THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
WORK S 
 
 PUBLISHED BT 
 
 H. BAILLIERE, 219, REGENT STREET, London, 
 
 [Sent Free on Receipt of the Pi~ices.] 
 
 Anatomy (The) of the External Form of the Horse, with Explanations by 
 JAMES I. LUPTON, V. S. The Plates by Bagg. Part I., containing 9 Plates 
 and Explanations. Large folio. Price, plain, .1 lls. 6d. ; on India paper, 
 2 5s. 
 
 This Work will be completed in Two Parts, consisting of 18 to 20 Plates, 
 with their Explanations, and one volume 8vo. of Text, giving the Study of 
 the External Form of the Horse and the Physiology of Locomotion. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Coal, Petroleum, and other Distilled Oils. By A. 
 GESNER, M.D. 8vo., with 20 Woodcuts. New York, 1861. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Compendium of Human Histology. By C. Morel. Illustrated with 28 
 Plates. Edited by W. H. VAN BUREN, M.D. 8vo. New York, 1861. 14s. 
 
 Illustrated Manual of Operative Surgery and Surgical Anatomy. By 
 BERNARD AND HUETTE. Edited with Notes and Additions by W. H. VAN 
 BUREN. 8 vo with 113 Plates, half bound morocco, gilt top. 1861. Plain, 
 2 4s. ; Coloured, 3 4s. 
 
 American Medical Times. Published Weekly in New York, and received 
 in London free. Subscription for the year, 1 5s. 
 
 Bell (A. N.) Knowledge of Living Things, with the Law of their Exist- 
 ence. 12mo., with 2 coloured Plates, and 60 Wood Illustrations. New 
 York, 18CO. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Canton (A.) The Teeth and their Preservation, in Infancy and Manhood to 
 Old Age. 12mo. with Woodcuts, 4s. 
 
 Flourens (P.) On Human Longevity, and the Amount of Life upon the 
 Globe. By J. P. FLOURENS, Perpetual Secretary to the Academy of 
 Sciences, Paris. Edited by W. C. MARTEL. 12mo. London, 1855. 3s. 
 
 Kaemtz. A Complete Course of Meteorology. By L. F. Kaemtz, Professor of 
 Physics at the University of Halle. With Notes by CH. MARTINS, and an 
 Appendix by L. LALANNE. Translated, with Additions, by C. V. WALKER, 
 1 vol. post 8vo. pp. 624, with 15 Plates, cloth boards. 1845. 12s. 6d. 
 
 Knox (E.) Man: his Structure and Physiology popularly explained and 
 demonstrated, by the aid of 8 moveable dissected coloured Plates, and 5 
 Woodcuts. 2nd Edition, revised. Post 8vo. London, 1858. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Moquin-Tandon. Manual of Medical Zoology: being a Detailed Description 
 of Animals useful in Medicine, and the Species hurtful to Man ; with 
 General Considerations on the Organization and Classification of Animals, 
 and with a Resume of the Natural History of Man. Edited, with Notes 
 nnd Additions, by T. HULME, Esq. With 124 Wood Engravings, post 8vo. 
 1861. 12s. 6d. 
 
 Owen Odontography ; or, a Treatise on the Comparative Anatomy of the 
 
 the Teeth, their Physiological Relations, Mode of Development, and Micros- 
 copical Structure in the Vertebrate Animals. By RICHARD OWEN, F.R.S., 
 Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris and Berlin; 
 Hunterian Professor to the Royal College of Surgeons, London. This 
 splendid work is now completed. 2 vols. royal 4to., containing 168 Plates, 
 half-bound russia. London, 184045. 10 10s. Reduced to 6 10s. 
 
 Eichardson (B. W.) On the Medical History and Treatment of Diseases of 
 the Teeth and the Adjacent Structures. 8vo. 1860. 8s. 
 
2 Works Published ly H. Bailliere, 219, Regent Street. 
 
 Quekett (J.) lectures on Histology, delivered at the Royal College of 
 Surgeons of England, containing Elementary Tissues of Plants and Animals, 
 the Structure of the Skeletons of Plants and Vertebrate Animals. 2 vols. 
 illustrated by 340 Woodcuts. London, 1852, 1854. 1 8s. 6d. 
 
 Practical Treatise on the Use of the Microscope. Illustrated 
 
 with 11 Steel Plates and 300 Wood Engravings. 8vo. 3rd Edition. 
 London, 1855. 1 Is. 
 
 Trousseau and Beveil The Prescriber's Complete Handbook: the Prin- 
 ciples of the Art of Prescribing, with a List of Diseases and their Remedies, 
 a Materia Medica of the Medicines employed, classified according to their 
 Natural Families, with their Properties, Preparations, and Uses, and a 
 Concise Sketch of Toxicology. By M. TROUSSEAU, Professor of the 
 Faculty of Medicine, Paris, and M. REVEIL. Edited, with Notes, by J. B. 
 NEVINS, M.D. London, 1852. Roan limp, 6s. 6d. 
 
 Day (G. E.) Chemistry: in its Relations to Physiology and Medicine. By 
 GEORGE E. DAY, M.D., Professor of Medicine in the University of St. 
 Andrews. 8vo. illustrated with Thirty Engravings. 1. 
 GUI (J. B.) Epitome of Practical Surgery. 32mo. 1860. Is. 
 Cooper and Suckley. Natural History of Washington Territory : Minne- 
 sota, Nebraska, Oregon, and California. 4to. with 55 Plates and a Map. 
 2 10s. 
 
 Ganot. Elementary Treatise on Physics. Edited on the Ninth Original 
 Edition by Dr. ATKINSON. With 500 Illustrations. Post 8vo. 1861. (In 
 the Press.} 
 
 Technology ; or Chemistry applied to the Arts. By Knapp, Richardson, and 
 H. WATTS. Vol. IV., 8vo. containing the Alkalies and Acids. Illustrated 
 with Wood Engravings. (In the Press.} 
 Jones (J.) The Natural and Supernatural: or, Man Physical, Apparitional 
 
 and Spiritual. 500 pages, 1860. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Fau. The Anatomy of the External Forms of Man, for Artists, Painters, 
 and Sculptors. Edited with Additions by R. KNOX, M.D. 8vo. text, and 
 28 4to. plates. London, 1849. Price Plain, 1 4s ; Coloured, 2 2s. 
 Chemical Society (Quarterly Journal of the). 13 vols. 8vo. London, 1848 
 60. Vols. 1 to 7 have been reduced to 8s. each ; Vols. 8 to 13, 13s. each ; 
 or in Quarterly Parts, price 3s. each. 
 
 Prichard. The Natural History of Man; comprising Inquiries into the 
 Modifying Influences of Physical aad Moral Agencies on the different Tribes 
 of the Human Family. By JAMES COWLES PEICHARD, M.D., F.R.S., 
 M.R.I. A., Corresponding Member of the National Institute, of the Royal 
 Academy of Medicine, and of the Statistical Society, &c. 4th Edition, 
 revised and enlarged. By EDWIN NORRIS, of the Royal Asiatic Society, 
 London. With 62 plates, coloured, engraved on steel, and 100 engravings 
 on wood. 2 vols. royal 8vo. elegantly bound in cloth. London, 1855. 1 18s. 
 
 Six Ethnographical Maps. Supplement to the Natural History of 
 
 Man, and to the Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, folio, 
 coloured, and 1 sheet of letter-press, in cloth boards. 2nd Edition. 
 London, 1861. 1 4s. 
 
 Graham. Elements of Chemistry ; including the Application of the Science 
 in the Arts. By T. GRAHAM, F.R.S., L. & E., Master of the Mint, late 
 Professor of Chemistry at University College, London. 2nd Edition, 
 revised and enlarged, copiously illustrated with woodcuts. 2 vols. 8vo. 1850, 
 
 Berkeley (Eev. J. M.) Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany. 8vo. Illus- 
 trated with 127 Woodcuts. 1857. 1. 
 
ELEMENTS 
 
 OP 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 BY 
 
 A. MOQUIN-TANDON, 
 
 MEMBER OF THE ACADEHT OF SCIENCES, AND OF THE IMPERIAL ACADEHT OF MEDICINE ; 
 PHOFE880B OF MEDICAL NATUBAL HI8TOBY TO THE FACULTY OF MEDICINE AT PABIS. 
 
 With One Hundred and Twenty-four Illustrations. 
 
 TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY 
 
 ROBERT THOMAS HULME, M.R.C.S.E., F.L.S, 
 
 LECTUREB ON DENTAL SURGERY; 
 1EB OF THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS OF THE COLLEGE OF DENTISTS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 LONDON : 
 H. BAILLIERE, PUBLISHES, 219, REGENT STREET. 
 
 NEW YORK : 
 BAILLIERE BROTHERS, 440, Broadway. 
 
 PARIS : 
 
 J. B. BAILLIERE & FILS, Rue Hautefeuille. 
 
 MELBOURNE : 
 FERDINAND F. BAILLIERE. 
 
 MADRID : 
 BAILLY BAILLIERE, Calle del Principe. 
 
 1861. 
 
PRINTED BY W. H. COX, 
 5, GBEAT QUEEN STSEET, LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS. 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 THE intimate relations which exist between the various de- 
 partments of Zoology and practical medicine render a work 
 embracing these subjects of considerable value to the medical 
 man. This is especially the case in a country like England, 
 possessing numerous colonies scattered over the surface of the 
 globe, in one or other of which the young practitioner is 
 frequently destined to commence his career of responsibility 
 and usefulness. 
 
 At the present time there is no standard work in the English 
 language upon Medical Zoology, the only book especially 
 devoted to this subject being Dr. Stephenson's Medical Zoology 
 and Mineralogy, which was published as far back as 1832. 
 The numerous treatises on Materia Medica refer only to those 
 animals which are employed as remedial agents, while the 
 writers on practical medicine seldom give more than a mere 
 outline of the Entozoa and of those Animals which are injurious 
 to man. 
 
 The work of M. Tandon contains a more complete account of 
 the Human Entozoa, and of those Animals which are either in- 
 jurious or beneficial to man in a medical point of view, and is 
 furnished with a larger number of illustrations, than any 
 previous publication on the same subject. 
 
 In the translation the text and arrangement of the original 
 work have been closely followed; only a few passages and 
 two short chapters, the one on " False," and the other on 
 
 M351S63 
 
IV 
 
 " Fabulous Helmintha," have been omitted. The place of 
 these omissions has been more than occupied by other matter ; 
 all which additions are distinguished by being placed in brackets. 
 The weights and measurements have been reduced from the 
 French to the English scale, and are generally given in parts 
 of the pound avoirdupois, or in fractions or decimals of the 
 English inch. The principal responsibility which the Trans- 
 lator has taken upon himself in the way of alteration has been 
 the addition of the passages already referred to. Some of the 
 numerous synonymes of the names of the animals which M. 
 Tandon has included in his work have been omitted, as being 
 of little use to the student and apt to produce confusion. In 
 one or two instances a different name has been made use of 
 to the one proposed by the author ; in all such cases the one 
 adopted is that by which the animal has been generally known 
 in England, and of which the use has been recently confirmed 
 by its being retained in Kiichenmeister's Manual of Entozoa- 
 In no department of Zoology has greater confusion arisen from 
 the want of a uniform nomenclature than in Helminthology. 
 
 The Translator desires to return his best thanks to Professor 
 Quekett for the information he kindly afforded him, particularly 
 with regard to the Bothriocephalus latus ; an obligation which 
 will be found specially mentioned in its proper place. His ac- 
 knowledgments are no less due to Mr. Chatto, the librarian of 
 the College of Surgeons, for his ready and valuable assistance 
 in searching for names and references in the books of the 
 library. The illustrations have been accurately copied by Mr. 
 Joyce from the original wood cuts, and three additional en- 
 gravings have been added from other sources. 
 
 21, JOHN STREET, 
 
 BEDFORD Row. 
 
AUTHORS PREFACE. 
 
 THESE Elements of Medical Zoology have been written 
 principally for the use of those who are intended for the pro- 
 fession of medicine or the practice of pharmacy. 
 
 I have been desirous of including within the limits of a small 
 volume, a clear and comprehensive description of those portions 
 of Zoology which have any bearing upon medical science. 
 
 In such an undertaking there were two errors to be guarded 
 against. One was to avoid entering too much into the details 
 of either Comparative Anatomy or of Zoology. The majority 
 of students are already bachelors of science, and, therefore, 
 possess a general knowledge of the structure and classification 
 of the Animal Kingdom. I did not consider that it fell within 
 the limits of the present work, when speaking of the CantJia- 
 rides, for example, to enter into a minute account of its ner- 
 vous system, or when describing the Viper, to dilate upon the 
 affinities of the genus or the family to which it belongs. The 
 other error was not to describe at too great length the parts of 
 animals or their products which are employed in medicine, and 
 thus to infringe upon another department. 
 
 Most authors who have written upon Medical Zoology have 
 adopted a purely Zoological arrangement. This plan un- 
 doubtedly possesses the advantage of imparting to their works 
 a more scientific and less arbitrary arrangement, but, neverthe- 
 less, it has also certain disadvantages ; it subordinates the 
 Medical Zoology too much to Zoology proper, and deprives it 
 
VI PKEFACE. 
 
 of that professional spirit which should govern all the studies 
 of either a medical or a pharmaceutical school. A writer on 
 Medical Zoology, who arranges his chapters according to the 
 " Animal Kingdom," of Cuvier, for example, will be compelled 
 to speak of the Quadrumana and of the Lepidoptera, merely 
 because these animals constitute two important divisions in the 
 Zoological series. But the medical practitioner and the phar- 
 maceutist make no use of either Monkeys or Butterflies. . . If on 
 the other hand the writer adopts a Zoological plan, but omits 
 those divisions or families in which the medical practitioner 
 has no direct interest, his arrangement becomes disconnected 
 and incomplete, and ceases in fact to be an arrangement. 
 Again, there are animals distinguished from each other by their 
 characters and structure, which the Zoologist places in dif- 
 ferent groups, often far apart, but which the medical practi- 
 tioner, on the contrary, brings together for the purpose of 
 studying them collectively, in consequence of the organs they 
 inhabit, the diseases they give rise to, or the remedies which 
 they require. Such is the case with the Internal Parasites, 
 animals which are dispersed through the system of the Zoo- 
 logist, but which are associated in the works of medical 
 authors. 1 
 
 These considerations have induced me to adopt an arf ange- 
 ment founded upon the characters of the animal or its Medico- 
 Zoological relations. Such an arrangement is more practical 
 than scientific ; but it is simple, convenient, and well adapted 
 for the purposes of medical or of pharmaceutical study, and 
 avoids leading the reader into details which are foreign to his 
 daily occupation. 
 
 I shall briefly point out the order and the family to which 
 each animal belongs, and as the commencement of the work 
 contains a special chapter on the subject of classification, it will 
 
 1 Under the name of Entozoa or Helmintha. 
 
PEEFACE. VU 
 
 be ea?y for the student, who desires further information upon 
 this point, to ascertain either the class or the branch to which 
 the animal belongs, and even to learn the affinities and the 
 differences which arise from such an arrangement compared 
 with other arrangements. 
 
 Many animals and many animal productions, which were 
 formerly in use, are no longer employed in medicine. These 
 might have been omitted, but as it is useful to have a know- 
 ledge of this ancient Materia Medica, and to be acquainted with 
 the history, the revolutions, and the progress of therapeutics, I 
 have given a short description of these animals and of their 
 productions in a separate chapter. 
 
 For a long time Medical Zoology was made to include only 
 those animals or those parts of animals which are employed as 
 remedies. Thus, in the Materia Medica of Linnaeus about thirty 
 pages are occupied with the animals which, in his time, were 
 employed in medicine (Cantharides, Leeches, Cochineal insect). 
 Bernard Peyrilhe, in his Lectures on Medical Natwral History 
 (first edition), has devoted forty-six pages to the description of 
 these animals, but he has somewhat extended the list and 
 includes the Internal Parasites, as the Toenice, the External 
 Parasites, as the Lice, and also those animals which, without 
 being parasites, injure man either by sucking the fluids of his 
 body or by their poisonous properties, such as the Flea and the 
 Viper. 
 
 Medical Zoology ought also to include the Natural History 
 of man, and should investigate some of those more difficult 
 questions which are merely touched upon by the sciences of 
 anatomy and physiology. This important division of the sub- 
 ject has not been neglected. 
 
 In a still more extended sense Medical Zoology should 
 embrace the relations which exist between the various branches 
 of the science of animals, and the different departments of the 
 healing art. Thus Zoological anatomy, physiology, teratology, 
 
Vlll PKEFACE. 
 
 and pathology are intimately connected with human anatomy, 
 physiology, teratology, and pathology, and are capable, in many 
 instances, of elucidating, or even of explaining, some of the 
 important problems connected with them; but to have ex- 
 amined such matters in an efficient manner would have led me 
 beyond the intentions of the present work. 
 
 I shall commence with the Natural History of Man or An- 
 ihropology. Under this head I shall examine the principal 
 characters of our species, its perfection, its accidental degra- 
 dations, its unity, its races, and the manner in which it has 
 been classified by various writers. 
 
 This will be followed by a summary of the organization and 
 classification of the animal kingdom. 
 
 I shall then describe, under the following heads : 
 I. Animals and the actual products employed in medicine. 
 
 II. Noxious animals, but which are not poisonous nor yet 
 
 parasites. 
 III. Poisonous animals. 
 
 IY. External parasites or Epizoa. 
 
 V. Internal parasites or Entozoa. 
 
 PARIS, September I, 1859. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAET THE FIKST. 
 
 NATTJBAL HISTOBT OP MAN, OB ANTHBOPOLOGY. 
 
 Page 
 
 CHAPTER I. CHARACTERS OF MAN - - 1 
 
 CHAPTER IL ANATOMY OF MAN - 3 
 
 CHAPTER IH. OF A SUPPOSED WILD MAN - 19 
 
 CHAPTER IV. THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES - 25 
 
 CHAPTER V. OF THE RACES OF MAN - - 27 
 
 CHAPTER VL THE HUMAN KINGDOM * 35 
 
 SECOND PAHT. 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY PEOPEB. 
 
 BOOK I. Organization of Animals - -37 
 
 I. Organs and functions of nutrition - 42 
 
 II. Organs and functions of reproduction - 46 
 1U. Organs and functions of relation - 49 
 
 BOOK n. Classification of Animals - - 52 
 
 I. Ancient - 52 
 IL Linnanis - - - - -53 
 
 III. Lamarck ... 55 
 
 IV. Cuvier - - 56 
 
 V. Present state - 58 
 
 BOOK III. Animals and the Animal products employed 
 
 in medicine - - - 63 
 SECTION 1. Animals or Animal Productions formerly employed 
 
 in Medicine ----- 64 
 
 SECTION IL Animals and Animal Productions occasionally em- 
 ployed in Medicine - - - 68 
 CHAPTER I. ANIMALS EMPLOYED WHOLE - 68 
 I. Scink - - - 68 
 II. Wood Lice 69 
 IU. Cochineal Insect - - - - 71 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 CHAPTER II. ANIMALS EMPLOYED IN PART 80 
 
 I. Pachydermata - - - 80 
 
 II. Sepiadae - 81 
 
 III. Snails - 83 
 
 IV. Oysters - 86 
 
 V. Coral - - 87 
 
 VI. Sponge 89 
 
 CHAPTER III. ANIMAL PRODUCTS - 91 
 
 I. Spermaceti ~ 91 
 
 II, Bile - - 95 
 
 in. Crabs' eyes 96 
 
 IV. Spider's web - 98 
 
 SECTION III. Animals or Animal Productions which are con- 
 stantly employed in Medicine - -100 
 CHAPTER I. LIVER OIL - - 100 
 I. Oil from the liver of the Cod - 101 
 II. Oil from the liver of the Skate - - 105 
 III. Oil from the liver of the Shark - 108 
 
 CHAPTER II. MUSK - 110 
 
 I. Musk - 110 
 
 II. Civet - 114 
 
 III. Beaver 118 
 
 IV. Hyraceum - 122 
 
 V. Ambergris 125 
 
 CHAPTER III. VESICATING INSECTS - 127 
 
 I. Cantharides - 128 
 
 II. Mylabris - 134 
 
 III. Cerocoma - 135 
 
 IV. Meloe - 136 
 
 CHAPTER IV. Leeches - 137 
 
 CHAPTER V. Galls - - 148 
 
 I. Galls - - - - H8 
 
 II. Cases - 154 
 
 CHAPTER VI. THE TREHALA 156 
 
 SECTION IV. Animals or Animal Products employed as Acces- 
 sories in Medicine - - - - 159 
 I. Bones ... 159 
 II. Blood - - 160 
 III. Flesh 162 
 IV. Albumen - - - - 179 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 Page 
 
 V. Gelatine 179 
 
 VI. Fat . 186 
 
 VII. Oils - 188 
 
 VIII. Milk . 189 
 
 IX. Eggs - . 193 
 
 X. Honey . 195 
 
 XI. Wax . . 206 
 
 XII. Hair and other Corneous substances - . 210 
 
 BOOK IV. Noxious Animals, but wliicli are not poison- 
 ous nor yet Parasites - - 212 
 
 CHAPTER I. ANIMALS NOXIOUS DURING THEIR LIVES - 212 
 
 I. Serra-salmes - - - - 214 
 
 II. Hsemopis - 215 
 
 III. Cimicidae - - - 219 
 
 IV. Nepa . 226 
 
 V. Hippoboscidse - 227 
 
 VI. Tsetse - . -228 
 
 VII. Gnats - - - 230 
 
 VIII. Stinging Animals - 234 
 
 IX. Larvae of Flies - - - 237 
 X. Other Insects which may be accidentally introduced 
 
 into the natural cavities of the body . 242 
 
 CHAPTER II ANIMALS INJURIOUS AS FOOD . 244 
 
 BOOK V. Poisonous Animals . . 247 
 
 SECTION I. Animals which convey their poison by the mouth 247 
 
 CHAPTER I. POISONOUS ANIMALS WITH FANGS - 248 
 
 I. Vipers 248 
 
 II. Foreign Serpents . 255 
 
 CHAPTER II. POISONOUS ANIMALS ARMED WITH ANTENNA IN THE 
 
 FORM OF CLAWS, OR WITH FOOT JAWS - 260 
 
 I. Spiders 260 
 
 II. Scolopendra - . - 265 
 SECTION II. Animals which inoculate their poison by means 
 
 of a special organ - 268 
 
 CHAPTER I. ORNITHORYNCHUS . 268 
 
 CHAPTER II. SCORPIONS . . 270 
 
 CHAPTER III. HYMENOPTERA - . 275 
 
 I. Bees - - - ' - 275 
 
 II. Humble Bee . 279 
 
 IIL Wasps - - - 279 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 SECTION HL Animal poisons 281 
 Humours analogous to poisons ... 287 
 
 BOOK VI. External Parasites or Epizoa - - 291 
 
 SECTION I. Epizoa living on the skin % - - 291 
 
 CHAPTER I. LICE - - - 291 
 
 CHAPTER II. COMMON FLEA - - 297 
 
 CHAPTER III. CHIGOE - - 300 
 
 CHAPTER IV. TICKS - - 302 
 
 CHAPTER V. ARGADES - - 304 
 
 CHAPTER VI. HARVEST BUG - - 305 
 
 SECTION II. Epizoa living beneath the skin - 307 
 
 CHAPTER I. SARCOPTUS - - 307 
 
 CHAPTER II. ACAROPSE - 319 
 CHAPTER III. DEMODEX .... 320 
 
 CHAPTER IV. SOME OTHER SPECIES OP ACARI - - 323 
 
 BOOK VII. Internal Parasites or Entozoa - 324 
 
 SECTION I. Insect Entozoa - - 325 
 
 (Estridea - -. 325 
 
 SECTION II. Crustaceous Entozoa - - 329 
 
 Linguatula - - - - - 329 
 
 SECTION III. Entozoic Worms or Helmintha - 330 
 
 CHAPTER I. ASCARIDES .... 335 
 
 CHAPTER II. OXTURIS - 343 
 
 CHAPTER III. TRICHOCEPHALUS - - 348 
 
 CHAPTER IV. ANCTLOSTOMUM ... 353 
 
 CHAPTER V. STRONGYLUS .... 355 
 
 CHAPTER VI. SPIROPTERA - - 359 
 
 CHAPTER VII. FILARIA - 359 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. THECOSOMA - - 368 
 
 CHAPTER IX. FLUKES - - 370 
 
 CHAPTER X. FESTUCARIA ... 375 
 
 CHAPTER XL T^NIA - - - 376 
 
 CHAPTER XII. BOTHRIOCEPHALUS - - 386 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. CYSTIC HELMINTHA - - - 391 
 
 L Cysticerci - 391 
 
 H. Echinococci - - 394 
 
 III. Acephalocysts ... 394 
 
 IV. Transformations of the Cystic Helmintha 395 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. ZOOLOGICAL VIEWS - - 403 
 
 SECTION IV. Infusorial Entozoa - - ^405 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Page 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Page 
 
 1. Head of European 
 
 - 5 
 
 37. Dragon Leech 
 
 140 
 
 2. Head of Negro 
 
 5 
 
 38. Jaws of a Leech 
 
 - 142 
 
 3. Abd-el-Kader - 
 
 28 
 
 39. Leech bite - 
 
 144 
 
 4. Yeh - - 
 
 29 
 
 40. Cynips - 
 
 - 149 
 
 5. Soulouque 
 
 . 30 
 
 41. Terebra of Cynips 
 
 149 
 
 6. Head of Negro 
 
 30 
 
 42. Common Gall - 
 
 - 151 
 
 7. Scink 
 
 - 68 
 
 43. Section of Gall 
 
 151 
 
 8. Wood-louse 
 
 70 
 
 44. Chinese Gall - 
 
 - 155 
 
 9. Armadillo 
 
 - 70 
 
 45. Turpentine Gall - 
 
 - 156 
 
 10. Cochineal insect 
 
 72 
 
 46. Larinus of the Trehala 
 
 - 157 
 
 11. Kermes 
 
 - 77 
 
 47. Trehala 
 
 - 157 
 
 12. African Elephant - 
 
 80 
 
 48. Helix pomatia - 
 
 - 175 
 
 13. Helix pomatia 
 
 . 84 
 
 49. Common Sturgeon 
 
 183 
 
 14. Cachalot 
 
 92 
 
 50. Sperm Whale - 
 
 - 189 
 
 15. Greenland Whale 
 
 - 93 
 
 51. Common Bee 
 
 - 197 
 
 16. Whalebone plates - 
 
 93 
 
 52. Mouth of Bee 
 
 - 201 
 
 17. Crabs 'eyes 
 
 - 97 
 
 53. Leg of Bee - 
 
 - 207 
 
 18. Cod - 
 
 101 
 
 54. Whalebone 
 
 - 211 
 
 19. Thornback Ray 
 
 - 106 
 
 55. Hsemopis 
 
 - 215 
 
 20. Squalus Acanthias 
 
 109 
 
 56. Jaw of Hsemopis 
 
 - 216 
 
 21. Musk Deer 
 
 - Ill 
 
 57. Common Bug 
 
 - 220 
 
 22. Musk apparatus 
 
 112 
 
 58. Rostrum of Bug 
 
 - 221 
 
 23. Musk sack 
 
 - 113 
 
 59. Reduvina 
 
 222 
 
 24. Civet .... 
 
 115 
 
 60. Rostrum of Reduvina 
 
 - 223 
 
 25. Civet apparatus 
 
 - 116 
 
 61. Notonecta - 
 
 224 
 
 26. Zibeth .... 
 
 117 
 
 62. Rostrum of Notonecta 
 
 - 225 
 
 27. Beaver 
 
 - 118 
 
 63. Nepa - 
 
 - 226 
 
 28. Apparatus of the Castor 
 
 120 
 
 64. Rostrum of Nepa 
 
 - 227 
 
 29. Glands of the Castoreum 
 
 - 120 
 
 65. Horse Fly - 
 
 - 227 
 
 30. Daman .... 
 
 123 
 
 66. Beak of Horse Fly - 
 
 - 228 
 
 31. Cantharides 
 
 - 129 
 
 67. Tsetse - 
 
 - 228 
 
 32. Mylabris 
 
 134 
 
 68. Trunk of Tsetse 
 
 - 229 
 
 33. Cerocoma 
 
 - 135 
 
 69. Gnat - 
 
 - 230 
 
 34. Meloe .... 
 
 137 
 
 70. Proboscis of Gnat - 
 
 - 231 
 
 35. Grey Leech 
 
 - 139 
 
 71. Proboscis in action 
 
 - 232 
 
 36. Green Leech- 
 
 140 
 
 72. Stinging hairs 
 
 . 235 
 
XIV 
 
 LIST OF ILLTTSTEATIONS. 
 
 Fig. Page 
 
 73. Portuguese Man of War - 236 
 
 74. Larvae of Ely - 237 
 
 75. Hominivorous Ely - - 238 
 
 76. Common Viper - 248 
 
 77. Vipera Ammodytes - - 250 
 
 78. Vipera Pelius - - 250 
 
 79. Head of a Viper - - 250 
 
 80. Poison apparatus - 251 
 
 81. Cerastes JEgyptiacus - 256 
 
 82. Crotalus Durissus - 256 
 
 83. Poison fang - - - 258 
 
 84. Mouth of Spider - - 261 
 
 85. Gland and Claw of Spider 261 
 
 86. Scolopendra - 266 
 
 87. Head and claw of Scolo- 
 
 pendra - 266 
 
 88. Common Scorpion - - 272 
 
 89. Gland and spine of Scor- 
 
 pion - 272 
 
 90. Poison apparatus of Bee 275 
 
 91. Head Louse - - - 292 
 
 92. Kostrum of Head Louse 294 
 
 93. Body Louse - - - 294 
 
 94. Pubic Louse - - 296 
 
 95. Flea - - - - 298 
 
 96. Mouth of Elea - - 299 
 
 97. Female Sarcoptus - - 310 
 
 98. Male Sarcoptus - - . 312 
 
 99. Rostrum of Sarcoptus - 313 
 
 Fig. 
 100. 
 
 101. 
 102. 
 103. 
 104. 
 105. 
 106. 
 107. 
 108. 
 109. 
 110. 
 111. 
 
 Page 
 Grooves formed by the 
 
 Sarcoptus - - - 316 
 Acaropsis - - - 319 
 Demodex - - 321 
 
 Linguatula ... 330 
 Ascaris - - 336 
 
 Structure of Ascaris - 338 
 Oxyuris - - - 343 
 Trichocephalus - - 349 
 Ancylostomum Duodenale 354 
 Strongylus - - - 356 
 Head and tail of Strongylus 357 
 
 113. 
 114. 
 115. 
 116. 
 117. 
 118. 
 119. 
 
 120. 
 
 121. 
 122. 
 123. 
 124. 
 
 Filaria - - - 363 
 Fluke - - - - 370 
 Common Tsenia - - 376 
 Head of Tsenia - - 377 
 Segment of Tsenia - 379 
 Sexual organs of Tsenia - 381 
 Bothriocephalus latus - 387 
 Head of Bothriocephalus 388 
 Segments of Bothrioce- 
 phalus - .-- 389 
 Sexual organs of Both- 
 riocephalus - - 390 
 Cysticerci - - - 393 
 Echinococci - - 395 
 
 Acephalocysts - - 396 
 
 Trichomonas vaginalis - 408 
 
ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 PART THE FIRST. 
 NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN, OR ANTHROPOLOGY, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CHABACTEES OF MAN. 
 
 MAN is the chief of living beings. 
 
 Buffon considered him as the only animal with two hands 
 and two feet. 
 
 Blumenbach gave as his attributes : the erect position and 
 the possession of two hands.* 
 
 Other writers have combined these characters and have said 
 of man : Situs erectus, manus du<e, pedes bini. 
 
 To these principal characters, others have been subse- 
 quently added, which, although less determinate and occupy- 
 ing a subordinate rank, acquire a certain value by being 
 associated together : such are the want of organs of defence 
 (inermis), the absence of any natural covering against the 
 inclemencies of the seasons (nudus), a projecting chin, 2 the 
 contiguity of the teeth, or absence of any vacant space 
 between them, 3 their evenness, that is, they are all of nearly 
 the same height, 4 the vertical position of the lower incisors, 5 
 
 1 Erectus et Umanuss. (Blum.) 
 
 a Afentum prominulum. 
 
 * Denies utrinque reliquis approximati. 
 
 4 Denies aquales. 
 
 & Incisores inferiores erecti. 
 
2 A1STHEOPOLOGT. 
 
 the hands being provided with a distinctly opposable thumb, 1 
 the feet having a strong projecting heel, 2 the breasts being 
 two in number and placed on the chest, 3 and lastly, the posses- 
 sion of an extremely shprt coccyx. 4 
 
 By combining the preceding characters, man may be said to 
 possess a body erect, unarmed, and almost naked ; a projecting 
 chin, teeth touching each other, and of nearly the same height 
 (the lower incisors vertical), two perfect hands (on the upper 
 limbs), that is to- say y -having a distinctly opposable thumb ; 
 two feet (on the lower limbs) plantigrade, and with a well- 
 developed projecting heel ; two pectoral mammae, and the 
 coccyx not projecting. 
 
 All these are, however, physical characters : there are others 
 of a far higher order, which establish an immeasurable interval 
 between our species and all other animals. Man is especially 
 distinguished from even the most highly organized beings by 
 his understanding, 5 his perfectibility, his knowledge of Grod, 
 his idea of the infinite, his love of the beautiful, and by his 
 moral sentiment. 6 Thus, the great Linnaeus, in his Systema 
 Natures, after bestowing upon man the name of SAPIENS, did 
 not draw up for our species a series of distinctive characters 
 taken from the number, the proportion, or the form of the 
 bodily organs, in the manner he has done for all other living 
 beings. He justly despised the hands, the feet, the teeth, and 
 the mamma? ; he confined himself to writing after the generic 
 name Homo, and repeated after his specific name these pro- 
 found and significant words : NOSCE TE IPSTJM ! 7 
 
 1 Manuum pollex plane oppositus. 
 * Calcaneum prominens et validum. 
 
 3 Mammce, pectorales, duce. 
 
 4 Coccyx abbreviates. To these have also been added the lobule of the 
 ear, and the presence,, in the woman, of the hymen and the menses. 
 
 5 "Man surpasses in dignity all created things by that emanation from 
 the Divine nature, which animates and enlightens him." (Daubenton.) 
 
 6 "In him we find religion, justice, prudence, piety, modesty, clemency, 
 ralour, endurance, faith, and numerous other virtues which are not met 
 with in animals." (A. Pare.) 
 
 7 " NOSCE TE IPSTTM gradus est. primus sapientice, dictumque Sol&nis, 
 quondam scriptum litteris aureis supra Diana templum" (Linn.) Erx- 
 leben does not give the words nosce te ipsum as the specific character. 
 After the generic name, he distinguishes man by the following attributes: 
 " Denies primores incisores, supra et in/era I V. Laniarii conici longitu- 
 dine cequales. Manus in palmis, non in plantis : Mammce pectorales II. 
 Cauda nulla" This is a very complete and scientific description. 
 
ANATOMY OF MAN. 3 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ANATOMY OF MAN. 
 
 is provided with an internal osseous skeleton. This 
 skeleton has an axis or column formed of 32 vertebrae, consisting 
 of 7 cervical, 12 dorsal, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 3 coccygeal. 
 
 The head is placed at the upper part of the vertebral 
 column: it is composed of the cranium and face. In the 
 cranium there are 8 bones: 1 occipital, 2 temporal, 2 parietal, 
 1 frontal, 1 ethmoid, and 1 sphenoid. In the face there are 
 14 bones : 2 superior maxillary, 2 malar, 2 nasal, 2 palatine, 
 1 vomer, 2 inferior spongy bones, 2 lachrymal, and 1 inferior 
 maxillary. Each jaw possesses 16 teeth : viz., 4 incisors in the 
 centre, 2 canines, 1 on either side, and 10 molars or tuber- 
 culated grinders, 5 at each extremity, divided into false molars 
 and true molars ; the canines are somewhat pointed and pro- 
 ject slightly beyond the edges of the incisors and the tubercles 
 of the molars. 
 
 Man has 12 pairs of ribs articulated with the vertebral 
 column, 7 superior pairs or true ribs, which are united ante- 
 riorly to the sternum by cartilaginous processes, and 5 inferior 
 pairs or false ribs which anteriorly are free. 
 
 A portion of the vertebral column with the ribs and the 
 sternum bound the chest or thorax, a large conical cavity 
 which occupies the anterior and superior part of the trunk. 
 
 The inferior extremity of the vertebral column or coccyx has 
 above it a large pyramidal and triangular bone, termed the 
 SMC nun ; this bone is united at the sides with the iliac or hip 
 bones. 
 
 The coccyx, the sacrum, and the two ossa innominata form 
 another large irregular cavity, which is open above and below, 
 but closed in front, and is known as the pelvis. 
 
 Between the pelvis and the thorax is the abdomen. 
 
 In man, the upper or thoracic limbs are attached to the 
 superior and lateral parts of the trunk ; each consists of a 
 shoulder, arm, fore-arm, and hand. 
 
 The shoulder is formed in front by the clavicle and behind 
 by the scapula. The arm consists of the humerus ; the fore- 
 arm lias the radius on its outer and the ulna on its inner side. 
 The hand is divided into the carpus, metacarpus, and fingers. 
 The carpus has 8 bones arranged in two rows: in the first row, 
 passing from without inwards, is the scaphoid, the semilunar, 
 
 B 2 
 
4 ANTHEOPOLOST. 
 
 the cuneiform, and the pisiform bone ; in the second and in 
 the same order is the trapezium, the trapezoid, the os mag- 
 num, and the unciform bone. The metacarpus is formed by 
 
 5 bones, named according to their numerical order from with- 
 out to within. The fingers are 5 in number in each hand ; 
 they are named thumb, index, middle, ring, and little finger, 
 or in their numerical order, passing from without inwards; 
 each has three phalanges, except the thumb, which has only 
 two. 
 
 The lower or abdominal limbs are articulated with the 
 inferior or lateral parts of the trunk, and consist, like the 
 superior, of four divisions the hip, thigh, leg, and foot. 
 
 The hip bone, the analogue of the scapula, forms a part of 
 the pelvis, which has been previously spoken of. The thigh 
 has only a single bone, the lemur. The leg has the fibula on 
 its outer, the tibia on its inner side, and the patella in front 
 and above. The foot is divided into the tarsus, metatarsus, 
 and toes. The tarsus is composed of 7 bones : viz., the calca- 
 neum, the astragalus, the scaphoid, the cuboid, and the 3 
 cuneiform bones. The metatarsus is composed of 5 bones, 
 arranged parallel to each other, and named according to their 
 numerical order, from within outwards. The toes are 5 in 
 number, and are also named after their numerical order and 
 in the same direction : each has three phalanges, except the 
 great toe, which has only two. 
 
 In man, the length from the bend of the body to the sole of 
 the foot is generally equal to half his height. The distance 
 from the extremity of one middle finger to that of the other, 
 when the arms are extended, is equal to the height of his body. 
 
 When the body is of average stoutness, the height is equal 
 to five times its diameter. 
 
 The head and neck equal the sixth, and the head alone the 
 seventh and a half part of the entire height of the body. The 
 long diameter of the face represents the tenth part, and the 
 latter is equal to the length of the palm of the hand. 
 
 Man is remarkable for the general weakness of his organs 
 at the period of birth, and for the length of time required for 
 his physical education. He is partly naked and partly 
 covered ; his hair is distinguished for its length. 
 
 The human species is especially frugivorous. Man drinks 
 without being impelled to it by thirst, and he alone makes use 
 of compound and fermented liquors. The latter he obtains 
 from the grape, the sugar-cane, barley, rice, dates, the cocoa- 
 nut, the berries of the juniper-tree, from the twigs of the pine 
 
ANATOMY OF MAN. 5 
 
 and the birch, from the sap of certain trees, and from the 
 milk of several of the mammalia. 
 
 His frngivorous nature accords with the character of his 
 teeth, while his stomach is simple, and his alimentary canal of 
 moderate length. The intestines are divided into the small 
 and large intestines, the latter being provided with a rudimen- 
 tary caecal appendage. The great omentum hangs in front of 
 the abdominal viscera, as far as the pelvis. The heart is placed 
 obliquely upon the diaphragm, with its apex inclined towards 
 the left side. 
 
 The human head has a facial angle which varies between 85 
 and 64. The maximum of 85 occurs in the European (fig. 1) ; 
 
 Fig. I. Fig. 2. 
 
 it is 75' in the Chinese; and 70 in the Negro (fig. 2). [In 
 the adult Chimpanzee, the facial angle is only 35, and in the 
 Orang 30. Professor Owen has shown that the measure- 
 ments, which assigned a higher development of the facial angle 
 to these anthropoid apes, were made on young animals, 
 before the enormous canines of the second set of teeth had 
 made their appearance and before the large elongated muzzle 
 of the full-grown animal had become developed.] 
 
 The human brain is distinguished by several important 
 characters; such as the great development of its anterior 
 lobes, and of the corpus callosum, by the number of its convo- 
 lutions and anfractuosities, by the depth of the latter, and, as 
 a necessary consequence, by the great extent of the cerebral 
 surface ; it has been calculated that the volume of the ence- 
 phalon is to that of the body as 1 to 28. l Its average weight 
 
 1 In the Saimiri [a small species of monkey inhabiting Brazil, scarcely 
 more than 10 inches in length, exclusive of the tail] the proportion is as 
 
6 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 is about 44oz. SOgrs. avoirdupois. 1 The posterior portions of 
 the hemispheres overlap the cerebellum. 
 
 [The following tables of the average weight and relative size 
 of the brain are taken from a paper by the late Dr. John 
 Beid, in the London and Edinburgh Monthly Journal of 
 Medical Science, for April, 1843. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Average Weight of the Encephalon between 25 and 5& years of 
 age, in the two Sexes. Males, 53 brains weighed. Females, 
 36 brains weighed. 
 
 MALES. FEMALES. DIFFERENCE IN 
 
 FAVOUR OF MALES. 
 
 Ib. oz. dr. Ib. oz. dr. oz. dr. 
 50 3 44. .8| 5 11 
 
 or or 
 
 2 3i 2 12 8 
 
 Average weight of encephalon 
 
 Tiedman says, " The female brain is lighter than that of the 
 male. It varies between 21bs. 8oz. and 31bs. lloz. troy. I 
 never found a female brain that weighed 41bs. The brain of a 
 girl, an idiot, sixteen years old, weighed only lib. 6oz. Idr. 
 The female brain weighs on an average from 4 to 8oz. less 
 than that of the male; and this difference is already per- 
 ceptible in a new-born child. 
 
 " The brain arrives, on an average, at its full size towards the 
 seventh and eighth year. Soemmering says, erroneously, that 
 the brain does not increase after the third year. Gall and 
 Spurzheim, on the other hand, are of opinion that the brain 
 continues to grow till the fourteenth year. The brothers 
 Wenzel have shown that the brain arrives at its full growth 
 about the seventh year. This is confirmed by Hamilton's 
 researches. 
 
 " Desmoulins is of opinion that the brain decreases in old 
 people. From this circumstance he explains the diminution 
 
 1 : 22 ; in some birds as 1 : 20 : 18 : 16 or : 12. The last proportion 
 occurs in the torn-tit. (Is. Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire). 
 
 1 That of Dupuytren weighed 50oz. 286 grains, avoirdupois, which is 
 probably the maximum weight. The weight of 64 oz. 191grs. avoirdu- 
 pois, which has been assigned to Cuvier's brain, must be regarded as an 
 exaggeration; while that of 78oz. 606grs. and of nearly 79oz. avoirdupois, 
 which are supposed to have been the weight of the brains of Byron and of 
 Cromwell, are impossible. [The brain of the late Dr. Ambercrombie 
 weighed about 68oz. avoirdupois. See Cormack's Journal, Dec., 1844.] 
 
JLtf ATOMY OF MA$. 7 
 
 of the functions of the nervous system and intellectual powers. 
 The truth of this assertion has not as yet been determined. 
 The brothers Wenzel and Hamilton deny it. 
 
 " It is remarkable that the brain of a man, eighty-two years 
 old, was very small and weighed but 31bs. 2oz. 3dr. ; and the 
 brain of a woman, about eighty years old, weighed but 
 21bs. 9oz. Idr. I have generally found the cavity of the skull 
 smaller in old men than in middle-aged persons. It appears 
 to me, therefore, probable that the brain really decreases in 
 old age, only more remarkable in some persons than in 
 others." l 
 
 The following are the results obtained by Dr. Eeid, with 
 reference to the weight of the brain at different periods of life. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Males: number of brains 
 weighed, 154. 
 
 Females : number of brains 
 weighed, 97. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Number 
 
 Encephalon. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Number, Encephalon. 
 
 Years. 
 
 weighed. 
 
 oz. dr. 
 
 Years. 
 
 weighed. 1 oz. dr. 
 
 1 to 4 
 
 5 
 
 39 4f 
 
 2 to 4 
 
 6 
 
 37 9 
 
 5 7 
 
 3 
 
 43 10 
 
 5 7 
 
 3 
 
 39 9 
 
 7 10 
 
 6 
 
 46 2 
 
 7 8 
 
 3 
 
 42 7J 
 
 10 13 
 
 3 
 
 48 7 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 13 16 
 
 5 
 
 47 8f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 20 
 
 6 
 
 52 10 
 
 16 20 
 
 8 
 
 44 11^ 
 
 20 30 
 
 25 
 
 50 9,J 
 
 20 30 
 
 18 
 
 45 2$ 
 
 30 40 
 
 23 
 
 51 15 
 
 30 40 
 
 23 
 
 44 Ig 
 
 40 50 
 
 34 
 
 48 13 
 
 40 50 
 
 18 
 
 44 10$ 
 
 50 60 
 
 29 
 
 50 2 
 
 50 60 
 
 5 
 
 45 4^ 
 
 60 70 
 
 8 
 
 50 6g 
 
 60 70 
 
 11 
 
 42 14f 
 
 70 & upw. 
 
 7 
 
 48 4f 
 
 70& upw. 
 
 2 
 
 38 8J 
 
 This table shows that the brain attains its greatest absolute 
 weight at an early age. The maximum is found in the table 
 of the male brains at between 16 and 20. Dr. Eeid, however, 
 states that this apparent excess of weight at that period over 
 the next forty years must have arisen from sources of fallacy 
 incidental to insufficient data. And in the group between 40 
 and 50, Dr. Eeid states that some brains much below the 
 
 1 Tiedman on the Brain of the Negro compared with that of the Euro- 
 pean and the Orang Otang, Phil. Trans. 1836. 
 
8 ANATOMY OF MAN. 
 
 average were found, so as to leave no doubt that the average 
 weight in that group was to be attributed to that circum- 
 stance. 
 
 A decided diminution in the weight of the brain was noticed 
 in females above 60 years of age, but among the males this was 
 not apparent until a later period. 
 
 " Anatomists," says Tiedman, " differ very much as to the 
 weight of the brain compared with the bulk and weight of the 
 body ; for the weight of the body varies so much, that it is im- 
 possible to determine accurately the proportion between it and 
 the brain. The weight of an adult varies from 100 to SOOlbs., 
 and changes both in health and when under the influence of 
 disease, depending in a great measure on nutrition. The 
 weight of the brain, although different in adults, remains gene- 
 rally the same, unaltered by the increase or diminution of the 
 body. Thin persons have, therefore, relative to the size of the 
 body, a larger brain than stout people. 
 
 " From my researches I have drawn the following con- 
 clusions : 
 
 " 1. The brain of the new-born child is, relatively to the size 
 of the body, the largest ; the proportion is 1 : 6. 
 
 " 2. The human brain is smaller, in comparison to the body, 
 the nearer man approaches to his full growth. In the second 
 year the proportion of the brain to the body is as 1 : 14 ; in 
 the third, 1 : 18 ; in the fifteenth, 1 : 24. In a full-grown 
 man, between the age of 20 and 70 years, as 1 : 35 to 45. In 
 lean persons the proportion is often as 1 : 22 to 27 ; in stout 
 persons as 1 : 50 to 100 and more. 
 
 "3. Although Aristotle has remarked that the female brain 
 is absolutely smaller than the male, it is nevertheless not 
 relatively smaller compared with the body ; for the female 
 body is, in general, lighter than that of the male. The female 
 brain is for the most part even larger than the male, compared 
 with the size of the body." 
 
 The brain of a man, eighty-two years old, was very small and 
 weighed but 31bs. 2oz. 3dr. ; and the brain of a woman, about 
 eighty years old, weighed 2lbs. 9oz. Idr. 1 
 
 The following table gives the results obtained by Dr. Eeid 
 from the examination of 92 bodies. 
 
 1 Opuscit. 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 Relative Weight of the Encephalon to the entire Body. 
 
 Males: number of brains 
 
 Females : number of brains 
 
 weighed, 57. 
 
 weighed, 35. 
 
 Age. 
 Years. 
 
 Number 
 weighed. 
 
 Encephalon. 
 oz. dr. 
 
 Age. 
 Years. 
 
 Number 
 weighed. 
 
 Encephalon. 
 oz. dr. 
 
 Ito5 
 
 4 
 
 ItoSJ 
 
 2 to 4 
 
 4 
 
 Ito8$ 
 
 at 5 
 
 2 
 
 1 9U> 
 
 5 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 at 7 
 
 2 
 
 1 lOff 
 
 7 10 
 
 3 
 
 1 13A- 
 
 13 to 15 
 
 3 
 
 1 ,i 15i2 
 
 13 15 
 
 
 
 1 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 20 
 
 3 
 
 1 30J 
 
 20 , 30 
 
 11 
 
 1 35JS 
 
 20 30 
 
 4 
 
 1 33^ 
 
 30 , 40 
 
 6 
 
 1 37 T <L 
 
 30 40 
 
 8 
 
 1 34f 
 
 40 , 50 
 
 14 
 
 1 38 
 
 40 50 
 
 5 
 
 1 35 
 
 50 , 60 
 
 11 
 
 1 36f 
 
 50 60 
 
 2 
 
 1 38^ 7 
 
 60 , 70 
 
 4 
 
 1 30 
 
 60&upw. 
 
 6 
 
 1 38i 
 
 Man's face is more or less flat (os sublime), while that of 
 animals is provided with a snout, which is more or less pro- 
 jecting (os bestiale). The human face is small relatively to the 
 size of the cranium ; it is short, and has a vertical or slightly 
 oblique direction. The forehead projects, and the features 
 portray every thought and every change of feeling. 
 
 The organs of the senses are well developed. That of touch 
 is extremely fine, owing to the form of the hand, the softness 
 and flexibility of the skin, and the various positions which the 
 thumb is capable of assuming. 1 Taste is very delicate ; and 
 that of smell easily distinguishes between different odours. 
 The ear has a marvellous power of appreciating the different 
 intonations of sound ; and sight, although restricted to a short 
 distance, is nevertheless clear and distinct. The latter acts in 
 front, and not at the sides of the body, thereby producing 
 greater concentration and unity in its action. 
 
 Man alone is cosmopolitan ; for he only is acquainted with 
 the use of fire and clothing. He appreciates and seeks for 
 causes. He observes the actual, he conceives the possible, and 
 doubts the supernatural. (Bourdon.) He delights in amuse- 
 
 1 In the monkeys it is the posterior pair of extremities which are best 
 adapted for prehension, and not the anterior or superior pair, as in man. 
 
lO ANATOMY OF MAN. 
 
 ment and luxury ; lie hopes and repents ; he laughs and weeps ; 
 he has the wonderful faculty of expressing abstract notions by 
 the aid of sound, and it is upon this faculty that his memory 
 and' his power of reasoning depend. (Cuvier.) The distinction 
 which reason establishes between man and animals is so great l 
 that the most degraded Hottentot is capable of governing the 
 most perfect of the mammalia, whether in the form of a 
 mischievous monkey or of the sagacious elephant ; he commands 
 them, he compels them to obey him, and renders them subser- 
 vient to his use. (Adanson.) 
 
 Man has been justly pronounced the chief of animals and 
 the king of nature. 2 He has no other masters than his own 
 passions and his fellow-men ; his superiority does not depend 
 upon the strength of his body or the perfection of his senses, 
 but upon the faculties of his soul and the powers of his mind. 3 
 
 He has measured the course of the stars, and calculated the 
 period of their return. He has invented signs in which to 
 embody his ideas, and by which he can preserve and transmit 
 them to posterity. 4 Lastly, the multiplicity of his industrial 
 occupations bears a direct relation to the variety of his amuse- 
 ments and the extent of his dominions. 
 
 Man's body is adapted to the erect position. His upright- 
 , ness results partly from the central situation of the occipital 
 .foramen (Daubenton), and to an arrangement of the vertebral 
 column, which is peculiar to himself (Serres) . [In a well- 
 . formed European skull, the plane of the occipital foramen is 
 horizontal, and its anterior extremity is about half way between 
 .the tuberosity of the occipital bone and the incisors of the 
 : upper jaw. This central position of the occipital foramen and 
 the condyles is one of the great peculiarities of man, who is 
 destined to stand erect. His head, therefore, is almost equally 
 balanced on the top of the spine. In monkeys, who hold a 
 v middle rank between man and quadrupeds, the foramen 
 magnum is placed farther back ; in the orang-utan, it is about 
 .twice as far from the foramina incisiva as from the back of the 
 head. Consequently, although monkeys can stand erect for a 
 
 1 " He comes naked upon the earth ... to his great profit and advan- 
 tage he is armed with understanding and clothed with reason-" (A. Pare.) 
 "Man is a philosophical animal." (Virey.) 
 
 * " Man is more excellent and perfect than all the animals." (A. Pare.) 
 
 3 " Robur et vires in sapientia." (Eustachi.) 
 
 4 " He has reduced to writing the doctrines and speculations of philoso- 
 phers, so that by this means we are still able to converse and to dispute 
 with Plato, Aristotle, and the other writers of antiquity." (A. Pare.) 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY., 11 
 
 time, they cannot do so long. 1 ] Man's back is less covered, or, 
 more correctly speaking, it is more naked than his chest or his 
 abdomen; a character which does not belong to any other 
 mammalian animal. (Blumenbach.) His foot is large and pro- 
 vided with a projecting heel, upon which the leg is placed in a 
 vertical position; the toes are short and possess but little 
 flexibility, and the great toe, although larger and longer than 
 the others, cannot be opposed to them. The muscles which 
 maintain the foot and the thigh in a state of extension are 
 exceedingly powerful, and form the calf and the buttock. The 
 pelvis is large, the legs are placed apart and give firmness to the 
 bipedal and erect position. Man could not, even if he wished 
 it, move conveniently upon all four limbs. The inferior extremi- 
 ties, now become posterior, would be too long relatively to the 
 superior, which would be similarly converted into anterior 
 extremities. The length of the thighs would always bring the 
 knees against the ground. The shoulders, placed too widely 
 apart, and the arms carried too far from the medium line, would 
 ill support the anterior part of the body. The heel would not 
 rest upon the ground. The weight of the head would not 
 be properly sustained. The eyes, instead of looking forward, 
 would be directed towards the ground. The arteries which 
 supply the brain not subdividing as in most quarupeds, the 
 blood which is requisite for the supply of so large an organ 
 would be poured into it with too much force, and frequent 
 apoplexies would be the result of the horizontal position. 
 (Cuvier.) 
 
 The straight and erect attitude of man is that of command. 
 His head, directed towards the heavens, offers an august and 
 dignified countenance. (Adanson.) It has been truly observed, 
 that the erect attitude of man constitutes one of his great 
 physical distinctions, even as his intelligence forms a moral 
 distinction. 
 
 The nearly equal number of individuals belonging to the 
 two sexes proves that monogamy is the natural condition of 
 man. 
 
 The male organ contains no central bone ; it hangs in front 
 of the pubis, and the prepuce does not attach it to the abdomen. 
 This fold of the skin covers the gland more or less completely, 
 and is provided with its proper frenum. The scrotum is placed 
 externally, and is lax and wrinkled. 
 
 1 Human Osteology, by Luther Holden, p. 117, 2nd edition. London, 
 1857. 
 
12 ANATOMY OF MAN. 
 
 The womb is a simple oval cavity ; at the entrance of the 
 vagina there is generally a hymen or carunculae myrtiformes. 
 The mammae are placed on the chest, and thus accord with the 
 facility with which the female carries her infant in her arms. 
 (Cuvier.) 
 
 The human female has usually one young at a birth. Out 
 of 150 to 200 deliveries there does not occur above one example 
 of twins. It is extremely rare to meet with more. The 
 duration of pregnancy is nine months. Children born before 
 the seventh month seldom live. 
 
 A foetus of a month old is from .02 to .03 of an inch in 
 length ; at two months it measures from an inch to an inch 
 and a half; at three months from two to two and a half inches; 
 at five months from eight and a half to ten and a half inches ; 
 at seven months from thirteen to fourteen inches ; at eight 
 months from nearly fourteen to fifteen inches ; and at nine 
 months eighteen inches and a half. 
 
 [According to Miiller an embryo of the fourth week measures 
 3 J lines. At the commencement of the second month the length 
 of the embryo extends to a few lines or half an inch. The extre- 
 mities are visible in the form of leaf-like appendages, and the 
 cavity of the mouth exists, and is wide open. In the course of 
 the third month the foetus acquires the length of two and a half 
 or three inches ; in the fourth, during which the sex becomes 
 distinguishable, it reaches to four inches ; and in the fifth to 
 twelve inches. At this period occur the formation of the fat, 
 and the further development of the rudimentary horny 
 structures, the nails and the down, lanugo, which appears over 
 the whole surface, and the eyelids coalesce. In the fifth month, 
 also, the movements of the embryo are felt by the mother. A 
 foetus born during the sixth month breathes, but does not con- 
 tinue to live. In the seventh lunar month the embryo acquires 
 the length of 16 inches or more, and if expelled from the 
 uterus is sometimes capable of living. In the eighth lunar 
 month its length is 16 inches; the testes at this period 
 descend from the abdominal cavity through the inguinal ring 
 into the scrotum, which had hitherto the form of empty folds 
 of the skin, and the eyelids become free. In the ninth month 
 the hair appears on the head, and the embryo measures 17 
 inches in length. In the tenth lunar month its length reaches 
 18 or 20 inches. 1 ] 
 
 The milk teeth begin to appear some months after birth 
 
 1 See Muller's Elements of Physiology, transl. by Baly, vol. ii. pp. 1588 
 1594. London, 1842. 
 
ANTHBOPOLOGY. 13 
 
 [between the fifth and eighth. 1 ] The incisors are the first 
 teeth which are cut [those of the lower jaw generally preceding 
 the upper by a week or two]. At two years of age [or from 
 that to two and a half] the healthy child is provided with 
 twenty teeth. These teeth begin to be shed about the seventh 
 yt'ur, and are replaced by others. Of the twelve molar teeth, 
 which are never shed, four make their appearance at the age of 
 four years and a half, four at nine years of age, and four much 
 later. The latter, termed the wisdom teeth, sometimes show 
 themselves towards the twentieth year, but occasionally not 
 until after the fortieth. 
 
 [The periods mentioned in the preceding paragraph for the 
 appearance of the permanent molars differ materially from 
 those at which they occur in this country. The first per- 
 manent molars do not appear before the seventh year, and 
 sometimes the four are not through the gum until the ninth 
 year. The second are in place between the twelfth and 
 thirteenth years. These numbers were obtained by Mr. 
 Baonden from the examination of a large number of children, 
 for the purpose of ascertaining how far the teeth might be 
 trusted for the purpose of determining the age of children 
 employed in factories, and to prevent any infringement of the 
 Factories Regulation Act. From all the cases which came 
 under his notice, Mr. Saunders has drawn the following con- 
 clusions. 
 
 ' ; Thus then it appears, that of 708 children of nine years of 
 age, 389 would have been pronounced, on an application of this 
 test, to be near the completion of their ninth year ; that is, 
 they presented the full developments of that age. But on the 
 principle already stated, that of reckoning the fourth tooth as 
 present when the three are fully developed, a still larger 
 majority will be obtained, and, instead of 389, the proportion 
 will be as follows : of 708 children, no less a number than 
 630 will be fully nine years of age. What then are the 
 deviations exhibited by the remaining 178 ? They are the 
 following: 126 would be pronounced eight years and six 
 months, and the remaining 52 eight years of age, so that the 
 extreme deviations are only twelve months, and these only in 
 the inconsiderable proportion (when compared with the results 
 obtained by other criteria) of 32 in 708. 
 
 " Again, of 338 children, of thirteen years of age, no less 
 than 294 might have been pronounced with confidence to be 
 
 1 T. Bell : The Anatomy, Physiology, and Diseases of the Teeth, p. 80, 
 2nd edit. London, 1835. 
 
14 ANATOMY OF MAN. 
 
 of that age. The remaining 44 would have been considered as 
 follows : 36 in their thirteenth, and eight near the completion 
 of their twelfth year." x ] 
 
 The foetus increases the more rapidly as it approaches the 
 period of biith. The child increases less and less as it passes 
 from that period. 
 
 At birth the infant weighs from 3 kilogrammes (6'61bs. 
 avoirdupois) to 3 kilogrammes and a half (7'71bs avoirdupois). 
 It has attained more than one quarter of its full height ; at 
 two years and a half it has acquired the half, and at nine or 
 ten years of age the three quarters. At thirty years of age it 
 ceases to- grow. 
 
 [The length of the new-born infant varies from about 16 
 inches to 22 ; the average, probably, being between 18 and 
 19, though Eoederer states it to be 20^ inches. The mean 
 weight is about 71bs. avoirdupois, or one twentieth of that of 
 the adult. Dr. William Hunter states, that of many thou- 
 sand new-born perfect infants weighed at the British Hospital, 
 in London, by Dr. Macau! ay, the smallest was about 41bs., 
 the largest lllbs. 2oz., while the greater number varied from 
 5 to 81bs. The average weight of 26 children at the natural 
 period, weighed by Eoederer, was about 6^1bs. ; the lightest 
 5|lbs. ; and the heaviest 81bs. The length of male slightly 
 exceeds that of female children, while the difference in weight 
 is estimated by Dr. Clarke at about 9oz. avoirdupois. In the 
 case of twins, the average weight of each twin is in general 
 less than that of children born at single births, though the 
 combined weight of both is greater. Dr. Clarke found that the 
 average weight of twelve twins was lllbs. avoirdupois each 
 pair ; the heaviest being 131bs., and the lightest S^lbs. 2 ] 
 
 The average height of a man is 5'378 feet. 3 A man is con- 
 sidered to be of the ordinary height when he measures from 
 5'249 to 5'754 feet. The woman is somewhat shorter. A 
 man is said to be short when he is much under 5 '249 feet, and 
 is called tall when he is above 5'754 feet in height. Men who 
 do not measure 3'280 feet are dwarfs, while those who exceed 
 6-560 feet are giants* 
 
 1 Medical Gazette, vol. ii., 1837-38, p. 492. See also Mr. Saunders's 
 work, entitled, The Teeth a Test of Age. 
 
 , 2 T. H. Tanner, M.D., F.L.S.; A Practical Treatise on the Diseases of 
 Infancy and Childhood, p. 16. London, 1858. 
 
 8 According to Tenon it is 5'495 ; according to Lelut, 5'436 ; and accord- 
 ing to Silbermann, 5*429 feet. 
 
 4 By raising his arms in the air a man measures from the sole of his 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 15 
 
 [The skeleton of O'Byrne, the Irish giant, which is preserved 
 in the College of Surgeons, measures eight feet from the 
 vertex to the sole of the foot. In the annual Register 
 Chronicle, for June, 1783 (vol. xxvi. p. 209), it is stated 
 that in August, 1780, O'Byrne measured eight feet, that in. 
 1 ~v_> lie had gained two inches, and after he was dead he 
 measured eight feet four inches. He died in 1783, aged only 
 22 ; his death was hastened by excessive drinking, to which he 
 \v:is always addicted. None* of his family were of more than 
 ordinary stature.] 
 
 The varieties of the human race which differ most as re- 
 gards height are the Boschesmans and the Patagonians. 
 Putting aside the exaggerated statements of some travellers, 
 \vc find that the proportion of their heights is as 8 to 27. 1 
 
 [Darwin, in his interesting narrative of the voyage of the 
 Beadle, when speaking of the Patagonians, says: "Their 
 height appears greater than it really is, from their large 
 i;iianaro mantles, their long flowing hair, and general figure: 
 on an average their height is about six feet, with some men 
 taller and only a few shorter; and the women are also tall; 
 ai together, they are certainly the tallest race we anywhere 
 Ban .- The skeleton of a male Boschesman in the College of 
 Surgeons (Xo. 5,357) measures four feet five inches from the 
 vertex to the sole of the foot. If we assume that there is the 
 same relative difference between the length of the skeleton 
 and the body of the Boschesman as there was in the case of 
 O'Byrne (viz., the one twenty-fifth of the whole height), then 
 the owner of the foregoing skeleton must have been four feet 
 seven inches high.] 
 
 The average weight of mankind, without reference to age or 
 sex, is 1151bs. avoirdupois. That of a man is 1211bs., and that 
 of a woman, llOlbs. Man attains his greatest weight at about 
 forty years of age, and begins to diminish very perceptibly at 
 sixty. The average weight of the old person, in both sexes, is 
 about the same as that of the individual at nineteen years of 
 
 foot to the tips of his fingers 6*560 feet, and from the sole of his foot to the 
 umbilicus 3'280 feet. (Silbermann.) 
 
 1 It has been calculated that the difference in size between the Shetland 
 pony and the large English brewer's horse is as I to 27. Thus the varia- 
 tion in the size of the human race is eight times less than what occurs in 
 the horse. 
 
 2 Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. : Journal of Researches into the Natural 
 IHstnry and Gcoloyy of the Countries visited during the Voyage of ff.M.S. 
 Beagle round the World, p. 232. 2nd edit. London, 1845. 
 
16 ANATOMY OF MAN. 
 
 [M. Quetelet l has given the following table of the variation 
 in the weights of full-grown and well-formed persons in kilo- 
 grammes ; the value of the number in avoirdupois has been 
 placed beside them, omitting fractional parts when under half 
 a pound. 
 
 Male weight . 
 Female 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Medium. 
 
 kil. Ibs. av. 
 98-5 218 
 93-5 206 
 
 kil. Ibs. av. 
 49-1 108 
 63-7 140 
 
 kil. Ibs. av. 
 637 140 
 55-2 121 
 
 A healthy child begins to talk when he is from twelve to 
 fifteen months old, the first sound which he utters amongst 
 nearly all nations and in almost every language are the syl- 
 lables ba, pa, ma, because they are the sounds which are most 
 easily pronounced. Some children will articulate very dis- 
 tinctly at two years of age, and will repeat nearly all that is 
 said to them ; but the majority do not talk until they are two 
 years and a half old, and frequently not until much later. 
 (Adanson.) 
 
 When the body has attained its full height and size, it 
 begins to spread and to become fat. The minute vessels are 
 gradually filled up, the solids are rendered more dense, and 
 after a life of longer or shorter duration, passed amidst more 
 or less excitement and anxiety, there comes old age, feebleness, 
 decrepitude, and death. (Cuvier.) 
 
 According to Duvillard (1806) the average duration is 28J 
 years. According, however, to the more recent statistics, it is 
 33-63 years. 
 
 Men who have passed the average period of life usually 
 attain to 70 years of age. Persons who live to a hundred are 
 exceedingly rare, and still more so those who exceed that age. 
 
 [The returns of the Registrar General's Fifth Annual Report 
 show, that in England the average duration of life at birth is 
 41'18 years ; and in children wiio have attained the age of one 
 year it is 47'7l years for the male, or 48*55 years for the 
 female ; and for all children without reference to the sex it is 
 48-13 years. 
 
 The following remarks are taken from Dr. Tanner's work on 
 the diseases of children : 2 
 
 " Let us suppose," says this writer, " that 100,000 chil- 
 dren were born alive on the 1st January, 1841 ; and that 
 
 1 " Annales d' Hygiene Publique" &c., torn. x. p. 27. 
 3 Op. cit, p. 6. 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 17 
 
 they were the offspring of all ranks and classes of Englishmen. 
 From the usual proportion of the two sexes registered, it will 
 appear, that 51,274 were boys, and 48,726 girls. Of the 
 100,000 children, 14,631 have perished during the first year, 
 leaving 85,369 alive on the 1st January, 1842; they were 
 exactly a year old, and are placed against the age ' 1 ' in the 
 table. On the 1st January, 1843, the survivors were two 
 years old, and in number 80,102 ; so that 5,267 have died in 
 the second year. On 1st January, 1846, the fifth birthday 
 was attained, and there were 74,20]. living. Consequently, in 
 the first five years, 25,799 children out of 100,000 have died. 
 During the next five years, when the children leave home 
 more, and when as it appears from the parliamentary 
 returns great numbers pass part of the day at school, the 
 mortality becomes considerably less, so that we find 70,612 
 alive at the age of ten ; while from ten to fifteen the loss is 
 small, 68,627 living to the latter age. The loss of life among 
 girls now becomes rather greater than among boys, and it 
 continues so for the eusuing five years, when both sexes are 
 more detached from the care of their parents, and the majority 
 pursue the professions or trades by which they afterwards 
 gain a livelihood. The mortality appears to increase rather 
 rapidly from twelve to fifteen ; and then at a slow regular 
 rate from the age of fifteen to fifty-five : 66,059 attained the 
 age of twenty. It was stated that 51,274 boys were born 
 alive to 48,726 girls; but the mortality in infancy is greater 
 among boys than girls ; so that 31,958 males attain the age 
 of twenty-five, and 31,623 females attain the age of twenty- 
 four. This is about the average age of marriage in England, 
 and the number of the two sexes is then nearly equal. The 
 chance of living from twenty-five to forty-five is rather in 
 favour of English women ; the violent deaths of men counter- 
 balancing the dangers of child-bearing. At the age of sixty 
 37,996 will be still alive, while 24,531 attain the age of 
 seventy ; i. e., 11,823 men, and 12,708 women, the mortality of 
 the latter being less than that of the former after fifty-five. 
 At the age of eighty, there is but little doubt that about 9,000 
 of the 100,000 will still be found alive ; but after this period 
 the observations grow uncertain, although we may calculate 
 that 1,140 will attain the age of ninety, 16 will be centena- 
 rians, and 1 man and 1 woman, out of the 100,000, may 
 remain to complete their one hundred and fourth year. 
 
 "For convenience of reference, these calculations are 
 arranged in the following table, which also contains a register 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 ANATOMY OF MAN. 
 
 showing the expectation of life ; i. e., the mean number of years 
 which, at any given age, the members of a community, taken 
 one with another, may expect to live. The mean duration of 
 life is found by adding the age to the expectation of life : 
 thus, the mean duration of a boy's life at five years is 5 -f- 
 49-64=54-64. The probable duration of life is the age at which 
 a given number of children born into the world will be reduced 
 one half; so that there is an equal chance of their dying before 
 or after that age. Thus, out of 51,274 males and 48,726 
 females, a total of 100,000 new-born infants, about one-half 
 of each sex will have died before completing the age of forty-five ; 
 so that the probable lifetime of an infant at birth is 45 years. 
 
 LIFE TABLE FOR ENGLAND. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Living. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Expectation of Life. 
 
 Persons. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 
 
 100,000 
 
 51,274 
 
 48,726 
 
 41-18 
 
 40-19 
 
 42-18 
 
 1 
 
 85,369 
 
 43,104 
 
 42,265 
 
 47-13 
 
 46-71 
 
 47-55 
 
 2 
 
 80,102 
 
 40,388 
 
 39,714 
 
 49-19 
 
 48-82 
 
 49-57 
 
 3 
 
 77,392 
 
 39,018 
 
 38,374 
 
 49-89 
 
 49-52 
 
 50-29 
 
 4 
 
 75,539 
 
 38,064 
 
 37,475 
 
 50-11 
 
 49-74 
 
 50-48 
 
 5 
 
 74,201 
 
 37,385 
 
 36,816 
 
 50-01 
 
 49-64 
 
 50-38 
 
 10 
 
 70,612 
 
 35,564 
 
 35,048 
 
 47-44 
 
 47-08 
 
 47-81 
 
 15 
 
 68,627 
 
 34,573 
 
 34,054 
 
 43-74 
 
 43-35 
 
 44-13 
 
 20 
 
 66,059 
 
 33,324 
 
 32,735 
 
 40-34 
 
 39-88 
 
 40-81 
 
 25 
 
 63,295 
 
 31,958 
 
 31,337 
 
 36-99 
 
 36-47 
 
 37-52 
 
 30 
 
 60,332 
 
 30,473 
 
 29,859 
 
 33-68 
 
 33-13 
 
 34-25 
 
 35 
 
 57,172 
 
 28,867 
 
 28,305 
 
 30-40 
 
 29-83 
 
 30-99 
 
 40 
 
 53,825 
 
 27,145 
 
 26,680 
 
 27-14 
 
 26-56 
 
 27-72 
 
 45 
 
 50,301 
 
 25,311 
 
 24,990 
 
 23-86 
 
 23-30 
 
 24-43 
 
 50 
 
 46,621 
 
 23,376 
 
 23,245 
 
 20-55 
 
 20-02 
 
 21-07 
 
 55 
 
 42,796 
 
 21,355 
 
 21,441 
 
 17-16 
 
 16-68 
 
 17-63 
 
 60 
 
 37,996 
 
 18,808 
 
 19,188 
 
 14-00 
 
 13-59 
 
 14-40 
 
 65 
 
 31,852 
 
 15,589 
 
 16,263 
 
 11-20 
 
 10-86 
 
 11-52 
 
 70 
 
 24,531 
 
 11,823 
 
 12,708 
 
 8-78 
 
 8-51 
 
 9-03 
 
 75 
 
 16,664 
 
 7,867 
 
 8,797 
 
 6-74 
 
 6-53 
 
 6-92 
 
 80 
 
 9,398 
 
 4,316 
 
 5,082 
 
 5-07 
 
 4-92 
 
 5-20 
 
 85 
 
 4,021 
 
 1,780 
 
 2,241 
 
 3-75 
 
 3-64 
 
 3-83 
 
 90 
 
 1,140 
 
 481 
 
 659 
 
 2-74 
 
 2-68 
 
 2-77 
 
 95 
 
 174 
 
 69 
 
 105 
 
 2-13 
 
 2-22 
 
 2-06 
 
 100 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 104 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
OF A SUPPOSED WILD MAN. 19 
 
 " This table reads thus : Of 100,000 births, 51,274 will be 
 male children, and 48,726 females ; of which number 85,369 
 will be alive at the end of one year, or 43,104 males, and 42,265 
 females. So again, of the 100,000, one male and one female 
 will live to the age of 104. 
 
 " To learn the expectation of life the table should be read as 
 follows : At birth, a child's expectation of life is 41*18 years ; 
 if a boy, 40*19 years ; if a girl, 42 '18 years. Again, at the age 
 of 40, a person's expectation of life is 27'14 years; hence the 
 mean age to which persons who attain the age of 40 live, is 
 40+27'14=67-14 years."] 
 
 The period when man is capable of reproducing his species is 
 that of puberty ; this occurs at from twelve to sixteen years in 
 the male, and from eleven to fourteen in the female. The 
 circumstances being otherwise the same, this period occurs 
 earlier in hot climates than in those which are temperate, and 
 in the latter sooner than those in which are cold. 
 
 Puberty is the spring-time of human life. Up to this period 
 nature has only supplied the child with what was necessary for 
 its nourishment and for its growth. His life has been confined 
 to himself, he has been incapable of transmitting it ; but the 
 moment when puberty arrives he has acquired, not only all that 
 is necessary for his individual existence, but he can also impart 
 existence to others. (Adanson.) This superfluity of life, which 
 seeks to extend itself without, is marked by several signs, such 
 as a change in the voice, the growth of the beard, the enlarge- 
 ment of the throat, and the development of the sexual organs. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF A SUPPOSED WILD MAN. 
 
 DOES man exist, or has he ever existed, in a wild state ? 
 The answer is, and should be, in the negative. Man {Homo 
 sapiens) is essentially a social being. 1 If when he first appeared 
 upon the earth, he remained for a time in the so called state 
 of nature he must rapidly have emerged from that condition. 
 But this early stage of society was never similar or analogous 
 to the kind of life which is lea by even the most perfect of the 
 
 1 Zuov iroXirtKbv. (Aristotle.) 
 
 c 2 
 
20 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 mammalian animals. The least enlightened populations, and the 
 lowest islanders, have always presented themselves in the con- 
 dition of a society more or less perfectly organized ; sometimes 
 even remarkably so, and manifesting, not only a craving for 
 civilization, but also the capacity of attaining it. In fact, even 
 in the smallest tribes, it is easy to recognise the presence and 
 influence of those important moral instincts which relate to 
 family, to property, and to religion. 
 
 Human society is essentially distinguished from every 
 association of animals, such as those of beavers, bees, or 
 ants, both by the motives which produce it, the advantages 
 which are derived from it, and by its progress towards per- 
 fection. (Eullier.) 
 
 It is with regret that we find a great naturalist admitting for 
 the noblest of living beings the existence of a savage type 
 (ferus), 1 to which he gives as characters the quadrupedal 
 station, the absence of speech, and a covering of hair (tetrapus, 
 mutus, hirsutus)* 
 
 Several writers have published apocryphal histories of 
 miserable individuals belonging to our species, who, having 
 been abandoned either through poverty or crime, have lived in 
 woods, and caverns, amidst the beasts of the fields. These 
 persons, having lost the power of speech, could only utter 
 discordant and inarticulate sounds, and approached to a state 
 of imbecility. 
 
 It would be folly to seek with Lamettrie, 3 in these rare and 
 happily exceptional cases, the primitive type of the human race. 
 These degenerated beings are physical and moral aberrations 
 from the normal or civilized man, and not individuals who have 
 returned to the primitive condition from which civilization 
 originated. 
 
 LinnaBus mentions nine of these cases ; but he does not 
 inquire into their origin, their authenticity, or their scientific 
 value ; he gives them without order or date, and without 
 detail or comment. All these unhappy beings are children, 
 not a single adult is amongst them ; 4 a very remarkable circum- 
 
 1 Homoferus (Linn.) non est varietas. (Exerleben.) 
 
 2 Aristotle and Pliny also believed in the existence of a wild type of the 
 human race. 
 
 3 De Lamettrie has related several examples, and from them he has 
 drawn the six characters which he assigns to man in a state of nature. 
 
 4 Larrey has spoken in a vague manner of a wild man whose skeleton he 
 saw at Wilna. His description, which was probably taken from some 
 hasty notes made at the time, seems to have been written under the pre- 
 
OF A SUPPOSED WILD MAN. 21 
 
 stance, and one which shows that a state of isolation is not 
 that which is adapted to our species. Some of these children 
 have been found with herds of sheep and oxen, and others 
 even amongst wolves and bears ! It is on this account that 
 Linnaeus has characterized them by epithets indicative of their 
 singular association (juvinis ovinus, bovinus, lupinus, ursinus). 
 
 When we inquire into the origin of these cases, we are 
 astonished at the contradictions, the falsehoods, and the 
 absurdities which we meet with. 
 
 The following are two of the best authenticated examples : 
 The Young Girl of Champagne, and the Young Savage of Tarn. 
 
 1. The young girl of Champagne (puella Campanica, Linn.) had 
 lived in the woods, in the midst of the wild animals, but it was 
 not known what were the circumstances which led to this. 
 She was captured and taken to a chateau in the neighbourhood 
 where she was brought up. She resided for a long time in 
 Paris, and was known by the name of Mademoiselle Leblanc. 
 We are indebted for her history to M. Racine. 
 
 In the month of September, 1731, the servants of the 
 Chateau de Sogny, near Chalons-sur-Marne, one night per- 
 ceived a sort of phantom on an apple-tree in the garden ; they 
 approached without noise and succeeded in surrounding the 
 tree. But, suddenly, the phantom leaped over their heads, 
 then over the wall of the garden and fled to the woods, where 
 it mounted a large tree. The master of the chateau directed 
 his servants, with the assistance of the country people, to cut 
 down the tree ; it was necessary to serve several in the same 
 way, in consequence of the phantom throwing itself from tree 
 to tree. It was suspected that it was a young savage of the 
 female sex, and the people endeavoured to pursuade her to 
 descend. The mistress of the chateau, thinking that hunger 
 and thirst would soon induce her to do so, ordered a bowl of 
 water and some food to be placed at the trunk of the tree. 
 The young girl, for such it proved to be, tempted by the sight, 
 partly descended and then remounted. At length she came 
 down and proceeded to drink ; she performed this act by 
 dipping her chin in up to the mouth, and swallowed the liquid 
 in the same manner as a horse. 
 
 When she was secured, the nails both of her hands and feet 
 were very long and exceedingly strong, giving her great facility 
 in grasping the branches of the trees, and probably assisting 
 her to destroy the wild animals. The colour of her body was 
 
 conceived notion that the skeleton bore a strong resemblance to that of the 
 Orang-utan ! 
 
22 ANTHEOPOLOGT. 
 
 of a blackish cast, but this disappeared with the change in her 
 mode of living. 
 
 Taken to the chateau, she immediately seized upon some 
 raw fowls, which the cook had in his hands. She was not 
 acquainted with any language, or articulate sound, but merely 
 uttered harsh gutteral cries. She was, however, able to imitate 
 the voices of certain quadrupeds and birds. 
 
 In winter time she was compelled to cover herself with 
 the skins of animals ; but at all seasons of the year she must 
 have worn a girdle, to which she attached a short round club, 
 which she made use of to protect herself from the wild beasts. 
 She once, as she afterwards related, felled a wolf with a single 
 blow on the head. When she killed a hare with her stick, 
 she skinned it and eat it ; when, however, she had hunted one 
 down, she opened a vein with one of her nails, drank the blood 
 and threw the rest away. Her mode of running was very 
 surprising ; there appeared to be scarcely any motion in her 
 feet and body, so that she seemed to glide along rather than 
 run. She exhibited the same agility in swimming and secured 
 fish by diving. She ate the latter with great relish. She was 
 able to remain a long time beneath the w r ater, so that one 
 would have supposed that the water was her natural element. 
 
 "When she acquired the power of speech, she related that 
 she had lost a companion of her own age, with whom she used 
 to live. They were both swimming in a river (no doubt, the 
 Marne) when they heard a noise which induced them to dive : 
 it was a sportsman, who having mistaken them at a distance 
 for water-fowls, had fired at them ; they came out some way 
 off and went into a wood, where they found a ehaplet, which 
 both of them wanted for the purpose of making themselves 
 bracelets, her sister having struck her on the arm, she returned 
 it by a blow on the head, so violent, that as she expressed it 
 her sister became red. Prompted by that natural impulse 
 which leads us to succour those of our own kind, she immedi- 
 ately went in search of a tree which yielded a gum that, 
 according to her, would cure the injury she had inflicted ; when 
 she returned her wounded companion was gone, and she never 
 saw her again. 
 
 The exact age of the girl could not be ascertained, nor the 
 locality from whence she had come. When questioned by 
 signs as to where she was born, she pointed to a tree. She 
 gave the persons, however, to understand that she had traversed 
 a great expanse of water. Condamine conceived the idea of 
 ascertaining the place of her birth, by presenting to her the 
 
OF A SUPPOSED WILD MAN. 23 
 
 roots and the fruits of various American plants, in the hope 
 that she might recognise amongst them some of the objects 
 which she had seen in her childhood, but the experiment was 
 unsuccessful. 
 
 For a long time she refused to be clothed. 
 
 At Paris she was placed in a convent, a solitude which was 
 very different from that of the woods, and rendered her 
 extremely melancholy. 
 
 This girl was not an idiot like most of the wild children 
 which have been described by writers. She knew how to cover 
 herself with skins to protect her from the cold, and could 
 arrange them with skill. She had made a belt in which to place 
 her stick ; she entertained the idea of ornamenting herself with 
 a chaplet ; she desired to cure the wound she had inflicted on 
 her sister, and she was acquainted with the virtues of a certain 
 gum. Has the most perfect and the most exalted of the 
 mammalia ever exhibited such signs of intelb'gence, or such a 
 combination of ideas, as was presented by this unhappy girl, 
 who, from having been deserted, had fallen into her degraded 
 condition? 
 
 2. The young boy of Tarn, commonly called the wild boy of 
 Aveyron, was the subject of public curiosity at the beginning of 
 the present century. All Paris went to see this unfortunate 
 being. He had received the name of Victor. The Abbe 
 Bonnaterre and Dr. Itard, have each of them published a full 
 and most interesting account of him. 
 
 The child was eleven or twelve years old, and had been seen 
 several times in the wood of Lacaune (Tarn) tearing up the 
 ground in search of potatoes, which he eat raw ; he also 
 collected acorns and chesnuts ; he slept upon dry leaves, and 
 upon any one approaching would climb into the trees. 
 
 Towards the end of the year 1799 he was met by two 
 sportsmen, who managed to secure him. 
 
 The child was quite naked, and his habits most disgusting ; 
 he was ferocious and irritable, he was subject to spasmodic 
 movements, which were often of a convulsive character, and he 
 balanced himself to and fro like the animals in a menagerie. 
 He would endeavour to scratch those who thwarted him, but 
 he evinced no kind of affection, or recognition of those who 
 had charge of him. He appeared to be indifferent to almost 
 everything, but continually endeavoured to escape from the 
 habitations of men, in order that he might return to the woods. 
 
 He was incapable of uttering any sound, and the nervous 
 system was probably diseased. 
 
24 AKTHEOPOLOGT. 
 
 This unhappy being was taken to a village in the neighbour- 
 hood. He contrived to escape at the end of a week, and 
 regained the mountains, where he wandered about for fifteen 
 months, covered only with a ragged shirt, enduring the most 
 bitter cold and the most intense heat. 
 
 He was again captured upon his entering a lone house in 
 the Canton of Saint Sernin, most probably being driven to it 
 by want of food. He was taken to the hospital of Sainte 
 Affrique, thence to Rodez, and lastly, by the order of the 
 minister, to Paris. 
 
 He arrived in the capital towards the end of the year 1800. 
 
 His height was about four feet three inches ; his skin was 
 white and delicate ; his hair was of a dark chesnut colour ; his 
 face was rounded, his physiognomy agreeable, but with little 
 expression ; his eyes were deep set and black, and the eye- 
 lashes largely developed ; the nose long and somewhat pointed; 
 his smile was pleasing ; the tongue was without any malfor- 
 mation. 
 
 His body was covered with scars and lacerations from the 
 spines and branches of the trees. At the upper part of the 
 trachea was a transverse mark, about an inch and a half long, 
 which seemed to have been caused by some cutting instru- 
 ment ! 
 
 Pinel regarded the little savage of Tarn as a miserable idiot, 
 attacked by an incurable disease, and pronounced him to be 
 incapable of instruction, or of becoming fitted for society. 
 
 Dr. Itard did not agree with this opinion, he ventured to 
 entertain some hopes of him, and endeavoured to bring him up 
 in an establishment for the deaf and dumb. He has published 
 a long account of the results which were obtained at the end 
 of nine months. It must be admitted, that, in spite of the 
 apparent satisfaction of the doctor, these results were far from 
 brilliant. All that can be said is, that the little savage was 
 not entirely wanting in intelligence. But the purely animal 
 functions predominated in him over all others, and his look had 
 always a certain amount of vacancy, which is well expressed in 
 the engraving of his portrait. His voice was never capable of 
 producing more than certain discordant and almost inarticulate 
 sounds. 
 
 He manifested great dislike to sitting in a chair, or sleeping 
 in a bed. He often crawled on his knees, almost in the 
 manner of a monkey. It was with difficulty that he was 
 taught to walk slowly. For a long time he refused all food, 
 either raw or cooked. 
 
OF A SUPPOSED WILD MATT. 25 
 
 He smelt all his food before eating it. He had not the 
 slightest idea of modesty. 
 
 One morning after a fall of snow he uttered a cry of distress, 
 and quitting his bed ran first to the window, then to the 
 door, then impatiently from one to the other, and at last escaped, 
 half dressed, into the garden. There he manifested his joy by 
 the most piercing cries, rolled himself in the snow, and gather- 
 ing it up in handfuls swallowed it with an incredible avidity. 
 (Itard.) 
 
 The origin of this child is uncertain ; it was suspected that 
 he had been deserted when he was between four and five years 
 of age, and that he had, therefore, passed seven years in the 
 forests. Some persons, who were worthy of credit, declared 
 that he was the legitimate child of a notary, who had been 
 inhumanly abandoned, because nature had deprived him of the 
 power of speech. 
 
 Whatever he might have been, Pinel has justly observed 
 that the child was an idiot ; but in the history of this idiot 
 there are two circumstances related by Dr. Itard, well 
 deserving of attention : 
 
 1. The child sometimes went by himself into the garden 
 belonging to the establishment of the deaf and dumb, and 
 seating himself on the edge of a reservoir, his balancing motion 
 gradually diminished, and his body became perfectly quiet ; his 
 countenance then assumed all the appearance of a profound 
 and melancholy revery ; he would remain in that state for hours, 
 closely watching the surface of the water, upon which, from 
 time to time, he would cast the fragments of the dried leaves. 
 
 2. If during the night the bright rays of the moon entered 
 his chamber he seldom failed to rise and place himself before 
 the window ; there he would remain standing during a con- 
 siderable part of the night, motionless, his neck extended, and 
 his eyes fixed upon the distant view illuminated by the moon, 
 in a state of ecstatic contemplation ! . . . 
 
 Has anything ever been observed in the most intelligent 
 monkey which could be compared to the state of revery 
 exhibited by this diseased and idiot child ? 
 
26 ANTHBOPOLOGT. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 inhabits all the climates of the earth, with the ex- 
 ception of those of the polar regions. The populations of the 
 various countries present certain differences in the form of the 
 head, the expression of the countenance, the height of the 
 body, the proportions of the limbs, the characters of the hair, 
 the quantity of the beard, and in the colour of the skin. 
 Nevertheless there exists but one species of man, and the 
 populations of every country and of every period have descended 
 from a common stock. 
 
 Some naturalists have endeavoured to establish several 
 distinct species of men. 
 
