. 107, note. — Gliddon, Otia, p. 137.— Rosellini, Mon. Stor., lii. part 1. pp. 368-70; iv. pp. 94, 237-9.— Birch, Gallery, part i. p. 86.— Hincks, Hierog. Alph., p. 13; pi. i. fig. 17.— Osburn, Test., 65, 128-9, 154.— Birch, Stat. Tab. Kar., pp. 20-3. — De Saulcy, Dead Sea, i. p. 347. 623 GiRGaSL Munk, Palestine, pp. 69, 79. 624 K/
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Mason, M. D., Wetumka, Ala. C. H. Mastin, M. D., Mobile, Ala. H. B. Mattison, Esq. .Washington, D. C. Joseph Maurau, M. D., Providence, R. I. B. Mayer, Ksq., for Md. Hist. Soc, Baltimore, Md. W. E. Mayhew, Esq., Baltimore, Md. Hon. Theo. H. McCaleb. New Orleans, La. Jas. McClean, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. J. H. B. McClellan, M. D., " Thos. MoConnell, Esq., Mobile, Ala. J. H. McCulloh. Esq., Baltimore, Md. E. H. McDonald, Esq.. Philadelphia, Pa. T. F. McDow,M.D., Liberty Hill, S. C. Wm. McGuigan, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Messrs. McKee & P.obertson, Hagerstown, Md. V. B. McKelvey, M. D., New Orleans, La. Andrew McLaughlin, Esq., Baltimore, Md. Mrs. McPherson, Baltimore, Md. M. Megonegal, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa., (2 copies.) Charles D. Meigs, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. J. Aitken Meigs, M. D., " J. Forsyth Meigs, M. D., " Thos. Mellon, Esq., " N. L. Merriweather, Esq., Montgomery, Ala., (5 cop.) M. H. Messchert, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. John G. Michener, Esq., " Vrancis T. Miles, M. D., Charleston, S. 0. Clark Mills, Esq., Washington, D. C. Charles Millspaugh, M. D., Kichmond, Va. J. F. G. Mittag, Esq., Lancaster, S. C. E. J. Mollet, Esq., New York, James Moncreif, Esq., New York. Cyrus C. Moore, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. Comm. E. W. Moore, Texan N., Washington, D. C. S. Mordecai, Esq., Richmond, Va. James W. Morgan, Esq., Lynchburg, Va. Israel IMorris, Esq.. Philadelphia, Pa. Jacob G. Morris, Esq., " John S. Morris, Esq., Phoenixville, Pa. T. H. Morris, Esq., Baltimore, Md. B. 3L Moss, M. D., New Orleans, La. E. L. Moss, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Valentine Mott, M. D., New York. James Moultrie, M.D., Charleston, S. C. John Munro, Esq., San Francisco, Cala. Wm. M. Murray, Esq., Charleston, S. C. G. A. Myers, Richmond, Va. M. H. Nace, Esq., Richmond, Va. T. C. Newbold, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Thos. A. Newhall, Esq., Germantown, Pa. H. Newman, Esq., Boston, Mass. J. B. Newman, Esq., Washington, D. C. Jos. Newton, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. New York Societj l^ibrary, N. Y. W .M. Nidiolls, Esq., Chesterville, S. C. B. M. Norman, Bookseller, New Orleans, La., (25 cop.) Gustavus A. Nott, M. D., New Orleans, La. James Nott, M. D. San Kranci.sco, Cala. Jnc R Nanemacher, E.sq., New Albany, Ind. (2 cop.) Rob't W. Ogden, Esq., New Orleans, La. J. W. Osgood, Esq.. Saxonville, Mass. J. W. Orr, Esq., New York, (5 copies.) Rev. S. O-swald, York, Pa. Edward Padclford, Esq., Savannah, Qa. B. R. Palm-'r, M. D., Pittsburg, Pa. John S. Palmer, M. D., Charleston, 9. C. Alexander Pantoleon, A. M. Smyrna, Turkey. Comm. F. A. Parker, U. S. N., Philadelphia, Pa. Henry T. Parker, Esq., Boston, Muss. Capt. James Parker, Mobile, Ala. Socrates Parker, Efq., Livingston, Ala, S. Parkman, M. D., Boston, Mass. Henry S. Patterson, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. Morris Patterson, Esq., " Joseph Patterson, Esq., " (5 copies.) Louis L. Pauly, Esq., " Abraham Payne, E.sq., Providence, R. I. W. 1. Peale, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Miss Mary Pearsall, " Davis Pearson, Esq., " John Penington, Esq. " Amos Pcnnebaker, M. D., " J. A. Pennypacker, M. D., " Granville J. Penn, Esq., Penn Castle, England. 