 Linnaeus in his Systema Natures (1766) admits two species 
 of men, the Homo Sapiens and the Homo Troglodytes, tinder 
 the latter title he includes the Albino ; these, however, are 
 persons in a state of disease, and in the present day they are 
 not regarded as even constituting a variety. Linnaeus imagined 
 that this supposed second species lived in caverns, and for this 
 reason he bestowed upon it the name of troglodytes, charac- 
 terizing it by the epithet of nocturnal (nocturnus). At the 
 end of his Mantissa plantarum altera, which appeared five years 
 after the twelfth edition of the Sy sterna Natures, the illustrious 
 naturalist of Sweden committed the serious error of including 
 in the genus Homo an ape, the Gibbon of Buffon, which he 
 names Homo Lar ; l "a surprising error committed by a great 
 genius, which should never find imitators." (Pouchet.) 
 
 Virey (1821) also admitted two species of men, distinguished 
 by the difference of aperture in the facial angle ; in the one it 
 varies between 85 and 90 ; in the other between 75 and 82. 
 In the apes it never exceeds 40. These two species of men 
 include six races characterized by their colour, and these again 
 comprise eleven sub-races, which are arranged according to the 
 regions they inhabit. 
 
 Desmoullns (1824) divided the genus man into eleven species 
 more or less distinct ; the characters he gives them are often 
 established with considerable ability, but they are always 
 insufficient to induce us to reject the unity of the human race. 
 He names these species : 1st, the Celto-Scyth-Arabs ; 2nd, the 
 Mongols ; 3rd, the Ethiopians ; 4th, the Euro- Africans ; 5th, 
 the Austro- Africans ; 6th, the Malays or Oceanians ; 7th, the 
 
 1 Pithecus Lar, Geoff. Saint-Hilaire ; Simia Lar, Gmelin ; Simia Ion- 
 gimana, Schreb. ; Hylobates Lar, Bory de Saint- Vincent. 
 
OF THE EACES OF MAN. 27 
 
 Papons; 8th, the Negro-Oceanians; 9th, the Australasians; 
 10th, the Columbians ; llth, the Americans. 
 
 Bory de Saint- Vincent (1825) goes even farther than 
 Desmoulins ; he admits fifteen species of men. These are : 1st, 
 the Japetic; 2nd, the Arabian; 3rd, the Hindoo; 4th, the 
 Scythian ; 5th, the Sinic (Chinese) ; 6th, the Hyperborean ; 
 7th, the Neptunian; 8th, the Australasian; 9th, the Columbian; 
 10th, the American ; llth, the Patagonian ; 12th, the Ethio- 
 pian ; 13th, the Caffre ; 14th, the Malanian ; 15th, the Hot- 
 tentot. He arranges these fifteen species into two tribes : 1st, 
 the LEIOTEIX, or those with smooth hair ; this division includes 
 the Japetic, Arabian, Hindoo, Scythic, and Sinic species belonging 
 to the Old World ; the Hyperborean, Neptunian, and Australa- 
 sian species, common to the Old and the New, and the Colum- 
 bian, the American and the Patagonian species, peculiar to the 
 New World ; 2nd, the OULOTBIX, or those with crisp hair, con- 
 taining the Ethiopian, Caffre, Malanian, and Hottentot species. 
 
 In the present day man is generally regarded as constituting 
 a simple species, in which all the individuals are capable of 
 mingling indiscriminately, and are able to produce an offspring 
 which is as fruitful as its parents. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF THE EACES OF MAN. 
 
 WHILE fully admitting the unity of the human species it is 
 impossible not to perceive the existence of numerous distinctions 
 between the various nations which people the globe, and of 
 hereditary peculiarities which are more or less permanent. It 
 is a matter of convenience to designate these particular modi- 
 fications by the title of race, and thus, while maintaining the 
 unity of the species, to recognise the existence of varieties. 
 These races are sometimes propagated and preserved by the 
 act of generation, while at other times they become united 
 together, and are transformed by intermixture. 
 
 The idea of these modifications is extremely ancient. Moses, 
 and at a later period Ephorus of Cumae, divided mankind, the 
 one into three races, after the three sons of Noah ; the other 
 into four, after ihefour cardinal points. 
 
 Linnaeus recognised four varieties of his Homo sapiens, cor- 
 responding to the four quarters into which, in his time, the 
 earth was divided. 1 
 
 1 His variety, monslrosus, cannot constitute a race. 
 
28 
 
 AKTHEOPOLOGT. 
 
 Blumenbach proposed to establish five races : 1st, the Cau- 
 casian ; 2nd, the Mongolian; 3rd, the Ethiopian; 4th, the 
 American ; 5th, the Malay. 
 
 M. Dumeril makes six : 1st, the Caucasian or Arab-Euro- 
 pean ; 2nd, the Hyperborean ; 3rd, the Mongolian ; 4th, the 
 American ; 5th, the Malay ; 6th, the Ethiopian or Negro. 
 
 Bory de Saint-Vincent, whom we have previously seen dis- 
 tinguishes fifteen species of men, admits also the existence of 
 races and sub-races. Thus the Japetic, to which we belong, is 
 divided as follows : 
 
 Japetic species. 
 
 A. Gens togata. 
 
 B. Gens braccata. 
 
 ( a. Caucasian Race (western). 
 ( b. Pelasgic Race (southern). 
 
 c. Celtic Race (western). 
 
 d. Germanic Race (northern). 
 
 1st variety. 
 Teutonic. 
 
 2nd variety. 
 Sclavonic. 
 
 Many naturalists, of whom we are one, admit with Cuvier 
 three principal races: 1st, the White or Caucasian; 2nd, the 
 Yellow or Mongolian ; 3rd, the Slack or Ethiopian. 
 
 The Caucasian Race (fig. 3) occupies the whole of Europe, 
 
 Fiar. 3.Abd-el-Kader. 
 
OF THE EACES OF MAN, 29 
 
 the North of Africa, and Western Asia as far as the Ganges. 
 It appears to have descended from the mountains of the Cau- 
 casus, from whence it derives its name. 
 
 The head is oval, and the forehead well developed, the eyes 
 are placed horizontally, the cheeks scarcely project, the jaws 
 are but little advanced, the hair is long and smooth, and the 
 skin is of a pinkish white. This race is the most intelligent. 
 
 The Mongolian Race (fig. 4) is found in Eastern Siberia, 
 
 Fig. 4. Yeh. 
 
 Kamtschatka, Russian America, China, Japan, and the Ladrone 
 and Phillipine islands. It seems to have originated in the 
 Altai mountains. 
 
 The face is flattened, the forehead low, oblique, and square 
 set ; the eves straight and oblique, the cheeks projecting, the 
 hair straight and black, the beard thin, and the skin of an olive 
 colour. 
 
 The Ethiopian Race (fig. 5) inhabits Africa to the south of 
 the Atlas mountains. It principal centre is Ethiopia, to which 
 it has given its name. 
 
 The skull is compressed (fig. 6), the nose flat, the jaws pro- 
 jecting, the lips thick, the hair woolly and crisp, and the skin 
 more or less black. This race is the least intelligent. 
 
 There are several intermediate varieties between these three 
 races distinguished by characters more or less strongly marked; 
 
30 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 Fig. 5. Soulouque. 
 
 these may be regarded as sub- 
 races. This has induced some 
 ethnologists to enumerate as many 
 as eleven varieties or sub-varieties 
 of the human race. To the Cau- 
 casian, Mongolian, and Ethio- 
 pian they have added the Alleg- 
 hanian, American, Hyperborean, 
 Malay, Australasian, Malanian, 
 Hottentot, and Cajfre races. 
 These divisions are contained in 
 the most recent and important 
 works which have been published 
 in this science. Their distinctive 
 characters accord very closely to their geographical distribution. 
 The following is a summary of the characters of the several 
 sub-races of mankind as presented by my friend M. Is. 
 Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, in his last course of lectures before the 
 Faculty of Sciences at Paris. I have arranged them in very 
 nearly the same manner as this learned naturalist. 
 
f^pss? 
 
 ( copper coloi 
 
 OF THE EACES OF MAN, 31 
 
 TABLE V. 
 Synoptical Table of the Human Eaces. 
 
 or swarthy, beard 
 
 1. CAUCASIAN. 
 
 coloured, beard scanty 2. Alleghanian. 
 
 ! copper coloured 3. American. 
 tawny (small stature) ... 4. Hyperborean 
 f-with the axis slightly 
 yellow ( oblique . . 5. Malay. 
 eyes Iwith the axis very 
 oblique . . 6. MONGOLIAN. 
 Hain verv depressed (skin blackish). Lower 
 
 limbs very slender 7. Australian. 
 
 very f black. ) very slender . 8. Malanian. 
 crisp depressed ) Lower 
 ^ Nose. Skin. j limbs. ) well developed . 9. ETHIOPIAN. 
 
 (.tawny 10. Hottentot. 
 
 projecting (skin bronzed) 11. Caffre. 
 
 [Dr. R. GK Latham, the latest English authority on the races 
 of men, in his work on the " Varieties of Man " has divided 
 the human species into three primary varieties, the Mongo- 
 lidae, the Atlantidae, and the Japetidae. In his " Varieties of 
 the Human Species," published in Orr's " Circle of the 
 Sciences," l he has arranged them into nine principal groups. 
 Before enumerating these, it is necessary to observe that 
 
 Ethnological facts are either physical or moral : physical, as 
 when a class is determined from the colour of the skin ; moral, 
 as when one is determined from the purity or impurity of the 
 habits. 
 
 Moral characteristics are either philological (that is, con- 
 nected with the language), or non-philological (that is, not so 
 connected). 
 
 The variations which occur in the different languages allow 
 of their being arranged under the four following heads : 
 
 1. Aptotic (from a not, &nd.ptosis a case). Languages with- 
 out inflections and monosyllabic, as the Chinese : 
 
 2. Agglutinate. Languages which are inflectional, but 
 which have become so from the juxtaposition or composition 
 of different words. 
 
 3. Amalgamate. Languages with inflections, which cannot 
 be shown to have originated in separate and independent 
 words. 
 
 1 Vol. i. p. 308. 
 
32 ANTHBOPOLOGY. 
 
 Anaptotic (from ana back, and ptosis a case). Languages 
 which, like the English, once possessed inflections, but have 
 fallen back or lost them. 
 
 G-BOUP 1. Physiognomy : Mongol. Language : Monosyl- 
 labic. Area: Ladakh, Bulistan (or Little Tibet), Tibet, 
 Nepal, Sikkim, Butan, Northern India, Arakhan, the Burmese 
 Empire, Siam Cambojia, Cochin China, Tonkin, China, the 
 Islands of Adaman, Nicobar, Carnicobar, Hainan, and the 
 Mergui Archipelago. Divisions: Tibetan (or Bhot), Siamese 
 (or Thay), Burmese, Peguan (or Mord), Kambogian Anemitic 
 (or Cochin Chinese), Chinese; various tribes imperfectly dis- 
 tributed and described as Sub-Himalayans, Nagas, and Sifan ; 
 Mincopie (or Adaman Islanders), and Nicobarians. 
 
 GrROUP 2. TAUBAINANS. Physiognomy: Mongol. Lan- 
 guage : Agglutinate. Area : Mongolia, Mantshuria (the parts 
 north of Pekin the valley of the river Amur, Selinga, or Sag- 
 halin), Siberia, Independent Tartary, Chinese Tartary, Turkis- 
 tan, Anatolia, Roumelia (or Turkey in Europe), parts of Bo- 
 khara, Persia, Armenia, Syria, the Crimea, Lapland, Finland, 
 Esthonia, Livonia, the Russian governments of Archangel, 
 Olonetz, Novrogood, St. Petersburgh, Tver, Taroslav, Vologda, 
 Permia, Viatka, Kazan, Simbirsk, Saratov, Astrakhan, Cau- 
 casus, Nizhninovogorod, Penza, Tambov, Hungary, the Kurile 
 Isles, Japan, Kamskatka. Divisions : 1. The Mongolian 
 Stock ; 2. The Tungusian Stock ; 3. The Turk Stock ; 4. The 
 Ugrian Stock ; 5. The Peninsular Stock. 
 
 GrBOUP 3. THE CAUSACIAN STOCK IN THE LIMITED MEAN- 
 ING OF THE TEBM (DioscuBiAN Latham). Physiognomy: 
 European rather than Mongol. Language : Monosyllabic 
 rather than European. Area : Caucasus. Divisions : 1. The 
 Circassian ; 2. Mizhjeji, The Irou ; 4. The Georgians ; 5. 
 The Lesgians ; 6. The Armenians. 
 
 GrBOUP 4. THE PEBSIAN STOCK. Physiognomy: Caucasian 
 rather than Mongol. Language : in its present state with but 
 few inflexions. Area : Kurdistan, Persia, Beluchistan, parts of 
 Bokara, the Kohistan of Cabul, Kafrestan. Divisions : Kurds, 
 Persians, Biluchi, Afghans (Pushtu), Paropamisans (popula- 
 tions of Kaffristan and the Kohistan of Cabul). 
 
 GrBOUP 5. THE INDIAN STOCK. Organization referable to 
 two types : in one the skin is dark, the face broad, the features 
 coarse ; in the other, the features are regular, the head dolikho- 
 kephalic, the skin brunette rather than black. Language: 
 Modified by foreign admixture ; most so in the northern parts 
 of India. Area : India, Ceylon, the Maldive islands, parts of 
 
OF THE RACES OF MAN. 38 
 
 the Monosyllabic frontier, the mountains of the southern parts 
 of Beluchistan, i. e., the country of the Brahui. 
 
 GROUP 6. THE OCEAN GROUP. Area : The Peninsula of 
 Malacca, Sumatra, Java, and the chain ending in Timor and 
 Eotti ; Borneo, and the chain leading to the Philippines ; the 
 Philippines ; the Bashi and Babyani Isles ; Formosa, Celebes, 
 and the Moluccas; the islands between Timor and New 
 Guinea; Madagascar. 
 
 GROUP 7. THE AMERICANS. Area : The Aleutian Isles, 
 North and South America ; remarkable for the comparative 
 absence of domestic animals. Physiognomy : Modified Mon- 
 gol ; the departure from the type being the most marked on 
 the water system of the Mississippi and the coast of the At- 
 lantic, Languages : Agglutinate. 
 
 Dr. Latham remarks upon this series that he finds " no such 
 misgivings as to the origin and affinities of the great American 
 group as find place in most works on the subject." He neither 
 finds difficulty in connecting them with the Old World, nor 
 doubt as to the part thereof from which they came. Thus he 
 finds in North Eastern Asia just what the a priori probabili- 
 ties of the geographical relations of the two continents indicate. 
 
 His reasons for thus making short work of a hitherto long 
 question, lie in the recent additions to our geographical and 
 ethnograpical knowledge for the parts to the west of the 
 Eocky Mountains, for the northern parts more especially ; for 
 Kussian America, for New Caledonia, and for the Oregon. It 
 is only lately that we have known much of these districts, espe- 
 cially in respect of their ethnology. More than this, it is 
 only recently that the Far West of the parts between the 
 Eocky Mountains and Atlantic has been at all carefully 
 explored. What followed from this want of information ? It 
 followed, as a matter of course, that our notions of the so- 
 called Eed Man of America were formed upon the Indians of 
 the Alleghany Mountains, the Mississippi, and the St. Law- 
 rence. But these were extreme samples ; samples of the 
 American in his state of greatest contrast to the Asiatic. No 
 wonder, then, that the connection between them was mysterious 
 and uncertain. If investigators doubted, the want of data 
 justified them. The populations which were the likeliest to 
 supply the phenomena of transition were unknown or neglected. 
 Again, there was only one population common to the Old 
 and New World. This was the Eskimo, a population which 
 at one and the same time occupies the Aleutian Islands, the 
 Peninsula of Alinska, the Island of Kadiak, the greater part of 
 
34 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 [Russian America, the coast of the Arctic Sea, Greenland, and 
 Labrador. Here it comes in contact with the so-called Eed 
 Indian of the Algonkin class. 
 
 Now, between this so-called Eed Indian of the Algonkin class, 
 and the Eskimo in geographical contact with him, there is a 
 broad line of demarcation a line of demarcation so broad as 
 to suggest the idea of contrast rather than connection. 
 Hence, as long as we studied America on its eastern or At- 
 lantic side, we got nothing from the Eskimo ; nothing from 
 the fact (apparently so important) of his being common to the 
 two hemispheres, and (as such) being likely to supply the con-> 
 nectinglink between them. He was anything but such a link. 
 He was rather a knife to separate than *a band to bind. Yet, 
 on the Western or Pacific side of the continent, this same 
 Eskimo so graduates into the American Proper, and the Indian 
 Proper so graduates into the Eskimo, as to make the distinction 
 between the two groups as difficult as, on the east, it had 
 been easy." l 
 
 GROUP 8. THE AFRICAN STOCK.' Organization : Head 
 rarely other than dolikho-kephalic ; hair rarely straight, 
 always, with individuals resident on their native area, black ; 
 skin dark, in certain localities attaining the maximum amount 
 of blackness. In such cases the hair is crisp, and the lips 
 thick ; i. e., the physiognomy is Negro. Languages : Aggluti- 
 nate. Area : Africa, minus the Island of Madagascar (wholly 
 or in part), plus Arabia and parts of Persia and Syria. 
 
 GROUP 9. THE EUROPEAN GROUP. Physiognomy: Cau- 
 casian in the w^ider and more inconvenient sense of the term. 
 Languages : Either unplaced, or Indo-European (so called). 
 Area : Western, Central, and Southern Europe. Divisions : 
 A 1, The Basks ; E 2, The Skipitar ; C 3, The Kelts ; D 4, 
 The Greeks and Latins ; 5, The Sarmatians ; 6, The Germans. 
 The three divisions marked D are easily, conveniently, and 
 accurately looked on as sections of some higher denomination 
 species (so to say) of a genus. To this most writers add 
 the Kelts ; some the Albanians. All exclude the Basks. The 
 name of this higher class, when it is limited to the divisions 
 under D, is Indo- Germanic ; when extended to D and C as 
 well, Indo-European. The present writer objects to it in 
 either form ; holding it to be a word as erroneous and incon- 
 venient as Caucasian in the wide sense of the term. Each, how- 
 ever, keeps its place and must be used, however unfit for use.] 
 
 1 Opus tit, p. 349. 
 
THE HUMAN KINGDOM. 35 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE HUMAN KINGDOM. 
 
 NY naturalists have regarded man merely as an animal ; 
 although it is true, they have pronounced him to be the most 
 perfect and thejirst of animals. 
 
 Linnaeus and his school 1 place man in a distinct genus under 
 the name of Homo. This genus is the first of the order An- 
 thropomorpha or Primates of the class Mammalia, which is 
 it self the first of the animal kingdom. 
 
 According to Cuvier (1800), M. Dumeril (1806), Ch. Bonaparte 
 (1839), and Lesson (1840), man should be placed apart in a 
 separate family. The two first and the last designate this family 
 by the name of Bimana, and the'third by that of Hominides. 
 
 Blumenbach (1779), Illiger (1811), and Blainville (1816), 
 arrange man in a distinct order ; this order is termed inermis 
 by the first, erecti by the second, and man by the third. Ac- 
 cording to Zenker (1828), and Carus (1834), he constitutes 
 the Class Homo. 
 
 A small number of philosophical naturalists have regarded 
 man, not as the head of the animal kingdom, but as constitu- 
 ting one of the great divisions of nature ; they did not, how- 
 ever, give to this division the title of kingdom. Amongst these 
 are Aristotle, Albert le Grand, Neander (1585), Ozanam 
 (1691), Ch. Bonnet (1764), Adanson (1772), Daubenton 
 (1782), Herder (1784), Vicq d'Azyr (1792), Geoffroy Saint- 
 llilaire (1794), Lacepede (1799), and others. Voltaire seems 
 to have been the first who looked upon man as constituting a 
 srjturatr kingdom? (Is. G-eoffroy Saint-Hilaire.) 
 
 De Braban9ois (1816), Treviranus (1820), and Fabre 
 d' Olivet (1822), admitted this kingdom; but they named it, 
 the first, moral kingdom, the second, human kingdom (Mens- 
 chenreich), and the third, regne nominal. The Abbe Maupied 
 (1851) substituted for these titles that of social kingdom. 
 Most naturalists and ethnologists of the present day have 
 adopted this moral, human, or hominal kingdom. Amongst 
 
 1 See amongst others Erxleben (1777), Gmelin (1788), Fischer (1829). 
 
 a HE (the Eternal artificer) has bestowed upon man organization, feeling, 
 and reason ; upon animals feeling, and that which we term instinct ; and 
 upon vegetables organization only. His power, therefore, acts continually 
 over these THREE KINGDOMS. (Voltaire, edit. Pallisot, Paris, 1792, 
 torn, xxxvi. p. 628.Dialvyue et entrttiens pliilosophiques, Sophronime 
 et Adelos.) 
 
 D 2 
 
36 ANTHKOPOLOGY. 
 
 them, it is sufficient to mention the names of MM. Is. Greof- 
 froy Saint- Hilaire, Grimaud, Hollard, Horaninow, Longet, 
 Lordat, Neas d'Esenbech, Jean Baynaud, Bunge, and Serres. 
 
 Considered in regard to his organization, man approximates 
 closely to the mammalia ; but, considered with respect to his 
 intelligence, he is far removed from them. If we wish to 
 obtain a correct knowledge of his zoological relations, and of 
 his proper classification, we must contemplate him in both 
 points of view that is to say, in his entirety. Pascal has said : 
 " Man is neither angel nor beast, but belongs to both." 
 
 In establishing a distinct kingdom for the reception of man, 
 and in placing it immediately above the animal kingdom, the 
 lord of creation is not confounded with the beasts, and yet he 
 is always in close affinity with the mammalia ; that is to say, 
 with the most perfect of the vertebrated animals. 
 
 Amongst living beings, or *in the organic world, there are 
 therefore three kingdoms : the vegetable, the animal, and the 
 nominal. 
 
 In the first, says M. Is. G-eoffroy Saint-Hilaire, LIFE is alto- 
 gether vegetative ; in the second, to the vegetative life is added 
 animal life ; in the third, to the vegetative and animal life is 
 superadded the moral life. 
 
 It may be said, the plant lives, the animal lives and feels, 
 but man lives, feels, and thinks. In the first kingdom life is 
 simple, in the second twofold, and in the third threefold. Vegeta- 
 Itility, anamality, and humanity, are three terms which succeed 
 each other in a progressive order, as simple as it is logical. It 
 is a series, in which, not only can none of the terms be trans- 
 posed, but in which neither can any of them be added to. We 
 have no conception of anything in the organic word below the 
 plant, and what organized being are we able to imagine higher 
 than man ? There may be degrees in the development of the 
 vital, the sensitive, and the intellectual faculties ; but there is 
 no intermediate condition between living and not living, 
 between feeling and not feeling, and between thinking and not 
 thinking. (Is. Greoffroy Saint-Hilaire.) 
 
 Man is the highest and ultimate term of creation. He occu- 
 pies the summit of the living pyramid. In the kingdom which 
 he constitutes (HOMINAL), there is but one genus (HOMO), 
 and in this genus but one species (SAPIENS). This species 
 presents three varieties or principal races (CAUCASIAN, MON- 
 GOLIAN, and ETHIOPIAN), and eight sub-varieties or secondary 
 races (Alleghanian, American, Hyperborean, Malay, Australian, 
 Melanian, Hottentot, and Cqff're). 
 
SECOND PAET. 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY PROPER, 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF ANIMALS. 
 
 ANIMALS are living beings, containing a large amount of 
 nitrogen, having the power of digestion, and possessed of 
 sensation and locomotion. 
 
 Like all living beings, the body of an animal is the seat of a 
 double and continuous internal movement of molecular com- 
 position and decomposition (Blainville), by means of which it 
 incorporates into its substance materials derived from without, 
 and which take the place of other particles that are discharged 
 from within ; in this way every part of the body is insensibly 
 renewed. This double movement, by which the individual per- 
 petually takes from and gives to the external world, is one of 
 the distinctive characters of life. 
 
 The duration of life in each species is definitely fixed, but 
 circumstances may prolong it, or accidents or disease may 
 shorten or arrest it. 
 
 Life presents a series of phenomena, which are capable of 
 transmission. Every animal receives it from an animal, or 
 from two animals denominated its parents ; for life comes from 
 life. (Cuvier.) 
 
 That portion of the animal which is capable of becoming a 
 new individual is called a germ, and the separation of this con- 
 stitutes its birth. So long as life continues, the body undergoes 
 a series of changes, which mark what is termed its ages. The 
 time which elapses between the birth of an individual and the 
 period when he attains his normal size is his youth; his increase 
 during this interval determines his amount of growth. When 
 he has attained his full dimensions, the time during which his 
 body and his energies appear to remain in a stationary con- 
 dition, constitutes his adult age. Lastly, the time during 
 which he becomes enfeebled, and his body seems to diminish, 
 forms the period of his old age. 
 
38 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 At a certain stage of their existence all animals are capable 
 of producing their like ; and they thus transfer to other animals 
 that life of which they are permitted to have the temporary 
 enjoyment. 
 
 When life ceases, the animal is said to be dead. 
 
 To be born, to live, to reproduce, and to die, are four 
 characters which are common to all living beings. 
 
 After death, the physical and chemical laws, which have 
 previously been rendered subservient to the life of the in- 
 dividual, now become predominant, and the constituent ele- 
 ments of the body are speedily decomposed. 
 
 All animals are ultimately composed of Oxygen, Hydrogen, 
 Carbon, and Nitrogen, which constitute their essential chemical 
 ingredients. 
 
 [There are, however, several other elementary bodies which 
 enter in larger or small quantities into the composition of 
 different animal structures. Miiller enumerates seventeen as 
 having been met with in the animal kingdom : 
 
 1. Oxygen. 
 
 2. Hydrogen. 
 
 3. Carbon. 
 
 4. Nitrogen. 
 
 5. Sulphur, met with principally in the hair, albumen, and brain. 
 
 6. Phosphorus . . in the bones, teeth, and brain. 
 
 7. Chlorine ^ 
 
 8. Fluorine 
 
 MIST - the teeth and hone, 
 
 11. Calcium 
 
 12. Magnesium J 
 
 13. Manganese ) f d . ^ hair> 
 
 14. Silicum j 
 
 15. Iron . . in the blood, pigmentum nigrum. 
 
 niBromL.} in some marine animals.] 
 
 The four elementary substances above mentioned combine 
 in various ways and in different proportions ; they give rise to 
 a liquid element and to certain solid elements, which form the 
 foundation of the general structure of animals, or of their 
 organization. The liquid element is the blood; the solid 
 elements are the tissues. 
 
 The blood, or nutrient fluid, is a liquid of a more or less 
 intense red, sometimes of rose, lilac, yellow, blueish, or even 
 
 1 Elements of Physiology, by J. Miiller, M.D. Trans, by W. Baly, M.D. 
 2nd edit. vol. i. p. 2. London, 1840. 
 
ORGANIZATION OP ANIMALS. 39 
 
 green colour, at other times it is almost colourless [as in most 
 of the inverteb rated animals]. Examined beneath the micro- 
 scope it is seen to consist of two portions, a yellowish trans- 
 parent liquid, the serum, and of solid corpuscles, of a more or 
 less regular form, the globules. These globules are extremely 
 small. They are of a circular form in nearly all the Mammalia, 
 oval in the Reptilia, and always flattened. Their surface is 
 smooth, rarely granulated (framboisee). They contain a central 
 spot, surrounded by a kind of dark border. In the higher 
 animals the globules are composed of a nucleus (noyeau), and 
 an envelope. The latter is much the largest, and generally 
 forms a more or less attenuated border around the nucleus. 
 In the lower animals, particularly those with colourless blood, 
 these two parts cannot be distinguished. 
 
 [The exceptions to the circular form of the blood corpuscles 
 of the mammalia occur in the Camel and the Llama ; in these 
 animals the globules are elliptical like those of birds and the 
 cold-blooded Vertebrata. This peculiarity of the Camelidae was 
 first pointed out by Handle. There is a considerable difference 
 in the size of the blood globules in the different Mammalia, a 
 fact which should be borne in mind in reference to the opera- 
 tion of transfusion. According to Mr. Grulliver l the average 
 diameter of those of man is the -3-3^ of an inch, that of the 
 Elephant as much as -JTTT ^ an i ncn > while in those of the 
 Napu musk deer it is not more than T?TITT an( ^ sometimes as 
 small as j^^o of an inch. Miiller says the diameter of the 
 red globules in Man varies between the ^ 1 3- to -3 ff Vr of an inch. 
 In others of the Mammalia the diameter of the blood globules 
 ranges between the extreme dimensions which are given above. 
 There is, however, no absolute relation between the size of the 
 animal and that of his blood globules ; thus they are nearly the 
 same in the Horse as in the Bat ; while in the Sloth they are 
 larger than those of the Ox. Mr. Grulliver has pointed out that 
 in investigations of this kind it is necessary to compare together 
 those animals which most resemble each other in their organi- 
 zation, and which consequently belong to the same natural 
 family. By proceeding in this manner, he believes he has 
 been enabled to detect a certain relation between the size of 
 the individual and that of the blood corpuscles. Thus, in the 
 class Mammalia, the Elephant and the Whale possess the 
 largest globules; whilst the Chevrotain, the most diminutive 
 of the Huminants, has the smallest. 
 
 1 See Gerber's Anatomy by Gulliver. Appendix, p. 5 et sequent. 
 
40 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The following is the description which Kolliker has given 
 of the human blood globule in his Manual of Microscopic 
 Anatomy. 1 
 
 The red globules, when examined individually, present the 
 following structure : Their form is mostly that of a biconcave 
 or flat circular disc, with rounded margins, and they accord- 
 ingly appear to the observer to vary in shape, according as 
 their surfaces or their sides are directed towards him. In the 
 former case they are pale yellow, circular corpuscles, which 
 almost always have a slight central depression, and this some- 
 times has the aspect of a clear central spot, sometimes of a 
 dark central body, according as the corptiscle is in or out of 
 the focus of the microscope ; the appearance in the latter case 
 is apt to be confounded with that of a nucleus. When seen 
 from the side, however, the blood corpuscles show themselves 
 as dark red-shaped structures, of the form of an elongated 
 narrow ellipse, or like a biscuit seen edgewise. With regard to 
 their intimate structure, every blood globule consists of a very- 
 delicate yet tolerably firm and elastic colourless cell membrane, 
 composed chemically of a protein substance nearly allied to 
 fibrine ; contained in this envelope is a viscid coloured sub- 
 stance, which in the separate blood globules appears yellow, 
 and is composed principally of globuline and hcematine. In 
 the adult, the contents of the blood globule present no trace 
 of morphological particles of granules, or of a cell nucleus ; 
 they are accordingly true vesicles, and on that account, as well 
 as from their shape not being globular, the name of " blood 
 cells " is to be preferred. The elasticity, softness, and pliability 
 of their envelope are so considerable, that they ere enabled to 
 accommodate themselves to vessels which are narrower than 
 their own diameter, and for the same reason, when they are 
 elongated, flattened, or otherwise altered in form by pressure 
 under the microscope, they are able to resume their previous 
 shape. The blood globules are rendered the more capable of 
 adapting themselves to the vessels, by the fact that their 
 surface is quite smooth and slippery, so that they easily glide 
 along the similarly constructed walls of even the narrowest 
 capillaries. 
 
 In examining the blood corpuscles the nature of the fluid 
 in which they are immersed must be borne in mind. If placed 
 in water, the specific gravity of which is less than that of the 
 
 1 Manual of Microscopic Anatomy, by A. Kolliker. London, I860, 
 p. 518-19. 
 
ORGANIZATION OF ANIMALS. 41 
 
 serum of the blood, they become biconvex in consequence of 
 the water passing into the envelope by endosmose. If, on the 
 other hand, the fluid should be denser than the serum, as in 
 the case of a strong saline or saccharine solution, the corpus- 
 cles part with a portion of their contained fluid by exosmosis, 
 they put on a shrivelled aspect, and become granulated on their 
 surface ; this shrivelled appearance may again be got rid of by 
 diluting the menstruum and reducing its specific gravity to 
 the lowest point. 1 ] 
 
 The organic tissues are three in number : 1st, cellular tissue ; 
 2nd, muscular tissue ; and 3rd, nervous tissue. 
 
 Cellular or areolar tissue is composed of numerous Camellse, 
 which by their interlacement intercept a number of open spaces 
 termed cells. The whole of this tissue has been compared to a 
 sponge having the form of the entire body, and in which the 
 other parts of the animal are placed. When this cellular tissue 
 becomes condensed it forms layers of greater or less extent 
 (membranes), or tubes more or less ramified (vessels), or fila- 
 ments of greater or less thickness (fibres) . 
 
 Muscular tissue is composed of bundles of fibres, striated or 
 smooth, sometimes dotted, which have the property of con- 
 tracting with more or less force. 
 
 Nervous tissue, sometimes called medullary matter, may be 
 compared to a soft pultaceous mass, in which may be distin- 
 guished a number of microscopic fibres and vesicles of various 
 forms 2 containing a fatty substance (medullary nervous 
 matter), which readily changes into globules. 
 
 Some writers admit other organic tissues as distinct from 
 cellular ; such, for example, as the fatty, glandular, and the 
 elastic tissues. 
 
 The fat fy or adipose tissue consists of vesicles having ex- 
 tremely delicate, colourless walls, filled with an oily fluid, 
 which is generally of a yellow colour. This fluid solidifies 
 after death in consequence of the diminished temperature. 
 
 Glandular tissue presents an infinity of minute delicate 
 ramified tubes, which by their interlacing constitute a paren- 
 chyma of a peculiar nature. All these tubes unite into a 
 common duct. 
 
 El<ixti<- tissue is composed of homogeneous fibres, not striated 
 nor dotted, but ramifying and anastomozing together. These 
 fibres form ligamentous fascia3 remarkable for their physical 
 elasticity, but which have no power of spontaneous contraction, 
 
 1 See Todd and Bowman's Physiological AnaUmy, vol. ii. p. 298, 
 8 Stellated, fusiform, and ovoid. (Jacubowitsch.) 
 
42 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 These tissues blend together, interlace, and combine for the 
 purpose of forming the various organs. The organs are of 
 three kinds : some serve to nourish the individual ; others 
 bestow upon him the power of perpetuating his species ; 
 while a third bring him in relation with the external world. 
 These are respectively named, the organs of nutrition, the 
 organs of reproduction, and the organs of relation. The func- 
 tions which are accomplished by the first two are common to 
 animals and vegetables, and are termed the vegetative or organic 
 function ; those which are fulfilled by the third are named the 
 animal functions. 
 
 I. Organs and Functions of Nutrition. 
 
 Nearly every animal possesses an internal cavity for the 
 reception and digestion of its food. In the simplest species, 
 this receptacle is the essential and almost only organ with 
 which they are provided, while in the most perfect it is 
 merely an accessory apparatus. Nevertheless, it becomes 
 more and complicated in proportion to the perfection of the 
 entire organism of which, properly speaking, it forms the 
 foundation. 
 
 Food consists of liquids and solids. 
 
 The first are taken into the mouth and comminuted by 
 means of ihejaws ; these are sometimes two in number, placed 
 one over the other, and act vertically ; at other times there are 
 as many as four [insects] ; these have a lateral position, and 
 act horizontally. The jaws, which have a vertical position, are 
 generally osseous ; they are covered by a pair of lips, and fur- 
 nished at their margins with hard ossicles or teeth ; these are 
 divided into incisors, canines, and molars. At other times, 
 a layer of corneous matter takes the place of the lips, the 
 jaws project, and become converted into mandibles, and the 
 whole forms a beak. The lateral jaws are calcareous or cor- 
 neous. The two superior are also termed mandibles ; and the 
 two inferior jaws properly so called, or maxillce. In the crus- 
 tacea, the latter are accompanied by auxiliary jaws, termed 
 foot jaws. The inner margin of these organs is frequently ser- 
 rated or provided with teeth, or at other times with a small 
 moveable hook, or pointed claw. 
 
 Liquids are drawn up by means of a beak or rostrum, a 
 sucker, or & proboscis. 
 
 After the food has been taken into the mouth, it passes ta 
 the fauces or pharynx, and from thence it is conveyed into the 
 digestive cavity. This cavity varies greatly in its form and in 
 
ORGANIZATION OF ANIMALS. 43 
 
 its capacity. In the simplest animals, it is a sac with a single 
 opening, which serves both for the reception of the food, and 
 for the discharge of the indigestible materials. Subsequently, 
 the sac becomes elongated into a muscular membranous canal, 
 provided with two openings, a mouth, and and an anus, each 
 of which fulfils a separate function. This canal dilates at a cer- 
 tain part and forms a stomach. This dilitation divides the 
 digestive canal into three parts ; viz., that which precedes the 
 stomach, the stomach itself, and the part which comes after 
 it. The anterior portion forms the oesophagus, and the pos- 
 terior the intestine. The opening of the oesophagus into the, 
 stomach is termed the cardia, that of the stomach into the in- 
 testine the pylorus. These openings may be brought close to 
 each other, or placed some distance apart. 
 
 In general, the oesophagus is not very long. This is espe- 
 cially the case in those animals which have little or no neck. 
 In the ostrich, the oesophagus is remarkable for its length, while 
 in the oyster it does not exist. In some birds, this portion of 
 the canal dilates towards its lower part into a crop, and into a 
 second gastric cavity or glandular stomach, the ventriculu* sue- 
 centuriatus. 
 
 The stomach is a regular or irregular cavity, with very thin 
 or with very thick walls. It has, usually, the form of a glo- 
 bular or oval sac, or resembles that of the common bag-pipe. 
 There may be observed one or two culs-de-sac ; when there are 
 two, one is often large and the other small. The stomach may 
 be simple or compound. If we regard the dictations of the 
 oesophagus in the granivorous birds as gastric cavities, these 
 animals will then have three stomachs the crop, the glandular 
 stomach, and the gizzard. In the Ox, and in all the ruminating 
 animals, there are four stomachs the ingluvies or paunch, the 
 reticulum or honey-comb stomach, the omasum or many-plies, 
 and the abomasum or reed. The common Dolphin (Delphinus 
 Delphi) has also four stomachs placed in succession. The 
 in riff dual leech has eleven pairs of stomachs, of which the last 
 are very large, and were for a long time mistaken for a pair of 
 enormously developed csecums. 
 
 The intestine is the longest portion of the alimentary canal ; 
 it forms numerous folds or reduplications, named its convo- 
 lution*. This arrangement allows the canal to acquire con- 
 siderable dimensions. It is generally longer in the herbivorous 
 animals than in the carnivorous. In the first it is occasionally 
 as much as thirty times the length of the animal's body, while 
 in the latter it is often reduced to the same length. In some 
 
44 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 of the lower animals it is even shorter than the body. In those 
 species in which the nature of the food is changed, in passing 
 from the larval to the perfect state (Frog), the length of the 
 intestinal canal changes with the period of life ; the tube is 
 long while the creature is herbivorous, and is shortened when 
 it becomes carnivorous. The intestine is divided into the 
 small intestine or anticcecal, and into the large intestine or 
 postccecal. These two divisions are separated by the ileo-cacal 
 valve or valve of Bauhin. The first is divided into the duo- 
 denum, jejunum, and ileum; and the second into the ccecum, 
 colon, and rectum. 
 
 The food is permeated by certain fluids which serve to dis- 
 solve and adapt it for digestion ; these fluids are furnished by 
 four kinds of secreting organs which are true appendages of 
 the digestive canal ; these are the salivary glands, the liver, the 
 pancreas, and the gastric glands, which secrete the gastric juice, 
 
 The salivary glands are placed in the neighbourhood of the 
 mouth or of the oesophagus. They are usually two in number 
 and are more developed in the terrestrial than in the aquatic 
 animals. 
 
 The liver is a large gland situated at the commencement of 
 the intestine or near the stomach ; it sometimes surrounds the 
 latter. In the leeches it is reduced to a network or thin layer 
 of a brownish or blackish matter. The fluid secreted by the 
 liver has received the name of bile ; it is discharged into the 
 intestine or into the stomach. It is sometimes retained in a 
 special reservoir, the gall bladder. 
 
 The pancreas is another gland, smaller than the liver, and 
 very variable in its form ; its secretion enters the duodenum, 
 and its duct occasionally unites with that of the bile. 
 
 The gastric glands consist of minute tubuli situated in the 
 thickness of the digestive mucous membrane ; one end termi- 
 nates in a blind extremity, while the other opens on the inner 
 surface of the stomach, into which the tubuli discharge an acid 
 secretion, which acts principally on the animal portions of the 
 food. 
 
 Besides the glands now spoken of, there are others which 
 eliminate certain excrementitious fluids from the blood; amongst 
 the latter are the Jcidneys, which secrete the urine. 
 
 The alimentary matter, thus altered and transformed, become 
 separated into two portions the chyle and the excrement ; the 
 former is absorbed by the walls of the digestive cavity, while 
 the latter is discharged by the anus. The chyle is a white 
 opaque fluid, which becomes absorbed or conveyed by the 
 
OBGANIZATION OF ANIMALS. 45 
 
 venae lactea to the different organs, where it is mixed with the 
 blood with which the latter are supplied. Similar canals, 
 termed lymphatics, convey to the blood the residue of the 
 nutritive particles and the products of cutaneous absorption. 
 
 The blood is everywhere present in the substance of the 
 organs. In a great number of animals it is, moreover, con- 
 tained in a system of ramifying tubes or vessels : these tubes 
 being of two kinds the one conveys the nutrient fluid to the 
 different parts of the body, and is named arteries ; the other 
 converges to the centre, or towards the centre of the animal, and 
 is called veins. 
 
 The movement of the nutritive fluid is sometimes irregular, 
 and at other times regular and circular. In the latter case it 
 is spoken of as the circulation. The current of the circulation 
 may be simple or double, or even triple. In the sanguisuga it is 
 in a manner multiple ; for independently of the general circu- 
 lation,, these animals present partial circulations between every 
 five rings. 
 
 The circulation of the nutrient fluid is frequently assisted by 
 one or several special motor organs termed hearts. These 
 origins are more or less muscular, sometimes placed in the 
 middle of the body, at other times at each of the centres of 
 impulsion. Generally speaking there is only a single heart 
 provided with one, two, three, or four cavities. The cavities 
 which receive the blood are termed auricles, and those which 
 propel it ventricles. The latter are always thicker, stronger, 
 and more robust than the former. 
 
 In order that the blood may be capable of nourishing the 
 body, it requires to undergo a particular modification from 
 contact with the atmosphere. Hence a function arises which 
 may be regarded as an act of nutrition by means of gaseous 
 food (the complement of the nutrition, by solid and liquid 
 aliments), and which has received the name of respiration. 
 When the animal lives surrounded by the air, the respiratory 
 organ is hollow, and is termed a lung ; when the animal resides in 
 the water, it projects from the rest of the body and constitutes 
 a branchia. In the most perfect species, the lung appears to be 
 parenchymatous, but in reality it consists of an immense 
 number of microscopic cells. In the snails this organ assumes 
 the form of a large sac, which is covered on its inner and upper 
 surface by a network of vessels. This sac may be considered 
 as one of the constituent cells of the parenchymatous lung 
 enormously developed. In insects there are neither lungs nor 
 branchiae, but a series of elastic tubes called trachea, which 
 
46 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 convey the air to every part of the body. The openings of the 
 tracheae are placed along the sides of the body, and have 
 received the name of stigmata. In the animals which are pro- 
 vided with lungs, or with branchiae, the blood is conveyed to 
 the air, while in those which have tracheae the air is carried to 
 the blood. The most perfect species, although they are 
 provided with a special.organ of respiration, at the same time 
 absorb the air by the cutaneous surface of their bodies. The 
 animals which are most simply organized breath exclusively by 
 means of the skin. 
 
 When the blood is perfectly formed it diffuses itself through 
 the cells, or by the ramification and sub-division of the 
 vessels, into the tissues of the organs, and then becomes con- 
 verted into the various structures which enter into their for- 
 mation. Several of the most important organs in the animal 
 economy appear to be provided for the production of special 
 secretions, all of which concur in the act of assimilation. 
 
 II. Organs and Functions of Reproduction. 
 
 Reproduction is one of the most important functions of 
 nature, for life is only given for the purpose of bestowing life. 1 
 It is by reproduction that species are preserved, that races are 
 propagated, and that the general balance of life is maintained. 
 There are animals which seem formed solely for the fulfil- 
 ment of this function; they are born, they reproduce, and 
 die. 
 
 Reproduction may be accomplished in several different ways. 
 
 In the species which are most simply organized, the animal 
 sometimes divides into several portions, each of which forms a 
 new individual ; this is termed jissiparous reproduction ; at other 
 times the creature gives off from certain parts of its body buds 
 or gemmae^ which at a fixed period become detached and give 
 rise to young animals ; this is gemmiparous reproduction. The 
 latter is said to be external or internal, according as it takes 
 place on the exterior of the body, or in a particular cavity 
 within which the buds are formed. The animals which arise 
 from the Jissiparous and gemmiparous modes of reproduction 
 are termed by some writers agamic generations. 
 
 In the higher animals the act of reproduction is accomplished 
 by means of special organs ; this is generative reproduction or 
 generation. These organs are termed sexual, and consist of 
 
 7 Omne vivum ex vivo* 
 
OEGANIZATION OF ANIMALS. 47 
 
 the female organ, which furnishes the rudiments of the new 
 individual (the germ), and of the male organ, which produces 
 the fecundating liquor (seminal fluid) which vivifies the 
 former and determines its development. 
 
 The female apparatus is essentially composed of the organ 
 which produces the germ, the ovary, *and of a canal which con- 
 ^ evs them to without, and which has received the nameof oviduct. 
 
 The male apparatus is always provided with a gland which 
 secretes the seminal fluid, the testicle, and of the excretory 
 canal of the gland, called ejaculatory duct. 
 
 In some of these animals the sexes are united in the same 
 individual : these are named unisexual or androgynous. In this 
 case either one individual may be sufficient of itself (Oyster) 
 for reproduction, or it may require the union of two individuals. 
 "When two androgynous individuals unite for the purpose of 
 reproduction, sometimes the two organs fulfil their functions 
 at the same time, and each individual fecundates the other 
 and is itself impregnated; such is the case with the Snail 
 (Limajc). At other times, the association of several, or 
 :it least three, individuals is required, the central animal per- 
 forming the office of the male to the one in front of him, and 
 that of the female to one behind him, as in the case of the 
 Wafer snail (Li/ntneus). More rarely the two portions 
 of the double sexual organs do not act at the same time; 
 each individual, notwithstanding its bisexual nature, only ful- 
 filling one office ; but having performed for example the office 
 of male, at a later period it acts as a female either with the 
 same individual, or with another (Ancylus). 
 
 In a great number of animals the sexes are separated and 
 plaeed on distinct individuals : these are said to be unisexual. 
 
 The males externally resemble the females, or differ from them 
 more or less distinctly. In a small number of cases the two 
 sexes would be taken to belong to different groups of animals. 
 The unisexual character necessitates the conjunction of two 
 individuals in the generative act ; nevertheless these animals 
 present two modes of union, which are very distinct from each 
 other: in the one the fecundating fluid of the male is not 
 applied to the germ until it has passed out of the body of the 
 female (Carp), or at the moment of its discharge (Toad) ; in 
 the other its application takes place in the body of the mother 
 (Beaver). Sexual generation may therefore occur without 
 connection of the sexes, or this connection may be very slight 
 and accompanied by simple contact, or it may be accompanied 
 with love, and followed by true intromission (copulation). 
 
48 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Animals, which have a complicated sexual apparatus, besides 
 the parts already mentioned, present others which are charged 
 with important functions. The females are provided with a 
 uterus or womb, in which the germ resides for a longer or shorter 
 time before its birth ; tubes, or excretory canals, which receive 
 the germs from the ovaries, and conduct them to the uterus ; 
 and a vagina or sheath, for the reception of the excitory organ 
 of the male. The orifice of the vagina is termed the vulva. 
 The males have vcsiculce seminales or reservoirs, in which the 
 seminal fluid is accumulated ; canals, or vasa differentia, which 
 convey this fluid from the testicles to the reservoirs ; and a verge 
 or penis, for its introduction into the apparatus of the female. 
 The extremity of the male organs is named the glans penis. 
 
 In some few of the lower animals, the female can produce 
 young without contact with the male. This form of repro- 
 duction constitutes parthenogenesis, and occurs in the Aplddes 
 or plant lice. Under certain circumstances the eggs, which 
 thus become fruitful without the co-operation of the opposite 
 sex, produce only males ; this is termed arrenotokia, and takes 
 place in the honeybee {Apis melliftca). 
 
 In the reproduction of some of the higher animals, the 
 fecundated ovum is deposited by the female ; but it is not 
 until some time afterwards that it gives rise to a new individual ; 
 these animals are oviparous (Birds}. At other times the egg is 
 hatched at the moment of its expulsion, and the young animal 
 issues from the body of its parent with the fragments of its 
 former covering ; such animals are said to be ovoviviparoiis 
 (Viper). Lastly, the fecundated egg is not expelled from the 
 ))ody of the parent, but is retained within the uterus, and there 
 grows, develops itself, and is hatched. This constitutes the " 
 viviparous reproduction of the Mammalia. In reality, all these 
 animals are ovigerous. Their mode of reproduction only differs 
 as regards the locality in which the development of the germ, 
 takes place, and as to the time which it occupies. 
 
 The egg is essentially composed of the germ-vesicle or cica- 
 tricula, and of a protecting envelope ; the latter may be single 
 and consist only of membrane, or it may be double and consist 
 of membrane and shell. In the oviparous and ovoviviparous spe- 
 cies it moreover contains a certain amount of nutritive matter 
 (the vitellus or albumen}. In the viviparous species the germ 
 receives its nourishment direct from the mother. 
 
 When the egg is hatched it gives rise sometimes to an in- 
 dividual which resembles its parent (Birds}, at other times to 
 one which differs essentially from it (Butterflies). This inter- 
 
OBGANIZATIOtf OF ANIMALS. 49 
 
 mediate form between the germ and the perfect animal is 
 called a larva. The larvae are always agamic, yet in some 
 animals they have the power of reproduction, but it is then 
 always gemmiparous or fissiparous. These forms of larva? 
 have received the name of scolex, and the existence of two 
 modes of reproduction in the same species constitutes alternate 
 generation. Some animals pass through two or three inter- 
 mediate forms before arriving at the perfect state. 
 
 III. Organs and Functions of Relation. 
 
 Most animals possess five senses. 
 
 The sense of touch is that which is most frequently present, 
 and is seated in the general integument ; but it also resides in 
 certain special organs where it acquires a higher state of per- 
 fection. These organs are the lips, the barbs, and the tentacles of 
 certain animals, and the tail and feet of others ; but, above all, 
 it is in the hands that the sense of touch becomes most acute. 
 
 Taste is a species of touch of a still more delicate character ; 
 it is placed at the entrance of the alimentary canal, princi- 
 pally in the floor of the mouth, in an organ termed the 
 tom/ue. The tongue is an elongated muscular body endowed 
 with greater or less motive power ; it is covered with papilla? 
 (conical, fong if orm, circumvallatce), spines, hooks, and even with 
 true teeth. In some animals, in which the sense of taste is but 
 slightly developed, the tongue is scarious, cartilaginous, or 
 provided with a corneous investment. 
 
 Smell is the sense for the perception of odours. The ol- 
 factory organ is a single or double cavity provided with a great 
 number of irregularities or anfractuosities, which are invested 
 by a delicate membrane, the pituitary. This membrane com- 
 municates externally through the openings termed anterior 
 nares, nasal openings or nostrils; in certain animals these 
 openings are protected by cartilaginous plates, which form the 
 nose. The nasal fossa? have also posterior openings, which lead 
 'to the cavity of the pharynx ; these are named posterior nares. 
 
 In the snails the organ of smell is divided into two parts, 
 which are placed at the extremities of the larger horns or 
 tentacles. It is composed of an oval or pyriform ganglion, 
 from which the short but extremely ramified nerves spread 
 themselves over a peripheral pituitary membrane. There is no 
 nasal cavity, and consequently no external opening. 
 
 Xiijlit is the faculty which enables animals to perceive ex- 
 It Tiiul objects by means of the rays of light, and to appreciate 
 the colours with which they are clothed. Vision takes place 
 
50 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 through the eyes. The eye is a small but complicated apparatus 
 of a more or less globular form. It is essentially composed of 
 a retina or nervous element, of a choroid or vascular element, 
 and of a sclerotic or fibrous element. The latter becomes 
 transparent in front of the globe of the eye, and forms the 
 cornea. There exists in the eye a perfect dioptric apparatus ; this 
 consists of the aqueous humour, the crystalline humour or lens, 
 and the vitreous humour. There are also some accessory parts, 
 as for example the moveable membranes or eyelids, which pro- 
 tect the apparatus ; they may be naked or provided with certain 
 hairs termed cilia or eyelashes. These membranes are gene- 
 rally two in number, but occasionally (as in birds) there is a 
 third, the tnembrana nictitans. 
 
 The higher animals generally possess two eyes, while some of 
 the lower forms have four, six, eight, or even more. The medi- 
 cinal leech has ten, but they are altogether rudimentary. In 
 insects the eyes are of two kinds ; the one small, simple, and 
 adapted for seeing objects which are near these are termed 
 ocelli stemmata or simple eyes ; the other kind consists of large 
 compound eyes, generally adapted for seeing objects at a 
 distance ; they are composed of a variable number of simple 
 eyes aggregated and united together these are called compound 
 
 Hearing is the sense which takes cognizance of those vibra- 
 tions of external bodies which are transmitted through the 
 surrounding medium, and give rise to sound; the organ through 
 which this is accomplished is the ear. In the lowest animals 
 the ear is reduced to a sack filled with a special fluid, through 
 which the nerve is distributed, and which contains a number of 
 small stone-like masses termed otolithes. This sack may or 
 may not communicate externally. In the higher animals the 
 auditory apparatus becomes more and more complicated. There 
 is observed : 1st, the essential part or vestibule ; 2nd, certain 
 accessory parts which render it more sensitive ; these are the 
 semi-circular canals, the cochlea, and a chain of small bones, con- 
 sisting of the stapes, the os orbiculare, the incus, and the malleus; 
 3rd, the part which collects the vibrations, or the external ear, 
 consisting of the external auditory foramen, and the concha. 
 The concha is sometimes replaced by a circle of feathers or 
 hairs. 
 
 Several of the lower animals have neither nose, eyes, nor ears. 
 
 i 
 
 1 In one of these compound eyes there are sometimes as many as 12 ; 000 
 simple eyes (common dragon fly). 
 
ORGANIZATION OP ANIMALS. 51 
 
 Those species which have no distinct head, or the acepliala, are 
 always ill provided with organs of the senses ; many of them 
 seem only to have that of touch. 
 
 In the very lowest animals the nervous matter would appear 
 to be confounded with the general substance of the body. 
 There is no centre of sensation. In animals whose structure 
 is somewhat more complicated, the nervous matter accumulates 
 at certain points, and produces ganglions or nervous centres. 
 These accumulations are at first small and irregularly dispersed. 
 "When the organization is still further advanced the nervous 
 centres become enlarged, and are brought near to each other ; 
 they then assume an annular arrangement around the neck, or 
 form an enlarged mass in the interior of the head. The 
 ganglions either isolated or united in small groups give rise to 
 a rudimentary nervous system. The annular arrangement 
 around the neck forms an oesophageal ring ; while the accumu- 
 lation of nervous matter in the head constitutes the encephalon. 
 The superior ganglia of the oesophageal ring are named the 
 cerebral ganglia, and the inferior the sub-cesophageal ganglia. 
 This kind of nervous system is termed ganglionic. The ence- 
 phalon is generally composed of the cerebrum or brain, the 
 cerebellum, the pons Varolei or mesencephalon, and of the 
 medulla oblongata, which is itself a continuation of the spinal 
 cord. The whole of this nervous system is termed cerebro- 
 spinal. 
 
 The impressions which are received through the senses are 
 transmitted by the nerves to the central masses of the nervous 
 system. When the animal perceives a sensation it frequently 
 gives rise to an act of volition, which is also communicated by 
 the nerves, either to the organs of the senses, or to those of 
 motion. 
 
 The organs of motion are the limbs. These are made up of 
 two portions ; the one active, the muscles ; the other passive, 
 the bones, or certain hard parts which supply their place. 
 
 The muscles are soft, of various shades of red, or of a greyish 
 colour, and in some cases quite transparent ; they are formed 
 of irritable contractile fibres, having various degrees of con- 
 sistency, and arranged parallel to each other. Some are 
 destined to bend or shorten the parts (Jlexors); others to ooen 
 or elongate them (extensors). There are also muscles which 
 are not under the control of the will ; these are frequently 
 termed internal in contradistinction to the others, which are 
 always situated, more or less, towards the surface of the body. 
 
 [The muscles are usually divided into the voluntary and the 
 
 E 2 
 
52 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 involuntary. The first, called also the muscles of animal life, 
 include those of locomotion, respiration, and those of the face ; 
 these are under the control of the will. The second, which 
 comprise the muscles of the heart, the intestinal canal, and 
 some others, are not subject to the influence of the will. The 
 ultimate fibres of these two sets of muscles differ in their ana- 
 tomical structure. 
 
 The fibres of the voluntary muscles are marked by parallel 
 transverse lines or striae, and are known as striated muscular 
 fibre. The fibres of the involuntary muscles, with some ex- 
 ceptions, are smooth and marked at intervals with oblong 
 corpuscles or nuclei'; the latter are best seen after the appli- 
 cation of acetic acid. The principle exception to this character 
 occurs in the muscles of the heart. The fibres of this organ 
 resemble those of the voluntary muscles in having striae, but 
 they are less strongly marked, and are less regular, and the 
 fibres themselves are smaller in diameter than in the voluntary 
 muscles.] 
 
 The bones are hard, dry, and white. They are divided into 
 the long, short, and flat bones ; it is more particularly the first 
 which are met with in the limbs. The whole forms the skeleton 
 or solid framework of the animal. There are many species 
 which have no internal skeleton; but the skin becomes im- 
 pregnated with calcareous matter (Crawfish), or is converted 
 into a kind of corneous material {Beetles), which takes the 
 place of the osseous framework, and forms a kind of dermal 
 skeleton. In other animals, the skin is provided with special 
 folds (mantle), which are more or less developed, and secrete 
 calcareous plates of various forms to which the muscles are 
 attached, and which either partially or completely protect the 
 usually extremely soft structures of the body; these plates 
 are termed shells. The shell consists of a single piece in the 
 univalves, as in the Snails, and of two pieces in the bivalves., as 
 in the Oyster. 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 
 
 I. ANCIENT. The ancients divided animals into those with 
 blood, and into those without. They considered only those 
 species were provided with this fluid, whose blood was of a red 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 53 
 
 colour, such as that of Birds and Fishes, believing that it did 
 not exist in those in which it was very pale or altogether 
 colourless, as in Insects and many Molluscs. These latter 
 animals were named by them exsanguineous. 
 
 [This was the classification of Aristotle, who divided animals 
 into the enaima and into the anaima, literally into those with 
 blood and into those without blood. It is not, however, cor- 
 rect to say that the Father of natural history disbelieved in 
 the existence of a blood, or at least of a nutrient fluid analogous 
 to it, in the lower animals, since he distinctly says : " Every 
 animal possesses a vital fluid, the loss of which occasions its 
 death ;" but, as the colour of this fluid in the higher classes is 
 always red, for the purpose of distinctive description, he assumed 
 the colour as an essential quality, and named the two series as 
 above.] 
 
 The first classifications were extremely arbitrary systems ; the 
 characters upon which they were established were sometimes 
 taken from the nature of the food, sometimes from the limbs, 
 and at other times from the integuments. If the classifications 
 which were subsequently proposed were occasionally more 
 happy in their arrangements, these improvements were rather 
 the result of a kind of instinct, or of repeated attempts, than 
 of careful observation and reflection. 
 
 II. LINN^US. Linnaeus was the first to establish a rational 
 classification of the animal kingdom. 1 This great naturalist 
 arranged the various animals into six classes: Mammalia, 
 Birds, Amphibia, Fishes, Insects, and Worms. 
 
 Mammals (Mammalia) are animals whose bodies are provided 
 with a covering of hair ; they have two jaws, an upper and an 
 under, generally furnished with teeth, and covered by a pair of 
 lips ; the respiration is pulmonary ; the heart is quadrilocular ; 
 they have almost always four limbs, provided with hands or 
 feet ; they are viviparous. 
 
 To this division belong the Apes, Bats, Bears, the Beaver, 
 Musk Deer, Wild Boar, Whale, fyc. 
 
 1 This expression is unjust towards the memory of our illustrious 
 countryman Ray. Although his actual classification has been superseded 
 by others, yet Cuvier, in his " Histoire des Sciences Naturelles," vol. ii. 
 p. 454, after describing Ray's arrangement of the mammalia, says, " In 
 this classification we meet with the germs of all those which have been 
 made since. Linnaeus, especially, has taken nearly all his characters from 
 those which Ray had pointed out .... We are indebted to Ray as the 
 pioneer and model of all the classificators who have succeeded him, so 
 greatly was he endowed with the spirit of method." (Trans.) 
 
5-i MEDICAL ZOpLOQY. 
 
 Birds (Aves} are animals whose body is covered with feathers ; 
 they have two jaws, one superior, one inferior, without teeth or 
 lips ; they are converted into mandibles, and form the beak ; 
 the respiration is pulmonary ; the heart quadrilocular ; they 
 have always four limbs, two wings and two feet; they are 
 oviparous. 
 
 To this division belong the Vultures, Woodpeckers, Ducks, 
 JLerons, Pheasants, Thrushes, &c. 
 
 Amphibia (Amphibia) are animals whose body is generally 
 covered with scales ; they have two jaws, one superior, one in- 
 ferior, sometimes furnished with imperfectly developed teeth, 
 with or without lips ; their respiration is pulmonary, rarely 
 branchial ; their heart trilocular or bilocular ; they have some- 
 times four limbs, very rarely only two, and occasionally none ; 
 they are almost always oviparous. 
 
 To this division belong the Tortoises, Lizards, Frogs, Vipers, 
 Snakes, Sturgeons, &c. 
 
 Fishes (Pisces) are animals whose bodies are covered with 
 scales ; they have two jaws, one superior, one inferior, some- 
 times provided with teeth and covered by lips ; their respiration 
 is branchial; their heart is bilocular; they have generally 
 four true limbs (fins placed in pairs], and in addition to these 
 accessory limbs (single fins} ; they are almost always ovi- 
 parous. 
 
 To this division belong the ~Eel, Cod, Sole, Tunny, Salmon, 
 Carp, &c. 
 
 Insects (Insecta) are animals whose body is covered with a 
 coriaceous or calcined skin; they have four jaws placed 
 laterally ; their respiration is tracheal ; their heart unilocular ; 
 they have generally six limbs (always feet and sometimes two 
 or four wings}, rarely more ; they are provided with antennce ; 
 they are oviparous. 
 
 To this division belong the Cantharides beetle, Flies, Fleas, 
 Tarantula, Scorpion, and Crayfish. 
 
 Worms (Vermes) are animals whose body is covered with a 
 soft skin, sometimes provided with a shell ; the jaws vary in 
 their number and arrangement, and are sometimes wanting ; 
 the respiration is accomplished with or without a special 
 organ : the heart is unilocular or wanting ; the limbs are 
 rudimentary or absent ; they are provided with tentacles ; 
 they are oviparous or reproduce without a true generative 
 act. 
 
 To this division belong Leeches, Snails, Slugs, the Oyster, 
 Madrepores, and Corals. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 55 
 
 The following table contains a synopsis of the principal 
 characters of these six classes : 
 
 f CJaws 1. MAMMALS. 
 
 ( , j >u I Mandibles 2. BIRDS. 
 
 \ ( lii S Lungs 3. AMPHIBIA. 
 
 B , A 1 COJ "j Branchiae 4. FISHES. 
 
 / , ., 5 Antennas 5. INSECTS. 
 
 2 Tentacles 6. WORMS. 
 
 The classification of Linnaeus is extremely important, in 
 consequence of its scientific character, its simplicity, and its 
 convenience. It affords an excellent summary of all that was 
 known at the time of its appearance, and has served as the 
 starting-point for the various classifications which have been 
 proposed since the period of this illustrious naturalist. 
 
 It is, however, very evident that the first four classes of this 
 classification are much more closely allied to each other than 
 the fourth is to the fifth, or the fifth to the sixth. The last is 
 moreover composed of very heterogeneous elements. It con- 
 tains, for example, the Leeches and the Earth Worms, which are 
 far more intimately allied to Insects ; and the organization of 
 the Cuttle Jishes and the Slugs is much more complicated than 
 that of the Worms, properly so called, and is more allied to 
 that of Fishes than of Corals. 
 
 III. LAMARCK. Lamarck, taking as his basis the presence 
 or absence of the skeleton and the structure of the nervous 
 system, divided animals into those without vertebrae or the 
 Invertebrata, and into those with vertebrae or the Vertebrata. 1 
 The first he subdivided into the apathetic, which included part 
 of the Vermes of Linnaeus, and into the sensitive, which included 
 the remainder of the Vermes and the Insecta of the same author. 
 The vertebrata he termed intelligent animals, which corresponds 
 to the first four classes of Linnaeus. 
 
 Lamarck commenced with the simplest animals, and gradually 
 proceeded to those which were more elevated in the scale of 
 organization ; thus following an inverse order to that of his 
 predecessor. 
 
 [The taking these supposed endowments of the animals as the 
 ground of classification was quite inadmissible, and hence the 
 groups of Apathetic, Sensitive, and Intelligent animals have 
 never been adopted. The grouping together of the first four 
 
 1 Aristotle had termed these animals animals provided with blood. 
 [Lamarck's division of the animal kingdom into the Vertebrata and into 
 the Invertebrata, corresponds to Aristotle's Enaima and Anaima.] 
 
56 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 classes of Linnaeus, under the title of the Vertebrata, has 
 remained a permanent acquisition to science.] 
 
 IV. CUVIEE. Profiting by the observations of his prede- 
 cessors and his own researches into the organization of the 
 animal kingdom, Gr. Cuvier revised, corrected, and perfected 
 the classification of Linnaeus. Like Lamarck, he recognised the 
 resemblanc'e which existed between the first four groups, and 
 united them under the name of Vertebrata, giving to this 
 assemblage the title of branch. From the Vermes he separated 
 such animals as the cuttle-fish, the snail, and the oyster, to 
 form a second branch, which he termed Mollusca. Amongst 
 the worms he discovered a small group with red blood (leeches 
 and earthworms ; these he associated with the insects, and 
 formed of them a third branch, the Articulata. The majority 
 of the remaining Vermes having the parts of their bodies 
 arranged like rays around a common centre, he named them 
 Radiata. 
 
 In Cuvier's classification there are, therefore, four principal 
 branches the Vertebrata, the Mollusca, the Articulata, and the 
 Radiata. The first group includes the Monkeys, the Dog, the 
 Beaver, the Whale, the Birds, the Tortoises, the Frogs, and the 
 Fish. The second contains the Poulps, Cuttlefish, Calamary, 
 Snails, Slugs, Oysters, and Mussels. In the third are the 
 Leeches, Earth-worm, Crayfish, Crabs, Spiders, Cantharides, and 
 Bee. Lastly, in the fourth are the Star-fish, Tape-worm, 
 Thread-worm, Corals, and Sponges. 
 
 The following are the characters of each of these branches : 
 
 1. Vertebrata. Animals symmetrical, consisting of two 
 similar halves. Body supported by an internal skeleton, com- 
 posed of a number of separate pieces placed one over the other 
 (vertebra), forming a spinal column and canal, terminating 
 anteriorly in the head and posteriorly in a coccyx or tail. 
 
 Digestive canal complete ; jaws two in number, one either 
 before or above the other. A special organ of respiration 
 frequently double ; lungs or branchiae. Heart thick, muscular, 
 frequently with four cavities, never less than two ; blood red, 
 Avarm or cold. Nervous system cerebro-spinal ; five senses. 
 Limbs usually four, never more. exes separate. 
 
 2. Mollusca. Animals seldom,symmetrical ; that is, they are 
 composed of unequal portions. Body soft and without any 
 internal skeleton, but covered with a cutaneous envelope pro- 
 vided with a particular fold (mantle), and often containing 
 calcareous masses called shells. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 57 
 
 Digestive canal complete ; jaws one, two, or three in number, 
 horny, sometimes rudimentary, and at other times wanting. 
 A special respiratory organ sometimes pulmonic, sometimes 
 branchial. Heart with two or three cavities ; blood colourless 
 or of a bluish cast, always cold. Nervous system ganglionic, 
 rarely symmetrical, and with no abdominal chain ; organs of the 
 senses only slightly developed. Limbs imperfect or absent, 
 often consisting 01 a large fleshy disc, at other times of a 
 byssus, but never of wings. Sexes separate, or united in the 
 same individual ; in the latter case two animals mutually im- 
 pregnate each other, or one animal may suffice of itself. 
 
 3. Articulata. Animals symmetrical ; that is, composed of 
 two similar halves ; marked by a series of transverse constric- 
 tions, which divide them into a number of segments, giving them 
 the appearance of being formed of a series of rings. Body with 
 no internal skeleton, but covered with a hard integument 
 (dermal skeleton), which is either calcareous or corneous. 
 
 Digestive canal complete ; jaws often four in number, always 
 lateral. Heart replaced by a dorsal vessel, blood generally 
 colourless, sometimes pinkish, cold. Respiratory organ mostly 
 consisting of tracheae. Nervous system ganglionic, always 
 symmetrical, with an abdominal chain ; organs of the senses 
 only partially developed. Limbs perfect, with ginglymoid 
 articulations, generally six in number, sometimes two or four 
 wings. Sexes almost always separate. 
 
 4. Radiata. Animals symmetrical, but not formed of two 
 similar halves, generally consisting of parts having a radiated 
 arrangement. Body soft, without either an internal or external 
 skeleton. The animals sometimes live in societies, and secrete 
 a horny or calcareous axis. 
 
 Digestive system extremely simple ; sometimes consisting of 
 a sac with two openings, at other times with only one. No 
 heart. Circulatory system reduced to a few rudimentary 
 vessels, blood colourless and cold. No special organ of respi- 
 ration. No encephalon or oasophageal ring, rarely ganglions, 
 sometimes nerves ; no organs of the senses. Limbs repre- 
 sented by filamentary processes. Sexual organs very imper- 
 fect, often reduced to a simple ovary ; many reproduce by 
 gemmation and fission. 
 
 This classification may be tabulated as follows : 
 
 , . 1. VERTEBRATA. 
 
 f binary I " I no skeleton. . 2. MOLLUSCA. 
 
 Form I Body ] 
 
 (segments 3. ARTICULATA. 
 
 (radiated . 4. RADIATA. 
 
MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 This classification, like that of Linnaeus, proceeds from the 
 complex to the simple ; but it is more even, regular, and natural. 
 If the Mollusca were all formed of two dissimilar halves 
 like the Snails, and if all the Radiata had a strictly radiated 
 disposition, the classification of Cuvier might be symbolized 
 by the four following figures, each of which corresponds to one 
 of his branches : 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 1. VERTEBRATA. 
 
 2. MOLLUSCA. 
 
 3. ABTICTJLATA. 
 
 4. EADIATA. 
 
 PEE SENT STATE. The investigations of modern anatomists 
 and systematists have introduced some slight modifications 
 into the Cuverian distribution ; but these changes refer rather 
 to the orders than to the branches, to the details rather than 
 to the general arrangements. Although the names have been 
 often changed, the principal groups have remained almost 
 or entirely the same. Every one recognises the Vertebrata of 
 Cuvier, or of Lamarck, in the Osteozoaria of De Blainville j 1 
 his Mollusca in Malacozoaria of the same writer ; 2 his Articu- 
 lata in the Entomozoaria ; 3 and his Radiata in the Actinozo- 
 a/ria ; so that it is still the classification of Cuvier which pre- 
 vails. 4 
 
 Nevertheless, this classification is far from perfect. If the 
 
 1 These are the Myeloneura of Ehrenberg, and the Hypocotyledones of 
 Yan Beneden. 
 
 2 M. Van Beneden has united them to the Radiata under the name of 
 Allocotyledones. 
 
 3 There are the Epicotyledones of M. Yan Beneden. 
 
 4 Mr. Milne Edwards has introduced some important changes. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 59 
 
 JlloUusca seem more allied to the Yertebrata in respect to 
 some parts of their organization than the Articulata, the latter 
 certainly resemble them much more with respect to their 
 faculties and their embryology, a fact which both Lamarck 
 and De Blainville were fully conscious of. The division, 
 Itadiata especially, has been the subject of a great number 
 of criticisms. It includes animals which are fixed to the earth 
 after the manner of vegetables and also locomotive animals, 
 animals which have organs of the senses and those that are 
 without them. There is no appearance of radiation in the 
 Thread-worms or in the Flukes ; nevertheless, these animals 
 have been placed in the same division as the Sea Hedge-hogs 
 and the Corals. The Tape-worms and the Bothriocephala have 
 segments placed end to end; why are they not arranged 
 amongst the Articulata ?> 
 
 A circumstance of the utmost importance, but one which 
 has not been sufficiently considered in the classification of 
 animals, is, on the one hand, their state of isolation or associa- 
 tion, and, on the other, the unity of the organisms or their 
 repetition. 
 
 Zoologists have long since shown that certain animals, as 
 the Polyps for example, possess a kind of life very different 
 from that of ordinary animals, inasmuch as, instead of being 
 isolated, numbers of them are grouped together and live in 
 societies. Linnaeus terms them animalia composita. Cuvier, 
 speaking of these associations, says, " The individuals are asso- 
 ciated in large numbers to form compound beings." There 
 are, therefore, isolated or solitary animals, and compound or 
 associated animals. Again, between these two kinds of ani- 
 mals there are others which are intermediate, and which 
 present neither the perfect isolation of the first, nor the multi- 
 plicity of the second. Natura non facit saltus ! Such, for 
 example, is the worm. Philosophical anatomy has taught us 
 that this annelid is composed of segments or articulations 
 placed in a linear arrangement, in each of which the same 
 organs are regularly repeated. It is a series of particular 
 organisms, each of which has a nervous centre, digestive, vas- 
 cular, secreting, and reproductive organs. It may be termed a 
 distinct series of animals, symmetrically and longitudinally 
 arranged, but intimately united and governed by a common 
 life. These special organisms have received the name of 
 Zoonites. (1826.) Various physiological experiments have 
 shown that it is possible, artificially, to render each organ- 
 ism more independent of the whole, and to a certain extent 
 
60 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 to isolate the particular life of the zoonites from that of the 
 common life of the general association. 
 
 Nature even goes further, and in the tape-worm 1 exhibits 
 these zoonites disengaging themselves, and becoming isolated 
 at a certain stage of their existence. The same animal thus 
 furnishes science with a kind of synthesis and analysis. 
 
 Lamarck perfectly understood the difference which sepa- 
 rated a vertebrated animal from an insect when he arranged 
 these animals in two series : the Inarticulata (that is to say, 
 the solitary animals, and the Articulate (that is, the zoonites). 
 But this illustrious naturalist appears to have lost sight of this 
 fundamental idea, when he associated the polype or compound 
 animals with Inarticulated animals. 
 
 I have therefore divided the animal kingdom into three sub- 
 kingdoms: I. The Isolated animals; II. Zoonite animals; 
 III. The Associated animals. I divide the sub-kingdoms into 
 six branches, according to the characters of their nervous 
 systems, which may be cerebro-spinal, ganglionic, rudimentary, 
 or wanting. I have retained, as far as possible, the names 
 generally admitted, especially those of Cuvier and De Blain- 
 ville. 
 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 1st Sub-Kingdom. 2nd Sub-Kingdom. 3rd Sub-Kingdom. 
 ISOLATED. ZOONITES. ASSOCIATED. 
 
 1st. Branch. 
 
 VERTEBRATA 
 
 or 
 
 OSTEOZOARIA. 
 
 (Musk deer. Cod.) 
 2nd Branch. 4th Branch. 
 
 MOLLUSC A ANNELIDA 
 
 or or 
 
 MALACOZOARIA. ENTOMOZOARIA. 
 
 (Cuttlefish. Oyster.) (Blistering beetle. Leech.) 
 
 3rd Branch. 5th Branch. 6th Branch. 
 
 HETEROMORPHA KADIATA ZOOPHYTA 
 
 or or or 
 
 PROTOZOARIA. ACTINOZOARIA. PHYTOZOARIA. 
 
 (Ascidia. Volvox.) (Star-fish. Sea hedgehog.) (Coral. Sponge.) 
 
 1 Linnaeus has said of the Tcenias : " Animalia kcec sunt composite, 
 simplici catena .... latente intra singulum articulum animalculo cum 
 sua fructificatione." He adds elsewhere : " Omnis articidus propria vita 
 gaudet." Vallisneri, Lamarck, and Duvernoy believed in the polyzoic 
 nature of the Tcenias and similar animals. MM. Leuckart, Eschricht, 
 Steenstrup, Van Beneden, and Siebold, have illustrated the multiplicity of 
 their organisms. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 61 
 
 Amongst these branches, those of the Vertebrata and Mol- 
 lusca of Cuvier remain almost without alteration. The Annelida 
 represent the articulata of the great naturalist with the 
 addition of the intestinal worms ; but his fourth group haa 
 been altered and subdivided. Blainville had previously formed 
 it into two sub-kingdoms : the Actinomorpha or the Radiata, 
 properly so called, and the Heteromorpha or Heterozoaria. I 
 have adopted this division ; but I have considered it better 
 to separate the truly associated animals from those which, like 
 the Tcenias and the Star-fishes, already begin to show a state 
 of fusion ; in other words, into the radiated zoonites and into 
 the compound animals composed of distinct individuals. 
 
 A mere inspection of the table shows that a linear arrange- 
 ment of the branches and classes cannot be natural. If we 
 follow the order of the figures placed before each branch, the 
 AniifJiJa are separated too far from the Mollusca, and especially 
 from the Vertebrata. If, on the other hand, a linear arrange- 
 ment is adopted, and the Articulata are placed after the Mol- 
 lusca, and the Radiata after the Heteromorpha, the latter are 
 arranged at too great a distance from the Mollusca, and the 
 Radiata too far from the Annelida. The three groups of ISO- 
 LATED or SINGLE animals (I., II., and III.) form a natural 
 series. We pass in a natural manner from the first to the 
 last through the Mollusca. The animals having a ganglionic 
 nervous system (II. and IV.) are brought together on a 
 horizontal line, and the question of the preeminence of the 
 Mollusca or of the Annelida, decided sometimes in favour of 
 the first (Cuvier), sometimes in favour of the second (Carus), 
 obtains a solution. Blainville arranged these animals below the 
 Vertebrata, giving to each the same rank ; that is, he placed 
 them at an equal distance. My method differs slightly from 
 his, inasmuch as I place the Annelida at a somewhat greater 
 distance. If in some respects the Mollusca are endowed with 
 a less perfect organization and with a lower grade of instinct 
 than the latter, yet on the other hand they are single animals 
 and not zoonites. The animals with a rudimentary nervous 
 system, or in which it is wanting, offer so many points of 
 resemblance that they are arranged in a horizontal series (III., 
 V., and VI.), which is quite as natural as that of the vertical 
 series of the isolated animals. We pass from the Heteromor- 
 pha to the Zoophytes by means of the Radiata or Actinozoaria. 
 
 The following is the number and arrangement of the classes 
 contained in each of the branches : 
 
62 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 1st Sub-Kingdom. ISOLATED. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 I.-VERTEBRATA (Allantoidians. 
 
 or J 
 
 OSTEOZOARIA. j Anallantoi- 
 ( dians. 
 
 TT ,.. C Mollusca 
 
 II. MOLLUSCA \ ^ nna ^, r Ol 
 
 or 
 MALACOZOARIA. 
 
 J properly so 
 
 called. 
 ^Conchifera. 
 
 III. HETEROMORPHA TMalacozoaria. 
 
 or 
 PROTOZOARIA. ^Sarcodaria. 
 
 1. MAMMALIA (Musk deer). 
 
 2. AVES (Common fowl). 
 
 3. REPTILIA (Viper). 
 
 4. BATRACHIA (Frog). 
 
 5. PISCES (Cod). 
 
 6. MYELAIRIA* (Lancelet). 
 
 7. CEPHALOPODA (Cuttlefish). 
 
 8. PTEROPODA (Clio borealis). 
 
 9. GASTEROPODA (Slug). 
 
 10. ACEPHALA (Oyster). 
 
 11. TUNICATA 2 (Ascidia). 
 
 12. INFUSIORIA 3 (Volvox). 
 
 IV. ANNELIDA 
 or 
 
 ENTOMOZOARIA. 
 
 V. EADIATA 
 or 
 
 ACTINIZOARIA. 
 
 2nd Sub-Kingdom. ZOONITES. 
 
 f 1. INSECTA (Cantharides). 
 
 IArticulata ) 2. ARACHNIDA (Scorpion), 
 
 properly so 1 3. CRUSTACEA (Crayfish), 
 
 called. ( 4. ROTIFERA (Wheel aenimulis). 
 
 Vennes. 5. ANNELIDA (Leech). 
 
 ( 6. NAM ATOIDEA (Threadworm). 
 
 Helminthes. < 7. TREMATODA (Fluke). 
 
 ( 8. CESTOIDEA (Tapeworm). 
 
 I . ... 9. ECHINODERMATA (Star-fish). 
 
 3rd Sub-Kingdom. ASSOCIATED. 
 
 VI. ZOOPHYTES 
 
 or 
 PROTOZOARIA. 
 
 1. ASSOCIATED properly so 
 
 called 5 (Botryllus). 
 
 2. BRYOZOA. 
 
 3. POLYPIPERA (Corals). 
 
 4. SPONGIARIA (Sponge). 
 
 1 Is. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, C. Bonaparte. 
 
 2 First section of the Shelless Acvphala of Cuvier. 
 
 3 Homogeneous Infusoria of Cuvier. 
 
 4 Turbellaria of some writers. 
 
 5 Compound Acephala of Cuvier. 
 
63 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 ANIMALS AND THE ANIMAL PBODUCTS EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 
 
 IN the earlier ages of medicine, the remedies derived from 
 the animal kingdom were exceedingly numerous. It is only 
 necessary to examine the catalogues which have been left us 
 by the ancients to be convinced of this fact. These catalogues, 
 which were mere compilations of receipts, contain the most 
 extravagant remedies, brought together without any order; 
 and, generally speaking, unaccompanied by any critical 
 remarks. 
 
 Physicians having made the organization of man the sub- 
 ject of their special study at a very early period, it is hardly to 
 be wondered at if they sought to obtain from his body various 
 remedies against disease. Man was long regarded as an 
 animal par excellence, and it was, therefore, thought that this 
 animal ought naturally to furnish a number of valuable 
 medicines. 
 
 Amongst other ancient remedies which were seriously 
 recommended, was the use of tanned human skin as a belt, the 
 nails and ha irs either burnt or distilled, 1 the teeth, brain, saliva, 9 
 wax, 3 urine,* the excrements, the fat (especially of a person 
 who had been hanged), the blood of a man who had been beheaded 
 drank while it was still warm, 5 and filings of the human skull 
 (hominis cranium raspatum) I Lemery observes, " The skull 
 of a person who has died a violent death forms a quicker and 
 better remedy than that of a person who has died from a 
 lingering disease, or who has been taken from a cemetery, 
 because the first contains all his spirits, while in the others 
 they have been exhausted either by the disease or by the 
 earth." Boyle believed that powdered human skull, applied to 
 the skin, had permanently cured him of bleeding from the 
 nose. 
 
 1 The hair of children eased the gout; that of adults was employed 
 against the bite of a dog ! 
 
 '* The saliva of a man who had fasted was a specific against the poison of 
 serpents ! . . . 
 
 3 Wax cured the sting of the scorpion f 
 
 4 The urine of eunuchs rendered women fruitful ! 
 
 5 At Rome, the warm blood of the gladiators was ordered in various 
 diseases ! In Egypt, kings attacked with elephantiasis were ordered baths 
 of human blood ! 
 
64 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The progress of medical science and of common sense has 
 long since freed us of these therapeutical extravagancies. 1 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 ANIMALS OE ANIMAL PEODTJCTIONS FOEMEELY EMPLOYED IN 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 A LAEGE volume might be formed of the statements which 
 are to he found in different authors, relating to the animals or 
 their productions which were formerly used in medicine, but 
 which are now abandoned. 
 
 Linna3us very properly discarded many of the false and 
 absurd statements of his predecessors. But one is surprised 
 to find still included amongst his Materia Medico, the fat of 
 the wild cat (cati sylvestris axungia), the testicles of the horse 
 (equi testiculi) and the penis of the whale (ceti priapus) / . . . 
 The most celebrated men have always, to a certain extent, 
 been enslaved by the prejudices of their time. 
 
 The ancient therapeutists often sought for what they termed 
 correspondence between the disease and the remedy, but it is 
 impossible to conjecture what were the relations upon which 
 they founded the virtues of many animal substances. Thus, in 
 spitting of blood, they recommended the patient to drink kid's 
 blood mixed with vinegar ; in diseases of the kidneys they 
 prescribed the back of a hare to be eaten raw or cooked, but 
 without touching it with the teeth ; in diseases of the spleen, 
 they applied the spleen of a dog over the region of the affected 
 organ ; in disorder of the liver, they ordered the dried liver of 
 a wolf in wine sweetened with honey, or that of an ass bruised 
 in honey with two parts of celery and three nuts ! . . . 
 
 The following are some of these therapeutic agents which 
 belonged to the ancient medical zoology, arranged in three 
 series : 
 
 I. THE ENTIEE ANIMAL. 
 
 1st. Simply opened or bruised. Bat, mole, pigeon, toad, 
 
 tree-frog, spider, scorpion. 
 2nd. Dried or reduced to powder. Hedge-hog, thVmouse, 
 
 water-wag-tail, wren, goat sucker, plover, snake, 
 
 1 See the work of J. W. Pauli, entitled, De medicamentis e corpore 
 humano desumptis, merito negligendis. Lipsire, 1721 ; in-4. 
 
ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS, ETC. 65 
 
 toad,i earthworm, bug, cricket, grasshopper, 
 
 ant 
 
 3rd. Calcined and reduced to ashes. Badger, mouse 
 
 (mm combustus), crow, cuckoo, kingfisher, lizard, 
 
 salamander, slug, scaraboeus. 
 4th. Infused in water. Magpie (aqua picarum composi- 
 
 tum), swallow (aqua hirundinum). 
 5th. Soiled in milk. Toad. 
 6th. Infused in oil. Dog (oil of young dogs)* fox, 
 
 hawk, cameleon, scorpion (oil of Matthiole), 
 
 cockroach, earthworm. 
 7th, Distilled. Ants (water of magnanimity) . 
 
 II. BONES of the dog, wolf, hare (astragalus), horse, stag, 
 
 eagle (skull, vertebra), toad (left humerus), carp, 
 shad, and whiting. 
 
 III. BLOOD of the bat, lion, dog, mole, weasel, hare, rat, horse, 
 
 ass, elephant, rhinoceros, bull, camel, stag, goat, gold- 
 finch, lark, pigeon, cock, pheasant, quail, ostrich, swan, 
 duck, tortoise, lizard, frog, tree-frog, and snake. 
 
 IV. FAT of monkey, dog, wolf, fox, wild cat, hedge-hog, badger, 
 
 rabbit, hare, marmot, beaver, porcupine, dormouse, 
 ass, elephant, stag, fallow-deer, camel, eagle, falcon, 
 kite, common fowl, pheasant, cassowary, heron, frigate 
 bird, pelican, lizard, snake, frog, tree-frog, 3 carp, pike, 
 eel-pout, and lamprey. 
 
 V. COVERING. 
 
 1st. Skin of mole, horse, ass, rhinoceros, eagle, tench, 
 and eel. 
 
 1 Zwelfer states that cakes (a) composed of the toad preserved him from 
 the plague, and that the same remedy had relieved, and even cured, some 
 of his domestics and friends of malignant diseases. Van Helmont also 
 applied this singular remedy to the skin. 
 
 * Catettos recens natos numero ires, in three or four pounds of olive oil. 
 Some used them while they are alive (vivos), others after they were dead 
 (necator). 
 
 * Oligans Jacobaeus pretends that the fat of the tree-frog causes teeth 
 which have been rubbed with it to fall out without pain. 
 
 (a) The term cake has been used instead of the obsolete word troche, 
 by which the older pharmaceutists designated certain compounds com- 
 posed of various powders, made up with any convenient medium, not con- 
 taining sugar, into little cakes of various forms, and afterwards dried. The 
 word trochiscus or troche is derived from trochos, a wheel, the cakes being 
 very often made up into that shape. See the section on the so-called crabs' 
 eyes, p. 96. 
 
66 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 2nd. Hair of cat, fox, hare, horse, ass, elephant, goat, 
 
 camel. . 
 3rd. Feathers of eagle, lark, partridge. . 
 
 VI. SHELLS. 
 
 1st. Univalves snail, rudimentary shell of slug, whelk, 
 
 dentalium. 
 
 2nd. Bivalves common mussel. 
 3rd. Epiphragma of the large Roman snail. 
 4th. Pearls of the pearl oyster and the mussel. 
 
 VII. NTJTEITITE ORGANS. 
 
 1st. Jaws of the pike, trout. . 
 
 2nd. Teeth of wolf, badger, wild hoar, cod, &c. 
 
 3rd. Tongue of grouse, flamingo. . 
 
 4th. Stomach of hedge-hog, pigeon, common fowl, crane, 
 
 ostrich, eel-pout. . 
 5th. Intestines of wolf. . 
 6th. Spleen of dog, ass. . 
 7th. Liver of wolf, mole, bear, badger, weasel, otter, 
 
 hare, porcupine, elephant, goat, roebuck, eagle, 
 
 swan, duck, lizard, frog, eel. . 
 8th. Kidneys of ass. . 
 9th. Lungs of fox (pulmones preparati), weasel, hare, 
 
 Pig- 
 
 10th. Heart of monkey, lion, mole, stag, crow, peewit, 
 kingfisher, toad. . 
 
 VIII. BTLE, URINE, EXCREMENTS. 
 
 1st. Sile of monkey, cat, dog, hedge-hog, martin, weasel, 
 bear (fel inspissatum), hare, ass, pig, elephant, 
 goat, roebuck, fallow-deer, camel, eagle, peewit, 
 nightingale, bee-eater, pheasant, partridge, crane, 
 wood-cock, snipe, tortoise, lizard, frog, salmon, 
 pike, carp, eel-pout, eel. . 
 
 2nd. Urine of ass, mule, rhinoceros,, cow, goat, stag, 
 camel, lizard. . 
 
 3rd. Excrements of cat, dog {fed upon bones), 1 wolf, 
 fox, martin, weasel, hare, mouse, 2 ass, mule, pig, 
 elephant, ox, sheep, goat, roe-buck, fallow-deer, 
 camel, eagle, hawk, crow, kite, pee- wit, swallow, 
 
 1 Album grcecum, spodium grcecum, album canis, nihil album, cynoco- 
 prus. Libavius gives the method of preparing and preserving the album 
 grcBCum. 
 
 2 Album nigrum stercus nigrum } muscerda. 
 
ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS, ETC. 67 
 
 cuckoo, pigeon, common fowl, peacock, quail, 
 bustard, swan, goose, tortoise, lizard. 1 . 
 
 IX. ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 
 
 1st. Testicles of badger, weasel, otter, horse, ass, hare, 
 
 common fowl. . 
 2nd. Penis of ass, bull, stag (priapus cervi), whale, sea 
 
 tortoise. . 
 
 X. EGGS. 
 
 1st. Covering of the eggs of the frog. 2 . 
 2nd. Entire eggs of lizard, barbel, pike, cuttle- 
 fish. . 
 3rd. Shell of crow, common fowl, quail, ostrich. . 
 
 XI. ORGANS OF RELATION. 
 
 1st. Brain of badger, hare, stag, camel, eagle, hawk, 
 crow, pee- wit,, common fowl, partridge. . 
 
 2nd. Eye of hare, quail, crane. . 
 
 3rd. Ear-bone of carp, whiting, cod, pike. . 
 
 4th. Foot of hare (leporis tali). . 
 
 5th. Hoof of horse, mule, ass, elephant, rhinoceros, 
 tapir, elan (ungula preparata)? . 
 
 6th. Claws of hawk. . 
 
 7th. Claws of crab. . 
 
 XII. ACCESSORY ORGANS. 
 
 1st. Horn of rhinoceros, ox, sheep, goat. . 
 2nd. Appendages of flying stag (horns). . 
 
 XIII. VARIOUS PRODUCTION. 
 1st. Suet of sheep. . 
 2nd. Dried tears of stag. . 
 3rd. Ink of cuttle-fish. . 
 
 4th. Cocoons of silk- worm (English drops), spider 
 
 (Montpellier drops). . 
 5th. Bezoars. A. Stony (intestinal concretions) * of 
 
 the monkey, wild boar, 5 Indian hog, 6 ox, 7 
 
 1 See the Stercoral Pharmacopeia of C. F. Paullini (Hcilsame Drek-Apo- 
 theke, Frankfort, 1696, in-8). 
 
 a Ranarum sperma exsiccatum, sperma ranee. 
 
 * It was especially the hoof of the left foot which was employed. 
 
 4 The name bezoar is given to calcareous masses, more or less solid, 
 generally formed of concentric layers, and found in the stomach, intestines, 
 and urinary passages of quadrupeds. 
 
 * Pig stone, lapis porcinus. 
 
 c Malacca stone, lapis porci Malacensis, yellow bezoar. The bezoar of 
 Ceylon (lapis porci Ceylanici) was larger and not so scarce. 
 
 * Masang de vaca, Indian yellow, glate stone. 
 
 F 2 
 
68 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 goat of Peru, 1 ibex, 2 camel, serpent, 8 viper. 4 
 B. Hairy (agagrophiles) 5 of liorse, ox, and 
 sheep. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS OCCASIONALLY 
 EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 
 
 CEBTAIN animals and animal productions formerly in use are 
 still occasionally, though very rarely, prescribed by medical 
 men. 
 
 They may be divided into three groups : 1st, Animals em- 
 ployed whole ; 2nd, Parts of animals ; 3rd, Animal productions. 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 ANIMALS EMPLOYED WHOLE. 
 
 THESE animals are : 1st, the ScinTc ; 2nd, Wood Louse ; 3rd, 
 Cochineal Insect. 
 
 I. Scink. 
 
 The Scink of the pharmaceutist 6 is a small Saurian reptile 
 
 Fig. V.ScinL 
 belonging to the family Scincoides; it is very common in 
 
 1 Western bezoar. 
 
 2 Oriental bezoar, green resinous bezoar. 
 
 3 Serpent stone, cobra de capetto. 
 
 4 Bezoar of France. 
 
 4 Concretions which form in the stomach and intestines of various quad- 
 rupeds, from the accumulation of hairs swallowed by the animals in licking 
 themselves. The hairs become felted together in balls. 
 
 6 Scincus ojficinales, Schreb. (Lacerta Scincus, Linn.). The Arabs term 
 it el Adda. 
 
ANIMALS OCCASIONALLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 69 
 
 Nubia, Abyssinia, Egypt, Arabia, and in the south of Algeria 
 and Morocco. 
 
 The body is from nine to twelve inches in length ; it 
 passes gradually into the tail, which is thick and conical, and 
 forms nearly one third of the entire length. The colour of the 
 animal is of a silvery yellow, with dark transverse bands. The 
 muzzle is wedge-shaped. The teeth are small, close set, and 
 pointed. The feet are short, the toes free, flat, and un- 
 guiculated. 
 
 Before it is brought to Europe it is dried, the intestines 
 having been previously removed, and the end of the tail cut off. 
 The space that was occupied by the intestines is filled with 
 aromatic plants, and it is then wrapped up in leaves of worm- 
 wood. 
 
 The Scink was long regarded as a most useful and valuable 
 remedy. In the Materia Medica it was said to be stimulant, 
 restorative, and antisyphilitic, but especially serviceable in 
 restoring the powers of the body when they had been ex- 
 hausted by voluptuous indulgences. 1 (Dioscarides.) It entered 
 into the composition of several complicated formulae. 
 
 The common Lizard 2 has been proposed as a substitute for 
 the Scink. A species of Anolis* and an Iguana,* have also 
 been mentioned for the same purpose. 
 
 Very recently Dr. Gosse, of Geneva, has advocated the 
 therapeutic properties of the Scinks. He maintains that the 
 ancients were justified in employing them, and that these 
 animals possess powerful stimulant and sudorific properties, 
 which might be usefully employed in various diseases. 
 
 II. Wood-lice. 
 Under this name of Wbodlice 6 are included two small 
 
 1 Corpus ojficinale pro aphrodisiaco, Linn. 
 
 8 Lacerta ayilis, Linn. [The common lizard of this country is not the 
 Lacerta agilia of Linnaeus, but the Zootica vivipara of Bell, or scaly lizard 
 of Pennant. See Bell's Brit. Reptiles.] 
 
 3 Anoliv* bullaris, Cuv. [This species was first described by Catesby in 
 his Natural History of Carolina, under the name of the Green lizard ; it 
 is a very beautiful species, of a greenish gold colour.] 
 
 4 Iguana delicatissima, Laur. (/. nudicollis, Cuv.). 
 
 8 The Saurians are not the only reptiles whose medicinal virtues have 
 been extolled. The old therapeutists made use of a volatile salt containing 
 a powder composed of vipers, also cakes (see note, p. 65), as well as a wine, 
 a syrup, a jelly, and an oil. The fat of these animals was recommended 
 in nervous affections, and was considered to be a good cosmetic. 
 
 * Onisci, Asdli. 
 
70 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 species of isopod Crustacea, belonging to the family of the 
 Oniscidae: the common Wood-louse (fig.^8), and the officinal 
 Armadillo (fig. 9). 
 
 1st, The common Wood-louse J is constantly found in cellars, 
 in the crevices of walls, under stones, and in old 
 wood. 
 
 The body is oval, oblong, of a grey colour, and 
 composed of a number of imbricated rings. It has 
 four antennae, the lateral ones being provided with 
 eight joints. It is provided with two pointed ap- 
 pendages at its posterior extremity. 
 
 Fig 8 Wood-lice avoid the light and frequent damp 
 
 Wood-louse, situations, where they feed upon decomposing animal 
 and vegetable matters ; their walk is naturally 
 slow, but they can move quickly when irritated. When 
 alarmed they have the singular power of rolling themselves up 
 into a bail ; they are ovoviviparous. At birth the young have 
 only twelve feet [the adult animal has fourteen, one pair 
 being attached to each of the seven rings, which form the 
 thorax] . 
 
 2nd, The officinal Armadillo 2 is met with in France, but it 
 belongs especially to Italy. 
 
 The Armadillo is closely allied to the preceding species. 
 The rings are smooth and polished, and of a grey 
 colour. The lateral antennas have only seven joints. 
 The posterior appendages of the body are not pro- 
 jecting. 
 
 The medicinal properties of the Wood-louse and the 
 Armadillo were long spoken of in high terms. Those 
 individuals were preferred, which lived on walls and 
 on stones covered by saline particles. Galen speaks Y\g. 9. 
 of their beneficial effects in obstructions of the Armadillo. 
 abdominal viscera; Baglivi considered them as 
 lithontriptics, Yallisneri as antiscorbutic, and Geoffrey as 
 anti-rheumatic. . . . Most writers have mentioned them as 
 being aperient, laxative, and diuretic. It has been ascer- 
 tained that they contain the hydrochlorates and nitrates 
 of potash and lime, which may possibly explain their former 
 reputation in medicine. These minute Crustacea entered into 
 the composition of numerous prescriptions. Patients swal- 
 
 1 Oniscus asellus, Linn. In the old pharmacopeias it was called Cutio 
 and Porcellio. 
 
 " Armadillo officina<is, Cuv. It was known as prepared wood-louse or 
 armadillo of the shops. 
 
ANIMALS OCCASIONALLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 71 
 
 lowed them raw, and that even while they were alive, con- 
 suming as many as two hundred in the course of the day. 
 De Haen seriously relates that in certain cases of weak sight, 
 patients had eaten these animals with bread, and that this 
 extraordinary remedy had been exceedingly efficacious. 
 
 III. Cochineal Insect. Coccus Cacti, Linn. 
 
 The Cochineal is an insect belonging to the order Hemiptera, 
 the tribe Homoptera, and to the family Grallinsecta. They 
 constitute the genus Coccus of Linnaeus ; they are characterized 
 by a pectoral beak, an abdomen terminated by setae, and by the 
 presence of two wings in the male none in the female. 
 
 1st. COMMON COCHINEAL (fig. 10). The Common Cochineal, 
 or Cochineal of the Nopal* is an insect which is held in con- 
 siderable estimation, on account of the beautiful and brilliant 
 colour which it furnishes. 
 
 This animal was employed in medicine and in the arts long 
 before its true nature was ascertained. It was supposed to be 
 a small berry or grain, known as shining grain? Lopez de 
 Gomara, in 1525, gave the first description of this insect, and 
 of the plant upon which it fed. Thierry de Menonville, in 
 1787, published an excellent treatise on the Cochineal. 
 Reaumur has given some details respecting the generation 
 and metamorphoses of those species which are met with in 
 France. 
 
 Habitat. The Cochineal of commerce is found in different 
 parts of Mexico. It lives on several species of Nopal, par- 
 ticularly on the common, 3 the cochineal bearing, 4 and the Tuna 5 
 species. 
 
 Description. The Cochineal of the Nopal is a small insect. 
 The male and the female are not alike, and might be supposed 
 to belong to different genera. It has even been stated that 
 the individuals which had been taken for the male were para- 
 sites. 
 
 The body of the male is elongated, short anteriorly nar- 
 
 1 Adanson has seen students when herborizing eat some dozens of these 
 insects and find them very good. 
 
 * Pomet said (1^94) that the Spaniards exposed them to the action of 
 heat, so that the young should not become developed in France. 
 
 3 Opuntia vuJgaris, Mill (Cactus Opuntia^ Linn. ). 
 
 4 Opuntia coclienillifera. Mill (Cactus cochenillifcra, Linn.). 
 
 * Cpuntia Tuna, Mill (Cactus Bonplandia, Kunth). 
 
72 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Fig. 10. Cochineal 
 
 rowed behind, and of a deep red ; the head is small, with 
 a rudimentary beak ; the antennae are 
 of moderate length, filiform, and com- 
 posed of eleven joints. The abdomen 
 is terminated by two setae, longer 
 than the body, diverging, and very 
 slender. The wings reach beyond the 
 abdomen and cross each other horizon- 
 tally on the back; they are oblong and 
 perfectly transparent. The limbs are 
 long, with a single joint to the tarsus, 
 terminating in a hook. The animal 
 is quick and active. 
 
 The female is at least twice the size 
 of the male, the body is oval, obtuse 
 anteriorly, slightly attenuated behind, 
 convex above, and flat below. It 
 has ten distinct rings, of a brown 
 colour, covered with a white powder. It is provided with an 
 extremely narrow, slightly conical, and very pointed rostrum 
 from 3 to 4 lines in length. The abdominal setae are shorter 
 than the body. The Kmbs are small, and the animal very 
 slow. 
 
 The larval stage in both sexes does not last more than ten 
 days ; that of the pupa fifteen. The male does not live more 
 than a month. As soon as he is born he seeks the female and 
 when impregnation is accomplished he dies. The female lives 
 a month longer, and during this time her abdomen becomes 
 considerably enlarged. When the period for laying the 
 eggs has arrived she fixes herself to the plant. The eggs 
 remain adherent to the under surface of her body, so that the 
 laying is hardly evident externally. As the abdomen empties 
 itself its inferior parietes approaches the upper and thus forms 
 a considerable cavity below. Very soon the parent insect dies, 
 her abdomen dries up, the skin becomes hard and shrivelled and 
 serves as a kind of shell for the protection of her offspring. 
 
 The eggs are from 250 to 300 in number, and are united 
 into a narrow band ; they are oval, of an intense red colour, 
 and are covered with a farinaceous secretion. They are hatched 
 in a few days. The larvae issue from beneath the dried-up 
 remains of the parent by an opening at the posterior part, and 
 spread themselves over the nopals. During the first days of 
 
 a, male ; 6, female. 
 
ANIMALS OCCASIONALLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 73 
 
 their existence they traverse the tenderest parts of the plants, 
 and seek out a suitable spot to attach themselves to. Having 
 decided upon this, about one third of the individuals cover 
 themselves with a white powder, which assumes the form of a 
 cacoon open at one end ; beneath this covering the larva 
 becomes transformed into a chrysalis, and then into the per- 
 fect insect. The abdominal setae soon make their appearance 
 through the opening previously mentioned, and the animal 
 comes out backwards : these are the males. The other two- 
 thirds are the females, whose bodies daily increase in size, 
 while the males nutter around them, or walk over their backs. 
 
 Cultivation. The Cochineal is found wild in the woods, but 
 it is usually propagated and reared artificially. A certain 
 number of nopals are planted around the houses to form a 
 nopalry. It is usually placed in an open situation, where there 
 is no shade, but where it is sheltered from the west winds. It 
 is surrounded by a hedge of reeds, as much to break the currents 
 of air as to guard the plantation from the attacks of wild beasts. 
 A nopalry ought not to be more than two acres in extent. 
 The ground having been properly prepared, the plantation is 
 formed by cuttings of the nopals planted about half way in the 
 ground. The cuttings are placed a foot apart and arranged 
 in rows, with intervals of rather more than a yard between 
 them. 
 
 Females obtained from the woods, just before they are about 
 to lay their eggs, or insects filled with eggs, which have been 
 preserved through the winter on the sheltered nopals, are 
 placed, to the number of ten or twelve, in small nests, com- 
 posed of the fibres of the cocoa nut, or in small cylinders open at 
 the ends formed of the leaves of the dwarf palm, and suspended 
 to the spines of the nopals ; at other times they are placed in 
 the crevices of the plant. This is called sowing the cochineal. 
 The larvae soon come out of the nests and spread themselves 
 over the nopals. They are afterwards arranged in groups on 
 the most succulent and vigorous parts of the plant. 
 
 The principal care which is required in raising the Cochineals 
 is, to shelter them from the effects of the wind and the rain ; 
 this is done by simply placing matting over the nopals. 
 
 Thierry de Menonvifle introduced this valuable insect into 
 Saint Domingo, but the revolution of Haiti prevented the 
 success of the experiment, and the insects were allowed to 
 perish. 
 
 The Dutch succeeded in naturalizing them in Java. In 
 1845, that is, in about ten years after their introduction, the 
 
74 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 quantity sold on account of the government amounted to 
 5 3 5131bs. 
 
 Living individuals have, on several occasions, been intro- 
 duced into Europe. Linnaeus tells us that Rolander presented 
 some to the Botanic Garden at Upsal in 1756. 
 
 The Cochineal has become acclimated in Spain, more par- 
 ticularly in the neighbourhood of Malagar and in the kingdom 
 of Valencia. 
 
 In 1806, M. Souceylier, a naval surgeon, brought home some 
 living Cochineals, which he transmitted to M. Robert, pro- 
 fessor of botany at Toulon. 
 
 In 1827, the naturalization of the Cochineal was attempted 
 in Corsica, but without success. The same year it was intro- 
 duced into the Canary Isles, where it met with the most 
 perfect success, for the eight and a half pounds of Cochineal 
 which these islands exported in 1831, amounted to no less 
 than 882,200lbs. in 1850. The diseased vines, upon which the 
 insects lived in the Canaries, have been lately rooted up and 
 replaced by nopals. 
 
 The Spanish Government, fully appreciating the value of 
 this branch of industry, forbade the exportation of the precious 
 insect under the penalty of death. In spite, however, of this, 
 in 1831, M. Simonnet, a pharmaceutist of Algiers, had the 
 courage to run the risk of the undertaking and introduced the 
 first Cochineals into the French settlements. He procured the 
 insects from Valencia ; but in consequence of bad weather he 
 had the mortification to find his endeavours unsuccessful. Two 
 years afterwards, Dr. Loze, a naval surgeon, brought several 
 pots of the cactus, each having from thirty to forty of the 
 Cochineal insects living upon them. At the end of 1834, he 
 presented to the Academy of Sciences samples of his first crops, 
 which were pronounced to be of an excellent quality. Recalled 
 in 1836, M. Loze was obliged to leave his cacti and the 
 Cochineals in the garden of Hussein Bey, where they were 
 exposed to every kind of risk. Some time after, M. Hardy, 
 director of the central Nursery Garden, endeavoured to save 
 what might be left of them. It was with difliculty he could 
 find two or three of the nopals, with a few impregnated females 
 upon them ; it was with these fragments that he was enabled 
 to establish the valuable cultivation of which we are speaking. 
 In 1846, 371bs. were sold at Marseilles by order of the Minister 
 of War. M. Chevreuil stated, that the produce from Algeria 
 was equal in value and in quality to that of Mexico. From 
 that time the cultivation of the Cochineal was rapidly developed. 
 
ANIMALS OCCASIONALLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 75 
 
 In 1853, in the province of Algiers alone, there were four- 
 teen nopalries, containing 61,500 nopals, and their produce 
 sold at 15 francs the kilogramme (2'20551b. avoir.). 
 
 Collecting. The collecting of the Cochineals takes place 
 in the fine weather, shortly before the time for laying their 
 eggs, when the abdomen has attained its greatest size. Their 
 size at this period is nearly that of a pea. 
 
 The Cochineals which are sown in April are collected in the 
 June following. From these are chosen females which are 
 intended for the rearing of the summer crop ; this begins 
 towards the end of May and is completed in September ; from 
 the second gathering females are again put aside for the winter 
 crop. In a favourable season, three gatherings may be 
 obtained during the year. 
 
 When the time for collecting has arrived, cloths are spread 
 beneath the nopals, their joints are cut off and the insects 
 detached by passing a fine brush or the blunt edge of a knife 
 over the plant. This operation is repeated several times. 
 Some growers do not mutilate the nopals, and scrape the joints 
 without separating them from the trunk. 
 
 The Cochineals from the first gathering are considered the 
 most valuable. 
 
 The insects are killed in several ways ; one is to place them 
 in baskets and steep them in boiling water, they are afterwards 
 spread out on hurdles covered with cloths, and dried, first in 
 the sun, and afterwards in the shade, where there is a free 
 current of air. By this method the insects lose in the water 
 the white powder with which they are covered. The Spaniards 
 term these cochinella renagrida. At other times the insects 
 are merely baked in an oven ; when prepared in this way, they 
 have an ashengrey colour, and are named jaspeada. Lastly, 
 the cochineals are killed by being heated on iron plates, when 
 they turn of a dark colour; this variety is known as the 
 cochinella nigra. 
 
 B/eaumur says that it takes 65,000 insects to weigh a pound 
 Fr. (lib. loz. lO^dr. avoir.) while, according to M. Fee, it 
 does not require more than from 42 to 45,000. 
 
 Three varieties of cochineal are distinguished in commerce : 
 1st, The Mesteque l fine or cochinella Jaspeada of the Spaniards ; 
 it is of a purplish grey colour and covered with a whitish 
 powder. 2nd, The Black cochineal ; this is the largest ; it is 
 
 1 Mesteque is the name of a Mexican province. (Ed.) 
 
76 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 of a reddish or purplish black colour, and is almost or quite 
 devoid of the white powder. 3rd, The Sylvestre cochineal or 
 grana Sylvestria ; this consists of the smallest insects ; it is of 
 a dullish red colour, and is of the least value. This variety is 
 obtained from the nopal plants which grow wild in the woods. 
 
 In order to give the cochineals the farinaceous appearance 
 which distinguishes the finest qualities, powdered talc or 
 white lead is mixed with them. In this way the black variety 
 is made to resemble the mesteque or fine variety. 
 
 Uses. Cochineal has been recommended in hoopingcough 
 and dysury. It has also been used in the form of a drink as a 
 remedy for the troublesome form of cough which follows 
 measles. 
 
 Carmine and lake carmine are formed from cochineal. 
 
 The colouring principle of cochineal (cochinella or carmine) 
 is a crystallizable substance of a brilliant purplish red colour. 
 It fuses at 112 F. It is insoluble in ether, but very soluble 
 in alcohol and water. Alkalies change it to a violet colour, 
 and acids to an intense red. Cochineal will preserve its 
 colouring properties unchanged for a century. (Hellot.) 
 
 In 1736, there were imported into Europe 771,161 Ibs. of 
 cochineal of the value of fifteen millions of francs. At the 
 preSent day, in the General Table of the commerce of France, 
 that country alone receives about 761,776 Ibs., valued at three 
 millions of francs. 
 
 [A syrup of Cochineal has been introduced into the last 
 edition of the Pharmacopoaia. 
 
 SYETJPUS Cocci (Syrup of Cochineal). Take of bruised cochi- 
 neal 9 rv, boiling distilled water Oj. The cochineal is to be 
 boiled for fifteen minutes in the water in a closed vessel, 
 frequently stirring it; then strain. Add of sugar twice the 
 weight of the strained liquid, and dissolve with a gentle heat. 
 Lastly, when the syrup has cooled, mix with each fluid ounce 
 half a fluid drachm of spirit. 
 
 Various properties have been assigned to cochineal, but 
 without the least foundation ; its only real use is as a colouring 
 matter. It is for this purpose that it is ordered to be added 
 to the tinctura cardamomi composita, and to the tinctura 
 cinchonas composita.'] 
 
 2nd. Other species of Cocci. Three other species of Cocci 
 which are now almost entirely neglected were formerly used in 
 medicine. These are : 1st, the Kermes; 2nd, the Coccus Poloni- 
 cus j 3rd, the Coccus Lacca. 
 
ANIMALS OCCASIONALLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 77 
 
 1st. The Kermes or Coccus of the oak 1 lives upon a 
 particular species, peculiar to the South of Europe, known as 
 the Quercus coccifera (fig 11). This is generally obtained 
 from Montpellier, Provence, and Spain. 
 
 This species of Coccus is larger than that of the nopal, the 
 female attaining the size of a large pea. It has no trace of 
 rings, is of a globular form, and at first is of a bright red, but 
 afterwards of a dark violet colour, and is covered with a white 
 powder. It surrounds itself with fine threads, out of which it 
 forms a kind of cocoon. Each female lays from 1,800 to 2,000 
 
 By analysis kermes yield a red 
 colouring matter similar to carmine, 
 a peculiar animal principle termed 
 coccine, a yellow fatty matter, and 
 some phosphates and salts. (Las- 
 saigne.) 
 
 2nd. The Coccus Polonicus* is 
 found in Poland andHussia, and occa- 
 sionally in France, attached to the 
 roots of a small plant, the Scleran- 
 thus perennis ; it is also found on 
 the Potentilla reptans and P. alba 
 of Linnaeus. 
 
 The male has 13 to 14 joints to 
 the antennas and is provided with a 
 bushy tail. The female is of an 
 oval form and reddish colour ; the 
 first pair of feet are inserted near Fig. II. Kermes. 
 the antennas and are very short and strong. The insect is 
 collected in the Ukrane towards the end of the month of June, 
 
 1 Coccus niiciSy Linn. ; commonly known in commerce and in pharmacy 
 as animal kermes, vegetable kermes, kermes of the oak, shining grain. 
 
 8 Coccus Polonicus, Linn. (Porphyrophora Polonica, Brandt), commonly 
 termed Saint John's blood. [In Germany, during the ninth, twelfth, thir- 
 teenth, and fourteenth centuries, the rural serfs were bound to deliver 
 annually to the convents, a certain quantity of kermes, the coccus polonicus t 
 among the other products of industry. It was collected from the trees, 
 upon Saint John's day, between eleven o'clock and noon, with religious 
 ceremonies, and was therefore called Johannisblut (Saint J ohn's blood), as 
 also the German cochineal. At the above period a great deal of the 
 German kermes was consumed in Venice for dyeing the scarlet to which 
 that city gives its name, (lire's Die. of Arts and Sciences, art. Kermes.)] 
 Another species is found in Armenia, P. Hamelii, Brandt (P. Armenica, 
 Bunneister), which also yields a colouring matter used in the arts. 
 
78 MEDICAL ZOOLOQY. 
 
 when the females are ripe. The abdomen is at this time 
 swollen and filled with a purple fluid. The plants are rooted 
 up with an iron instrument having the shape of a trowel. The 
 cocci are freed from dirt by shaking them in sieves. The 
 insects are sprinkled with vinegar, or with hot water, and are 
 then dried in a warm place, or by the heat of the sun, but very 
 slowly and with great care. If they aj*e dried too quickly the 
 colour is changed. (Bernitz.) 
 
 3rd. The Coccus Lacca (Kerr) lives on several trees in India ; 
 amongst others, upon the Ficus religiosa, the F. Indica, the 
 Xthcvmnus jujuba, the Croton lacciferum, and the Buteafrondosa. 
 
 The lac insect has the body oblong, flattened below and 
 convex above, narrowed towards the posterior extremity, and 
 furnished with a thickened ridge around the thorax and 
 abdomen; the antennae are filiform and bifurcated; the eyes 
 are placed towards the inferior part of the head ; its rostrum 
 is placed beneath the thorax ; the abdominal rings are obscure ; 
 according to Kerr there are fourteen rings ; but according to 
 Roxburgh there are only twelve ; the body is terminated by 
 two diverging setae. (Kerr, Swagermann.) The male is furnished 
 with two large membranous wings. 
 
 The insects attach themselves to the twigs and the young 
 branches, which are about the thickness of the finger. 
 
 It has been supposed that the insect pierces the bark of the 
 trees upon which it lives, for the purpose of depositing its eggs, 
 and that a resinous matter oozes out of the wound, which 
 dries upon the surface. The females of this species have the 
 same habits as those of the Cochineal insect, and like them 
 they become fixed at the period of laying, and cover the eggs 
 with their dead bodies. As, however, they exist in great 
 numbers they become closely packed together and arranged in 
 lines. It has been stated that the resinous matter sucked up 
 by the insect is transuded through the pores of its body. 
 (Latreille.) It seems, however, more probable that the single 
 puncture of the bark made at the time when the insect 
 becomes fixed is sufficient to allow of the exudation of the resin, 
 in which the creature becomes enveloped, and to which it im- 
 parts its red colour. 
 
 When a branch covered with lac is examined a rough 
 irregular crust is seen on the bark, pierced by a number of 
 small holes, which communicate with cells placed beneath. 
 These cells are oval and terminate in a fine point towards the 
 wood and in a blunted extremity externally ; they are about 
 /-$ of an inch in their greatest diameter; they seem to be 
 
ANIMALS OCCASIONALLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 79 
 
 moulded upon a very delicate shell (utricule, Virey). In the 
 interior there is seen in the centre a red fluid, a cottony 
 material of a white or rose colour, dark red globules, and small 
 oblong bodies of the same colour. The shell is the abdomen of 
 the parent insect, the globules are the eggs, and the oblong 
 bodies the young larvae. 
 
 It is the dead bodies of the females filled with eggs, and 
 united together by the resinous matter previously spoken of, 
 which form the substance known as lac, lac resin, or gum lac. 
 
 There are four kinds of lac known in commerce : 1st, Stick 
 Lac, in which the lac is still attached to the branches, where it 
 forms an irregular crust of variable thickness, and of a dark 
 opaque red colour. 2nd, Seed Lac is that which has been 
 removed from the branches and pounded ; it generally occurs 
 in small fragments, and the colour is not so dark as that of 
 the first. [Seed lac is prepared by removing the resinous con- 
 cretion from the twigs; it is then coarsely pounded and 
 triturated with water in a mortar; the greater part of the 
 colouring matter is thus dissolved, and the granular portion 
 which remains after being dried in the sun constitutes Seed lac. 
 See art. Lac in lire's Die. of Arts and Sciences.] 3rd, Shell 
 Lac is that which has been melted in boiling water, and then 
 poured on to smooth polished stones. These plates resemble 
 glass of antimony, but they vary much in their colour, accord- 
 ing as they have been more or less deprived of the colouring 
 matter ; they are consequently distinguished as the brown, the 
 red, and the ichite. [In India the Seed Lac is put into oblong 
 bags of cotton cloth, which are held over a charcoal fire by a 
 man at each end, and as soon as it begins to melt the bag is 
 twisted so as to strain the liquified resin through its substance, 
 and to make it drop upon smooth stems of the banyan tree 
 (mitsa paradisa). In this way the resin spreads into thin 
 plates, and constitutes the substance known in commerce by 
 the name of shell lac. (Ure.)] 4th, Thread Lac is a preparation 
 made in England, which has the appearance of a number of 
 reddish semi-transparent threads closely pressed and packed 
 together. 
 
 [Although no longer employed in medicine, lac is extensively 
 used in the arts and manufactures ; it enters into the formation 
 of sealing wax, of certain varnishes, of French polish, and is 
 used in the manufacture of waterproof hats. In addition to 
 this resinous matter, a dyeing material, known as lac-dye, is 
 obtained from Stick lac. This is procured from a watery in- 
 fusion of the ground stick lac evaporated to dryness. The 
 
80 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOQY. 
 
 residue is then made up into cakes about two inches square, 
 and half-an-inch thick, which are stamped with the trade mark 
 of the manufacturer. In England this colouring matter is 
 employed for dyeing scarlet cloth, and is found to yield an 
 equally brilliant colour, and one less easily affected by the 
 perspiration than that produced by cochineal.] 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 ANIMALS EMPLOYED TN PABT. 
 
 THESE are animals which furnish certain calcareous or horny 
 structures which are employed in medicine. They consist 
 principally of 1st, Pachydermata ; 2nd, Cuttle fishes ; 3rd, 
 Oysters ; 4th, Corals ; 5th, Sponges. 
 
 I. Pachydermata. 
 
 Amongst these animals is the Elephant (JElephas), one of 
 the proboscidian mammalia, whose tusks are formed of an 
 osseous substance known as ivory. 
 
 There are two species of Elephant : that of India (JElephas 
 Indians), 1 in which the summit of the head forms a sort of 
 pyramid ; the forehead is concave, and the ears small ; that of 
 Africa (Elephas Africanus, Cuv.),in which the head is round, 
 the forehead convex, and the ears large, so as to cover the 
 shoulders. These animals are provided with tusks implanted 
 
 in the inter-maxillary 
 bone. They are two 
 very long pointed teeth, 
 curved and hollow to 
 the extent of half their 
 length. Those of the 
 African Elephant (fig. 
 12), are much larger 
 than those of the Indian 
 Elephant. The ivory of 
 both is characterized in 
 a transverse section by 
 curved lines passing 
 from the centre to the 
 circumference, crossing 
 
 Fig. 12. African Elephant. 
 
 1 Some writers consider that there are two species of Indian Elephant 
 and have named them Elephas Asiaticus and Elephas Sumatranus. 
 
AXIMALS EMPLOYED IN PABT. 81 
 
 each other, and by that means intercepting lozenge-like or rhom- 
 boidal interspaces. 
 
 Ivory calcined until it becomes white has been regarded as 
 absorbent, astringent, and anthelmintic ; some therapeutists 
 have termed it spode or spodium ; others designate it as caput 
 mortuum. The various preparations into which it formerly 
 entered have now fallen entirely out of use. 
 
 The beautiful velvety black, known to painters as Ivory 
 black, is obtained by calcining this material in closed vessels. 
 [The calcined matter is afterwards ground and then levigated 
 on a porphyry slab ; it is much used in copper-plate printing.] 
 
 The tusks of the Elephant are used in the making of artificial 
 teeth. It is also used in the manufacture of artificial teats, 
 pessaries, and other surgical instruments. 
 
 The tusks of the Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius, 
 Lin.) and Wild Boar (Sm Scropha, Lin.) are also used in the 
 manufacture of artificial teeth. 
 
 [The tusks of the Elephant are never used in the present day 
 in the construction of artificial teeth, whatever they might 
 have been formerly : the objections to this material are that it 
 is more easily destroyed by the fluids of the mouth, and at the 
 same time is more costly than the teeth of some other animals, 
 which are better adapted for the purpose. The tusks of the 
 Wild Boar, on account of their size alone, could seldom be made 
 available for the manufacture of artificial teeth. The only 
 teeth which have ever been extensively used are the tusks of 
 the Hippopotamus and the Walrus.] 
 
 H. Sepiadae. 
 
 The Sepiada or Cuttle-fishes are molluscous animals belong- 
 ing to the decapod division of the cephalopoda ; they constitute 
 the genus Sepia of Linnaeus. The body of the animal is fleshy, 
 depressed, and contained in a mantle, having the form of a sac, 
 terminated posteriorly in a blunted extremity, and bounded on 
 either side by a narrow lateral fin. The mouth is terminal 
 and surrounded by ten arms provided with suckers ; two of 
 these arms are pedunculated, and are much longer than the 
 others. 
 
 The most familiar species is the common Cuttle-fish (Sepia 
 qfficinalis, Lin.), which is extremely abundant in all parts of the 
 ocean and in the Mediterranean sea. 
 
82 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The Common Cuttle-fish varies in length from three to twenty- 
 eight inches. Its body is oval and spread out at the sides ; the 
 upper surface is marked by purplish or reddish spots, and with 
 white undulating lines upon a greyish or leaden coloured 
 ground. The aperture of the mantle is imperfectly divided 
 into three lobes ; the two fins are united posteriorly. The 
 orifice of the mouth is circular, membranous, and more or less 
 fringed. There are two hard corneous jaws which shut into 
 each other and resemble the beak of a parrot. (Eondelet.) The 
 eyes are very large. The elongated arms or tentacles are nearly 
 the length of the body, and their dilated extremities are 
 furnished with a number of small pedunculated suckers. The 
 other arms are furnished on their inner surface with several 
 [four] rows of concave suckers. 
 
 The Cuttle-fish feeds upon crabs, squills, and various mol- 
 lusca ; it breaks down the carapace or shells of these animals 
 with its beak-like jaws, and their further comminution is 
 accomplished by means of its strong muscular stomach, which 
 acts like a gizzard. 
 
 At the bottom of the abdominal sac is a bladder containing 
 a black liquid, known as the ink of the Cuttle-fish. This blad- 
 der communicates by a small canal with the rectum. "When 
 the animal is pursued or threatened with danger it discharges 
 some of this black fluid, which diffuses itself through the water, 
 and in the midst of the obscurity which it produces the creature 
 endeavours to escape. 1 The pigment used in water colour 
 painting and known as Roman Sepia, 2 is obtained from this 
 black liquid ; it has been stated that the Chinese colour, com- 
 monly known as Indian ink, is prepared from a species of 
 cephalopod allied to the Cuttle-fish. It is, however, almost 
 certain that this ink is prepared from a kind of soot. 
 
 Cuttle-fishes are bisexual and oviparous. Their eggs are 
 soft, of a blackish colour, and collected together like a bunch 
 of grapes, and hence the name of sea grapes, which is commonly 
 given to them. 
 
 The Cuttle-fish encloses in its dorsal region a solid body, 
 known as the Cuttle lone Sepium, or shell of the Cuttle-fish ; 
 the French give it the name of biscuit de mer? Blainville has 
 proposed to call it Sepiostaire. This body is of an elongated 
 oval form, somewhat broader behind than before, depressed, 
 
 1 Atramentum quo se occultat (Linn.). 
 
 2 Eo litter -ce pinyuntur (Linn.). 
 
 3 Os ojficinale (Linn.). 
 
ANIMALS EMPLOYED TS PABT. 83 
 
 extremely porous, and very light. Its superior surface is 
 convex and granulated; its inferior is partly convex and 
 partly concave ; it terminates posteriorly in a thin dilated 
 aliform margin, composed of calcareous and horny matter, 
 which, becoming everted, forms a wide and shallow concavity. 
 Quite at the extremity is a more solid portion, which has the 
 form of a conical hook or apophysis ; it is sometimes straight, 
 sometimes curved. The thickened part of the sepium is com- 
 posed of thin parallel calcareous plates, which are deposited in 
 such a manner that the last formed covers the greater part of 
 all the others, but leaves their posterior margins uncovered. 
 The principal ingredient is carbonate of lime. 
 
 The bone of the cuttle-fish was formerly employed as an 
 antiacid and absorbent. It enters into the preparation of 
 certain tooth-powders. 
 
 [The following is the formula of the tooth powder in the 
 French codex : 
 
 Bol armcniac 
 
 Red coral 
 
 Bone of cuttle-fish aa Jj, gr. xiv. 
 
 Dragon's blood 3iv, gr. vii. 
 
 Cochineal 3j, gr. ij. 
 
 Cream of tartar Jj, 3iv, gr. xxi. 
 
 Powdered cinnamon . . . sij, gr. iv. 
 
 Cloves 3ij, gr. viij. 
 
 The cellular structure of the bone of the cuttle-fish renders 
 it so light that it floats on water. It was analysed by John, 
 who gives the following as its composition : 
 
 HARD, UPPER OR POROUS 
 OUTER PORTION. PART. 
 
 Carbonate (with a trace of phosphate) of lime ... 80 ... 85 
 
 Non-gelatinous animal matter soluble in water 
 
 with common salt 7 ... 7 
 
 Gelatinous membrane not soluble in water .... 9 ... 4 
 
 Water, with a trace of magnesia 4 ... 4 
 
 100 100 
 
 It is used in the arts as a polishing material, for forming 
 moulds for fine silver castings, and as a pounce to prevent ink 
 from spreading after erasures.] 
 
 III. Snails. 
 
 Snails are gasteropodous mollusca, belonging to the genus 
 Helix, the family Helecida, and to the order Pulmonifera. 
 The characters of the animal are 1st, an elongated body, 
 
 G 2 
 
84 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 with a thick collar bilobed inferiorly ; four cylindrical tentacles ; 
 a crescent-shaped dentated upper mandible or jaw; an oval 
 elongated foot ; the respiratory orifice on the right side ; reproduc- 
 tive orifice near the base of the right large or ocular tentacle. 
 2nd, Shell dextral, globose or depressed, the spire usually short, 
 with the last turn generally large ; umbilicus perforated or un- 
 perforated ; the columella straight or spiral ; aperture transverse, 
 oblique, and semilunar ; a thick peristome, terminating in an 
 abrupt or reflected margin. 
 
 Snails live in hedges, on dry plants, on the trunks of trees, 
 in the crevices of walls, and on stones. They feed principally 
 upon vegetable substances. Their generative organs are 
 androgynous ; they contain a copulative pouch, the dart 
 enclosed in a sac, numerous vesicles, and a flagellum. At the 
 period of copulation a large spermatophora issues from the 
 male organ, and penetrates the female apparatus of another 
 individual. These animals are oviparous and deposit their eggs 
 in moist earth. The use of snails as a medicine has been 
 advocated at various times. At the commencement of the 
 present century Dr. Chrestien, of Montpellier, recommended 
 them to be used boiled or in the raw state after removal from 
 the shell. Other writers have recommended them to be 
 sprinkled with sugar ; this causes them to give out a large 
 quantity of their viscous slime, which is to be taken by the 
 patient. 
 
 The species which is best known is the Helix pomatia (Linn.) 
 or Eoman snail. The shell of this species (fig. 13) is 1| inch in 
 
 Fig. 13. Helix Pomatia . 
 height, globose, obliquely bowed below, with fine and unequal 
 
 1 The animal in a state of extension, and a separate view of the jaw. 
 
ANIMALS EMPLOYED IN PART. 85 
 
 longitudinal striae, tolerably thick, very strong, smoeth, shining, 
 opaque, of a reddish or dirty yellow, and with three or four 
 indistinct yellow bands. The spire is composed of five or six 
 convex turns, which rapidly increase up to the last, which is 
 large ; the suture is deep, the summit elevated, and the um- 
 bilicus oblique; the aperture is interrupted by the penulti- 
 mate curves, and is provided with an evected margin, which is 
 thickened and of a reddish white internally. During winter 
 this aperture is closed by a membrane called the epiphragm, 
 which is convex, thick, cretaceous, and of a greyish colour. 
 
 These molluscs live in gardens, vineyards, and forests. 
 
 The Helix pomatia formerly entered into the composition of 
 several pharmaceutical preparations. They were made into 
 broth, into a mucilage, a syrup, a jelly, and a pomade. 
 These preparations have long since fallen into disuse. Snails 
 were recommended in herpes ; they were allowed to crawl over 
 the surface of the skin and deposit their mucus upon it, or 
 they were pounded and applied to the part. (Adanson.) 
 Dr. Goelis, of Vienna, has extolled the efficacy of the pounded 
 shell in epilepsy and in intermittent fevers (1815). 
 
 M. Oscar Figuier, of Montpellier, prepared a snail paste, 
 which enjoyed a certain amount of repute. The species em- 
 ployed in the formation of this paste were the large garden 
 snail, H. aspersa and H. vermiculata. The If. pomatia and 
 the wood snail, H. nemoralis, might also be employed for this 
 purpose ; but these species, which are so common in the 
 northern and temperate parts of France, are not met with in 
 the south. 
 
 According to M. Soubeiran, a hundred individuals of the 
 Helix pomatia, which weigh two pounds, when they have been 
 freed from their shells, yield about one pound three ounces of 
 flesh, while one hundred of the H. nemoralis of the average 
 size do not give much more than ten ounces. 
 
 Snails contain a peculiar mucilaginous principle, whose 
 characters are imperfectly known, but which seems to have> 
 some resemblance to gelatine and mucus. M. Oscar Figuier 
 thinks that the properties of these molluscs are partly owing 
 to an oil with a sulphurous odour, which may be extracted by 
 means of ether, and to which he has given the name of 
 Jielicine. He recommends that this principle should be re- 
 tained as much as possible unaltered in all the pharmaceutical 
 preparations. According to a recent analysis of M. Grobley, 
 helicine cannot be considered as a proximate principle ; it does 
 
86 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 not contain sulphur ; it consists, like human venous blood, of 
 oleine, margarine, cholesterine, lecithine, and cerebrine. 1 
 
 In a work presented some months back to the Academy of 
 Medicine, M. Eugene Founder has examined the proportions 
 of mucilage, of iodine, of sulphur, and of phosphorus, which 
 are contained in snails. He shows that these proportions 
 vary according to the localities in which animals live and 
 according to the nature of their food. He is of opinion that 
 these principles might be artificially increased, and that the 
 animals might even be made to assimilate other principles, 
 such as doses of opium, belladonna, digitalis, and of arsenic. 
 It is known that these molluscs can feed without inconveni- 
 ence upon various substances, which exercise a more or less 
 decided action upon man. 
 
 M. Ghatin considers that the Limneus stagnalis of our ponds 
 and marshes may be substituted for snails in the formation of 
 syrups and lozenges. It is true that this mollusc has less 
 mucilage, but an equal weight of them contains four times as 
 much iodine. 
 
 The English obtain from Prince's Island a large species of 
 Achatina (A. carinata), which they have introduced into 
 Europe as a remedy in phthisis. 
 
 IV. Oysters. 
 
 Oysters are acephalous conchiferous molluscs, with only one 
 adductor muscle (Monomyaria) ; they belong to the genus 
 Ostrea, which may be regarded as the type of the family 
 Ostreidse. 
 
 The body of the animal is of an oblong oval form, flat, often 
 irregular, and covered by a thick mantle, which is fringed at 
 its margins. The mouth is furnished with elongated trian- 
 gular palpi. No foot. The branchiae are large curved, nearly 
 equal, the external shorter than the internal. The shell is 
 attached, bivalved, irregular, foliaceous, rough, and generally 
 thick ; upper valve short, flat, and moveable ; lower valve 
 larger and convex. Hinge toothless. Ligament partly in- 
 ternal, and inserted on both sides into an oblong cavity. 
 
 Oysters live near the shore, at moderate depths, where the 
 water is tranquil. They are sometimes developed in vast 
 numbers, forming what are termed oyster banks. Some of 
 these banks are miles in extent, and seem to be inexhaustible. 
 
 1 Dr. Lamare has recently recommended helicine in phthisis. 
 
ANIMALS EMPLOYED IN PAHT. 87 
 
 In 1819, a bank was discovered near one of the islands of 
 /(aland, which for the space of a year supplied the inhabitants 
 of the Low Countries with such abundance of oysters, that the 
 price of these shell-fish fell to tenpence a hundred ; as, how- 
 ever, this bank happened to be situated almost on a level with 
 low water, the winter being very severe, it was entirely destroyed. 
 (Deshayes.) 
 
 Of all shell-fish, oysters are probably those whose faculties 
 are the most limited. Fixed to the rock or to some sub- 
 marine body, the only food which they obtain is that which is 
 brought to them by the currents of the ocean, and they give 
 no other signs of life than that of opening and closing their 
 valves. Nevertheless, it appears that under certain circum- 
 stances they may have the power of removing themselves from 
 the spot to which they have been attached. 
 
 These animals are androgynous, but the male and female 
 organs do not perform their functions at the same time. The 
 seminal fluid makes its appearance before the ova. 
 
 The young oysters are lodged in the mantle of the mother, 
 from whence they sally forth and swim around her, by means 
 of their vibratile cilia, but take refuge between the maternal 
 valves on the approach of the slightest danger. 
 
 The shell of the oyster, like all others, consists of carbonate, 
 with a small quantity of phosphate, of lime ; it was formerly 
 extolled as a powerful absorbent and antiacid, and even as a 
 lithontriptic. The shells were calcined and reduced to a very 
 fine powder. In the present day the carbonate of lime or of 
 magnesia is used instead. They are still, however, used in the 
 preparation of certain dentifrices. 
 
 If, however, the valves of these molluscs are but little 
 thought of as a remedy, the animal on the contrary is highly 
 prized as an article of food. The oyster fishery has for many 
 years been an important branch of industry and commerce. 
 These molluscs will be noticed again when speaking of the 
 flesh of animals. 
 
 V. Coral. 
 
 Red coral 1 is a marine production, distinguished by its 
 hardness, its capability of receiving a high polish, and by its 
 fine red colour. 
 
 Coral is found attached to rocks at the bottom of the sea. 
 
 1 Corallium nobile (Gorgonia nobilis, Ellis ; Isis nobilis, Linn.; Coral- 
 Hum rubrun, Lamk.). 
 
88 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 It is met with in different parts of the Mediterranean and in 
 the Red Sea ; it exists at various depths, but never less than 
 three yards, nor more than three hundred. 
 
 Coral was for a long time regarded a marine plant ; it is now 
 known to be the production of polyps which live in societies. 
 When seen in the ocean this kind of coral resembles the 
 trunk of a small leafless shrub. 
 
 The central part of the coral is as hard as marble, and its 
 surface is marked by parallel but irregular striae. This axial 
 portion is covered by a soft fleshy layer, formed of delicate 
 membrane and fibres reticulated together, and inclosing a 
 number of glandular bodies, filled with a milky fluid, which 
 seem to unite it to the calcareous portion. In the fleshy mass 
 are depressions in which the bodies of the polyps are lodged ; 
 these consist of a globular portion which is fixed, and of a free 
 exsectile cylindrical portion terminated by* a mouth sur- 
 rounded by eight tentacula or arms, which are notched at 
 their margins. 
 
 The Coral from the coasts of France is considered to have 
 the brightest and deepest colour, probably because it is more 
 carefully selected than that of other countries. That of Italy 
 rivals it in beauty ; that of Barbary is larger, but not so bril- 
 liant. Five varieties of coral are known in commerce, and are 
 distinguished by the following fanciful titles : 1, The Froth 
 of mood; 2nd, The Flower of Blood ; 3rd, 4th, and 5th, Blood 
 of the First, Second, and Third quality. 
 
 According to Yogel Coral contains nearly four-fifths of its 
 weight of carbonate of lime; it also contains magnesia and 
 oxide of iron. 
 
 [Witting states that 100 grains of red coral yield the follow- 
 ing constituents : 
 
 Carbonate of lime 83-25 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia 3 '50 
 
 Oxide of iron 4-25 
 
 Animal gelatine and sand 775 
 
 Loss , . , , . 1-25 
 
 100-00] 
 
 Coral was formerly employed medicinally, and was looked 
 upon as a tonic and an absorbent. M. Desbois, of Hochefort, 
 pretends that it is tonic, because its colour is owing to a 
 martial principle, that is to say, to a salt of iron ; but there are 
 so many better ways of administering this metal that the 
 sooner the pretended tonic properties of coral or its colouring 
 
ANIMALS EMPLOYED IN PAET. 89 
 
 matters are forgotten, the better. It has, moreover, been 
 shown that this colour does not depend upon iron, but upon a 
 red matter containing nitrogen, similar to that which deco- 
 rates various shells, and which is deprived of all colour by the 
 action of the feeblest acids. (Fremy.) With regard to its 
 absorbent properties, there are several bodies which are better 
 adapted for this purpose, so that even in this respect coral 
 could not long continue to be used. 
 
 The old practitioners administered coral in the form of a 
 powder, bolus, electuary, as a drink, and as a tincture ; they 
 also made use of a magestry or precipitate of coral, which was 
 held in considerable repute. Lemery considered it adapted to 
 renovate the heart. 
 
 At the present time, coral is only used as a mechanical 
 agent for the purpose of cleaning the teeth. It can only act 
 very slightly as an absorbent, and still less as a tonic. 
 
 Other species. The old Materia Medica also included Black 
 coral, the Oorgonia Antipathes of Linnaeus, and "White coral, 
 which was a mixture of Oculina and the Caryophyllia ; the 
 Oculina virginea (Lamk.) being the species which was princi- 
 pally made use of. 
 
 Tne same virtues were attributed to these corals as to the 
 Bed. 
 
 The Black coral is distinguished from the Eed by the horny 
 nature of the stem, and by its flexibility and smoothness. 
 
 White coral differs still more ; the axis is stony or calcare- 
 ous, but the polyps are contained in lamellated star-like cavities, 
 and not in the fleshy cortical substance. 
 
 VI. Sponge. 
 
 Sponge consists of aggregations of animals belonging to the 
 class of Polyps. 
 
 The species which is best known is the common domestic 
 sponge or Spongia officinalis. Like the corals it is an inhabitant 
 of the sea ; it is very abundant in the Mediterranean, especially 
 around the islands of the Grecian Archipelago. It is found 
 attached to the rocks where they are least exposed to the 
 action of the waves and currents. 
 
 The Common sponge presents itself in masses of various 
 forms and sizes ; it is of a brown colour, and composed of a 
 light elastic and resisting tissue, which is traversed in every 
 direction by numerous interspaces. This tissue consists of 
 delicate flexible interlaced fibres provided with pores (oscula, 
 
90 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Lamk.) and irregular canals, which communicate freely with 
 each other. In this tissue there is found a number of silicious 
 or calcareous particles (spicula), having a slender, simple, or 
 tricuspid form. 
 
 In its living state the Common Sponge is covered with 
 mucous layers consisting of a kind of animated jelly. The 
 most opposite opinions have been entertained with regard to 
 the nature of sponges. Amongst the ancients, some regarded 
 them as plants ; others as being of a twofold nature, that is to 
 say, as vegetables which served as a residence for certain 
 polyps. Dioscorides, Pliny, and their commentators, have 
 divided Sponges into males and females. Rondelet, the two 
 Bauhins, Bay, Tournefort, Vaillant, Marsigli, and others, have 
 placed them in the vegetable' kingdom ; while Nieremberg, 
 Peyssonel, Tremblay, Ellis, Lamouroux, and others, have main* 
 tained their animal nature. In the present day, the latter 
 opinion is generally admitted to be the correct one. Five 
 different hypotheses have been held as regards this animal 
 nature : 1st. That the fibrous portion and the muco-gelati- 
 .nous layer constitute a single animal. 2nd. That the muco- 
 gelatinous layer alone forms the animal. 3rd. That the sponge 
 is a compound being, consisting of an aggregation of polyps, 
 living in the substance of the enveloping muco-gelatinous sub- 
 stance. 4th. That these polyps exist only in the interspaces 
 of the fibrous mass. 5th. That the polyps are found both in 
 the muco-gelatinous layer and in the fibrous mass. The fourth 
 hypothesis is the true one. 
 
 The animalcules of the Sponges are a species of membranous 
 tubes, capable of extending and retracting themselves. They 
 have been compared to polyps deprived of tentacles and 
 reduced to their most simple conditions. 
 
 Sponges have yellow or whitish seed-like eggs, from which 
 non-ciliated embryos are produced, in the interior of which 
 contractile cells become developed, and subsequently spicules, 
 which are ultimately covered with vibratile cilia. (Lieberkuhn, 
 Bowerbank.) Several of these embryos unite together to form 
 a colony, in which their individuality becomes exceedingly in- 
 distinct. 
 
 Sponge is composed of an animal matter which has been 
 compared to albumen and to mucus (Jibroine, Mulder). It is 
 soluble in sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids, and in 
 liquor potassa. These solutions give a precipitate with nut- 
 galls. Besides carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, sponge 
 contains iodine, sulphur, and phosphorus. It also contains 
 
ANIMALS EMPLOYED IN PAET. 91 
 
 bromine, carbonate, and phosphate of liine, sea salt, and traces 
 of silica, magnesia, and alumina. 
 
 Formerly Sponges were strongly calcined, or they were made 
 hot and then reduced to a powder, which was used as a remedy 
 in goitre and scrofula. Its curative properties were owing to 
 the presence of iodine. 1 
 
 Sponges were also used in surgery, to dilate certain wounds 
 or natural cavities. For this purpose the sponge when per- 
 fectly dry was dipped into melted wax and then compressed 
 between two iron plates until cold, the pieces of sponge pre- 
 pared in this manner were called tents. 
 
 Every one is acquainted with the numerous domestic pur- 
 poses for which sponge is used. 
 
 Other species. Besides the last species, which is known in 
 common as the Fine Syrian Sponge, there are seven others : 
 1st. Fine Archipelago Sponge, which is probably only a variety 
 of the former; it is used for domestic purposes; it is also 
 employed in the manufacture of porcelain and in litho- 
 graphy. 3rd. Fine hard Sponge, commonly called Grecian 
 Sponge; this is employed for domestic purposes, and also in 
 certain manufactures. 4th. White Sponge of Syria, called 
 also Venetian Sponge ; this is made use of for the same pur- 
 poses as the former. 5th. Gelatine (geline) Sponge, which 
 comes from the coast of Barbary. 6th. The Brown Sponge of 
 Barbary, also called Marseilles Sponge, the Sponqia communis 
 of naturalists ; this is used for cleaning rooms and similar pur- 
 poses ; it is fished on the coast of Tunis. 7th. The Sponge of 
 Salonica (Grervais, Van Beneden). 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ANIMAL PEODUCTS. 
 
 THE animal productions which require to be noticed are: 
 1st, Spermaceti; 2nd, Bile; 3rd, Crabs' eyes; 4th, The Web 
 of the Spider. 
 
 I. Spermaceti. 
 Spermaceti is a substance which is obtained from several 
 
 1 In ancient pharmacy the burnt bodies of the Alcyonia were also em- 
 ployed, the same virtues being attributed to them as to the sponges. The 
 species which was principally used was the Alcyonium Lyncurium of 
 Lamouroux, commonly called the Sea quince or Sea orange. 
 
92 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 species of cetacean mammals, particularly from the cachalot or 
 spermaceti whale. It is also obtained from the common or 
 Greenland whale. 
 
 1. The Great Cachalot (PJiyseter macrocephalus, Linn.) is an 
 enormous animal, 1 which is met with in all parts of the ocean. 
 Anderson measured one which was 70 feet in length. This 
 mammal (fig. 14) is of a blackish blue colour, darkest on the 
 back [the under surface is whitish, and also around the eyes] ; 
 the head is very large, especially at its anterior part. 
 The upper jaw has no teeth, or if they are present they 
 are quite rudimentary and hidden in the gum. The lower jaw 
 is narrow and about three feet shorter than the upper ; it is 
 provided on each side with from twenty to thirty cylindrical 
 slightly curved teeth on either side. The vent is single, and 
 not double, as in most of the Cetacea. The eyes are projecting 
 and placed on eminences. The dorsal fin is reduced to a callous 
 prominence. The tail is bilobed and is very flexible. 
 
 Fig. 14. Cachalot. 
 
 The Cachalot in swimming usually produces a foaming of the 
 water, showing its back and the fleshy eminence which sur- 
 rounds the vent ; its movements are not rapid. 
 
 [Beale states, that when undisturbed the animal passes tran- 
 quilly along, just below the surface of the water, at the rate of 
 about three or four miles an hour, its progress being effected 
 by a gentle oblique motion of the tail from side to side ; when 
 proceeding at its usual rate, the body lies horizontally ; the 
 water by its progress being somewhat disturbed, is known by 
 the whalers under the name of " "White water ;" in this mode 
 of swimming it is able to obtain a velocity of about seven 
 miles an hour. "When it swims at a more rapid rate, the action- 
 of the tail is altered, the water is struck directly upwards and 
 downwards, and each time the blow is made with the inferior 
 
 2 Longitudo scepe sexaginta pedum (Linn.). 
 
ANIMALS EMPLOYED IN PAET. 
 
 surface, the head sinks down eight or ten feet, and when the 
 blow is reversed it rises out of the water presenting to it only 
 the sharp cut-water portion.] 
 
 2. The Greenland Whale (Balcena Mysticetus, Linn.). This 
 animal is usually regarded as the most voluminous of the 
 Cetacea, and therefore, of all known animals. 1 Its dimensions 
 
 Fig. 15. Greenland WJiale. 
 
 have, however, been greatly exaggerated. Scoresby, who was 
 present at the capture of three hundred and twenty-two indi- 
 viduals, has never seen one which measured more than from 
 sixty -five to seventy feet in length. 2 Its greatest circum- 
 ference is from thirty to forty feet. 
 
 The Whalebone Whale has no teeth, but there are rudiments 
 of these organs in the lower jaw of the young animal. (Greoffroy 
 Saint-Hilaire.) The upper jaw is keel-shaped, and is provided 
 on each side with a series of thin transverse plates, upwards 
 
 of three hundred in number, 
 composed of the baleen or 
 whalebone (fig. 16). These 
 plates terminate at their in- 
 ferior margin in a fringe of 
 coarse hair. The tongue is 
 fleshy and very thick. The 
 Fig. 16. Whalebone Plates. animal has no dorsal fin. 
 
 The Whale is an inhabi- 
 tant of the Arctic regions. The species which is met with in 
 the South Atlantic ocean, the Balcena Australia of Kleir, or 
 Whale of the Southern Ocean, differs essentially from that of 
 the North, the Balcena mysticetus ; it is the smallest of the two 
 
 1 Maximus omnium animalium (Linn.). 
 
 Linnaeus assert* that they occasionally attain the length of 100 feet 
 (scepe IQQpedum). 
 
94 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 species, usually measuring from thirty-five to forty-five feet, 
 but frequently extending to fifty. 
 
 3. Spermaceti. This substance is found in the cellular tissue 
 which separates the membranes of the brain in the Cachalot. 
 The whole of the upper portion of the skull consists of large 
 cavities covered in, and separated from each other, by cartila- 
 ginous walls. It is in these cavities that the spermaceti is con- 
 tained. ! The cavity which is occupied by the encephalon 
 appears relatively small to the entire volume of the head. 
 Camper found in a head, measuring eighteen feet long, that 
 this cavity was only twelve inches in width, nine in length, and 
 seven in depth. 
 
 In the living animal the spermaceti is dissolved in an oily 
 liquid, but in the dead animal it becomes solidified. This is 
 purified by being squeezed through coarse bags ; it is then 
 boiled in an alkaline ley, which frees it from any remaining 
 oil ; it is then washed and melted. 
 
 In a Cachalot from the Moluccas, which was sixty-four feet 
 long, M. Quoy calculated there were twenty-four barrels of 
 spermaceti, each containing two hundred and seventy-five 
 pounds, so that the entire quantity amounted to more than six 
 thousand six hundred pounds. 
 
 The spermaceti of commerce and of the pharmaceutists is a 
 white, friable substance, soft to the touch, and breaking into 
 shining greasy-looking scales. It melts at 113 Fah. Boiling 
 alcohol will dissolve the one seven hundredth of it. 
 
 Chemists have long regarded spermaceti as a compound 
 body, saponifiable by the action of alcohol, and to a certain 
 extent analogous to the neutral fats. 2 M. Heintz, in works 
 which he has recently published, assigns a more complicated 
 composition to the substance. M. Chevreul obtained from 
 spermaceti a peculiar body, to which he gave the name of cetine. 
 This is a white, laminated, friable substance, which melts at 
 120 Eah., and has no action on litmus. Boiling alcohol will 
 dissolve two and a half parts of it. 
 
 Spermaceti was formerly administered in diseases of the 
 lungs and kidneys. In the present day it is no longer used 
 internally, but it enters into the formation of certain cerates 
 or pomades, which are applied to cracked breasts and to the 
 pustules of small pox ; it is also employed in the manufacture of 
 Hp salve. 
 
 [There are two preparations of spermaceti in the London 
 
 1 Spermaceti e ventriculis cerebri, Linn. 
 
 9 Chevreul, Dumas, Peligot, Lawrence, Smith. 
 
ANIMALS EMPLOYED IN PAET. 95 
 
 Pharmacopeia, the Ceratum Cetacei and the Unguentum Cetacei; 
 they are both composed of spermaceti, white wax, and olive oil, 
 the latter being the softest in consequence of the smaller 
 quantity of wax and larger quantity of spermaceti, which is 
 used in its preparation. They are employed as dressings for 
 blisters and excoriated surfaces.] 
 
 II. Bile. 
 
 Bile is a fluid which is secreted by the liver, and is received 
 into a special receptacle termed the gall bladder, from whence 
 it passes into the duodenum. Some of the mammalia are un- 
 provided with this bladder, and the bile does not then remain 
 for a time in the liver, but is immediately discharged into the 
 intestine. 
 
 Bile is a limpid viscous fluid, heavier than water, usually of 
 yellow or green colour, having a faint nauseous odour, which, 
 by a certain change, approaches to that of muse, and a sweetish 
 but at the same time a bitter taste. It may be evaporated 
 without undergoing decomposition, 
 
 The bile of the Ox is sometimes employed in the form of an 
 extract. Its specific gravity is 1*026 at a temperature of 42 
 Pah. When warmed in closed vessels bile becomes thickened, 
 froths up, solidifies, and forms the substance known as extract 
 of bile ; it readily mixes both with water and alcohol. 
 
 [Ox BILE (Fel Bovinum, seu Tauri). An extract of Ox bile 
 was formerly used in medicine, and it has been lately reintro- 
 duced. Dr. Copland l says he has made use of the inspissated 
 Ox gall for many years with advantage. He recommends it in 
 mesenteric affections, and has found it exceedingly useful 
 where the secretion of the bile has been deficient and the 
 mucous membrane of the alimentary canal irritable and relaxed. 
 Dr. Clay, 2 of Manchester, says, " its effect upon the system is 
 not purgative ; but it acts as a mere solvent of the material 
 contained within the intestinal canal ; producing no excitement 
 to propel ; but by liquifying the mass facilitates its excretion." 
 It acts as an aperient, and may be given in doses of 3j to Jj 
 daily.] 
 
 Bile contains 7 per cent, of solid matter, which is held in 
 solution by mucus ; it consists of two nitrogenous soaps, having 
 a sweet but, at the same time, bitter taste ; the choleic of soda 
 and the tauro-choleic of soda. The first, the biline of Berzelius, 
 is the most abundant ; it contains an organic crystallizable 
 
 1 Die. Pract. Mcd. vol. ii. p. 725. Med. Times, 1842. 
 
96 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 acid, which has no sulphur amongst its constituent elements. 
 The second is present in smaller quantities ; its acid is un- 
 crystallizable, and contains sulphur. Besides these substances, 
 bile contains oleic and margaric acids, cholesterine, some colour- 
 ing matter, and certain salts. 
 
 The bile of the sheep, the dog, and the cat differ slightly 
 from that of the ox. 
 
 III. Crabs' -eyes. 
 
 The great reputation which crabs' eyes formerly enjoyed as a 
 medicine, has greatly diminished since the commencement of 
 the present century. 
 
 The River Crab or Cray-fish (Astacus fiumatilis) is a decapod 
 crustacean, which inhabits the rivers and brooks of Europe. 
 It hides itself beneath the stones at the bottom, or in the 
 hollows of the banks. It seldom comes out of its hiding-place, 
 except for the purpose of procuring its food, which consists of 
 the dead bodies of submerged quarupeds, fishes, molluscs, the 
 larvae of insects, worms, and all kinds of decomposing animal 
 matter. 
 
 The Cray-fish is an animal with an elongated body, varying 
 in colour, according to the locality from which it comes, from 
 a greenish or clear brown to a blueish green. The head is 
 confounded with and united to the thorax. The carapace is 
 semi- cylindrical, and terminates anteriorly in a curved pointed 
 rostrum, which is marked in the centre with a transverse 
 groove. The rostrum is dentated laterally, and has a double 
 tooth on the upper part of its base. The four antenna? are 
 thin and setaceous ; the external large, and supported upon a 
 pedicle with three joints ; the internal short and bifid. The 
 eyes are hemispherical, and their diameter is not greater than 
 that of their pedicles. The mouth is furnished with six pairs 
 of modified limbs ; the first pair has received the name of 
 mandibles, and the last that of foot jaws. The abdomen (im- 
 properly termed the tail) is large, composed of six segments, 
 and curved inferiorly. The first pair of thoracic limbs are 
 much larger than the others ; they are of unequal size, and are 
 armed on their inner edge with fine teeth ; they support a 
 pair of strong pincers, of which the external joint is fixed, 
 while the internal, which is much the smallest, is moveable. 
 The four last pairs of limbs are slender, and of nearly equal 
 size ; the second and third are also each of them provided with 
 a pair of pincers ; but in these it is the external joint, and not 
 the internal, which is moveable. The five pairs of abdominal 
 
ANIMALS EMPLOYED IN PAET. 97 
 
 or fttlse feet are adapted for swimming. The tail is formed of 
 five large plates, rounded at their margins and ciliated; the ex- 
 ternal plates are divided into two distinct pieces by a transverse 
 suture. 
 
 The Crabs moult at the end of the spring. These Crustacea 
 copulate with their abdomens opposite to each other. Two 
 months afterwards the female lays her eggs. The eggs, 
 varying in number from twenty to tarty, are collected together 
 in bundles, and fixed to the false feet, by means of a slender 
 flexible pedicle, which is slightly enlarged at its base. The 
 eggs are spherical and of a reddish brown colour. The females 
 carry these grape-like bodies about with them until the young 
 are hatched. 
 
 When the Orals are about to cast their shell, two calcareous 
 masses are found in the lateral compartments of the stomach. 
 These bodies have received the name of crabs' eyes. 1 They 
 disappear after the moult has taken place. Reaumur ascertained 
 that they served for the formation and hardening of the new 
 skin. It appears, in fact, that the pouches of the stomach, 
 whirh have just been mentioned, shortly before the casting of the 
 shell occurs, secrete the calcareous salts, which exist in excess 
 in the blood, and form these stony masses. At a later period 
 the stones are gradually dissolved and serve to calcify and 
 harden the new skin. 
 
 These concretions (fig. 17) are round bodies, convex on one 
 side, and flattened on the other, compressed, narrow at their 
 edge, and marked on one side with a circular groove. These 
 masses are hard, smooth, and white, consisting of super-imposed 
 layers of carbonate of lime and 
 of a certain quantity of mucus. 
 It is their form and the circular 
 groove which have obtained for 
 them the name of crabs' eyes. 
 Their diameter varies from Fig. 17. Crabs' eyes. 
 
 seven to fifteen lines in diameter, and their weight from seven 
 and a half to twenty-two and a half grains. M. Gruibourt has 
 noticed that when these concretions are placed in boiling water 
 they become of a rose colour, which is a modification of the 
 colour that the shell acquires when similarly treated. 
 
 The crabs' stones which are most esteemed come from 
 Astrakan. They have been prescribed as absorbents in acidity 
 of the stomach. They were reduced to a powder, washed, 
 
 1 Crabs' ttones, concrementa seu calculi cancrorum. 
 
 H 
 
08 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 ground with a small quantity of water, mixed into a paste, and 
 made up in the form of lozenges, which were then dried and 
 known as prepared crabs' eyes. Formerly these lozenges (called 
 trochisci) entered into the composition of a number of pharma- 
 ceutical preparations, which are no longer in use. 
 
 Other substances producing the same effects, and more certain 
 in their action, have been substituted for the crabs' eyes ; as, for 
 example, chalk and magnesia. 
 
 Some dentists still make use of these concretions in the 
 manufacture of dentifrices. 
 
 IV. Spider's Web. 
 
 Spiders, or more correctly speaking the Araneidte, constitute 
 a numerous tribe belonging to the class Arachnida. Linnaeus 
 placed them all in the genus Aranea, and classed them with 
 the insects. There are more than two hundred species in the 
 neighbourhood of Paris. 
 
 These animals have the head united to the thorax, the 
 abdomen distinct, and supported upon a short pedicle. The 
 abdomen is very large, especially in the females ; the skin is 
 soft and flexible. Spiders have six or eight simple eyes in the 
 form of hemispherical tubercles, which shine in the dark like 
 those of cats. They have eight long slender legs, terminating 
 in the male in two notched claws, and in the females in a 
 single one. The organs of generation are placed in the former 
 sex on either side of the head at the extremity of the palpi. 
 
 [Only a portion of the generative organs are situated at the 
 extremity of the palpi, consisting of a kind of vesiculae seminalis 
 or sperm reservoirs, and of the intromittent organ. The true 
 testicles are placed in the abdomen, between the lobes of the 
 liver. They consist of two long simple interlaced caeca, from 
 which two deferent canals pass to the anterior part of the 
 under surface of the abdomen, and terminate by two 
 approximate orifices, or else by a common opening between 
 two apertures, which lead to the pulmonary organs. During 
 the breeding season these testicles are found laden with 
 spermatozoa in various stages of development. These must be 
 first transferred to the extremity of the palpi, and afterwards 
 applied to the vulva of the female. 1 The female organs are 
 found at the middle and inferior part of the abdomen near to 
 its commencement.] 
 
 1 See Owen Lectures on the Invertebrata, p. 460, 2nd edition, London, 
 1855; also Siebold Anatomy of the Invettebra ta, edited by W. T. Burnett, 
 M. D., p. 394, London, 1854. 
 
ANIMALS EMPLOYED IN PAET. 99 
 
 These animals are exceedingly ferocious and cruel, so that 
 even the season of love does not alter the savageness of their 
 nature. The males, which are much smaller and feebler than 
 the females, are compelled to approach them with great 
 caution. " One day," says De Geer, " I witnessed a male gently 
 approaching his female, who was tranquilly reposing in the 
 centre of her web ; he made use of all the usual precautions, 
 and several times retreated as if from fear. . . At length he 
 placed himself beneath her, but at the cost of his life, for in a 
 moment the female seized him with her claws, which she had 
 only to close upon him ; she then enveloped him in her threads, 
 and began to suck his blood. " I declare," he adds, " the 
 spectacle filled me with a kind of horror and indignation." 
 
 Some females carry their eggs under their abdomen. Others, 
 when the young are hatched, place them on their back. 
 
 Most of the spiders can form a web, either for the purpose 
 of ensnaring their prey, or for protecting their eggs. 
 
 Every one is acquainted with the web of the spider. The 
 silk of which it is composed is secreted by irregular grape-like 
 glands. (Treviranus.) From these glands nine pairs of tortuous 
 canals are given off, which ultimately terminate in small reser- 
 voirs, in which the silky material is perfected. The three central 
 pairs of reservoirs are the largest ; the middle ones are placed 
 very obliquely ; the others are arranged nearly transversely. The 
 excretory canals of the three central pairs are nearly straight 
 and parallel ; those of the remaining six are narrower and more 
 or less tortuous. All of them converge to the posterior part of 
 the abdomen. 
 
 Beneath the anus there may be observed six fleshy pro- 
 jections arranged in pairs ; they are cylindrical or conical, and 
 pierced at their extremities with an infinite number of minute 
 apertures. These are the spinnarets. The two upper pro- 
 jections are the largest, the two inferior the smallest, and those 
 in the middle the least prominent. 
 
 While in the body of the animal the material for the forma- 
 tion of the thread is a viscous liquid. This substance is 
 transformed into a glutinous thread, which becomes firm as it 
 dries. 
 
 Each thread, although extremely delicate, is, nevertheless, 
 composed of as many filaments as there are pores in the 
 different spinnarets. 
 
 Some Spiders form a large triangular horizontal web, with a 
 small tubular chamber in one of the angles. Others construct 
 a loose net-work, which is placed vertically, and in the centre 
 
 ii 2 
 
100 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 of which they remain motionless. There are some which cover 
 up a hole in the wall or the rock with a silken covering. Others 
 construct an extremely delicate net-work, from which they 
 hang suspended. Others throw off long threads, which trail 
 along from the hinder parts of their bodies. Certain tropical 
 spiders weave a net sufficiently strong to entangle some of the 
 smaller birds, and even to offer a certain amount of resistance 
 to man. 
 
 It is needless to repeat all the marvellous statements which 
 have been made upon the medicinal properties of the Spider's 
 web. Formerly it was used as a cataplasm in hysteria. They 
 were administered internally in the form of pills in fever. 
 The celebrated Montpellier drops were obtained from them by 
 distillation, and were recommended as a preventative to 
 apoplexy. 
 
 If the web of the Spider is ever employed in the present day, 
 it is for the purpose of arresting hoamorrhage from the capillary 
 vessels. 1 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 ANIMALS, OB ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS, WHICH AEE CONSTANTLY 
 EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 
 
 THE animals, or animal productions, which are endowed with 
 medicinal properties, and which are capable of exercising a 
 decided influence over our bodies, and are therefore constantly 
 employed in medicine, are but few in number. 
 
 These therapeutic agents will be arranged in seven divisions: 
 1. Liver oil. 2. Music. 3. Vesicating insects. 4. Leeches. 
 5. Galls. 6. Trehala. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 LITER OIL. 
 
 some years the oil from the livers offish have been 
 frequently administered, so that its manufacture and commerce 
 
 1 The two-spined ant, Formica bispinosa (Oliv.), of Cayenne, constructs 
 with the down which accompanies the seeds of a cotton tree (probably the 
 Bombax globosum, Aubl.,) a nest composed of a very fine kind of felt which 
 is used with astonishing success in stopping haemorrhage. (Lescalier.) 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 101 
 
 have lately become of considerable importance. It is stated 
 that on the coast of Malabar alone, in the year 1854, 721,095 
 gallons were exported, estimated in the official documents at 
 the value of 517,167 francs. 
 
 I. Oil from the Liver of the Cod. 
 
 1. COD. Oil from the liver of the Cod 1 is principally 
 furnished by the common Cod, Gadus Morrhua (Linn.), Morrhua 
 vulgaris (H. Cloq.). 
 
 This well-known fish belongs to the order Malacopterygii 
 subbrachiata, and to the family Gadidae. 
 
 It inhabits every part of the Northern ocean, between the 
 40 and 70 of latitude. An incalculable number are found 
 every year on a submarine mountain, known as the Bank of 
 Newfoundland, which extends for one hundred and fifty leagues 
 in front of the island of the same name. England employs 
 10,000 men in this fishery. Thirty-six millions of Cod are 
 salted on an average every year. One man will sometimes 
 take from three to four hundred in a day, occupied from 
 morning to night, in throwing his line, and in withdrawing the 
 captured Cod. This fish is distinguished for its astonishing 
 fecundity. Leeuwenhoek calculated that each female con- 
 tained 9,344,000 germs. The germs or roe furnish a kind of 
 caviare. [True caviare is the salted roe of the Sturgeon ; it is 
 much esteemed by the Russians, and is imported as a luxury 
 into this country, but is an oily unwholesome kind of food.] 
 
 The Cod (fig. 18) varies in length from three to four and a 
 half feet, and measures about one foot in circumference; it 
 weighs from fifteen to more than twenty pounds. [The weight 
 of the common cod varies between twelve and eighty, or a 
 
 Fig. 18. Cod. 
 
 hundred pounds ; see Griffiths's Cuvier.] The body of the fish is 
 elongated, smooth, of a greyish yellow colour, brown on the 
 
 1 Oleum jecoris Morrhua, or oleum Aselli majoris, of the older writers. 
 
102 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 back, white on the ventral surface, and marked with a 
 white line on either side. Its head is strong and compressed, 
 the mouth large, and the lower jaw provided with a single barb. 
 It has three dorsal and two anal fins. The thoracic fins are 
 slender and pointed ; the caudal fin is not forked. 
 
 The Cod is a most voracious animal ; it feeds on fish, more 
 especially on the herrings, and on various Crustacea and 
 molluscs. 
 
 2. Oil. The liver of the Cod is very voluminous, and fur- 
 nishes a large quantity of oil. 
 
 This oil was formerly employed for the purposes of illumin- 
 ation, and in the manufacture of chamois leather ; but it was 
 used in a very impure state, not being obtained exclusively 
 from the Cod, but mixed with oil from the Shark, Tunny, 
 Conger eel, and many other fishes. Since this oil has 
 been employed in medicine the great object has been to 
 procure it free from all such admixtures. Besides the 
 common Cod, this kind of oil may be obtained from several 
 other fishes, which were formerly arranged in the same group 
 with it, and which have similar characters and properties. 
 
 The genus Gadus of Linnaeus having been broken up by 
 modern ichthyologists, unfortunately for science the name has 
 disappeared, whereas it should have been retained for the 
 group to which the typical species belongs. 
 
 The following are, however, the other Gadoids, which 
 principally furnish the Cod liver oil, or oleum jecoris Morrhuce ; 
 the Dorse* the Haddock, 2 the Catalan, 3 the Hake* the 
 Whiting, 5 the Coal-fish? the Ling? the Torsk? and the Bur- 
 lot$ The flesh of these species is usually esteemed as food, 
 both fresh and salted. 
 
 Cod liver oil is brought from Dunkirk, Ostend, England* 
 and Holland. Large quantities are manufactured at Bergen, 
 in Norway (Jongh), also on the islands of Lofodes and St. 
 John, in Newfoundland (Hogg). Prom the latter locality 
 alone there were exported in 1823, 415,000 kilogrammes of oil, 
 
 1 Gadus Callarias, Linn. (Morrhua Callarias, Cuv.) 
 
 2 Gadus JEglefinus, Linn. {Morrhua JEglefinus, Cuv.) 
 
 3 Gadus minutus, Mull. {Morrhua minuta, Cuv.) 
 *Merlucius vulgaris , Cuv. (Gadus Merlucius, Linn.) 
 
 5 Merlangus vulgaris, Cuv. (Gadus Merlangus, Linn.) 
 
 6 Merlangus Carbonarius, Cuv. (Gadus Carbonarius, Linn.) 
 7 Molva vulgaris, Cuv. (Gadus Molva, Linn.) 
 
 8 Brosmius vulgaris, Cuv. (Gadus Brosme, Mull.) 
 
 9 Lota vulgaris, Cuv. (Gadus Lota, Linn.) 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 103 
 
 and in 1828, 1,395,000 kilogrammes. Each kilogramme 
 weighs 2'20531bs. avoirdupois. 
 
 There are three varieties of Cod liver oil : 1. The White ', 
 2. The Brown, and 3. The Black. The first is the colour of 
 Madeira wine, or of a golden yellow, and has little or no 
 odour. The second has the colour of Malaga wine, or is of a 
 pale brown ; the odour is more strongly marked, and its con- 
 sistency is thicker than that of the first. The third is of a 
 clear chocolate or dark brown colour ; it has a very strong 
 odour, and is still thicker than the second. 
 
 The White oil is that which is obtained first, by simply 
 allowing the livers to drain in tubs pierced at the bottom 
 with a number of holes, or provided with stopcocks, or 
 they are placed in a kind of cage whose sides are formed of 
 coarse linen cloth ; the quantity which is procured of this 
 kind of oil is equal to about half the weight of the livers 
 employed. The blood and other impurities sink down, and 
 the oil floats at the top. 
 
 The Brown oil is that which is separated afterwards, when 
 the substance of the liver is beginning to decompose. The 
 separation of the oil is sometimes hastened by pressure. 
 
 The Black oil is that which is obtained by boiling the livers 
 in water, and by pressing out all the oil that remains in the 
 putrid mass from which the two previous kinds have been 
 extracted. 
 
 All these oils have undergone more or less fermentation, 
 and, in the latter case, the oil has also been subject to the 
 influence of heat. 
 
 In commerce, there is a fourth quality of the oil, called in 
 England the pale, and in France the white. This variety has 
 a yellow tinge, of the colour of champagne ; it has very little 
 odour or taste. It is the spontaneous production of the first 
 stage of decomposition which the livers undergo at the ordi- 
 nary temperature of the atmosphere, between the time of the 
 fishing and the operation of extracting the oil. There is 
 sometimes an interval of several days, which is a sufficient time 
 for the commencement of decomposition. 
 
 It is only within these few years that these four kinds of 
 oils, especially the three first, have been met with in a pure 
 state in the stop of the druggist. They are now clarified and 
 decolorized by chemical processes, rendered more limpid and 
 less nauseous, part of their characteristic odour being removed, 
 and probably at the same time some of their properties ; they 
 are also mixed with other oils. The consequence of this is, 
 
104 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 that many of the white or blanched oils of commerce are of 
 very slight medicinal value. 
 
 Dr. Eleury has justly observed that all the processes of 
 extraction, which have been just mentioned, depend upon the 
 putrefaction and fermentation of the livers, and that this is 
 the source of the dark colour, the nauseous odour, and repul- 
 sive flavour of the oil. He has therefore proposed a new 
 method of preparation, which yields an oil that is clearer, has 
 less smell, and is better flavoured, and, above all, produces it in 
 greater abundance. This method consists in taking the fresh 
 livers, washing, and then draining them, and putting them in 
 a pan, in which they are submitted to the action of a hot water 
 bath. In about twenty minutes the oil begins to swim at the 
 top. The operation lasts about three quarters of an hour. 
 There remains in the pan a quantity of refuse, which is 
 strained through a flannel or coarse cloth ; this part of the 
 process may be aided by gently pressing the strainer. 
 
 Mr. Hogg also prepares an oil from the fresh livers, but he 
 employs a vessel with a double bottom, and instead of hot 
 water he heats his apparatus by means of steam. His oil is 
 paler, more limpid, more transparent, and of a lighter yellow 
 than that which is called white oil. It has the smell of the 
 fresh fish, and has scarcely any taste. It is known as Hogg's 
 golden green oil. (Jongh.) 
 
 Lastly, Dr. Delattre, of Dieppe, conceived the idea of 
 guarding the livers from the action of the atmosphere during the 
 extraction of the oil. For this purpose he has constructed an 
 apparatus consisting of three large earthen vessels of a globular 
 form, which are half buried in a large sand bath, heated by 
 means of a thermo-syphon. These vessels communicate with a 
 reservoir, from which a current of carbonic acid gas is given 
 off, which expels the air from them. The sand-bath is not 
 heated until all the air has been expelled. The use of this 
 apparatus prevents the formation of oleic, sulphuric, and 
 phosphoric acids. 
 
 M. Delattre distinguishes five varieties of Cod liver oil. 
 1st. The Virgin; 2nd. The Pale yellow; 3rd. The White; 
 4th. The Brown ; and 5th. The Black oil. He has deposited 
 selected samples of these five varieties in the museum of the 
 Faculty of Medicine. The virgin oil is obtained by exposing 
 the fresh livers, immediately after their extraction from the 
 fish to a dry heat of the temperature of 104 Fah. The 
 yellow and white oils are procured, the first by a temperature 
 of 122 Fah., and the second by a temperature of from 140 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 106 
 
 Fah. to 158 Fah. The brown oil is obtained from livers 
 which have been kept three or four days ; and the black from 
 those which are from ten to fifteen days old. 
 
 According to M. Delattre the brown oil is the only one 
 which should be used for medicinal purposes. The virgin oil 
 is an unnecessary refinement. The yellow and the white have 
 no better qualities than the brown ; while the black, containing 
 choleic and acetic acids, has a disagreeable acridity, which 
 should cause it to be rejected. 
 
 Cod liver oil, however it is obtained, should have the charac- 
 teristic odour of the sardine and a fresh flavour, without any 
 acrid taste ; at a temperature of 59 Fah. it should stand at 
 392 of Lefebvre's oleometer. When a few drops are poured 
 on to a piece of glass placed upon white paper, on adding a 
 very small quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid, it should 
 produce a carmine tint, inclining to the colour of catechu. 
 (Gobley.) 
 
 Cod liver oil is a compound of oleine, of margarine, chlorine, 
 iodine, bromine, sulphur, phosphorus, and of various acids ; 
 there is also found a small quantity of lime, magnesia, and 
 soda, and a particular principle called Gaduine. 
 
 Gaduine is a colouring matter, which is at first yellow, but 
 becomes gradually darker upon exposure to the air. It is 
 soluble in alkalies. 
 
 Some writers have endeavoured to refer the medicinal pro- 
 perties of Cod Liver Oil to the presence of iodine, and for this 
 reason the proportion in which this substance is present has 
 been very carefully inquired into. According to M. Berthi, 
 there is 4*7 grs. in every 2*2 Ibs. avoirdupois. According to 
 more recent analyses, it is not more than 4 grs., but the 
 quantity varies in different samples of the oil, and according to 
 the time of year. The latter is the proportion which is found 
 in the yellow oil. In the white oil there was found 3*9 gr., in 
 the brown oil 37 gr., and in the black oil only 3'6 gr. 
 (Delattre.) 
 
 Some practitioners consider that the bromine and the phos- 
 phorus may account for the action of this substance. Soubei- 
 ran says that a great part of its medicinal virtues depends upon 
 the oil itself, and upon the aromatic and sapid bodies which 
 are mixed with it. 
 
 II. Oil from the Liver of the Skate. 
 
 Several physicians have proposed to substitute the oil pro- 
 cured from the liver of the Skate for that which is obtained 
 
106 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 from the liver of the cod. They have even insisted upon the 
 superiority of the latter for medicinal purposes ; this supposed 
 superiority depended partly upon the fact that the oil from the 
 liver of the Skate was prepared with greater care, and was less 
 repugnant to the patient, than the commercial oil derived from 
 the liver of the cod, which was thick and black. (Gruibourt.) 
 It was also supposed that skate oil contained more iodine than 
 that of the cod. Experience has shown that this is not the 
 case. 
 
 1. Rays. The Rays are fishes belonging to the order 
 Selachia and to the family Raiidse ; they may be recognized by 
 the flattened form of their bodies, which resembles a disc, 
 arising from the enormous size of their pectoral fins, which join 
 each other anteriorly, and extend backwards along the sides of 
 the abdomen as far as the ventral fins. The eyes are placed on 
 the dorsal surface of the disc ; while the mouth, the branchial 
 apertures, and the nostrils' are on the abdominal. 
 
 This kind of oil is obtained principally from the Thornback, 
 the Skate, the Sting Ray, and the Eagle Ray. The following 
 is a brief summary of their characters : 
 
 ( no spinp . 
 
 I T> v ( armed with prickles 1. Thornback. 
 
 Tail m< C ' ' j unarmed .... 2. Skate. 
 
 ( moderate .... 3. Sting Ray. 
 
 .| verylong! m . . 4. Eagle Hay. 
 
 The Thornback, Raia clavata (Linn.), from the shores of the 
 Mediterranean, is of a brown colour, spotted with white and 
 bkck. The body attains a length of twelve feet. 
 
 . ig.TJwrnback Ray. 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 107 
 
 The Skate (Eaia Satis, Linn.) is a lozenge shape. The back 
 is rough. It is larger than the preceding. Some have been 
 caught weighing as much as eighty-five pounds. [Cuvier says, 
 more than two hundred pounds.] Its liver yields a large 
 quantity of oil. 
 
 The Sting Ray (Eaia Pastinaca, Linn.) is not uncommon in 
 the Mediterranean. The head is heart shaped ; its body is of 
 a brown or livid green colour above, and white below. It does 
 not weigh more than from four to six pounds. 
 