1. Pennington, Esq., Baltimore,Md., (2 copies.) Mrs. C. W. Pennock, Philadelphia, Pa. J. W. Perard, .Tr., Esq., New York. Chas. T. Peroival, M. D.. Mobile, Ala. 0. H. Perry, Esq., for Vig. Lib. Assoc, Baltimore, Md. Rob't E. Peterson, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Jesse E. Peyton, Esq., " Philadelphia Library Company, Philadelphia, Pa. Jona. Phillip.s, E.sq., Boston, Mass. John Phillips. M. D., Bristol, Pa. Hon. P. Phillips, Mobile, Ala. Charles Pickering, M. D., Boston, Mass. J. C. Pickett, Esq., Washington, B. C. E. B. Pierson, M. D., Salem, Mass. Henry L. Pierson, Esq., New York. Hon. Albert Pike, Little Rock, Arkansas. Wm. M. Pippen, Esq., Tarboro, N. C. J. N. Piatt, Esq., New York. George Poe, Esq., Washington, D. C. J. G. Poindexter, Esq., New Orleans, La. Prof. F. A. Porcher, Charleston, S.C. George Porteus, Esq., Mobile, Ala. John Potts, Esq., Cbiliuahua, Mexico. 1. Pratt, M.D.. Philadelphia, Pa. Wm. Pratt, Esq., Baltimore, Md. Wm. H. Pratt, Esq., Mobile, Ala. J. H. Prentice, Esq., New York. J. S. Preston, Columbia, S. C. H. C. Price, Esq., Chester, Pa. Lsaac Pugh, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Jno. M. Pugh, M. D., West Philadelphia, Pa G. P. Putnam & Co., Publishers, New York, (10 oop.) B. How.ird Rand, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. Jno. Randall, Esq., New York. R C. Randolph, M. D., Greensboro, Ala. Edmund Ravenal, M. D., Charleston, S. C. Edwiird Rawle, Esq., New Orleans, La. Daniel T. Rea, Esq., Mobile, Ala. J. B. Read, Esq., Savannah, Ga. W'm. Reed, Esq., New Orleans, La. J. J. Reese. M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. •Tohn R. Reid, Esq., New Orleans, La. D. Elliott R<'ynolds, M. D., New Orleans, La. Col. James Rice, San Francisco. Cala. W. Bordman Richards, Esq., Boston, Mass. W. W. Richards, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Maurice Richardson, Esq., Great A' alley, Pa. J. L. Riddell, M. D., New Orleans, La. Mrs. G. W. liiggs, Baltimore. Md. J. H. Riley * Co., Booksellers, Columbus, 0., (5 cop.) Thomas Ritchie, Esq., Washington, D. C. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. 737 Ciil. Oeorge Rivers, Providence, R. I J. A. Roberts, Ureeiisville, Pa. W. Lea Roberts, Ksq., New York. F. M. Robertson, M. D., Charleston, S. Jolin Blouut Robertson, Ksq., New Orleans, La. Col. \V. S. Rockwell, Milletlgeville, Ga. Prof. Uenry D. Ro]:cers, Boston, Mass. Chas. U. Rogers, Valley Forge, Pa. Hon. Molton J. Rogers, PUilailelphia, Pa. Jno. S. Robrer, M. D., " 0. A. Roorback, Bookseller, New York, (16 copies.) Wm. Itopes, Esq., Boston, Mass. A. II. Rosenheim,' Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. James S. Rowe, E.sq., Bangor, Me. Samuel RufRn, Esq., Mobile, Ala. K. H. Rugbee, Esq., Providence, R. I. James Rush, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. Mrs. Rush, « John Russell, Bookseller, Charleston, S. C. (3 coi"i-«.; Charles Ryan, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Rev. Dr. Ryerson, Toronto, Canada, (2 copies.) B. J. Sage, Esq., New Orleans, La. Richard G. Sager, Esq., Jlobile, Ala. Hon. James Savage, Boston, Mass. W. II. De Saussure, Charleston, S. C. J. P. Scriven, M. D., Savannah, Ga. Chas. Scott, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. John Scoville, Esq., Salisbury, Conn. E. M. Seabrook, Esq., Charleston, S. C. Hon. Benjamin Seaver, Boston, Mass. P. T. Seibel, M. D., Savannah, Ga. S. E. Sewall, Esq., Boston, Mass. George C. Sbat.tuck, Esq., Boston, Mass., (2 copies.) Lemuel Shattuck, Esq., " Quincy A. Shaw, Esq., " Robert G. Shaw, Esq., " (2 copies.) R. 0. Shaw, M. D., Mobile, Ala. W. W. Shearer, Esq., Livingston, Ala. Shepherd, Esq., Cairo, Egypt. John II. Sherard, Esq., Livingston, Ala. W. Sherman, E.isq., New York. Nath. B. Shurtleff, M. D., Boston, Mass. Origen Sibley. Esq., Mobile, Ala. Hon. Cha.s. Sitgreaves. New Jersey. H. N. Skinner, Esq., New Y'ork. J. R. Slack & Co., Book.sellers, Steubenville, 0., (.3 c.) Jno. Sloan, .M. D., New Albany, Ind. A. A. Smets. Esq., Savannah, Ga. F. Gurney Smith, Jr., M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. Howard Smith, M. D., New Orleans, La. Jacob Smith, Esq., Georgetown, Ga. J. Broom Smith, Esq., San Francisco, Cala. Jno. Jay Smith. E.