 The Eagle Bay (Eaia Aquila, Linn.) In this species the 
 pectoral fins do not extend around the head, which is left free ; 
 and the tail is extremely narrow and long, and has been com- 
 pared to a whip. This species is found in the Ocean and in 
 the Mediterranean sea. 
 
 2. The Oil Skate Oil is of a clear yellow, or of a light 
 golden colour : sometimes it has an orange or reddish tint. It 
 has the same density as that from the cod, but not so strong 
 a flavour. 
 
 This oil is manufactured on the coast of Normandy. When 
 pure it is known in commerce as Eouen oil. It is sometimes 
 mixed with cod oil. 
 
 Skate oil may be manufactured by the pharmaceutist. Two 
 methods have been recommended. In the one the livers are 
 boiled in water and the oil is collected, which swims at the ton ; 
 in the other, which is that of M. Gobley, the livers are cut in 
 thin slices, and then warmed in a vessel until the oil has 
 separated. The liquid, which is obtained by this means, is 
 then strained through a woollen cloth, making use of slight 
 pressure. It seems to the writer that it would be better to 
 prepare this oil in the same manner as that of the cod, either 
 by means of a water bath, as in the plan pursued by M. Fleury, 
 or by means of a vapour bath, as in that of Mr. Hogg's, taking 
 care, according to the method of M. Delattre, to make use of 
 glass globes instead of pans. 
 
 MM. Girardin and Preissier have compared together the 
 oils obtained from the liver of the Skate and from that of the 
 Cod. The first preserves its normal yellow colour in a stream 
 of chlorine even at the end of half an hour, while the second 
 rapidly assumes a dark brown tint. Skate oil becomes of a 
 clear red by the action of cold sulphuric acid, and the mixture 
 when shaken acquires at the end of a quarter of an hour a dark 
 violet colour ; while the oil from the cod rapidly turns black. 
 These characters are far from being constant. 
 
 According to M. Personne skate oil contains less iodine 
 
108 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 than the cod oil. One litre or T67 of a pint, prepared by 
 direct heat, yielded M. Grobley 3 '85 of a grain of iodide of 
 potassium. This chemist was unable to find any trace of 
 phosphorus. M. Delattre in some recent analyses obtained the 
 following results : 1st. That the proportion of iodine in skate 
 oil is one half the quantity of that in the cod oil. 2nd. That 
 the sulphur is one quarter less. 3rd. That the phosphorus, on 
 the contrary, is one third more. 
 
 The oil of the skate is very mild, and infants of a month old 
 are perfectly able to bear it. (Delattre.) 
 
 III. Oil from the Liver of the Shark. 
 
 Dr. Collas has published an interesting account in the 
 Revue Coloniale upon the medical and surgical employment of 
 this oil in the French establishments in India. 
 
 1. Shark. The Sharks, like the Bays, belong to the order 
 Selachia. 
 
 The genus Squalus contains a large number of species, all of 
 which are distinguished by the length of their bodies, and by 
 the possession of a large muscular tail. The snout is supported 
 by the cartilaginous processes which are appended to the 
 anterior part of the skull ; the branchial apertures are placed 
 at the sides of the neck ; the eyes are also situated on the 
 lateral parts of the head ; the pectoral fins are of moderate size. 
 
 These animals sometimes acquire a very large size ; they are 
 extremely voracious, and their gluttonous appetite leads them to 
 seek with avidity after every kind of living prey. 
 
 The majority are ovoviviparous ; some of them discharge 
 their eggs surrounded by a horny case. 
 
 The genus Squalus, like the Baiidse, belongs to the tribe of 
 cartilaginous fishes ; it seems, therefore, logical to admit a 
 priori that the oil obtained from their liver should possess the 
 same qualities as that from the latter group. But even sup- 
 posing that Shark oil is inferior, it is not less important to 
 know that, in case of necessity, it may be substituted for that 
 of the Bay or the Cod family. (Collas.) 
 
 The Sharks are a very common fish, and are easily captured ; 
 they frequent the shores, and are seldom found in the open 
 sea. In the tropics, however, they are met with at a great 
 distance from land. In the bays they are said to live in shoals. 
 
 There are several species which are capable of yielding the 
 oil. Dr. Delattre has obtained it from the Squalus Acanihias 
 (fig. 20), from the lesser spotted Dog fish {Squalus catulus } Linn.), 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 109 
 
 from the Humantis of Laciepede (or Squalus centrina, Linn.), 
 from the Monk fish (Squalus Squatina, Linn.), the Squalus Mus- 
 tclus, Linn., and from the Fox Shark (Squalus vulpes, Grmel.). 
 
 Fig. 20. Squalus Acanthias. 
 
 2. OH. Dr. Collas gives the following directions for the 
 extraction of the oil from the liver of the shark. After care- 
 fully washing the liver and removing the gall bladder, it is cut 
 in pieces and boiled in water in a large earthen vessel for nearly 
 an hour. The fire must not be too fierce. The liquid is to be 
 constantly stirred with a wooden spoon. When the oil floats 
 at the surface it is removed. The residue is allowed to remain 
 for a couple of days in an open vessel. The liver is then boiled 
 over again and the oil removed as it swims at the surface. 
 These oils are next filtered in order to free them from im- 
 purities. 
 
 Shark's liver oil has a fine amber colour, like pale brandy. 
 At a temperature of 86 Fah. it is perfectly limpid. Its smell 
 and taste resemble that of cod oil. When it is left undisturbed 
 for some time it throws down a considerable quantity of stearine, 
 which appears as a white granular substance. Dr. Collas has 
 given it the name of squalin, in order to distinguish it from the 
 ordinary stearine of commerce. He believes that this sub- 
 stance might be useful as the medium for applying certain 
 topical remedies, which are used in the treatment of wounds 
 and ulcers. He recommends it as a substitute for certain 
 local applications, which are made use of in diseases of the 
 skin. Squalin does not seem to become rank like lard. It has 
 also a much greater consistence than the latter kind of grease, 
 which becomes fluid at the ordinary temperature of Pondi- 
 cherry, and which requires to be mixed with suet in order to 
 give it the consistency of pomade. 
 
 According to Dr. Delattre the active principles are present 
 in larger proportions in the oil of the shark than in that of the 
 cod ; it is richer in iodine and in phosphorus, but it contains 
 less bromine and sulphur. The increase in the quantity of 
 iodine is double what is lost in the bromine. 
 
110 MEDICAL ZOOLOGT. 
 
 Compared with the oil from the ray it contains one and a 
 half times more iodine, and only one-fifth less phosphorus. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 MTJSK. 
 
 IN Medical Zoology the name of musk 'bearing is given to 
 those animals which furnish medicine with the peculiar sub- 
 stance known as musk, and some other analogous productions. 
 
 True musk, and the substances which have the closest re- 
 semblance to it, such as civet and castor eum, are secreted by 
 special organs. Hyraceum, which differs from the former in 
 several respects, is furnished by the digestive organs. It is 
 the same as regards ambergris. 
 
 All the animals which produce musk, or a substance re- 
 sembling musk, belong to the class Mammalia. 1 
 
 We shall examine in a separate chapter each of the following 
 substances : 1. Musk ; 2. Civet ; 3. Castoreum ; 4. Hyraceum; 
 5. Ambergris. 
 
 I. Musk. 
 
 1. The Animal. The musk deer (Moschus moscMferus, 
 Linn.) 2 is a mammalian animal belonging to the order Eu- 
 minantia, and to the family Moschida. 
 
 It inhabits the mountains and wooded districts of Thibet 
 and China. Buffon has described one of these animals, which 
 
 1 Secretions resembling musk are found in some other mammalia, 
 as for example in the Genette, the Desman, the Badger, the Musaraigne, 
 the Musk Rat, the Ondatra, and the Musk Ox. The Crocodile also gives 
 off an odour of musk. The same is the case with the fluids of several of 
 the Cephalopoda, and with that of some insects, especially the Aromia 
 moschata ; but neither these animals nor their secretions have been made 
 use of as antispasmodics. The tail of the Desman of Muscovy, or Musk 
 Hat of Russia (Mygale Muscovita, Geoffr.), is sought for as a perfume. It 
 owes its odour to a substance which is secreted by two small follicular 
 
 f lands placed at its base. The odour is so strong that it penetrates the 
 esh of the pike and other fish which have fed upon this animal. Pallas 
 states that a thermometer which he had made use of for ascertaining the 
 temperature of an individual remained impregnated with it for fourteen 
 years. 
 
 2 In China its common name is Che-hiang, that is to say, the Deer which 
 discharges an odour ; it is also called Xe. It is the Toorgo or the Gifar 
 of the Tartars, the Kudari of the Calmucs and Mongols, the Dsaanja of the 
 Tungusians of the Yenisey, the Uoude of those of the Baikal, the Dsehija 
 of those of the Ceuta, the Gloa or Glao, or Altah, of the Tanguts of Thibet, 
 the Bjos of the Ostiaks, the Kaborga of the Russians of the Yenisey, and 
 their Saiga on the borders of the Baikal. 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. Ill 
 
 Fig. 21.- The Musk Deer. 
 
 the Duke of Vrilliere preserved for three years at his chateau 
 of the Hermitage near Versailles, where the creature seemed 
 to have become acclimated. 
 
 This animal (fig. 21) is about the size of a young roebuck 
 six months old. The colour of the skin is blackish with a 
 
 mixture of yellow and red- 
 dish brown. It, however, 
 varies considerably ; in the 
 young animal it is of a red- 
 dish grey, with patches of 
 white arranged in lines, 
 while in the old it is of a 
 blackish brown colour. The 
 most constant character of 
 the fur throughout the life 
 of the animal is the pre- 
 sence of two white bands 
 bordered with black, and 
 enclosing between them a 
 black band, which extends 
 along the under part of the 
 neck from the throat to the chest. The tail and a heart-shaped 
 space around it are naked in the male, and always moistened 
 with a strong smelling humour. On the other hand, the 
 females, during the whole of life, and the males, up to two 
 years of age, have the tail covered with hair on its upper part, 
 and with wool on its under part. The animal has no horns. 
 The mouth opens as far back as the molar teeth. The male 
 has two canines in the upper jaw developed into the form of 
 tusks ; these teeth project externally on each side of the mouth; 
 they pass downwards, curving backwards, and have the 
 posterior edge adapted for cutting. The eyes are propor- 
 tionally of a large size, and have a long narrow pupil. The 
 ears are moderately long, covered externally with reddish 
 black hair, and internally with long grey hairs. The hinder 
 limbs are longer and stronger than the anterior. An im- 
 portant osteological character is the presence of a slender 
 fibula, extending from the head of the tibia to the extremity 
 of the astragulus. The feet are small. The anterior have two 
 spurs which touch the ground, the external being the largest. 
 The posterior have two unequal hoofs, the internal being much 
 longer than the external. 
 
 The Musk Deer is a timid, nocturnal mammal, very rapid in 
 its course ; it has a leaping motion something like that of the 
 
112 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 hare ; it leads a solitary life, except in autumn ; it feeds 
 upon the leaves, bark, and roots of trees ; its flesh is good to 
 eat. 
 
 Musk apparatus (fig. 22). This consists of a sac, which is 
 only present in the male ; it is placed on the median line of the 
 abdomen, between the navel and the orifice of the prepuce, but 
 nearest to the latter. This sac is of a rounded oval form, flat 
 on its superior or adherent surface, but convex and covered 
 with hair on its inferior or free surface. In the adults this sac 
 is from two to three inches long, an inch and a quarter to two 
 inches in width, and from seven to ten lines in depth. When 
 the skin is removed two bundles of muscular fasciculi are seen, 
 which pass from the groin and surround the sac. (Pallas.) 
 Immediately beneath is the proper envelope of the sac com- 
 posed of three separate membranes. The first (fibrous coat of 
 Pereira) has, on its external surface, some longitudinal folds, 
 and in its interior numerous depressions ; it receives branches 
 from the iliac artery. (Pallas.) The second (pearly coat of 
 Pereira) is thin, whitish, and with external projections, which 
 correspond to the excavations of the first membrane ; it has 
 also numerous grooves, which are traversed by blood vessels. 
 Lastly, the third (Epidermoid coat of Pereira) is still more 
 delicate than the second; some have supposed they could 
 distinguish an external silvery layer, and an internal layer of a 
 reddish brown or yellowish colour. On the inner surface of 
 
 c 6' 
 
 Fig. 22. Musk Apparatus.* 
 
 the sac are strongly marked folds and excavations. Each ex- 
 cavation contains two or more oval corpuscles of a yellowish 
 or reddish brown colour. These small bodies are glands for the 
 secretion of the musk. They appear to be composed of a very 
 
 1 a, musk sac cut vertically ; b, its orifice ; c, orifice of the prepuce with 
 its brush of airs ; d, the glans traversed by the filiform prolongation of the 
 urethra ; e, testicle. 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 113 
 
 thin membrane, containing a brownish coloured substance. 
 Towards the middle of the external or convex surface of the 
 sac is a short canal, which passes obliquely, is about a line in 
 width, and has its internal opening surrounded by a number 
 of converging hairs. A little behind this orifice is that of the 
 prepuce, a kind of slit bounded by a brush of red-coloured 
 nairs. 
 
 Musk. In the living animal the musk has the consistence 
 of honey, is of a brownish red colour, and has a very strong 
 odour. 
 
 The Chinese missionaries pretend that this secretion drives 
 the carnivorous animals from the musk deer and thus serves it as 
 a means of defence. Pallas supposes that this matter is intended 
 to excite voluptuous feelings in the female during connection. 
 It appears that during this act, the musk sac is compressed, 
 and that a portion of the semifluid matter escapes and lubri- 
 cates the organ of the male. Oken compares musk to the 
 sebacious matter secreted by the prepuce. 
 
 When the musk is dry it becomes almost solid, granular, 
 and of a very dark brown. It feels unctuous and fatty to the 
 touch. It has a bitter and aromatic taste. Its smell is still 
 exceedingly powerful ; a very small quantity will scent a large 
 mass of any substance, and it will be retained for a long time. 
 The scent is agreeable when much diluted. 
 
 Each sac (fig. 23) does not contain 
 more than 370 grains in the adult, and 
 123 grains in the old animal. 
 
 Two kinds of musk are known in 
 commerce: 1st. The Tonquin or 
 Chinese Musk ; and 2nd. The Kabardin 
 or Russian musk. The Tonquin is more 
 highly estimated than the Kabardin. 
 This substance is not always sur- 
 rounded by the natural sac, and drug- 
 gists therefore distinguish between 
 mu*k in the sac and musk out of the sac. 
 
 Musk contains ammonia, a volatile oil, stearine, oleine, cho- 
 lesterine, an oil united with ammonia, gelatine albumen, fibrine, 
 a substance soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol, hydro- 
 chlorate of ammonia, and several other salts. (Blondeau and 
 Guibourt.) According to Dr. Hanle, bitter almonds, when 
 mixed with a solution containing musk, entirely neutralize the 
 odour of the latter. It appears, however, that the odour is not 
 destroyed since it returns to its original strength when the 
 
 I 
 
114 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 hydrocyanic acid is dissipated. The golden sulphuret of an- 
 timony, when mixed with musk, also removes its odour. 
 Kermes mineral gives it a smell of onions. (Bley.) The Arabs 
 were the first who introduced musk into medicine. 
 
 Musk is adulterated by introducing earth, sand, and even 
 iron and lead into the sac. Sometimes the scent is replaced 
 by dried blood, muscle, gelatine, wax, asphalte, styrax, 
 benzoin, &c. 
 
 [Musk is a remedy but little used in the present day. It 
 acts as a stimulant on the nervous and vascular systems, but 
 is liable to produce eructation and derangement of the stomach. 
 It may be given in substance, either in the form of boluses, or 
 suspended in water by means of saccharine or mucilaginous 
 substances. Its dose is from eight to fifteen grains. (Pereira.)] 
 
 2. Other species. Three other species of deer are mentioned 
 as capable of yielding musk : 1. The Napu. 2. The Kran- 
 chil. 3. The Ohevrotain of the Altai, 
 
 The Napu (Moschus Javanichus, Baffles) is found in the woods 
 of Java and Sumatra, where it feeds on the berries of a species of 
 Ardisia. It is twenty -one inches long and fourteen high ; the 
 colour is brown mottled with black on the back, grey mixed 
 with white on the flanks, and white on the abdomen and the 
 inner parts of the thighs. At the posterior angle of the lower 
 jaw is a white line which extends to each side of the chin. A 
 black line unites the eye with the nostrils. Its horns are short 
 and straight. The tail is tufted, and white at its termination 
 as well as below. 
 
 2. The Kranchil (Moschus Kranchil, Eaffles) inhabits the 
 forests of Sumatra, where it feeds upon the fruit of the Gmelina 
 mllosa; it is sixteen inches long and ten inches in circumference. 
 The fur is of a reddish brown, passing into black on the back, 
 and white on the inner parts of the thighs. The|line on each 
 side of the jaw reaches as far as the shoulder. It has no 
 black line between the eyes and the nostrils. The tail is tufted, 
 and white at its termination. 
 
 3. The Chevrotain of the Altai (Moschus Altaicus, Esch.) in- 
 habits, as its name implies, the Altai mountains. (Jobst.) It 
 has two white lines on its neck. 
 
 II. Civet. 
 
 The Civet belongs to the genus Viverra of Cuvier, forming 
 part of the digitigrade division of the Carnivora. It is charac- 
 terized by the possession of three false molars [premolars of 
 Owen] above, and four below, of which the anterior are some- 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 115 
 
 times lost, two large tubercular teeth [molars of Owen] above, 
 and one below in all forty teeth. This genus comprises two 
 species which require to be noticed. 1st. The Common Civet ; 
 2nd. The Zibeth Civet. 
 
 Common Civet (fig. 24). The Common or true Civet (Viverra 
 Civctta, 1 Schreb.) inhabits Guinea, Congo, and Ethiopia. 
 
 This small mammalia is about twenty-eight inches long, 
 independent of the tail, and from ten to fourteen inches high 
 at the shoulders. It has been compared to a fox, but it is 
 longer and does not stand so high. The hair is coarse and 
 long, forming a kind of crest on the back, which becomes 
 blended with the tail ; this crest rises up when the civet is 
 irritated. The fur of the animal is of a dark brown, varied 
 with patches and bands of a blackish brown. The spine of the 
 back is of a black brown colour, and the flanks are irregularly 
 spotted with the same. These patches become converted into 
 hlurk bands on the chest, the shoulders, and the buttocks. Two 
 oblique bands of this colour are seen on the sides of the neck ; 
 
 Fig 24. Civet. 
 
 they are separated from each other by an interval of a greyish 
 white colour. The head is elongated and of a whitish colour 
 but the circumference of the eyes, the cheeks and the chin, are 
 brown, as well as the feet and the posterior half of the tail ; 
 the latter has three or four light coloured rings towards its 
 base. The muzzle of the Civet is pointed, but rather less so 
 than that of the Fox ; the animal has long whiskers, and a tail 
 shorter than its body. 
 
 These animals are very ferocious, but are, nevertheless, 
 
 1 In Darfour it is called Gatt (cat) by the Arabs, and Mzouron by the 
 Negroes. It is also called Kaukau in Ethiopia, Nzime or Nxfusi in Congo, 
 and Kastor in Guinea. 
 
 I 2 
 
116 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 brought up in a domesticated state. They possess great 
 activity and run like a dog. Their eyes shine in the dark. 
 During the night they hunt after small quadrupeds and birds. 
 Civet apparatus (fig. 25.) -This consists of two sacs, situated 
 in the neighbourhood of the genital organs. They are present 
 in both sexes. 
 
 These sacs are each about the size of an almond. The inner 
 surface is pierced with a number of apertures communicating 
 with the glandular follicles, which secrete the scent. The 
 follicles are surrounded by a very vascular membrane. A 
 muscle covers the whole and has the power of compressing the 
 secreting follicles as well as the sac, and thus expels the civet, 
 The sacs open into a kind of cloaca or shallow pouch, placed 
 between the anus and the genital organs. 
 
 Besides the scent glands, there is, also, on each side the 
 anal orifice, a small opening from which a blackish and very 
 offensive humour is discharged. This opening communicates 
 with a round gland smaller than that which produces the civet. 
 
 Civet scent. Civet l is an unc- 
 tuous substance of a fatty resinous 
 nature, which is at first semifluid 
 and of a yellow colour, but after- 
 wards becomes very thick and of 
 a brown colour. It has a dis- 
 agreeable ammoniacal odour, often 
 very strong, resembling a mixture 
 of musk and fecal matter. Its 
 taste is acrid and burning. 
 
 Civet is composed of ammonia, 
 elaine, stearine, mucus, resin, a 
 volatile oil, a yellow colouring 
 matter of subcarbonate and phos- 
 phate of lime and of oxide of iron. 
 (Boutron-Charlard.) 
 
 The Civet is reared in a domestic 
 state in various parts of Africa, for 
 the sake of its perfume. Some dealers have as many as three 
 hundred. They are fed exclusively upon flesh, which gives a 
 strong penetrating odour to the perfume. (Aucapitaine.) Every 
 eight days the contents of the sac are scraped out by means of a 
 
 Fig. 25. Civet apparatus? 
 
 1 Zebed of the Arabs ( Viverreum, Gerv.). 
 
 8 a a, glands which secrete the civet; their orifices opening into the 
 pouch ; c c, anal glands ; d d, their orifices ; e, anus ; f, vulva ; g, clitoris. 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 117 
 
 small spoon, or a hollow piece of bamboo, the animal having 
 been previously secured. 
 
 2nd. ZIBETH CIVET (fig. 26). The Zibeth Civet or Zibeth 
 (Viverra Zibetha, Linn.) * inhabits the Molucca and Philippine 
 islands. 
 
 The animal is from twelve to sixteen inches long, and thir- 
 teen inches high ; the fur is of a yellowish grey, marked with 
 a number of black spots, sometimes so close together as to 
 form lines, especially towards its posterior part. The tail is 
 black along the whole of its upper part, but marked with black 
 and white along the sides, giving it the appearance of half 
 rings ; the abdomen is grey ; a black band commences behind 
 the upper part of the ear, describes the segment of a circle as 
 far as the fore limb, and forms the boundary of the spotted 
 portion, separating it from the pure white of the sides and 
 under part of the neck. Another band, somewhat larger, com- 
 
 . - ' - . . 
 Fig. 26. Zibeth. 
 
 mences at the base of the ear, taking the same curve as the 
 first, from which it is separated by a white band of equal 
 width, and then unites with that from the opposite side under- 
 neath the neck. A third descends vertically, a little below the 
 ear. Lastly, a fourth, which divides the grey of the cheeks 
 from the white of the neck, corresponds to the ascending por- 
 tion of the lower jaw. 
 
 The animal is nocturnal ; it appears to be omnivorous, but 
 gives the preference to fruits. 
 
 The Zibeth diifers from the Civet, principally by the absence 
 of the dorsal crest, by the shortness of its fur, by the lateral 
 bands of the neck, and by the half rings on its tail. The 
 animal is bred like the Civet, and its perfume is collected in 
 the same manner; it is afterwards spread out on the leaves of the 
 pepper plant, in order to separate the hairs from it ; it is also 
 said to be washed with salt and water or with lemon juice, 
 before it is packed up in leaden boxes. 
 
 The scent of the Zibeth resembles that of the Civet. Both 
 
 1 It is the Goot or Boar of the Arabs, and the Sawadu Punee of the 
 Malabare. 
 
118 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 these substances are adulterated with laudanum and storax ; 
 at other times with dried blood, grease, oil of nutmegs, and a 
 small quantity of musk. 
 
 III. The Beaver. 
 
 ANIMAL. The Beaver (Castor Fiber, Linn.) belongs to the 
 order Eodentia and to the family Sciurida. 
 
 This animal inhabits the uncultivated districts of Canada 
 and Siberia. A few are found in Prussia, in Poland, and in 
 France, where it is named Bievres. It is supposed that 
 the small river called Bievres, which empties itself into the 
 Seine, at Paris, owes its name to its having been formerly 
 frequented by these animals. The last Beavers which were 
 met with in France were found upon the banks of the Rhone 
 and the Grardon. Some writers consider that the Beaver of 
 France is a different species from that found in Canada. 
 
 The Beaver (fig. 27) is from three to four feet in length 
 from the muzzle to the end of the tail, and from twelve to 
 sixteen inches in width across the chest ; the fur consists of 
 two kinds of hair, the one close set, very fine, and of a grey 
 colour ; the other longer, coarser, and of a brown colour. The 
 head resembles that of the Marmot ; it is nearly as long as 
 
 Fig. 27. Beaver. 
 
 it is wide ; the ears are short ; each jaw has ten teeth, con- 
 sisting of two incisors and four molars on each side. In a 
 skull of the Canadian Beaver (No. 2160), in the College of 
 Surgeons, the lower incisor measured 4| inches in the curve of 
 the tooth, while the upper incisor from the same head was 
 only 3| inches. All these teeth are bevelled off from within 
 outwards so as to form a cutting edge ; they are of a dark 
 yellow colour on their anterior surface, and white internally. 
 The crowns of the molars are flat and impinge vertically upon 
 each other ; they may be described as a lamina of bone folded 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 119 
 
 upon itself so as to form three indentions on the outer edge 
 and one on the inner ; in the lower teeth this arrangement is 
 reversed. (Cuvier.) The mammae are four in number, two of 
 which are situated between the anterior limbs near the neck, 
 and two on the chest. The feet have five short toes, quite 
 distinct, and provided on the fore limbs with very strong 
 claws, those on the hind limbs are longer and are united by an 
 intermediate membrane. The tail is oval, flat, thick, and 
 covered with scales. This tail answers at the same time the 
 purposes of a trowel and an oar ; the animal constantly making 
 use of it in swimming, and also to mould the earth with which 
 constructs its habitation. 
 
 Beavers resemble land animals as regards the anterior parts 
 of their bodies, and aquatic animals with respect to the 
 posterior parts. During the summer time they live solitary 
 or in couples in holes near the water. At the approach of 
 winter, they assemble in large numbers on the borders of the 
 river or lake. If the water is smooth and undisturbed they 
 build their huts on the banks; if, however, the water is swift 
 and shallow, they first construct a strong dam across it, 
 formed of fallen trees, branches, stones, and mud ; the whole 
 being covered with a solid outer layer. The side of the dam 
 next the stream is always perpendicular, while the opposite 
 one is shelving. When it is built up the Beavers form their 
 huts against it; they are made of the same materials, only of 
 a smaller size ; there are several stages of them ; each is suffi- 
 ciently large to contain eight or ten Beavers. The works are 
 carried on only during the night, and executed with surprising 
 rapidity. Yet the only implements which the Beavers possess 
 are the'ir claws, their teeth, and their tail. l When they have 
 completed their dam and their dwelling-places, they lay up a 
 store of bark for the winter and shut themselves in their 
 houses. 
 
 Castor apparatus (fig. 28). The castor is secreted by two 
 large glands placed in the neighbourhood of the sexual organs. 
 The ancients mistook these glands for the animal's testicles. 
 
 Beneath the tail of the Beaver is a shallow pouch, which 
 may be compared to the cloaca of the bird (Adanson), and into 
 which the arms and genital organs open. The anal orifice 
 appears behind quite at the commencement of the tail. In the 
 middle on either side are the openings of several small glands, 
 termed the anal glands, which secrete an oily, yellow, disagree- 
 able fluid, distinct from the castoreum. These glands are 
 
 1 " A rchitectura in construendo domos ad ripas superat omnium animalium 
 excepta hominis." (Linn.) 
 
120 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 oblong, lobed, and are each accompanied by one or two acces- 
 sory glands. In front of the pouch is the genital orifice, 
 which communicates with the preputial canal. The latter is 
 cylindrical, and covered with small papilla?, which are pointed, 
 of a blackish colour, and are directed backwards. It is to the 
 right and left of this groove that the glands are placed which 
 secrete the castoreum. These glands consist of two oval, pyri- 
 form sacs of unequal size, which open into the preputial 
 groove by two large orifices. Those of the adult animal are 
 at least three inches in length, and sometimes as much as five ; 
 they are larger than the testicles, and cannot be confounded 
 with them. Moreover, they are 
 present in the female as well 
 as in the male, but they are some- 
 what less developed. The outer 
 surface is irregular, and in the in- 
 terior are a number of delicate csecal 
 processes which secrete the casto- 
 reum. 
 
 Castoreum. In the living animal 
 the castoreum is an almost fluid 
 unctuous substance of a strong 
 penetrating and even foetid odour. 
 
 77 
 
 \ 
 Fig. 29. Glands of the castoreum: 
 
 . -"-' n, 
 
 Fig. 28. Apparatus of the castor. 1 
 
 1 a a, castor glands ; b b, their orifices in the preputial canal ; c, the 
 penis with its peculiarly formed prepuce ; d, opening of the preputial canal; 
 e e, anal glands; ff, their orifices; g, anus ; h, part of the tail ; z, prostate; 
 k k, Cowper's glands; / /, the vesiculae seminales ; m m, different canals; n n, 
 the testicles ; o, the bladder. 
 
 8 a a, dried glands of the castoreum ; 6, a portion of the preputial canal. 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 121 
 
 The castoreum of commerce is dried in the two sacs still united 
 together (fig. 29). These sacs are pyriform, elongated, some- 
 what compressed and wrinkled, of a blackish brown colour ex- 
 ternally, and of a yellow or reddish brown internally. When 
 cut into their contents resemble a compact resinous mass, 
 intermixed with membrane or with whitish fibres. Its odour 
 is very penetrating, and almost foetid; its taste is acid and 
 bitter. 
 
 Castoreum varies in value, according to its age, and to that 
 of the animal which furnished it, and possibly according 
 to how near the creature was to the period of heat. It loses 
 its qualities very rapidly when kept in a moist situation. 
 
 Linnaeus believed that this substance was better when 
 obtained from Beavers which had fed principally on the bark 
 of the poplar. M. Paul Gervais, having had the opportunity 
 of dissecting Beavers from the Ehone, was struck with the 
 resemblance between the odour of their castoreum and that of 
 the young shoots of the willow-tree, or of its bark when 
 macerated. These trees form a large portion of the food of the 
 Beaver. 
 
 There are two qualities of castoreum : 1. American ; 2. 
 Russian. The first is divided into Canadian castoreum and 
 Hudson's l)ay castoreum. 
 
 Castoreum contains castorine, a volatile oil, salicine, carbolic 
 acid, benzoic acid, albumen, a fatty matter, mucus, carbonate 
 of ammonia, and the salts of soda and potash. 
 
 Castorine was discovered by Brandt and Bizio ; it crystallizes 
 in long diaphanous crystals and fasciculi ; its odour is the same 
 as that of the castoreum ; it has a coppery taste. It is insoluble 
 in cold alcohol and in water, but dissolves in boiling alcohol 
 and volatile oils. 
 
 Castoreum is adulterated in various ways : 1. The sacs are 
 opened and the scent removed, its place being supplied with 
 dried blood, galbanum, or gum ammoniacum. 2. Artificial 
 sacs are manufactured with the scrotum of the goat, or from 
 the gall-bladder of various animals ; in this case the sac is falsi- 
 fied as well as its contents. 
 
 Castoreum is administered in several ways in injections, in 
 drinks, and in pills. From this substance is prepared a dis- 
 tilled water, a common tincture, an aetherized tincture, and a 
 syrup. 
 
 [Castoreum was formerly employed in certain derangements 
 of the nervous system, such as hysteria, apoplexy, &c. It was 
 also supposed to exert a special influence over the uterus, and 
 
122 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 was used to promote the lochial discharge, and for the expulsion 
 of retained placenta. In the present day it is but little em- 
 ployed, being generally regarded as an almost inert remedy. 
 It is best given in substance, either reduced to powder, or in 
 the form of a pill. The dose should be at least 3ij. (Pe- 
 reira.) 
 
 The London Pharmacopoeia contains a tincture of Castor 
 (Tinctura Castorei), which is made by macerating two ounces 
 and a half of castor in two pints of rectified spirits for fourteen 
 days and then straining. This preparation, says Pereira, con- 
 tains only half a drachm of castor in one fluid ounce of the 
 tincture, and it would, therefore, be necessary to administer 
 two ounces of the tincture to give a medium dose of castor 
 (3j). The dose directed in the Pharmacopeia is xx ni to 
 f3ij.] 
 
 IV. The Hyraceum. 
 
 ANIMAL. The Daman of the Gape l (Hyrax Capensis, Ehr., 
 Cavia Capensis, Pall.). This animal was regarded by Pallas and 
 Erxleben as a Eodent, and by Cuvier and Illiger as a Pachy- 
 derm. M. Is. Greoifroy Saint-Hilaire, founding his opinion 
 upon its organization and habits, considered it as forming the 
 connecting link between these orders. The toes have irregular 
 corneous formations, partly resembling hoofs and partly 
 claws. 
 
 The Daman inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, Abyssinia, 
 and even as far as Lebanon. It never descends into the 
 plains. 
 
 This small mammal (fig. 30) is the size of a Marmot. (Pallas.) 
 "With the exception of not having a horn it is almost a Rhino- 
 ceros in miniature. (Cuvier.) Its form is heavy, short, and low 
 on its feet. The fur consists of long, close-set, soft, silky hair, 
 and of very fine scanty woolly fibres. Its general colour is of 
 a greyish brown. The head is thick and terminated by a short 
 thick muzzle. The ears are short, round, and bordered by fine 
 hairs ; the neck is short and wider than it is long. The upper 
 jaw has two strong incisors, which curve downwards ; in the 
 young animal there are two very small canines ; the lower jaw, 
 
 1 Commonly called Badger of the rocks (Klipp-daas, Klip-dasje, or 
 Klip-dasse) or Marmot of the Cape. The Abjssinians call it Gihe accord- 
 ing to Shaw, and Ashkoko according to Bruce ; the Libanians, the sheep of 
 Israel (Gannim Israel. ~) 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 123 
 
 Fig. 30. Daman. 
 
 somewhat shorter than 
 the upper, has four in- 
 cisors, but no canines. 
 (Cuvier.) On the upper 
 lip are a number of long 
 stiff black hairs. There 
 are also a quantity of 
 large hairs beneath the 
 eyebrows and beneath 
 the throat. The abdo- 
 men is very wide. The 
 palms of the feet are 
 naked and covered with 
 a soft skin. The fore 
 feet have four toes, and the hind feet only three ; these toes 
 terminate in small round hoofs, excepting the innermost toe of 
 the hind foot, which is armed with an oblique hooked claw. 
 There is no visible tail; the coccyx is reduced to a small 
 tubercle. There are three mammae on each side, of which the 
 anterior is axillary, and the two others inguinal. 
 
 The Daman is a very active animal and cleanly in its habits ; 
 although naturally savage and timid, it is easily tamed, and is 
 even capable of forming attachments. Its food consists of the 
 fruits and roots of aromatic plants ; it is particularly fond of 
 the Oyclopia qenistoides, an elegant shrub belonging to the 
 family of papilionacese. 
 
 Origin ofhyraceum. This substance is found in small masses 
 on the sides of rocky mountains, in the clefts of the rocks, in 
 caverns, and in those places generally which are frequented by 
 the Damans. The inhabitants collect these fragments while 
 they are fresh, soft, and somewhat glutinous. 
 
 Sparmann, Thunberg, Burchell, and Lichtenstein, all agree 
 in regarding the Daman of the Cape as the animal which pro- 
 duces the hyraceum. 
 
 But how is this substance formed ? Is it by special glands 
 aa in the Musk-deer, the Civet, and the Castor ? The anatomy 
 of the genital organs, which has been published by Pallas, is 
 opposed to this conclusion. 
 
 Is the hyraceum merely the dried urine of the Daman ? 
 According to Sparmann and Thunberg the Dutch call this sub- 
 stance Badger's urine (Dassen-pissat or dasjespis) ; they believe 
 that the Damans have the habit of always discharging their 
 urine in the same place, and that the urine in drying deposits 
 a certain substance, which gradually condenses and ultimately 
 
124 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 forms the hyraceum. It will be presently seen that this ex- 
 planation is to a certain extent correct. 
 
 Krauss suspected that it might be the menstrual discharge 
 of the animal, but there is nothing to confirm this notion. 
 
 Dr. Edward Martiny considers the Jiyraceum as the secretion 
 of the preputial glands, and probably also of largely developed 
 vaginal glands. But these glands would not have been over- 
 looked by Pallas in his dissections. 
 
 Several modern writers admit, and it appears to the author 
 correctly, that this substance is nothing more than the excre- 
 ments of the animal mixed with its urine which have been 
 deposited and dried in the crevices of the rock, and in caverns 
 frequented by the animal. (Pereira, Yerreaux.) The ex- 
 amination of the Jiyraceum made by L. Soubeiran, and its 
 analysis by Schrader and by Eeichel, fully confirm this view of 
 the matter. 
 
 Hyraceum. This is a solid, hard, heavy substance, of a 
 blackish brown colour, with certain portions clearer or more 
 brilliant, and having a resinous appearance. It can be cut 
 with a knife and softened between the fingers. It has some 
 resemblance to the bdellium of India and to black myrrh. 
 (G-uibourt.) "When exposed to a moist atmosphere it softens 
 and becomes more or less glutinous. Its odour is strong and 
 disagreeable, somewhat analogous to that of castoreum, but not 
 so strong, and somewhat urinous. Its taste is bitter, astrin- 
 gent, and acrid. 
 
 Hyraceum is very soluble in water, to which it imparts a yel- 
 low colour, especially when the water is hot ; it leaves a clear 
 brownish yellow coloured residue. It is but partially soluble 
 in alcohol, and in ether, to which it imparts a very light yellow 
 tint. (L. Soubeiran.) 
 
 When examined by the microscope it is found to contain 
 particles of plants ; as for example, the husks of grasses, frag- 
 ments of cellular and fibrous tissue, and portions of tracheal 
 vessels. There are also present hairs, particles of silicious 
 sand, and granules of uric acid. (L. Soubeiran.) 
 
 Chemical analysis shows that hyraceum contains a yellow 
 colouring matter soluble in common alcohol and in water, a 
 brown matter soluble in water, a green resin soluble in 
 alcohol, a small quantity of fatty matter, and a large amount 
 of insoluble residue, containing the remains of vegetable fibres 
 and quartz. (Schrader.) 
 
 The liyracewm of commerce is packed in cylindrical tin 
 boxes, each containing about a pound. 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 125 
 
 This substance has been proposed as a substitute for casto- 
 reum ; some years ago it was brought into use in consequence 
 of the high price of castoreum. At the present nme it is very 
 rarely employed, and in all probability it will shortly be 
 numbered with those substances which, after having been 
 boasted of as panaceas, have been rejected from the list of the 
 Materia Medica. (L. Soubeiran.) 
 
 V. Ambergris. 
 
 1. Origin of Ambergris. Various hypotheses have been 
 put forward with respect to the origin of Ambergris. 
 
 Avicenna and Serapion assert that it is a balm which grows 
 upon the rocks, in the same manner as mushrooms do upon 
 trees, and which afterwards falls into the sea. 
 
 Cardan pretends that it is the dried saliva of the sea-cow. 
 
 Fernandez Lopez considers it to be the excrements of certain 
 birds which had fed upon odoriferous plants. 
 
 Others have regarded ambergris as the condensed froth of 
 the sea, or as a kind of greasy earth which has become 
 hardened, as bitumen, as a species of resin, as a kind of 
 gum, as the sperm of the whale, or as the excrement of 
 crocodiles, &c. 
 
 Virey pronounces ambergris to be a species of adipocire 
 arising from the decomposition of various odoriferous Poulps, 
 which reside in the open sea. A circumstance which appeared 
 to give some support to this suggestion, was the discovery on 
 several occasions of horny mandibles in the interior of the 
 pieces of amber precisely similar to those of the Cephalopoda. 
 
 Pelletier and Caventou, who have given a good analysis of 
 ambergris, describe it as a biliary calculus. 
 
 Serval Marel has the credit of first recognizing the true 
 source of this odoriferous substance. According to this 
 writer it is produced by several large animals of the whale 
 species. It is a residue of digestion, a kind of intestinal cal- 
 culus or coprolite. 
 
 This statement has been confirmed by Swediaur and by 
 Kome Delile. It is known that the Japanese call ambergris, 
 ki'iixura no fuu; that is to say, excrement of the whale. 
 (Ksempfer.) 
 
 Ambergris forms in masses in the alimentary canal of the 
 Cachalots, 1 and is discharged with their excrements. Some 
 
 1 See p. 92, and Fig. 14. 
 
126 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 persons consider that this substance is a normal production of 
 all the Cachalots ; others suppose that it is a morbid and, con- 
 sequently, art* accidental formation. 
 
 The Cachalots are capable of furnishing it in large quantities. 
 A whaleman obtained forty-four pounds from the intestines of 
 one individual, and one hundred and fourteen from those of 
 another. 
 
 Ambergris is sometimes found floating on the sea, at other 
 times on the shore, mixed with the excrements of the Cachalots, 
 occasionally, as has just been mentioned, in the intestines them- 
 selves. This substance is regularly collected on the coasts of 
 Japan, of the Molucca islands, of India, of Madagascar, and 
 of Brazil. When the Cachalots are opened the ambergris is 
 found in the caecum, and never in any other part of the intes- 
 tinal canal. 
 
 The food taken by these Cetacea seems to influence the 
 formation of the ambergris. It appears that there are some 
 species of Poulps (Eledons) which have the odour of musk ; 
 that the Cuttle-fish and other molluscs, and even small fish, 
 which have not been properly digested, give rise to this sub- 
 stance. It is known that amongst these animals there are 
 some which exhale a musk-like odour. When the American 
 fishermen discover ambergris in any part, they immediately 
 conclude that it is frequented by some of the Cetacea. 
 
 Some have supposed that only the Cachalot has the property 
 of producing ambergris ; others, with more reason, admit that it 
 is produced both by the Cachalot and the Balaena. The principal 
 species which produce it are the PTiyseter macrocephalus l and 
 the JSalcsna mysticetus. z 
 
 2. AMBERGRIS (ambra cinerea). This is a tolerably hard, 
 solid substance, of a greasy waxy nature ; it is lighter than water, 
 and melts at a low temperature. Its colour is a greyish black, 
 sometimes yellow or brown ; it is often covered with a white 
 efflorescence, which forms on its surface and penetrates some 
 little distance into the interior. Ambergris has a mild sweet 
 odour, which extends to a considerable distance, and scarcely 
 any taste. It is more or less soluble in water and in alcohol, 
 according to its state of purity. 
 
 Ambergris forms irregular masses, sometimes composed of 
 concentric superimposed layers, and at other times of small 
 irregular roundish grains. In the interior there are occasion- 
 
 1 See p. 92, and Fig. 14. 
 
 2 See p. 93, and Fig. 15. 
 
ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 127 
 
 ally found the remains of molluscs and of fishes, such as the 
 mandibles, scales, and bones. The masses are generally from 
 two ounces to a pound in weight. They are, however, found 
 weighing as much as from ten to twenty pounds. A spermaceti 
 whale which was stranded in 1741 near Bayonne, had a mass 
 of amber in its interior which weighed more than ten pounds, 
 Masses have been mentioned of from one to more than two 
 hundred pounds weight. The East India Company, in 1695, 
 had a mass weighing one hundred and sixty pounds. In 1721, 
 Valmont de Bomara saw a mass of more than two hundred 
 pounds in weight. Another has been mentioned weighing 
 eight hundred and sixty-six pounds, which, however, seems 
 scarcely credible. 
 
 Ambergris contains ambreine, a sweet balsamic alcoholic ex- 
 tract, with benzoic acid, aqueous extract, benzoic acid, and 
 chloride of sodium. (John.) 
 
 Ambreine was discovered by MM. Pelletier and Caventou ; 
 its properties are analogous to those of cholesterine, This sub- 
 stance is white, insipid, has a sweet smell, and is insoluble in 
 water, but dissolves in alcohol and ether. 
 
 It has been stated that Foxes are very fond of ambergris, and 
 that they come down to the coasts in search of it, eat it and return 
 it in the same state as they swallowed it with regard to its 
 perfume, but altered in colour. This propensity is supposed to 
 account for the existence of pieces of whitish ambergris which 
 are found at some distance from the sea on the Landes of 
 Aquitain and which the inhabitants term Fox amber (Bory) ? 
 
 [In England ambergris is only used as a perfume.] 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 YESICATING INSECTS. 
 
 VESICATING or blistering insects are those which have the 
 power of producing a vesicular inflammation of the skin. These 
 insects are valuable external agents. They are rarely ad- 
 ministered internally. 
 
 The blistering insects consist of Cantharides, belonging to 
 the order Coleoptera and to the tribe Heteromera. 
 
 These insects originally formed a portion of the genus Meloe 
 of Linnaeus, characterized by a rounded thorax and an inflected 
 
128 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 head. This group has been divided into thirteen genera. The 
 blistering insects form nine of these genera, of which four 
 are more important than the others, and require to be par- 
 ticularly noticed. These genera are: 1. Cantharides; 2. My- 
 labra ; 3. Cerocoma ; 4. Meloe. The characters which dis- 
 tinguish them are principally furnished by the wings and the 
 antennae. The following is a summary of these characters. 
 
 x normally developed . ( filiform ........ 1. Cantharides. 
 
 Antennas . 
 
 absent .............. 4. Meloe. 
 
 The five remaining genera which possess more or less vesicat- 
 ing properties are Ifycleus, Decatoma, Lydus, (Enas, and Te- 
 traonix. 
 
 Dorthes asserts that the ancients employed the caterpillar of 
 the Phalcena Pityocampa as a substitute for the Cantharides. 1 
 
 I. Cantharides. 
 
 1. COMMON C ANT H ABIDES (Cantharis vesicatoria, Lat.). 2 
 This insect is the principle blistering agent in use. 
 
 Aldrovandus, Johnston, G-esner, and others have described 
 under the name of Cantharides several different species of 
 coleoptera, sometimes even insects belonging to other orders. 
 
 1. Habitation. Cantharides are common in the southern 
 countries of Europe. They are found on the ash, lilac, privet, 
 and jasmine. They are also met with on the elder, rose, apple, 
 willow, and poplar trees. Bichard found them on the honey- 
 suckle and on the chamaecerasus. Others have observed them, 
 but more rarely, on the walnut, the cynoglossus (dog's tongue), 
 and even on wheat. They often assemble in large numbers, 
 and devour the leaves of the plant very rapidly. Paul Her- 
 mann saw a large ash entirely destroyed by being deprived 
 of its leaves by these insects. 
 
 2. Description. The Common Cantharides (fig. 31) isl a 
 coleopterous insect, measuring from six to eleven lines ' in 
 length, and from one to two lines in breadth. Its body is 
 elongated and cylindrical ; the head is large and cordiform ; it 
 
 1 According to Hentz, there is in the United States a species of Spider 
 ( Tegenaria medicinalis,W&lck.) which the inhabitants use as a blistering agent 
 This species is common in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia. Similar 
 properties are attributed to the Clubio medicinalis, Walck. 
 
 a Lytta visicatoria, Fabr., Meloe vesicatorius, Linn., commonly called Can- 
 tharides of the shops .Spanish fly, Cantharides fly. 
 
BLISTEKING INSECTS. 
 
 129 
 
 Fig. 31 . Cantharides. 1 
 
 is furnished with long filiform antennae, composed of eleven 
 joints. The thorax is nar- 
 rower than the base of the 
 head ; it is small, and has the 
 prothorax almost square. A 
 deep furrow is seen on the 
 middle of the head and of the 
 thorax. The elytra are as 
 long as the abdomen, flexible, 
 covered with tine markings, 
 and provided with two longi- 
 tudinal nervures along the in- 
 ner margin ; they cover up the 
 membranous and transparent 
 wings. The feet are slender, 
 and the filiform tarsi termi- 
 nate in a pair of very curved 
 hooks which are covered with 
 thick-set hairs on their .under surface. There are five joints 
 in the tarsi of the two first pairs of feet, and only four in the 
 last. The body and the elytra are of a golden green colour 
 with a metallic lustre, but the antenna are black. 
 
 The animal gives oif a very strong, disagreeable, poisonous 
 odour, which spreads to a great distance. 
 
 The males are smaller than the females. Audouin has given 
 an accurate description of the copulation of these insects, 
 which he witnessed on the branch of a lilac tree. The male 
 harasses the female, who at first sluggishly opposes him, but 
 afterwards offers an active resistance. He then mounts on 
 her back and seizes her antenna? with his fore feet. On the 
 first joint of the tarsus of these feet there is a deep groove, and 
 on the tibia a strong spine or hook, which, when the joint is 
 flexed, enters the groove and forms a complete ring. It is with 
 this kind of pincers that the male grasps the antenna? of the 
 female, which he pulls and handles like a pair of horns. Having 
 thus obtained the mastery, the act of copulation soon takes 
 place. It lasts for about four hours. At the end of this time the 
 female, who has hitherto remained immoveable, and apparently 
 indifferent, struggles violently. The male, who is weakened, 
 falls off, and the intromittent organ is torn away and remains 
 in the vagina of the female. 
 
 1 a. Several eggs adhering together, magnified; 6, a single egg more highly 
 magnified. 
 
130 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 After copulation the females bury themselves in the earth, 
 where they lay a considerable number of small eggs ; these are 
 cylindrical, somewhat flattened at their sides, slightly curved, 
 of a yellowish colour, and agglutinated together (fig. 31 a, b). 
 
 The larvae which issue forth have a soft elongated body, of 
 a yellowish white colour, composed of thirteen segments and 
 provided with six short scaly feet; the head is rounded, 
 furnished with two small filiform antennae, and a mouth armed 
 with two strong jaws and four palpi. Some writers assert that 
 the larvae feed upon roots ; others believe that they are para- 
 sites. Adanson says that they devour the ants. 
 
 3. Collecting. The collecting of the Cantharides takes place 
 early in the morning before sunrise, while the animals are still 
 in an enfeebled state. For the purpose of collecting them, large 
 cloths are spread at the foot of the trees and shrubs, which are 
 then well shaken. 
 
 Some writers recommend the persons who are engaged in 
 collecting the insects to provide themselves with a mask and 
 gloves. These precautions are, however, altogether useless. 
 (Berthoud.) 
 
 For the purpose of destroying the Cantlmrides they are 
 steeped in boiling water or in hot vinegar, or they are exposed 
 to the vapour of the latter after being placed in linen bags, or 
 on horse-hair sieves. M. Lutrand recommends their being 
 exposed to the vapour of chloroform. They are afterwards 
 placed in a dry big room. 
 
 In the process of drying the insects lose considerably in 
 weight, so that each insect weighs very little more than a grain. 
 
 They are preserved in stoppered bottles. 
 
 In choosing Cantharides those that are fresh, dry, and whole 
 should be selected. When they are three or four years old 
 they are liable to be attacked by several small insects, which 
 entirely destroy them, devouring even the elytra and the other 
 hard parts. Even the best closed vessels will not always pre- 
 serve them. They are eaten by a small coleopterous insect, 
 the Anthrenus muscGorum, by the Ptinea, and by the Dermestes. 
 Various means have been proposed for preserving them, but 
 unfortunately they are often insufficient. Camphor, which is 
 effectual for the moths, is of no use in the case of the Anthrenus. 
 Murcury placed at the bottom of the bottle is said to be an 
 excellent means of preservation. (Soubeiran.) 
 
 [Dr. Pereira says he has found the addition of a few drops of 
 acetic acid an effectual remedy against the attacks of the mites 
 (Acarus domesticus) .] 
 
BLISTEBINO INSECTS. 131 
 
 The Cetonia aurata, Linn., and the Callichroma muscata are 
 often found mixed with Cantharides, as well as a species of 
 Chrysomela. (Emmel.) 
 
 [These insects are mixed by the dealers with the Cantharides 
 for the purpose of fraud ; they have no blistering properties, 
 and are easily distinguished by the form and proportions of 
 their bodies.] 
 
 4. Active part. The ancients believed that the vesicating 
 properties of Cantharides resided in the hairs which cover their 
 bodies. The active principle of these animals, Cantharidin, 
 was discovered by Robiquetinl840. This principle is a white 
 crystallisable substance, with an extremely acrid taste. "When 
 applied to the skin it rapidly raises a blister ; taken inter- 
 nally it is a virulent poison. Cantharidin is fusible, very 
 volatile, and is entirely dissipated when exposed to the air at 
 the ordinary temperature. It is insoluble in water, but dis- 
 solves in alcohol, more so in hot than in cold. Ether also dis- 
 solves it. 
 
 Is the cantharidin distributed indiscriminately throughout 
 all parts of the animal? Hippocrates considered that the 
 antennae, the head, the elytra, tne wings, and the feet are inert, 
 and recommended that they should be rejected. Schwilgue 
 has revived this opinion. Linnaeus, on the contrary, maintains 
 that the vesicating property resides nearly equally in every 
 part of the insect. H. Cloquet and Audouin are also of this 
 opinion. M. Farines, however, has stated that a blister made 
 from the powdered antennae, elytra, wings, and feet, after being 
 applied for thirty hours, produced no effect. M. Berthoud in 
 some recent experiments found that 3858 grains troy (250 
 grammes) of the thorax and the abdomen, which he terms soft 
 parts, yielded 6' 5 grains of cantharadin ; and that 1929 grains 
 (125 grammes) of the antennae, heads, elytra, wings, and feet, 
 which he terms corneous parts, yielded "817 grains, which is in 
 the proportion of 4 to 1. 
 
 Do Cantharides lose their vesicating properties by age? 
 Foster assures us that when these insects have fallen into the 
 condition of dust their remains have no action. 
 
 Dumeril, on the other hand, has successfully employed Can- 
 Ihar'ulcK which had been preserved for twenty years. We must 
 not suppose, as some pharmaceutists have done, that the active 
 principle of these insects is not eaten by their parasites ; if this 
 were really the case, the Cantharides which had been attacked by 
 them, instead of losing their qualities, would, on the contrary, 
 become more active. Observation shows that the excrement 
 
 K 2 
 
132 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 and remains of these parasites have no vesicating properties, and 
 as they become mixed with the fragments of the Cantharides, 
 the refuse which remains in the bottles can have but a very 
 slight action. According to M. Farines, the properties of the 
 dust of the worm-eaten Cantharides, compared with the ordi- 
 nary powder, diminish in the ratio of 7 to 10^. On the other 
 hand, Robiquet, M. Gruibourt, and Virey, in analysing this dust, 
 have found but a very small quantity of cantharidin. M. 
 Berthoud obtained T45 grs. of cantharidin from 1929 grs. of 
 dust; that is, about three fifths the quantity which would be 
 furnished by the same weight of sound Cantharides. It is, 
 therefore, evident that the remains of the worm-eaten insects 
 would not be altogether inert. 1 
 
 2. OTHEK, SPECIES. The genus Cantliaris contains a large 
 number of species. Dejean enumerates thirty ; and Audouin 
 raises the number to sixty-four. It is, however, very rarely 
 that any other species is employed than the one which has just 
 been spoken of. 
 
 In the South of France, a species termed Cantliaris dubia, 
 Fabr., Lytta dubia of Oliver, is found on the lucern. The body 
 of this insect is black, and the head of a reddish colour, divided 
 into two portions by a longitudinal black line* 
 
 According to M. Courbon the punctated Cantharis, Lytta 
 adspersa, King, Epicauta adspersa, Dej., from Montevideo, is an 
 excellent vesicant, and acts more quickly than the common 
 Cantharis. 
 
 The latter' species lives on the beetroot ; it is from T 5 ^ to -^ of 
 an inch in length. The head, thorax, and abdomen are of an ashen 
 grey colour, covered with small black spots. The antennae are 
 black, and the feet of a reddish colour. 
 
 Other Cantharides have been mentioned possessing vesicating 
 properties, as for example that of Syria, Lytta Syriaca, Fabr., 
 and a species from Arabia, which lives on wheat, Lytta segetum, 
 Fabr. ... M. Leclerc describes in his thesis (1835) seven 
 species, whose properties he had experimented upon. . . M. 
 Courbon has also enumerated two species of Cantharis, the 
 Epicauta cavernosa, Reiche, and the Lytta vidua, Klug, (Causima 
 vidua, Dej.,) both from the neighbourhood of Montevideo. 
 
 [There are five preparations of Cantharides in the London 
 Pharmacopieia. 
 
 1 M. Limousin-Lamotte announced to the Pharmaceutical Society of 
 Paris, that blisters made from the worm-eaten remains had acted well. 
 This statement was strongly contested, but was subsequently confirmed 
 by M. Dubuc. 
 
BLISTERING INSECTS. 133 
 
 1. ACETUM CANTHARIDIS (Epispasticum), Vinegar of Can- 
 tharides (Epispastic). Take of Cantharides rubbed to powder 
 ^ij ; acetic acid Oj. Macerate the Cantharides with the acid 
 for eight days, frequently shaking ; lastly press and strain. 
 
 This is used as an extemporaneous blister. 
 
 2. TINCTURA CANTHARIDIS, Tincture of Cantharides. Take 
 of bruised Cantharides 3 iv ; proof spirit Oij. Macerate for seven 
 days, then press and strain. 
 
 The action of this preparation is diuretic and stimulant ; the 
 dose is mlO to 3j. It should be given in some demulcent 
 liquid, as barley water or linseed tea. Its effects on the bladder 
 must be carefully watched. (Pereira.) It is occasionally used 
 externally as a rubefacient. 
 
 3. CERATUM CANTHARIDIS, Cerate of Cantharides. Cantha- 
 rides rubbed to a very tine powder 3j ; spermaceti cerate ^vi. 
 Add the Cantharides to the cerate, softened by heat, and mix. 
 
 This is used to promote a discharge from a blistered sur- 
 face and to stimulate issues and indolent ulcers. It is a more 
 powerful preparation than the next, which is used for the same 
 purpose, and consequently it is more liable to affect the bladder, 
 and to produce inflammation of the lymphatics and general 
 irritation. 
 
 4. UNOUENTFM CANTHARIDIS, Ointment of Cantharides, 
 Cantharides rubbed to a very fine powder J iij ; distilled water 
 Jxij : cerate of resin Ibj. Boil the water with the Cantharides 
 down to one half and strain. Mix the cerate with the strained 
 liquor, afterwards let it evaporate to a proper consistence. 
 This is milder but less efficacious than the former. 
 
 5. EMPLASTRUM CANTHARIDIS, Plaster of Cantharides. 
 Take of Cantharides rubbed to a very fine powder Ibj : wax 
 and suet each Jviiiss; resin Jiij ; lard ^vj. To the wax, suet, 
 and lard, liquified together, add the resin previously melted, 
 then remove them from the fire, and a little before they con- 
 crete, sprinkle in the cantharides and mix. 
 
 " In making blistering plasters, care must be taken not to 
 add the cantharides while the melted lard is quite hot, as the 
 heat greatly injures the vesicating powers of the insect. For 
 a similar reason the plaster should be spread by the thumb, a 
 heated spatula being objectionable. To prevent the blister 
 moving after its application to the skin, its margin should be 
 covered with adhesive plaster. In order to guard against any 
 affection of the urinary organs, place a piece of thin book 
 muslin or silver (tissue) paper between the plaster and the 
 skin. The efficacy of the blister depends on the fatty matter 
 dissolving the Cantharidin and transuding through the muslin 
 
MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 or paper. Some recommended the paper to be soaked in oil, 
 which is supposed to dissolve the cantharidin. Now oil, not 
 being misciblewith the blood, is not readily absorbed; and hence 
 it is supposed arises its protective influence. The usual time 
 requisite for a blistering plaster to remain in contact with the 
 skin is twelve hours ; the vesicle is then to be cut at its most 
 depending part and dressed with spermaceti ointment. When 
 we wish to make a perpetual blister, the cerate of cantharides 
 is employed as a dressing, or, if we wish to excite less irritation 
 and prevent the possibility of the urinary organs being aifected, 
 the cerate of savin." (Pereira.)] 
 
 II. Mylabris. 
 
 The number of insects belonging to the genus Mylabris is 
 very considerable. Oliver has described something like sixty. 
 At the present time there are nearly two hundred. There are 
 few groups in which the species have been more confounded 
 together, or in which the synonyms are in greater confusion. 
 (G-uerin.) 
 
 The body of these insects is generally black. Some have 
 the elytra of a dark yellow with black bands or spots. 
 
 These insects are very timid, and when it is attempted to 
 capture them they fold up their feet and antennae, and, falling 
 down, assume the appearance of death. 
 
 1. THE MYLABRIS or THE CHICORY (fig. 32), Malylris cichorii, 
 Fabr., Meloe cichorii, Linn. This species is the one which is 
 best known, and which has been most carefully examined. It 
 is supposed to be the insect which Dioscorides and Pliny have 
 mentioned under the name of Cantharis. 
 
 Habitat. This Mylabris is found in several 
 of the warm parts of Europe. It resides on 
 the flowers of the wild chicory, and on several 
 other plants belonging to the family composite. 
 Description. The elytra are of an obscure 
 yellow, with three large, somewhat zigzag, black 
 bands. The first band is interrupted and some- 
 times reduced to three or four spots. 
 
 This species of Mylabris is employed in Italy 
 Fig. 32. Mylabra. Greece, Egypt, and as far as China. Some 
 writers, however, think that the one found in France is 
 different from that of China, and that the latter alone consti- 
 tutes the true Mylabris of the chicory. The others form one 
 or two distinct species. It is at least certain that Linnaeus has 
 confounded several species under the name of Meloe cichorii. 
 
BLISTERING INSECTS. 135 
 
 2. OTHEB SPECIES. The species most nearly allied to the 
 Mylabris of the Chicory are : 
 
 1. The variable Mylabris, Mylabris variabilis, Pall., to which 
 Dr. Bretonneau has drawn attention. 
 
 2. The Mylabris of Sida, Mylabris Sida, Fabr., M. pustulata, 
 Oliv., is a large species which lives in China, and forms an 
 extensive article of commerce. According to Soubeiran it is 
 largely employed in Germany, where it is imported by the 
 English merchants. 
 
 3. The Blue Mylabris, Mylabris cyynescens, Illig., has been 
 recommended by M. Farines, a pharmaceutist of Perpignan. 
 
 The following are the distinctive characters of these three 
 species compared with those of the common species. 
 
 s bands . / ochre yellow 
 
 \ ITU.*. Jw;,*u A (interrupted I, Mylabris cickorii. 
 
 Having \ Elytra .j First band J entire . . ^ Mylabris wriabili*. 
 
 I ( reddish brown 3. Mylabris Sida. 
 
 ^ points 4. Mylabris cyynescens. 
 
 According to Dr. Collas, the Indian Mylabris, Mylabris 
 Indica, FussL, M. punctum, Fabr., is successfully employed at 
 Pondicherry. 
 
 M. Guerin-Meneville has mentioned as a vesicating insect 
 the Mylabris of the olive tree, Mylabris olea, Chevrol, which is 
 found in Algeria. 1 
 
 III. Cerocoma. 
 
 The Cerocoma of Schoeffer (fig. 33) Cerocoma Schcefferi, Fabr. 
 Meloe Schoefferi, Linn., is a small insect which lives on the 
 ^niiniuese, umbellifer, and the composite. It buries its head 
 in the flowers. It is found in the neighbourhood of Paris. 
 
 The insect is from five to seven lines in length ; it is covered 
 with down, and is of a golden green colour ; the 
 head is small and black ; the thorax is of the 
 same colour, while the antennae and the feet are 
 yellow ; the elytra -are the same length as the 
 abdomen, and are very flexible. The animal is 
 an active flyer. 
 
 There are several other species belonging to 
 the genus Cerocoma in France, in Spain, and in 
 the East, but their vesicating properties have not Fig. 33. 
 been investigated. Cerocoma. 
 
 1 The remedy for hydrophobia, which was administered at the monastery 
 of Phaneromana, not far from Eleusis, according to M. Ch. Laurent, was 
 
136 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 IV. Meloe. 
 
 The name of Meloe is given to insects allied to Mylabra and 
 Cantharis ; they are remarkable for the shortness of the 
 elytra and the absence of wings. 
 
 These insects are generally of a black colour, but this is 
 often mixed with shades of green and blue. The elytra are 
 frequently punctated or rough. 
 
 The Meloe are very fertile. Grodard saw a female deposit in 
 two layings 2212 eggs. The eggs are very small. 
 
 When the larvae are born they attach themselves to hyme- 
 noptera, which are searching for food ; by this means they are 
 transported to the nests of the bees, where they continue to 
 live and complete their development. According to M. Fabre 
 the larvae of the Meloe pass through four distinct forms before 
 arriving at the pupa stage; these consist of the primitive 
 larval form, of a second larval form, of a pseudo chrysalis, and 
 of a third larval form. The primitive larva is coriaceous, and 
 attaches itself to the hymen op tera ; the object of this is that 
 the larva may be transported to a cell containing honey. 
 When it reaches a cell it devours the egg of the hymenoptera. 
 The second larva is soft, and differs altogether externally from 
 the first ; it feeds upon the honey. The pseudo chrysalis has 
 the body covered with a corneous integument, and is deprived 
 of motion ; it is half invaginated in the cast-off skin of the second 
 larval form. The third larval form resembles the second ; it is 
 half enclosed in the cast-off integument of the pseudo chrysalis, 
 as the latter was in those of the second larval form. After the 
 latter stage the metamorphoses follow the usual course ; the 
 larva becoming a true pupa, and the pupa a perfect insect. 
 
 When a Meloe is irritated or attempted to be captured, 
 it discharges from the joints of its legs a viscid, acrid liquid, of 
 a yellow colour, and having the odour of amber or of violets. 
 An entomologist, at Montpellier, who had incautiously handled 
 some of these insects, had his hands the next day covered with 
 pustules. MM. Amoreux and H. Cloquet, however, assert 
 that they have often handled them without experiencing any 
 ill effects. 
 
 the Mylabris bimaculata, Oliv , pounded up with the Cynanchum excelsum, 
 a plant belonging to the family Asclepiadaceae, and 'upon which the in- 
 sect lived. This pretended specific must be classed with the innumerable 
 remedies which have been proposed without the least success against this 
 fearful disease (Dumeril), amongst which are also found the Cetoinia aurata, 
 the Proscarabceus, and the Tdophora. 
 
LEECHES. 137 
 
 SPECIES. Four species of Meloe are more particularly 
 made use of; the following is a short summary of their 
 characters : 
 
 .,. , ( the middle (dark violet) . 1. Meloe proscarabxus. 
 /-thick j the apex (deep black) ^ m % Meloe rugosus . 
 
 j the whole (greenish black) . 3. Meloe variegatus. 
 (filiform < notched (deep black with red 
 
 ( bands) 4. Meloe maialis. 
 
 1. The Meloe Proscarabceus, Linn., (fig. 34) has the elytra 
 slightly rugose. It is very common in 
 
 France. The Meloe Gallics, Dej., ap- 
 pears to be a variety. 
 
 2. The Meloe rugosus, Marsh, has the 
 elytra extremely rugose. It is not un- 
 common in the south of France, as for 
 example in the environs of Montpellier. 
 
 3. The Meloe variegatus, Donav., has 
 the elytra slightly rugose. It is found 
 in the neighbourhood of Paris. 
 
 4. The Meloe maialis, Linn., is dis- 
 tinguished from the three previous spe- 
 cies by the presence of transverse bands . q^ 
 
 t> i \ j/i i i mi -fife- ** 
 
 of a red colour on the abdomen. This 
 insect is found in Spain. 
 
 The use of the following species has also been recommended : 
 the Meloe autumnalis, Oliv., which is found in the neighbour- 
 hood of Paris ; the Meloe pimctatus, Oliv., under which title 
 two species have been confounded, viz., the Tuccius of Rossi, 
 and the coriarius of Hofmansegg ; and the Meloe Algeria, 
 Linn., which inhabits Sardinia. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 LEECHES. 
 
 LEECHES are abranchial Annelida belonging to the family 
 Hirundinidae and to the genus Hirudo. 
 
 They are found in ponds, ditches, marshes, streams, and 
 rivulets. 
 
 The body of these animals is elongated, flattened, gradually 
 narrowed anteriorly, and obtuse posteriorly ; it is soft, viscous, 
 and slippery to the feel, and is composed of ninety-five equal and 
 very distinct rings, which project at the sides. Leeches, when 
 
138 MEDICAL ZOOLOaT. 
 
 they contract their bodies, assume the form of an olive. Their 
 colour is more or less of a greenish cast. The back has six 
 parallel longitudinal bands of a reddish or brownish hue, 
 spotted with black, continuous or intercepted, and sometimes 
 reduced to mere points. The ventral surface is either of a 
 uniform colour or spotted with black, and bordered on each 
 side by a straight or undulating band of the same colour. 
 
 The anterior extremity is provided with an oral sucker, not 
 very concave, and with the upper lip almost lancet-shaped. 
 Within the mouth are three jaws furnished with minute teeth. 
 The eyes are ten in number, but are hardly visible ; they are 
 placed on the upper lip, where they form a curved line, the six 
 anterior being the largest. The posterior extremity of the 
 body is also terminated by a round obliquely placed sucker, at 
 the base of which and at its upper part is the anal orifice. 
 
 Leeches are androgynous. The sexual orifices are placed on 
 the anterior third of the belly ; the male orifice between the 
 twenty-seventh and twenty- eighth ring, and the female five 
 rings farther back. The first is a minute pore, surrounded by 
 a thickened margin, and the second a small transverse slit. 
 
 The copulation of these animals is double. In the act two 
 individuals approach each other; their bellies are placed opposite 
 to each other, but in the contrary direction, so that the oral 
 sucker of each is turned towards the anal sucker of the other. 
 In this position the leeches unite with each other and copu- 
 lation takes place. 
 
 The period of gestation lasts from twenty-five to forty days. 
 When a leech is impregnated an enlargement takes place 
 around the sexual apertures, which has received the name of 
 the girdle or clitellum. 
 
 At the time of laying their eggs the Leeches come from the 
 water and seek for some moist earth, where they can make a 
 hole or gallery; they then discharge from their muciparous 
 sacs a clear white and transparent liquid. (Ebrard.) This froth 
 has all the appearance of white of egg after it has been beaten 
 up. (Wedecke.) The animal, by a series of contractions of the 
 anterior part of its body, facilitates the discharge of this fluid 
 (Ebrard), and becomes entirely surrounded by it. The clitel- 
 lum swells, and a pellicle is formed upon its surface. The 
 worm appears to suffer, it twists about in every direction, the 
 posterior part of its body remaining almost stationary and 
 serving as the point of resistance. At the end of a certain 
 time, the leech quickly withdraws its head from the pellicle 
 before mentioned, and at the same time this is detached from 
 
LEECHES. 
 
 139 
 
 the clitellum. The Leech then extricates itself backwards 
 from this kind of membranous case. It thus forms an oval 
 sac, open at each end. The two orifices are then closed 
 up by a thick brown mass. Before the animal comes out of 
 the case, it has deposited a number of small eggs, accompanied 
 by a large quantity of albuminous matter. The sac becomes 
 more solid, assumes a darker colour, and forms a closed 
 capsule (embryophore, Fermond). This kind of shell is not 
 analogous to the covering of the eggs of the other oviparous 
 animals; it is a simple secretion from the skin; a kind of structure 
 which reminds one of the caducous membrane of the mammalia. 
 The frothy matter surrounding the shell dries, becomes of a 
 reddish colour, then brown, and ultimately forms a spongy net- 
 work, which transforms the capsule into a species of cocoon. 
 
 The mere drying of the frothy mucus would not suffice to 
 form the tissue of which we have been speaking. It is pro- 
 bable that the capsule exercises some influence on its forma- 
 tion, for the spongy tissues always begin to be organized 
 from within outwards, so that the deepest 
 portion is often found converted into the 
 spongy tissue, while the superficial portion 
 still remains in the frothy state. If the 
 transformation into the spongy tissue arose 
 solely from drying, it is evident that this 
 change should commence on the exterior. 
 (Weber.) Possibly the deposition of the 
 frothy matter takes place at intervals, and 
 the part which is not dried, is that which 
 is last secreted ? 
 
 Each Leech produces two cocoons, rarely 
 three. 
 
 Every cocoon encloses from ten to eighteen 
 eggs. Chatelain has counted as many as 
 twenty-one, and Charpentier twenty-six. 
 
 The eggs are hatched between the twenty- 
 fifth and twenty-eighth day. (Achard, Chate- 
 lain.) The temperature seems to exercise 
 some influence on their development. At this 
 time the young Leeches force off the flaps or 
 opercula at the extremities of the capsule, 
 pass through the spongy tissue, sometimes 
 winding their way through the different 
 laminae, and emerge at various parts of the Yig. 35. 
 surface. Grey Leech. 
 
140 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 At birth the leeches are about ^ of an 
 inch in length. They are filiform, transpa- 
 rent, of an ashen colour approaching to 
 white ; some have a reddish cast. Their eyes 
 are easily distinguished at the end of a few 
 days ; the dorsal bands or spots make their 
 appearance ; and by degrees the young 
 animal assumes the livery of its parents. 
 During the first days, when the young 
 Leeches are alarmed or are pursued by 
 their enemies, they return to their cocoon 
 and hide themselves in the spongy tissue. 
 
 1. SPECIES. Writers have described 
 not less than fifty different species of 
 Leeches; many of these are, however, 
 mere varieties not distinctly characterized. 
 In a recent work the number is reduced 
 to seventeen, and even of these more than 
 half are still very imperfectly known. 
 
 There are three principal varieties of 
 Leeches employed in France. These are : 
 
 1st, The Grey Leech; 2nd, The Green 
 
 Fig. 36.- Green Leech. Leech; 3rd, The Dragon Leech. The fol- 
 lowing is a summary of their characters : 
 
 Lateral Bands 
 
 straight. 
 
 Belly 
 
 / ~ 
 
 spotted. not spotted. 
 1. Grey Leech. 2. Green Leech. 
 
 zigzag. 
 
 3. Dragon Leech. 
 
 [True English or 
 Speckled .Leech.} 
 
 1. The Grey or Medicinal Leech, 
 Hirudo medicinalis, Linn., Sanguisuga 
 medicinalis, Sav., (fig. 35) is an inhabitant 
 of Europe and certain parts of northern 
 Africa. The body is olive green, mixed 
 with grey. On the back are six rusty 
 red longitudinal stripes ; the sides are 
 olive green. The belly is spotted with 
 black. 
 
 2. The Green or officinal Leech, Hirudo 
 officinalis, Moq., Sanguisuga officinalis, 
 
 Fig. 37 .Dragon Leech. Sav., (fig. 36) is found in the same 
 
LEECHES. 141 
 
 localities as the former. The body is of a clear olive or green 
 colour. The back has six rusty red longitudinal bands, 
 generally continuous. The margins are of an olive colour 
 both on the back and on the belly. This species differs but 
 very little from the Grey Leech. 
 
 3. The Drat/on or Trout Leech, Hirudo troctina, Johns., 
 Snm/niaufja interrupts, Moq., (fig. 37,) is found in Algeria and 
 the whole of Barbary. The body is of a clear brilliant green 
 colour. The back has six rows of spots, which are generally 
 very distinct ; the margins are of an orange or reddish colour. 
 The belly is sometimes spotted with black, sometimes not. 
 
 The last species has been long regarded as being of an in- 
 ferior quality ; but recent experiments have shown that it is 
 quite as good as the Grey Leech. (Milton, Tripier.) 
 
 These three leeches offer numerous varieties, which have been 
 described in special monographs on the subject. The colours 
 of the bands, the way in which they are intercepted, and the 
 form of the spots, have been made the ground for giving a 
 number of names which are quite undeserving of serious 
 attention. The climate, the water, and the soil seem to in- 
 fluence these points of difference. Leeches are sometimes 
 named after the country from which they come ; thus we have 
 the Spanish, the Portuguese, the Hungarian, the African, the 
 Algerian, and the Morocco Leech. The merchants divide the 
 Leeches into small, middle sized, and large. The very small are 
 called threads (flets) ; those which are just born sprouts 
 (germemont); and the very large ones cows (vaches). 
 
 The dealers often gorge the Leeches, before selling them, with 
 blood from the slaughter-houses, and thus convert the filets 
 into small ones, and the small ones into the middle-sized. 
 
 Some years back, under the name of Hcementeria, M. Fillippi 
 introduced a new genus of American Hirundinida3, which 
 differs from the ordinary Leeches in the structure of the mouth; 
 this organ is provided with a stiff, pointed, small, protrusile 
 sucker instead of the three jaws. This learned zoologist has 
 described three species: the Hcementeria Ghiliani, H. Mexicana, 
 and //. officinalis. The first is found in the river Amazon, the 
 other two in Mexico. The advantages offered by these species 
 will be referred to subsequently. 
 
 2. Action on Man. It has been long known that Leeches 
 can pierce the skin of man, and of other vertebrata, for the 
 purpose of sucking their blood. The attention of observers 
 \\ as directed at a very early period to the organs with which 
 these creatures are enabled to inflict their wounds. But the 
 
142 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 first naturalists were unprovided either with the microscope or 
 the magnifying glass, and these organs of the Leech are very 
 small and deep-seated. 
 
 Arnaud de Velleneuve believed that the Grey Leech had a 
 small proboscis in its mouth, similar to that of the Gnats ; 
 Gesner supposed that it was armed with a cleft and tubular 
 tongue. Poupart imagined that the animal had no cutting 
 instruments, and that it caused deep lacerations by a violent 
 sucking action. Bondelet is one of the first who pointed out 
 the presence of three small teeth or jaws ; his knowledge of 
 them was, however, very imperfect. Muralto examined them 
 more carefully. Dom Allou, Morand, Braun, Kunzemann, 
 and Brandt have described the jaws of the Leech more or less 
 correctly. 
 
 1. Jaws (38). The jaws of the Leech are three in number 
 placed longitudinally: one superior and median, two others 
 inferior and lateral. If the oral sucker is laid open, these 
 organs are found closely approximated at their posterior ex- 
 tremity and diverging at their anterior. 
 
 The jaws of the Leech are semicircular, thin, cartilaginous, 
 moderately strong, smooth and whitish bodies, having one 
 straight margin, which is fixed, and provided with a process 
 firmly imbedded in the muscles, while a second margin is free, 
 rounded, and cutting. 
 
 The process enlarges after its commencement, but is not 
 branched. The convex border is 
 provided with a row of teeth 
 arranged close together. Dom 
 Allou and Carena believed there 
 were two rows of teeth ; this, 
 however, was an optical illusion, 
 caused by the curious form of 
 these small bodies. M Brandt 
 has only represented thirty-five 
 teeth ; the writer has counted 
 from forty-six to eighty-three ; 
 the average number is from sixty- 
 six to sixty-seven. These teeth 
 are chevron-shaped like the letter V reversed ; they are ar- 
 ranged parallel to each other and are placed across the cutting 
 edge of the jaw (fig. 38), having their angle turned towards 
 
 1 a, oral sucker; d, oral sucker opened to show the three jaws ; c, jaw 
 magnified, seen in profile; d, portion of a jaw highly magnified, so as to 
 show the chevron-shaped denticles. 
 
 Fig. 38. Jams ofaLeech. ] 
 
LEECHES. 143 
 
 the axis of the mouth. Viewed sideways, the teeth appear 
 like a number of elongated processes, blunted and swollen at 
 their bases, pointed at their summits, and arranged symmetri- 
 cally like the teeth of a comb, but with a slightly radiated dis- 
 position. Viewed from above, and under a low magnifying 
 power, their basal enlargements appear like two rows of 
 parallel projections. 
 
 The denticles are unequal in size, the smallest being placed 
 anteriorly. They increase in volume from before backwards, 
 that is to say, towards the deepest part of the mouth. The 
 two extremities of the jaws have no teeth. These denticles 
 have been compared physiologically to the incisors of the 
 mammalia. 
 
 The jaws are lodged in a kind of depression of which the 
 margins barely rise above them. 
 
 Each jaw is provided at its base with a small fasciculus of 
 muscular fibres, which diverge backwards and are intermingled 
 with the muscles of the pharynx (fig. 38, b) . 
 
 There is also observed in the tissue of these organs fibres, some 
 of which are transverse and pass from one extremity to the 
 other, while others are longitudinal and oblique, and pass 
 from each denticle to the base of the jaw. 
 
 A little in front of the jaws, in the interior of the sucker, 
 is a strong tendinous ring, which forms the circumference of 
 the mouth. 
 
 2. The manner of biting. When the Leech is about to bite 
 it elongates the oral sucker ; it then contracts the extremity 
 of the two lips, which become everted. The upper is a little 
 more shortened than the lower, so that the organ ceases to be 
 elongated, and becomes more or less circular. 
 
 The Leech then draws a small papiliform piece of the skin 
 into its mouth. (Poupart.) 
 
 The three jaws are brought forwards ; they emerge from 
 their cases, and are closely applied against the little papiliform 
 portion of the skin. The muscular fibres of the sucker and 
 the tendinous ring on its inner surface then contract and act 
 alternately. At the same time, the special muscles of the 
 jaws draw them forcibly from before backwards, and the pro- 
 cess of skin is wounded in three places. 
 
 The denticles at the posterior extremity commence the 
 incision, these being the strongest and the sharpest. 
 
 The points of resistance are the rings of the sucker which 
 at that time are drawn very closely together, and are firmly 
 applied to the surface of the skin. 
 
144 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 In biting, the jaws act like small dentated wheels cut in 
 halves, or like very fine curved saws. 
 
 The teeth of the Leech being so much softer than those of 
 other animals, one is surprised to find bodies which have so 
 little firmness producing such deep incisions. Blainville thinks 
 that the fibrous cartilaginous tissue of the denticles owes its 
 rigidity to the contraction of their muscular fibres, and this 
 opinion is probably correct. If the transverse fibres and the 
 longitudinal fibres, which cross them, are made to contract at 
 the same time, the jaw must necessarily become rigid. More- 
 over, the longitudinal fibres passing obliquely, the effect of 
 their contraction must be to elevate and render the points of 
 the chevron-shaped denticles more projecting. 
 
 The person who is bitten has at first a sensation of pressure 
 on the part where the Leech has fixed itself. This increases, 
 and is soon followed by a sharp acute pain, resembling a com- 
 bination of pricking and tearing. 
 
 3. The wound. The wound of the Leech has a triradiate 
 form produced by the three linear incisions, uniting in a com- 
 mon centre, and forming three nearly equal 
 angles with each other (fig. 39). Aldrovandus 
 has given a perfectly correct description of the 
 wound. 1 
 
 In consequence of the lines enlarging towards 
 the centre, and their margins being somewhat 
 p. 39 undulating (the wound being rather jagged than 
 Leech-bite. cleanly cut), and as the little crust which covers 
 them passes slightly beyond their edges, it often 
 happens that the three angles are partially filled up, and the 
 wound becomes somewhat of a triangular form. 
 
 Sometimes the wound inflames and loses its proper form ; 
 it may also give rise to a slight suppuration, or even to a 
 partial erysipelas. 
 
 The H&menteria which have been mentioned previously do 
 not produce a true bite. According to the experiments of M. 
 Craveri, their wound is small and leaves no traces behind. ( ! ) 
 
 4. Suction. After a Leech has punctured the skin, the 
 mouth, aided by the muscular fibres which constitute the 
 sucker, and especially the ring by which it is surrounded, per- 
 forms the act of suction. 
 
 Morand pretends that the anterior sucker acts like a pump, 
 and that it is aided by the tongue, which performs the part of 
 
 1 " Sugendo trifidum vulnusculum imprimunt, ita ut radii ab uno centra 
 terni cequts distantes procedant." 
 
LEECHES. 145 
 
 a piston. Unfortunately for this explanation Leeches have 
 no tongue ; Morand having mistaken for the latter organ the 
 suboesophageal ganglia placed on the exterior of the oesophagus. 
 
 Durondeau believed that the whole of the digestive system 
 from the tail to the head served to draw the blood. But one 
 simple fact suffices to destroy this theory ; it is this that when 
 a Leech is cut in two, it will still continue to perform the act 
 of suction. Moreover, the structure of the alimentary canal is 
 physically opposed to this general act of imbibition. 
 
 The experiments of Swayne and Johnson have shown that 
 in the operation of which we are speaking the animal does not 
 withdraw its jaws from the wound, as many writers have 
 asserted. We admit this fact, which we have also verified, 
 but we believe that the muscular fibres which draw the jaws 
 backwards and press them together towards a common centre, 
 relax a little, the jaws then return to the beginning of the in- 
 cisions, and as they diverge leave the centre of the wound 
 exposed. This part of the wound is the largest and the 
 deepest, and is that which principally furnishes the current of 
 blood. 
 
 3. The quantity of Hood drawn. Writers have never been 
 agreed as to the quantity of blood which a Leech is capable of 
 drawing. 
 
 Tyson remarks that this animal eats more than its own 
 weight at a meal. He compares it to a silk- worm, which, in the 
 course of a day, will consume a quantity of leaves of a greater 
 weight than its own body. 
 
 Ray says, that a Leech weighing 60 grs. will suck up three 
 times that quantity of blood ; while Adanson states that one 
 weighing 30 grs. will absorb 240 grs., that is to say, eight 
 times its own weight. Simon Bonnet believed the average 
 quantity to be from 92 grs. to 138 grs. ; but as a considerable 
 quantity of blood oozes from the wound, if left to itself the 
 patient probably loses from 118 grs. to 277 grs. of blood. 
 According to M. Alphonse Sanson one Leech will consume 
 247 grs. ; according to my own calculations it would be 
 231 grs. 
 
 Braun has remarked that the quantity of blood sucked up 
 does not increase in proportion to the size of the animal. 
 According to this writer a young Leech will consume three 
 times its weight, and a full-grown one only twice its weight. 
 According to M. Alphonse Sanson the small will consume 
 three times and four-fifths ; the middle sized small four times 
 and two-thirds ; the middle sized large seven times ; and the 
 
 L 
 
146 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 large five times and one-third of their own weight. I have 
 repeated these experiments with the following results. M. 
 Sanson experimented on six individuals ; my calculations are 
 based upon the results obtained from twenty individuals. 
 Small Leeches, two and a half times ; the small middle-sized, 
 four times ; the large middle-sized, five and a half times ; and 
 the large, five times and one eleventh part of their own weight. 
 "We find, therefore, that the middle sized large Leeches are 
 those which relatively consume the largest quantity of blood. 
 
 [Pereira says, " the quantity of blood a leech is capable of 
 drawing varies considerably. I believe four drachms to be the 
 maximum. On an average I do not think we ought to 
 estimate it at more than one drachm and a half. Of course 
 this has no reference to that lost after the animal has fallen 
 oif, which varies according to the vascularity of the part ; in 
 children being oftentimes very considerable. When the leech 
 has had sufficient it drops off"; but it is said if the tail be 
 snipped, the animal will continue to bite, the blood passing 
 out posteriorly as fast as it is taken in by the mouth. I have 
 tried several, but they usually let go their hold the instant the 
 tail is cut. H. Cloquet has made the same remark.] 1 
 
 These results, however, will vary with the species and race 
 of Leech employed ; according also as to whether the indi- 
 viduals are strong or unhealthy ; as to whether they are par- 
 tially gorged or not, and also as to whether they have come 
 direct from the waters of their native marshes, or from the 
 artificial reservoir of a chemist's shop. 
 
 The digestive system of the Leech consists of eleven pairs 
 of gastric pouches. These pouches increase in size as they 
 proceed backwards, the last pair being very much larger 
 than those which precede them. This arrangement accounts 
 for the large quantity of blood which these animals are capable 
 of retaining. 
 
 Eor a long time it was the custom to throw away all 
 Leeches which had been used, but they are now disgorged and 
 preserved for a future occasion. This disgorgement can be 
 accomplished in various ways, as with salt, alum, sugar, ashes, 
 tobacco, ipecacuanha, chalk, lime, charcoal, sawdust ; or with 
 salt and water, sea water, dilute vinegar, wine, beer, infusion 
 of absinth, &c. Some have recommended friction, pressure, 
 or even puncturing the animal. One of the best methods of 
 disgorgement is to place the Leeches in a solution composed of 
 
 1 Pereira, Materia Medico,, vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 2197, 3rd ed. London, 1853. 
 
LEECHES. 147 
 
 sixteen parts of sea salt to one hundred of water at a tempera- 
 ture of between 104 Fah. and 113 Fah. The Leeches are 
 then pressed gently, and afterwards placed in fresh water. 
 
 In some places the Leeches are simply thrown into the re- 
 servoirs, where they are left for some months. 
 
 The gorged Leeches are excellent for the purpose of repro- 
 duction. 
 
 3. HIRUDINICULTTTRE. The enormous consumption of 
 Leeches and their increasing scarceness have induced persons 
 to rear them artificially. Hirudiniculture has for some years 
 been an important branch of commerce, particularly in the 
 Gironde and some other districts of the southern departments. 
 
 The Leeches are placed in large artificial marshes, in which 
 the water is always kept at a uniform level. Care is taken to 
 place a supply of clay or of peat at the bottom and on the 
 margins. Aquatic plants are also provided for the purifica- 
 tion of the water and on which the Leeches can rub them- 
 selves or take refuge. 
 
 M. Vayson, of Bordeaux, has recently suggested a small 
 domestic marsh (a vaysonier), which will be exceedingly useful 
 to the pharmaceutist and to persons who are desirous of 
 raising Leeches on a small scale. This apparatus consists of 
 a common earthen vessel, having the form of a truncated cone 
 reversed. The lower part is perforated by a number of holes, 
 but not so large as to allow of the Leeches passing through 
 them ; the vessel is then filled with peat earth, and a number 
 of Leeches are placed upon it, which embed themselves in the 
 earth. The upper opening of the vessel is then covered up 
 with a piece of coarse canvas. When it is desired to send 
 the leeches to a distance the earth is made as damp as possi- 
 ble, and the vessel is packed in a box or wicker basket. 
 When it is only wanted to preserve the animals, the lower 
 part of the vessel is placed in water to the depth of about four 
 inches, and the creatures are left to themselves. In conse- 
 quence of the infiltration, the lower layers of the peat are soon 
 saturated with water, while the upper portion is almost dry. 
 The Leeches know perfectly well how to choose between these 
 two extremes the layer which is best adapted for them, anfl 
 form in it galleries, in which they live, grow, and produce 
 their cocoons. The vaysonier will answer both for the pre- 
 servation, the conveyance, and reproduction of the Leeches. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 GALLS. 
 
 Galls l are excrescences or growths of the tissues of plants 
 arising from the puncture of certain insects, and which are 
 destined to lodge and nourish their larva. These excrescences 
 are hollow and consist of an astringent tissue. 
 
 They may be divided into two kinds : 1. Galls ; 2. Cases. 
 
 The first are more or less of a round form, have very thick 
 walls, and are produced by different species of Cynips. 
 
 The second are more or less elongated, have very thin walls, 
 and are produced by different species of Aphides. 
 
 I. Galls. 
 
 1. CYNIPS. The Cynips are minute Hymenoptera, belong- 
 ing to the subdivision Terebrantia and to the family Pupivora. 
 
 These insects have the head very small and the thorax 
 dilated superiorly ; they look as if they were deformed ; the 
 abdomen is compressed into a keel and cutting on its under 
 surface, obliquely truncated, and obtuse at its termination. 
 
 The Cynips puncture the plants by means of a special in- 
 strument; and introduce one or several eggs into the small 
 cavity they have formed. The eggs soon increase in size ; the 
 larva? have no feet, but are often provided with fleshy tubercles 
 in place of them. The larvae are enclosed in the gall, which 
 grows around them, and where they remain for five or six 
 months ; some of them undergo their metamorphoses in this 
 kind of prison, while others issue forth and bury themselves in 
 the earth. 
 
 Cynips of the common gall Cynips gallcetinctoria, Linn, 
 (fig. 40). This is one of the most interesting of these small 
 insects. It is of a pale yellow colour, and is covered with 
 a whitish silky down ; the under surface of the abdomen is 
 black and shining; the nervures of the anterior wings are 
 brown. 
 
 Terebra (fig. 41). The instrument by means of which the 
 insect punctures the plant and produces the gall is only 
 present in the female. It is a kind of auger or borer placed 
 at the extremity of the body, having a curved form, and lodged 
 
 1 These formations belong to botany as well as to zoology. 
 
GALLS. 149 
 
 in the interior of the abdomen; its posterior extremity is 
 placed beneath the anus, in a central canal, between two long 
 ciliated valves, each of which forms a half sheath. The borer 
 
 Fig. 40. Cynips. Fig. 41. Terebra of Cynips* 
 
 looks as if it consisted of a single and very delicate seta 
 (Latreille), but when magnified it is seen to be composed of 
 three capillary pointed threads, of which the central is some- 
 what longer than the two lateral. 
 
 The Cynips thrust this instrument into the tissues of the 
 plant. 
 
 When a twig or a leaf has been punctured, the nutrient 
 juices flow towards the wound, and an excrescence is formed, 
 which gradually increases in size and hardness. 
 
 2. GALLS. There are few plants which do not haveyaZfo, 
 but they are found more especially on the oak, poplar, elm, 
 birch, pine, rose-tree, ivy, &c. 
 
 These excrescences have sometimes only a single cavity, in- 
 habited by one larva ; at other times there are several cavities, 
 either communicating with each other or separate, and form- 
 ing the dwelling-places of a similar number of larva. The 
 larva gradually consume the interior of their house, without 
 however destroying it, as the latter continues to increase in 
 proportion to the growth of the insect. 
 
 Eeaumur noticed that the kind of insect exercised great 
 influence over the form and consistency of the gall, so that 
 where there are several of these excrescences growing on the 
 same leaf, some may be woody, others herbaceous ; some 
 smooth or tuberculated, while others are granulated or haired. 
 
 In a medical point of view galls may be divided into the 
 common or true galls and into the hairy galls or bedeguars. 
 
 1. True galls. These well-known productions are of a more 
 
 1 A, extremity of the abdomen, magnified ; a, terebra ; b, the valves ; B, 
 the terebra separate and still more magnified ; a, the three threads of the 
 terebra ; b b, the valves. 
 
150 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 or less rounded form, regular or irregular in shape, and more 
 or less solid. The best known is the Aleppo gall 1 (fig. 42), 
 which is found on the dyers' oak, Quercus infectoria. It is 
 produced by the species of Cynips which has been previously 
 spoken of. This gall is about the size of a nut ; it is heavy, 
 and of a globular form ; the surface is smooth, but presents 
 here and there some irregular tubercles. Its colour is a 
 blackish or yellowish green ; it has strong astringent pro- 
 perties. Care is taken to gather the gall before the insect 
 has escaped. 
 
 The galls, which are left on the trees, and which are col- 
 lected after the escape of the Cynips, may be recognized by 
 the presence of a round hole, which is made by the insect, and 
 by their lightness. These galls are only slightly astringent, 
 and are of a lighter colour (white galls). The best galls come 
 from Syria; those of Smyrna or the Morea are larger, but 
 lighter, and not so good in quality. 
 
 When a gall is cut through there is seen 1, a small cavity 
 in the centre, in which is the larva; 2, a not very thick, 
 light, spongy layer, of a yellow or brown colour in its sub- 
 stance, but white at the surface around the central cavity ; 
 this layer contains a small quantity of starch (Gruibourt), and 
 appears intended for the nourishment of the insect ; 3, three 
 or four large cavities, which appear to be formed by the 
 separation or folding together of certain fleshy curved scales ; 
 these provide for the respiration of the larva ; 4, another sub- 
 stance which is present in large quantities, and has a compact 
 radiating structure, which when magnified is seen to be made 
 up of shining particles ; 5, an external green layer containing 
 chlorophus and a volatile oil. 
 
 The different species of oak produce a great number of galls 
 more or less resembling the common gall? Some of these have 
 been carefully examined. 
 
 The smooth gall, which Heaumur termed gall of the petiole 
 of the oak, grows on the young branches of the English oak 
 (Quercus sessiflora, Smith), in the neighbourhood of Paris, and 
 on those of the Quercus Pyrenaica, Willd., near Bordeaux. It 
 is from T 6 ^ to T 8 ^ of an inch in diameter ; it is light, spherical, 
 without tubercles, of a reddish colour, and of a spongy texture. 
 
 1 Commonly called nutgall, painter's gall, Levant gall, and black or green 
 gall. 
 
 2 The other galls owe their origin to different species of Cynips ; amongst 
 them is that of the common oak (C. quercus folii, Linn.), and that of the 
 C. quercus togoe of Fabricius. 
 
GALLS. 
 
 151 
 
 Sometimes it contains only a single cavity, while at other 
 times there are three or four, and the same number of Cynips. 
 With this species may be associated the round galls on 
 the leaves of the oak, tnose which Reaumur terms currant 
 galls, and the gooseberry seed galls, which only differ in respect 
 to their size. 
 
 Fig. 42. Common Gall. 
 
 Fig. 43. -Section of Gall. 1 
 
 The crowned gall is probably produced by the buds being 
 puncturing at an early stage of their development. Its form 
 is spherical, and it has a short pedicle ; above there is a crown 
 of blunt spines or tubercles. Such is the small crowned gall of 
 Aleppo. 
 
 The horned gall of M. Guibourt appears as if it were attached 
 by its centre to a very young branch. It is irregular, and seems 
 to be formed by the union of several bodies, which are dilated 
 at their bases, and horned at their summits. It is light, 
 woody, of a yellowish colour, and hollowed internally into 
 a number of chambers, each of which is surrounded by a 
 
 1 a, the cavity; 6, nutritive layer; c, air chambers; d, radiated sub- 
 stance; e, envelope. 
 
152 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 radiating substance. Each chamber opens externally by a 
 separate aperture. 
 
 The gall of Hungary, called also gall of Piedmont, is an 
 irregular excrescence, which grows on the acorn of the English 
 oak, after the ovary has been fecundated. The gall sometimes 
 occupies half the cup, while the remainder of the acorn grows 
 beside it ; at other times, it occupies the whole cup. In the 
 centre of the gall is a small cavity, surrounded by a layer of 
 half-woody matter ; air enters the cavity from its summit. 
 
 The squamous gall, which E/eaumur called artichoke gall, is 
 also found on the English oak. It resembles the cone of the 
 hop ; it arises from the abnormal development of the in- 
 volucrum of the female flower previous to fecundation. 
 Internally, there is a kind of woody receptacle, which Eeaumur 
 compared to the lower part of the artichoke ; this also arises 
 from the excessive development of the base of the involucrum. 
 The receptacle projects slightly at the margin, which gives it a 
 cup-like appearance. 1 
 
 The characters of the several galls which have been men- 
 tioned might be arranged as follows : 
 
 of 
 
 one piece 
 Galls ' 
 
 regular 
 
 {tubercular . . 1. Aleppo. 
 non- 
 tubercular . . 2. Smooth. 
 
 non- 
 
 spherical 3. Crowned. 
 
 ( with horns 4. Horned. 
 
 I YULJU llUrilB ". J.J.1SI IIKU,. 
 
 ir (without horns 5. Hungarian. 
 
 6. Squamous. 
 
 Nutgalls contain tannin, gallic, ellagic, and luteogallic 
 acids ; chlorophyl, a volatile oil, extractive matter, woody 
 fibre, gum, starch, liquid sugar, albumen, and various salts, 
 amongst others the gallates of potash and lime. Berzelius also 
 admits the presence of a small quantity of pectic acid, and 
 combined with the tannin. 
 
 M. Pelouze has carefully studied the tannin obtained from 
 nutgalls. It is a solid, colourless, inodorous, non-crystallizable 
 substance ; it has an astringent but not bitter taste ; it red- 
 dens litmus ; it is very soluble in water, but scarcely at all so 
 in ether ; and it gives a black or green precipitate with the 
 
 1 Tournefort states that at Scio the galls of Salvia pomifera, Linn., are 
 collected for the purpose of making a kind of sweetmeat of them. Accord- 
 ing to Lesson the same might be done with those of the ground ivy 
 (Glechoma hederacea, Linn.). 
 
GALLS. 153 
 
 salts of the peroxide of iron. It is one of the most powerful 
 astringents known. 
 
 Nutgalls or tannin are made into pills, into an ointment, an 
 electuary, and into various drinks and gargles ; from them is 
 prepared the antihoemorrhdidal ointment of Cullen, and a 
 powder for the purposes of embalming. 
 
 [There are three preparations of galls ordered in the 
 Pharmacopoeia. 
 
 1. DECOCTUM GALLJE, Decoction of Galls. Bruised galls 
 Jijss ; distilled water Oij. Boil down to a pint and strain. 
 Employed as a chemical antidote and test. 
 
 2. TINCTURA G-ALLjE, Tincture of Galls. Bruised galls Jv ; 
 proof spirit Oij. Macerate for seven days, then press and 
 strain. A powerful astringent. Dose from f3ss. to f3ij. 
 Diluted with water, it forms a useful and convenient astrin- 
 gent, gargle, and wash. (Pereira.) 
 
 3. UNGUENTUM GALL.E COMPOSITTJM, Compound oint- 
 ment of Galls. Finely powdered nut-galls 3vj; lard Jvj. 
 powdered opium 3 iss. Eub together. Astringent. Used in 
 hremorrhoidal affections. Mixed, says Pereira, with zinc oint- 
 ment it is applied to piles after the inflammatory stage is 
 passed.] 
 
 2. Bedeyuars. 1 This name is given to galls which are 
 covered with numerous close-set fibres or hairs. 
 
 The bedeguars which are best known are those of the rose 
 tree ; they are caused by the Oynips TOSCB of Linnaeus (Diplo- 
 lepis ros&, Oliv.), a small hymenopterous insect of a shining 
 black colour, with the feet and abdomen, excepting at its ter- 
 mination, of a feruginous brown colour ; the wings are trans- 
 parent, and of a smoky hue. * MM. Brandt and Eatzebourg 
 have given a good description of them. 
 
 The bedeguars are round or oval, more or less irregular, ex- 
 crescences, sometimes resembling medlars (Blanchard) ; they 
 are covered with filiform or scale-like processes ; they are often 
 branched, and are of a green, reddish, or purple colour. In 
 the interior are a number of larvae living in separate cells, 
 which are each provided with hard thick walls ; in these the 
 insects pass the winter as pupae. 
 
 1 Commonly called soft apples, or vegetable sponges. [In some parts of 
 England they are called Robin's cushion.] 
 
 2 In these excrescences there is often found the Diplolepis bedegaris of 
 Oliver, a small insect of a bright golden green colour ; this is a parasite on 
 the first. 
 
154 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Formerly bedeguars were employed in medicine on account 
 of their stringent properties. 
 
 II. Cases. 
 
 The cases or vesicles (folliculi, Linn.) not only differ from the 
 galls by their less rounded form, their thinness, and the kind 
 of insect which gives rise to them, but also with regard to 
 their cavity, which is always much larger, and is capable of 
 containing an entire colony of the insects. 
 
 1. APHIDES. The aphides or plant-lice which reside in 
 the cases are small hemiptera, belonging to the subdivision 
 Homoptera, and to the family of the Hymenelytra. 
 
 The body is soft and ovate ; the head small, with the antennae 
 longer than the body ; the second segment of the thorax is 
 large and elevated; the elytra and the wings membranous. 
 At the extremity of the abdomen are two hollow tubercles, from 
 which a saccharine fluid is discharged. 
 
 These insects feed upon the juices of the plants, upon which 
 they live in large numbers. In spring and summer each 
 colony contains demi-pupa, which are apterous, but afterwards 
 acquire wings, and other individuals who are always apterous. 
 All these individuals are females, who are ovoviviparous without 
 previous copulation. The young emerge from the posterior 
 part of the abdomen of the mother. The males only ap- 
 pear towards the close of summer ; these are also apterous ; 
 they impregnate the last generation, which is produced by 
 the preceding individuals ; these impregnated females are ovi- 
 parous. The influence of a single impregnation extends over 
 several generations to the number of eight or nine. (Bonnet, 
 Duvau.) 
 
 The Aphides multiply enormously. Reaumur calculated 
 that five generations proceeding from a single mother, if no 
 obstacle intervened, might give rise to the astounding number 
 of 5,904,900,000 individuals. 
 
 Rostrum. This organ, which is nearly perpendicular, arises 
 from the under surface of the head, between the anterior 
 pair of limbs ; it is composed of three joints. The animal 
 uses it to puncture the leaves and young twigs of the plant. 1 
 
 2. Cases. One of the most curious of these formations is that 
 which is known as the Chinese gall (fig. 44) . a 
 
 1 The disease of certain trees, known as honey dew, is produced by dif- 
 ferent species of Aphides. 
 8 In China it is commonly called Yen-fou-tsze. 
 
GALLS. 155 
 
 This case grows on the leaves of Distyliitm recemosum, Zucc., 1 
 a large tree of Japan, belonging to the family hamamelida. 
 (Decasaine.) 2 According to M. Guibourt it is also developed 
 on the buds of the tree. 
 
 The insect which produces these cases belongs to the genus 
 Aphis, or to one which is closely allied to it (Doubleday) ; it 
 has been named Aphis Chinensis, Bell. 
 
 It is a minute ovate insect, truncated posteriorly with 
 moderately long antennae, composed of five unequal joints. 
 
 The Chinese Galls are large: some equal a chesnut in 
 size, others the closed hand. (Duhalde.) 
 Their form is an irregular oblong, with 
 angular protuberances, which sometimes 
 have the appearance of horns ; some are 
 single, others are bifurcated, and occasion- 
 ally they are divided into three or more 
 lobes. The colour of these cases is at 
 first a dull green, it then becomes yellow, 
 and ultimately of a reddish grey. The sur- 
 face has a soft feel like that of velvet ; 
 when examined by a lens it is seen to be 
 covered with a very short compact down. 
 The cavity of the excrescence is very large, 
 arising from the thinness of its walls 
 (TST to -h of ^ inc ^). Tne tissue of 
 which it is composed is firm, hard, and 
 brittle. When one of these galls is broken 
 it has a whitish, translucent, and re- 
 sinous appearance. Its taste is astringent 
 without any flavour or smell of resin. 
 (Guibourt.) The inner surface is covered Fig. 44. Chinese Gall. 
 with a substance, having a chalky appearance. (Pereira.) In 
 the interior is found the remains of a large number of Aphides. 
 The Chinese galls are gathered in before the occurrence of frost ; 
 the insects which they contain are destroyed by exposing them 
 to the vapour of boiling water. 
 
 These cases are of great use, and are held in high estimation 
 in China as a powerful astringent, not only for medical pur- 
 poses, but also for dyeing. 
 
 Allied to the Chinese galls me certain excrescences which are 
 found in the East, and also in the South of France, and which 
 are produced by another species of Aphis: these are the 
 
 1 Commonly called in Japan Ou pey-tse, Ou-pei-tse, Woo-pei-tse. 
 9 According to M. Schenk it is a terebinthaceae, the fihus semialata, 
 Murr. var. /3 Osbekii DC. 
 
156 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 vesicles or galls of the pistacias. These false galls are found on 
 the Pistacia vera, P. Terebinthus, and the 
 P. Lentiscus. The insect which produces 
 them is the Aphis Pistacite, Linn., a small 
 black insect, with a roughened thorax, 
 very long legs, and white wings. 1 
 
 The cases from the pistacias are at first 
 of a green and afterwards of a red colour, 
 mammelated, light, with a turpentine 
 flavour, and very astringent. 
 
 They are distinguished into three kinds, 
 according to their form : the siliquose, 
 which grow at the extremity of the 
 branches ; the globular, which occur on 
 the peduncles ; and those which are formed 
 like a cushion on the surface of the 
 leaves. The first are sometimes three 
 inches in length and resemble the pod 
 of a leguminous plant. They are known 
 in Judea under the name of caroub. 
 The second and third often resemble the 
 fruit of the turpentine tree. These are 
 known under the name of baisonges? 
 
 These excrescences are eaten by the 
 inhabitants of the East. They are often 
 employed as a substitute for the common 
 Fig.45. TurpentineGall ga u S) an d they are also used as a red dye. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE TREHALA. 
 
 THE treJiala or tricula 3 is a singular case which is well known 
 at Constantinople and in some some parts of the East. 
 
 At the last great exhibition some of these cases were sent 
 from Turkey by M. Delia Sudda as a particular species of 
 manna, without any other explanation appended to them than 
 the word trehala. 
 
 This production is described in the Persian Pharmacopeia 
 
 1 It is probable that Linnaeus has included several species under the same 
 name, and that this character is peculiar to the lentiscus. 
 
 8 In the Levant the Arabs call them egi, engi, or basengi, and the Turks 
 
GALLS. 
 
 157 
 
 of brother Ange, of Toulouse, under the name of sckakar tigal i 
 which means sugar of nests. 
 
 It was at first supposed that the trehala was obtained from 
 an onopordon. It was afterwards ascertained that it grows on 
 the branches of a Syrian echinops. (Decaisne.) It is produced 
 by an insect, and is found principally in the desert between 
 Aleppo and Bagdad. (Bourlier.) 
 
 1. LABINUS. This insect is neither a Cynips nor an Aphis, 
 but a tetramerous Coleoptera belonging to the family Rhyn- 
 cophora. It belongs to the genus Larinus, and has been 
 named by M. Chevrolat Larinus subrugosus. It is closely 
 allied to the Larinus onopordonis, Grerm. 
 
 The Larinus subrugosus (fig. 46) is of an oblong form and of 
 a black colour. It has a projecting snout, to the middle of 
 which the antennae are attached. The elytra cover the whole 
 of the posterior part of the abdomen; they are oblong, and 
 terminate each in a soft and slightly recurved point. Their 
 surface is marked by ten punctated lines, which commence at 
 the anterior margin and unite before reaching the opposite ex- 
 tremity. 
 
 Fig. 46. Larinus of the Trehala. 1 Fig. 47 . Trehala.' 
 
 2. THE CASE (fig. 47). This is of an oval form, and 
 
 1 a, the case ; A, Larinus subrugosus at the time of its escape. 
 1 a, trehala before the escape of the insect ; 6, a vertical section of one of 
 the cases. 
 
158 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 attached in the direction of its length to a branch of the tree. 
 Its greatest diameter measures from T 6 ff to T ^ of an inch in 
 length; its external surface is very irregular, and of a light 
 grey colour. The under surface is flattened and marked by a 
 deep groove where it was attached to the branch. When 
 separated a large circular hole is found at one extremity, by 
 which the insect escaped. 
 
 The cavity of the trehala is large, and the perfect insect is 
 often found in it just ready to escape. 
 
 The internal surface is smooth and of a whitish or reddish 
 colour. 
 
 Its tissue is not very thick ; it is irregular, hard, and has an 
 amylaceous appearance. It cracks when bitten, has a sweet 
 taste, and yields mucilage. 
 
 In water at the ordinary temperature the trehala swells, but 
 only partially dissolves, and changes into a mucilaginous mass. 
 Iodine changes it to a blue colour, and in some cases to that 
 of red wine. 
 
 Analysis shows that it contains gum, a particular kind of 
 starch which is much less soluble in water than that from the 
 potato, and a new kind of crystallizable sugar, analogous to 
 that from the sugar-cane, but much more solid ; M. Berthelot 
 has given this the name of trehalose. 
 
 It is during the larval stage of its existence that the Larinus 
 sulrugosus constructs this curious kind of case. 
 
 Does the trehala result solely from a wound inflicted by the 
 insect ? Is it an excrescence similar to the galls produced by 
 the Cynipidse, and to the cases of the Aphides ? or is it a nest 
 which is made by the Larinus ? M. Guibourt admits the 
 second mode as the way in which it is formed. A circum- 
 stance which supports this opinion is the fact that the trehala 
 is not attached by a point or a pedicle like the galls, but is 
 fixed along its whole length by the groove which embraces the 
 point of support. It appears that the larva of the Larinus 
 collects a considerable quantity of saccharine and amylaceous 
 matter, which it procures from the echinops, and that it con- 
 structs its dwelling by disgorging this matter and moulding it 
 with its rostrum. 
 
 M. Bourlier thinks that the formation of the sugar, which is 
 found in the case, might be explained by the presence of albu- 
 minous matters in the saliva with which the insect binds 
 together the starchy materials. 
 
 Brother Ange and M. Guibourt think that the nest serves 
 the Larinus for a habitation during the whole of its life ; I 
 
BONE. 159 
 
 am, however, inclined to believe with M. Bourlier, that the 
 insect emerges after it has assumed its perfect form. If it 
 were otherwise, how could copulation take place, since each 
 case contains only one individual? Moreover, most of the 
 nests which I have examined were pierced at one end and 
 were empty. 
 
 The trehalas are generally collected before the animal has 
 escaped. 
 
 In Turkey and Syria a decoction is made of the nests of the 
 Larinus by breaking up about an ounce of them, placing the 
 pieces in a pint and a half of boiling water, and stirring them 
 for a quarter of an hour. This preparation is given to persons 
 in affections of the respiratory organs, particularly those who 
 are attacked with bronchitis. 
 
 The trehala is also employed as food. The use of it is as 
 universal in the East as that of salep and tapioca is in France. 1 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 ANIMALS OE ANIMAL PRODUCTS EMPLOYED AS ACCESSORIES 
 IN MEDICINE. 
 
 THERE are certain animal productions which are made use 
 of rather as food than as remedies, and are interesting as a 
 matter of hygiene rather than of therapeutics. It is true they 
 sometimes enter into the formation of various medicines, but 
 it is only as the medium through which the more active 
 principles are administered ; some of them are used merely to 
 extract, clarify, or colour other medicines. 
 
 These substances may be arranged under twelve heads : 1st, 
 bones; 2nd, blood; 3rd, flesh; 4th, albumen; 5th, gelatine; 
 6th, fat; 7th, oil; 8th, milk; 9th, eggs ; 10th, honey ; llth, 
 wax ; 12th, the hair, and other corneous parts. 
 
 I. Bones. | 
 
 Bones are employed in the manufacture of gelatine. There 
 are two methods of extracting it. The first, which is the pro- 
 cess of Papin, consists in breaking the bones in pieces and 
 
 1 A closely allied insect, the Larinus odontalgicvs of Dejean, out of which 
 the genus Rhinocellus has been formed, has obtained a reputation as an 
 odontalgic. (Gerbi, Latrcille.) Some species of Carabidoe, Chrysomelidce, 
 and Cochinellidce have been mentioned as possessing similar properties. 
 (Caradori, Hirsch.) 
 
160 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 boiling them at a temperature over 212 Pah. ; this is done by 
 placing them in an air-tight vessel termed a digester. [If such 
 a vessel is half-filled with water and exposed to the heat of the 
 fire, the steam which is formed has no means of escape, and 
 therefore presses upon the water and prevents the further 
 formation of steam till the temperature of the water rises 
 above the boiling point]. In the second, the chondrin is first 
 deprived of the phosphate and carbonate of lime by the action 
 dilute hydrochloric acid, and is afterwards converted into 
 gelatine by prolonged boiling under the ordinary pressure of 
 the atmosphere. This method is not so good as the former. 
 
 When bones are calcined in closed vessels they leave a 
 residuum of charcoal, and about seven tenths of their weight 
 of calcareous salts. This charcoal is known as animal charcoal 
 or bone black. It is impregnated with sulphuret of calcium, 
 and empyreumatic matters, which enable it to decolorize 
 liquids, but it imparts to them a disagreeable flavour. To 
 deprive it of these matters, it must be acted on by hydrochloric 
 acid, which not only frees it from all smell, but at the same 
 time increases its decolorizing properties. 
 
 It is well known that animal charcoal is used for the pur- 
 pose of decolouring various liquids, and especially syrups. 
 M. Lebourdais has recently employed it in the extraction of 
 the alkaloids. 
 
 The bones of the sheep are said to be more easily acted on 
 by acids, and is therefore recommended for the preparation of 
 phosphorus. 
 
 II. Blood. 
 
 The ancients recommended the use of the blood of animals, 
 and even of man, in certain diseases. We have previously 
 stated that the use of this fluid is entirely abandoned in the 
 present day. 1 
 
 The blood of the mammalia and of birds is eaten after it has 
 been prepared in various ways, more particularly after it has 
 been coagulated and mixed with spices. 
 
 Mood is employed in the preparing and clarifying syrups, 
 by calcining it with the phosphate of lime, the chalk, and. 
 especially the potash of certain varieties of animal charcoal 
 which possess decolorizing properties in an eminent degree. 
 
 Decomposed at a red heat with iron and carbonate of potash, 
 Hood, like all nitrogenous animal substances, produces ferrocy- 
 anuret of potassium. 
 
 1 See page 63. 
 
BLOOD. 161 
 
 The serum of the blood has been largely employed in paint- 
 ing. (Carbonel.) Mixed with quick lime or with slacked lime 
 reduced to powder, and to a suitable consistence, it forms a 
 kind of glazing which resists the action of the sun and the rain. 
 
 [The Animal Charcoal, Carlo animalis of the Pharmacopoeia, 
 is directed to be prepared from bullock's blood by fire. 
 Transfusion. 
 
 The idea of injecting the blood of a living animal into the 
 body of another appears to have been first suggested by a 
 celebrated G-erman chemist, Libavius, at the commencement of 
 the 17th century. The operation was first actually performed 
 in London by Lower on a dog in 1665, and for the first time 
 on the human subject by a medical man in Paris of the name 
 of Denis in 1667, the blood which he made use of being that 
 of the sheep. Several fatal accidents having followed the 
 operation, it was forbidden to be used in France by a decree 
 of parliament, except by the previous permission of the faculty 
 of medicine at Paris, and from that time it fell into disrepute. 
 It was again brought into notice by Dr. Blundell in 1818, and 
 a paper has recently been published by Dr. Waller * in the 
 Transactions of the Obstetrical Society, advocating the use of 
 Transfusion in certain cases of haemorrhage. 
 
 It appears that in 1785 Dr. Harewood, afterwards professor 
 of anatomy at Cambridge, drew attention in his "Thesis on 
 TIM us fusion of Blood " to the value of this remedy in cases of 
 haemorrhage. He, however, asserted that the blood of an 
 herbivorous animal might be substituted for that of a car- 
 nivorous animal, and vice versa, without injury. Dr. Blundell, 2 
 on the contrary, maintained that the blood which is made use 
 of must be from the same species of animal as that into which 
 it is to be injected. Various experiments have now shown 
 that this is the case, and that, although the injections of the 
 blood of a different species may revive the animal for a time, 
 it ultimately dies. This result may be accounted for by 
 the difference which has been shown to exist in the size of the 
 blood globules of different animals. Prevost and Dumas found 
 that when the blood of the cow or the sheep was injected into 
 cats or rabbits, the exsanguinated animals at first revived, 
 but did not ultimately recover ; the temperature of the body 
 speedily diminished, the pulse became rapid, other fatal 
 >\ inptoms came on, and the animals died almost always before 
 
 1 Transactions of the Ohstetriccil Society of London, 1859, vol. 1, p. 61. 
 
 2 Researches Physiological and Pathological, 1824 ; see also Medico- 
 Ckirurg. Trans., 1818, vol. 9, p. 56. 
 
 M 
 
162 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 the sixth day. Blundell met with the same results from in- 
 jecting human blood into the veins of a dog, while, on the other 
 hand, he kept a dog alive for three weeks without food by the 
 daily injection of a few ounces of the blood of one of its own 
 species into the jugular veins. " Of all cases of haemorrhage," 
 says Dr. Waller, " none seem more favourable for a trial of this 
 operation, than those which occur during the puerperal state, 
 which from their severity are termed floodings." In performing 
 the operation three things are necessary to be observed : 
 
 First, that great care be taken to get rid of any air that 
 may be contained in the syringe ; secondly, to introduce the 
 blood very slowly, experiments having proved that a sudden 
 and large supply overwhelms the action of the heart, and 
 causes immediate death ; thirdly, to wait a few minutes 
 between each injection. The syringe used by the author is 
 lined with tin, and is capable of containing two ounces of 
 fluid ; it is furnished with a long tubule for the convenient in- 
 jection into the vein ; a funnel communicates with the barrel 
 of the syringe, through which the blood passes without being 
 received into an intermediate vessel. 
 
 It is seldom, if ever, necessary to inject a large quantity of 
 blood : it is better to discontinue the operation as soon as the 
 rally is decisive, and there is no returning collapse. In one 
 case attended by the author, four ounces only were sufficient 
 to produce this eifect. As a general rule, from eight to twelve 
 ounces may be safely injected]. 
 
 III. Flesh. 
 
 The flesh of animals is of the utmost importance in hygieine 
 and in medicine. It varies both as regards its nutritive pro- 
 perties and as to the easiness with which it is capable of being 
 digested. 
 
 Meat contains a variable amount of: 1st, substances con- 
 taining a proteine base (Albumen, fibrine, and caseine) ; 2nd, 
 felatine ; 3rd, fatty matters ; 4th, osmazome. Albumen, 
 brine, and caseine are more or less easy of digestion, but 
 have no great nutritive properties. Grelatine is a food which 
 is easy of digestion, but neither has this much power of nu- 
 trition. Fatty substances are difficult of dtgestion and contain 
 very little nutriment. Osmazome or extract of meat is a food 
 easy of digestion and of excellent properties. 
 
 The meat which man makes use of may be arranged into 
 seven principal groups : 1, Meats properly so called; 2, the 
 
FLESH. 163 
 
 flesh of poultry ; 3, of game; 4, of fish; 5, of Mollusca; 6, of 
 Articulata ; 7, of Radiata. Those animals whose flesh is only 
 eaten occasionally, and as it were exceptionally, have been 
 omitted, as, for example, the Turtles, several large Reptiles, 
 Frogs, and some Insects. Amongst these animals the principal 
 are the fresh or green Turtle, Chelonia Midas, Latr., which is 
 so common in certain portions of the Atlantic ocean, the 
 Iguanas of the Antilles and Brazil, Iguana delicatissima, Laur., 
 tuberculata, Laur., cornuta, Lacep., ccerulea, Daud., sndfasciata, 
 Brongn., the Basilisk of the Moluccas, Basilicus cristatus, 
 Bory, the migratory locust, Grryllus migratoritis, jEgyptius, and 
 Tataricus, Linn., &c. 
 
 1. Meats properly so called, or butcher's meats, are five in 
 number, and stand in the following order as regards their 
 capability of digestion : 1. Mutton ; 2. Beef; 3. Lamb : 4. 
 Veal ; 5. Pork. The muscle or flesh of these animals contains 
 in every 100 parts : 
 
 Water. Albumen. Gelatine. 
 
 Mutton .... 71 parts. 22 parts. 7 parts. 
 
 Beef 74 26 6 
 
 Lamb .... 75 27 6 
 
 Veal 75 19 6 
 
 Pork 76 19 5 
 
 Very young animals yield a food which is easy of digestion, 
 but which has little nutriment ; this arises from their flesh con- 
 taining a greater proportion of gelatine and fat, but less 
 albumen, fibrine, and osmazome. Old animals yieH the 
 nutritive elements, but are difficult of digestion ; their fibrine 
 having become hard and dense, and their osmazome more 
 abundant. The sucking pig is, however, less digestible than 
 the mature animal, which is owing principally to the prepon- 
 derance of the gelatine. 
 
 The part of the animal tissues, which is most easy of 
 digestion and the most nutritious, is the muscular fibre or 
 fibrine ; after that the liver, kidney, pancreas, and brain ; and 
 lastly, the tendons, aponeuroses, and lungs. 
 
 [Raw Meat. This was first recommended by Professor 
 "Weisse, 1 of St. Petersburgh, in the diarrhsea of children, which 
 occurs during weaning. " Two teaspoonfuls," says Dr. Tanner, 2 
 " of finely chopped beef or mutton may be given daily to a child 
 one year old : and if it crave for more, and evidence is afforded 
 
 1 Journal fur Kinderkrankhecten, herausgegeben von F. J. Behrend uml 
 A. Hildebrand, vol. 4, p. 99, Berlin, 1845. 
 * Opus jam cit, p. 345. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 of its digestion, the quantity may be increased. It is very 
 remarkable that debilitated children, who refuse all other kinds 
 of food, will eagerly take this ; but as the strength is regained 
 the desire for it passes away."] 
 
 The quantity of meat consumed in France in 1830 has been 
 estimated at 907,152,619 Ibs. troy, of which 764,875,059 were 
 furnished by the pig, ox, sheep, and goat (J. Eeynaud) ; the 
 names are arranged in the order of their importance. 
 
 [In London it is difficult to ascertain the quantity of meat, 
 fish, and poultry which is brought for the supply of its two 
 million and a half of inhabitants. The following calculations, 
 which are taken from Dr. Wynter's interesting work, 
 " Curiosities of Civilisation," can only be regarded as approxi- 
 mations to the truth ; but in every case there is little doubt they 
 are below the actual amount which is consumed. 
 
 According to the official account the number of live stock 
 exhibited at Smithfield in 1853 was : 
 
 Oxen, 294,571 ; sheep, 1,150,060 ; calves, 36,791 ; pigs, 
 29,593. Total, 1,893,888. 
 
 But this is far from giving a true idea of the whole amount 
 brought into London. Much stock arrives in the capital which 
 never enters the great mart. A more correct estimate of the 
 flocks and herds which are annually consumed in London mav 
 be gathered from a report of the numbers transmitted by the 
 different lines of railway, compiled from official sources by 
 Mr. Ormanby, the cattle-traffic manager of the North Western 
 [Railway. 
 
 
 Oxen. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Calves. 
 
 Pigs. 
 
 Total for 
 1853. 
 
 3y Eastern Counties - - 
 
 81,744 
 
 277,735 
 
 3,492 
 
 23,427 
 
 386,398 
 
 L. & N. Western - - 
 
 70,435 
 
 248,445 
 
 5,113 
 
 24,287 
 
 348,280 
 
 Great Northern - - - 
 
 15,439 
 
 120,333 
 
 563 
 
 8,973 
 
 145,308 
 
 Great Western - - - 
 
 6,813 
 
 104,607 
 
 2,320 
 
 2,909 
 
 116,649 
 
 L. & S. Western - - 
 
 4,885 
 
 100,960 
 
 1,781 
 
 516 
 
 108,162 
 
 South Eastern - - - 
 
 875 
 
 58,320 
 
 114 
 
 142 
 
 59,451 
 
 London & Brighton & S 
 Coast 
 
 | 863 
 
 13,690 
 
 117 
 
 54 
 
 14,724 
 
 Sea from North of Eng- 
 land & Scotland - - 
 
 14,662 
 
 11,141 
 
 421 
 
 3,672 
 
 29,896 
 
 Sea from Ireland - - - 
 
 2,311 
 
 3,472 
 
 21 
 
 5,476 
 
 11,280 
 
 Imported from the Continent 
 
 55,065 
 
 229,918 
 
 25,720 
 
 10,131 
 
 320,834 
 
 Driven in by road, and from 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the neighbourhood ol 
 the metropolis (ob- 
 
 (.69,096 
 
 462,172 
 
 62,114 
 
 48,295 
 
 641,647 
 
 tained from the toll-gate 
 
 { 
 
 
 
 
 
 lessees) --'-- 
 
 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total - - - 
 
 3-22,188 
 
 1,630,793 
 
 101,776 
 
 127,852 
 
 2,182,609 
 
FLESH. 
 
 165 
 
 The following table, obtained from the daily bills of entries 
 at the Custom House, shows the continental sources from 
 whence London derives a portion of its food. 
 
 From 
 
 Oxen. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Calves. 
 
 Pigs. 
 
 Total. 
 
 TTnllnnil 
 
 40,538 
 9,687 
 4,366 
 449 
 105 
 100 
 17 
 3 
 
 55,065 
 
 172,730 
 7,515 
 37,443 
 12,006 
 224 
 
 24,280 
 60 
 1 
 1,244 
 135 
 
 9,370 
 632 
 129 
 
 246,918 
 17,062 
 42,442 
 13,699 
 593 
 100 
 17 
 3 
 
 
 Hanseatic Towns - - 
 
 
 
 
 Russia 
 
 Total - - - 
 
 229,918 
 
 25,720 
 
 10,131 
 
 320,834 
 
 In addition to the live cattle which are thus brought to 
 the London markets, there is a large quantity of country 
 killed meat conveyed by the railways to the dead meat markets, 
 the principal of which are Leadenhall and Newgate markets. 
 According to the returns obtained from the different railway 
 companies, the following was the weight of country killed 
 meat conveyed by the undermentioned lines : 
 
 Eastern Counties . . i . . 10,398 tons. 
 North Western ...... 4,602 
 
 Great Western 5,200 
 
 Great Northern 13,152 
 
 South-Eastern 1,035 
 
 South- Western 2,000 
 
 Brighton and South- Coast . . / 100 
 
 36,487 
 
 Thus no less than 36,487 tons of meat are annually 
 "pitched" at Newgate and Leadenhall markets. As the 
 Scotch boats convey about 700 tons more, there are at least 
 37,187 tons of country killed meat brought to London by steam. 
 Taking into account the quantity of meat derived from all 
 sources, Dr. Wynter gives a summary of the grand total in 
 the following table : 
 
 
 Beasts. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Calves. 
 
 Pigs. 
 
 XT 
 
 156,000 
 5,200 
 
 468,000 
 41,600 
 
 31,200 
 
 31,200 
 101,776 
 
 31,200 
 
 
 Live stock brought to London 
 Total supply of live stock and meat 
 
 161,200 
 322,188 
 
 509,600 
 1,630,793 
 
 31,200 
 127,852 
 
 483,388 
 
 2,140,393 
 
 132,976 
 
 159,052 
 
 
166 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY 
 
 This, he says, he is convinced is still below the truth, for it 
 does not include the country killed meat sold at Farringdon 
 and Whitechapel markets. The total value of this enormous 
 supply of flesh cannot be much less than fourteen millions 
 annually.] 
 
 2. The flesh of poultry is obtained principally from four 
 species, which stand in the following order as regards their 
 easiness of digestion: 1, the Fowl; 2, the Turkey ; 3, the 
 Duck ; and 4, the Goose. 
 
 These birds afford a fibre which has but little density, a very 
 slight quantity of gelatine, and not much osmazome. Their flesh 
 is easy of digestion. According to Brande 100 parts of the 
 fowl yield 73 parts of water, 20 of albumen, and 7 of gelatine. 
 
 Like butcher's meat, the younger the animal the greater ia 
 the digestibility of these birds. Domestication generally 
 renders the flesh tenderer, and more easily acted on by the 
 gastric juice. When these birds are shut up and gorged they 
 grow to a large size, and become charged with fat. Occa- 
 sionally some of their organs, especially the liver, become 
 hypertrophied (Geese, Ducks). The tissues are then more 
 and more indigestible. 
 
 3. Game. The principal species amongst the mammalia are 
 the 1, Goat, Cervus capreolus, Linn. ; 2, the Hare, Lepus 
 timidus, Linn. ; 3, the Babbit, Lepus cuniculus, Linn. ; and 
 amongst the birds 1, the Partridge ; * 2, the Pheasant, 
 Phasiamts Colchicus, Linn. ; 3, the Grouse ; z 4, the Pigeon ; 3 
 5, the Woodcock, Scolopax rusticola, Linn. 
 
 The flesh of game is generally easy of digestion; but that of 
 the birds with long beaks must be excepted ; it contains very- 
 little gelatine or fat. To secure its being easily digested it 
 must, however, be taken in moderate quantities. 
 
 In 1857 Paris alone consumed poultry and game to the 
 value of 17,052,013 francs. 
 
 [The great emporiums for game and poultry in London are 
 Leadenhall and Newgate markets. It is impossible to obtain 
 anything like an acurate account of the quantity consumed in 
 
 1 In France there are four species of Partridge : the Common Partridge, 
 Perdix cinerea, Lath., the Guernsey Partridge, P. sexatilis, Mey., the Red 
 Partridge, P. rubra, Briss., and the Rock Partridge, P. petrosa, Lath. The 
 latter is of rare occurrence. 
 
 2 In France there are three species of Grouse : the Wood Grouse, Tetrao 
 Uroyallus, Linn., the Black Cock, T. tetrix, Linn., and the Common Grouse, 
 T. tagopus, Linn. 
 
 3 In France there are four species of Pigeons : Columba palumbus, C. 
 (Enas, C. Livia, and C. Turtur. 
 
FLESH. 167 
 
 the metropolis. The following estimate was given to Dr. 
 Wynter l by a dealer who turns over 100,0002. a year in this 
 trade. As the list takes no account of the quantity which 
 goes direct to the retailer, nor of the thousands sent as 
 presents, it must fall short of the actual consumption. 
 
 Grouse 100,000 
 
 Partridges 125,000 
 
 Pheasants 70,000 
 
 Snipes 80,000 
 
 Wild Birds (mostly small) 150,000 
 
 Plovers 150,000 
 
 Quails 30,000 
 
 Larks 400,000 
 
 Widgeon 70,000 
 
 Teal 30,000 
 
 Wild Ducks 200,000 
 
 Pigeons 400,000 
 
 Domestic Fowls .... 2,000,000 
 
 Geese 100,000 
 
 Ducks 350,000 
 
 Turkeys 104,000 
 
 Hares 100,000 
 
 Babbits 1,300,000 
 
 Total 5,759,000] 
 
 4. Fish. Man uses a great number of fish as articles of 
 food. Amongst these animals twelve principal species require 
 to be mentioned; these are 1, Common Whiting, Merlangus 
 vulgaris, Cuv. ; 3 2, the Hake, Merlucius ttulgaris, Cuv. ; 3, the 
 Cod, Morrhua vulgaris, H. Cloq. ; 4, the Sole, Solea vulgaris, 
 Cuv. ; 5, the Plaice, Platessa vulgaris, Cuv. ; 6, the Trout, 
 Salar Awonii, Valenc., Salmo fario, Linn. ; 7, the Pike, Esox 
 Lucius, Linn. ; 8, the Carp, Cyprinus carpio, Linn. ; 9, the 
 Turbot, Rhombus mctximus, Cuv. ; 3 10, the Salmon, Salmo 
 Salmo, Valenc. ; 11, the Mackerel, Scomber Scomberus, Linn. ; 
 12, the Herring, Clupea harengus, Linn. 
 
 According to Brande, 100 parts of haddock yield 82 parts of 
 
 1 Curiosities of Civilization, by Andrew Wynter, M.D., p. 224, London, 
 1860. 
 
 2 The Coal Fish, M. Carbonarius, Cuv., and the Pollock, M. Pollachius, 
 are also used as food. 
 
 3 The Sole, Plaice, and Turbot are commonly known as flat fish. Others 
 of these fish which are eaten, are the Brill, Rhombus vulqaris, Cuv., and the 
 Flounder, Platessa Flesus, Cuv. 
 
168 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 water, 13 of albumen and fibrine, and 5 of gelatine ; and the 
 sole 79 parts of water, 5 of albumen and fibrine, and 6 of 
 gelatine. 
 
 Placed according to their facility of digestion, fish might be 
 arranged in the following manner: 1, Sea fish with white 
 flesh ; 2, Flat fish also with white flesh ; 3, Fresh water fish ; 
 4, Fish with red flesh. 
 
 The flesh of these animals usually contains less nourishment 
 than that of the other vertebrata. 1 
 
 5. Flesh of Mollusca. Amongst these animals are 1, 
 Oysters ; 2, Veneridoe ; 3, Mussels ; 4, Snails ; 5, Various 
 other fluviotile and marine species. These animals are arranged 
 in the order of their capacity for digestion. 
 
 The species of Oysters 2 which are eaten in France, on the 
 Atlantic coasts, are the Common Oyster, Ostrea edulis, Linn. ; 
 and the Horse Oyster, 0. Hippopus, Linn. ; on the Mediterra- 
 nean coasts, the Mediterranean Oyster, O. rosacea, Fav. non 
 Desh., O. Mediterranea of M. de Serres, and the 0. lacteola 
 of Moquin Tandon. In Corsica is eaten the 0. lamellosa, 
 Brocchi. There is also found in the Mediterranean the crested 
 oyster, 0. cristata, Born, and the plicated oyster, 0. plicata, 
 Chemn. 
 
 Under the name of the Common Oyster are included several 
 varieties ; for those of Cancale of Marennes, and of Ostend, are 
 altogether different from each other. 
 
 At Eome the Oysters from the Lucrin lake were held in 
 high estimation (nobilissimus cibus). Nero preferred those 
 from Corsica. Naples obtains Oysters from the lake Fusaro, 
 which enjoy a certain reputation. (C0ste.) Excellent Oysters 
 are found in Algeria, near Bone. Those from the coast of 
 Languedoc are of an inferior quality. At Paris and in the 
 north of France there is an enormous consumption of Oysters 
 from Marennes, Cancale, and Ostend. 
 
 Fresh Oysters are easy of digestion provided they are not 
 eaten in too large quantities. Their capability of digestion is 
 owing to the salt water they contain and to the bile which is 
 present in their largely developed liver. 
 
 Oysters are generally eaten entire and while they are still 
 alive. 3 Some persons reject the beard and fringes of the 
 mantle in the larger varieties, and eat only the central portion. 
 
 Saw Oysters are a delicate, savoury, and strengthening kind 
 
 1 In 1857 Paris alone consumed fish to the value of 9,169,547 francs. 
 
 2 See page 86. 
 
 3 Vivoe epvlce, Linn. 
 
FLESH. 169 
 
 of food. Adolphe Pasquier and Sainte Marie have recom- 
 mended them as remedies. They are suitable in dyspepsia 
 and in chronic affections of the digestive organs, and even in 
 diseases of the chest. They are often recommended to the 
 convalescent. 
 
 Cooked Oysters are indigestible. 
 
 Ostreaculture. The artificial production of Oysters has 
 become an important branch of industry. 1 As far back as the 
 time of Eondelet, the art of sowing these molluscs was known. 
 In the present day this art has become greatly developed, and 
 the multiplication of these animals is carried on on a large 
 scale. The natural banks are divided into several portions, 
 which are successively fished, and then allowed to repose for 
 some time, in order that the animals may be replenished. 
 Means are also taken to favour and hasten this process. 
 Besides this, artificial banks are formed, which, like the natural 
 banks, are divided into separate portions. 
 
 The Oysters are placed in large reservoirs, where they grow 
 and become of a green colour; this is called bedding the 
 Oi/xti-rs. At Marennes these reservoirs are termed claires. 
 They are like a number of fields, which have been inundated, 
 placed along the banks of the Seudre ; they differ, however, 
 from the ordinary beds or reservoirs, inasmuch as they are not 
 covered by the tides. (Coste.) An oyster, six to eight months 
 old, when placed in the claires, requires two years before it 
 arrives at its proper size and condition. By far the greater 
 portion of those which are eaten never arrive at this state. 
 The full-grown oyster when placed in the reservoirs becomes 
 of a green colour in a few days. (Coste.) 
 
 The green colour of the Oyster does not affect the whole of 
 the animal. It shows itself more particularly on the four 
 branchial folds ; there are also traces of it on the inner surface 
 of the first pair of labial palpi, on the external surface of the 
 second, and in a part of the alimentary canal. 
 
 For a long time it was supposed that the green colour of the 
 Oysters was owing to the soil of the reservoirs, to the decom- 
 position of the ulva and other water plants, or to a diseased 
 condition of the liver, a kind of jaundice, which imparted a 
 green colour to the parenchyma of the breathing organs. 
 Graillon asserted that it arose from one of the naviculsB, Vibrio 
 ostrearius, which penetrated the substance of the animal. 
 Bory de Saint- Vincent proved that this vibrio was not natu- 
 rally of a green colour, but, that under certain circumstances, 
 1 In 1857 Paris consumed 2,033,379 francs worth of oysters. 
 
170 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 it became coloured like the Oyster, and by the same means. 
 According to this naturalist, the green colour depends upon a 
 molecular substance (the green matter of Priestley), which 
 becomes developed in all waters under the influence of light. 
 According to M. Valenciennes, this colour is caused by a 
 peculiar animal production differing from every organic sub- 
 stance which has hitherto been examined. M. Berthelot has 
 analyzed this substance, and finds that it does possess peculiar 
 characters. It does not resemble either the colouring agent 
 of the bile, of the blood, or of any of the ordinary organic 
 colouring substances. 
 
 These green molecules enter the branchi* during the act of 
 respiration, where they become arrested, and ultimately gorge, 
 obstruct, and colour the organ. At the same time, one of the 
 principal functions of the body being interfered with, the 
 animal becomes distended and subject to a kind of anasarca, 
 which renders its tissues more tender and more delicate. 1 
 
 [The London market 2 is principally supplied with Oysters 
 from beds at Whitstable, Rochester, Milton, Colchester, Burn- 
 ham, Eaversham, and Queenborough, all artificial beds, fur- 
 nishing natives. Those of the river Crouch, or Burnham 
 oysters, are pre-eminent for their marine flavour ; probably on 
 account of the facilities for rapid importation of them in fine 
 condition. Besides these, considerable quantities of sea 
 oysters, or those which grow upon natural beds, and which are 
 sometimes called rock oysters, are brought from various parts 
 of the coast. The sea oyster is often, before being brought to 
 market, kept for a time in artificial beds to improve its flavour. 
 Much of the quality depends on the ground and condition of 
 the beds, and oysters of different years from the same place 
 often vary materially in this respect. They are considered full 
 grown for the market when from five to seven years old ; sea 
 oysters at four years. The age is shown by the annual layers 
 of growth or shoots on the convex valve. Up to three or 
 four years, each annual growth is easily observed, but after 
 their maturity it is not so easy to count the layers. Aged 
 oysters become very thick in the shell. In the neighbourhood 
 of fresh water the oyster grows fast, and improves in body and 
 flavour. 
 
 In London the chief consumption of the common or rock 
 oyster is from the 4th of August to January, and of natives 
 
 1 See p. 86. 
 
 8 A History of British Mollusca and their Shells, by Edward Forbes and 
 Silvanus Hanley, vol. 2, pp. 313319, London, 1853. 
 
FLESH. 171 
 
 from October to March. The consumption is said to be 
 greatest in the hottest months after the commencement of the 
 oyster season ; the warmer the weather, the more oysters are 
 consumed. They are brought to market in craft of various 
 sizes ; they are packed in bulk closely in the hold ; in some 
 cases a cask of salt water is kept, from which to sprinkle them 
 superficially. Those that come by rail are packed with their 
 convex shells downwards, in bags and barrels. From the 
 boats they are transferred to the salesmen, who keep them in 
 a little salt and spring water, and shift them every twelve 
 hours. Some pretend to improve them by "feeding" them 
 with oatmeal. Oysters, like other bivalves, live chiefly on 
 infusoria. The quantity consumed annually in London varies 
 in different seasons. One informant states twenty thousand 
 bushels of natives, one hundred thousand bushels of common 
 oysters, to be about the mark ; another estimates the quantity 
 sold in the season, from the 4th of August to the 12th of May, 
 to be nearly one hundred thousand London bushels, each 
 bushel being three Manchester or imperial bushels ; and that 
 about thirty thousand bushels of natives are sold during the 
 same period by various companies. During the season com- 
 mencing on August the 4th, 1848, and ending May 12th, 
 1849, M. Wickenden estimates about one hundred and thirty 
 thousand bushels of oysters to have been sold in London, 
 though of that quantity about one fourth was sent away to 
 various parts of the United Kingdom and the Continent. 
 
 Oysters of good repute are fished in the neighbourhood of 
 the Channel Islands. There are two oyster-banks, the one off 
 Guernsey, and the other off Jersey. The former is of little 
 importance ; the latter of considerable value. They belong to 
 the region of oyster-banks, which extends along the coasts of 
 Normandy and Brittany. Dr. Knapp states that the number 
 annually procured here for the use of the Channel Islands and 
 English markets cannot be less than eight hundred thousand 
 tubs, each tub containing two English bushels ; and in some 
 years thrice that quantity is believed to be procured from 
 those banks during the season. As many as three hundred 
 cutters have been employed upon them dredging. The oysters, 
 on the Jersey bank, are of large size, and are sold at from five 
 to seven shillings the tub, or from three to four pence per 
 dozen. 
 
 The oyster-fishery of most consequence in Scotland is that 
 of the Frith of Forth. The oyster beds there extend about 
 twenty miles, from the Island of Mucra to Lockenzie, and are 
 
172 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 dredged in from four to six or seven fathoms water. The 
 price varies, wholesale (1853), from two shillings to two 
 shillings and sixpence the hundred ; the retail price from two 
 and sixpence to four shillings and sixpence, or even five 
 shillings. Mr. Greorge Moffat, fish dealer in Edinburgh, esti- 
 mates the number of oysters dredged in the Eorth in the 
 season at 2,027,520 ; only three fourth parts of which, how- 
 ever, it is believed, are sent to Edinburgh, being 1,520,640. 
 The same gentleman has calculated that 7,346 oysters are 
 daily consumed in Edinburgh during the season, from the 
 beginning of September till the end of April. 
 
 On both sides of Ireland oysters abound in many places. 
 There are oyster beds in the Shannon, said, in 1836, to yield a 
 revenue of 1,400Z. annually, and to employ seventy men and 
 sixteen boats.] 
 
 The Veneridce and the Mytilidce are far from being held in 
 such repute as Oysters. These mollusca are eaten both raw 
 and cooked. 
 
 The Veneridce are collected in considerable quantities, and 
 are eaten by the poorer classes. 
 
 It is principally two species which are fished: the Venus 
 virginea, Linn., and the Venus decussata, Linn., which is some- 
 what smaller than the former. 
 
 The Common Mussel, Mytilus edulis, are sought after in 
 many countries. An apothecary of Orleans has published a 
 work on the employment of these mollusca in affections of the 
 air passages. 
 
 Other salt and fresh water bivalves are eaten, as the Clams, 
 Razor-fishes, Scollops, Cockles, Sfc. 
 
 [In England the common Mussel l is much used in many 
 places for food, and still more for bait. Dr. Knapp, of 
 Edinburgh, has given a very interesting account of the 
 quantities of this animal destroyed annually in the neighbour- 
 hood of that city. " As an article of food," he states these 
 cannot be used fewer than ten bushels per week in Edinburgh 
 and Leith, say for forty weeks in the year, in all 400 bushels 
 annually. Each bushel of mussels, when shelled and freed 
 from all refuse, will probably contain from three to four pints 
 of the animals, or about 900 or 1000, according to their size. 
 Taking the latter number, there will be consumed in Edinburgh 
 and Leith about 400,000 mussels. This is a mere trifle com- 
 pared to the enormous number used as bait for all sorts of 
 
 1 Forbes and Hanley, Opus cit, vol. 2, p. 174. 
 
FLESH. 173 
 
 fish, especially haddocks, cod, ling, halibut, plaice, abate, 
 whiting, &c. In Newhaven alone there are four large deep-sea 
 fishing boats, which generally go out three times a week, and 
 fish for about thirty weeks in the year, excluding Sundays and 
 bad weather. Each of these boats carries eight men, with eight 
 lines of 800 yards in length, which, at a low calculation, take 
 1200 mussels to bait each time they are used ; so that each 
 boat will use 28,800 mussels per week, equal to 864,000 per 
 annum. There are sixteen smaller boats, whose consumption 
 of mussels comes to 3,456,000. The total consumption of 
 mussels for bait annually in Newhaven alone may be reckoned 
 at 4,320,000. At all the other fishing stations in this district 
 a similar use is made of these abundant and prolific shell-fish, 
 so that Dr. Knapp calculates that thirty or forty millions are 
 used for bait alone by the fishermen of this district each year. 
 The best mussels at Newhaven are fished in three fathoms of 
 water, and are sold at Sd. per basket, each containing nearly a 
 bushel. Supposing each bushel contained 1000 mussels, this 
 quantity would be worth more than 1300Z. 
 
 The common Cockle is a species of shell-fish held in little or 
 no estimation by the rich, but to the poor it is in some parts 
 almost a necessary of life, and in others it affords them a cheap 
 and palatable luxury. 
 
 The following remarks are taken from the authors already 
 quoted : 
 
 The edible Cockle, Cardium edule, inhabits most parts of the 
 British coast, especially where there are large tracts of sand. 
 The variety most common in our markets rarely exceeds an 
 inch and four-fifths in length by an inch and a half in breadth, 
 and comes in most instances from estuary sands. Every where 
 this excellent mollusk is sought after for food, and it is one of 
 the most savoury of its tribe ; indeed, preferred by many 
 persons to the oyster. It is equally good raw and cooked, 
 dressed either by roasting or boiling, and gives a delicious 
 flavour to fish sauce. In times of scarcity Cockles have afforded 
 valuable supplies of food for the poor, and in the Zetland isles 
 bushels of their shells may be seen near cottages. Lieut. 
 Thomas informs us that in Sanda, among the Orkney isles, 
 during the late failure of the potato crop many of the poorer 
 people subsisted almost entirely on Cockles. 
 
 The following estimate of the quantity of fish of all kinds 
 which are brought to the London market, is quoted from Mr. 
 Muyhew's "London Labour and London Poor" byDr.Wynter, 1 
 ' Opus tit, p. 21 -2. 
 
174 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 who remarks upon it, that the figures seemed to him to be so 
 enormous, that he hesitatingly submitted the table to one of 
 the largest salesmen, who assured him that it was no over- 
 statement. 
 
 Description of Fish. 
 
 No. of Fish. 
 
 Weight of 
 Fish. 
 
 WET FISH. 
 
 
 
 Salmon and Salmon Trout (29,000 boxes, 14 
 
 406,000 
 
 3,480,000 
 
 Live Cod (averaging lOlbs. each) 
 
 400,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 Soles (averaging lb. each) - 
 
 97,520,000 
 
 26,880,000 
 
 Whiting (averaging 6oz. each) 
 
 17,920,000 
 
 6,720,000 
 
 Haddock (averaging 2lbs. each) 
 
 2,470,000 
 
 5,040,000 
 
 Plaice (averaging lib. each) 
 Mackerel (averaging lib. each) 
 Fresh Herrings (250,000 barrels, 700 fish per 
 
 33,600,000 
 23,520,000 
 
 33,600,000 
 23,520,000 
 
 barrel) .... . 
 
 175,000,000 
 
 42,000,000 
 
 Ditto in bulk ... - 
 
 1,050,000,000 
 
 252,000,000 
 
 Sprats .... - . 
 
 ... 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 Eels from Holland (principally), England, and 
 Ireland (6 fish per Ib.) - 
 
 I 9,797,760 
 
 C 1,505,280 
 ( 127,680 
 
 Flounders (7200 qrtns. 36 fish per qrtn.) 
 
 259,200 
 
 43,200 
 
 Dabs (7500 qrtns. 36 fish per qrtn.) 
 
 270,000 
 
 48,750 
 
 DRY FISH. 
 
 
 
 Barrelled Cod (15,000 barrels, 40 fish per 
 
 
 
 barrel ------- 
 
 750,000 
 
 4,200,000 
 
 Dried Salt Cod (5lbs. each) - 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 Smoked Haddock (65,000 barrels, 300 fish per 
 
 
 
 barrel) -.----. 
 
 i Q P\nn nnn 
 
 i n oon ooo 
 
 Bloaters (265,000 barrels, 150 fish per barrel) 
 
 U7/)00 JOOO 
 
 10,'eooiooo 
 
 Ked Herrings (100,000 barrels, 500 fish per 
 
 
 
 barrel) ------- 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 14,000,000 
 
 Dried Sprats (9,600 large bundles, 30 fish per 
 
 
 
 bundle) ------- 
 
 288,000 
 
 96,000 
 
 SHELL FISH. 
 
 
 
 
 4Qf> soft nnn 
 
 , 
 
 Lobsters (averaging lib. each fish) 
 
 1 ',200^000 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 Crabs (averaging lib. each fish) - 
 
 600,000 
 
 . 
 
 Shrimps (326 to a pint) .... 
 
 498,428,648 
 
 , 
 
 Wilks (227 to half bushel) .... 
 
 4,943,200 
 
 
 Mussels (1000 to half bushel) 
 
 50,400,000 
 
 
 Cockles (2000 to half bushel) 
 
 67,392,000 
 
 t 
 
 Periwinkles (4000 to half bushel) 
 
 304,000,000 
 
 
 The species of Snails which are sought for in Prance are, in 
 the North, the Edible snail, Helix Pomatia (fig. 48) ; the Wood 
 snail, H. Sylvatica, Drap. ; and the Grove Snail, H. nemoralis, 
 Linn. At Montpellier, the common snail, If. aspersa, Mull. ; 
 
FLESH. 175 
 
 the H. vermiculata, Mull. ; the H. Pisana, Mull. ; and even 1 the 
 II. variabilis, Drap. In the department of the Vaucluse, the 
 
 Fig. 48. Helix pomatia.* 
 
 H. aspersa, H. vermiculata, H. Pisana, H. variabilis, the 
 Heath snail, H. ericetorum, and sometimes the H. Algira, 
 Linn. In Provence, the species just enumerated, and in addi- 
 tion H. aperta, Born, and H. melanostoma, Drap. In certain 
 localities the Helix cespitum and H. lineata are also eaten ; and 
 in others the H. hortensis, Mull., and H. arbustorum, Linn., 
 or Shrub snail. 
 
 All these snails do not produce exactly the same kind of 
 flesh. Epicures set great store by the Helix vermiculata, which 
 is known at Montpellier by the name of the Morgueta (modest), 
 because it draws itself far into its shell. The H. natica is con- 
 sidered still more tender and delicate ; it is called in Provence 
 Tapada (closed), on account of the calcareous lid which closes 
 up the shell. The species which is hardest is the Helix 
 pomatia. 
 
 Snails are principally collected towards the close of winter, 
 before they have taken fresh food. It is said that those in- 
 dividuals which inhabit elevated situations are the best ; it is 
 also asserted that the animals retain the flavour and perfume 
 of the plants they have eaten. This is, no doubt, the reason 
 why the Snails of certain countries, or of certain districts, are 
 held in high repute. 
 
 The flesh of Snails is generally tough and insipid. It is 
 necessary to prepare them with strong seasonings, as with 
 plenty of ham, anchovies, parsley, aromatic herbs, pepper, or 
 garlic. It is moreover a kind of food which digests but 
 slowly. 
 
 1 The animal extended, with a separate view of the jaw. 
 
.176 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 At various periods considerable pains have been taken to 
 obtain these mollusks in large quantities. 
 
 The Romans kept them in pens called cochlearia. (Yarron.) 1 
 They were fattened with various plants. A small quantity of 
 wine and some laurel leaves were added to give them a better 
 flavour. The pens were situated in moist shady places, and 
 were surrounded by a ditch or wall. Pliny has not forgotten 
 to transmit to us the name of the person who invented the 
 cochlearia?- Addison has given a full description of that of the 
 capuchin monks at Fribourg. 
 
 Besides these, many of the marine Gasteropods are eaten, as, 
 for instance, some of the Murecidce, Turbos, LittorinidaB, uc- 
 cinidcB, Strombidce, and Patellidce. 
 
 6. Flesh of Articulata. Amongst these animals is the Cray- 
 fish, Astacus fluviatiles ; 3 2, the Prawn, Palasmon serratus ; 3, 
 the Common spiny Lobster, Palinurus vulgaris ; 4, the Lobster, 
 Jlomarus vulgaris ; 5, the Common shore Crab, Carcinus Mcenas. 
 
 The flesh of all these animals is hard and fibrous, and is apt 
 to resist the action of the gastric juice. Nevertheless, that of 
 the Cray-fish is not very difficult of digestion ; but the other 
 species, especially the Lobsters and the Crabs, are frequent 
 sources of indigestion. 
 
 [Enormous quantities of Lobsters are consumed in London; 
 they are taken on various parts of the English coast, particularly 
 on rocky shores. From the southern and western coasts a con- 
 siderable number are constantly sent off to the London markets, 
 by the South- Western Railway from Southampton, and by the 
 Great Western from Bristol ; also by steamers from Guernsey 
 and Jersey ; and again from the coast of Ireland to Liverpool. 
 From the coast of Scotland, the Orkney and Lewes islands, it 
 is computed that not less than 150,000 reach the market at 
 Billingsgate ; but the principal supply is from Norway, from 
 whence there is sent not less than 600,000. There is often in 
 the season a supply at Billingsgate of not less than from 20,000 
 to 25,000 lobsters in one day]. 4 
 
 7. The flesh of Hadiata. Amongst this group are several 
 species of the Sea Hedge-hog. The inhabitants of Provence 
 and of Languedoc are fond of the Echinus esculentus, Linn. ; 
 E. lividus, Deslong. ; and IE. granularis, Lamk. The latter 
 
 1 Coclilearium vivaria (Pliny). 
 
 2 He calls him Fulvius Hispinus. 
 
 3 See p. 96, M. Lereboullet has recently described two new species, A. 
 longicornis and A. palUpes. 
 
 4 A History of British Crustacea, by Thos. Bell, p. 243, London, 1848. 
 
FLESH. 177 
 
 species is also procured on the coasts of Naples and La Manche. 
 In Corsica and Algeria the Echinus melo, Lamk., is made use 
 of. Some species of Holothuria are also eaten at Naples, the 
 Holothuria tubulosa, Blainv. ; at the Ladrone islands, the H. 
 Gruamensis, Quoy and Graim ; and in China, the Trepang, H. 
 edulis, Less. 
 
 BROTH. The flesh of animals serves for the preparation of 
 />/v>M.s-, a liquid and very nourishing kind of food, which is ex- 
 tremely useful both to the invalid and to the convalescent. 
 
 Broth is an aqueous solution, the base of which consists of 
 some kind of flesh ; it is made by boiling the meat for a long 
 time over a slow fire. Broth always contains gelatine, fat, 
 and osmazome. Some vegetables, such as carrots, turnips, or 
 lettuces, are generally added, which somewhat alter its com- 
 position. The broth which is principally used is made from 
 Beef. The more this kind of food is concentrated the greater 
 is the amount of nourishment which it contains ; 220 Ibs. of 
 meat will yield two hundred basins of broth of more than half 
 a pint each, or altogether 176 pints of broth, and 110 Ibs. of 
 the boiled meat. 
 
 Broth is also made from bones, to which a small quantity of 
 meat is added and a large quantity of vegetables. The quantity 
 procured from the bones is to that which is obtained from meat 
 as 3 to 2. One hundred pounds of meat, of which a quarter is 
 employed to make broth, with two pounds and a quarter of 
 gelatine obtained from bones, will give two hundred basins of 
 broth and eleven pounds of boiled meat ; while the remainder 
 would furnish forty-four pounds of roast meat. 
 
 [In cases of irritable stomach, where the ordinary kinds of 
 food cannot be retained, as, for instance, in the obstinate 
 nausea and vomiting which sometimes accompany pregnancy, 
 a preparation known under the name of Liebig's New Soup for 
 Invalids is recommended as being often tolerated when every 
 other kind of food is rejected. It is made as follows : 
 
 Take -5- Ib. of newly killed beef or fowl, chop it very fine, 
 add 1 Ib. of distilled water, four drops of pure muriatic acid, 
 34 to 67 grains of common salt, and stir well together. After 
 an hour the whole is to be thrown on a conical hair sieve, and 
 the fluid allowed to pass through without any pressure. The 
 first thick portions which run through are to be returned to 
 the sieve, until the fluid filters through quite clear. On the 
 flesh residue in the sieve pour slowly -| Ib. of distilled water, 
 and let it percolate through. There will be thus obtained 
 rather more than a pound of cold fluid (cold extract of flesh) 
 
178 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 of a red colour, and possessing a pleasant taste of soup ; of 
 which from one tablespoonful to a cup may be taken at 
 pleasure. It must not be warmed, since it is rendered muddy 
 by heat, and deposits a thick coagulum of albumen and the 
 colouring matter of blood. When the flavour is thought 
 disagreeable it may be concealed by the addition of a little 
 claret]. 1 
 
 There are several other kinds of broth which are occasionally 
 made use of ; these are : 
 
 1. Veal broth. This contains only a small quantity of 
 gelatine, of fat, and of osmazome, and is not very nourishing. 
 It is employed as a drink rather than as food. When much 
 diluted it constitutes Veal water. A broth is also prepared 
 from the lungs of the calf. 
 
 2. Chicken broth. This contains gelatine, a small quantity 
 of fat and of osmazome. It is still lighter and less nourishing 
 food than the preceding. 
 
 3. Tortoise broth is prepared rom the flesh of the Testudo 
 Grtfca, Linn., of the T. Mauritania, Dumer, and of the T. 
 marginata, Schcepf. These species are terrestrial, and common 
 in Algeria ; the third is also found in the Morea. Some of the 
 fresh water tortoises may be substituted for them, such as yel- 
 low Tortoise, Testudo Europcea, Gray, from the south of 
 Europe, or the Emys Caspica, Schw., and the E. Sigris, Dumer ; 
 the one inhabits the eastern parts of Europe, and the other 
 Spain and Algeria. 
 
 4. Viper broth, Vipera Aspis, Merrem, is made from the 
 animal after the head, skin, and intestines have been removed. 
 This broth was formerly regarded as a powerful remedy in 
 obstinate gonorrhoea, and as capable of restoring the powers of 
 the body when they have been exhausted by excess. It is 
 nearly banished from the list of materia medica. 
 
 5. Frog broth. This contains gelatine and a small quantity 
 of osmazome. It is insipid, and has very little nutriment. It 
 is considered to be a cooling diet : it is made from the green 
 or common Frog, Rana esculenta, Linn., and also from the 
 Rana temporaria, Linn. : 125 grammes or 1928 grains of frog's 
 thighs are put into 500 grammes or four times the same 
 quantity of water. 
 
 [The common Frog of this country is the Eana tem- 
 poraria : the R. esculenta, or edible Frog, does not exist in 
 England.] 
 
 2 On the Signs and Diseases of Pregnancy, p. 392, by T. H. Tanner, M. D., 
 London, 1860. 
 
ALBUMEN. 179 
 
 6. Snail broth. This is even less nourishing than the last. 
 In the north of France it is made from the large Helix 
 pomntia; in the south from H. aspersa and vermiculata ; l in the 
 Isle of France the Namcella elliptic^ Lamk., is made use of for 
 this purpose. 
 
 7. Oyster broth. This is regarded as a restorative and an 
 aphrodisiac. 5 
 
 8. Gray-fish broth. This also ranks as a restorative, and 
 was formerly recommended in phthisis, in leprosy, and other 
 cutaneous affections. 3 
 
 IV. Albumen. 
 
 Albumen is a colourless, inodorous, and tasteless substance, 
 which is coagulated by heat. This coagulation commences at 
 a temperature of 104 6 Fah., but it is not complete except at a 
 temperature of from 140 to 158. "When its solution is 
 rxtivmely diluted, heat does not thicken it; but by boiling 
 and evaporating it in vacua a residue is obtained of insoluble 
 tillnnnen. Alcohol precipitates albumen from its solutions. 
 If water is poured upon the precipitate, a portion of it is 
 redissolved ; another portion is converted into coagulated 
 iillniuirn. The latter contains all the properties of fluid albu- 
 men, except its solubility. Albumen contains a small quantity 
 of sulphur and of phosphorus. 
 
 It is very useful in the treatment of the first stage of 
 poisoning from the salts of copper and of mercury. Mixed 
 with a large quantity of water it is successfully employed as 
 an emollient. Some practitioners have recommended it in the 
 treatment of certain cases of yellow fever. Mixed with oil it 
 is stated to relieve the pain in parts which have been burnt ; 
 it has also been administered in diseases of the eyes. In some 
 cases of fracture the limb is surrounded by lint bandages soaked 
 in albumen ; it has been used as a dressing for slight exco- 
 riations of the skin. It is, however, principally employed for 
 clarifying wine, beer, and vegetable juices. Its nutrient pro- 
 perties, either alone or in combination with other animal 
 principles, have been previously noticed. 4 
 
 V. Gelatine. 
 
 This substance is obtained by boiling the skin, ligaments, 
 tendons, membranes, cellular tissue, or bones of animals in 
 
 1 Seepages 83, 174. 
 a See pages 86, 168. 
 3 See page 96. 
 * See page 1 62. 
 
 N 2 
 
180 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 water. 1 It is first obtained in solution by evaporation ; it is 
 then concentrated, and as it cools it forms a tremulous jelly, 
 and becomes gelatine. 
 
 A question arises as to whether gelatine exists ready formed 
 in the animal structures which yield it, or whether the com- 
 position of these structures is changed by the action of the 
 boiling water ? The latter opinion appears to be the most 
 probable ; but the alteration is a simple molecular movement, 
 for the composition of gelatine is the same as that of the 
 tissue from which it is derived. 
 
 Pure gelatine is solid, but its hardness and consistence 
 vary greatly; it is heavier than water, semi-transparent, 
 colourless, inodorous, and tasteless. It possesses great ad- 
 hesive properties, and it is from this substance that common 
 glue, Flanders glue, 2 mouth glue, and food lozenges are made. 
 Gelatine is only slightly soluble in cold water, but readily 
 dissolves in boiling water. In order that a hot solution should 
 form a jelly in cooling, it must contain at least 2^ parts of 
 gelatine to every 100 of water. If it is boiled too long a certain 
 quantity of water becomes united with the gelatine, which in 
 consequence is changed, and will no longer form a jelly. 
 
 Gelatine is partially soluble in dilute, but not in strong 
 alcohol ; it is precipitated by tannin. 
 
 Ligaments and tendons by boiling yield a kind of gelatine, to 
 which Mudler has given the name of chondrin. It differs 
 principally from ordinary gelatine in not being precipitated 
 by tannin. 
 
 It is chiefly the mammalia which furnish the gelatine of 
 commerce and of pharmacy. 
 
 The purest gelatine is known under the name of grenetine 
 [from Grenet, the name of the maker] ; it is more especially 
 employed in pharmaceutical preparations. 
 
 STAG'S HORN (cornu Germ). During the summer the fur 
 of the common Stag is of a yellowish brown colour, with a 
 black line along the back, while the sides of the animal are 
 marked with numerous pale spots. In winter time it is of a 
 uniform greyish brown colour. The rump, the buttocks, and 
 the tail are always of a pale reddish colour. The head of the 
 Stag is provided with horns, which were formerly used in the 
 manufacture of medicated jellies and of emollient drinks. 
 The horns are shed every year during the spring and are 
 
 1 See page 159. 
 
 [ 2 This is a very pure kind of glue, made from young animals.] 
 
GELATINE. 181 
 
 re-produced in the summer. At first the new horns are 
 simple protuberances, and are known by the name of dags, but 
 as they grow they branch into a number of projections termed 
 antlers. The extremities of the antlers are known in pharmacy 
 as horn tips. In the fourth year the horn terminates in an 
 expansion termed the palm, which is provided with a number 
 of points. The burr is a rough channelled projection at the 
 base of the horn. The female of the Stag or Hind has no 
 horns. 
 
 The horn tips are divided into small fragments by means of 
 a knife or a file. They are then boiled for some time in water, 
 to which they give up their gelatinous principle. Isinglass is 
 now generally substituted for Stag's horn. 
 
 Besides gelatine, Stag's horn furnished several other pre- 
 parations, which are now rarely made use of. These were : 
 1. Volatile essence of Stag's horn, which is only an oleaginous 
 subcarbonate of ammonia. 2. Volatile oil of Stag's horn ; this 
 is very similar to Dippel's animal oil, and consists essentially 
 of subcarbonate of ammonia. 
 
 Stags' horns were also calcined (cornu ustum), ground up, 
 and made into lozengea. 
 
 [A preparation of this kind is still retained in the Pharma- 
 copeia. 
 
 CORNTJ USTUM, Burnt horn. Burn pieces of horns in an 
 open vessel until they become perfectly white ; then powder and 
 prepare them in the same manner as directed with respect to 
 chalk, 
 
 In the older editions of the Pharmacopeia this preparation 
 was termed Cornu Gervi ustum and Cornu Cervi calcinatum, 
 and was accordingly directed to be made from Stags' horns. 
 
 This substance is sometimes used in the manufacture of 
 tooth powder ; it contains a large quantity of phosphate and a 
 small quantity of carbonate of lime ; it can only act mechani- 
 cally as a fine powder, and is in no respect superior to the 
 common prepared chalk.] 
 
 The same uses were formerly made of the horns of the Elk, 
 C. Alces, Linn. ; the Fallow Deer, C. Dama, Linn. ; and of the 
 Rein Deer, C. Tarandus, Linn. 
 
 ISINGLASS. Isinglass or Fish glue is the prepared air blad- 
 der or swimming bladder of the Sturgeon. The Sturgeons 
 ( A Irijiriivrr) belong to the cartilaginous fishes and to the iamily 
 Sturionida. 
 
 The flesh of these animals is held in high estimation. Their 
 fecundity is extraordinary ; a single female has been known 
 to contain 1,467,857 eggs. When these masses of eggs or 
 
182 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 ovaries are salted, they form the article of food known as 
 caviare. 
 
 The species from which isinglass is principally procured is 
 the Huso or Great Sturgeon. It is also obtained from the 
 Sewruga, the Sterlet, and the Sturio or common Sturgeon. 
 The following is a summary of the characters of these four 
 species : 
 
 (entire 
 
 The lips] Snout 
 (cleft 
 
 short The Huso. 
 
 straight and narrow . The Sewruga. 
 curved and broad . . The Sterlet. 
 
 The Sturio. 
 
 The Huso, Acipenser Huso, Linn., inhabits the tributary 
 streams of the Caspian and Black seas. It is sometimes pro- 
 cured in the Po. 
 
 The back is of a dark blue, almost black colour, and the 
 belly of a clear yellow ; the body is long, the head large, and 
 the snout very obtuse. It is from 10 ft. to 16 ft. long, and 
 weighs upwards of 200 Ibs. ; it has been known to measure as 
 much as 30 ft., and to exceed 2000 Ibs. in weight. 
 
 The Sewruga, A. stellatus, Pallas, inhabits the rivers which 
 empty themselves into the Black and Caspian seas, particularly 
 the Volga and the Danube. 
 
 The back is of a brown colour, and the belly white. It is 
 seldom more than 3| ft. in length. 
 
 The Sterlet, A. Ruthenus, Linn., is found in the Caspian 
 sea, in the Volga and the Ural. 
 
 It is distinguished by the black colour of its back, by its 
 yellow plates, and by its white belly shaded with pink ; its 
 upper and caudal fins are grey, and the lower red. The plates 
 which cover the body are arranged in three rows. 
 
 It is of the same size as the previous species ; it is very 
 rare to meet with individuals 4-J ft. in length. Its weight is 
 from 30 Ibs. to 37 Ibs. 
 
 The Common Sturgeon, A. Sturio, Linn. (fig. 49). This 
 species is found in various parts of the ocean, in the Medi- 
 terranean, the Red, the Euxine, and the Caspian seas. 
 
 In the summer time it ascends the great rivers, particularly 
 the Volga, the* Danube, the Po, the Garonne, the Loire, the 
 Rhine, &c. (Lacepede.) 
 
 [This species has been caught in the river Thames.] 
 
 The plates on the body are arranged in five longitudinal 
 rows. Individuals are commonly met with varying from 13 ft. 
 to 16 ft. in length. One which was captured in the Loire, and 
 presented to Francis I., measured nearly 20 ft. ; some are said 
 to have measured 25 ft. 
 
GELATINE. 183 
 
 In the preparation of isinglass, the air bladder of the 
 Sturgeon is first well cleaned, stripped of its external mem- 
 brane, which is of a dark brown colour, and freed from all the 
 blood which it contains. It is then split open longitudinally, 
 
 Fig. 49. Common Sturgeon. 
 
 cut up into pieces, washed, kneaded by the hands, made up 
 into different forms, and afterwards left to dry gradually in 
 the shade. 
 
 Four kinds of raw isinglass are known in commerce : 1. Lyre 
 Ixint/lass {long and short staple of English market]. This con- 
 sists of small cylinders folded upon themselves so as to bear a 
 rude resemblance to an ancient lyre. 2. Heart-shaped isinglass 
 [also known as long and short staple]. This only differs from 
 the former as to the manner in which the cylinders are folded. 
 3. Book isinglass. This consists of layers folded into squares 
 and joined together by means of a steel which passes through 
 them. 4. Leaf isinglass, which only differs from the former 
 in the folds being separate. The first is the purest and the 
 most valuable. 
 
 Isinglass is also sold in the form of tablets. This is of less 
 value than the other kinds, and is made by boiling the fins, 
 heads, and other parts of the Sturgeon, and then spreading 
 them out on boards. 
 
 Isinglass is bleached by means of sulphurous acid. "When 
 cut up into long strips, a very excellent kind of fish-glue 
 is made from it, which is known as English glue. 
 
 From purified isinglass is also formed another kind of fish- 
 glue, known as glass glue or vitreous glue (vitreuse'). 
 
 It is calculated that 1000 large Sturgeons yield 264 Ibs. of 
 isinglass, which is about 4 oz. 3^ dr. for each individual. The 
 Sterlets would not produce more than 80 Ibs., which is about 
 one-third of the former quantity. 
 
 Isinglass is principally obtained from the parts of Russia 
 on the borders of the Caspian Sea. The Dutch were formerly 
 
184 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 largely engaged in this kind of manufacture, but the article 
 was of an inferior quality. 
 
 Isinglass is almost entirely composed of an animal substance 
 which is readily converted into gelatine. 
 
 Isinglass is light, coriaceous, of a whitish colour, semi- 
 transparent, and bears some resemblance to parchment ; it is 
 tasteless, inodorous, and insoluble in cold water, but dissolves 
 in boiling water, and forms a transparent jelly in cooling. 
 Fifteen grains of isinglass are sufficient to impart a firm con- 
 sistence to an ounce of water. 
 
 Besides the various species of Sturgeon, isinglass may be 
 obtained from the air bladder of several other fish, as this 
 organ always contains a large quantity of gelatine ; but this 
 kind of isinglass is of an inferior quality to that from the Stur- 
 geon. Thus it is obtained from some of the Siluridce ; and at 
 Lyons a very transparent vitreous-like isinglass is made from 
 the scales of the Carp. 
 
 An inferior kind of isinglass is known in commerce, which 
 is made from the air bladder of the Cod, and also a false 
 isinglass manufactured from the stomach of the calf. Pereira 
 has described a kind of false isinglass from Para, which is 
 nothing more than the ovary of some large fish, probably, he 
 says, of the Sudis Gig as. 
 
 Isinglass is used for the purpose of clarifying numerous 
 liquids. [Court or Black sticking Plaster is made with a 
 solution of isinglass and tincture of benzoin laid upon black 
 sarsenet.] 
 
 It is employed in the making of jellies, syrups, and blanc- 
 mange. [Considered medicinally, it is emollient and demul- 
 cent. It is employed, dissolved in water or milk, and rendered 
 palatable by acid and sugar, as a nutritious substance for 
 invalids and convalescents. (Pereira.)] 
 
 Hippocolle is a kind of glue made from the skin of the Ass, 1 
 which comes from India and China, it is obtained from the car- 
 tilages of the Ass and the Zebra; it answers for the same 
 purposes as isinglass. It is considered to be a mild astrin- 
 gent. 
 
 SKIN. The skin of some of the mammalia is made use of 
 for several purposes. 
 
 That of the Chamois, Antilope rwpicapra, Pall., is valuable on 
 account of its great pliability ; it is used for the purpose of 
 
 1 It is also known under the name of hockiak or hokiak. The^Chinese 
 call it nyo-kiceo or hoki-hao. It is a strongly aromatised gelatine. 
 
GELATINE. 185 
 
 separating mercury from other metals ; by straining, the mer- 
 cury passes through the pores of the skin while the impurities 
 are retained. 
 
 That of the Gazelle, Antilope Dor cos, Pall., is used for packing 
 the hepatic and socotrine aloes of commerce. 
 
 The skin of the Sheep, Ovis Aries, Linn., according to the 
 mode in which it is prepared, furnishes parchment and chamois 
 and morocco leather. In pharmacy it is used for the making 
 of plasters. 
 
 NESTS OF ESCULENT SWALLOW. The nests of these birds 
 may be associated with isinglass, which they closely resemble 
 in their appearance. The birds belong to the family of the 
 Hirundinidae. 
 
 There are five species of the Esculent Sicallow ; four of 
 which belong to the Indian Archipelago. Only one species is 
 found in the Isle of France. The principal species are the 
 Common Esculent Swallow, 1 distinguished by a white patch 
 at the base of the tail feathers, and the fucus-eating swallow, 2 
 which is of a uniform brown colour. 
 
 The nests have an oval cup-like form, they are from 2 to 
 2 inches in length and about an inch and a half in width. 
 They are firmly attached to the rock. They have a yellow 
 colour, are semi-transparent, and of a firm and tenacious con- 
 sistence. The free edge of the nests is somewhat thickened, 
 their surface is rough, and when broken they present a 
 vitreous-like fracture. They are formed in successive layers. 
 
 Many naturalists have supposed that these nests were com- 
 posed of the remains of certain fish, or of the mucilage of various 
 Zoophytes ; others have believed that the birds formed them 
 from the juice of a tree, with the fronds of lichens, or from 
 gelatinous sea weeds. It is now ascertained that at the period 
 of nidification the birds disgorge a viscid humour, which is 
 secreted by the salivary glands or by the follicles of the crop ; 3 
 it is analogous to the fluid with which the European swallows 
 cement the clay of which their nests are constructed. 4 
 
 There are three gatherings of the nests in a year. Those 
 which are intended for the first laving of eggs are the purest 
 and the most valuable ; those which belong to the last are 
 
 1 Callocalia esculenta, Gray, Hirundo esculenta, Linn. 
 
 2 Callocalia fuciphaga, C. Bonap., Hirundo fucifaga, Thunb., Callocalia 
 nidifica, Gray. 
 
 3 E. Home, Blyt, Laidley, Itier. 
 
 4 According to a Chinese physician these nests are formed of the con- 
 solidated (jastric juice without any admixture. (Itier.) 
 
186 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 mixed with feathers and fragments of vegetation. In some 
 there are found portions of algae and lichens. (Gruibourt.) 
 
 It is probable that the nests of the different species do not 
 resemble each other. 
 
 The material of which the nests are composed is insoluble 
 in cold water, but softens by moisture ; it dissolves in boiling 
 water in the same manner as gelatine. Every 100 parts 
 contain 90'25 of animal matter and some salts. (Miiller.) The 
 nests are supposed to possess restorative properties. (Cuvier). 
 They are used for the purpose of making soups and various 
 kinds of ragouts. They are also prepared like mushrooms. 
 Their substance softens and resembles vermicelli. 
 
 VI. Fat. 
 
 Eat is a secretion of the adipose tissue of animals. It exists 
 in considerable quantities beneath the skin, on the surface of 
 the muscles, in the omentum, at the base of the heart, and 
 around the kidneys. It becomes fluid at a temperature of 
 from 59 to 104 Eah. 
 
 The fat of the Pig has received the name of hog's lard, this 
 term being more especially applied to it after it has been 
 purified. The fat of the Sheep is termed suet. 
 
 Eat is freed from the foreign matters with which it is mixed 
 by cutting it into small pieces, melting it at a moderate tem- 
 perature in water, then pouring it off" and filtering it through 
 a fine cloth. Some persons recommend that the water in 
 which the melting takes place should have a certain quantity 
 of sulphuric acid mixed with it. [Many plans of purifying 
 fats have been proposed ; one of the best is to mix two per 
 cent, of strong sulphuric acid with a quantity of water, in 
 which the tallow is heated for some time with much stirring ; 
 to allow the materials to cool, to take off the supernatant fat, 
 and re-melt it with abundance of hot water. 1 ] 
 
 Eat is usually of a softish consistence, but varies in this 
 respect according to the animal, and according to the part 
 from which it is obtained. It is lighter than water, colourless, 
 or of a yellow tint, sometimes odorous, sometimes inodorous, 
 and has a bland insipid taste. It is essentially composed of 
 elaine, a body which is liquid at a temperature of 46 Eah., 
 and is only slightly soluble in alcohol even when boiling, and 
 of stearine, which melts at a temperature of 100 Eah., [Brande 
 says about 110 Eah.,] and is still less soluble in alcohol. 
 Acted upon by a solution of caustic potassa these substances 
 
 1 See Ure's Die. of Arts and Sciences, art. Fat 
 
FATS. 187 
 
 are converted into two acids : oleic acid, which is principally 
 derived from the elaine, and margaric acid, which appears to 
 be formed in a great measure by the stearine. 
 