«q., Germantown Pa. Joseph P. Smith, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. J. E. J. Smith, Ksq., Georgetown, G.a. John T. Smith, E.sq., Livingston, Ala. Samuel Smith, F>sq., New York. J. A. Spencer, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Truman & SpolTord, Booksellers, Cincinnati, 0., (5 c.) Hon. E. Geo. Squier, New York. Wm. 11. Squire. .M. D., Germantown, Pa. W. E. Stacke, Esq., New Orleans, La. W. H. Stark, Esq., Mobile, Ala. Albert Stein, Esq., Mobile, Ala. Jacob Steiner, E.sq., Philadelphia, Pa. J. P. Steiner, Esq., " Claudius C. Stewart, Esq., Florida. Wm. Stevenson. Esq., Baltimore, Md. D. D. Stewart, .M. D., « e. Stewart, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 1)3 Scott Stewart, M. D.. Philadelphia, Pa. Wm. Stewart, Esq., Ilagcrstown, Md., (2 copies.) John Stoddard, E.sq., Savannah, Ga. Prof. I. M. Stone, Hanover, Ind. Warren Stone, M. D., New Orleans, La. Lt. Isaac G. Strain, U. S. N., Philadelphia, Pa Wm. Strickland, Bookseller, Mobile, Ala., (10 copies.) Col. C. B. Strode, San Franci.sco, Cala., (10 copies.) Hon. A. H. H. Stuart, for Lib. Dep. Int., Washington Albert Sumner, Esq., Newport, R. I. Hon. Charles Sumner, Washington, D. C. Chas. G. Swartz, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Jos. Swift, Esq., '• Samuel Swett, Esq., Boston, Mass. Mrs. T. A. Swett, « T. A. Tankusley, Esq., Mobile, Ala. Benjamin Tanner, E.sq., Baltimore, Md. R«v. S. K. Talmage, LL. D., Milledgeville, Ga. Henry W. Taylor, Esq., Mobile, Ala. Wm. Taylor, Esq., Richmond, Va. J. K. Tefft, Esq., Savannah, Ga. J. S. Teft, Bookseller, Houston, Texas, (10 copies 1 Carlisle Terry, M. D., Georgetown, Ga. Charles L. Tew, Esq., New Orleans, La. Richard H. Thomas, M. D., Baltimore, Md. Edwin Thompson, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. John Thorne, Esq., Baltimore, Md. Col. James J. Thornton, Mobile, Ala, B. C. Ticknor, Esq., M.ansfield, 0. Osmond TiS'any, Esq., Baltimore, Md. Howard Tilden, E.sq., Philadelphia, Pa. J. Tisdale, Esq., Boston, Mas.s. Dr. Toland, San FrancLsco. Cala. Gen. Joseph Totten, U. S. A., Washington, D. Henry Toulmin, Esq., Mobile, Ala. Morton Toulmin, Esq., " Elisha Townsend, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Robert Trueman, Esq., Boston. Ma.ss. David H. Tucker, M. D., Richmond, Va. J. W. Tucker, Esq., Spartanburg, S. C. Wm. E. Tucker, E.sq., Philadelphia, Pa. Fred'k Tudor, Esq., Boston, Mas.s. Alexander Turnbull, Esq., Baltimore, Md. T. I. Turner, M. D., U. S. N., Philadelphia, Pa Prof. M. Tuomey, Tuscaloosa, Al.a. J. W. Tuthill, Esq., New Orleans, La. J. A. Tyler, Esq., Boston, Mass. J. M. Uhlhorn, E.sq., New Orleans, La. Aaron Vail, Esq., New York. Jacob B. Vandever, Esq., Wilmington, Dei. Col. Henry Vaughan, Yazoo City, Mi. W. S. Vaux, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. A. L. Vegus, Mobile, Ala. Henry Vollmer, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Henry Wadsworth, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa George H. Walker, Esq., New Orleans, La. Isaac R. Walker, M. D., Spread Eagle, i'a. Rev. J. B. Walker, Mansfield, 0. J. J. Walker, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. S. J. Walker, Esq., Mobile, Ala. James P. Walker. Esq., Lowell, Mass. John N. Walthall, Esq., .Mobile, Ala. J. .T. V. Wanroy, Esq., " J. C. Warren, .M. D., Boston, Mass. J. Ma.son