 Lard is a white, soft, semi-transparent fat, with little or no 
 smell ; it melts at about 80 Fah. [In order to separate this 
 fat from the membrane in which it is contained, it is melted over 
 a slow fire, then strained through flannel or linen, and poured 
 while liquid into a bladder, where it solidifies on cooling (adeps 
 prceparatus) . Occasionally salt is added to preserve it; but 
 unsalted lard should be employed for medicinal purposes. By 
 melting in boiling water, lard may be deprived of any salt 
 which may have been mixed with it. While solidifying, lard 
 should be kept stirred, to prevent the separation of the stearine 
 and elaine. (Pereira.)] 
 
 Suet is a white hard fat ; it melts at from 98 to 125 Fah. 
 
 Beef fat is of a pale yellow colour ; it has scarcely any smell, 
 and melts at 100 Fah. 
 
 Bear's fat is of a yellowish white colour, semi-fluid, of a 
 peculiar odour, and has a nauseous taste. 
 
 Goose fat is of a yellow colour and has a disagreeable smell ; 
 it melts below 80 Fah. 
 
 Ostrich fat, StrutJiio Canulus, Linn. This is a fine, white, 
 firm fat, with only a slight odour resembling that of the pre- 
 ceding ; it melts at about 79 Fah. l (Duroziez.) 
 
 Writers mention several other kinds of fat, which were 
 formerly used in medicine ; a list of these has been given in 
 the first book of this work. 2 
 
 Lard is used in the manufacture of the various kinds of oint- 
 ments and pomades. 
 
 After a certain time fat undergoes a change ; it turns yellow 
 and becomes rancid. 3 In order to prevent lard from turning 
 rancid, it should be carefully covered up and kept in a cool 
 place. M. Deschamp (d* Avallon) recommends that it should be 
 impregnated with the odoriferous and resinous principles of the 
 buds of the poplar or with benzoin. The first process consists in 
 adding from twelve to one hundred of the buds. This fat is of 
 a green colour, and cannot, therefore, be used for making white 
 pomades. It becomes of an orange colour when mixed with an 
 alkali. Benzoinated fat is prepared by heating in a water-bath 
 for two or three hours four parts of pounded benzoin in 100 
 
 1 An Ostrich will supply nearly one-third of its weight of fat. (Gosse.) 
 See p. 65. 
 
 3 MM. Fl. Prevost and Em. Rousseau state that the fat of the Ostrich 
 has very little tendency to become rancid. 
 
188 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 parts of fresli fat, and stirring while cooling. This fat becomes 
 rancid sooner than that which has been mixed with the buds 
 of the poplar. M. Soubeiran proposes to substitute, for the 
 benzoin, the balsam of tolu, which is left in the preparation of 
 the syrup. One hundredth part by weig;ht of the tolu dissolved 
 in alcohol is to be mixed with the lard ; it is then to be warmed 
 and stirred for the purpose of evaporating the spirit. 
 
 Lard is adulterated with inferior kinds of fat and with salt. 
 Plaster of Paris is also sometimes mixed with lard. The two 
 last adulterations are easily detected by melting the lard in 
 water; the salt is dissolved, and the plaster is precipitated. 
 (ChevaUier.) 
 
 VII. Oils. 
 
 Animal oils J are fatty substances characterised by the great 
 fusibility remaining liquid at a temperature below 60 or even 
 50 Eah. 
 
 Animal oil is produced in great abundance by the Whale 
 and the Porpoise. 
 
 Whale oil, known under the name of Fish oil, is obtained 
 from the Common Greenland Whale* and by the Rorqual, 
 species of Whales in which the skin of the throat and the belly 
 is arranged in folds or plicae. The fat or blubber of these ani- 
 mals is first cut away with enormous knives ; it is then divided 
 into smaller pieces, packed in casks, and afterwards melted. 
 
 This kind of oil is thick, of a dark brown colour, and has a 
 rancid fishy smell ; it becomes congealed at a temperature of 
 32 Fah. The Whale produces an enormous quantity of oil ; 
 a single individual is capable of yielding a ship's cargo. 3 [A 
 ship's cargo will, of course, vary with the size of the vessel 
 and the quantity of oil, with the species of whale and the age 
 and size of the individual ; but, after making all allowance for 
 the difference which may arise from these causes, the above 
 statement seems exaggerated. The largest cargo ever known 
 by Dr. Scoresby to have been brought to this country, was 
 that by Captain Souter, of the Resolution, of Peterhead, in 
 1814. It consisted of forty-four whales, yielding two hundred 
 and ninety-nine tons of oil, which sold at 9,368 : and adding 
 the whalebone and the bounty, which was at that time allowed 
 to whaling vessels by the government, the entire returns 
 amounted to 11,000. The total value of the British whale- 
 
 1 Seep. 101. 
 
 2 See p. 92. 
 
 3 Pinguedo copiosissima, ut ex unico scepe oneretur navis, Linn. 
 
OILS MILK. 189 
 
 fishery for the same year, which was a very favourable one, 
 was 700,000.] 
 
 The oil of the Porpoise, Delphinus globiceps, Cuv., is of a 
 citron colour, and its sp. gr. 0'91 at a temperature of 68 Fah. 
 It is very soluble in alcohol. It contains less cetine 1 than 
 whale oil, and much more phocine. 
 
 According to M. Berthelot the latter principle forms a tenth 
 part ; in another species, probably the Delphinus marginatus, 
 JDuvern., the same chemist found only the one hundredth part of 
 this substance. In other Cetacea there are only traces of 
 phocine. 
 
 Oil is obtained from the Dugong and the Spermaceti whale* 
 
 Oil is also found in the organs or in the productions of some 
 other animals ; as, for instance, in the yelk of birds' eggs; this 
 is easily extracted by compression. 
 
 In the distillation of nitrogenised organic matters, such as 
 blood, bones, muscle, &c., a very thick, brown, extremely fetid 
 oil is obtained. "When this has been distilled several times, it 
 
 Fig. 50. Sperm Whale. 
 
 forms a colourless liquid, which has long been known as Dip- 
 pel's animal oil ; it was formerly in great repute in the treat- 
 ment of diseases of the nervous system. 
 
 vm. Milk. 
 
 Milk is an emulsive fluid, which is secreted by the mammary 
 glands of the female mammalia. It is a white, opaque, some- 
 what viscid fluid, with an agreeable odour, which is dissipated 
 by heat, and has a mild sweet taste. 
 
 Milk consists of a mucilaginous solution, which holds in 
 suspension a fatty matter composed of small spherical globules. 
 
 1 See p. 94. 
 
 2 See p. 92. 
 
190 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 It is composed of caseum or caseine, albumen, butter, sugar 
 of milk, and several salts. 
 
 When milk is evaporated, as in boiling, or even in warming 
 it, a pellicle forms on the surface, and if this is removed it is 
 replaced by a second. This pellicle is almost entirely com- 
 posed of caseous matter and of cream. 
 
 The principal milks are those of the Cow, the Sheep, the 
 Goat, the Woman, the Ass, and the Mare. 
 
 1. Cow's milk has a density of 1*0324. It is of a yellowish 
 white colour, very opaque, and with a sweet taste. It contains 
 in every 1000 parts, 885 parts of water, 35 of soluble and in- 
 soluble caseous matter and albumen, 30 of butter, 40 of sugar 
 of milk, of the phosphates of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, 
 and iron, of the chlorides of potassium and sodium, and 
 of soda. 
 
 "When milk is left undisturbed its surface becomes gradually 
 covered with a thick, unctuous, yellow layer ; this is cream ; it 
 consists of large globules, which, when united by the process 
 of churning, forms butter. The cream separates but slowly, in 
 consequence of its density differing but little from that of the 
 milk ; it is composed of butter (lutyrum) and of milk. When 
 agitated the butter separates and leaves a fluid termed "butter- 
 milk. This liquid contains all the elements of the milk, but 
 only a very little caseum, and a large proportion of butyric 
 acid. When nearly all the cream has been removed, it is 
 skimmed milk ; when this is left to itself acetic and lactic acids 
 are formed and coagulate the casein. A clear yellow liquid 
 with a sweet taste then separates, which is termed whey. The 
 coagulation of the caseous matter (curds') is usually accom- 
 plished by artificial means. 
 
 When milk is filtered it leaves behind it the insoluble 
 caseous matter and the fat globules ; a clear fluid passes 
 through, which becomes thickened and coagulated by heat in 
 proportion to the quantity of albumen which it contains. 
 
 The caseous matter or casein exists in considerable quantity 
 in milk under the form of very minute globules ; it is insipid 
 and inodorous. Its composition is the same as that of 
 albumen. 
 
 Butter, 1 or the fatty matter of milk, is met with in the form 
 of globules, varying in size from 3 p o ^ TWo"o o" ^ an i nc h. It 
 is composed of three fatty bodies : oleine or elaine, stearine, 
 and butyrine. 
 
 1 In Paris there was consumed, in 1857, 10,551,366 francs worth of 
 butter. 
 
MILK. 191 
 
 Sugar of milk or salt of milk (lactine) is solid, of a sweet 
 flavour, and with no smell. It crackles between the teeth. It 
 crystallizes in white, semitransparent, regular prisms. At the 
 ordinary temperature of the atmosphere water will dissolve one 
 ninth part of its weight. Occasionally a small quantity of 
 blood is found in milk. (Lepage.) More rarely there is also 
 found infusorial animalcule which change its colour. 
 
 2. Sheep's milk has a density of 1*0409. It gives more 
 cream and butter than that of the Cow; but its butter is 
 softer, and melts more easily, while its casein is more greasy 
 and more viscid. 
 
 3. Goat's milk has a density of 1*0340. It gives off the 
 odour of the goat. Its fatty matter is thick, and its butter 
 firm and white, but is less in quantity than in the two previous 
 milks. 
 
 4. Human milk has a density of 1*023. It contains a con- 
 siderable quantity of sugar of milk and very little caseine. 
 The latter is very soft, viscous, and tremulous. This milk con- 
 tains a good deal of cream. 
 
 5. Ass's milk has a density of 1*0355. It has the same con- 
 sistence, smell, and taste as human milk. It contains less 
 cream, and what there is is not so thick ; its butter is soft, 
 white, and insipid ; its casein is less in quantity, and soft. 
 
 6. Mare's milk has a density of 1*0346. It contains very 
 little butter; its casein is soft, and its serum tolerably 
 abundant. The Kalmucks, by acidulating and fermenting this 
 milk, obtain from it araka. (Pallas.) 
 
 LACTODENSIMETEB. Quevenne has invented an instrument 
 for the purpose of determining the density of milk, which he 
 terms a lactodensimeter. It is an areometer. The density of 
 water being 1000, the average density of pure milk from the 
 Cow is 1031, and when the cream has been separated 1033 (the 
 temperature being 59 Fah.). As a matter of convenience the 
 two left hand figures are omitted. Thus, when the instrument 
 marks 25 or 30 degrees, it shows that the density of the 
 milk which has been examined is 1025 or 1030, or in other 
 words that a litre (1*760 pint) of the milk weighs either 
 1025 grammes (2 Ibs. 8 oz. 478 grs. Troy), or 1030 grammes 
 (2 Ibs. 9 oz. 65 grs. Troy). The density of milk which has not 
 been deprived of its cream should vary between 29 and 33 
 degrees, that of skimmed milk between 32*5 and 37'5. The 
 addition of one tenth part of water to milk will lower the in- 
 dicator three degrees, and in skimmed milk 3*25. 
 
 CBEAMOMETEB. This is another instrument proposed by 
 
192 MEDICAL ZOOLO&Y. 
 
 Quevenne. As skimmed milk becomes more dense, its pro- 
 perties may be changed by removing a portion of the cream, 
 and then adding a certain quantity of water. Unfortunately 
 this is what happens every day. The lactodensimeter will not 
 detect this double fraud, but the creamometer will. 
 
 The latter instrument consists of a kind of gage, of a 
 tolerable size, and divided into 100 parts. This is allowed 
 to remain in the fresh milk for twelve hours. The cream 
 gradually rises to the surface. The average quantity of cream 
 is 11 to 12 for every hundred parts of milk. All milk which 
 yields a less quantity than this has been more or less deprived 
 of its cream. One of the inconveniences of this instrument is 
 that it only affords the required information after the lapse of 
 twelve hours. It has been recommended to substitute for it 
 simple agitation. A given quantity of milk is to be boiled for 
 ten minutes, taking care that it is continually shaken during 
 this time. It is then placed in a flask. When it is cooled 
 down to 4 Fah., the mouth of the vessel is closed, and it is 
 well shaken until all the butter is separated. It is then 
 strained through a fine cloth. The butter is then to be 
 washed, pressed, and weighed. Every litre (1*760 pint) 
 of milk ought to yield at least 30 grammes of butter (462 '6750 
 grs. Troy). 
 
 LACTOSCOPE. This instrument is intended in certain cases 
 to indicate the richness of the milk in butter. It was invented 
 by M. Donne. Its action depends upon the opacity which the 
 liquid receives from the presence of the fat globules. The 
 instrument consists of two plain glasses, between which the 
 liquid is placed ; the instrument is then examined in a dark 
 place by the flame of a candle through this layer. The glasses 
 are separated from each other until the opacity is such that 
 the flame ceases to be visible. The thickness of the layer 
 which is required to produce this result should be thinner in 
 proportion to the quantity of fatty matter present. One of 
 the glasses is fixed ; the other on a moveable foot, one turn of 
 which corresponds to a thickness of -^^ of an inch. The cir- 
 cumference is divided into fifty equal portions, which constitute 
 degrees ; a good milk should mark 34 degrees. Unfortunately 
 for the accuracy of the lactoscope, the opacity of the milk 
 does not depend only upon the fat globules, but also upon 
 the caseine held in solution : it also depends upon the various 
 substances which are introduced by the dealers. 
 
 Adulteration. Of late years the adulterations which are 
 practised on milk have been carefully inquired into. One 
 
EGGS. 193 
 
 ])l:in is to remove the cream, and then mix the milk with 
 \\atrr ; in order to restore to it its opacity and consistence, as 
 well as to remove the blue tint which is induced by the adul- 
 teration, sugar, glucose, farina, and dextrine are added ; various 
 other substances are also made use of, such as infusions of rice, 
 barley, &c. ; gummy and albuminous matters, fish glue, liquorice 
 juice, the colouring matter of the marigold, and baked carrots. 
 (Chevallier.) 
 
 Preservation. The lower the temperature the better milk 
 keeps ; but in order to preserve it for any length of time various 
 plans have been proposed. 
 
 1. Concentrate the milk to one third or one half; put it 
 into well-stoppered vessels and expose them to the heat of a 
 water bath for a period of two hours. (Apperfs process.) 
 
 2. Evaporate at a low temperature, and drive in air, which 
 facilitates its thickening. ( Gallais's process.) 
 
 3. The foregoing processes are now abandoned. The follow- 
 ing are much better : To every litre (1760773 pint) of milk 
 add from 75 to 80 grammes (1157 to 1234 grs.) of sug;ar. It 
 is then concentrated in a flat-bottomed vessel in which the 
 liquid is kept constantly moving in order to prevent the form- 
 ation of a pellicle. When it has become reduced to one-fifth 
 of its original volume, it is put into tin boxes, which are then 
 treated according to Appert's method. (Lignac's process.) 
 
 4. The milk is charged with carbonic acid by the same kind 
 of machine as is used in the manufacture of Seltzer water ; it is 
 then placed in bottles in the usual manner. (Bethel's process.) 
 
 5. Lastly, milk is preserved without the addition of any 
 foreign substance, and without the abstraction of its cream, or 
 the evaporation of its aqueous particles. It is simply placed 
 in a tin vessel which is provided with a pewter tube. This is 
 warmed for three-quarters of an hour in a water bath for the 
 purpose of expelling all the air, and the tube is then hermeti- 
 cally closed by means of pincers. (Malm's process.) 
 
 IX. Eggs. 
 
 The eggs which are employed in medicine are those of the 
 common fowl, Phasianus Gallus, Linn. 
 
 Every egg consists of a calcareous covering or shell ; of a 
 semi-opaque membranous envelope which covers the internal 
 surface of the shell ; of the glairy ligaments or chalazce which 
 connect the envelopes with their contents ; of the white or 
 albumen, a transparent liquid with a very slight tint of a 
 greenish yellow, and which is contained in a loose cellular 
 
 o 
 
194 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 tissue, varying in density in the different layers ; of the yel- 
 low or viiellus, a globular opaque mass of a golden yellow 
 colour surrounded by a very delicate membrane, the vitelline 
 membrane, and suspended in the midst of the albumen ; lastly, 
 of the germ of the bird or cicatricula, a small white body which 
 adheres to the yelk. 
 
 A hen's egg contains on an average 367 grs. Troy of the 
 white, and 324 grs. Troy of the yelk. 
 
 The shell is composed of animal matter, carbonate of lime, 
 a small quantity of carbonate of magnesia and of phosphate 
 of lime, with slight traces of an oxide of iron. Sulphur is 
 present in the animal matter and becomes liberated in the 
 form of sulphuretted hydrogen, when shells which have been 
 previously calcined are acted upon by the stronger acids. 
 
 The internal membrane appears to be of an albuminous 
 nature. (Vauquelin.) This also contains a small quantity of 
 sulphur. It readily dissolves in liquor potassse without pro- 
 ducing ammonia. 
 
 White of egg consists of a solution of albumen, with the 
 presence of certain salts, a small quantity of sugar and pro- 
 bably also of carbonate of soda. It almost entirely dissolves 
 in either cold or tepid water, leaving only a few particles of 
 membrane. In boiling water the albumen becomes coagulated, 
 and forms a white compact mass. 
 
 The yelk consists of a large quantity of water, of vitelline, of 
 margarine, and of oleine, of a viscous matter, of cholesterine, 
 of osmazone, of a colouring matter, of the salts usually present 
 in animals, and contains traces of lactic acid. (Grobley.) 
 
 The oil of the yelk is composed of oleine, margarine, of a 
 small quantity of cholesterine, and of colouring matter. 
 
 There are two kinds of colouring matter in the yelk; the one 
 is red, contains iron, and resembles the colouring matter of the 
 blood ; the other is yellow, and appears to be analogous to the 
 colouring matter of the bile. 
 
 Eggs are said to Refresh when they have not been laid more 
 than two days in summer or six in winter. 
 
 Eggs change in proportion to the length of time they have 
 been laid. The evaporation of the water in their interior takes 
 place through the pores of the shell, and forms a space at one 
 extremity (air chamber). 
 
 If the white of an egg is coagulated which is not fresh, when 
 the shell is broken a depression is seen at one end. When 
 eggs have been laid some time the chalazae become relaxed, 
 and lose the power of supporting the yelk ; the latter, in con- 
 
EGGS. 195 
 
 sequence of its greater specific gravity, falls to the lowest part. 
 Farmers and egg-merchants ascertain this fact by examining the 
 t'4i; before a lighted candle, or by the light of the sun. 
 
 Fresh eggs, when gently shaken in the direction of their 
 length, give no evidence of any internal displacement. Stale 
 eggs, on the contrary, give rise to a slight shock, arising from 
 the displacement of their contents. M. Delarue, of Dijon, has 
 given the following directions for ascertaining whether an egg 
 is fresh or not: Dissolve eight ounces of common salt in 
 1/760 pint of water, and when the water is dissolved place the 
 egg in the solution. If it has been laid the same day it goes 
 direct to the bottom of the vessel ; if not, it does not sink so 
 far ; and if it is three days old it floats in the liquid ; if it is 
 more than five days old it comes to the surface, and the shell 
 projects in proportion to the age of the egg. 
 
 J\(/f/s may be preserved fresh for a whole year by covering 
 the pores of the shell with varnish, with a layer of wax, or with 
 some fatty substances. Cadet G-assicourt recommends the 
 cf/i/x to be placed in a vessel in layers, and then to pour iu 
 lime water, containing a small excess of the powdered lime, so 
 that the eggs shall be covered to the depth of from six to seven 
 inches of the liquid. 
 
 It is supposed that, in this case, a deposit of carbonate of 
 lime takes place, which fills up the pores of the shell, render- 
 ing it thereby impermeable to air, and so preserving the animal 
 matter in its interior. 
 
 The following process has been proposed by M. Delarue : 
 Take 1543 grs. of slack lime for every 200 eggs. Mix with 
 the lime, as intimately as possible, 154 grs. of powdered sugar; 
 the whole is then to be placed in sufficient water to cover the 
 eggs. In fifteen days the operation is completed. The small 
 quantity of saccharate of lime which is formed penetrates the 
 shell, and prevents the entrance of air. 
 
 The Chinese place their eggs in water holding in solution a 
 tenth part of sea salt until their density becomes greater than 
 that of the liquid. 
 
 Eggs may also be preserved by pkcing them in ashes, dry 
 sand, bran, millet seed, saw dust, powdered charcoal, &c. 
 
 The parts of the egg which are employed in medicine are the 
 white and the yelk. 
 
 The white is used for clarifying syrups and many other 
 liquids; this effect is produced by its coagulation by the heat 
 from the liquid, or by the acids or the spirit contained in it. 
 The coagulated albumen forms a kind of mesh, which, as it 
 
 o 2 
 
196 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 sinks to the bottom of the liquid, carries the impurities 
 with it. 1 
 
 The yelk enters into the formation of certain emulsions. It 
 serves for making emulsions with resins, gum resins, and 
 volatile oils. The yelk can be perfectly mixed with water. 
 
 Eggs form a valuable and plentiful source of human food. 
 The annual consumption of hens' eggs in Paris is about 115 for 
 each individual. 2 In the rest of France, especially in the 
 country places, this number is doubled. It is calculated that 
 7,231,160,000 eggs are consumed in France independent of 
 those which are exported to other countries, or which are used 
 for the purpose of hatching. 
 
 [The white of egg is a valuable remedy in cases of poisoning 
 by bichloride of mercury, sulphate of copper, and bichloride of 
 tin. Its efficacy in these cases depends on the combination of 
 the albumen with the oxide or chloride of the metal. (Pereira.) 
 There is no necessity of separating the white from the yelk, as 
 the latter is efficacious as well as the former. 
 
 Eggs beaten up with warm water, and to which a small 
 quantity of brandy or port wine has been added, and then 
 flavoured with sugar or nutmeg, are valuble adjuncts to the 
 dietary of the sick room. 
 
 The MISTUKA SPIBITTTS VIIST GALLICI consists of Brandy 
 and Cinnamon Water each f^iv, the Yelks of two Eggs, 
 Purified Sugar ^ss, Oil of Cinnamon ttiij. Mix. This pre- 
 paration is stimulant and restorative, and is used in the last 
 stage of low fevers and in cases of exhaustion. The dose is 
 from f^ss to fjiss.] 
 
 X. Honey. 
 
 The honey-producing animals are Bees, Wasps, and some 
 allied insects. 
 
 The Aphides also secrete a sweet fluid by means of a pair of 
 abdominal glands which communicate with two tubes on the 
 upper surface of the abdomen. 
 
 It is stated that honey has been found in the galleries of 
 certain exotic species of Ants, but it is doubtful whether they 
 have not stolen it from some other animals. However this 
 may be, the most perfect melliferous animals are the Sees. 
 
 1. Sees. The Common or Honey Bee, Apis Mellifica, Linn., 
 is an insect belonging to the order Hymenoptera, and to the 
 family Anthophila. 
 
 1 Seep. 179. 
 
 2 In 1857 Paris consumed eggs to the value of 9,524,111 francs. 
 
HONEY. 197 
 
 The See appears to have come originally from Greece, 
 from whence it has been transported to the different parts of 
 Europe. 
 
 Every one is familiar with these insects ; the body is covered 
 with liairs, is of a brownish Ijlack colour and is marked with a 
 transverse greyish band on the abdomen. The antennae are 
 filiform and shorter than the combined length of the head and 
 the thorax. The simple eyes are arranged in the form of a 
 triangle, placed in the females on the forehead, and in the 
 males on the vertex. 
 
 Bees live in societies called swarms. When one of these 
 swarms is artificially lodged it constitutes a hive. Each 
 swarm constructs a very peculiar and complicated nest. It 
 consists of partitions composed of hexagonal cells. These par- 
 titions are arranged perpendicularly; each consists of two rows 
 of cells placed opposite each other and connected together by 
 their bases, so that the cells themselves are placed horizontally. 
 Each partition with its double series of cells forms a comb. 
 
 It is in the interior of these cells that the eggs are deposited 
 and the food is stored up. 
 
 Each swarm consists of three kinds of individuals : 1, a 
 female ; 2, males ; 3, neuters or workers (fig. 51). 
 
 Fig. 51. Common Bee. 1 
 
 The female which the ancients called a king, but which is 
 iimv known as the queen, is found solitary in every swarm ; she 
 is large, strong, and has an elongated body ; she possesses a 
 sting, and upon her devolves the laying of the eggs. 
 1 Common bee a, male or drone ; b, female or queen ; c, worker or neuter. 
 
198 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The males or drones vary in number from 500 to 1000 in 
 each swarm. They are smaller, less robust, and have a shorter 
 abdomen than the female. They have no sting. Their office 
 is to impregnate the female. 
 
 The workers or neuters number from twelve to twenty or 
 even thirty thousand in each hive, and are the smallest mem- 
 bers of the community. The working bees have a sting. The 
 duties of these are to take charge of the eggs and of the young, 
 and to construct the combs. They generally divide these 
 labours amongst them : some attend exclusively to the young 
 these are the nursing bees ; others collect the nectar and pollen 
 of the flowers and form from them the honey and the wax, 
 construct the combs, and lay up a supply of food these are the 
 wax workers. 
 
 Many writers regard the associations of Sees as a republic. 
 Linnaeus terms the government a gynocratic republic. This 
 celebrated naturalist believed that the queen is guarded from 
 sight by the workers, and that she is not able to emerge 
 from her dominions ; this, however, is an error. The associa- 
 tion of Sees appears rather to be a true monarchy, at the head 
 of which is placed a sovereign, who is the only one of her sex, 
 and who is solely engaged in laying eggs. But who governs the 
 society ? It governs itself ; each sex, each individual instinct- 
 ively, necessarily, and blindly executes the functions which are 
 assigned to it ; and each displays the same zeal, skill, and per- 
 fection in the fulfilment of its duties. 
 
 Copulation takes place at the beginning of summer, out of 
 the hive. The female rises into the air until she is lost to sight, 
 surrounded by a crowd of males. (Huber.) One only of the 
 latter is summoned to partake of her favours. This male 
 usually belongs to another hive. (Hamet.) The female soon 
 returns, bearing at the extremity of her abdomen the genital 
 organs of the male. 
 
 As soon as the female is impregnated, and the males are no 
 longer of any use to the community, the workers wound them 
 with their stings, and put them to death. This slaughter 
 usually takes place in the month of August, when the vicinity 
 of the hive is covered with the dead bodies. 
 
 Two days after the queen has been impregnated she begins 
 to lay her eggs, and becomes the object of the attention and 
 solicitude of the entire colony. The workers clean her by 
 rubbing her with their probosces, and from time to time pre- 
 sent her with the honey with they have disgorged. 
 
 There are several layings. Reaumur has calculated the 
 
HONEY. 199 
 
 number of eggs which the female can lay in the course of three 
 weeks at 12,000. She generally deposits from 200 to 400 a 
 day. 1 The eggs are oblong, slightly curved, attenuated at the 
 extremity, by which they are attached to the cell, and are 
 somewhat transparent. These eggs produce workers and a 
 single female. 
 
 It has been recently stated, that the queen has the power of 
 laying eggs before copulation as well as after it has taken 
 place, when the seminal fluid has lost its fecundating powers, 
 but that these eggs only give rise to males. It is also supposed 
 that, after she has been fecundated, she can prevent the seminal 
 fluid from coming in contact with the eggs, and that she can 
 thus deposit male germs at her pleasure. 
 
 The neuters are imperfect females ; that is to say, individuals 
 who have been arrested in their development, and do not 
 possess the copulative vesicle. Nevertheless, under certain cir- 
 cuinstances they do lay eggs, but they are always male eggs. 
 
 Suitable cells are prepared for the reception of the 
 new generation. Each egg has its particular cell. The cells 
 which are intended for workers are regular and perfectly equal 
 polyhedra. Those for the males are somewhat larger, are less 
 regular, nearly cylindrical, and as if they were engine-turned. 
 The male cells are dispersed amongst those of the workers. 
 The cells for the females hang down. 
 
 The eggs are hatched at the end of four or five days, when 
 there comes forth a small whitish larva, composed of fourteen 
 segments with a corneous head and no feet. The larva remains 
 motionless within its cell. The workers feed it with a mixture 
 of honey and pollen, of which the quantity varies according to 
 the age of the individual. 
 
 Five or six days after they are born, the period for their 
 metamorphosis has arrived, and the workers then closefup the 
 mouth of the cells with a convex lid or cup of wax. 
 
 The larvae spin around their bodies a covering of silk, and at 
 the end of three days they are transformed into nymphs. 
 
 When they have remained in this state seven days and a 
 half, they undergo their last metamorphosis, and are changed 
 into Bees. They then eat their way through the^ lid, and 
 emerge from their cells. 
 
 The males are twenty-one days from the time they are 
 
 hatched until they assume their perfect state. The females 
 
 are thirteen days. The nature of the food exercises great 
 
 influence over the duration of this period. By varying the 
 
 1 Linnaeus says that each queen lays 40,000 a year. 
 
200 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 food of the larvae, the workers can at their option produce 
 workers or queens ; that is to say, females whose development 
 has been arrested, or females who are normally developed. 
 When a swarm has lost its queen, the workers demolish 
 several of the ordinary cells for the purpose of forming a royal 
 cell. A larva is placed in this, and after being fed on the 
 necessary kind of food, instead of producing a working bee, it 
 is transformed into a queen. 
 
 When the young bees have come forth, the workers im- 
 mediately clean out the cells, and prepare them for the 
 reception of another set of eggs. This, however, is not the 
 case with the royal cells ; these are destroyed, and fresh ones 
 formed for every laying. 
 
 When a queen is born in a hive, a great agitation is per- 
 ceived, and the whole colony appears to be in motion ; on the 
 one hand, the old queen endeavours to reach her new-born 
 rival for the purpose of plunging her sting into her body, 
 while on the other hand crowds of workers interpose to defend 
 her. Some are charged with wax, and seem desirous of 
 enclosing the new queen in her cell, and to provide for her 
 safety by making her a prisoner. In a short time the old 
 queen issues forth from the hive, with all the appearance of 
 anger, and is accompanied by a large number of the com- 
 munity. She and her partisans assemble together at some 
 distance from the old hive, and become the founders of a new 
 colony. The young queen remains behind, and is soon at 
 the head of a numerous society by the successive development 
 of the larvae belonging to her generation. In this manner a 
 young swarm is produced, which take possession of the first 
 hive. 
 
 If two or three queens are born at the same time, they 
 wage War against each other until only one of them is left 
 alive, who, having conquered her rivals, becomes the sovereign 
 of the new society. 
 
 When a second *queen is introduced into a hive, she is 
 either destroyed by the legitimate sovereign, or by a number 
 of the workers, who precipitate themselves upon her, and 
 plunge tl^eir stings into her body. (Huber, De Beauvoys.) 
 
 Sometimes one colony will attack another in order to rob 
 it of its provisions. If it should be victorious, the honey 
 belonging to the enemy is carried off, and transferred to their 
 own hive. Sees pass the winter in a torpid state. It has 
 recently been proposed to preserve them during their lethargy 
 in a kind of pits. 
 
HONEY. 201 
 
 2. ORGANS WHICH FORM THE HONEY (fig. 52). Sees are 
 
 furnished with a proboscis, which 
 is the homologue of the lower lip 
 of other insects. 
 
 Swammerdam thought the pro- 
 boscis was tubular, and perforated 
 at its extremity, and that thus it 
 was organised to draw up the 
 juices of the flower after the 
 *manner of a pump. According 
 to this celebrated anatomist the 
 most external pieces, which form 
 the case, served only to separate 
 Fig. 52. Mouth. 1 the petals, while the inner por- 
 
 tions were intended to compress 
 
 the tube, and cause the ascent of the sugared fluid. This 
 suction was favoured by the pressure of the atmosphere, and 
 by the dilitation of the abdomen, which formed the vacuum of 
 the pump. 
 
 Eeaumur has given a more correct account of this apparatus 
 and of the functions which are performed by the different 
 pieces. He has shown that the proboscis is a kind of velvetty 
 tongue, which by its movements becomes charged with the 
 honeyed liquor ; that this fluid then passes between the 
 external pieces or jaws, and thus gains an opening at its base, 
 which had escaped the notice of Swammerdam. 
 
 It appears, therefore, that the instrument with which the 
 Sees collect the honey is not entitled to be termed a, proboscis. 
 Entomologists have named it the ligula. 
 
 The ligula is a long, lancet-shaped, slender, obtuse body, 
 marked with transverse lines, and covered with hairs, which 
 are directed from the base towards the apex. It is contracted 
 at its commencement, and appears to be articulated by a 
 pedicle, which is short and truncated anteriorly, while poste- 
 riorly it is attenuated, and then suddenly dilated. On either 
 side of the contracted portion are two appendages, paraglossa, 
 having the form of short obtuse processes furnished with hairs. 
 Further back, where it becomes dilated are the labial palpi. 
 These are longer than the paraglossa, but shorter than the 
 tongue ; they pass from behind forwards, and from within to 
 without ; they dimmish in size towards their termination, and 
 
 1 A, mouth of a working bee ; a, ligula ; b b, paraglossa ; c c, labial 
 palpi; d d, the jawg ; B, mandible of a worker. 
 
202 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 are composed of a number of unequal joints. Still further 
 back are the narrow lancet-shaped jaws, looking as if they 
 were provided with a median nervure. 
 
 The opening of the mouth is situated at the upper part of 
 the base of the tongue ; it is of a moderate size, and is closed 
 by a small fleshy triangular lobe, which Reaumur 1 named the 
 tongue. This aperture, which is the opening of the pharynx, 
 communicates with a dilated esophagus. When a Bee is 
 compressed between the fingers drop of honey often issues 
 from this spot. 
 
 The nectar of flowers and the various sweet vegetable juices 
 after they have been imbibed and swallowed by the Bee 
 become modified in the stomach (Reaumur), and transformed 
 into honey. This is disgorged and deposited by the animals in 
 particular cells prepared for the purpose in the layers of the 
 comb. 
 
 3. HONEY. Honey (mel) is a sugared, perfumed, semifluid 
 substance of the consistence of syrup, and of a more or less 
 golden yellow colour. 
 
 The collecting of the honey takes place during the months 
 of September and October. There are various ways of ob- 
 taining it. The old method was not without danger to the 
 operators as well as to the Sees. The head was covered with a 
 mask, the hands with gloves, and the legs with cloths. The 
 hive was then smoked. When the Sees, having been driven 
 out by the smoke, had assembled at the top of their abode, the 
 hive was turned topsy-turvy. The combs had then to be cut 
 away, and, in order that the insects should not be injured in 
 the operation, they were compelled to retire further off by 
 again smoking them by means of a piece of smouldering tow 
 or linen fixed to the end of a stick, so that it could be directed 
 towards the comb to which the Sees had attached themselves. 
 This method was exceedingly detrimental to the multiplication 
 of the Bee's. In the present day a different plan is adopted. 
 In the evening the hive is gently raised from its support, laid 
 upon its side, and left in this position during the night. Early 
 the next morning an empty hive is rubbed with honey, and 
 fixed with its opening upwards ; the other hive is then placed 
 upon it, so that the two openings correspond. By this means 
 the full hive is placed below the other in a reversed position ; 
 it is then struck repeatedly with a small stick, and the animals, 
 in consequence, pass into the upper hive. When all or the 
 
 1 Epipharynx or epigloxsa (Savigny). 
 
HONEY. 203 
 
 greater number of the Sees are supposed to have entered the 
 empty hive is detached, and placed where the full hive had 
 been removed from. The latter is then reversed upon a cloth, 
 on which the combs fall. The Bees which remain behind are 
 driven oif, either by moving them with a feather, or by smoking 
 them. .Some recommend the fumes of tobacco, and others 
 that of chloroform. 
 
 In order to extract the honey from the combs they are 
 placed upon sieves, or in coarse sacks, and exposed to a slight 
 heat, or simply to the warmth of the sun; a viscous fluid 
 drains from them, which is known as virgin honey ; it is the 
 most pure and the most valuable. 
 
 When no more honey comes away the combs are broken up, 
 and then allowed to drain again, and this time the heat is 
 somewhat increased. 
 
 After this the combs are pressed, care having first been 
 taken to remove the eggs. By this means a larger supply of 
 honey is obtained, but of an inferior quality, holding in sus- 
 pension a certain amount of extraneous matter, which either 
 swims at the top or sinks to the bottom. The honey must 
 be left some time to settle, and then skimmed and carefully 
 poured off. 
 
 The less heat and the less amount of pressure which are used 
 the better the honey. 
 
 Good honey is soft, of a pale yellow colour, with granular 
 particles dispersed through the semifluid portions. It is 
 entirely soluble in water, and capable of undergoing alcoholic 
 fermentation. It has a bland, sweet, pleasant, and more or 
 less aromatic flavour. 
 
 Writers distinguish six kinds of honey : 1. that from Mount 
 Hymetta, from Mount Ida, from Mahon, and from Cuba ; 2. 
 that of Narbonne ; 3. that of Gatinais ; 4. that of Saintonge ; 
 5. that of Burgundy ; 6. that of Brittany. 
 
 The honey from Mount Hvmetta was celebrated in' the earliest 
 ages of the world. Martial, Horace, and Silius Italicus have 
 extolled its flavour and its perfume. It is a white, liquid, and 
 transparent honey. 
 
 Narbonne honev enjoys a well-merited reputation in phar- 
 macy. It is somewhat solid, of awhitish colour, very granular, with 
 a strong smell and an aromatic taste, which is occasionally slightly 
 pungent. It contains a small quantity of wax and acid. This 
 honey comes almost exclusively from the little town of 
 ('ill-lucres. 
 
 The honey of Gatinais is next in esteem after that of 
 
204 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Narbonne. It is not so granular as the latter, and is of a darker 
 colour, and less aromatic. It has a pale yellow tint, and a 
 very sweet taste. It comes from that portion of the depart- 
 ment of Seine et Marne which is to the south of the Seine, and 
 from a part of Orleans. It is often sold in Paris under the 
 name of Narbonne honey. It is the best for the preparation 
 of syrups. 
 
 Saintonge honey is very thick, less granular than that from 
 Narbonne, but nearly as white. It has a strong aromatic 
 odour and an agreable flavour. It is very similar to that from 
 Gatinais, but it is not of so deep a colour. This honey is 
 principally employed in the country where it is produced. 
 
 Burgundy honey is held in less repute than the former 
 kinds. 
 
 The honey of Brittany is the most inferior of all. It is 
 of a brown red colour. It has a sharp taste, and a smell re- 
 sembling gingerbread, which sometimes is not at all agreeable. 
 It contains a fusible granular matter, soluble in water and in 
 alcohol. It is seldom employed in medicine. It is especially 
 reserved for veterinary purposes. The nature of the flowers 
 influences the colour, taste, perfume, and other qualities of the 
 honey. 
 
 Some honeys are almost white ; others are of a golden 
 yellow, red, fawn, brown, and even black colour. A Bee 
 belonging' to Madagascar and the Isle of Bourbon (Apis 
 unicolor, Latr.) produces a green honey. 1 
 
 The honey prepared from the nectar of the labiata is 
 generally very much perfumed ; that from the South of France 
 appears to owe its good qualities to the great number of these 
 plants, which are found in that part of the country. The 
 aromatic odour which characterises the honey from the neigh- 
 bourhood of Montpellier, particularly that from the sources of the 
 Lez, appears to be owing to this circumstance. Sauvage states, 
 that having planted a hedge of rosemary before a hive, of which 
 the honey had no particular smell, from that time it became 
 perfumed. M. Biot noticed in the Balearic isles, and 
 De Candolle in the Corbieres, near Narbonne, that the honey 
 of these countries owed its superiority to the same family of 
 plants. Olivier has stated, that the honey of Upper Provence, 
 which is of an excellent quality, is collected from lavender. 
 The good qualities of Cuban honey arise from the orange 
 
 1 It is obtained from the Mimosa heterophytta and from the Weirmanna 
 glabra. 
 
HONEY. 205 
 
 flower. Bosc states that the deliciousness of the honey from 
 the neighbourhood of the orangery at Versailles is owing to the 
 same cause. It is said that it is the black or buck wheat 
 which gives the inferior qualities to the honey of Brittany. 
 The makers of gingerbread at Rheims are said to pay a higher 
 price for the honey which is obtained in the spring from the 
 willows, than that which is obtained in autumn from the buck 
 wheat. (Allaire.) The aromatic flavour and odour of the honey 
 from Gatinais appear to depend upon the flowers of the 
 saffron, which are produced in large quantities in that country. 
 The yew, according to Virgil, and the box tree, according to 
 Pliny, imparted a better flavour to the honey of Corsica. 
 
 Aristotle pretends, that at a certain period of the year the 
 honey from the neighbourhood of the Caucasus rendered those 
 who ate it insensible. Xenophon and Diodorus of Sicily 
 relate that the soldiers became furiously intoxicated after 
 eating the honey in the neighbourhood of Trebizond. These 
 si att -11 KM its have been confirmed by several modern writers. 
 Tournefort believes that these deleterious properties are owing 
 to the flowers of the Azalea Pontica ; others that they depend 
 in a great measure on the Rhododendrum Ponticum. Gulden- 
 staedt tasted some honey which was collected from these 
 shrubs. It was of a dark brown colour, with a bitter taste, 
 and caused deafness and giddiness. Smith Barton has de- 
 scribed the symptoms produced by a poisonous honey found in 
 South Pensylvania, near the Ohio. During his voyage to the 
 Brazils, Auguste de Saint-Hilaire remained in a state of 
 delirium for several hours from only taking two teaspoonfuls 
 of a mild pleasant honey gathered by a bee, Polistes Leche- 
 guana, A. St.-Hil. ; from a species of fir tree, the Pallulinia 
 australis. 
 
 Various writers have published cases which show that honey 
 collected from narcotic or poisonous plants may produce 
 nausea, colic, and even actual poisoning. Lambert says that 
 the honey collected from a certain tree in Colchis produced 
 vomiting. Labillardiere suspects that the poisonous effects in 
 Asia Minor are caused by the Cocculus suberosus. In Brazil a 
 drink called grappe is concocted from wild honey and certain 
 fruits, which causes vomiting. (Houlox Baror.) The honey 
 from Pensylvania, South Carolina, Georgia, and the two 
 Floridas, when it has been collected from the Kalmia 
 ai/<//rx//foli(t, htfifolia, or hirsuta, or from the Andromeda mariana, 
 produces disorder of the stomach, vomiting, convulsions, and 
 sometimes death. Haller mentions the case of two Alpine 
 
206 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 villagers who were poisoned by honey from the aconite. 
 Seringe mentions another instance where two Swiss herdsmen 
 having eaten some honey, collected from the Aconitum Napellus 
 and lycotonum, 1 were seized with convulsions and delirium; 
 one of them, who was unable to vomit, died discharging blood 
 and froth from his mouth. 
 
 The qualities and effects of honey are very variable. A kind 
 which is excellent at one period of the year may become 
 noxious at another. Every bee-keeper knows that the same 
 hive produces a somewhat different honey every month owing 
 to the difference in the flowers upon which the Sees feed. 
 
 Honey is a mixture, in variable proportions, of two different 
 sugars : * glucose, which is solid, crystallisable, and perfectly 
 resembles the solid sugar of the raisin ; the other is liquid, non- 
 crystallisable, and has a rotatory movement to the left. 
 Soubeiran has mentioned a third sugar, distinguished from that 
 in grains by being convertible by acids, and from the fluid 
 sugar in having a rotatory motion towards the right. Small 
 quantities have also been found of a vegetable acid, and of the 
 colouring and odorous principles which exercise so much influence 
 over the qualities of the honey. According to M. Guibourt, 
 some honeys appear to contain manna. 
 
 Honey is adulterated by the addition of water, starch, the 
 pulp of chesnuts, bean or maize flour; gum tragacanth and 
 sand are also mixed with it. These adulterations are detected 
 by dissolving the honey in water, when the starch and other 
 matters sink to the bottom. The addition of iodine produces 
 a -blue colour. Honey is also adulterated with starch sugar. 
 When this is the case, it has a peculiar appearance and a 
 disagreeable taste. Dissolved in water it gives a copious 
 precipitate with oxalate of ammonia and the salts of baryta, in 
 consequence of the sulphate which it contains. 
 
 Under the name of Narbonne honey, various inferior kinds 
 are sold, which have been whitened, and to which the perfume 
 of the best honeys has been imparted by straining it over 
 flowers of rosemary. 
 
 XI. Wax. 
 
 Sees 2 are the principal w^-producing animals. 
 It has long been known that certain vegetables, as, for 
 example, the Ceroxylon andicola, and the Benincasa cerifera, 
 
 1 This was the honey of the Common Humble Bee, Bombus terrestris, 
 Fabr. 
 
 * Seep. 196. 
 
WAX. 207 
 
 produce a substance consisting of wax and some other prin- 
 ciples. 1 The twigs, leaves, and fruits of many plants are 
 covered with a powder, which is a waxy matter differing very- 
 little from that which is produced by Bees. From these 
 circumstances it was supposed that the insect received the wax 
 already prepared from the plant ; it has, however, been shown 
 to be an animal formation. No doubt the Bee obtains the 
 elements of the wax from the plants ; but she modifies and 
 transforms them. 
 
 Bonnet and Hunter maintained that wax was a secretion. 
 It is, however, to the experiments of Huber of Geneva that 
 we are indebted for a practical demonstration of the fact. He 
 enclosed a swarm of Bees in a new hive, and gave them 
 nothing but honey and water. t At the end of some days the 
 insects had constructed several layers of cells of a very pure 
 wax. MM. Dumas and Milne Edwards repeated the ex- 
 periment with both honey and sugar, and obtained the same 
 result. 
 
 1. WAX ORGANS. Hunter and Huber asserted that the 
 elaboration of the wax took place by means of eight small 
 pouches placed between the lower segments of the abdomen. 
 M. Leon Dufour denies the existence of these presumed wax 
 pouches. Some writers, guided by the fact that secretions of 
 the nature of wax are met with in several other insects, 
 conclude that the wax of the Bee accumulates by exudation on 
 the inner surface of the delicate membranes, 
 which bind the joints of their feet together. 
 According to M. Leon Dufour, the Bee swal- 
 lows the pollen and other vegetable substances 
 which contain the elements of the wax. It 
 then yields this matter fully elaborated from 
 the mouth in a soft pulpy condition. This 
 pulp is deposited and formed, as it were, in a 
 kind of mould, in the wax receptacles placed 
 along the lateral parts of the abdomen, where 
 it assumes the form and consistency of plates. 
 Fig. 53. The legs of the Bee, and especially the 
 
 Leg of Bee* posterior pair (fig. 53) , are admirably adapted for 
 
 1 The wax of Japan is found in the fruit of the Rhus succedaneum. 
 Mi/rtlc irar is obtained from the wood of Myrica cerifera. Other kindg of 
 wax are cxtnu.-tt.Ml from the Croton sebiferum, Celastrus ceriferus, Myristica 
 .x< tn'fiTd, and Myrutica Bicuhi/bn. 
 
 Hinder limb of a worker : a, basket seen on its outer or convex surface; 
 the inner or concave is placed opposite to it; 6, the brush. 
 
208 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 the purposes for which they are required, and have the first joint 
 of the tarsus dilated. This dilatation is most marked in the 
 workers ; it has a square form, and its inner surface is provided 
 with several rows of stiif hairs placed transversely, which gives 
 to this part the name of the brush. The leg is dilated, and 
 forms a triangular cavity on its inner surface, which is known 
 as the basket; the outer surface is somewhat convex, and 
 bordered by long curved hairs. 
 
 It is by means of this simple apparatus that the workers 
 gather the pollen and waxy secretions of the plant. The 
 pollen is supplied by the stamens, and the waxy secretions, 
 which cover the leaves and the fruit, readily adhere to the 
 hairs of the Bee. These materials are gathered together in 
 small pellets by means of the brushes, and are then deposited 
 in the basket by the second pair of feet. The workers may be 
 often seen returning to the hive with their baskets completely 
 full. Eeaumur calculated that eight baskets full of pollen 
 would weigh '771 of a grain. Each Bee will make four or five 
 journeys in a day, carrying two baskets full each time ; conse- 
 quently, in the space of a month, 18,000 workers would 
 accumulate 88 Ibs. avoir, of this material. 
 
 Such are the instruments with which the Bees collect and 
 transport the elements of the wax, and such is the manner 
 in which they gather, accumulate, and carry away these pre- 
 cious materials. 
 
 It has been previously seen how the animal prepares, dis- 
 gorges, and elaborates the wax, and how it deposits it in the 
 cavities of its abdomen. 
 
 The plates of wax are small, and appear as if they were 
 formed of perpendicular fibres. (Dujardin.) 
 
 The basket, or dilated portion of the Bee's leg, has a small 
 hook with which it draws the plates of wax from the sides of 
 its body. The insect deposits them one upon the other, like 
 layers of bricks, and moulds them into the walls of its cells. 
 
 For this purpose the Bee makes use of its mandibles. 1 
 These organs are very small in the males and the females, but 
 they are well developed in the workers. They are hollowed 
 out, and divided into two portions by a longitudinal ridge. 
 When the mandibles are approximated, they form a pair 
 of cutting pincers, and at the same time a kind of groove. It 
 is with these instruments that the animals construct the 
 beautiful cells of their comb. 
 
 1 See p. 201, fig. 52, B. 
 
WAX. 209 
 
 It has just been stated that 18,000 workers in the space of 
 a month will bring to their hive more than 88 Ibs. of pollen. 
 But at the end of a year the same number of insects will only 
 have yielded a little more than 2 Ibs. of genuine wax. "What 
 then has become of the remainder of the pollen? It has 
 evidently been either consumed as food, or rejected as useless. 
 
 2. WAX. Wax is a combustible material of which the 
 Bees compose the cells or comb, which is provided for the 
 reception of their young and their food. 
 
 When the honey has been removed from the comb, it is 
 melted at a moderate heat of from 143 to 145 Fah. It is 
 then poured into moulds, and forms the yellow or crude wax. 
 It owes its colour and its odour to foreign matters. 1 
 
 For the purpose of purifying the wax, it is made up into 
 thin ribbons or films, or it is melted and poured in the liquid 
 state on to cylinders of wood, which revolve horizontally in 
 the water, and divide it into lumps. The films or lumps of wax 
 are then placed on webs of canvas, and exposed in a meadow 
 to the action of air and sun light, care being taken that it is 
 sprinkled every night with water. By degrees the wax loses 
 its yellow colour and becomes bleached, the process com- 
 mencing at the surface, and gradually proceeding inwards. 
 This process has the inconvenience of occupying a long time, 
 and in some establishments the process of bleaching by 
 chlorine has been substituted for it. Immersion of the lumps 
 or ribbons of wax in a solution of chlorine, or exposing them 
 to the action of chlorine gas, produces in a short time the 
 same effects as the former process does in a long time. The 
 same thing may be accomplished by means of other chemical 
 substances. 
 
 A small quantity of suet is often mixed with the wax in 
 order to restore to it the suppleness it has lost. 
 
 Wax which has been completely deprived of its colour, is 
 called virgin or white wax. 
 
 Virgin wax should be solid, opaque, white, brittle, and 
 without any decided taste or smelL It softens and becomes 
 malleable at a moderate temperature. It melts at about 149 
 Fah., and when thrown on red hot coals it inflames and burns 
 away. 
 
 Thin slices of white wax seen beneath the microscope have 
 the appearance of an amorphous substance. If, however, they 
 are melted on the glass plate, and then allowed to cool, they 
 
 1 It is sometimes adulterated with potato storch. (Delpech.) 
 
 P 
 
210 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 assume a crystalline structure. This structure becomes more 
 evident when it is examined by polarized light, and when one 
 of the thin plates of gypsum, which M. Biot terms sensitive 
 plates, is placed over it. (Dujardin.) 
 
 Wax contains three distinct principles viz., cerine, myri- 
 cine, and ceroleine. The cerine, or cerotic acid, forms the 
 greatest part of the compound; it melts at 172 Fah.; it 
 dissolves in boiling alcohol, which throws it down as a deposit 
 in cooling. Myricine is white, inodorous, and tasteless; it 
 melts at 161 Eah. ; it requires 200 parts of boiling alcohol to 
 dissolve it. Ceroleine forms only a very small proportion of 
 the wax, about 4 or 5 per cent. ; it melts at 84 Eah. ; it is 
 soft and very soluble both in alcohol and ether, even when 
 cold. 
 
 Wax forms the basis of cerates. It also enters into the 
 composition of a great number of unguents and plasters. 
 It has even been recommended medicinally in the form of 
 electuary, emulsion, and pills. 
 
 [Wax forms the hardening material of all the cerates of the 
 pharmacopoeia. The two simple cerates are the common cerate 
 and the cerate of spermaceti; the latter has already been 
 noticed under the head of spermaceti. 1 
 
 CERATTTM, Cerate. Wax Jxx, Olive oil Oj. Add the oil 
 to the melted wax, and mix. 
 
 Wax also enters into the composition of several of the 
 plasters and ointments of the pharmacopoeia.] 
 
 OTHER KINDS OF WAX. Certain species of Cocci exude a 
 waxy material, which bears some resemblance to spermaceti, and 
 from which bougies are made. The Coccus Sinensis (Westwood) 
 furnishes the Chinese Wax. The Coccus ceriferus (Fabr.), 
 which lives in Bengal, produces a similar substance. In 
 the Common Cochineal? principally in the variety known as 
 Silver Cochineal, a white powder is seen on the females, 
 which consists of wax. 
 
 XII. Hair and other Corneous Substances. 
 
 Hairs, hoofs, and feathers have long since been banished 
 from the materia medica; 3 but the corneous parts of animals 
 still render us important services in other respects. 
 
 Horsehair is employed in the manufacture of mattresses, 
 chairs, and various kinds of elastic tissues. 
 
 1 See page 94. 
 
 * See page 71. 
 
 * See page 65. 
 
IIAIB AND OTHER CORNEOUS SUBSTANCES. 
 
 211 
 
 The hair of the ox, after being calcined, has been profitably 
 employed for some years, by M. Liance, in the preparation of 
 kermes mineral. 
 
 It is sufficient to recall the various uses to which whalebone 1 
 is applied. This material consists of corneous plates from 6 to 
 
 9 feet in length, arranged 
 parallel to each other, and 
 attached vertically to the pala- 
 tine surface of trie maxillary 
 bones (fig. 54). These plates 
 have their inner edges narrow, 
 and terminating in a number 
 of coarse fibres, which are the 
 free ends of the fibres of 
 
 Fig. 54. Whalebone. 
 
 which the plates are composed. When the mouth of the 
 whale is closed on a swarm of mollusca, or on a shoal of small 
 fishes, the water escapes through the intervals of the plates 
 and the fringes of coarse hair. Thus the whole forms a kind 
 of filter, which strains off the water, but retains what 
 was in it. 
 
 The feathers of Birds are used for making mattresses, 
 bolsters, quilts, and various kinds of ornaments. The body 
 feathers (If en, Grebe, Penguin), the down (Goose, Eider duck), 
 the great wing and tail feathers (Ostrich, Goose, Crow), and the 
 covertures which protect the base of the latter (Peacock, Egret, 
 Marabout) are all employed for some purpose or another. 
 
 Feathers form an important branch of commerce : in 1833, 
 there was imported into France 230,222 Ibs. of feathers of the 
 value of 29,318. 
 
 See page 93. 
 
212 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 BOOK IY. 
 
 NOXIOUS ANIMALS, BUT WHICH ABE NOT POISONOUS NOE YET 
 PAEASlTES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ANIMALS NOXIOUS DUEING THEIE LIVES. 
 
 General Observations. 
 
 THE noxious animals which are not poisonous nor yet parasites 
 are those in which there is no special gland for the secretion of 
 a poison, and which are not permanent inhabitants either of 
 the interior or of the exterior of our bodies. 
 
 There are some, however, which not only cause pain, but 
 also produce other symptoms, which seem to show that there is 
 something more than a mere mechanical action in their 
 puncture. The saliva which is deposited in the wound probably 
 possesses some specific action. 
 
 The number of these animals is very considerable. There 
 are many species, both large and small, which every one is 
 acquainted with, which wound us with their horns, their teeth, 
 their beak, their claws, or with particular instruments. It is 
 unnecessary to enumerate their names. Generally speaking, 
 they are animals which avoid man. They only wound him 
 when they are attacked, tormented, or mutilated, or when they 
 are endeavouring to escape from the hand which has seized 
 them. 
 
 It has been asserted that several large tailless bats belonging 
 to South America, and particularly the Vampire 1 and the 
 Javelin Bat, Phyllostoma haustatum, Guv., could destroy a man 
 by sucking his blood. It is now ascertained that these 
 animals only inflict small circular or elliptical wounds, which 
 are painful, and are sometimes accompanied by a considerable 
 amount of local inflammation (Azara Tschudi) ; in some rare 
 cases this may assume a poisonous character from the state of 
 the climate. (Cuvier.) 
 
 1 Vampyrus spectrum, Spix, Vespectilio Vampyrus, Linn., commonly 
 known in Brazil as the Andiraguaga or Eoussette. 
 
NOXIOUS ANIMALS. 213 
 
 The Musaraigne, the Rat, and even the Squirrel, can bite so 
 as to draw blood. It is the same with certain Birds, and 
 some large kinds of Lizards. 
 
 Other Birds defend themselves with the spur attached to 
 their foot, or with the points of their wings. 
 
 Several species of Bays inflict wounds with the toothed spine 
 of their tail, and the Weaver with the spines of their fins. 
 
 The Torpedo and Gymnotus give electric shocks. 
 
 The Crustacea will seize the fingers or the skin with their 
 strong dentated claws. 
 
 Many Insects bite, prick, or scratch, &c. 
 
 The injuries which can be inflicted by Ants have been 
 greatly exaggerated. The bites of these minute animals are 
 altogether insignificant, at least in our country. Some foreign 
 Ants are more disagreeable, especially when they occur in 
 large numbers ; such as the Ants of Southern Africa, mentioned 
 by Father Labat ; the Flaming Ante (Flammants) of the 
 woods of Cayenne, which, according to Barrere, give rise to 
 febrile disturbances ; and the Fire Ant of Surinam, of which 
 Stedman has given an account. Adanson relates that certain 
 Red Ants of Senegal live in the branches of a species of oak, 
 where they compose their nest of the leaves, and that they 
 throw themselves on persons who are so imprudent as to come 
 near, and bite them severely. This celebrated naturalist was 
 once attacked by these insects ; his hands and face were covered 
 with blisters as if they had been burnt. 
 
 It is known that a kind of acid vapour (formic acid) is 
 exhaled from the bodies of the Ants. The vapour is not a 
 poison, but it may produce some slight action on our bodies, 1 
 and may even produce small blisters, accompanied with a 
 peculiar kind of itching. It is asserted that a large number 
 of these insects assembled together on one spot, or the vapour 
 arising from a formicary, is capable of producing a species of 
 erysipelas. 
 
 The Flies in our country sometimes bite very disagreably, 
 especially towards the autumn ; but these insects are rather 
 inconvenient than hurtful. 
 
 One of the flies most to be dreaded is a species of Stomoxys, 
 which appears about the middle of the summer, and assembles 
 in swarms around the heads of horses and of cattle ; it also 
 attacks man. 
 
 1 When the Red Ant (Formica rufa, Linn.) crawls over a piece of litmus 
 paper it produces a red track. 
 
214 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 There are many insects which exhale a very disagreeable, 
 stinking odour. This smell arises from a fluid which they 
 disgorge, or transude from some part of their body, principally 
 when they are touched. Some of the beetles belonging to the 
 families of Silphidce and Carabidce discharge a very foetid fluid 
 from the mouth. The Brachinidce or Bombardier beetles dis- 
 charge a still more offensive fluid from the anus. The large 
 Oicadce pour out a fluid which is probably an urinary secretion. 
 The JSlattidce have two vesicles at the side of the anus, which 
 impart a most nauseous odour to our food. The Cocci exude 
 a bitter and acrid liquid from between the articulations of the 
 thorax and the tarsi of the anterior feet. 
 
 Lastly, the Flies and other insects which frequent putrid 
 meat, and other kinds of filth, may convey to our bodies the 
 germs of dangerous disorders. 
 
 The present division of the work will be devoted to the con- 
 sideration of: 1. The Serrasalmes ; 2. Horse Leech; 3. Bugs ; 
 4. The Nepa; 5. The Hippoloscidcs ; 6. The Tsetse; 7. The 
 Gnats; 8. Stinging animals; 9. The Larvae of Flies; 10. 
 Insects introduced accidentally into the natural cavities of the 
 lody. 
 
 I. The Serra-salmes. 
 
 The Serra-salmes (Pygocentrus) are fishes belonging to the 
 Salmonidae. They live together in shoals, and are carnivorous. 
 They attack with the greatest ferocity all animals which may 
 chance to come into the same waters as themselves, not ex- 
 cepting even man himself. They fix themselves on to the skin 
 and tear their victims with their triangular cutting teeth. 
 Their bite is so sharp and so quick that it is not felt more than 
 the cut of a razor. (A. de St. Hilaire.) 
 
 One of the best known species is the Piranha or Devil Fish 1 
 discovered by M. de Castelnau in Uruguay, in the rivers 
 Tocantin and Amazon. 
 
 When any object is thrown into the water inhabited by the 
 Piranhas, these fish immediately attack it. One of the com- 
 panions of M. de Castelnau, being oppressed by the heat, 
 wished to bathe, but no sooner had he entered the water than 
 he was attacked by a shoal of the Piranhas^ and he saw his 
 blood pouring forth and discolouring the water. He made for 
 the bank, which was fortunately close at hand, and he thus es- 
 caped what was otherwise certain death. (De Castelnau.) 
 
 1 Pygocentrus Piraya, Mull. (Serrasalme Piraya, Cuv., Serrasalmvs 
 Piranha, Spix). 
 
HJ.MOPIS. 
 
 215 
 
 II. Hsemopis. 
 
 SANGUISUGA, Moq., or Horse Leech (fig. 55). 
 This creature is met with in nearly every part of Europe. It 
 is found in Sweden, in the South of Spain, in Portugal, and in 
 Turkey. It is very common in the North of Africa along all 
 parts of the coast, and has been found in 
 all the waters which have been visited by 
 the French troops in their furthest ad- 
 vances into the desert. Larrey noticed it 
 in Egypt, and Barker Webb in the Canary 
 Islands. 
 
 The Hcemopis inhabits the marshes, 
 ditches, and smaller rivulets. The full- 
 grown animals usually bury themselves 
 in the mud. The young appear to prefer 
 the running waters, where they remain at 
 the surface ready to plunge below upon 
 the slightest disturbance. (Gruyon.) 
 
 Description. The body of the Hcemopis 
 is soft, depressed, elongated, and gradually 
 narrowed towards the anterior extremity ; 
 when it is squeezed between the fingers it 
 feels like a dead or diseased medicinal 
 Leech. The body has from 95 to 97 short 
 and rather indistinct rings, and an upper 
 lip composed of three segments. The back 
 is of a brown or greenish brown colour, 
 sometimes approaching to a reddish or 
 Sienna earth colour, or to an olive or green 
 colour. It has generally longitudinal rows 
 of minute close-set black spots. There are 
 usually six of these rows, but sometimes 
 only four, and still more rarely only two. In many indi- 
 viduals these spots are replaced by one or two large bands 
 of a red colour, shaded off at the margins. Individuals are 
 occasionally met with, in which the back is of a uniform colour. 
 The margins are not very prominent, and are marked by a 
 very distinct 1 line of an orange, yellow, or reddish brown colour. 
 The belly is of a uniform blackish slate colour, generally darker 
 than the back, sometimes of a red or of an olive colour, and at 
 other times of a dull black ; sometimes it is marked with obscure, 
 isolated, irregular spots, and at other times it is free from 
 1 Margine lateraliflavo, Linn. 
 
 Fig. 55. Hcemopis. 
 
216 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 them. The suckers are smooth, slender, and of the same 
 colour as the belly ; the anal is half the size of the ventral. 
 The eyes are ten in number, very distinct, and arranged in a 
 curved line ; six are placed on the first segment. 
 
 At the period of reproduction the clitellum 1 is paler than the 
 rest of the body ; it commences at the 22nd ring, and termin- 
 ates at the 28th. Of the male and female orifices the first is 
 placed between the 24th and 25th rings, and the second 
 between the 29th and 30th. 
 
 The cocoons are oval, smaller and shorter than those of 
 the medicinal Leech, and covered with a looser and more 
 irregular tissue. In one M. Tandon found eight embryos. 
 
 The Horse Leech has often been confounded with the true 
 Leeches. It differs : 1, as regards its size, which is somewhat 
 larger ; 2, by its jaws, which are smaller, not so strong, and 
 furnished with a smaller number of teeth (thirty instead of 
 sixty), which are not so pointed (fig. 56) ; 3, by a softer and 
 less contracted body ; 4, by the rings being less marked, less 
 coriaceous, and forming during their contraction ridges, which 
 are less apparent ; 5, by smaller and not such prominent 
 cutaneous tubercles ; 6, by the absence of the red or brown 
 
 dorsal bands ; 7, by the belly 
 being darker than the back, 
 and having no black mar- 
 ginal bands. 
 
 2. ITS ACTION oisr THE 
 VERTEBRATA. Aldrovandus 
 Fig. 56. Jaw of Hamopis* believed that nine of these 
 
 Leeches were able to kill a 
 
 horse. This statement, which has been repeated by Grisler, 
 Weser, Miiller, and many other writers, has latterly been dis- 
 puted. It bears the impress of exaggeration, and is, there- 
 fore, rejected. It has even been asserted that these annelides 
 do not pierce the skin of the vertebrata or suck their blood. 
 
 The Horse Leech has been clearly proved to be as eager 
 after blood as the Medicinal Leech, but the latter is provided 
 with the means of penetrating the skin at any part, even such 
 skins as those of the pachydermata, while the Hcemopis, with 
 its less developed aud more feebly armed jaws, can only pene- 
 trate the mucous membranes. Hence the necessity which 
 this species is under of introducing itself into the natural 
 cavities of horses, oxen, and other animals. 
 
 1 See p. 138. 
 
 2 a, Jaw seen from the side ; 5, form and arrangement of the teeth. 
 
HJEMOPIS. 217 
 
 Dr. G-uyon has frequently found in the neighbourhood of 
 Algiers Horse Leeches lodged in the nose, pharynx, and air 
 passages of the animals which have been slaughtered for the 
 use of the troops and the people. Amongst other instances 
 an ox had twelve of these leeches in the mouth and fauces, 
 five around the anterior part of the glottis, four in the ven- 
 tricles of the larynx, and six about the fourth or fifth ring of 
 the trachea ; altogether twenty-seven. These Leeches were 
 still attached twelve hours after the death of the animal. 
 
 The camels and the mules are frequently tormented by the 
 Hcemopis, which penetrates into the nasal fossae and into the 
 air passages. These annelides easily gain entrance into the 
 mouths of animals which come to the water they inhabit for the 
 purpose of drinking. Whatever part of the body the Hcemopis 
 may be lodged in, it is always attached by means of the anal 
 sucker, which fixes itself firmly to the mucous membrane. 
 The oral sucker applies itself to the surrounding parts accord- 
 ing to the caprice of the leech. Thus, upon examining the 
 mucous membrane in the neighbourhood of an Hcemopis, it is 
 seen to be covered with a number of small wounds and cica- 
 trices. (Gruyon.) When the Leeches are sufficiently gorged, 
 they detach themselves from their victims at the time of their 
 visiting the watering places, and thus regain their natural 
 habitation. 
 
 Dr. Guyon has made some experiments upon these animals. 
 He introduced them into the esophagus and oviduct of fowls, 
 and into the nasal fossae and the rectum of rabbits. At the 
 end of thirteen days the animals appeared very much wasted ; 
 they eat but little, and had a melancholy appearance. The 
 fowls perished in about thirty days, and the rabbits in about 
 forty. 
 
 M. Tandon also made several experiments ; he placed two 
 large Horse Leeches at the back of the mouth of two small rab- 
 bits. The animals penetrated into the trachea ; one stopped 
 at the commencement of the canal, the other passed completely 
 in. The first rabbit died in about an hour and a half, while 
 the second was suffocated in three quarters of an hour. 
 
 The Horse Leech is one of the main causes of disease in the 
 animals of Algeria. It is not, however, probable that nine of 
 them would destroy a horse, as stated by Aldrovandus, 
 since it has been seen that an ox was capable of supporting 
 twenty-seven without receiving any material injury. At the 
 same time they might cause the animal to be very unwell, and 
 if nine full-grown leeches were to fix themselves on the same 
 
218 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 part of the air passages, the animal might be suffocated, as in 
 the case of the rabbits mentioned above. 
 
 3. ACTION ON MAN. The Hcemopis also introduces itself 
 into the mouth, pharynx, nasal fossae, larynx, and trachea of 
 man. Most if not all the cases, which have been recorded by 
 writers, of Leeches being lodged in the alimentary canal or air 
 passages of our species, are to be referred to the Hcemopis in a 
 country where these animals are abundant; great caution should 
 be used in drinking water from the rivulets, and especially 
 from the marshes. 
 
 The young worms, which are not more than -^ inch in 
 length and not thicker than a fine thread, are carried along by 
 the water, and swallowed without being noticed. They 
 become arrested and fix themselves to various parts of the 
 mouth, especially to the back part of it. 
 
 At first a slight pricking is felt at the back of the mouth, 
 and afterwards the presence of a foreign body. 
 
 It has been stated that the bite of the Hcemopis is more 
 painful than that of the Medicinal Leech. (Savigny, Audouin.) 
 M. Tandon at first supposed that the difference depended upon 
 the jaws being less compressed, and the teeth being not so 
 sharp, or in consequence of the mucous membranes which are 
 wounded being very sensitive. But M. Gruyon has satisfied 
 himself that their wounds are not very serious ; only the pre- 
 sence of the animals in the nasal fossae, and still more so in the 
 air passages, produces great inconvenience, and in some cases 
 threatens the individual with suffocation. 
 
 The wounds inflicted by the Hcemopis heal very quickly 
 when the animals which inflicted them are removed. 
 
 The Horse Leech was noticed in 1756 at the siege of Mahon. 
 Since that time a great number of soldiers and travellers have 
 suffered from imprudently drinking the water from ditches and 
 marshes. Larrey in Egypt, Bory St. Vincent in Spain, and 
 Barny in Algeria, have often been consulted by soldiers who 
 had these animals attached to the back of the mouth or to 
 the air passages. 
 
 Dr. Ghiyon once found one of these leeches on the conjunc- 
 tiva of a soldier, where it had got while he was washing himself. 
 On another occasion he extracted one from the vagina of a 
 young girl who had been for some time in the water. 
 
 This gentleman could not succeed in inducing the Hcemopis 
 to bite the external parts of the human body. M. Tandon 
 also attempted the same thing on several occasions, but with 
 no better success. He placed some of these leeches of different 
 
219 
 
 ages on the parts of his own body where the skin is most 
 delicate, he also tried them on the arm and thigh of a child, 
 but the animals never attempted to bite. On one occasion he 
 bathed the inner surface of his arm with blood ; the leech 
 moved about and felt the blood, it even dilated its sucker, but 
 it never cut the skin or made any attempt to do so. 
 
 The Horse Leech is never employed in medicine, 1 the reason 
 for which is sufficiently evident. In the countries where they 
 are abundant, they might be used instead of the common Leech 
 in the few instances in which it is required to apply them to 
 the mucous membranes at the entrance of one of the internal 
 cavities of the body. It would, however, be very necessary to 
 watch the animal, in order to prevent its entering too far. 
 
 III. CimicidsB. 
 
 The Cimicidce, or Bugs, belong to the order Hemiptera and 
 to the family Geocores. 
 
 Linna3us, who was the founder of group Oimex, assigned as 
 its characters rostrum inflected ; antennae longer than the 
 thorax ; wings four, placed transversely, the upper pair coria- 
 ceous ; the body flattened, and the feet adapted for running. 
 
 This genus, which is far from a natural one, contains 121 
 species. Linnaeus was compelled to divide it into twelve 
 sections, according to the presence or absence of wings, the 
 nature of the elytra, the thickness of the body, and the form and 
 characters of the antenna?. At the present time the Linna3an 
 genus corresponds to more than forty genera, containing more 
 than 1000 species. 
 
 1. COMMON Buo (fig. 57). Every one is familiar with the 
 Common Bug or Bed Bug, Gimex lectularius, Linn. There are 
 few persons who have not at some time or another been bitten 
 by this disagreeable and stinking insect. 
 
 The bug lives in the crevices and corners of old wood; 
 behind curtains, looking-glasses, and picture-frames ; in all 
 kinds of old furniture, and especially in bedsteads. The 
 flattened form of its body enables it to penetrate into the 
 narrowest aperture. 
 
 The animal avoids the light, 2 hiding itself during the day- 
 time. It seldom remains on our bodies or on our cLress. 
 
 The Bug is said to have been introduced into Europe. 
 
 1 Gisler pretends that the Norwegians employ this leech instead of the 
 Medicinal Leech. This statement cannot be correct. 
 8 Nocturnum foetidum animal. (Linn.) 
 
220 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 However, Aristotle, Pliny, and Dioscarides distinctly refer to 
 it. The ancients gave it the name of Coris. The insect was 
 not known in England before the 17th century. It is stated 
 to have been imported from America in 1666, with a cargo of 
 wood. 1 Others believe that it came from India. 
 
 Description. The Bed Bug has an oval body, about T 2 ^ inch 
 in length, somewhat narrowed anteriorly, 
 thin at the sides, very depressed, soft, and 
 of a reddish or ferruginous brown colour. 
 It is covered with very short hairs. The 
 head is of a square form and provided at 
 the commencement of the rostrum with a 
 hood which serves as a sheath to the base of 
 the latter. The eyes are round and black ; 
 the antennae setiform and composed of four 
 cylindrical joints ; the first very short ; the 
 second thick, long, cylindrical, and partially lg * 57 '~ 
 covered with hairs ; the third very long, much slenderer than 
 the others, and slightly dilated at its extremity. The thorax 
 has the first segment hollowed out anteriorly, and truncated pos- 
 teriorly ; the sides are dilated, rounded, and membranous. The 
 animal has small rudimentary elytra. It has no wings. The 
 legs are of moderate size and black at their extremities ; the 
 tarsi are short, and consist of three joints ; the first is very 
 slightly developed, the second is conico-cylindrical, the last is 
 somewhat shorter than the second, cylindrical, and armed with 
 two strong hooks. The abdomen is large, oval, composed of 
 eight segments, fimbriated at its margins, very depressed, and 
 easily crushed between the fingers. It is marked with a black 
 spot posteriorly. 
 
 The scent of these insects arises from a fluid, which is 
 secreted by a pyriform reddish gland, placed in the centre of 
 the metathorax, and opening between the posterior legs. 
 
 Bugs lay their eggs about the month of May. The eggs 
 have an oblong form and are of a white colour. They are 
 slightly narrowed at one extremity, where there is a small, 
 round, slightly convex operculum, which closes up the orifice 
 from whence the larva issues forth. When seen under the 
 
 1 Linnaeus, upon the authority of Southal, states that this insect was 
 introduced into England shortly before 1670. Mouffet relates that in 1503, 
 two ladies having been bitten during the night by two Bugs, inquired of a 
 medical man to know what these little animals were. This circumstance 
 proves that the introduction of these animals was prior to 1666. 
 
CIMICID^. 221 
 
 microscope, the shell of these eggs is found to be covered with 
 minute projections. 
 
 The larva differs from the perfect insect by the absence of 
 the elytra, and by its paler colour, which is more or less of a 
 yellow tint. 
 
 Mouth (fig. 58). This consists of a short rostrum, which 
 does not reach farther than the base 
 of the first pair of limbs. In a state 
 of repose it is lodged in a small groove 
 directly under the thorax. The 
 rostrum contains three joints ; the 
 first and second are cylindrical, some- 
 what depressed, and of nearly equal 
 length ; the second is stouter ; and the 
 third, which is conical, is somewhat 
 longer than the others. This apparatus 
 contains three stiff-pointed setae. 
 
 Action on Man. All are aware of the avidity with which 
 these animals attack man, and with what eagerness they suck 
 his blood. They also torment young pigeons and some other 
 animals. 
 
 The odour of man's body attracts these insects. When one 
 has the misfortune to sleep in a room infested with bugs, they 
 issue forth from their hiding-places as soon as the light is 
 extinguished, and hasten in multitudes towards the bed. Some 
 mount the walls and reaching the ceiling, let themselves fall 
 down. 
 
 Having got to the sleeper, they seek out the parts of his 
 body most favourable for their purpose, plunge their rostrum 
 into his skin and gorge themselves with his blood. 
 
 These animals do not draw up the blood by suction, 
 after the manner of the Leech. The buccal apparatus, which 
 is nearly the same in all sucking insects, does not allow 
 of this kind of action. The setae of the mouth when placed 
 together move alternately up and down, causing the blood to 
 mount into the aesophagus, much in the same manner as water 
 in a chain-pump. (Dumeril.) This ascent is favoured by the 
 viscous nature of the fluid, and especially by its globules. 
 
 Bugs do not attack the parts about the genital organs or 
 about the anus. They may, however, introduce themselves into 
 the ears or nose, and gain entrance to the frontal sinuses, at 
 
 1 a, end of the rostrum ; b, its base ; ce, portions of the antennae ; dd t 
 the eyes. 
 
222 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 least, when they are young (Easpail) ; they do not, however, 
 remain there long. 
 
 M. Dumeril found the eggs of the Bug under the nail of the 
 great toe in a dead body. This is, however, an exceptional 
 case, as these insects are not permanent inhabitants of man's 
 body. So soon as they have gorged themselves with his blood 
 they leave him. 
 
 The bite of the Bug gives a kind of smarting painful sensa- 
 tion; it produces a red mark with a depressed spot in the 
 centre ; it frequently produces a small blister. 
 
 2. OTHEB, SPECIES. M. Signoret has discovered a second 
 species which lives in the Island of Reunion ; he has described 
 it under the name of the Round Bug, Acanihia rotundata, Sign. 
 
 M. E. Eversmann has described and figured a third species 
 under the name of the Ciliated Bug, Acanihia ciliata, Eversm., 
 which lives in the houses at Kasan. 
 
 It is smaller than the common species, and differs also in 
 being of a more oval form and of a reddish grey colour. It is 
 covered with grey or yellow hairs, and has a strong rostrum. 
 
 This species does not live in company in the crevices of old 
 wood, but leads a solitary life on the walls and furniture. It 
 is sluggish, and moves but slowly ; it appears stupid, and like 
 an insect benumbed with the cold. 
 
 Its bite produces a considerable amount of swelling, which 
 lasts for some time ; it is much more painful than that of the 
 Common Bug. (Eversmann.) 
 
 3. ALLIED INSECTS. With the Bugs may be associated the 
 Reduviidce and the Notonectidce. 
 
 1. The Reduvius personatus (fig. 59) is a common insect in 
 France. It is occasionally found in the neighbourhood of 
 Paris ; it lives in houses, taking up its abode in ovens and 
 chimneys. 
 
 The animal is from half to three-quarters of 
 an inch in length, oblong, flattened above, of a 
 brownish colour, with obscure markings on the 
 thorax. It resembles a long fly; the head is 
 narrow, supported on a distinct neck, and is pro- 
 vided with compound eyes and with two simple 
 eyes. The thorax is nearly triangular, very 
 distinct, and almost bilobed ; the anterior lobe, 
 which is usually the smallest, is separated from' 
 the posterior by a groove. The elytra are as 
 long as the abdomen, placed horizontally, very ^ig. 59. 
 thin, and partially overlap each other. The Reduvina. 
 
CIMICIDJ!. 223 
 
 wings are well developed and are used in flight. In flying 
 the insect makes a slight noise, similar to that which is 
 produced by the Crioceridae and the Longicornes Beetles, but 
 the separate sounds succeed each other more rapidly; this 
 noise is produced by the friction of the head against the thorax. 
 The legs are long and slender, the tarsi short and provided 
 with three joints. The abdomen is flattened above and con- 
 vex below. 
 
 The Reduvina gives off a disagreeable odour, which has been 
 compared to that of a mouse. These animals nourish them- 
 selves by sucking the bodies of other insects, hunting them 
 and piercing them with their pointed rostrum. 
 
 The larvae, which are very hideous, 1 also lead a life of rapine ; 
 they even pursue the Common Bug. (Linnaeus, Fabricius.) These 
 larvae resemble small spiders ; they discharge from the whole of 
 their body a viscid humour, to which all the dust, earth, and 
 offensive matter adheres with which the animal comes in con- 
 tact. They hide themselves in corners and in holes in walls, 
 and in heaps of dirt ; 2 they watch until some insect approaches 
 and then throw themselves upon him ; at other times, when 
 pressed by hunger, they advance slowly or by sudden jerks, 
 but cautiously, so as not to alarm their victim, upon whom 
 they suddenly precipitate themselves and seize him with their 
 fore feet. (De G-eer.) 
 
 Mouth (tig. 60). The beak of the Reduvius personatw is 
 short (about -fa inch) and curved ; the surface 
 is armed with stiff hairs ; it consists of four 
 joints, of which the first is the thickest, 
 the third the longest, and the fourth the 
 shortest ; the base of it is covered by a rudi- 
 mentary upper lip ; its termination is received 
 into a groove on the under surface of the 
 thorax ; the beak encloses four stiff lancet- 
 like setae. It appeared to M. Tandon as if Fig. 60. Rostrum. 3 
 two of these setae were serrated at their edges. 
 
 Action on Man. The Reduvina attacks man, and the wounds 
 which it inflicts are very painful. Latreille was once bitten 
 on the shoulder by one of these insects ; his whole arm became 
 swollen and continued so for some hours. 
 
 Entomologists are agreed that these insects are not provided 
 
 1 Larva horrida, personata, Linn. 
 
 * Cimex stercorarius, Frisch. 
 
 * a, first joint; b, second joint; c, third joint; d, terminal joint; e, com- 
 pound eye ; /, single eye. 
 
224 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 with a poison ; and, in fact, at present no gland or reservoir for 
 the reception of such a fluid has hitherto been discovered. If, 
 however, the bite of the Reduvina was purely mechanical, how is 
 it possible to explain the rapidity with which it kills or stupifies 
 small insects (De (reer), and also the phenomena which it pro- 
 duces on our own species ? These effects are probably caused 
 by the saliva. 
 
 OTHER SPECIES. There is a red and a black species, and 
 also the Reduvius cruentus, whose bites are equally painful. 
 
 According to Major Davis, another species, Reduvius serratus 
 (Fabr.), is met with in India, which produces slight electric 
 shocks. 
 
 2. The Notonecta glauca is a species of water Bug, com- 
 monly known as the Boat Fly (fig. 61); it is very different from 
 the species of Bugs which have been previously mentioned. 
 
 This animal is found in the neighbourhood of Paris and 
 throughout nearly the whole of Europe ; it is aquatic, and lives 
 in ditches, ponds, and other masses of stagnant water; it 
 usually maintains itself at the surface of the water, but imme- 
 diately plunges beneath when any one approaches. 
 
 Description. The body is about half an inch in length, 
 oblong, narrow, nearly cylindrical, somewhat con- 
 tracted posteriorly, convex above, flattened below, 
 and has its sides fringed with long hairs, which 
 spread out and sustain the animal in the water ; the 
 head is large and of a grey or greenish colour ; the 
 eyes are large, oblong, and occupy all the sides of 
 the head ; the antenna are shorter than the head, and 
 composed of four slender joints ; the first is very 
 short and cylindrical, the second is longer and 
 slightly bent, the third is cylindrical and not quite 
 so long or so thin as the second, the last is shorter 
 and slenderer than the third. The thorax is wider y>ig. 61. 
 than it is long, of a yellowish grey anteriorly, and of a Notonecta. 
 dark grey posteriorly. The elytra are about the same 
 length as the abdomen, and of a greenish grey colour, with 
 black spots on their anterior margins ; the wings are mem- 
 branous, of the same length as the elytra, and of a white 
 colour ; the four anterior feet are short, and constructed in the 
 usual manner ; the posterior are double their length, they are 
 strongly ciliated, and their tarsi are unprovided with hooks ; 
 the hinder limbs act as oars. The abdomen is black above, and 
 greenish grey at the extremity. 
 
 The Water Bugs in the various stages of larva, nymph, and 
 perfect insect, feed upon small aquatic insects, which they 
 
225 
 
 seize with the hooks of the anterior feet and pierce with their 
 beak. These animals are exceedingly voracious, and when 
 other insects are not present they will devour their own species. 
 They have a very singular mode of swimming, placing themselves 
 on their backs, and generally in an inclined position. From this 
 circumstance they have received the name of Notonecta, which 
 literally means back swimming. The head is somewhat higher 
 than the rest of the body when the animal ascends through 
 the water, and a little lower when it remains at the surface or 
 when it descends ; while in the act of swimming, the anterior 
 limbs are placed against the thorax and only the posterior pair 
 or oars are in motion ; when, however, the animals are on the 
 mud at the bottom of the water, or on a leaf, or when they are 
 walking, it is the anterior feet which are brought into use, 
 the posterior remaining motionless, and trailing after the 
 insect. 
 
 De Geer has described the male organs of the Water Bug ; 
 they are contained in the last segment of the abdomen. If the 
 belly is compressed, a large scaly piece issues forth of a black 
 colour and cleft at its extremity ; at this part a portion is 
 seen projecting from between two plates, which is the penis. 
 
 In the act of copulation the male and the female place 
 themselves side by side, the male being 
 somewhat the lowest; they swim about 
 joined together in this manner with 
 great swiftness. 
 
 The eggs are deposited on the stems 
 and leaves of aquatic plants, and even 
 on the epidermis of the insects ; they 
 are oblong, cylindrical, and of a yel- 
 low colour ; they are hatched at the 
 commencement of spring. 
 
 The young larvae immediately begin 
 to swim about ; they resemble the per- 
 fect insect, only they have no wings. 
 The nymph have rudiments of the 
 wings. 
 
 Mouth (fig. 62). The beak is very 
 strong and about T V of an inch in 
 length; it has an elongated conical 
 form and is composed of four joints, of 
 
 1 A, head seen in profile ; a, rostrum ; b, first joint ; c, second joint ; d, 
 third joint ; e, terminal joint ; /, rudiment of the upper lip ; B, rostrum 
 separate ; C, seta with fringed margin; D t one of the two straight setae. 
 
 Q 
 
 Fig. 62. Nostrum. 1 
 
226 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 which the first is thick, the third the longest, and the last very 
 slender and not very pointed. The sucker is formed of a short, 
 pointed, superior piece, and of three slender sharp-pointed setae 
 as long as the case. One of them is ciliated on one side and 
 plumose towards its extremity. 
 
 Action on man. The Notonecta bite strongly, but these 
 insects do not emerge from the water, and consequently, unlike 
 the Ruduvina, they do not enter into houses ; they are only to 
 be feared when the hand is incautiously placed into the element 
 in which they reside; the pain they occasion is tolerably 
 acute. 
 
 As the insects which are attacked by the Notonecta soon 
 die, some writers have supposed that they discharge a poisonous 
 fluid into the wound ; but where is this poison organ to be 
 found ? Is it not the saliva which, in this case, also exercises 
 a poisonous influence ? 
 
 IV. Nepa. 
 
 The Grey Nepa, Nepa cmerea, Linn., (fig. 63,) commonly 
 called Water Scorpion or Water Spider, is a 
 Hemipterous insect belonging to the section He- 
 teroptera and to the family Hydrocores. It is 
 common throughout the whole of France [and 
 England], where it lives in ditches, marshes, and 
 other pools of fresh water. 
 
 The body is three-quarters of an inch long, of 
 an oblong oval form, very depressed, and of an 
 ashen colour, with red on the upper part of the 
 abdomen; it terminates in a tail consisting of 
 two slender filaments, which are tubes, through 
 which the animal breathes. The antennas are 
 short, three-jointed, and cleft; the thorax is nearly 
 
 Fig. 63. Nepa. square ; the elytra are horizontal, coriaceous, 
 and of a dingy grey ; the anterior limbs have the 
 
 coxae short, and the thighs large and terminated by strong pincers, 
 
 which give the insect some resemblance to the scorpion. 
 
 The Nepa swims slowly and with difficulty (Lamk.), it often 
 
 walks at the bottom of the water ; it comes forth at night 
 
 time, and flies with great agility. 
 
 The eggs resemble small grains surrounded by seven bands ; 
 
 the insect deposits them on the stems of the water plants. 
 The larvae are hatched in the middle of summer ; they differ 
 
 from the perfect insect in the absence of wings and of the 
 
 abdominal filaments ; the nymphae are provided with elytra. 
 
HIPPOBOSCID.E. 
 
 227 
 
 Mouth (fig. 64). This consists of a curved rostrum, placed 
 almost perpendicularly (Lamk.) ; it is 
 short, conical, pointed, and tolerably 
 stout ; the rostrum is composed of 
 three joints, of which the second is 
 the longest. It encloses four slender 
 pointed threads ; two are provided on 
 one side with a kind of straight 
 narrow blade, and are very finely 
 notched towards the base ; the others 
 are finer, and have also a narrow 
 edge, but less developed than in the 
 former ; one of them is provided at 
 its termination with a number of 
 fine hairs directed from behind for- 
 wards. 
 
 Action on man. The Nepa bite 
 very sharply, and cause a good deal 
 of pain; the wound is not dangerous. 
 
 Fig. 64. liostrum. t 
 
 V. Hippoboscidae. 
 
 The Horse Fly, Hippobosca equina, Linn., (fig. 65,) is an 
 insect belonging to the order Diptera, and to the family 
 Pupipara. 
 
 This insect settles on horses and cattle, generally beneath the 
 tail near the anus ; they select the parts which are devoid of hair. 
 
 Description. The Horse Fly is of a brown colour mottled 
 with yellow and white ; it has a small head, 
 a short thorax, and a flat abdomen ; the 
 antennae have the form of tubercles, and are 
 immersed within the head; the eyes are 
 compound and occupy the entire side of the 
 head ; it has no simple eyes ; the wings are 
 horizontal, obtuse, partially cross each other, Fig. 65. Horse Fly. 
 and extend beyond the abdomen ; the bal- 
 ancers are placed beneath two flattened scale-like eminences ; 
 its limbs are well developed, and give the animal something of 
 the appearance of a spider. 
 
 These insects walk quickly and often sideways ; their flight 
 is abrupt and rapid. 
 
 The female lays neither an egg nor a larva, but a true nymph ; 
 
 1 A, Rostrum seen from the side; a, first joint; A, second joint; c, ter- 
 minal joint ; B, rostrum separate ; C, setae contained in the rostrum ; a, 
 one of the two setae with a lateral blade; b, ciliated seta; c, non-ciliated 
 seta. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 this is of a large size, and fills up the whole of the abdomen ; 
 its skin hardens after it is born. The Horse Fly emerges from 
 the nympha by detaching a portion of the envelope. (Reaumur.) 
 Mouth (fig. 66) . This consists of a short, straight, cylindrical 
 beak (haustellmn), formed by the union of two modified palpi ; 
 these resemble a pair of small blades, or coriaceous valves ; they 
 are flat, oblong, straight, and terminate in a rounded extremity ; 
 they arise from the clypeus, which is hollowed out at its lower 
 border, pass parallel to each other, and then form by their re- 
 union a semitube, which covers the sucker. 
 
 The sucker is a large filiform, cylindrical, curved process, 
 which commences from a kind of bulb in the 
 mouth ; this apparently simple process consists of 
 two setae, one superior, one inferior ; the first has 
 a canal on its under surface which covers over the 
 second. 
 
 It is with this instrument that the Hippobosca 
 so torments horses and cattle as to drive them 
 frantic ; it punctures the skin and eagerly sucks 
 Fig. QQ.-Beak. their blood. 
 
 Action on man. According to the experience 
 of Reaumur, the Hippobosca is as eager after the blood of man 
 as of the other mammalia. The same naturalist assures us 
 that its bite is not more acute than that of a flea ; Reaumur 
 is, however, mistaken in this respect, as the bite of this insect 
 is very painful. 
 
 VI. Tsetse. 
 
 The Tsetse or Tzetse (fig. 67) is a very formidable Ely which 
 inhabits Africa. Bruce, who met with it 
 in Abyssinia, has given a bad drawing of 
 it, but has correctly described its habits. 1 
 
 MM. Arnaud, Livingstone, Oswald, L. 
 de Castelnau, and Anderson, have collected 
 many curious details concerning this insect. 
 Mr. Westwood has given a very good de- 
 scription of it. 
 
 The Tsetse belongs to the genus Glossina. 
 Fig. 67. Tsetse. It is named the Siting Glossina, Glossina 
 morsitans, Westw. 2 
 
 1 Mr. Anderson has given a very correct drawing of the insect in the 
 Cosmos. 
 
 8 This insect is called Zebud in the Chaldean version of the Bible, Zimb 
 in the Arabian version, and Tsaltsalya in the Ethiopian; the Greeks give it 
 the name of Cynomya, and the Negroes of Tse-Tse. 
 
TSETSE. 229 
 
 Nearly all the central countries of South Africa are more or 
 less infested by the Tsetse; it is very common in all the countries 
 situated to the north of Lake Ngami ; and is again met with in 
 Soudan and in the tropical districts. 
 
 This insect usually frequents the bushes and reeds on the 
 borders of marshes. It is larger than the common fly, and of 
 a whitish yellow colour ; the thorax is of a pale chesnut on its 
 upper surface, is covered with grey hairs, and has four longitu- 
 dinal interrupted black bands in the centre; its proboscis 
 (fig. 68) is twice as long as the head, and is extremely slender; 
 it resembles a fine corneous thread ; the palpi are straight, of 
 the same length as the proboscis, and form a sheath for it ; 
 the abdomen is of a light yellow with darker spots or bands ; 
 the wings are smoke-coloured. 
 
 The buzzing of the Tsetse is a mixture of a dull and a sharp 
 sound, producing a very discordant noise ; 
 this buzzing spreads a terror and dis- 
 order amongst men and animals which 
 even the wild beasts of the country 
 when they are twice their number will 
 not produce. (Bruce.) 
 
 Its vision is extremely acute, and it darts 
 like an arrow upon the animal that it 
 intends to attack; it always makes its 
 puncture between the belly and the thighs, T nk 
 
 when a swelling soon rises up around the 
 wound. 
 
 The horse, the ox, and the dog, after they have been attacked 
 by this insect, waste away and die in the course of a few 
 days ; those which are fat and in good condition soon die, while 
 the others drag on a miserable existence for some weeks ; three 
 or four flies are sufficient to produce these disastrous results. 
 The blood of the animals which die is altered and diminished 
 in quantity ; the fat in the neighbourhood of the wound is soft, 
 viscous, and of a yellow colour ; in general, some portion of 
 the intestines is enormously swollen ; the flesh putrifies very 
 quickly (Castlenau) ; and the heart, the lungs, and the liver 
 are more or less affected. The goat is the only domesticated 
 animal which can live with impunity in the midst of these 
 flies ; dogs escape the danger when they are fed exclusively by 
 means of the chase, but if these animals are fed with milk they 
 invariably die ; on the contrary, the calf has nothing to fear 
 so long as it sucks. 
 
 The bite of the Tsetse is not dangerous to the wild animals ; 
 
230 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 the elephant, zebra, buffalo, and the various kinds of antelopes 
 and gazelles which abound in the countries inhabited by this 
 fly, do not experience any ill effects from it. 
 
 These insects do not bite when it is bright moonlight, or 
 when the nights are very cold. 
 
 Action on man. The Tsetse also attacks our species, but its 
 action on man is attended with but little danger; its bite is very 
 analogous to that of the gnat's, 1 but the pain does not last so 
 long. (De Castelnau.) M. Arnaud, however, suffered for some 
 months after being bitten by one of these insects. 
 
 M. Chapman, one of those who have penetrated the furthest 
 into the interior of South Africa, states, that whilst he was 
 hunting, having a small hole in his dress made by a pin, he has 
 often seen one of the Tsetse, which appeared to know that it 
 could not penetrate his dress, dart down, and, without ever 
 missing its mark, wound him through the undefended opening. 
 
 Is the Tsetse a poisonous animal ? Its effect on the domesti- 
 cated animals would appear to answer the question in the 
 affirmative, but its action on man declares the contrary. How 
 then are we to explain its fatal effects on cattle ? At the same 
 time these results vary in different species, and in some they 
 are of no consequence. 
 
 VII. Gnats. 
 
 The Gnats, Culex, are insects belonging to the order Diptera, to 
 the tribe Nemocera, and to the family of the Culicidse. Linna3us 
 
 assigned as their charac- 
 ter the possession of se- 
 taceous darts enclosed 
 in a flexible sheath. 
 
 1. THE COMMON 
 GNAT, (fig. 69), Culex 
 pipiens, Linn., is the 
 best known species. 
 
 This insect has a long 
 body and limbs, covered 
 with hairs, and of a grey 
 colour ; the antenn* are 
 plumose in the males ; 
 the eyes are large, and 
 Fig. 69. Gnat. 1 converge posteriorly ; 
 
 l See page 232. 
 
 8 A, Common Gnat ; B, its larva. 
 
GNATS. 
 
 231 
 
 the palpi are projecting, filiform, and covered with hairs ; the 
 abdomen has eight browncoloured rings. 
 These insects are very abundant, especially where there is much 
 water. They assemble in swarms, which, as they ascend and de- 
 scend, perform a variety of movements, and create a singing 
 noise as they follow in the track of man and other animals. 
 They are fond of blood, but they also suck the juices of 
 flowers. 
 
 Copulation takes place towards the close of the day. The 
 female deposits her eggs on the surface of the water, and, 
 crossing the hinder legs, arranges them beside each other in a 
 perpendicular direction ; the eggs have the shape of a sugar- 
 loaf, and the mass forms a small boat, which floats on the 
 surface of the water ; each female lays about 300 eggs a year. 
 
 The eggs are hatched in about two days ; the larvae abound 
 in ponds, marshes, and stagnant waters, especially during the 
 spring ; the head of the larva is provided with ciliated appen- 
 dages, which enable them to procure their food ; the abdomen 
 is long and cylindrical, and terminates in a respiratory tube. 
 The animal suspends itself in the water with its head down- 
 wards for the purpose of breathing. These larvae swim about 
 by sudden darts ; when the water is disturbed they precipi- 
 tate themselves with great rapidity to the bottom, with 
 a zig-zag motion. (Lamark.) They 
 change into nymphae, which can row 
 themselves about by means of their 
 tail and two fin-like appendages ; 
 they have two corneous tubes 
 beneath the thorax. Lamark cor- 
 rectly observes that this second state 
 of the Gnat is, properly speaking, 
 neither a larva, a chrysalis, nor a 
 nympha; all the metamorphoses 
 take place in about three or four 
 weeks. 
 
 Mouth (fig. 70). Reaumur has 
 given an admirable description of 
 the mouth of the Gnat, and of the 
 manner in which it acts. There is Fig. 70. Proboscis. 
 
 1 A, proboscis ; a, lower lip, forming a sheath ; b, jaws and mandibles, 
 having the form of filaments united together ; c, upper lip, forming a fifth 
 filiament ; d d, eyes ; e, head ; //, maxillary palpi ; B, separate filaments ; 
 a, one of the two serrated filaments ; b, one of the two with lancet-shaped 
 points ; c, upper lip, 
 
232 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 a long, slender, projecting proboscis, composed 1, of a mem- 
 branous cylindrical tube, terminating in two small lips, forming 
 a slight enlargement or disc ; 2, of a sucker or dart formed by 
 the union of five scaly and setaceous threads. The tube is cleft 
 superiorly, forming a half canal, but the terminal lips are 
 united above so as to form a ring around the dart ; of the five 
 threads, two are terminated by a small lancet-shaped dilatation, 
 two others have on their outer edge near the point very fine 
 teeth directed from before backwards, while the fifth is seta- 
 ceous and armed with fine spines throughout its entire length. 
 Action on mem. The bite of the Gnat, which is scarcely 
 felt in temperate climates, becomes unbearable in hot countries. 
 These animals follow man everywhere ; they enter his houses, 
 particularly at night, announcing their presence by a loud 
 singing noise, and pierce his skin, which even his clothes are 
 not sufficient to protect. 
 
 When a Gnat has selected the part which he intends to suck, 
 he applies the terminal expansion of the proboscis to the 
 spot; he then thrusts out the dart from the centre of the 
 expansion and penetrates the skin; in proportion as the 
 dart is buried, the external protecting tube, whose ex- 
 pansion is fastened around the wound, becomes longer than 
 
 the portion which is not inserted 
 (fig. 71, A) ; as the tube is cleft 
 on its upper surface it opens from 
 above downwards, leaving the dart 
 exposed; it becomes bent and forms 
 at first an arch, of which the dart 
 is the cord ; it afterwards forms an 
 angle, which is at first very obtuse, 
 and afterwards very acute. At a 
 certain time the head of the animal 
 makes its nearest possible approach 
 to the terminal expansion, and the 
 groove forms between the latter 
 and the bite a vertical fold (fig. 
 71, B). 
 
 Amoreux regarded the Gnat as 
 a poisonous insect; this is some- 
 what doubtful, since there is no gland for the secretion of a 
 poison. It appears, however, that when the animal has 
 punctured the skin it disgorges into it a drop of fluid, which 
 
 1 A, proboscis when the setae are first introduced ; B, proboscis when 
 the setae are completely immersed. 
 
 Fig. 71. Proboscis in action. 
 
GNATS. 233 
 
 is probably saliva ; the setae which form the dart leave a narrow 
 space between them, but sufficient to give passage to this 
 fluid. It is through the same channel that the blood is 
 pumped up by the insect. Reaumur believed that the saliva 
 poured out by the Gnat is also intended to render the blood 
 more fluid. M. Dumeril thinks that it first exercises a narcotic 
 action, which momentarily deadens the local sensibility ; this 
 enables the insect to suck without being perceived ; afterwards 
 it gives rise to an acute inflammation accompanied with consider- 
 able pain, and a small edematous spot, which every one is familiar 
 with. Persons are sometimes completely disfigured by the 
 bites inflicted by Gnats and the inflammation which accompanies 
 them. These bites, when they are severe and numerous, 
 produce restlessness and even fever ; the insupportable itch- 
 ing caused by them compels the person to be perpetually 
 scratching himself, but even this affords only a momentary 
 relief; the more the person scratches himself the more the 
 local inflamation and the pain seem to increase; the pain 
 varies not only according to the size and vigour of the Gnat, 
 but also according to the susceptibility of the part which is 
 bitten. 
 
 2. OTHER SPECIES. The principal Gnats in France besides 
 the Common Gnat are the Ringed Gnat, Culex annulatus, Fabr., 
 which is of a brown colour with transverse bands of white, and 
 the Culex pulicaris, Linn., which has no bands, but three indis- 
 tinct spots. The latter is the largest ; it inhabits the southern 
 parts, particularly in the neighbourhood of Cette. 
 
 The Creeping Gnat, Simulium reptans, Latr., which is black 
 with a white ring, and about the size of a flea, is common in 
 Sweden, and forms the type of the genus Simulium. 
 
 The Musquitoes of America are true Gnats ; those of the 
 French Colonies appear to belong to the genus Simulium. 
 The bite of these insects is extremely painful ; cloth clothes do 
 not always preserve the person against their attacks. When 
 these animals bite a person who is asleep he wakes up with 
 his body covered with small pimples with a black spot, or a 
 collection of dark serum in the centre surrounded by a ring of 
 a deep fawn colour (Bouffiers) ; a severe itching is felt, the 
 person scratches himself, the skin becomes abraided, and the 
 inflammation continues to spread. 
 
 In the moist forests of the Isle of France and of Mada- 
 gascar, there is an insect which appears to be closely allied to 
 the Gnats, whose bite also causes intolerable pain ; it is named 
 Bigaye or Bizigaye. 
 
234 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 In conclusion, it must be observed, that amongst the Diptera 
 there are animals less known and less common than the Gnats 
 which do not spare man when they have an opportunity of 
 attacking him. Such is the case with the Autumn Fly, Conops 
 calcitrans, Linn., which bites the legs, especially on the ap- 
 proach of rain ; and also with the Breese Fly, Tdbanus bovinus, 
 Linn. 
 
 VHI. Stinging Animals. 
 
 The caterpillars of several of the Bombycida, or nocturnal 
 moths, called Processionary Moths, 1 which live in societies on the 
 oak and the pine, protected bya silken covering, 2 are clothedwith 
 fine hairs, which become blended with the covering of their 
 nest and the tissue of their cocoons ; these fine hairs penetrate 
 the skin, and cause great irritation and even swelling of the part. 
 Other species which are mentioned as producing similar effects 
 are the Bombyx of the oak, Phalcena quercus, Linn. ; a Liparis, 
 Liparis auriflua, Ochsen, whose caterpillar resides in wood ; and 
 a Lithosia, Lithosia caniola, Fabr., whose caterpillar lives on 
 walls. 
 
 The ancients were acquainted with urticating Caterpillars ; 
 Dioscorides mentions them under the name of Eutoma; the 
 Romans called them Eruca. 
 
 "When Reaumur was engaged in studying the habits of the 
 Processionary Moth, he experienced great irritation of the 
 skin on his hands, fingers, and body, especially about the 
 nostrils and around the eyes ; he was constantly sneezing, and 
 could only partially open his eyes ; his skin became inflamed 
 and covered with red patches and pustules; this state lasted for 
 four or five days. "When these hairs, says Reaumur, become 
 buried in the skin, they are like so many small spines, which 
 it is very difficult to remove. 
 
 On one occasion the celebrated naturalist inadvertently 
 caused an exanthematous eruption on the neck and shoulders 
 of four ladies who had assisted him in some of his experiments, 
 yet the ladies had never touched either the caterpillars or 
 their nests. 
 
 Charles Bonnet, after taking some of these Caterpillars out 
 of the water in which they had been drowned, found that his 
 fingers became numbed ; they afterwards began to itch, fol- 
 lowed by a burning sensation 'and swelling. 
 
 Charles Morren made some experiments which proved the 
 
 1 The principal are the Processionary Moths, properly so called, Phalcena 
 processioned, Linn., and the Pityocampa, Bombyx Pityocampa, God. 
 8 There are 600, 700, and even 800 in a nest. (Morren.) 
 
STINGING ANIMALS. 
 
 235 
 
 action of these hairs at a distance ; like Reaumur, he saw the 
 particles of scales and hairs fly off into the air from the vessels 
 in which the Caterpillars were kept ; these became dispersed 
 about and produced the affection of which he speaks. These 
 filaments are not the ordinary hair which covers the caterpillar, 
 but are extremely small and invisible to the naked eye, and 
 become detached when the animal changes into a chrysalis. 
 (Eeaumur, Morren.) These hairs (fig. 72) are of various 
 lengths, and are more or 
 less pointed, but they often 
 get broken and are trun- 
 cated ; some are transpa- 
 rent, others are somewhat 
 opaque and marked with 
 longitudinal stria3, or are 
 finely punctated ; there 
 are some which appear to 
 be hollow, divided into 
 compartments by trans- 
 verse partitions, and filled 
 with some peculiar sub- 
 stance. Reaumur says he 
 has seen a hair in the 
 centre of each swelling. 
 
 Do these hairs act merely 
 in a mechanical manner, 
 or has the matter which occasionally fills the interior of them 
 anything to do with the irritation, as Charles Morren supposes ? 
 Is it true that the presence of formic acid has been detected in 
 many of them ? Whatever it may be, it is necessary to be on 
 one's guard against the species of Caterpillars which have just 
 been mentioned, and, generally speaking, of all those which are 
 covered with hairs. 
 
 M. Borkhausen does not hesitate to say, that when the 
 irritating action of the Processionary Moths takes place in the 
 interior of the lungs, or of the alimentary canal, that death 
 may ensue ? 
 
 The ancients employed urticating Caterpillars in the forma- 
 tion of sinapisms. (Dioscorides.) Reaumur and Dorthes thought 
 that when pounded they might, under certain circumstances, 
 be made useful as a substitute for Cantharides. 1 * 
 
 Certain marine animals, at the head of which are the Actinia 
 and the Medusa, have more or less urticating properties. 
 1 See page 127. 
 
 Fig. 72. Stinging Hairs. 
 
236 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 These animals are commonly known by the name of Sea 
 Nettle! 
 
 A Cfyanea? of Pondicherry is particularly mentioned as one 
 which secretes an extremely acrid and irritating fluid. 
 
 The Physalia, or Portuguese Man of War, also causes a con- 
 siderable amount of irritation ; it is provided with an oblique 
 
 wrinkled crest, which stands 
 up like a sail ; when they are 
 taken hold of they produce a 
 tolerably acute burning sensation, 
 which continues for some time; 
 sometimes it causes a feeling of 
 faintness (Dutertre, Leblond) ; but 
 generally speaking the effects do 
 not extend beyond the hand. The 
 commonest species is the Physalia 
 pelagica, Bosc. 
 
 The stinging apparatus of the 
 Medusae consists of microscopic 
 capsules situated in the skin, on 
 which they form minute projec- 
 tions ; they are principally noticed 
 on the extremities of the long 
 tentacles. These capsules are 
 hard and transparent ; they con- 
 tain a second thin and flexible 
 membrane, at the bottom of which is a long slender thread 
 coiled up when in repose ; this thread can emerge from the 
 capsule, and its base is then seen to be provided with a 
 number of sharp points like the barbs of a hook (hastce, 
 Corda). 
 
 Certain capsules have a small dart, which is provided with 
 gland and lateral muscles. 
 
 This apparatus serves the Medusa as a means of attack and 
 defence. The burning sensation which these animals produce 
 when they are touched, and which is most perceptible on the 
 mucous membranes, has , been aptly compared to the effect 
 of stinging nettles ; it may even give rise to vesications. 
 
 The Khizostoma Aldrovandi, which lives in the Mediter- 
 ranean, and that of Cuvier, JKhizostoma Cuvierii, found in La 
 Manche, secrete a slime which is extremely irritating ; a single 
 drop is sufficient to produce inflammation of the conjunctiva 
 
 1 The offspring of these animals are Polyps. 
 * Medusa (Cyanea) Caliparea, Reyn. 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 Portuguese Man of War. 
 
OF FLIES. 
 
 237 
 
 and the eyelids ; this slime produces a number of small papillae 
 on the hand, which are accompanied with an intolerable itching. 
 
 IX. Larvae of Flies. 
 
 The larvae of certain Flies often torment the human species. 
 Mr. W. Hope has published an interesting work on the 
 subject ; he has given the name of myasis to the disorders 
 produced by these animals and other Diptera. 
 
 1. SPECIES. The larva which are most frequently met with 
 in various parts of the body belong principally to four species : 
 1. The Flesh Fly; ^2. The Bluebottle Fly; 3. The Gol'den Fly; 
 4. The Hominivorbus Fly. The following is a summary of 
 their characters : 
 
 ( widely separated behind 1. Flesh Fly. 
 
 P I very close behind black, abdomen blue 
 
 with black bands . 2. Bluebottle Fly. 
 { Thorax . . . golden green, abdo- 
 
 men without bands 3. Golden Fly. 
 dark blue, abdomen 
 with purple bands. 4. Hominivorous 
 Fly. 
 
 The Flesh Fly 1 is very common, and is the largest of the 
 four. Its body is of a golden yellow anteriorly, and covered 
 with long, stout, black hairs ; the thorax is grey, with four 
 longitudinal black bands ; the abdomen is of a shining black 
 colour, with four square white spots on each ring. 
 
 This insect flies rapidly, and produces a constant buzzing 
 noise ; it is ovo viviparous. 
 
 It hunts about for decomposing flesh for the purpose of 
 depositing its larvae upon it. 
 These are soft, whitish coloured 
 grubs, without feet, terminating 
 in a pointed extremity ante- 
 riorly, but thick and truncated 
 posteriorly. The mouth is a 
 sucker, furnished with two 
 hooks, adapted to tear and 
 divide their food (fig. 74). 
 
 The Blue or Meat Fly* is 
 one of the largest species found 
 in France ; its size is, however, 
 
 Fig. 74. Larva of Fly. 
 
 less than that of the Flesh Fly. The head is of a brown colour, 
 
 1 Sarcophaga carnaria, Meig., Musca carnaria, Linn. 
 9 Calliphora vomitoria, Rob.-Desv., Musca vomitoria, Linn., M. chrysoce' 
 phala, De Geer. 
 
238 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 with yellowish reflexions ; its presence is indicated by its loud 
 buzzing noise ; its sense of smell is very acute, and it recognises 
 the presence of meat, especially when it is fresh, at a long 
 distance off. It is oviparous as well as the two following 
 species ; its larva is called a maggot. 
 
 The Golden Fly 1 is about the same 
 size as the common house fly. It lays its 
 eggs principally upon carrion. Its larvae 
 devour dead bodies, even those which 
 have been injected. (Raspail.) 
 
 The Hominivorous Fly, Lucilia Jiotni- 
 nivora, Coq. (fig. 75), inhabits Cayenne. 
 It is about the third of an inch in length ; 
 the palpi are of a yellow colour, and the 
 Fig. 75. head very large ; the face is of a golden 
 
 Hominivorous Fly. yellow, and the feet black ; the wings are 
 transparent and smoke-coloured, especially towards their base. 
 (Coquerel.) 
 
 2. ACTION ON MA.N. It is well known that the larva of 
 the three first species of Flies which have been mentioned may 
 be deposited and developed in wounds, and in the natural 
 cavities of the human body. 
 
 It is especially in hospitals that these untoward events take 
 place. Several surgeons met with the same thing in Algeria 
 and in the Crimea. 
 
 Instances of the larvce of Flies being vomited or found in the 
 stomach are not rare. Mr. Hope mentions seven or eight cases. 2 
 The presence of these animals in the intestines is less frequent. 
 Brera mentions one example, and Mr. Hope a second. 
 
 Latham found the larvce of a Fly in the maxillary sinus of 
 a woman. Vohlfant and Mangles met with them in the frontal 
 sinuses. A curious instance of the last kind has been published 
 by Dr. Astros, of Aix. A woman, while sleeping in the open 
 air, was attacked by Flies, which deposited their eggs, or their 
 larvae, in her nostrils. For three days she felt a slight dull 
 pain, which appeared to commence in the frontal sinus and 
 extended to the right temple. The pain was followed by a 
 tingling sensation, and a peculiar kind of noise, resembling that 
 produced by an insect gnawing a piece of wood. The noise 
 was heard by other persons besides the patient. For two days 
 after bleeding at the nose, the patient discharged a considerable 
 
 1 Lucilia Caesar, Rob.-Desv., Musca Ccesar, Linn. 
 
 * See Airel, Osiander, Phelsum, Joerdens. The larvae of the Musca 
 meteorica, Fabr., is sometimes developed in the stomach of man. 
 
LARVJE OF FLIES. 239 
 
 number of the larvae of a Fly. As many as one hundred and 
 thirteen were counted. 1 
 
 Dr. Chevreul, of Angers, saw ten of the larvae of a Flesh Fly 
 come out of the ear-passage in a child of dirty habits. 
 
 Ruysch found them in the urinary passages. 
 
 Professor Lallemand extracted upwards of twenty of the 
 same kind of larvae from the vagina of a female, who had had 
 ulceration of the neck of the uterus for eighteen months. 
 
 In 1826, at the Hotel-Dieu, at Montpellier, a student re- 
 moved in the presence of M. Tandon thirty larvae of a Fly from 
 a cancer at the bottom of the abdomen of an unfortunate 
 patient who was dying. 
 
 Andry, Panarolus, Lieutaud, Bertrand, Alibert, and others, 
 have recorded similar instances. 
 
 These examples are fortunately rare. The injuries which are 
 inflicted by the hominivorous Fly are, however, more frequent. 
 The larvae of this species are often met with in the nasal and 
 frontal sinuses in Guiana. M. Coquerel met with a consider- 
 able number in a condemned criminal, who was killed by them. 
 Dr. Saint- Pair saw six similar cases in 1855 and 1856. Three 
 of the patients died after great suffering ; two of them had the 
 nose entirely destroyed, and the last escaped with only the 
 mutilation of this organ. 2 
 
 At first the patients experience only a slight uneasiness in 
 the nasal fossae. This is followed by headache and aedema of the 
 parts about the nose, which extends more or less on to the face ; 
 afterwards there is free haemorrhage from the nose and acute 
 pain in the suborbital region, which the patients compare to 
 being beaten with a hammer. Ulcerations subsequently occur 
 on the nose, through which some of the larvae escape. The 
 general symptoms are the same as those which accompany 
 acute inflammation ; this is followed by erysipelas of the head 
 and face, sometimes by meningitis, and lastly by death. 
 
 In one of the cases recorded by M. Saint- Pair, 800 larvae 
 were expelled by means of injections ; but it was impossible to 
 get rid of them all. They soon gained the globe of the eye 
 and crawled between the eyelids. The lower eyelid became 
 gangrenous, and the inferior margin of the orbit was exposed. 
 
 1 M. Legrand du Saulle has recently communicated a similar instance 
 to the Institut. It occurred in a young girl nine years of age, whose frontal 
 ainusea contained a number of larvae which produced perpetual frontal head* 
 ache, accompanied with convulsions, 
 
 3 Dr. Daniel has recorded another instance which was fatal, and in which 
 the left ear was filled with larvse. 
 
240 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The larvae entered the mouth and eat away the gums, laying 
 bare the superior maxilla. The patient died seventeen days 
 after he had entered the hospital. 
 
 Another patient, under the care of Dr. Chapuis, only lived 
 between three and four days. More than one hundred larvae 
 were found in the nasal fossae and in the pharynx. After 
 death the mucous membrane of these cavities was found to be 
 nothing but a black putrid mass. 
 
 Can, however, the larvae of the Flies of our country, or of 
 any other, penetrate the skin so long as it is healthy and the 
 surface unbroken ? Unfortunately it is too clearly proved that 
 these animals are capable of abraiding the skin. 
 
 Leeuwenhoeck relates a case in which a number of tumours 
 about the size of the end of the finger made their appearance 
 on the leg of a lady ; the limb ultimately became of a monstrous 
 size. In one of the tumours there was found some of the larvae 
 of a Flesh Fly. 
 
 M. Hope states an instance of a young man in Jamaica, who 
 had larvae in the substance of the cheek and of the gums. It 
 has just been seen that the larvae of the hominivorous Fly, after 
 having destroyed the nasal fossae, produced similar ravages. 
 
 Saltzmann saw a young man in the hospital at Strasburg 
 whose whole skin was penetrated by thousands of larvce. In 
 the groin and on the legs masses of flesh were completely de- 
 stroyed. The left eye was eaten away. The patient died. 
 
 In June, 1829, John Page, a pauper, died from the injuries 
 inflicted upon him by the larvae of a Fly at Asbornby, in Lin- 
 colnshire. The man was in the habit of strolling about the 
 country, and subsisted on the pittance he obtained from door 
 to door ; the support he usually received from the benevolent 
 was bread and meat; and after satisfying the cravings of 
 nature, it was his custom to deposit the surplus provisions, 
 particularly the meat, betwixt his shirt and skin. Having a 
 considerable portion of this provision in store so deposited, he 
 was taken rather unwell, and laid himself down in a field ; 
 when from the heat of the season at that time, the meat 
 speedily became putrid, and was of course struck by the flies ; 
 these not only proceeded to devour the inanimate pieces of 
 flesh, but also literally to prey upon the living substance ; and 
 when the wretched man was accidentally found by some of the 
 inhabitants, he was so eaten by the maggots that his death 
 seemed inevitable. The surgeon who saw him declared that 
 his body was in such a state, that dressing it must be little 
 short of instantaneous death, and in fact the man only sur- 
 
OF FLIES. 241 
 
 vived the operation a few hours. "White maggots of enormous 
 size were crawling in and upon his body, which they had most 
 shockingly mangled, and the removing of the external ones 
 served only to render the sight more horrid.' 
 
 M. J. Cloquet has published a still more remarkable case. 
 A rag gatherer, about fifty years of age, was found sleeping in 
 a ditch in the Boulevard of Paris, near Montfau9on, and taken 
 to the hospital of St. Louis. The skin of his head was raised 
 up in rounded tumours, which had irregular openings through 
 which the flesh could be seen in a putrid state. An enormous 
 number of the larvce of a fly were moving about inside the 
 tumours. Fifteen to twenty of the larvae escaped from between 
 his eyelids, which were swollen and closed up. The cornea 
 were opaque and as well as the sclerotic had been perforated. 
 The eyeballs appeared to be empty. Other Iarva3 issued from 
 the nose and the ears. They were also lodged at the orifice of 
 the prepuce and around the 'amis. The unhappy man personi- 
 fied all the horrors of the affliction of Job. Never, says M. 
 Cloquet, had I seen a spectacle more horrible or disgusting 
 than this miserable being, devoured alive by these larvce of the 
 carrion fly. 
 
 The previous cases must remove any doubt as to the state- 
 ment of Plutarch with respect to the great criminals, who, he 
 says, were condemned by the kings of Persia, to be eaten alive 
 by the larvae of Flies. The guilty person was placed between 
 two boats of the same size, turned one over the other, the head, 
 the hands, and the feet being left uncovered. His face was ex- 
 posed to the sun, smeared with honey. The larvae which -were 
 born penetrated into the flesh of the unhappy being. . .Mith- 
 ridates, who was exposed by Artaxerxes Longimanus to this 
 horrible punishment, lived for seventy days in the most cruel 
 agonies. When the upper boat was removed all his flesh and 
 his entrails were seen to be eaten away by myriads of worms. 
 
 With the exception of the (Estridce, which will be noticed in 
 another chapter, neither the Flies nor their larva can be 
 regarded as parasites. They are never observed on man except 
 by accident. Even the hominivorous Fly does not form an 
 exception to this statement. Generally these larvce are 
 introduced into our bodies, so to speak, in spite of themselves. 
 In true parasitism, where one individual lives at the cost of 
 
 1 M. Tandon relates this case on the authority of M. Roulin, but it is 
 originally recorded in Brown's edition of White's History of Selbourne, p. 
 114, London, 1840. (Ed.) 
 
 E 
 
242 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 another, the latter is not destroyed by it, except under peculiar 
 circumstances. If it had been otherwise, the species of para- 
 site, or of the animal which nourishes it, must necessarily 
 have disappeared ; a fact which is contrary to the general laws 
 of nature. Kunzmann correctly observes that the wounds 
 made by insects for the purpose of feeding at our expense, are 
 never followed by such serious consequences as those which 
 they inflict upon us in self-defence. 
 
 X. Other Insects which may be accidentally introduced into 
 the natural cavities of the body. 
 
 All that has been said in the previous chapter with reference 
 to the introduction of the larvce of Flies into the natural 
 cavities of man's body will also apply to other insects. As 
 regards the latter, however, they are sometimes larvae and 
 sometimes the perfect insect. It must also be observed, that 
 these false parasites are not always carnivorous animals ; they 
 are, therefore, not always able to nourish themselves at the 
 expense of man's tissues, so that they soon perish for want of 
 food. Their being placed in a locality which is not adapted for 
 them is generally fatal. 
 
 Many writers have mentioned cases of this kind. Fabricius, 
 of Hilden, Tulpius, Lister, Paykull, Rosen, Thompson, Bate- 
 man, Lemaout, and others, have given examples of them. The 
 EpJiemerides des curieux de la nature contains some of these 
 cases, and Mr. Hope has collected together all the instances of 
 this kind, which appeared to him to be authentic. 
 
 The cavities of the body, which are attacked by these animals, 
 are first the alimentary canal, then the nostrils, the auditory 
 canal, and the lachrymal duct. 
 
 These insects belong especially to the Coleoptera, amongst 
 which the principal that have been mentioned, are: Sphod- 
 rus leucothalmus?- Clairv., the Dytiscus marginatus, the Oocypo- 
 rus subterraneus* Fabr., the Pcederus elongatus, Fabr., the 
 Staphylinus politus, the S. punctulatus, and the 8. fuscipes, 
 Fabr., the Dermestes lardarius, Linn., the Geotrupes vernalis? 
 Latr., the Slaps mortisaga* Oliv., the Tenebrio molitor, Linn., 
 the Forficula auricularia and F. minor, Linn. 
 
 Amongst the Myriopoda or thousand feet, the Geophilus 
 electricus 5 has been particularly named. 
 
 Carabus leucothalmus, Linn. 
 Staphylinus subterraneus, Linn. 
 Scarabceus vernalis, Linn. 
 Tenebrio mortisaga, Linn. 
 Scolopendra electricus, Linn. 
 
OTHEE INSECTS WHICH MAY BE INTEODUCED, ETC. 243 
 
 Amongst the Lepidoptera or Butterflies, have been men- 
 tioned, the Aglossa pingualis and A. farinalis, Latr., and the 
 Cabbage butterfly, Pieris brassicce, Schr. 1 
 
 Mr. Hope has given the name of canthariasis to the injuries 
 produced by the Coleoptera and the Myriopoda ; Messrs. Kirby 
 and Spence had previously given the name of solechiasis, or 
 scholechiasis, to those which were caused by the Lepidoptera. 
 
 It is easy to explain the entrance of those insects into the 
 stomach and intestines, which feed upon lard, fat, flour, and 
 other substances, which serve for food ; but it is more difficult 
 to account for their introduction into the other natural 
 cavities. 
 
 The presence of these insects in the alimentary canal seldom 
 produces much inconvenience, especially when the animals, or 
 their larvae, are small and few in number. Sometimes they are 
 partly or entirely digested, at other times they merely act as 
 foreign bodies, deranging the stomach and the intestines. The 
 Cantharides, the Mylabra, or the Meloe, when swallowed incau- 
 tiously, or when they have been given for criminal purposes, 
 may produce a kind of poisoning, and even death. 
 
 Adult insects, which are rejected by vomiting, or which are 
 passed by the bowels, never appear to have been long in the 
 body, nor is there any evidence that it was there they underwent 
 their metamorphoses. They have probably been swallowed 
 after their transformation. 
 
 The introduction of these larvae into the other natural cavities 
 of the body is usually attended with serious symptoms. 
 
 M . Scoutetten relates the case of a farmer of Metz, who ex- 
 perienced a very disagreeable irritation in the nostrils, accom- 
 panied with an abundant secretion of mucus. In addition to 
 this he had frequent headaches, and the pain which was at first 
 bearable soon became very severe, and increased in intensity with 
 every paroxysm. The mucus discharge was mixed with blood 
 and exhaled a fetid odour. This was followed by an involuntary 
 discharge of water from the eyes, nausea, and vomiting. Some- 
 times the pain was so intense that the patient was afraid he 
 should lose his senses. The features became distorted, the 
 jaws contracted, and the temporal arteries pulsated violently. 
 
 1 Papilio brassier, Linn. 
 
 To what insect does the larva belong which takes up its abode in the 
 cribriform-plate of the ethmoid bone, and produces the disease known by the 
 name Peenash in the north-west of India? The larva is small, articulated, 
 and terminates in a spiral tail ; the mouth and eyes are very distinct. 
 (Taruck-Chander-Lahory.) 
 
 E 2 
 
244 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The senses of hearing and of sight were so sensitive that the 
 least noise or light was quite unbearable. At other times the 
 patient became completely delirious, pressed his head between 
 his hands, and did not know how to endure himself. These 
 paroxysms occurred five or six times during the day, and as 
 often during the night. One of them continued for fifteen 
 days almost without interruption. After lasting a year, his 
 sufferings were suddenly terminated by the expulsion of a 
 living Scolopendra electrica 2i inches in length. 1 
 
 Mr. Hope only mentions one case of death caused by the 
 presence of a meal-worm, Tenebrio molitor^ in the nasal fossae. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 ANIMALS INJURIOUS AS FOOD, 
 
 MANY animals are mentioned, whose flesh is injurious when 
 taken as food, and which can produce symptoms resembling 
 those of poisoning ; but these animals are not, correctly speak- 
 ing, venomous or poisonous animals ; none of them are provided 
 with a poison or with an organ for the secretion of poison. 
 The majority only act in this manner under particular circum- 
 stances. Others are rather indigestible than directly injurious. 
 
 These animals consist of: 1, Fishes; 2, Mollusca ; and 3, 
 Crustacea, 
 
 1. FISHES. It has long been known that many persons 
 have been more or less ill after eating certain species of Fish. 
 These disorders in some cases have terminated in death. 
 Adanson saw negroes die after severe vomiting and convulsions 
 from eating of the Ostracions or Trunk Fishes. Dr.Praeger men- 
 tions four cases of poisoning followed by death, which happened to 
 sailors, belonging to Danish, Dutch, and French vessels, from 
 partaking of these fish. One of them had only eaten the liver. 
 
 The Fish, nevertheless, are not poisonous animals. What 
 then is the cause of their injurious effects ? 
 
 1. It has been supposed that it depended upon some morbid 
 condition of the flesh, which predisposed it to undergo rapid 
 decomposition (Burrows), and in consequence gave rise to symp- 
 toms resembling poisoning. This opinion has been founded 
 upon seeing half the fish, which was eaten while it was fresh, 
 
 1 A similar instance is recorded in Histoire de V Academic des Sciences for 
 the year 1708, Paris, 1709, p. 12. 
 
ANIMALS INJURIOUS AS FOOD. 245 
 
 producing no ill effects, while the other half, which was eaten 
 on the next day or the day after, has been followed by serious 
 disturbances. The injurious effects which are produced by the 
 Tunny, Thymnus vulgaris, Cuv., after its flesh has began to 
 change, is well known. (Cuvier and Valenciennes.) 
 
 2. Other persons have believed that at the period of spawning, 
 or at all times, the animal contains certain portions which cannot 
 be eaten with impunity, while all the rest can. They endeavour 
 in this way to account for the different effects which have been 
 observed- For example, the Barbel is very injurious at the 
 period of reproduction. Its injurious properties depend upon 
 the ova, 1 M. Moquin-Tandon knew a young man at Toulouse, 
 who had acute gastric pains, and who vomited a certain quantity 
 of blood after eating half a Barbel. 
 
 3. Some naturalists have suggested that the injuries of 
 Fish depended upon the substances upon which they had fed ; 
 that they had swallowed mineral, animal, or vegetable sub- 
 stances, which were of a dangerous nature. Some have spoken 
 of submarine copper, sulphate of baryta, sulphate of iron, the salts 
 of iodine, <fcc. ; narcotic fruits or plants have been mentioned. 
 Crabs, Annellides, Starfishes, microscopic Medusae, eggs, &c., 
 have also been named. It is said that the Balistes are very in- 
 digestible, and even poisonous, after they have fed upon certain 
 Zoophytes, 
 
 4. Several medical men have thought that the very prepara- 
 tion which Fish undergo is sufficient to engender injurious 
 properties in their flesh. Persons have been mentioned who 
 could not eat fried Fish without vomiting. (Louyer-Willermay.) 
 
 5. Lastly, other medical men have maintained that the in- 
 jurious effects depended upon the state of the person who was 
 affected, and not even on the nature of the Fish which had been 
 eaten, 
 
 It is very probable that all these suppositions are correct. 
 Several of the causes which have been suggested may occur 
 simultaneously. 
 
 Are there, however, Fish which are dangerous at all times, 
 and under every circumstance ? If we are to place any re- 
 liance on the statements of travellers and naturalists, certain 
 species possess this character at the moment they are caught, 
 both when they are in spawn and when they are not in spawn, 
 whatever may be their age, the nature of their food, or the way 
 in which they are cooked. The species which have been men- 
 
 1 Ova choleram causant, Tim. 
 
246 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 tioned as being the most dangerous belonging to the genera 
 Meletta, 1 Sphyrcena? Caranx? Scarus* Diodon, 5 and Gneion. 6 
 
 Most of the so termed poisonous Fishes are only so at times ; 
 that is to say, when they have fed upon certain animals at the 
 period of reproduction, or under certain other peculiar circum- 
 stances. Such are the File fish, the Conger eel, the Mackerel, 
 and the Herring. 
 
 It is more particularly in hot climates that it is necessary to 
 guard against the ill effects of these Fish. M. Fonssagrives 
 observes that the species, which are to be most dreaded are in- 
 habitants of the tropical seas, and that the species which are 
 dangerous in our climates become still more so in those 
 regions. 
 
 The first symptom produced by eating these Fish is disorder 
 of the stomach ; this is followed by pain in the epigastrium, ac- 
 companied by a feeling of oppression and dyspnaea. General 
 symptoms supervene, ushered in by shiverings and cold sweats. 
 The countenance becomes injected and swollen, and red spots 
 or vesicular eruptions break out over the body. These erup- 
 tions are often followed by an irritation or itching, which is 
 sometimes quite unbearable. The patient has constant nausea, 
 pain, vomiting, and spasmodic affections of the bowels, simula- 
 ting cholera, deafness, and imperfect vision ; he becomes coma- 
 toze and passes into a peculiar state of insensibility. When 
 the patient escapes death, his convalescence is long and 
 difficult. 
 
 2. MOLLTJSCA. Two cases of poisoning are recorded from 
 Snails which had been collected ; the one series from a 
 belladonna plant, the other from the sumac, coriaria myrti- 
 folia, Linn. Mussels 1 and Oysters 9 ' are the species of mol- 
 lusca which most frequently produce these accidents. There 
 is great difficulty in explaining the way in which they act, 
 and various suggestions have been put forth ; such as the 
 presence of copper in the rocks on which they live, their 
 having been attached to the copper bottoms of vessels, the 
 
 1 For example, the poisonous Meletta, Meletta venenosa, and M. Thrissa* 
 Valenc. 
 
 2 The large Sphyrcena, Sphyroena Caracuda, Cuv., and the 5. Becuna t 
 Lacep. 
 
 3 Caranx fallax, Cuv. 
 
 4 Scar us capitaneus, Cuv. 
 
 5 Diodon tigrinus, Cuv. 
 
 6 Gneion maculatum, Bibron. 
 
 7 See p. 175. 
 
 8 See pp. 86, 168. 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 247 
 
 presence of a small crab, which lodges within their valves, 
 the spawn of the Star fishes, or of certain Medusa, which 
 they had eaten (Lamouroux), a peculiar disease to which 
 they may be liable, the fermentation and decomposition of their 
 tissues, and even the phases of the moon, &c. 
 
 3. CRUSTACEA. Certain Crustacea produce similar disorders 
 to those which have just been described. Amongst these ani- 
 mals the principal are the Land Crab, Qecarcinu* ruricola, 
 (is it when they have eaten the fruit of the manchineal tree P) 1 
 and the Hermit Crab, Pagurus Bernhardus. 
 
 Prawns and Shrimps have also been mentioned, but it must 
 be by the merest accident that these Crttstacea, as well as the 
 Hermit Oral, can produce any injurious effects. 
 
 BOOK V. 
 
 POISONOUS ANIMALS. 
 
 THE name of Poisonous Animals is given to all those creatures 
 which produce a poison. These animals are provided with 
 special glands for the secretion of the poisonous fluid, and with an 
 apparatus for its transmission ; some convey the poison by means 
 of the mouth, or by some part of the mouth modified for that 
 purpose ; while others are provided with a special organ. This 
 division of the poisonous animals into those which transmit the 
 poison by means of their mouth, and into those which are 
 provided with a special apparatus for that purpose, will be 
 found in the works of some of the older writers. 
 
 Amongst the animals which are injurious, but not poisonous, 
 it has been previously seen that some possess a saliva which 
 appears to have properties that are very analogous to a poison ; 
 such is the case in the Reduvina and the Gnats.* 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 ANIMALS WHICH CONVEY THEIB, POISON BY THE MOUTH. 
 
 THE animals which convey their poison by means of the 
 mouth, or by means of some part of the mouth, have special 
 
 1 Deleclatur fructibus mancinellce et inde soepe venenatus fertur. (Linn.) 
 ' See pp. 222, 230. 
 
248 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 teeth or fangs in the interior of this cavity provided for that 
 purpose, or they have, placed by the side of it, claw-shaped 
 antenna or foot-jaws, which, like the fangs, are connected with 
 the organ which secretes the poison. 1 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 POISONOUS ANIMALS WITH TANGS. 
 
 THE poisonous animals provided with fangs are the OpJiidia or 
 Serpents. The most dangerous are the Vipers. MM. Du- 
 meril place them in the sub-order Solenoglypha, characterised 
 by the possession of an upper jaw, which has the two anterior 
 teeth hollowed out into a canal. 
 
 I. Vipers. 
 
 1. COMMON VIPEB. The Common Viper or Asp 1 is a serpent 
 to be carefully avoided. It belongs to the family Viperina. 
 Habitat. The Common Viper is frequently found in the 
 Cevennes, in Lozere, and Aveyron. 
 It especially abounds at Montmo- 
 rency, and in the Forest of Fontaine- 
 bleau; it usually keeps near the 
 roads and footpaths, in stumps of 
 trees, on bits of rock, or beneath 
 stones and bushes. 
 Fig. 76.- Common Viper. Description. It varies from 1 to 
 2 J feet in length ; the body at its 
 
 thickest part is nearly an inch in diameter ; the general colour 
 is brown or of a reddish tinge, passing into an ashen or blackish 
 
 1 It is stated {hat certain Mollusca, as, for example, the Cones and the 
 Plcurotoma, inflict bites which inflame and become dangerous. It is sup- 
 posed by some that this depends upon a poison which the animals introduce 
 into the wound. Whence, however, it may be asked, does this poison come ? 
 M. Loven supposes that the hooks or teeth with which the tongue is armed 
 are deeply buried in the wound, and produce the subsequent inflammation. 
 Captain Beecher was wounded by a specimen of the Conus aulicus, and the 
 wound swelled and became very painful. Has the animals, as M. Loven 
 supposes, the power of discharging these lingual teeth 1 
 
 2 Vipera aspis, Merrem ; Coluber aspis, Linn. ; Vipera Cherseax, Latr. 
 [It appears from the description in the text, and from what is said of the 
 
 other species, that this is not the Common Viper of England. The species 
 which is known in this country as the Common Viper or Adder, as it is 
 frequently termed, is that which is mentioned in the next page under the 
 title of Vipera Berus, and which is described in Bell's British Reptiles, 2nd 
 edit., p. 61, under the name of Pelias Berus, and which is the only species 
 of Viper that is met with in Great Britain. (Ed.)] 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 249 
 
 band on the back, and a row of irregular dark spots on the 
 sides; specimens of a uniform colour are rare ; the belly is of a 
 slate colour ; the head of the Viper is of a subtriangular form, 
 somewhat larger than the neck, obtuse and truncated ante- 
 riorly, and covered with granulated scales; the muzzle is covered 
 by six small scales, two of which are perforated by the nostrils, 
 which form two black spots ; on the upper part are two black 
 lines united in the form of a V ; the upper jaw is whitish and 
 spotted with black, while the lower is of a yellow colour ; the 
 eyes, which are very small, active, and bright, are bordered 
 with black ; the tongue is long, forked, of a black or greyish 
 colour, soft and retractile ; the scales are imbricated and cari- 
 nated, characters which distinguish .them from those of the 
 Colubridae. 
 
 The males are generally smaller than the females. 
 
 This reptile is fond of heat, especially moist heat ; it hunts 
 after shrew mice, field mice, and even moles, destroying a large 
 number of these animals; it also feeds upon lizards, frogs, small 
 molluscous animals, insects, and worms. It hides itself in the 
 day and pursues the animals upon which it lives during the 
 night time. 
 
 The Viper appears to be a timid animal ; its movements are 
 abrupt, sluggish, and irregular ; the instincts of the animal are 
 but feebly developed ; it is incapable of being taught like the 
 Colubrida3, and when retained in captivity it refuses its food. 
 
 At the approach of winter it retires into holes in old build- 
 ings, into the decayed trunks of trees, into the earth, or under 
 moss ; several of them are usually rolled up together, and in 
 this manner they pass the cold weather in a torpid state. 
 
 The male has a double penis, which increases in size during 
 copulation, and fixes the two sexes so firmly together that, if 
 they are disturbed during the act, the male, which is weaker 
 than the female, is carried away backwards by the latter. 
 
 The Viper is ovoviviparous. (Aristotle.) The young are 
 born with the fragments of egg case adhering to them ; the eggs, 
 just before they hatched, are as large as those of the wren. 
 
 2. OTHER SPECIES. There are two other species of Viper 
 in Europe the Ammodytes and the Berus. The following table 
 gives the characters which distinguish them from the Common 
 Viper : 
 
 [ no plates. 
 
 TT^,! ) f truncated .... 1. Vipera Aspis. 
 
 Head j Snout j elongated . . . . 2 . Vipera Ammodytes. 
 
 ' with plates 3. Vipera Berus, 
 
250 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The Vipera Ammodytes, which has a horn on the muzzle, 1 (fig. 
 77,) inhabits the mountains of Dauphine ; the head is separated 
 from the body by a distinct neck; the muzzle is prolonged 
 into a soft, obtuse, elevated point. 
 
 Fig. 77. Vipera Ammodytes. 
 
 Fig. 78. Vipera Pelius. 
 
 The Vipera JBerus (Daud), or small Viper? (fig. 78), is found 
 in the neighbourhood of Paris. It was this species which bit 
 M. Constant Dumeril in the Forest of Senart in September, 1851. 
 
 Fig. IS. Head of a Viper* 
 
 The body is elongated, the neck much constricted, and with 
 a brown line along the back ; it has a large pentagonal plate 
 hollowed out anteriorly on the summit of the head ; 4 behind 
 
 1 Coluber Ammodytes, Linn. ; Echidna Ammodytes, Merrem. 
 
 2 Pelius Berus, Merrem ; Cduber Berus, Linn. 
 
 3 Head of Pelius Berus [Common English Viper]. a, poison gland, 
 seen through an opening in the external pterygoid muscle ; b, its duct ; c, 
 termination of the duct at the base of the poison fang ; d, poison fang ; e, 
 external opening ; f, fangs of replacement ; g, external pterygoid muscle ; 
 h, internal pterygoid muscle ; i, lachrymal gland ; j, anterior temporal 
 muscle ; k, elevator muscle of the lower jaw ; I, depressor muscle of the 
 lower jaw; m, retractor muscle of the lower jaw; n, tongue ; o, its laryngeal 
 opening ; p, its bifurcation. 
 
 4 In the Common Viper [that is, of France, Vipera aspis,] there is a small 
 hexagonal plate at the same part. 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 251 
 
 this are two oblong irregularly pentagonal plates. The head 
 is somewhat convex, (fig. 79.) 
 
 Naturalists consider that the present species differs suffi- 
 ciently from the two first to form a distinct genus. (Pelius.) 
 
 3. POISON APPARATUS. This consists of 1, the Gland; 2, 
 the Duct ; 3, the Poison Fang. 
 
 1. Gland. This is situated by the side of the head, behind and 
 partly below the globe of the 
 eye, above the superior max- 
 illary and transverse bones, 
 in front of the anterior tem- 
 poral muscle ; it is embraced 
 by the external pterygoid 
 muscle, which forms over it, 
 especially anteriorly, a strong 
 tendinous covering; it is 
 rather an assemblage of lobes 
 than a gland, properly so 
 called. The substance of Fig. 80. Poison Apparatus. 1 
 the gland is soft and yellow, 
 
 and has a spongy appearance; examined beneath the microscope 
 it presents a series of oval dilatations or lobules composed of a 
 granular tissue ; these dilatations are arranged very regularly 
 along the course of the excretory ducts, like the barbs of a 
 feather, along the two sides of its axis. The number of these 
 lobes varies in different individuals ; M. Leon Soubeiran has 
 generally found from 6 to 8, independently of a certain number 
 of secondary lobes placed at the commencement of the principal 
 duct. 
 
 2. Duct. The duct of the poison gland is a narrow cylin- 
 drical canal; it passes from behind forwards in a nearly 
 horizontal direction and terminates in the fang of the same 
 side ; towards its middle portion, just below the inferior 
 margin of the orbit, the canal forms an oval dilatation. It is 
 this enlargement, which is very slight in the Vipera aspis, that 
 has been described under the name of the poison reservoir. 
 M. Soubeiran has recently examined this part, and he finds 
 that its walls contain a number of simple follicles, which open 
 into the cavity, and form a special glandular apparatus placed in 
 the course of the excretory canal, like the prostate of the 
 
 1 Poison apparatus of Pelius Berwt [Common English Viper]. a, pinnated 
 and ramified gland; b b, its duct; c, reservoir placed in the course of the 
 duct; d, fang, cut vertically; e, basal orifice, receiving the duct of the 
 gland ; /, its terminal orifice. 
 
252 MEDICAL ZOOLOQY. 
 
 gasteropoda in the course of their deferent canal. The follicles 
 which he has described appear to be most numerous towards 
 the posterior extremity ; they are very long, and appear to be 
 separated from each other. 
 
 3. Poison Fang. The fang is a tooth moulded into the form 
 of a tube ; it is much longer than the other teeth, and is placed 
 in the upper jaw ; there is one on either side the mouth. They 
 are very pointed and curved, the convexity being placed ante- 
 riorly, and provided with a narrow canal, which commences at 
 the anterior surface of the base and terminates by an extremely 
 narrow elongated aperture on the same surface of the apex of 
 the fang. A fine canal passes through the convexity and con- 
 nects the two apertures. This canal is sometimes obliterated. 
 
 The two lower thirds of the fang are invested by a strong 
 fold of the gum ( saccus, Mead). They extend backwards, and 
 form a groove or case, which receives and conceals the tooth 
 when not in use. 
 
 These organs are firmly attached, and, as it were, anchylosed 
 to the superior maxillary bones. The latter bones are very 
 small and very short, but enjoy great freedom of motion. There 
 are two muscles which govern these movements ; these are the 
 external pterygoid, which elevates the bone, and the internal 
 pterygoid, which depresses it. 
 
 Immediately behind ihe fangs are two or three smaller teeth, 
 or the forms of teeth, destined to replace those which are in 
 use when lost (Eosa) ; these are unattached, and are enclosed 
 in the fold of gum previously mentioned. 
 
 In a state of repose the fangs are concealed ; but they are 
 withdrawn from the fold of the gum and elevated when the 
 animal is about to use them. But it was an error to suppose, 
 in consequence of this, that the teeth themselves are moveable ; 
 it is the maxillary bone to which the fang is united that alone 
 moves. The remaining teeth in the upper part of the mouth 
 are attached to the palate, where they form a double row. 
 
 4. ACTION ON MAN. 1. Bite. Eedi appears to have been the 
 first who accurately described the effects of the Viper. Mead 
 and Fontana described still more carefully the bite and the 
 poisonous action of this dangerous serpent. 
 
 Vipers habitually employ the formidable weapon with which 
 they are armed to destroy the small animals upon which they 
 live. They avoid man, but when trod upon or handled they 
 become enraged and defend themselves with their poison fangs. 
 
 "When a Viper is struck it first coils itself up, leaving its 
 head in the centre or at the summit of the coil, and drawn a 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 253 
 
 little back, as if for the purpose of reconnoitring. Speedily the 
 animal uncoils itself like a spring. Its body is then launched 
 out with such rapidity, that, for a moment, the eye cannot 
 follow it. In this movement the Viper clears a space nearly 
 equal to its own length, for it must be observed that it never 
 quits the ground, where it remains supported on its tail, or on 
 the posterior part of its body, ready to coil itself up again and 
 launch itself forth afresh to aim a second blow, if the first should 
 fail. To do this the Viper distends its mouth, draws back its 
 fangs, arranges them in the right direction, and then plunges 
 them into its enemy by the blow of its head or of its upper 
 jaw, which strikes the object like a hammer ; when this is done 
 the fangs are immediately withdrawn. The lower jaw, which is 
 closed at the same moment, serves as a point of resistance and 
 favours the entrance of the poison fangs ; but this assistance is 
 very slight, and the animal, as has just been stated, acts by 
 striking rather than by biting. There are, however, times 
 when the Viper bites without coiling itself up, and then launching 
 itself forth. This occurs, for instance, when the creature meets 
 with some small animal, which it destroys at its leisure, and 
 without rage, or when it is seized by the tail or the middle of 
 the body, when it turns round and plunges in its fangs. As 
 the teeth are buried in the tissues of the body the poison is 
 driven down the canals which pass through them by the action 
 of the muscles' which close the mouth, and this injection takes 
 place with all the more force in proportion to the vigour and 
 rage of the serpent and to the supply of poison with which it 
 is furnished. 
 
 2. Wound. The wounds inflicted by the Viper have a pecu- 
 liar appearance, which allows them to be recognised by mere 
 inspection, and to be distinguished from those of a non- venomous 
 serpent, as, for example, from those of a Colubra. In fact, all 
 serpents which are not furnished with fangs produce a number 
 of punctures formed by the teeth of the two jaws, which are 
 arranged in two curved lines, with the concavities looking 
 towards each other. In the bite of the Viper there are only 
 two large punctures corresponding to the two poison fangs. 2 
 
 These wounds inflame, become red and swollen, and some- 
 times livid ; at other times they are surrounded with vesicles 
 or watery bulla. 
 
 1 The external pterygoid muscle, in contracting for the purpose of raising 
 the fang at the same time, compresses the gland which it covers. 
 
 2 Plutarch mentions the presence of two hardly perceptible punctures 
 which the Asp had inflicted on the arm of Cleopatra. 
 
254 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The general symptoms which accompany the wound have 
 been frequently described. The person at first experiences 
 pain in the part which has been bitten, which gradually extends 
 itself throughout the limb, and even to the internal organs. 
 The swelling, the redness, and the lividity, spread to the neigh- 
 bouring parts ; faintings come on, the pulse becomes rapid, 
 small, and irregular. There are gastric derangements, bilious 
 vomitings, difficult respiration, profuse cold sweats ; disturbance 
 of the vision and of the intellect, and convulsions, which are 
 almost always followed by general jaundice. There is sometimes 
 acute pain in the region of the umbilicus. The blood which 
 issues from the wound often becomes black; after a time it 
 changes into a sanies ; and lastly, in some instances, which are 
 fortunately very rare, gangrene comes on. 
 
 In weak, sickly, or timid persons, and in those who have just 
 eaten, the symptoms increase more rapidly, and are more severe 
 than in those who are strong, healthy, courageous, and who at 
 the time are fasting. 
 
 The bite of the Viper is generally dangerous. 
 
 Ambrose Pare relates, that during his residence at Mont- 
 pellier with Charles IX. he was bitten in the extremity of his 
 index finger, when examining a Viper. He felt a sharp pain, 
 but that the immediate application of a ligature and tincture 
 of opium cured it in a few days. 
 
 When Bernard de Jussieu was herborizing in the month 
 of July, 1747, on the hills of Montmartre, one of his pupils 
 seized a Viper, which he mistook for a Colubra ; the serpent 
 bit him in three places (on both thumbs, and on the index- 
 finger of the right hand). At first there was swelling and 
 inflammation, afterwards faintings, and a yellowness, which was 
 limited to the fore arm. There were no other derangements. 
 
 It would be easy to multiply similar examples. At the same 
 time it must not be supposed that these bites are never fatal. 
 In certain cases they may cause death. 
 
 Bedard relates in his lectures the case of a young man in the 
 neighbourhood of Angers, who, happening to fall down in a 
 meadow, was bitten in several places by a Viper, and died in 
 consequence in the course of a few hours. 
 
 A woman bitten in the thigh died at the end of thirty-seven 
 hours. 
 
 M. Dusoard mentions eleven cases, four of which were fatal. 
 
 Matthiole records a case which proves that a Viper, even 
 when cut in two, may still bite when handled incautiously. A 
 countryman falling down in a meadow, happened to divide one 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 255 
 
 of those snakes in the middle ; he seized the portion of the 
 trunk to which the head was attached in an awkward manner, 
 and was in consequence bitten in the finger, and died from the 
 effects of the wound. 1 
 
 Eedi and Saviard speak also of severe bites inflicted by Vipers 
 whose heads were separated from the body. 
 
 Dr. Scoutetten mentions a similar instance. In July, 1837, 
 a young man in the neighbourhood of Metz, when seeking for 
 worms for the purpose of fishing, saw two serpents, which he 
 mistook for Colubra. He cut them in pieces with a pickaxe ; 
 soon afterwards, having taken hold of one of the heads, he felt 
 himself bitten in the right index finger; he shook his hand 
 violently, and it was only after several efforts that he succeeded 
 in disengaging it. 
 
 [The common Viper, says Bell, 2 is everywhere deservedly 
 feared on account of its venom, which, although less virulent 
 than that of many other species, is yet sufficiently so to produce 
 severe symptoms, and sometimes, in the warmer climates, even 
 fatal results. In this country I have never seen a case which 
 terminated in death, nor have I been able to trace to an authen- 
 tic source any of the numerous reports of such a termination 
 which have at various times been confidently promulgated. At 
 the same time the symptoms are frequently so threatening, that 
 I cannot but conclude that in very hot weather, and when not 
 only the reptile is in full activity and power, but the constitu- 
 tion of the victim in a state of great irritability and diminished 
 power, a bite from the Common Viper would very probably 
 prove fatal. The remedies usually employed are the external 
 application of oil, and the internal administration of ammonia.] 
 
 II. Foreign Serpents. 
 
 The principal foreign serpents which are poisonous are 
 1. the Cerastes; 2. the Orotali ; 3. the Bothrops ; 4. the 
 Naia. 
 
 1. The CERASTES or horned Serpents, are allied to the Vipers. 
 They differ from them in their supra orbital plates, rising up 
 into pointed processes, and assuming the appearance of a pair 
 of small horns. 
 
 The principal species are the Cerastes of Egypt, Cerastes JEgyp- 
 tiacus (fig. 81), and the Cerastes of Persia, Cer. Persicus. These 
 animals are justly dreaded ; the first species, which is also met 
 
 1 Matthiole says on the spot, but this is hardly credible. 
 s Bell's British Reptiles, 2nd ed. p. 62, London. 
 
256 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGr. 
 
 Fig. 81. Cerastes ^Egypti 
 
 with in the Sahara of Algeria, and in Morocco, is said to cause 
 death in a few hours. 
 
 2. The CEOTALI, or Rattle 
 Snakes, are serpents belonging 
 to the family Crotalidae ; they 
 are large and strong, and may 
 attain a length of more than 
 six feet. They have all the 
 upper part of their bodies 
 covered with simple scales. 
 The end of the tail is furnished 
 with several horny rings, which 
 lock loosely into each, and pro- 
 duce a rattling noise as the 
 animal moves along, and hence 
 the name of Rattle Snakes. Their poison fangs are very long, 
 and the poison reservoir of considerable size. 
 
 The principal species are the Crotalus Durissus (fig. 82) of 
 
 South America ; the Cro- 
 talus horridus of Tropical 
 America, particularly of 
 Mexico, Guiana, and Bra- 
 zil ; and the Crotalus mili- 
 aris from Oregon. The 
 latter species is said to be 
 the most dangerous. 
 
 The Crotali naturally 
 inspire a feeling of dread, 
 for their poison will de- 
 stroy an ox or a horse 
 almost instantaneously. 
 
 Dogs will resist its influence somewhat longer. A Crotalus, 
 about three feet long, killed one of these animals in fifteen 
 minutes ; a second at the end of two hours ; and a third at the 
 end of three. Four days afterwards it wounded a dog, which 
 only survived thirty seconds, and another which only lived four 
 minutes. Three days afterwards a frog perished in two seconds, 
 a chicken in eight minutes, and a white amphisbena also in 
 eight minutes. (Halm.) 
 
 M. Eousseau rapidly destroyed pigeons by forcing into their 
 pectoral muscles the fangs of a Crotalus which had been dead 
 two days. 
 
 These animals only attack man when provoked. Their 
 poison produces death in two or three minutes ; but if remedies 
 
 Fig. 82. Crotalus Durissus. 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 257 
 
 are applied immediately death may be averted. According to 
 Sir Everard Home, when a finger has been bitten it passes 
 into a complete state of mortification; in other cases, the 
 edges of the wound become gangrenous, the cellular tissue is 
 destroyed, and the muscles are greatly inflamed. According to 
 Laurenti, the bite of these terrible serpents produces swelling 
 of the body and of the tongue, the mouth seems on fire, the 
 thirst is excessive, and the person dies in the course of a few 
 minutes in a state of frightful agony. In the case of the un- 
 fortunate Drake, who was bitten in the hand, and in whom the 
 wound was cauterised an hour afterwards, there were faintings, 
 stertorous breathing, scarcely any pulse, and involuntary evacu- 
 ations ; the eyes were closed, the pupils contracted, the body 
 cold, and the limbs insensible; he died at the end of nine 
 hours. (Philorel.) 
 
 When the patient is so fortunate as to escape death, he 
 sometimes feels the effect of the injury for the remainder of 
 his life. Lesseur, who was wounded at Simon, eight years 
 afterwards, when he was in Paris, felt a great weight in the 
 limb which had been wounded. 
 
 M. Alfred Duges was bitten on the 21st of August, 1857, at 
 Silao, in Mexico, by a young Crotalus, 1 about eight inches long, 
 on the upper part of the second joint of the index-finger of the 
 left hand ; he felt a most agonising pain at the moment, as if 
 some caustic had been applied to a recent wound ; the part was 
 strongly ligatured, and the wound cauterised with nitrate of 
 silver ; there was great exhaustion, cold sweats, a feeling of 
 intense anxiety about the region of the heart, and the mouth 
 was very clammy; at the end of an hour the wound was cauter- 
 ised a second time, on this occasion with the bromide of iron ; 
 the hand by this time was very much swollen, and the arm 
 painful up to the axilla ; cataplasms and embrocations of olive 
 oil were applied to the limb. On the 22nd, the finger and the 
 back of the hand were greatly enlarged, and could not bear the 
 least pressure ; its condition might be compared to that of a large 
 chilblain. On the 23rd, the swelling and the pain had some- 
 what subsided. On the 24th and 25th, the hand became of a 
 deep brown colour, and was still much swollen. On the 27th, 
 the colour was less intense, but the patient still felt pain in 
 closing the finger. (A. Duges.) 
 
 3. The jBothrops, or Javelin Snakes, also belong to the family 
 of the CrotolidaB ; they are characterised by the possession of 
 cavities hollowed out behind the nostrils, and by a small cor- 
 
 1 It was the Crotalus triseriatus, Wiegm., a varietj of the Cr. Durissus. 
 
 8 
 
258 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 neous spine at the extremity of the tail. The scales are 
 carinated, and there are no large plates on the head. 
 
 The most formidable species is the Javelin Snake, properly 
 so called, or Yellow Viper of Martinique}- 
 
 This serpent inhabits Martinique and St. Lucia. In 1826, 
 a reward of two shillings was offered in these islands for every 
 head of one of these snakes. In the neighbourhood of Fort 
 Royal, 700 were killed in three months. (Eufz.) This serpent 
 is about six feet long ; its colour varies from a clear yellow to 
 a dark brown ; the head is large. 
 
 The wound of the Javelin Snake is always fatal to the 
 smaller mammalia ; sometimes it will also destroy the larger 
 ones, such as the ox. 
 
 The negroes who work in the plantations, and the soldiers 
 on duty at Martinique, are often wounded by these dangerous 
 reptiles. M. Blot has recorded three cases (a negro, a negress, 
 and a mulatto,) in which death occurred almost immediately 
 after the bite was inflicted. M. Guyon saw several soldiers 
 perish ; death generally occurs in three, twelve, or twenty-four 
 hours, or some days, ai'ter the accident. 
 
 The person who is bitten usually feels an acute pain, which 
 is followed by a livid swelling ; his body loses its warmth, and his 
 sensibility diminishes or becomes extinguished; at the same time 
 
 he experiences extreme las- 
 situde, and a general feeling 
 of illness, the pulse and the 
 respiration become feeble, the 
 ideas wonder, coma comes on, 
 a blue tint spreads over the 
 surface of the skin; some- 
 times there is intense thirst, 
 paralysis, and occasionally a 
 congested state of the lungs, 
 which is followed by a more 
 or less copious and bloody 
 
 1 Bothrops anceolatus, Wagl., Vipera lanceolata, Baud., V. Mcegera, 
 Shaw, Trigonocephalus /anceolatus, Opp., commonly called the Yellow 
 Serpent of the Antilles. 
 
 2 Poison apparatus of Bothrops Jararacaa, fang; b, its terminal open- 
 ing ; c, its basal opening ; d, poison canal ; e, maxillary bone ; /, pterygoid 
 bone ; g, tendon of external pterygoid muscle ; h, tendon of internal ptery- 
 goid muscle. 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 259 
 
 Snake, the Jararaca, 1 is found in Brazil, which inflicts much 
 injury upon the natives. 
 
 Dr. Auzoux presented to M. Tandon a prepared head of the 
 last-named serpent, from which the accompanying drawing has 
 been taken (fig. 83). 
 
 ' 4. The Naia, or Spectacled Serpents* [called also the Hooded 
 Snakes,] have the body large anteriorly, and forming a kind of 
 disc, owing to the singular power which these animals possess 
 of expanding the first pair ot ribs. These serpents are met with 
 in Arabia and in India. 
 
 The principal species is the Spectacled Serpent, properly 
 so called, 1 ' or the Cobra de Capello. It has, on the cervical 
 expansion of the body, a brown mark in the form of a pair of 
 of spectacles. 
 
 This group also contains the Haje Serpent* which appears 
 to be the true Asp of the ancients, celebrated as having caused 
 the death of Cleopatra. 
 
 The Naia produce most dangerous wounds ; the subtility of 
 of the poison is such that death is almost instantaneous. 
 
 A chicken, bitten by one of these animals, brought by an 
 Indian juggler, vomited ; its limbs became rigid, and it died in 
 about ten minutes. A second chicken, slightly bitten twice, 
 died in eight minutes. 
 
 Some years ago, one of the keepers of the reptiles at the 
 Zoological Gardens in London was wounded by one of these 
 snakes ; the man died in about half an hour. One of the most 
 remarkable phenomena which he exhibited before his death, 
 was a paralysis of the inspiratory muscles of the thorax. 
 (Quain.) 
 
 [Early on the morning of the 20th of October, when in a 
 state of inebriety, the man took out the Cobra and put 
 it round his waist ; after playing with it some time, the animal 
 bit him at the root of the nose. He was brought into the 
 University College Hospital about forty minutes after the 
 accident ; the patient's lace was slightly livid, the respiration 
 imperfect; he walked with difliculty from the cab to the ward, 
 and pointed to his throat as the seat of pain ; he could not 
 speak, had difficulty in standing, and was unable to swallow. 
 
 1 Bothrops Jararaca, Burner, Cophias Jararaca, Neuw. 
 
 3 The three previous genera are Solenoglypha, like the Vipers ; the Naias 
 are Pteroglypha, characterised by having the poison fang grooved and not 
 perforated at its base. 
 
 * Naja tripudians, Merrem, Coluber Naja, Linn. 
 
 4 Naja Haje, Schleg., Coluber Haje, Linn. 
 
 8 2 
 
260 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The fangs had wounded the right side of the nose, between 
 the nasal bone and the inner canthus of the eye ; artificial 
 respiration was resorted to for fifty minutes, and subsequently 
 galvanism ; but stupor rapidly followed upon faintness, paralysis 
 of the extremity set in, and the patient died in a comatose 
 state fifty-five minutes after admission. 1 
 
 Dr. Patrick Russel, in his work on Indian Serpents, pub- 
 lished by order of the East India Company in 1796, mentions 
 four cases of recovery after the persons had been bitten by a 
 Cobra.] 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 POISONOUS ANIMALS AEMED WITH ANTENNA IN TUB POEM 
 OF CLAWS, OR WITH FOOT JAWS. 
 
 THE venomous animals which inoculate their poison by means 
 of antenna? terminating in a pair of pincers are the Arachnida, 
 and those which perform the act by means of foot-jaws are the 
 Scolopendridoe. All of them belong to classes of animals which 
 have no teeth or upper and under jaws like those of the Vert ebrata; 
 their jaws consist of lateral pieces which move in a horizontal 
 direction. Sometimes the animal has attached to the head 
 appendages or talons, improperly regarded as mandibles ; these 
 are the clawed antennae which produce and inject the poison. 
 Sometimes they have a pair of small dilated feet, placed very 
 close to the mouth, and terminating in a strong hook ; these 
 are the foot-jaws. 
 
 I. Spiders. 
 
 Spiders, and the web which they form, have been previously 
 noticed. 2 
 
 1. The GATE SpiDEE. 3 This species is very common in 
 France and Italy. 
 
 The body is about half an inch in length, covered with hair, 
 of a dark grey colour ; it has a number of triangular black 
 spots along the middle of the back and the abdomen; its 
 mandibles are green or of a steel blue colour. 
 
 2. OTHEE SPECIES. The most important are : 
 
 1. The My gales* (Crab Spiders and Mason Spiders), remark- 
 able for the terminal insertion of their palpi. 
 
 1 Lancet, 1852, vol. 2, p. 397. 
 a See p. 98. 
 
 8 Segestria cettaris, Latr., Aranea Florentine, Rossi, Segestria perfida 
 Walck. 
 * Mygale, Walck. 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 
 
 261 
 
 2. The Clubiones, in which the eyes are arranged in two lines. 1 
 
 3. The Theridions, especially the Malmignatte* of Corsica and 
 Italy, and the Mactans* of South America. 
 
 4. The Pkolci, particularly the Phalangioides, or Domestic 
 Spider with long feet.* 
 
 5. The Epeira, amongst which there isthe Aranea diadema^IArm? 
 Lastly. The Tarantula, which is considered in a separate 
 
 section. 
 
 3. POISON APPABATTJS (fig. 84). Nature has provided the 
 Spiders with two chelicers orantennce, terminat- 
 ing in a pair of claws, and placed in front of 
 the mouth ; these constitute the poison appa- 
 ratus. 
 
 The secreting glands are placed at the base 
 of these claws, and extend more or less into 
 the region of the head; these are vasiform 
 tortuous tubes, terminating in a blind ex- 
 tremity, and surrounded by a layer of muscu- 
 lar fibres, having a spiral arrangement; Fig. 84. Mouth* 
 towards the anterior part, these glandular 
 tubes are suddenly narrowed and form a slender excretory 
 duct, which passes through the claw 
 and terminates at its extremity. 
 
 The chelicers consists of three pieces, 
 a lower, a middle, and a terminal piece. 
 The first piece is short; the middle 
 is large and stout, and furnished with 
 numerous hairs; towards its termina- 
 tion, and on its inner side, is a double 
 row of hard conical scaly points, having 
 the appearance of teeth; there are 
 three of these teeth on each side, and 
 a seventh which is placed lower down. 
 The third piece, which is termed the 
 hook or claw, is moveable, and articu- Fig. S5.-Gland and Claw. 7 
 lated to the middle piece. The claw is 
 
 1 The Clubiona Nutrix, Latr., is especially dangerous. 
 
 * Tfteridion 13-guttatum, Walck., Aranea \3-guttaia, Rossi. 
 
 s Theridion mactans, Walck., Aranea mactans, Fabr. 
 
 4 Pholcus phalangiriides, Walck. 
 
 5 Epira diadema, Walck. There is a species of Epira in New Holland 
 which the natives make use of as food. 
 
 6 a a, mandibles or clawed antennae ; b 6, their claws ; c c, jaws ; d d, 
 enormous maxillary palpi. 
 
 7 a, poison gland ; b, part of the canal placed in the mandible ; c, claw ; 
 
262 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 of a conical form, curved inwards, very pointed, and perfectly 
 smooth ; when not in use it is folded inwards, and lies between 
 the two rows of teeth as in a groove. Near the point of the 
 claw, and on its under surface, is a narrow opening to allow of 
 the exit of the poison. Leeuwenhoek was the first who pointed 
 out this aperture, which is very narrow, and not easily seen. 
 Mead erroneously denied its existence. 
 
 4. ACTION ON MAN. When a spider bites it drives both 
 claws into its victim, and at the same time a drop of poison is 
 distilled into each of the wounds. 
 
 Much has been said of the poison of the Spider. Latreille 
 has stated that the bite of one of a moderate size is sufficient 
 to kill a house fly in a few minutes. Other observers have in- 
 formed us that the bite of one of the large Spiders of South 
 America (My gale) would destroy a humming bird, or even a 
 pigeon. 
 
 Are Spiders, especially those of Europe, dangerous to man ? 
 Is it true that the wounds of several species have been followed 
 by serious results, and even by death itself ? 
 
 Martin Lister saw some of these bites accompanied by in- 
 flammation. Is this fact quite certain? Schurig mentions 
 the case of a bite having produced chlorosis. Cromstock 
 speaks of another which caused St. Vitus's Dance. But these 
 writers and these instances are scarcely to be depended on. 
 Turner, Scaliger, Flacourt, Brogiani, and others, also regarded 
 Spiders as very dangerous animals. 
 
 On the other hand, Fra^ois Bon states that he had been 
 bitten more than once, but that he had never felt the least ill 
 effects from it, and he believed, therefore, that these ani- 
 mals were not poisonous. Robert, Boyle, and Amoreux 
 entertained the same opinion. De Greer, remembering that 
 Clerck had been often bitten by Spiders without experiencing 
 any inconvenience, concluded that they are not poisonous. 
 Lastly, H. Cloquet observed that the poison of these animals 
 had no effect upon himself. 
 
 It is, however, certain that in hot climates, Spiders are 
 able to produce, especially in young children and in women, 
 a certain amount of local pain, which is followed by a small 
 livid inflamed spot, and sometimes even by a pustule. Some- 
 times there is only a red spot, which is hardly perceptible ; while 
 at other times there is a true tumour. It is seldom that the 
 bites are accompanied by general symptoms, but when this is 
 
 rf, its terminal opening; e, groove bounded by the teeth, and receiving the 
 claw when not in use. 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 263 
 
 the case the symptoms are similar to those which are produced 
 by other poisons. 
 
 Latreille considers it is necessary to be careful of Spiders, 
 especially the large species, when they are met with in hot 
 climates. E/ossi asserts that the Malmignatte can produce 
 serious disturbances and even death. The latter assertion 
 seems to be an exaggeration. It is, however, supported by 
 several modern observers (Cauro, Graells, Lambotte). A 
 medical man of the name of Bonifacio mentioned a case of this 
 kind to M. Moquin Tandon (1852). According to Thiebaud 
 de Berneaud, in the Island of Elba this Spider is as much 
 dreaded as the Scorpion. 
 
 M. Abbot declares that the bite of the Malmignatte of 
 America is exceedingly dangerous. 
 
 Are we to admit with Fabricius, that the hunting Spider of 
 South America can cause a violent attack of fever in man? 
 Must we also give credence to the following statement of 
 Adanson ? This celebrated naturalist states that in Senegal 
 he felt for a whole year a kind of painful shivering, the course 
 of which was indicated by a red line along the back and on the 
 chest, where a large species of Spider had passed 1 while he 
 was changing his shirt. 
 
 It has been previously mentioned * that the Tegenaria medi- 
 cinalis and the Clubione tnedicinalis have vesicating properties. 
 It is also asserted that the latter is narcotel and irritates the 
 bladder. M. Ozanam has published a memoir on the employ- 
 ment of Spiders in medicine. 
 
 TARANTULA. The Spiders known under the name of Taran- 
 tula are especially mentioned as being exceedingly poisonous. 
 
 These animals belong to the genus Lycosa, of Latreille ; they 
 are characterised by having the eyes arranged in an elongated 
 quadrilateral form, the two hinder ones not being supported on 
 eminences, and by the first pair of feet being longer than the 
 second. The abdomen of the Tarantula is oval, and the whole 
 body is covered with a thick coating of down. 
 
 Most of them live upon the ground, where they form holes, 
 which they enlarge as they grow older, and line with a coating 
 of silk. Some reside in walls or in cavities of rocks. They 
 keep close to their dwelling, watching for their prey, upon 
 which they dart with astonishing rapidity. They can run very 
 quickly. 
 
 The number of species of the Lycosa is very considerable. 
 
 1 The animal, therefore, had not bitten him ! 
 1 See p. 128. 
 
264 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Two species only require to be noticed, the common Tarantula, 
 and the Tarantula with a Hack abdomen. 
 
 The common Tarantula * inhabits the south of Italy. It is 
 very common in Apulia and in Calabria. It is about an inch 
 in length. Its body is entirely black, with the under surface 
 of the abdomen red, with a black band across the middle of it. 
 
 The Tarantula with a black abdomen 2 is found in the South 
 of France. It is smaller than the former. The under surface 
 of the abdomen is black, with the exception of the margins, 
 which are red. 
 
 A number of fabulous tales, all of them equally absurd, have 
 been related of the Tarantula. Many medical men have writ- 
 ten concerning this Spider. Estimable observers, amongst 
 whom may be mentioned Baglivi, have given a long account of 
 the dangers which attend them. 3 Ancient authors have declared 
 that the poison of the Tarantula has brought on in man symp- 
 toms resembling those of a milignant fever. According to 
 others it only produces erysipelatous spots and slight cramps 
 or tinglings. Many think that the bites of this Spider produce 
 convulsive attacks which compel the patients to perform a wild 
 and irregular kind of dance. This disease has even received 
 the name of tarantism. The patients have been called taranto- 
 lati. It has been seriously asserted that the supposed malady 
 could only be cured by the aid of music. Some medical men 
 have even carried the absurdity so far as to name those airs which 
 arjB best adapted to soothe the tarantolati. Samuel Hafenreffer, 
 professor at Ulm, in his treatise on diseases of the skin, has not 
 failed to mention them. 
 
 The fear which was formerly inspired by the Tarantula has 
 been overcome in the present day. Serrao, physician to the 
 king of Naples, endeavoured to undeceive the public with 
 regard to tarantism, and the remedies which had been proposed 
 for the disease. The abbe Bertholon relates that a country- 
 man having consented to be bitten by the Tarantula, the only 
 effect was a slight swelling, which disappeared in twenty-four 
 hours. Epiphane Ferdinand declared, in 1621, that in twenty 
 years he had never known a person in Naples die from the bite 
 of the Tarantula. Dr. Laurent, who inhabited that city for a 
 long time, declares that the Tarantula only produces a sharp 
 
 1 Lycosa Tarantula, Latr., Aranea Tarantula, Linn. 
 
 8 Lycosa melanogastra, Latr., Tarantula Narbonensis, Walck. 
 
 3 It appears that Baglivi was acquainted with the Tarantula with the 
 black abdomen. Chabrier, of Montpellier, has made some curious observa- 
 tions on the same species. 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 265 
 
 pain, such as is caused by the bite of a bee, and that this is fol- 
 lowed by a slight inflammation, which is occasionally accom- 
 panied by a small pustule, which, however, is easily removed by 
 the application of simple emollients, or even pure water. (Merat.) 
 We are acquainted in the present day with well-authenticated 
 instances of serious disorders and convulsions, produced by the 
 bites of these animals. As the Tarantula are Spiders of a large 
 size and inhabitants of hot countries, it is only prudent to guard 
 against being bitten by them. 
 
 Dr. Salvatore, of Eenzi, some years back read, at the 
 Academy of Medicine at Paris, a memoir in which he related 
 the case of a harvestman who was bitten in the foot ; while fast 
 asleep he suddenly woke up with a feeling of acute pain in the 
 injured part. He soon began to feel giddy, then oppression 
 and feebleness of the muscular system, and afterwards general 
 prostration and delirium. The effect of music was tried ! The 
 patient danced, he perspired abundantly, and was cured. 
 
 Epiphane Ferdinand maintains that tarantism is a true 
 disease. M. Ozanam has very recently reproduced this opinion. 
 He considers that the disease is characterised by a peculiar con- 
 dition of the nervous system, over which music has a salutary 
 effect. 
 
 II. Scolopendra. 
 
 The SCOLOPENDBA are insects belonging to the order Myrio- 
 poda and to the family Chilopoda. They are commonly termed 
 Millipides. 1 
 
 The characters of this genus are an elongated depressed body, 
 composed of not less than twenty articulations ; the antennae 
 are somewhat longer than the head, setaceous, and formed of 
 seventeen segments ; there are four pairs of small simnle eyes, 
 and twenty-one pairs of feet, of which the last are inclined 
 towards the median line, and form a kind of tail. 
 
 The Scolopendra run very quickly ; they avoid the light, 
 hiding beneath stones, the beams of houses, and the bark of 
 old worm-eaten trees. These animals feed on the earth-worm 
 and on small insects. 
 
 The species which is most dreaded in the South of France 
 and of Europe is the Scolopendra cingulata. 
 
 These insects vary considerably in size ; the largest of the 
 Scolopendra of Europe do not measure more than five inches 
 in length, while those of India attain to eight inches. [The 
 largest British species rarely exceed two inches in length.] 
 
 1 Centipedes, MMepeda of the older writers. 
 
266 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 f 
 
 2. POISON APPAEATUS (fig. 86). 
 
 The mouth of the Scolopendra is com- 
 posed of a square-shaped lip, of two 
 mandibles, of two palpi, or small foot 
 jaws, and of a second lip formed by 
 another pair of dilated foot jaws., which 
 are joined together at their commence- 
 ment. The latter {forcipes) l are the 
 organs which constitute the formidable 
 weapons of the animal. 
 
 The poison gland is lodged in the in- 
 terior of these organs towards their base. 2 
 Fig. SQ. Scolopendra.* It is oval, oblong, and provided with a 
 long narrow excretory canal. The forceps 
 terminate in a strong pointed 
 moveable hook; the claw is pro- 
 vided with a small oblong aperture 
 on its under surface, which allows 
 of the exit of the poison. 3 
 
 This opening in the Scolopendra, 
 Scopoliana, is close to the point on 
 its under surface, and not within 
 the curve, which is strongly ca- 
 rinated; a very slender canal passes 
 from it to the base of the claw. 
 
 3. ACTION ON MAN. The bite 
 of the Scolopendra pierces the skin 
 and inoculates its poison like that 
 of the Spider. The claws are 
 raised and seize the tissue one on 
 either side, they are then pressed 
 horizontally together and inflict 
 
 1 Pressores sen. forcipes, Leeuwenh. 
 
 8 M. Lespes has studied the poison apparatus of a tropical species of 
 Scolopendra, which was found alive at Bordeaux in a bundle of ox hides 
 which had come from Pondichery. The gland reached halfway up the large 
 joint of the claw, resting against its external portion ; it was oblong, obtuse 
 at the base, narrowed anteriorly, and presented at that part an oblique 
 canal, which passed to the claw. Its tissue was very soft, of a pinkish hue, 
 and punctated. Its canal was tolerably large and not quite equal in length to 
 the large diameter of the gland. The hook was strong, curved, and pointed. 
 
 3 Leeuwenhoek and Mead have described the claw of the Scolopendra 
 from the East Indies. They represent the opening the same as it has been 
 described above. In a Scolopendra, observed by M. Lespes, the opening 
 was also below, but at the base of the claw. 
 
 4 Head and anterior part of the Scolopendra Scopoliana, Koch. 
 
 5 A, head of Scolopendra Scopoliana, seen from below : a a, the claws; 
 
 Fig. 87. Head and claw. 5 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 267 
 
 two lateral wounds, into each of which a drop of poison is 
 discharged. 
 
 "The Millepedes," says Ambroise Pare, "excite considerable 
 irritation, redness, and swelling in the part they have bitten." 
 
 The inhabitants of hot climates have a great dread of the 
 Scolopendra. The species which are found in these countries, 
 being larger than those of the North, secrete a greater quantity 
 of poison, and probably also one that is more dangerous. 
 
 In general the Scolopendra of our climates have but little 
 danger attached to them. Amoreux says that those in the 
 neighbourhood of Montpellier are free from poison. This 
 talented naturalist is evidently mistaken. These insects in the 
 South of France secrete a poison like the rest of their class ; 
 only it is small in quantity, and not very active. 
 
 M. Moquin Tandon knew the case of a medical student, who, 
 when herborizing at Maguelonne, in 1826, was bitten in the 
 finger ; the wound caused severe pain, and the part was very 
 perceptibly swollen, but there were no other ill effects. The 
 next day the finger was in its usual state ; only there was a 
 dark spot where it had been punctured. 
 