Warren, M. D., " Jas. S. Water", Esq., Baltimore, Md 738 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. Col. John G. Watmoiigh, Germantown, Pa. Thomas H. Webb, M. D., Providence, R. I. Nicholas Weeks, Esq., Mobile. Ala. A. J. Wedderburn, M. D., New Orleans, La. Plowden C. J. Weston, Esq., Hagley, S. C. T. M. Wetherill, Esq., Laurel Hill, La. Wm. Wetherill, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. W. West, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Chas. M. Wheatley, Esq., Phoeni.wille, Pa., (4 copies.) Wm. Augustus White, Esq., N. York. Benjamin A. White, M. D., Milledgeville, Qa. Eli White, Esq., New York. Hon. W. H. Witte, Philadelphia, Pa., (2 copies.) Kev. R. S. Whitehall, New Orleans, La. E. D. Whitehead, Esq., Havanna, Green Co., Ala. W. C. Wilde, Esq., New Orleans, La. Capt. Charles Wilkes, U. S. N., Washington, D. C John Williams, Esq., Lancaster, S. C. W. C. William.^, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. Hon. W. Thorne Williams, Savannah, Ga. W. Williarason, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. A. P. Willis, Esq., New Orleans, La. Chas. Wilson, Esq., Savannah, Qa. T. McK. Wilson, Esq., Cannonsburg, Pa. Rev. W. D. Wilson, D. D., Geneva, N. Y. Hubbard Winslow, Esq., Boston, Mass. John Wiltbauk, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. Philip Wiufree, Jr., Esq., New Orleans, La. James W. Winter, Esq., New York. C. J. Wister, Esq., Germantown, Pa. James H. Witherspoon, Esq., Lancaster, S. C. Thomas R. Wolfe, Esq., New Orleans, La. Wm. B. Wolfe, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. A. Wolle, Esq., Bethlehem, Pa. F. Woleamuth, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Messrs. Wood & Conner, Carlisle, Pa. A. T. Wood, Esq., New Orleans, La. George B. Wood, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. Rev. W. D. Wood, D. D., Geneva, N. Y. Mrs. Woodbury, New York. H. A. Wright, Esq., Madison, Wis. Wm. Wright, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. Jacob Wyand, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Wm. W. Wy.ntt, Esq.. " Messrs. Wylie, .Mobley & Strait, Lanca.ster, S. 0. Samuel G. Wyman, Esq., Baltimore, Md. Thomas K. Wynne, Esq., Richmond, Va. Gregory Yale, Esq., San Francisco, Cala. Jno. C. Yeager, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Philip Yeiser, M. D., New Orleans, La. Harry M. Y^oung, Baltimore, Md. J. A. Young, Esq., Camden, S. C. John B. Y'oung, Esq., Richmond, Va. ADDITIONAL NAMES, RECEIVED SINCE THE ABOVE UST WAS MADE OUT 6. W. Ball, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. A. Billings, Esq.. Nashville, Tenn. Beriah Brown, Esq., Madison, W'ia. Wm. H. Van Buren, M. D., New York. Stacy B. Collins, Esq., « John Le Conte, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Jno. Le Conte. Jr., Esq., " T. J. Crowen, Bookseller, New York, (2 copies.) Gov. Nelson Dewey, Lancaster, Wis. John Evans, Esq., West Haverford, Pa. W. Wayne Evans, Esq., Paoli, Pa. Felix B. Gaudet, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. A. T. Gray, Esq., Madison, Wis. Pi-of. S. S. Haldeman, Columbia, Pa. Charles H. Hall, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. E. H. Janssen, Esq., M.idison, Wis. Jno. JIcBride, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. B. Meyer, Esq., Baltimore, Md. Joshua Moss, Esq., Birmingham, England, (2 copies.) J. West Nevius, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Jo. S. Pender, Esq., Tarboro, N. C. Library of Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia, Pa. D. T. Pratt, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. YKA ItAU ■i Date Due ^ 1 11 -24t ,;ott, J. C. 21059 / AUTHOR Types of Mankind TITLE 1868 11 31059 r:84t 186£ ::ott, J. c.