 M. Eobelin, prosector to the faculty of Sciences at 
 Montpellier, was bitten in the second joint of the middle finger 
 by a large Scolopendra (4 inches in length). He felt a very 
 acute pain, which was followed by swelling of the whole limb. 
 He was compelled to carry his arm in a sling ; and in spite of 
 the wounds being cauterised, the symptoms lasted nearly eight 
 days. 
 
 The bites of the Scolopendra often occasion a febrile con- 
 dition, accompanied with shiverings. 
 
 Some foreign species, amongst others the Scolopendra morsi- 
 tanSj Linn., inflict wounds which are still more painful, and 
 cause still more serious symptoms. 
 
 Worbe declares that there exists a species in Senegal which 
 o/ten produces very serious disturbances ; but that, contrary to 
 the common opinion, it does not cause death. Ayoung Frenchman 
 who had recently arrived at the Isle of St. Louis laid on a mat- 
 trass placed in an office, when one night he awoke in violent pain, 
 uttered a piercing cry, and, getting up hurriedly, complained of 
 horrible tortures over his knee. In a few minutes the part 
 was swollen as large as the fist, having a black point in its 
 centre (probably two). The usual remedies were employed, 
 
 b, the jaws; c, maxillary palpi ; d, labmm; e e, portions of the antennee; 
 f, inferior arch of first ring ; B, foot jaw from the right side, seen from 
 below: a, poison gland ; b, its canal ; c, opening of claw ; rf, inferior groove j 
 e, oblique course of groove. 
 
268 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 and in five hours the pain and the swelling had disappeared. 
 (Worbe.) 
 
 In the following case death was the result : In 1828 an 
 officer of the garrison at Cayenne came out of a dancing-room 
 and drank some water out of a small jug. It was dark, and a 
 Scolopendra, which was probably lodged in the neck of the jug 
 entered the mouth and attacked the pharynx. The surgeon of 
 the regiment extracted the insect in bits. The pain was very 
 acute and the swelling enormous. Fearful disturbance of the 
 nervous system came on, and the officer died in a short time. 
 (V. Mougeot.) 
 
 Are we to believe, with Bontius, that the Scolopendra of the 
 East Indies can cause an affection resembling madness ? 
 
 Some travellers have pretended that the virulent poison pre- 
 pared by certain Indian tribes on the Upper Orinoco, the Rio 
 Negro, and the Amazon, and known under the name of curare, 
 contains the poison of a Scolopendra. 1 (De Castelnau.) 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 ANIMALS WHICH INNOCULATE THEIE POISON BY MEANS OF A 
 SPECIAL OEGAN. 
 
 THE animals which possess a special organ for the insertion 
 of their poisons are 1. The Ornithorhynchus ; 2. the Scorpions ; 
 3. certain Hymenoptera. In the first the organ is placed on the 
 hinder feet ; in the second and third it is situated at the extremity 
 of the abdomen, sometimes externally, and fixed (Scorpions), 
 sometimes internally and protractile (Hymenoptera). 
 
 In the Ornithorhynchus the poison apparatus belongs to the 
 male ; in the Hymenoptera it is limited to the female ; in the 
 Scorpion both sexes are furnished with it. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OBNITHOBHYNCHTTS. 
 
 THE OrnithorJiynchus, OrnitnornyncTius paradoxus, is a mam- 
 malian animal belonging to the order Edentata, and to the 
 tribe Monotremata. 
 
 1 The Mi, which also belongs to the Myriopoda, according to some 
 writers, are venomous insects. The European species, lulus terrestris, it is 
 true, secrete a scented substance which has been compared to the deutoxide 
 of nitrogen. This substance causes little or no irritation. In the Antilles 
 there is an lulus, whose secretion can produce a tolerably acute inflammation 
 of the eyes. (Sale.) 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 269 
 
 It inhabits the rivers and marshes of New Holland, in the 
 neighbourhood of Port Jackson. 
 
 It is a very curious animal, remarkable for the elongated, 
 depressed, fish-like form of its body, and for its curious 
 flattened beak, furnished at its margins with transverse laminae, 
 and bearing a close resemblance to the bill of a duck. The 
 teeth are only present at the back part of the mouth, two on 
 each side in both the upper and under jaws ; they are rootless, 
 with flattened crowns, and are composed of numerous small ver- 
 tical tubes. The tail is compressed ; the feet have a membrane 
 which unites the toes, and stretches beyond the claws in the 
 anterior, but terminates immediately after its commencement 
 in the posterior feet. 
 
 1. Poison apparatus. This apparatus consists of a gland, an 
 excretory canal, and a spur. 
 
 The gland is placed beneath the skin, on the external surface 
 of the femur ; l it is large, triangular, convex above, concave 
 below, smooth, composed of several lobes, and covered with a 
 delicate but firm membrane ; it is of a brown colour. From 
 this arises a small canal with thick walls ; it descends behind 
 the thigh and leg, becomes narrower, and terminates in a small 
 sac situated in an excavation of the foot. This sac, which is 
 about T % of an inch in diameter, is a reservoir in which the 
 poison accumulates ; from the centre of it another very minute 
 membranous canal passes off, which communicates with the 
 inoculating organ. 
 
 This organ is a large, conical, pointed spur, which is attached 
 to the tarsus, and furnished with a canal. It consists of a 
 layer of horny material and a bone of the same form placed 
 within the latter. (Van der Hoeven.) Its orifice is near the 
 point on the convex surface. It is of a tolerable size, and of an 
 oval form. (Blainville, Meckel.) 
 
 2. Action on man. According to Van der Hoeven the poison 
 of the Ornithorynchus exercises no injurious influence upon 
 man, although its effects are often very disagreeable. Such, at 
 least, is the opinion which is generally entertained at Port 
 Jackson. 
 
 When the animal is attacked, it endeavours to strike with its 
 hind feet and wound with its spurs. The wound which it 
 inflicts causes acute pain, accompanied by inflammation. 
 The part swells, but there is no instance known of death having 
 ensued. Sir J. Jamison, of Botany Bay, having wounded an 
 Ornithorynchus with his gun, a person who was with him was 
 1 Glandulafemorales, Meckel. 
 
270 MEDICAL ZOOLOGT. 
 
 struck in taking up the animal. In a short time the limb was 
 swollen, and all the symptoms were present which are produced 
 by the bite of a venomous animal ; in spite of the immediate 
 application of remedies, the wound continued painful for a 
 long time, and the person lost the use of his limb for more 
 than a month. (Van der Ho3ven.) 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SCORPIONS. 
 
 Scorpions belong to the class Arachnida, to the order Pedi- 
 palpi, and to the family Scorpionidse. The head is confounded 
 with the thorax, the body is elongated, and the abdomen ter- 
 minates abruptly in a long tail, composed of six joints, of 
 which the last is reflected, and terminates in a hooked claw. 
 
 The Scorpions are characterised by their enormous palpi, of 
 which the first or basal joint has the form of a rounded concave 
 jaw, and at their termination a pair of pincers. 
 
 Beneath the body, near the commencement of the abdomen, 
 there are two peculiar appendages, called the combs. 1 These 
 organs consist of a stem or basal portion, composed of two 
 slender rods, closely united together, and a series of teeth, which 
 are attached to and are capable of moving on a corresponding 
 number of bulbs or marginal tubercles. Writers are not agreed 
 upon the uses of these curious appendages. Amoreux compares 
 them to a pair of ventral fins, and states that they move in 
 unison with the feet. Tulk thinks they are intended to trim 
 the palpi, the tarsi, and the end of the tail. Treviranus regards 
 them as venereal organs. Leon Dufour believes that they serve 
 to grasp and stimulate the genital organs. 
 
 The Scorpions inhabit warm climates ; they are not found on 
 mountains, or where the sub-alpine plants grow. (L. Dufour.) 
 They live on the ground, under stones and pieces of wood, in 
 dark, moist situations. They frequent the cellars and under- 
 ground parts of houses. They only emerge from their hiding- 
 places in the evening or at night time. 
 
 These creatures feed upon wood-rlice, spiders, and small in- 
 sects. They are especially carnivorous animals, even devouring 
 their own 'species, the old ones eating the young. The Scor- 
 pions move slowly and deliberately, carrying their clawed palpi 
 stretched out in front of them, as if feeling for any obstacles 
 
 1 Pectines duo subtus inter pectus et abdomen. (Linn.) 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 271 
 
 that may be in their way. The tail is then straight, and trails 
 along the ground. When they are irritated the palpi are imme- 
 diately retracted, for the purpose of defending the head ; at the 
 same time the tail is curved on to the back, and becomes rigid. 
 The animal vibrates the poison spine backwards and forwards 
 in front of its mouth, prepared to strike at any moment. At 
 first the Scorpions retreat backwards, like the crabs and some 
 of the spiders, but they soon advance with boldness and impe- 
 tuosity. The extremity of the tail is provided with a number 
 of strong muscles, which provide for it various movements. 
 These animals possess both strength and courage. A small 
 Scorpion will often attack and destroy a spider larger than 
 itself. It seizes it with one or both of its claws, and then 
 strikes it on the head. If the spider endeavours to surround 
 the Scorpion with its threads, when the latter has killed the 
 spider, he cuts off all its feet with its pincers, and conveys the 
 mutilated body to his mouth, and either eats it entire or sucks 
 the soft parts, and then abandons the carcase. (Adanson.) 
 
 Small birds which have been wounded by a Scorpion stagger, 
 tremble, appear to be suffocating, and turn round as if they 
 were giddy. They soon fall down, become convulsed, and die. 
 Dogs have been known to perish in about five hours, after a 
 general swelling of the body, vomitings, and convulsions. 
 (Adanson.) 
 
 The males are smaller than the females ; the penis is double, 
 and placed near the combs. The females have two vulvae. 
 During copulation they are placed upon their backs. 
 
 The eggs are 40 (Redi) or 60 (L. Dufour) in number. The 
 period of gestation lasts a year. The animal is ovoviviparous. 
 During the first few days the female carries her young on her 
 back. 
 
 1. SPECIES. The principal species are 1. The Common; 
 2. the Palmated; 3. the Red; 4. the African Scorpion. The 
 following is a summary of their characters : 
 
 2 pairs (9 teeth) ...... 1. Common Scorpion. 
 
 5 pairs (13 teeth) ...... 4. African Scorpion. 
 
 The Common European Scorpion 1 (fig. 88) is common in the 
 whole of the South of France. It is an inch and a half in 
 length. It is of a more or less dark brown colour. 
 
 1 Scorpio Europceus, Linn., Sc. Jlavicuudus, Geer. 
 
 i 
 
272 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Fig. 88. Common Scorpion. 
 
 The palmated Scorpion 1 inhabits Algeria ; it is about the 
 same colour as the common species. 
 
 The red Scorpion* is found 
 at Souvignargues, Cette, Nar- 
 bonne, and Port Vendres. It 
 is met with most frequently in 
 the vegetable zone which in- 
 cludes the olive. It is from 3 
 to 3i inches in length ; it is of 
 a clear yellow colour, with the 
 spine of the tail of a blackish 
 colour. This species is remark- 
 able for the number of teeth on the combs, there being from 
 thirty to thirty-three. 
 
 The African Scorpion 3 is peculiar to Algeria. It is six 
 inches long, and of a blackish brown colour. 
 
 2. POISON APPABATUS (fig. 89). This terrible instrument 
 of the Scorpion occupies the last joint of the 
 tail (in canda venenum). It consists of a 
 dilated portion and a spine. 
 
 The dilated portion, improperly called 
 ampulla, is a kind of oval knot covered with 
 a few hairs ; it is convex below, and has a 
 slight medium longitudinal groove ; at this 
 part there is a kind of raphe, which indi- 
 cates the line of separation between the 
 two glands which secrete the poison. When 
 an incision is carefully made at this part, 
 the dilated portion may be penetrated with- 
 out injury to its contents, in consequence of 
 a very delicate, almost linear, space which 
 separates the internal parts. (L. Dufour.) 
 
 The dilatation is formed by two closely approximated sub- 
 hemispherical bodies ; that is to say, they are flat on the side 
 which is next the central space, and convex on the opposite 
 side. Each of these bodies is drawn out into a slender neck 
 towards the spine. 
 
 These bodies have been supposed to be hollow capsules, 
 
 1 Sc. palmatus, Ehr., Buthus palmatus, Koch. 
 
 * Sc. Occitanus, Amor., Buthus Occitanus, Leach; commonly called the 
 white or yellow Scorpion. 
 
 * Scorpio Tunetanus, Redi, Sc. Afer, partim Linn., Sc. funestus, Ehr. 
 This and the preceding species belong to the section Andronectus. 
 
 4 A t spine and dilatation containing the poison ; B, section of the dilata- 
 tion towards its centre, showing the two glands surrounded by a muscular 
 coat. 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 Glands and Spine. 
 
POISONOUS INSECTS. 273 
 
 whose walls are composed of a multitude of minute glands, 
 closely impacted together, and communicating with each other. 
 M. Leon Dufour, however, asserts that they are solid, and con- 
 sist of a white opaque fibro-cartilaginous structure. He adds, 
 that when carefully torn, four or five vessels may be seen, 
 principally in the convex portion ; some of these are simple, 
 others of them are branched and ramify between the muscles. 
 These vessels, of which it is not easy to determine the precise 
 distribution, are not simple markings, as the mere inspection of 
 them might lead one to suppose, since they can be raised up 
 with the point of a needle. They all converge to a central or 
 median trunk, which gradually narrows as it enters the neck. 
 They are therefore secreting organs with regard to their 
 branches, and excretory organs as regards their trunk. The 
 latter part is composed of an external contractile coat, contain- 
 ing an elastic tube, which may be traced into the spine. 
 (L. Dufour.) 
 
 Jean Muller discovered a layer of flat, smooth, muscular fas- 
 ciculi around these bodies. M. Blanchard has given a drawing 
 of these fibres, which are directed from before backwards. 
 
 The spine is a kind of strong terminal claw, which is elon- 
 gated, slightly curved, and very pointed. 1 Near the point, and 
 somewhat towards the under surface, are two small openings 2 
 of an oblong form, obtuse next the point, and narrowed at the 
 opposite extremity. These openings appear to be rather closer 
 to each other on the convex than on the concave margin. 
 
 M. Leon Dufour believes that each gland is provided with 
 an excretory canal, and that the two, passing parallel to each 
 other, terminate separately in one of the small apertures of the 
 spine. M. Blanchard states that there is only one canal for 
 the two glands. The delicate dissections and accurate drawings 
 of this skilful anatomist leave no doubt that such is the case. 
 
 When the Scorpion is about to strike, an exceedingly minute 
 drop of the poison is seen to exude at the extremity of the 
 spine, the discharge taking place before this is introduced 
 into the flesh of the victim ; but the secretion becomes more 
 abundant when the point meets with the resisting body. 
 (Blanchard.) The poison is expelled by the contraction of the 
 surrounding muscular fibres. 
 
 1 Mucro arcuatus, Linn. 
 
 * Galen did not consider that the spine of the Scorpion was perforated. 
 Leeuwenhoek, ValliKneri, Ghedini, and Linnaeus mention three apertures ; 
 Mead and Maupertuis saw very distinctly two lateral openings in the red 
 Scorpion, 
 
 T 
 
274 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 3. ACTION ON MAN. The wound of the Scorpion generally 
 produces a dark red spot, which gradually enlarges and becomes 
 black in the centre. This spot lasts for seven or eight days, 
 rarely as long as a fortnight. Ambrose Pare has accurately de- 
 scribed the effects of one of these wounds. " There comes on," 
 he says, " an inflammation in the wounded part, accompanied 
 with much redness, pain, and swelling. The patient has sweats 
 and chills, like a person attacked with fever, and a creeping 
 sensation over the surface of the body. 
 
 The experiments of Redi, Fallopius, Morgagni, and Amoreux, 
 have shown that the Scorpions of Europe are not dangerous. 
 The common species only produces local and trifling dis- 
 turbances. 
 
 The red, which is larger, produces more serious effects. 
 Maupertuis killed a dog in five hours by causing him to be 
 bitten under the belly. 
 
 If we are to believe Dr. Maccari, who has had the courage 
 to experiment upon himself, severe and even fatal consequences 
 may ensue in man. The poison of the last species is more 
 active in proportion to the age of the animal. 
 
 It will be readily supposed, from what has been said, that 
 the African Scorpion, which is remarkable for its great size, 
 can inflict serious wounds. Mallet de la Brossiere witnessed 
 alarming symptoms in two persons who were wounded at Tunis. 
 The symptoms generally consist of pain and swelling in the 
 wounded part, vomiting, accompanied with fever and a nervous 
 trembling. 
 
 Dr. Guyon has related several cases which were followed by 
 death in Algeria. It should be mentioned that in these cases 
 the wound occurred on the head. 
 
 Bontius declares that the wound of the great Scorpion of 
 India, a species which is often confounded with that of Africa, 
 but which is much larger, produces insanity. 
 
 According to M. Cassan, at St. Lucia, in the torrid zone, 
 there is a large Scorpion whose poison causes death in a very 
 short time. 
 
 It may be stated generally that Scorpions are dangerous in 
 proportion to their size, their age, the state of irritation they 
 may be in, and the temperature of the climate in which they 
 reside. The wounds, however, even of the largest species are 
 rarely fatal. 
 
POISONOUS INSECTS. 275 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 HYMENOPTEBA. 
 
 THE poisonous Hymenoptera are 1. The Sees; 2. The 
 Humble Bees; 3. The Wasps. The Bees and the Humble Bees 
 belong to the family Mellifera, and the Wasps 1 to the Diploptera. 
 
 I. Bees. 
 
 The Common or Honey Bee, Apis Mellifica, Linn., has already 
 been mentioned when speaking of honey and wax. 2 
 
 1. POISON APPARATUS (fig. 90). This apparatus is only 
 
 Fig. 90. Poison Apparatus. 3 
 present in the females and in the workers ; the males are not 
 
 1 The Scoliidcf, the Pompelini, and the other Hymenoptcra furnished with 
 a .-tiiiir, nuiv also attack man. 
 
 2 See p. 196. 
 
 3 A, extremity of the abdomen, with the sting retracted ; a, sting in its 
 eue : l>. its base, composed of cartilage and muscles; /?. poison apparatus; 
 a, poison glands: 6, poison reservoir; c, its excretory canal ; dd, extremities 
 of the two darts forming the sting ; e, the darts conjoined ; f, sheath of the 
 sting opened above ; g, scaly appendages forming together a cleft piece ; 
 
 T2 
 
276 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 provided with it. The ancients believed that they were pro- 
 vided with a sting, but that they disdained to make use of it. 
 
 The poison apparatus consists of glands for secreting the 
 poison, and of a sting for its inoculation. In order to under- 
 stand the structure of these organs, the extremity of the 
 abdomen must be carefully dissected. 
 
 Glands. These organs are two in number, having the form 
 of simple flexible tubes terminating in a blind extremity; 4 their 
 ultimate structure resembles that of the salivary glands. . Each 
 of these bodies gives rise to a small canal ; these canals unite 
 together and form a single very tortuous duct, which opens into 
 the reservoir ; this is a tolerably large oblong fusiform sac, some- 
 times slightly constricted in its centre, and provided with very 
 thin muscular membranes and contractile walls. At the oppo- 
 site extremity of the reservoir is an excretory canal, which 
 leads to the base of the sting . 
 
 Sting. This is placed at the posterior extremity of the body. 
 
 When not in use the sting is completely enclosed in the 
 abdomen ; it can be protruded and retracted at the will of the 
 animal, and can also be moved in any given direction so as to 
 encounter the object which the insect is desirous of stinging. 
 
 The sting of a Bee has been accurately described by Swam- 
 merdam and E-eaumur ; it is composed of 1, a base ; 2, a case; 
 3, a dart. 
 
 1. The base consists of several cartilaginous pieces ; Swam- 
 merdam reckons eight, and Reaumur six. Audouin observes 
 that the latter writer overlooked two pieces which had been 
 described by Swammerdam. M. Dumeril has recognized the 
 presence of a ninth piece placed on the median line, and 
 having the form of the letter V. The branches of the latter 
 piece are directed forwards and articulated with the case; 
 their office is, possibly, to draw the latter inwards. The other 
 eight pieces are arranged four on each side ; they are united 
 together by a strong membrane, and the whole constitutes a 
 kind of envelope, which, by its external circumference, is at- 
 tached to the last segment of the abdomen, while its internal 
 surface surrounds the sting. Connected with the eight pieces 
 are four muscles, two of which are protractors, and two 
 retractors. 
 
 h A, eight cartilaginous pieces which support the base of the darts and 
 attach them to the abdomen ; 1 1, protractor and retractor muscles of these 
 pieces ; A, extremity of a dart magnified to show the point and the teeth 
 placed along its outer edge. 
 1 In some neighbouring genera the tubular glands are ramified. 
 
POISONOUS INSECTS. 277 
 
 Belonging also to the base of the sting are two long whitish 
 membranous appendages, each of which is grooved, accompanies 
 the sheath, and partly covers it. Swammerdam considers that 
 these bodies are destined to move the case inwards and out- 
 wards. Reaumur believes that they prevent the soft parts of 
 the abdomen from coming in contact with the case, and vice 
 versa. 
 
 2. The case is a horny covering, dilated towards its base, 
 and gradually diminishing to the extremity, which is very 
 pointed. The case is incomplete ; that is to say, it does not 
 form a perfectly closed cylinder 5 it is a half canal, or is grooved, 
 longitudinal, and inferiorly. 
 
 3. The dart is a double organ; it consists of two long 
 delicate setae, which are received into the case, but do not 
 entirely fill it ; they are placed close to each other on their 
 inner surfaces, which are smooth, but traversed throughout 
 their entire length by a delicate groove. The apices are 
 extremely pointed, and furnished on their outer edges with 
 ten small teeth directed from before backwards. These seta3 
 separate and diverge towards the base; they are articulated 
 with the cartilaginous pieces ; they are accompanied on their 
 under surface by the case, which also divides into two branches. 
 
 2. ACTION ON MAN. Wound. When aJBee wishes to make 
 use of its weapon, it protrudes its sting by the contraction of 
 the muscles which attach it to the last segment of the abdo- 
 men. The case, which is pointed, penetrates the body which is 
 attacked, and thus furnishes a point of resistance to the base. 
 The muscles of the latter act upon the setae, w r hich are buried 
 deeper in the skin, and are sometimes so firmly fixed by means 
 of their teeth, that when the animal wishes to escape, the 
 whole of the sting is torn from its body and mutilates the 
 rectum and the oviduct ; the sting then remains in the wound, 
 and the animal soon dies. In the act of penetration, the sting 
 has a quivering motion, which lasts for some minutes. (Kunz- 
 maun.) 
 
 If the sting merely caused a puncture of the skin, the 
 wound would not be followed by any injurious effects ; but the 
 instrument discharges a certain quantity of poison. The 
 n-srrvoir containing the poison contracts, and its contents are 
 driven along the excretory canal, and enter the space produced 
 by the divergence of the setae at their base ; it then passes 
 along the canal formed between the setae, and by that means 
 enters the wound. 
 
 That it is the poison of the Bee, and not merely the wound, 
 
278 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 which produces the pain and inflammation in the part, is proved 
 by taking a small quantity of the fluid on the point of a 
 needle and inserting it into the skin, when the same symptoms 
 are immediately produced as those which arise from the wound 
 made by the See itself. (Audouin.) 
 
 Dr. Kunzmann has noticed that when the abdomen has 
 been cut oif from a live See, twelve hours afterwards, the 
 least touch is sufficient to cause the sting to protrude with 
 the same force and rapidity as if the animal was still alive, and 
 the person may be wounded just as effectually as when that 
 is the case. 
 
 The effect of the bite is usually slight, consisting of only 
 transient pain ; sometimes, however, it causes swellings, papil- 
 lary eruptions, erysipelas, and even a phlegmonous inflamma- 
 tion, followed by suppuration and gangrene. When the sting 
 remains in the wound, the irritation appears to be much 
 greater than at other times. 
 
 Fabrice, of Hilden, relates the case of a young girl who was 
 wounded near the ear ; the swelling extended over the head, 
 and was followed by an abscess. 
 
 Zacutus saw the sting of a See produce gangrene around 
 the wound. 
 
 In the Raccoglitore medico di Fano is recorded the case of 
 a man, thirty-six years of age, of a sanguine temperament, and 
 athletic form, who was stung by three or four Sees on the 
 back of the hand ; immediately his sight became dim, he lost 
 his strength, and his body was covered with a profuse perspi- 
 ration ; the face was greatly injected, there were violent pains in 
 the head, a feeling of oppression, with general disturbance of 
 the system, and the fear of death. He was put to bed, and an 
 eruption of small vesicles, similar to those produced by a 
 nettle, broke out on the lower extremities, accompanied with in- 
 flammation and intense fever ; in an hour afterwards all these 
 symptoms disappeared as if by magic. 
 
 Debrest, de .Gusset, mentions the case of a villager, about 
 thirty years of age, who was stung by a See below the eyebrow ; 
 he fell to the ground, his face became inflamed, and, after 
 losing a large quantity of blood from the nose, died in a few 
 minutes. Is this case well authenticated ? 
 
 It may be readily supposed that if a person is wounded by 
 several Sees at once, if, for instance, he should be attacked by 
 a swarm, that the results might be serious. (Amoreux.) 
 
 In the Archives Generates de Medicine, is the case of a man 
 
POISONOUS INSECTS. 279 
 
 who died after being wounded by a number of Sees on the 
 chest and face. 1 
 
 At the siege of Massa, the crusaders were attacked by 
 swarms of Sees, which the besieged threw upon them with 
 their hives. This novel kind of foe greatly incommoded the 
 besiegers. 
 
 Kunzmann recommends that in extracting the sting imme- 
 diately after it has been inserted it should not be taken hold 
 of by the dilated extremity of the sheath, which is always filled 
 with poison, and would therefore communicate more of it to 
 the wound ; it should be grasped below this part without com- 
 pressing it as it is drawn from below upwards. 
 
 II. Humble Bee. 
 
 The Humble Bees are larger than the Bees, and are remark- 
 able for their transverse upper lip, and for their false pro- 
 boscis, which is shorter than the body. The principal species 
 are the Lapidary or Red-tailed Bee ; the Moss or Carder Bee ; 
 and the Common Humble Bee. 
 
 The Red-tailed Bee, Bombus lapidarius, has the body black, 
 with the last three segments of the abdomen red ; it makes its 
 nest on the ground, at the bottom of old walls and between 
 tones. 
 
 The Moss or Carder Bee, Bombus muscorum, is of a yellow 
 colour, with the hairs of the thorax of a fawn colour. 
 
 The Common Humble Bee, Bombus terrestris, is black, with 
 the posterior portion of the thorax and base of the abdomen 
 yellow; the thorax is black, with a bright yellow band 
 anteriorly ; the basal segment of the abdomen black, second 
 yellow, third black, and the three posterior ones white. 
 
 The sting of these insects is more powerful than that of the 
 Bee, and occasions more pain and severe inflammation. The 
 poison glands are not single, but double. 
 
 In 1679, several persons in Poland were stung by large 
 Humble Bees ; the wounds produced swellings and inflamma- 
 tion, which could only be arrested by deep scarification. 
 
 III. Wasps. 
 
 The Wasps have their lower lip the same length as their 
 mandibles, and their wings are folded up when in a state of 
 repose. The two species which are to be guarded against in 
 France [and also in England] are the Common Wasp and the 
 Hornet. 
 
 1 Dr. Kunzmann mentions the death of a horse. 
 
280 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The Common Wasp, Vespa vulgaris, is rather less than an 
 inch in length ; it is of a black colour, with yellow in front of 
 the head, and a black spot in the middle ; it has several yellow 
 spots on the thorax, and a band of the same colour, with 
 three black spots on the posterior margin of each segment. 
 
 The Hornet, Vespa Orabro, is more than an inch in length ; 
 the head is of a fawn colour, with yellow in front ; the thorax 
 black, marked with spots of a fawn colour; the abdominal 
 segments of a blackish brown, with a yellow band with two 
 or three black spots. 
 
 The pain from the sting of the Wasp is sharp, but that from 
 the Hornet is very severe. (Amoreux.) 
 
 Reaumur tested the effect of these insects on himself and on 
 his servant. " Being stung by a Wasp" says this celebrated 
 naturalist, "I thought I might gain something from his 
 infliction by bearing it with a good grace. I allowed the 
 animal to wound me at his leisure ; when he had withdrawn 
 his sting of his own accord, I irritated and placed him on 
 the hand of a domestic, who was not expecting to be 
 stung, but the wound did not cause him much pain. I 
 then made the Wasp sting me a second time, when I 
 scarcely felt it. The poisonous fluid was nearly exhausted 
 by the former experiments, and I could not induce the 
 Wasp to make a fourth wound. This experiment, and some 
 others, which people will probably not care to repeat, have 
 taught me that where the animals are undisturbed the sting 
 is never left in the wound. The sting is flexible, and is not 
 driven straight in, but forms a curved or zigzag wound. If 
 the insect is compelled to withdraw it suddenly, the friction 
 is sufficient to retain the sting, which is somewhat hooked, and 
 tears it oft". On the other hand, if the animal is not disturbed 
 it withdraws the sting gradually. The sting of the Hornet is 
 more severe than that of the Wasp ; in this country, however, 
 it is not of that importance which it is represented by some 
 writers, who prescribe for it all the remedies which they make 
 use of against the most dangerous poisons." 
 
 A lady, says Eicherand, was wounded by a Hornet on the 
 middle finger of the left hand. The pain was very severe ; in 
 a few moments her whole body was swollen ; the skin became 
 inflamed and covered with wheals, and a violent fever set in. 
 Cabanis treated the patient successfully. In a few hours the 
 swelling, redness, and fever subsided. On the fourth day, 
 nothing remained of all this disturbance, but a small black 
 spot which marked the situation of the wound. 
 
ANIMAL POISONS. 281 
 
 Haldanus relates a case where the wound of a Wasp, on the 
 hand, was followed by a total prostration of strength and 
 desquamation over the whole surface of the body. 
 
 Lansoni speaks of a woman who was wounded on the cheek, 
 and had, in consequence, an ulcer, which lasted for three 
 months. 
 
 Facts of this kind are far from common, and cases of death 
 are still more rare. 
 
 In 1776 a gardener at Nancy, when eating an apple, which 
 contained a Wasp, was bitten on the soft palate. It produced 
 a violent inflammation, pain, and great swelling. The man 
 died in a few hours. 
 
 Chaumeton mentions the case of a young man who was 
 wounded in the throat by a Wasp, which he had not perceived, at 
 the bottom of a glass. The effects were exceedingly rapid. 
 The throat inflamed, and the young man died suffocated. 
 
 In a communication from Montbard to the Patrie, of 
 September 19th, 1858, it is stated, that "the youngest son of 
 M. L., a brickmaker, died from the sting of a Wasp. The un- 
 fortunate youth, who was sixteen years of age, was drinking 
 from a bottle, when a Wasp, which he had not seen, got into 
 his throat and wounded him. He died suffocated from the 
 swelling, which ensued before any assistance could be pro- 
 cured." 
 
 Some of the cases which are related of severe injuries arising 
 from the sting of the Bee are no doubt to be referred to those 
 of the Wasp and Hornet. 
 
 It is an old saying that the stings of twenty-seven Wasps 
 are sufficient to kill a man, and those of six Hornets a horse. 1 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 ANIMAL POISONS. 
 
 THESE poisons are fluids secreted by special glands and 
 provide the animal with the means of attack or defence. 
 
 A poison differs from a virus, in the latter being a morbid 
 and accidental formation, transmitting the original disease from 
 one individual to another, and which is reproduced by the 
 disease it has occasioned. 
 
 Poixons are diminished in intensity during their action, which 
 
 1 Several writers have related the case of a mare and her foal being de- 
 stroyed by a swarm of Wasjts which the former had disturbed from near 
 the bush to which she was fastened. 
 
282 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 is always more or less prompt ; they are decomposed in the 
 production of their specific effects. A virus remains for some 
 time in a state of apparent inaction, to acquire after a longer 
 or shorter time its greatest intensity ; it increases in viru- 
 lence by the production of its morbid effects. 1 
 
 The ancients supposed that in poisonous animals there were 
 two poles of antagonism, one of which was seated in the poison 
 apparatus, the other in the head. Charras pretends that the 
 disorder produced by the Viper consisted principally in its 
 opening the door to the irritated spirits. 
 
 The various poisons are not identical; there are probably 
 several kinds ; some, even in very small quantities, produce 
 great pain, while others cause only a very slight amount of 
 pain. The danger of their inoculation is not in proportion to 
 the ill effects they give rise to. Some act upon the entire 
 organism, while others act only locally. There are those which 
 are almost invariably fatal; while others only cause trifling 
 disorders. 
 
 Some writers have asserted that each poison according to its 
 nature acts on a particular system of organs. The ancients 
 believed that the poison of the Asp was somniferous. Fon- 
 tana maintains that that of the Viper acts on the nervous 
 system, and coagulates the blood. According to MM. Brainard 
 and Burnett, that of the Crotalus disorganises the blood glo- 
 bules, and renders the blood more liquid. According to 
 Amoreux that of insects more especially affects the skin. 
 
 In all cases the poisoning when it is virulent commences in 
 the neighbourhood of the wound, from whence it spreads and 
 becomes general. Death sometimes occurs very rapidly 
 (Orotalus). In other cases it only takes place after a longer 
 or shorter interval (Viper). Whatever may be the rapidity 
 of the poisoning it is never instantaneous. There requires a 
 certain time for the effects to be developed either in the part 
 which was bitten or in the system generally. 
 
 The action of these poisons varies very much according to 
 circumstances which serves to explain some of the contradictions 
 that are met with in different writers. Their action appears 
 to be increased by an increase in the temperature, 2 by the 
 
 1 Linnaeus defines a poison as follows : " VENENUM est quod perexigua dos 
 corpori humano ingestum aut extus admotum, vi quadam peculiar^ effectus 
 producit violentissimos, qui in perniciem sanitatis et vitas tendunt." (Exanth. 
 xiv.) 
 
 2 It is stated that in France the Viper is more to be dreaded in summer 
 than in autumn. 
 
ANIMAL POISONS. 283 
 
 vigour and anger of the animal, and also at the period of heat. 
 It is, on the contrary, diminished by cold, by weakness, by age, 
 and by disease, and also when several wounds have been inflicted. 
 
 The poisons are harmless when taken into the stomach, but 
 they are dangerous when introduced by inoculation. The 
 ancients were aware of this distinction. Celsus distinctly says 
 that no injury arises from swallowing these poisons. 1 This fact 
 was, however, only clearly established by the experiments 
 of B/edi, Fontana, and Charras. It is also well known that 
 boars and herons habitually feed upon Vipers without ex- 
 periencing any inconvenience from it. 
 
 The poisons do not lose their properties by drying. 2 Mangili 
 killed pigeons with poison which had been dry for eighteen 
 months. Naturalists and others with good reason dread 
 wounds which might be caused by the fangs of the Crotalus or 
 the Viper long after the animals have been dead. 
 
 It is believed that immersion in alcohol does not destroy the 
 noxious properties of the poison. M. Joly killed sparrows by 
 wounding them with the fangs of a Viper, which had been pre- 
 served in spirits. It appears, however, that long immersion in 
 this fluid ultimately destroys the poisonous properties. Duver- 
 noy having taken some of the poison from a Crotalus durissus, 
 preserved in a jar, on the end of a lancet, and having introduced 
 it under the skin of the ear and thigh of a rabbit, no effects 
 were produced. 
 
 1. OPHIDIANS. The poisons of the Ophidia are the most 
 terrible and the best known. 
 
 That of the Viper was first thoroughly investigated by Eon- 
 tana, who made more than six thousand experiments in reference 
 to this subject. 
 
 The quantity of poison contained in each apparatus of the 
 Viper was estimated by Fontana at something more than ^ of 
 a grain, or a grain and a half for the two. M. Tandon calcu- 
 lates that there is as much as one grain in each. Into every 
 wound the animal discharges about -^ of a grain of the poison. 
 
 The poison of the Viper (venenum Viperai) when fresh has 
 something of an oleaginous consistence. Bedi compares it to oil 
 of sweet almonds. The poison is almost colourless, slightly 
 opalescent by reflected light, or of a pale yellow colour. That 
 
 1 " Venenum serpentis non gustu, ted vulnere nocet." (Celsus.) Galen 
 relates the case of a man whose servant was wishing to kill him gave him 
 wine in which he had steeped a Viper, and this cured him of his disease. 
 
 1 M. Paul Gervais, however, states that he wounded a young dog with the 
 fangs of a dried Crotalus, and that they produced no poisonous effects. 
 
284 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 of the different species of Crotalus is green, and that of the 
 Javelin snake transparent. (Gruyon.) 
 
 At the moment of its secretion the poison of serpents is 
 neither acid nor alkaline. According, however, to Dr. Rous- 
 seau, that of a Crotalus slightly reddens the tincture of turnsole. 
 
 The poison of the Viper has no distinct flavour. According 
 to some it is at first insipid, but afterwards leaves a somewhat 
 astringent taste in the fauces : according to others it possesses 
 an intolerable acridity, which it is difficult to describe. 1 It has 
 scarcely any odour. It falls to the bottom of water, in which it 
 preserves its viscidity for some time, but is ultimately dissolved. 
 When dried on a plate of glass it looks like a layer of gum full 
 of cracks. 
 
 In the dried state the poison dissolves in water ; but it is in- 
 soluble in sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, which only acts 
 partially upon it, and it assumes the condition of a liquid paste. 
 It acts in the same manner with regard to nitric acid, except that 
 it becomes somewhat yellower. The vegetable acids, the alkalies 
 and oils, do not dissolve it. When heated it does not melt, but 
 swells up, and becomes thick. Placed in contact with flame 
 it does not ignite ; when thrown upon red-hot charcoal, it only 
 burns when it has become carbonised in the same manner as 
 occurs with vegetable matters. 
 
 Prince Lucien Bonaparte has shown that the poison of the 
 Viper consists essentially of a principle to which he has given 
 the name echidnine or viperine. This principle presents itself 
 under the appearance of a colourless, transparent, and rather 
 thick varnish. It has no smell or positive flavour. It does not 
 redden the tincture of turnsole, nor does it render the syrup of 
 violets green. It has some resemblance to gum Arabic ; but 
 it contains nitrogen. Dissolved in a solution of caustic potash, 
 the hydrated binoxide of copper turns it of a beautiful violet 
 colour, a phenomenon which also occurs with gelatine and 
 albumen. 
 
 The poison of the Viper appears to act much more powerfully 
 on man than on animals. 
 
 * It is injurious to all the warm-blooded vertebrata. The 
 larger species do not die, but the small generally succumb. 
 Thus the horse 2 almost always resists it, the sheep often, the 
 
 1 M. L.-A. de Montesquieu asserts that he has tasted it several times 
 without ever finding that it had any distinct taste. 
 
 2 Bosc mentions the case of two horses which were bitten in America by 
 the black Viper, the one on the leg, the other in the tongue. The first 
 
ANIMAL POISONS. 285 
 
 cat sometimes, 1 a pigeon dies in eight or ten minutes, and a 
 sparrow in five. 8 
 
 The animals which are bitten in the chest, abdomen, liver, or 
 intestines die in a short space of time. 
 
 Animals wounded in the ears, the head, the periosteum, the 
 dura-mater, the brain, the marrow of the bones, the cornea, or 
 stomach, seldom manifest any appreciable phenomena. 
 
 When the poison of the Viper is applied lightly to the 
 abraided skin of a rabbit or a guinea pig, it is not followed by 
 death ; applied to the muscular fibre or to the nerves, it pro- 
 duces no effect. 
 
 The poison of two Vipers injected into the jugular vein of a 
 large rabbit produced death in less than two minutes, after 
 giving rise to cries and convulsions. The blood becomes 
 coagulated in the ventricles of the heart. The mysentery, the 
 intestines, and the muscles of the abdomen are inflamed. 
 
 The poison of the Viper does not produce any appreciable 
 change when applied to the warm and palpitating parts which 
 have been removed from an animal. 
 
 The coldblooded vertebrata resist the effects of the poison 
 longer than the warmblooded. A lizard died at the end of half 
 an hour ; in the tortoise death ensues very slowly in whatever 
 part the animal may be bitten. The common snake and the 
 slow-worm are not affected by it. It is the same with the eel, 
 the snail, and the leech. 
 
 A Viper wounded by another Viper does not die. A Viper 
 which sends its fangs into its lower jaw or any other part of its 
 body, does not appear to be inconvenienced by it. 3 
 
 What is the quantity of the Viper's poison which is requisite 
 to kill a man ? The two hundredth part of a grain inserted 
 into the muscles is sufficient to destroy a small bird almost in- 
 stantaneously ; it takes six times as much to kill a pigeon. 
 Fontana calculated that it requires more than two grains to 
 produce death in man. 4 As the whole apparatus only contains 
 
 escaped with a swelling, which lasted for some days, and a weakness which 
 continued for some weeks ; the second died in less than an hour. 
 
 1 Is it true, as stated by Lenz, that the Hedgehog may be bitten with 
 impunity on the snout and lips, and even on the tongue] 
 
 * Fontana says that small animals die in from fifteen to twenty seconds. 
 
 * The bite of a Javelin Snake is equally harmless to himself. (Guyon.) 
 A case is mentioned of a Rattle Snake dying from the effects of his own 
 bite. (Halm.) 
 
 4 And eight for an ox. 
 
286 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 two grains, 1 and that each wound only introduces the -^ of a 
 grain, it would follow that a person might be bitten by several 
 Vipers without dying, and that one could never cause death : 
 this, however, is contrary to what has been observed. It has 
 been shown that under certain circumstances a single wound 
 may be fatal. The calculation of Fontana is, therefore, 
 excessive. 
 
 The poison of Serpents has been recommended in America as 
 a remedial agent ; it has been pretended, that persons who 
 were inoculated with it were secure against the yellow fever 
 and the black vomit. Peyrilhe states, that the poison of the 
 Viper has been tried in hydrophobia. He somewhat amusingly 
 adds, " this remedy should only be used with the consent of 
 the patient and the approval of the magistrate." M. Desmartis, 
 of Bordeaux, submitted to the Academy of Sciences a memoir 
 on the employment of poisons in medicine. He also recom- 
 mends the bite of the Viper against hydrophobia. 
 
 2. AEACHNIDA. The poison of these animals has received 
 but little attention. Orfila places that of Spiders amongst the 
 list of septic poisons ; but he forms his opinion rather from its 
 effects than from its nature. 
 
 Fontana says, that of the Scorpion is white and viscid, and that 
 when it is placed upon the tongue it produces a sharp and 
 burning taste. This poison resembles gum. According to 
 M. Blanchard it holds in suspension irregular granules ; it is 
 acid, and reddens litmus paper. 
 
 According to Amoreux, it acts on the cold-blooded animals 
 in the same manner as on the other vertebrata. It has been 
 seen that this is not the case with the poison of the Serpents. 
 It is worthy of remark, that the poison of the Viper produces 
 but little suffering when it is introduced into the tissues, even 
 when it proves fatal, while that of the Araclinida occasions 
 more or less pain, but seldom kills. 
 
 M. Ozanam believes that he has recognized therapeutic pro- 
 perties in the poison of the Arachnida, and that it is sometimes 
 sudorific, and at other times anti-periodic. 
 
 3. INSECTS. Very little is known of the poison of the ttyme- 
 noptera. Swammerdam believed that this poison was the bile 
 of the animal. It is a clear, limpid fluid, which quickly coagu- 
 lates when exposed to the air. It does not alter vegetable 
 colours ; it appears to be slightly styptic. Swammerdam and 
 
 1 It has been previously mentioned that Fontana only estimated it at a 
 grain and a half. 
 
ANIMAL POISONS. 287 
 
 Ludovic, having placed some of the poison on the tongue, 
 experienced a bitter taste, which gradually became more acrid 
 and penetrating, extended over the whole of the mouth, as far 
 as the fauces, and produced a flow of saliva, as if they had been 
 chewing pellitory root. Fontana declares that this poison acts 
 on the tongue like a powerful caustic. Ludovic compares the 
 sensation to that which is produced by nitric acid on the skin. 
 Other writers describe it as a burning sensation. According 
 to Adanson, the poison of the Bee is more active in the summer 
 than in winter. 
 
 Humours analogous to Poisons. 
 
 The viscid exudation which lubricates the skin of the Toad, the 
 Triton, and the Salamander, is at present regarded as a species 
 of poison ; it appears to answer the purpose of repelling the 
 enemies of those animals by its nauseous odour and disagreeable 
 taste. 1 But these animals have no instrument for the inocula- 
 tion of the fluid, and at the same time it is so situated that they 
 cannot directly employ it as a means of attack and defence. 
 
 1. Toad. The humour of the common Toad, Sufo vulgaris, 
 is secreted by cutaneous glands or pustules placed on the back 
 and in the situation of the parotid gland. 
 
 This is a thick, viscid, milky fluid, with a slight yellow tint 
 and poisonous odour. It has a disagreeable, caustic, bitter 
 taste ; it reddens turmeric ; it solidifies on exposure to the air, 
 and when placed on a plate of glass it assumes a scaly appear- 
 ance. It is soluble in alcohol, which shows that it is not an 
 albuminous substance. According to Pelletier, it contains an 
 acid, partly free and partly combined with a base. It is this 
 acid to which it appears to owe its acrid properties. 
 
 In the experiments of MM. Gratiolet and Cloez, birds, such 
 as linnets and finches, which were inoculated with this fluid, 
 died in about six minutes, but without being convulsed. These 
 animals opened their beaks, and staggered as if in a state of 
 drunkenness ; they lost the power of co-ordinating their move- 
 ments. In a short time they closed their eyes, as if they were 
 going to sleep, and fell down dead. 
 
 These gentlemen ascertained that this fluid destroyed birds 
 even after it had been dried. Two milligrammes (j^j gr.-) 
 have destroyed a linnet in fifteen minutes. 
 
 It acts equally after its acid has been saturated with potash. 
 When a small quantity of the fluid is introduced beneath the 
 
 1 According to some writers it also serves to diminish the effect* of the 
 sun's rays. 
 
288 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 skin of smaller mammalia, such as the dog or goat, it kills them 
 in less than an hour. 
 
 M. Vulpian has repeated and varied these experiments with 
 the common Toad and Natter Jack Toad, Bufo calamita. He 
 experimented on dogs and G-uinea pigs, and proved that these 
 animals died in from half an hour to an hour and a half. The 
 symptoms which were noticed might be divided into several 
 stages 1st, a period of excitement ; 2nd, one of depression ; 
 3rd, vomiting or attempts at vomiting ; 4th, intoxication in the 
 dog, but convulsions in the Guinea pig, and then death. 
 
 The fluid of the Toad acts as a poison on frogs, and generally 
 kills them in the course of an hour. It is even sufficient if a 
 certain quantity of it is spread on the back of these animals. 
 The fluid has no action on the Toads themselves. 
 
 This fluid acts powerfully on the heart, and arrests its move- 
 ments. MM. Gratiolet and Cloez have noticed, in the dead 
 bodies of birds, the singular fact that the semicircular canals of 
 the ear are always filled with blood. 
 
 It is asserted that in certain countries the Indians hunt after 
 several species of Toads with pointed sticks. They transfix the 
 animals with these sticks, and when they have collected a con- 
 siderable quantity of them they place them before a large fire, 
 but at a sufficient distance to prevent their being roasted. The 
 heat excites the cutaneous secretion, which is collected by the 
 Indians as it is discharged from the pustules for the purpose of 
 poisoning their arrows. 
 
 2. Triton, or Aquatic Salamander, Triton cristatus. The 
 humour of this species is secreted by numerous follicles which 
 project along the sides of the neck, back, loins, and tail. When 
 these wart-like bodies are pressed the fluid comes out in drops. 
 The experiment succeeds better if the animal's body is pre- 
 viously dried by wiping it with a cloth. 
 
 The fluid is of a white colour, or of a very faint yellow, and 
 somewhat thicker than milk. It gives off a poisonous, pene- 
 trating, and disagreeable odour. When examined beneath the 
 microscope it appears to consist of a number of oval globules. 
 It thickens on exposure to the air, coagulates, and becomes of 
 a yellow colour. It dries rapidly, and when in the dry state 
 on a plate of glass, it appears cracked, like a thin layer of gum 
 Arabic. 1 It does not readily mk with water ; it will do so par- 
 
 1 If a Triton is killed by immersion in alcohol, the middle parts of its 
 body become covered with the milky fluid, which coagulates in the form 
 of a very thin layer. This coating is thickest on the sides of the neck and. 
 at the commencement of the tail. (H. Gosse.) 
 
POISONOUS ANIMALS. 289 
 
 tially, but soon forms an irregular coagulum. Alcohol coagu- 
 lates almost the whole of it. 1 When the fluid is placed on the 
 tongue, it does not at first produce any effect, but in the course 
 of a few minutes a burning sensation is felt in the fauces. 
 
 This fluid poisons much in the same manner as that of the 
 Toad, but it also produces violent convulsions. 
 
 With only a small quantity, M. Vulpian has succeeded in 
 killing dogs, Guinea pigs, and frogs. 
 
 This fluid acts less energetically than that of the Toad. 
 Death took place in frogs only at the end of from six to twelve 
 hours. When placed on the back of these animals it had no 
 effect. (Vulpian.) 
 
 Like the milky humour of the Toad, it acts powerfully on 
 the heart, but it does not destroy its irritability so completely 
 as the latter. 
 
 The humour of the Tritons appears to have a stupifying rather 
 than an exciting effect ; it does not produce either nausea or 
 vomiting. Lastly, it has no action on the Tritons themselves. 
 (Vulpian.) 
 
 M. Philipaux, whilst making some experiments on -the 
 Tritons, was suddenly attacked with inflammation of the con- 
 junctiva, which lasted for two days. 
 
 Two other persons, w r ho were wiping some Tritons, having 
 got some of the water in which these animals were placed on 
 their face and eyes, met with similar results. (Vulpian.) 
 
 3. Trrrrti/ridl Salamander, Salamandra maculata. This animal 
 produces a milky fluid, which is principally contained in the 
 warty tubercles on the loins. 
 
 The humour resembles that of the Tritons. 
 Lacepede says, that when a drop is placed upon the tongue 
 it causes a burning sensation. Duges performed some ex- 
 periments with this fluid. He gave pieces of bread and small 
 quantities of honey, mixed with the fluid, to doves and sparrows, 
 who eat them without experiencing any inconvenience. Duges 
 therefore concluded that the fluid is not poisonous; but if 
 the learned professor had administered the poison of the Viper 
 or the Crotalus to these animals in the same way, he would 
 have met with similar results. The injurious effects of the 
 humour of the Salamanders are only produced when it is ino- 
 culated into a wound, and so introduced into the circulation. 
 
 1 If a Triton is killed by immersion in alcohol, the middle portion of its 
 body becomes covered with the milky fluid, which coagulates in the form of 
 a very thin layer. This coating is thickest on the sides of the neck and at 
 the commencement of the tail. (H. Gosse.) 
 
 U 
 
290 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The experiments of MM. G-ratiolet and Cloez on the terres- 
 trial Salamander, and which have since been repeated by M. 
 Vulpian, leave no doubt as to the poisonous property of the 
 milky fluid which is furnished by this animal. 
 
 "When introduced beneath the skin of the wing or of the 
 thigh of a small bird, such as a lark, for instance, it does not 
 appear to act as a caustic. At first the animal seems not to 
 be inconvenienced by it, but in the course of two or three 
 minutes a singular disturbance is set up, the feathers are 
 bristled, the bird staggers, opens its beak, and snaps it convul- 
 sively. At the same time it becomes rigid, turns its head back- 
 wards, utters plaintive cries, is agitated, and after rolling over 
 several times it soon dies. (Gratiolet and Cloez.) 
 
 A Yellow Hammer, inoculated in the thigh, died in twenty- 
 two hours. A Chaffinch, inoculated under the wing, died in 
 twenty-five minutes ; a pigeon, in twenty ; other birds, in six 
 or seven minutes ; and a Yellow Hammer, in less than three 
 minutes. In general death occurs the more speedily in propor- 
 tion to the small quantity of blood which is lost. (Gratiolet 
 and Cloez.) 
 
 Experiments which have been tried on small mammalia have 
 not been attended with the same results. Gruinea pigs and 
 mice, which were inoculated in the thigh, in the course of ten 
 minutes manifested great anxiety. At times the respiration was 
 panting and painful. The animals continually fell off to sleep, 
 but this was interrupted by slight convulsions, resembling elec- 
 tric shocks. At the end of some hours these disturbances dis- 
 appeared, and the animals recovered their usual state of health. 
 Thus a quantity of the fluid which would have been sufficient 
 to destroy a dove, only produced slight temporary convulsions 
 in a mouse. But, a dove being much larger than a mouse, the 
 reason of this difference can only be referred to the nature and 
 organization of the animals acted upon. (Gratiolet and Cloez.) 
 In conclusion, all birds which were subjected to the action of 
 the fluid of this Salamander had epileptic convulsions, but did 
 not die. 
 
 The fluid of the Salamander is injurious to frogs, but pro- 
 duces no effect on the Salamanders themselves. (Vulpian.) 
 
 In general it appears to be less active than the fluid of the 
 Toads or Tritons. During the whole period of its action, the 
 disturbances of the heart are slight. 
 
EXTERNAL PARASITES. 291 
 
 BOOK VI. 
 EXTERNAL PARASITES OR EPIZOA. 
 
 As there are creatures termed Parasites, which live on the 
 surface or in the interior of other animals, feeding upon their 
 fluids, or upon the substance of their bodies, so, also, there are 
 some which live at the expense of man. 
 
 The human parasites are generally very small animals. Their 
 species are not numerous, but the number of the individuals is 
 sometimes appalling. . 
 
 At different periods considerable importance has been at- 
 tributed to these parasitic animals. An English medical writer 
 who lived at the commencement of the last century, imagined 
 that all diseases were to be referred to the presence of micro- 
 scopic animals. 1 M. Raspail has lately advocated the same 
 doctrine. 
 
 In medicine the title of Epizoa is given to those Parasites 
 which derive their nourishment from the skin ; they have also 
 been named Ectozoa or Ectoparasites. 
 
 Some of the Epizoa are born upon that part of the body on 
 which they reside (Lice), while others come from without 
 (Fleas). 
 
 The Epizoa may be divided into two series : 1st, those which 
 reside upon the surface of the skin ; 2nd, those which live in 
 the interior of it. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 EPIZOA LIVING ON THE SKIN. 
 
 THE Epizoa which live upon the skin are : 1, the Loiwe ; 2, 
 the Flea; 3, the Chigoe; 4, the Ticks; 5, the Argas ; 6, the 
 Harvest Bug. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 LICE. 
 
 THE genus Louse or Pedicultis belongs to the order Hemip- 
 tera, and to the family Rostrata. Its characters are antenna^ 
 
 1 In a summary of this work published by M. A. C. D., in 1726, there are 
 90 figures of insects, each of which it was imagined produced a different 
 
 u 2 
 
292 . MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 as long as the thorax ; a sucker inclosed in an inarticulated 
 sheath, and armed with retractile hooks ; eyes, simple one on 
 either side behind the antennae ; abdomen more or less notched 
 at its margins ; three pairs of feet, and no wings. 
 
 There are four species of Lice which infest the human sub- 
 ject: 1. Head louse; 2. Body louse; 3. Louse of sick per- 
 sons ; 4. Pubic louse. The following is a summary of their 
 characters : 
 
 !ash coloured (lobulated) . . I. Head louse. 
 whitish. Abdomen j ^ouf ^ 
 ~ 
 
 pq ~\ persons. 
 
 (rounded and confounded with thorax ... ... 4. Pubic louse. 
 
 1. HEAD LOTJSE (fig. 91). The head or common Louse 1 is 
 commonly known, and has been figured in various works. 
 
 This species, as its name implies, 
 is found on the head in people who 
 are neglectful of their person, and 
 especially in children. It is, how- 
 ever, never met with in very young 
 children, as, for example, in those 
 who have not been weaned. (Na- 
 talis Gruillot.) 
 
 The body of the insect is flat- 
 tened and somewhat transparent, 
 smooth in the centre, slightly wrin- 
 kled at the sides, and of an ashen 
 Fig. 91. Head Louse? grey colour, with patches of black 
 in the neighbourhood of the stig- 
 
 mata. When the animal is old or filled with food it has a red- 
 dish tinge. On each side, there is, generally, an indistinct 
 line divided into a number of small spots in the direction of the 
 segments. The head is ovo-rhomboidal and has no palpi. The 
 antennae are filiform, about the same length as the head, and 
 composed of five nearly equal joints ; they are in a state of con- 
 stant vibration when the animal is moving about. (De Geer.) 
 The eyes are simple, round, black, and placed very far behind the 
 antennae ; the thorax is nearly square, one fourth the length of 
 
 disease ; such as measles, rheumatism, gout, pleurisy, jaundice, and whit- 
 lows. With the exception of the itch insect, which appears to have been 
 drawn from nature, all the others are purely imaginary beings. 
 
 1 PediculuH capitis, De Geer, P. humanus. Linn., P. cervicalis, Leach. 
 
 2 A, female seen from the back ; Z?, extremity of the abdomen in the 
 male, showing its spur ; C, the egg or nit attached to a hair. 
 
EXTERNAL PARASITES. 293 
 
 the abdomen, rather narrower in front than behind, and divided 
 into three divisions by shallow indentations ; the limbs consist 
 of a hip composed of two pieces, a thigh, a leg, and a tarsus con- 
 sisting of one large joint. The tarsus terminates in a stout hook, 
 which is received into a notched projection ; the two together act 
 like a pair of pinchers, and enable the animal to fix itself to the 
 hairs. The abdomen is of an oral form, indented and lobulated 
 at its margins. There are eight segments and sixteen stigmata. 
 The tracheae are festooned, and may be seen through the 
 skin, forming a number of curves, which alternate with the 
 marginal lobes. Swammerdam suspected that Lice were andro- 
 gynous, in consequence of Jiis having found ovaries in all those 
 which he dissected. Adanson aud Lamarck fell into the same 
 error. It would appear that Swammerdam had only met with 
 the female. Leeuwenhoek determined the existence of the 
 two sexes. The males have at the extremity of the abdomen, 
 which is rounded, a horny, conical, recurved, pointed spur, 
 with which thev can inflict a wound. This spur seems to be 
 the sheath of trie genital organ. In the female the extremity 
 of the abdomen is grooved, and during copulation she places 
 herself on the back of the male. 
 
 Lice are oviparous, and their eggs, which are found attached 
 to the hairs, are termed nits (fig. 91, C). They are oblong or 
 rather slightly pyriform, of a white colour, and open at their 
 upper part. 
 
 The young are hatched in five or six days ; they ca^t their 
 skin several times, and, at the end of eighteen days, are capable 
 of reproduction. A Louse has been known to produce fifty 
 eggs in the course of six days, and there were others still re- 
 maining in its body. 1 According to a calculation of Leeuwen- 
 hoek's, two females might become the grandmothers of 10,000 
 lice in the space of eight weeks ; others have calculated that 
 the second generation of a single individual might furnish 
 2500 lice, and the third generation 125,000 ; but the usual rate 
 of reproduction does not advance with this frightful rapidity. 
 
 1. Mouth (fig. 92). In front of the head there is a short 
 conical fleshy projection, containing a sucker (Rostrum) , which 
 the animal can protrude and retract at pleasure. This sucker 
 is only seen when in action. Leeuwenhoek has compared it to 
 a fine thread ; but, contrary to his usual habit, he observed it but 
 very imperfectly. 
 
 1 Swammerdam is stated to have found 54 eggs of different sizes in a 
 single ovary. 
 
294 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 Rostrum. 1 
 
 This organ is an obtuse, sub cylindrical sheath, 
 capable of being dilated at its extremity, and 
 then presenting six small hooks, which curve 
 from before backwards, and which, from their 
 position and direction, are evidently intended to 
 retain the sucker in the skin. 
 
 In the interior of the sheath are four capillary 
 threads, which are round, very pointed, and 
 closely packed together. 
 
 This structure of the mouth confirms the opinion 
 of Fabricius, who regarded the lice as degraded 
 Hemiptera, deprived of wings. (Burmeister.) 
 
 2. Action on man. Lice puncture those parts of the skin 
 covered with hair and suck up its juices by means of the ap- 
 paratus which has just been described. It has been supposed 
 that the itching which these insects produce is caused by the 
 spur of the male, and not by the oral sucker, which belongs to 
 both sexes. But if the creature first made a wound with its 
 spur in order that it might subsequently introduce the sucker, 
 then the female ought also to be provided with one. Accord- 
 ing to the account of some writers the entrance of the sucker 
 into the skin does not cause any sensation, unless it touches a 
 nerve. Leeuwenhoek made the experiment on his own hand. 
 
 Are we to believe, with Linna3us, 2 that in rainy weather 
 these insects descend the sides of the head ? 
 
 2. BODY LOUSE (fig. 93). The Body or 
 I clothes Louse 3 was for a long time confounded 
 with the former. It was De Geer who first dis- 
 I tinguished between the two insects. 
 
 As its name implies, this Louse is found on 
 I different parts of the body and on the clothes. 
 
 It is somewhat larger, of a lighter colour, and 
 less strongly marked than the common Louse. 
 It has a uniform tinge of a dirty white colour. 4 
 The skin is not so hard, and the eyes are more 
 prominent. (Olfers.) The junction of the 
 thorax and abdomen is more constricted, and 
 the former is scarcely one-third the size of the 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 Body louse. 
 
 1 A, buccai projection beginning to be everted ; B, the same fully ex- 
 tended, and become converted into a tubular rostrum ; a, body of rostrum ; 
 b, hooks at its extremity ; c, piercer, formed of four capillary threads. 
 
 2 " Instante pluvia, descendit ad latera capitis." (Linn.) 
 
 3 Pediculus corporis, De Geer, P. humanus, Linn. 
 
 4 A black variety is met with on the bodies of Ethiopians, Pediculus 
 
EXTERNAL PAEAS1TES. 295 
 
 latter. The marginal lobules are indistinct, and the feet are 
 closer together and more slender. 
 
 This species causes greater irritation than the former. 
 
 3. Lice of sick persons. 1 This name has been proposed fora 
 louse which gives rise to a disease termed phthiriasis. 
 
 MM. Alt and Burmeister have given a minute description of 
 this species. It is of a pale yellow colour. The head is 
 rounded. The antenna are longer, and the thorax larger than 
 they are in the body Louse. The thorax is of a trapezoid form, 
 and more than one-third the size of the abdomen. Its margins 
 are nearly even. 
 
 This species seems to differ in its habits from the other Lice, 
 inasmuch as it introduces itself under the skin. It is as- 
 serted that it deposits its eggs under the epidermis, and that 
 each nest becomes a bullae or vesicle, from whence the young 
 Lice escape as soon as they are hatched to spread and multiply 
 themselves in the surrounding parts : in this way the disease 
 continues to spread, and its severity increases with each suc- 
 ceeding generation. (Raspail.) 
 
 This disease has been mentioned by several writers. 
 Forestus speaks of a young girl who was afflicted with it, and 
 Borellus of a soldier. Bernard Valentin relates the history of 
 a man forty years of age, who was troubled with an intolerable 
 itching on all parts of his body, and with large tubercles, which 
 were filled with an enormous number of Lice. Bremser once 
 met with a mass of Lice in a tumour on the head. M. Jules 
 Cloquet in another invalid found some thousands of these 
 creatures in a sub-cutaneous cavity. Cazal quotes the case 
 of an old man, sixty-five years of age, who could not scratch 
 himself without a swarm of these insects issuing from his neck 
 and shoulders ; they were renewed with an astonishing rapidity 
 .... Dr. Jules Sichel, in 1825, published a monograph on 
 pthiriasis, in which he enumerates the various parts in which 
 this disease has made its appearance. 
 
 Instances of death have been mentioned, but M. Bayer re- 
 gards these cases as doubtful. If, however, we are to believe 
 the ancient writers, the king Antiochus, the philosopher 
 Pherecydes, Sylla the dictator, Agrippa, Valerius Maximus, 
 the emperor Arnould, cardinal Duprat, and Philip the Second, 
 king of Spain, died from this disease. Historians state that 
 Lice were seen to issue from the body of Herod as a stream 
 
 pubescent, y nigrescens, Olfers ; another of a brownish red has been found 
 on the Greenland era. 
 
 1 Pediculu* tabetcentium, Alt, P. subcutaneus , Hasp. 
 
296 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 issues from the earth. It is stated that Poucquau, bishop of 
 Noyon, was covered with such multitudes that it was necessary 
 to fasten his body in a leathern sack before he was buried. .(?) 
 
 4. THE PUBIC LOUSE l (fig. 
 94). This species, which is 
 known by the common name of 
 Crab Louse, attaches itself to 
 the hairs of the sexual organs, 
 the arm pits, and even of the 
 eyebrows. 2 It is never met with 
 in the head or in the beard. 
 Hitherto it has only been found 
 in the white races. 
 
 Its body is large and de- 
 pressed ; the thorax very short. 
 The four posterior feet are 
 Fig. 94. Pubic Louse. 3 tolerably large, recurved, and 
 so arranged as to hook them- 
 selves into the skin, so that it is extremely difficult to induce 
 the animal to leave go its hold. 4 
 
 The eggs are oblong, and adhere to the hairs by an expansion 
 which forms a sheath around them. 
 
 The rostrum of this species is stronger than that of the other 
 Lice. The skin is covered by small red-coloured patches. 
 
 Animals which may be mistaken for Lice. 
 
 The Lice of other mammalia and those particular forms of 
 Lice belonging to the genus Bicinus of De Greer, which infest 
 birds, may accidentally get upon man and cause more or less 
 irritation, but in general this is all the injury they produce. 
 The latter species have the mouth formed for biting, and are 
 furnished with a pair of hooked mandibles. In some instances 
 they can bite with considerable force and give rise to a number 
 of round or oval red spots, but these are seldom accompanied by 
 pustules or vesicles. 
 
 The same thing may happen with certain arachnida belong- 
 ing to the genus Dermanyssus of Duges. These vermin are met 
 
 1 Pedi&dus pubis, Linn., P. inguinalis. Redi, P. Morpio, Merrem, P. 
 ferus, Olfers. Leach proposed to form it into a distinct genus under the 
 name of Phthirus. 
 
 2 " They are found attached to the eyelids." (Celsug.) 
 
 3 a, an egg attached to a hair. 
 
 4 " They are so firmly attached to the skin that it is scarcely possible to 
 detach them." (A. Pare".) 
 
EXTERNAL PABASITES. 297 
 
 with in hen-roosts and pigeon-houses, even long after the birds 
 upon which they lived have ceased to frequent these places. 
 
 Another species of arachnida belonging to the genus Gamasus 
 of Latreille, gets upon the clothes, and from them upon the 
 body; these animals do not fix themselves to one spot, but 
 move about over the surface of the skin. Persons who are 
 travelling in the country are occasionally tormented by them. 
 
 The Ornithomya (Latr.), a species of fly infesting certain 
 birds, may also gain access to man, and attach itself to his skin 
 by means of its claws. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE COMMON FLEA. 
 
 THE genus Pulex belongs to the Siphonoptera of Latreille, 
 but is now approximated to the Diptera, notwithstanding that 
 it is unprovided with wings. 1 This genus is characterised by 
 a straight unjointed rostrum, which incloses two blades or 
 lancets, and which is covered at its base by two scales ; the 
 eyes are two in number, and scarcely project from the sides 
 of the head ; the abdomen is compressed ; the limbs are six in 
 number, and adapted for leaping. 
 
 The COMMON FLEA a (fig. 95) has an oval compressed body 
 covered with a strong chitinous integument of a shining red- 
 dish brown colour. The body is invested with a kind of 
 armour, and when it is crushed a slight noise is heard from the 
 resistance and rupture of the skin. The greatest diameter of 
 the Flea is from the back to the belly, which both terminate in 
 a thin sharp edge. The body is divided into twelve segments, 
 of which three form the short thorax and seven the abdomen. 
 The head is small, compressed, rounded above, and forms a 
 kind of hood. In front of this are two short, nearly cylindri- 
 cal antennae, composed of four joints, of which the second is 
 moderately long, and the third large and notched. When the 
 Flea is moving about these organs are in a state of constant 
 vibration ; but when at rest they are laid along the sides and 
 in front of the head. (De Greer.) The eyes are simple, large, 
 
 [ l Although the wings arc not functionally developed, traces of them are 
 present in the form of a pair of small scales attached to the middle segment 
 of the thorax, and of a much larger pair appended to the third segment of 
 the thorax, which cover the sides of the first and part of the second abdo- 
 minal segments. Ed.] 
 
 1 Pulex hominis, Duges, P. irritans, Linn., P. vulgaris, De Geer. 
 
298 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 and round. Behind each there is a small aperture, which can 
 
 be closed up by a moveable 
 valve. The limbs of the Flea 
 are long, strong, and spinous, 
 and the tarsi five-jointed, ter- 
 minating in a pair of strong 
 claws. The anterior pair of 
 limbs are placed at some dis- 
 tance from the others, and are 
 inserted almost immediately 
 Fig. 95. Flea. 1 beneath the head. The pos- 
 
 terior are the strongest, and 
 
 enable the animal to accomplish leaps which are greatly dis- 
 proportioned to the size of its body. The abdomen is very 
 large, and each of its segments is composed of two pieces, a 
 superior and an inferior ; this arrangement permits of the 
 enormous distensions which the body undergoes after the ani- 
 mal has been sucking the blood of its prey, or after impregna- 
 tion. The penultimate ring of the body supports a number of 
 very slender spines, which are inserted in a corresponding 
 number of minute arcolse ; this segment has received the name 
 of pygidiu/m. 
 
 Fleas are bisexual. The male is only half the size of the 
 female, and the back of the latter is the most convex. During 
 copulation the abdomens of the insects are placed opposite to 
 each other, the male being underneath. 2 
 
 The female lays eight to twelve smooth oval eggs ; they are 
 slightly viscid, and of a white colour. De Greer detected a 
 Flea in the act of depositing her eggs. This animal does not 
 attach its eggs either to the hairs or to the skin, but drops 
 them by chance upon the ground. (Eoesel.) The eggs roll 
 about like globules of mercury. They are generally found in 
 the crevices of the floor, in old furniture, in dirty linen, or in 
 any place where filth has accumulated. 3 
 
 Along with the eggs there are found a quantity of dark pur- 
 ple grains of various forms. These particles are not the excre- 
 ments of the insect, but dried blood obtained at man's expence, 
 and intended for the nourishment of the larvae. (Defrance.) 
 
 At the end of four or five days in summer, and of eleven in 
 winter, the larvae issue forth under the form of long cylindrical 
 
 1 a, male ; 6, female; c, egg. 
 
 * " Femina in coitu ascendit in corpus maris.*' (Leeuwenhoek.) " Mas sub 
 femina jungitur." (Linn.) 
 
 3 They have been met with beneath the nails of the feet. 
 
EXTEBXAL PABASITES. 
 
 299 
 
 worms, whose bodies are composed of thirteen segments plenti- 
 fully furnished with hairs. The head is scaly, of a yellow 
 colour, provided with antennae, and the posterior extremity of 
 the body is furnished with two hooks. The larvae have no feet 
 (Leeuwenhoek, Eoesel) ; but they are very active, twisting 
 about in all directions, and moving along with the head erect 
 (Defrance). At first they are 
 white, but afterwards of a reddish 
 colour. In eleven or fifteen days, 
 according to the time of year, the 
 larvae inclose themselves in a 
 silky, oblong, whitish cocoon, 
 within which they are trans- 
 formed into pupae ; the latter are 
 provided with limbs placed close 
 to the sides of the body. (De- 
 france.) 
 
 It takes from twelve to fifteen 
 days before the pupae become 
 perfect Fleas. 
 
 1. Mouth (fig. 96). The beak 
 or rostellum of the common Flea 
 is placed almost perpendicularly ; 
 w r hen not in use, it is curved slightly backwards and concealed 
 between the long thigh joints of the anterior pair of limbs. 
 The mouth consists of three parts : 
 
 1. An oblong plate (lower Up or labrum) supporting two 
 palpi, each composed of four segments, of which the second is 
 the largest. 
 
 2. Of an external articulated sheath, which supports and 
 receives into a groove on its under surface a pair of lancets. 
 The case is composed of two pieces (jaws) placed close toge- 
 ther, oblong, concave, each supporting a palpus inserted very 
 low down, and which is made up of four segments, of which the 
 first is tolerably large. 
 
 3. Of two straight blades or long sharp lancets, with serrated 
 margins. These lancets are employed in puncturing the flesh 
 and in sucking. 
 
 2. Action on man. Fleas produce a disagreeable itching as 
 
 Fig. 96. Parts of the Mouth. 1 
 
 1 A, head ; a, left jaw; b, the lancets or mandibles ; c, left labial palpus; 
 d, maxillary palpi ; B, parts of the rostrum ; a a, maxilla or inferior 
 jaws, each with its palpus ; b b, the lancets or mandibles ; c, lower lip, with 
 its two palpi ; <?, point of one of the lancets. 
 
300 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 they move over the sensitive portions of the skin from the ter- 
 minal hooks of their feet. 
 
 The puncture of these insects l causes a more acute sensation. 
 When the Flea is about to inflict its wound, it separates the two 
 valves of the sheath, which protects the lancets, and plunges 
 them into the skin. ' It then immediately begins to suck, and 
 fills itself with the blood. 
 
 The quantity of blood which this creature can absorb is very 
 considerable in comparison with its size. It may be esti- 
 mated by the volume of the gorged abdomen and the large 
 amount of its excrement which partly retains the colour of the 
 blood. 
 
 The puncture of the Flea leaves a small reddish spot on the 
 skin, in the centre of which is a minute, almost microscopic 
 aperture ; in infants, in females, and in persons whose skin is 
 exceedingly delicate, there is also a slight swelling. (Barthez.) 
 Very rarely this tumefaction is followed by a vesicle, or by 
 slight inflammation. 
 
 2. OTHEB SPECIES. Linnaeus believed that the human Flea 
 and those of other animals constituted only a single species. 
 Bosc was the first to remark that the Fleas of the mole and of 
 the fox presented some differences in their organization. 
 Duges has examined the Fleas of the dog, mouse, and bat ; he 
 has compared them with that of man, and has shown that each 
 pf them forms a distinct species. Thus, the head of the Flea 
 which frequents the dog, has a number of spines below ; whilst 
 there are only four spines placed posteriorly in that of the 
 mouse ; and two which are situated anteriorly in that of the 
 bat. In that of man there are none. The eyes are large in the 
 latter species, of moderate size in the Flea of the dog, small in 
 that of the mouse, and wanting in that of the bat. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE CHIGOE. 
 
 THE Chigoe or Jigger ~ is one of the most troublesome para- 
 sites known. 
 
 It is an inhabitant of tropical America, particularly G-uiana 
 and Brazil. It resides in the forests, on various shrubs and 
 
 1 Morsus pulicum. (Sauvages). 
 
 Dermatophilus penetrans, Guer., Pulex penetrans, Linn., Sarcopsylla 
 penetrans, Guild. At Saint Domingo and Guiana it is commonly named 
 
EXTERNAL PARASITES. 301 
 
 plants, and especially on the dried leaves. They are sometimes 
 so numerous, that the clothes and body of a person who may 
 have seated himself on the ground or on a fallen tree, are imme- 
 diately covered with them. 
 
 1. DESCRIPTION. The Chigoe is smaller than the common 
 Flea, but it acquires a considerable size when gorged with 
 blood. The insect is of an elongated oval form ; it is flattened, 
 of a reddish brown colour, with a white spot on the back. Its 
 skin is so tough that it is torn with difficulty. The articulations 
 of its feet are of a whitish colour. 
 
 The males are smaller than the females. The abdomen of 
 the latter is proportionally more developed than in the other 
 sex, and becomes of a globular form after impregnation. 
 
 The eggs are oval, oblong, and whitish. They appear to be 
 attached to the mother by a very short funis. It is thought 
 that when these insects do not attack the human species they 
 deposit their eggs in the ground. (Pohl, Kollar.) 
 
 The larva of the Chigoe has not hitherto been detected. 
 
 2. MOUTH. This organ is only imperfectly known ; it is only 
 ascertained that the animal possesses a long, rigid, pointed 
 rostrum, proportionally larger than that of the common Flea, 
 
 3. ACTION ON MAN. The Chigoes attack men, but it is only 
 the females after they have become impregnated, for the pur- 
 pose of depositing their young, and providing them with nutri- 
 ment. These insects are found principally upon the feet, 
 v, here they penetrate between the flesh and the nails. They 
 are very rarely met with on its dorsal surface, on the hands, 
 or on other parts of the body. Persons who travel without 
 shoes are more exposed to these attacks than others ; those 
 who perspire much are less liable to them. 
 
 In spite of the length of its rostrum, the Chigoe introduces 
 itself without pausing any pain, or changing the colour of the 
 skin, at least during the earliest portion of its sojourn. In a 
 few days the parasite begins to develop itself, and its presence 
 is indicated by a slight itching, which gradually increases, and 
 ultimately becomes intolerable. When the presence of the 
 Chigoe is accompanied by an appreciable amount of pain, half 
 of its body has already penetrated the tissue. The animal at 
 first resembles a brown speck ; this speck gradually increases ; 
 
 Niyua ; in Brazil, Jatecuba, Mt/gor, and Tunga. The Spaniards, on their 
 first arrival in America, named it Chega and Chego ; and the French, Pique 
 and Chique. Is it not the Pediculus ricinoides of Linnaeus ? " Habitat in 
 America,pedesobambiilantium intrans,sanguinem haurient, in Of ova deponens, 
 ulcera cacoethica coiwan*." (Kolander.) 
 
302 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 it soon assumes the appearance of a reddish swelling, in which 
 it is difficult to recognise an abdomen. 
 
 The Chigoe shortly attains the size of a small pea. Its body 
 is nothing more than an enormous sac, resembling a cyst, of a 
 brown or livid colour, containing a sanious pus. In the inte- 
 rior of the abdomen are a vast number of globules, which are 
 the eggs. 
 
 It is very difficult to make these formidable parasites quit 
 their hold ; they allow the rostrum to be broken off before they 
 will disengage themselves from the tissue in which they have 
 inserted it. When handled too roughly, the rostrum, head, and 
 feet remain behind, and soon give rise to an unhealthy inflam- 
 mation or ill-conditioned ulcer. 1 
 
 The feet are sometimes entirely covered, and, as it were, eaten 
 away by the Chigoes. When the animal has made its puncture, 
 the skin presents a small white spot, surrounded by a circle of 
 inflammation, which afterwards swells up and forms an ill- 
 defined tumour. When the parasites are numerous and close 
 together, the disease may present a certain amount of danger. 
 
 The Chigoes are sometimes found between the claws of the 
 dog, but more particularly on the under surface of the feet of 
 the hog ; these pachyderms have been even regarded as propa- 
 gators of this species of insects. ( J. G-oudot.) 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 TICKS. 
 
 THE Ticks, or Ixodes, are arachnidans belonging to the family 
 of the Acaridse or Mites, in which the palpi encase the sucker 
 and form with it a short, projecting beak, which is truncated 
 and somewhat dilated at its extremity. 
 
 The Ticks frequent thick woods, hooking themselves to low 
 growing plants by their anterior feet, while the others remain 
 extended. (Latreille.) They attach themselves to the different 
 mammalia, and fix themselves to their skins. 
 
 These animals lay an enormous number of eggs. M. Cha- 
 brier asserts that they issue forth from the mouth. 
 
 1. SPECIES. In France the two principal species are 
 1. The Wolf Tick; 2. Reticulated Tick. 
 
 The Wolf Tick of the French, Ixodes JZicinus, Latr., Acarus 
 JRicinus, Linn., Acarus redtwius, De Greer, is of a deep blood- 
 
 1 " Ulcera cacoethica excitat." (Linn.) 
 
EXTERNAL PARASITES. 303 
 
 red colour, with the anterior scaly plate obscure ; the sides of 
 the body are margined, and provided with a few hairs. 
 
 It attaches itself to dogs. 
 
 The reticulated Tick, Ixodes reticulatus, Latr., Acarus redu- 
 vius, Schrank, Cynorhcestes pictus, Herm., is of an ash colour, 
 marked with small spots and annular lines of a reddish brown. 
 The margins of the abdomen are striated, and the palpi almost 
 oval. 
 
 It attaches itself to oxen, sheep, and several of the domes- 
 ticated mammalia. 
 
 Amongst the foreign species may be mentioned the Nigua, 
 Ix. Nigua, GKier, Acarus Nigua, De Greer, A. Americanus, Linn., 
 and the human Tick, Ix. hominis, Koch, a species of arachnida 
 which is still very imperfectly known. 
 
 2. THE MOUTH. The beak or rostrum of the Tick is obtuse 
 anteriorly. It presents 1. a supporting piece, formed by a 
 small scale received into a groove of the thorax, serving as a 
 receptacle for the base of the sucker ; 2. a sheath, composed of 
 two very short scaly portions, concave on their inner surfaces, 
 rounded and somewhat enlarged at their termination (each of 
 these pieces, when seen beneath a magnifying glass, appears 
 to be divided transversely) ; 3. a sucker, placed in the sheath, 
 consisting of three very hard, horny, conical blades, of which 
 the two lateral are the smallest, and cover the third ; the latter 
 is large, obtuse at its extremity, and somewhat transparent ; its 
 margins, and the whole of its inferior surface, are covered with a 
 multitude of strong serrated teeth ; in the centre it is furnished 
 with a groove. 
 
 3. ACTION ON MAN. M. Raspail states that, between the 
 month of December, 1858, and the month of May, 1860, on 
 several occasions he found young Ticks having but eight feet 
 (a circumstance which proves they were adults) on the head of 
 his daughter, who was between three and four years of age. 
 The terrible irritation which the child suffered showed that the 
 skin had been deeply wounded. 
 
 Some twenty years since, a young man, on his return from 
 hunting in the neighbourhood of Melun, found on his arm a 
 small livid swelling, as large as a lentil, and accompanied with 
 considerable pain : it was an enormous Tick, which he had got 
 in the forests. 
 
 Dr. Ernest Cosson, when travelling in Algeria, in 1856, and 
 when he was in the oasis of Asia, in the province of Oran, was 
 obliged to pitch his tent on a piece of ground which was fre- 
 quented by sheep. The next morning his servant woke him 
 
304 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 up, having three Ticks close together on his right breast the- 
 size of a pea. The presence of these parasites caused him 
 great pain. 
 
 The Ticks plunge their beaks into the skin in the same way 
 as one may thrust in a trochar. The small recurved hooks 
 which cover the surface prevent their being withdrawn from 
 the part they have penetrated. The. sucker is so firmly em- 
 bedded that it can only be removed by force, and at the same 
 time tearing away a portion of the skin which adheres to it. 
 
 These arachnida are extremely voracious, and suck up a large 
 quantity of blood. Their bo'dy, which is capable of undergoing 
 great distension at its sides and on the upper part, swells out 
 and assumes the appearance of a livid excrescence. 
 
 A Tick has been known to penetrate a small tumour on the 
 abdomen of a female. (Hussem.) 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ARGADES. 
 
 THE Argades are arachnida which are closely allied to the 
 Ticks ; they diifer from them by the inferior situation of the 
 mouth and by their free conical palpi, composed of four articu- 
 lations. 
 
 These animals have an oval elliptical body ; it is very flat, coria- 
 ceous, granulated, and very extensible. 
 
 They are exceedingly fond of blood. Some writers have com- 
 pared them to the Bugs, which they resemble somewhat in their 
 general appearance ; they do not quit the body, however, like 
 the latter, but fix themselves after the manner of the Ticks. 
 They are true Epizoa. 
 
 1. SPECIES. There are two principal species which require 
 to be noticed; these are 1. the Argas of Persia; 2. the 
 Chinche. 
 
 The Argas of Persia, or ^Bug of Jbliana, Argas Persicus, Fiscb, 
 is common at Miana, in Persia. Its size is about that of the 
 common Bug ; the body is rough, of a blood-red colour, and 
 covered with some elevated white spots. 
 
 The Argas of CJiinclie, Argas Chinche, Grerv., inhabits 
 Columbia, where it has been found by M. Justin Groudot. 
 
 It is of the same size as the former, and of a reddish colour. 
 
 2. The mouth. In the Argades the beak resembles that of 
 the Ixodes, but it is placed inferiorly, and is uncovered. 
 
 3. ACTION OF MAN. For a long time it was supposed that 
 
EXTERNAL PARASITES. t305 
 
 the Argades only attacked pigeons ; we have, however, a Euro- 
 pean species, the Bordered Argas, Arg. marginatus, Latr., which 
 frequents the dove-cots and sucks the blood of these birds. 
 
 At the present time it is well known that these parasites will 
 attack man. In Persia it is said that they give the preference 
 to strangers (?) The bite produces acute pain, and it has been 
 even asserted that they may bring on consumption and death. 
 (Fischer.) 
 
 The Chinche inflicts great injury in Columbia. (Groudot.) 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 HARVEST BUG. 
 
 THE Harvest bug, Leptus autumnalis, Latr., Acarus autumnalisi 
 Shaw, is also a species of A cams. 
 
 As the Arachnida are usually provided in the perfect state 
 with eight feet, and only six in the larval stage, Siebold, sus- 
 pected that the Harvest bug, which has only six feet, was an in- 
 completely developed animal, and it has, in fact, proved to be 
 the larva of one of the TrombidiidaB. 
 
 The Harvest bug is very common in France ; it is found on 
 the blades of grass and other plants of moderate height, under 
 heaps of dried leaves, in the fields and the woods ; it is also met 
 with on small shrubs, such as gooseberry bushes and furzes. 
 Defrance met with it in gardens, on clods of earth, on trellis- 
 work, and in the orangeries, probably waiting for an oppor- 
 tunity to attach themselves to some mammalia or to man. 
 He has seen them on the ears, eyelids, and on the under 
 surface of the belly of the dog. This parasite also attacks cats, 
 but it does not seem to cause them much inconvenience. 
 
 1. DESCRIPTION. The Harvest bug is very minute, and re- 
 quires a sharp eye' to detect it, unless there are several of them 
 together. The body is oval, soft, shining, and of a bright red 
 colour. It has short four-jointed palpi ; the thorax and abdo- 
 men are distinct. The feet are slender, of equal length, and 
 terminated by rudimentary suckers. 
 
 2. MOUTH. According to Shaw, the Lrptw is provided with 
 a sucker or protractile rostrum. This instrument is very small, 
 stiff, and pointed ; but M. Tandon has never had the oppor- 
 tunity of examining it. 
 
 3. ACTION ON MAN. Those who live in the country, espe- 
 cially women and children, are perfectly familiar with the Har- 
 
 x 
 
306 KEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 vest bug. It makes its appearance, or rather renders people 
 conscious of its presence, about the middle of July, and disap- 
 pears towards the middle of September. These animals are 
 most plentiful in hot, dry seasons. (Defrance.) 
 
 The Harvest bugs attach themselves to man, and work their 
 way beneath his skin, near the roots of the hairs. They espe- 
 cially attack persons with delicate skins, appearing to prefer 
 the legs, the inner part of the thighs, and the lower part of the 
 abdomen; but they are also found on the chest and arms. 
 M. Dumeril once saw more than a dozen of these animals fixed 
 together at the base of a single hair in a child. 
 
 These animals can move about with considerable rapidity, 
 and will mount from the feet to the head in a very short space 
 of time. They are often stopped by the garters and the bands 
 of the dress, when they attach themselves to the part where 
 their progress has been* arrested. 
 
 M. Dumeril considers that the Harvest bugs fix themselves 
 by their claws, and insinuate their sucker beneath the epidermis ; 
 and that it is principally the movements of the feet and claws, 
 which give rise to the accompanying irritation and inflam- 
 mation. 
 
 The analogy between these creatures and the other parasitic 
 arachnida, induces M. Tandon to think that the injury must be 
 produced by the beak; but that, possibly, the saliva of the 
 animal has some specific action, since the pain which the animals 
 give rise to is quite disproportioiied to the microscopic appear- 
 ance of the instrument which they plunge into the skin. 
 
 The wound of the Harvest bug occasions an acute burning 
 and insupportable itching, which deprives the person of sleep. 
 Latreille compares it to that of the itch insect. The skin 
 becomes swollen and red, and sometimes even of a purple 
 colour. It forms irregular spots of a very large size, compared 
 to that of the parasite. The persons attacked scratch them- 
 selves until they bleed, and thus increase the violence and extent 
 of the inflammation. 
 
 The vesicles produced by these insects soon heal if they 
 are not touched, but if they are constantly irritated they will 
 terminate in suppuration. 
 
 John has seen these animals produce an exanthematous erup- 
 tion. Moses also mentions a case of papillar and vesicular 
 inflammation, accompanied by an insupportable itching, in a 
 whole family, from the same cause. The circumferences of the 
 irritable spots were covered with red patches ; when examined 
 
PARASITIC INSECTS. 307 
 
 microscopically, they appeared to contain numbers of the Har- 
 vest bug. 
 
 The Chigoe and the Harvest bug form a kind of transition 
 between the external cuticular parasites and the internal cuti- 
 ticular parasites ; that is to say, between the Epizoa which live 
 upon the surface of the skin, and the Epizoa which reside in 
 the substance of its tissue. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 EPIZOA LIVING BENEATH THE SKIN. 
 
 THE Epizoa which live beneath the skin are 1. the Sarcop- 
 tu* ; 2. the Acaropsis ; 3. the Demodex ; and 4. some species of 
 Acaridcc which are imperfectly known. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE SARCOPTUS. 
 
 THE Sarcoptus, or Itch insect, is an arachnidan belonging to 
 the family of the Acaridae. 
 
 HISTORY, The history of this animal is exceedingly curious. 
 Avenzoa, an Arabian physician of the twelfth century, appears 
 to have been the first to notice the presence of a small animal 
 in the itch, so small that it is scarcely visible, and is hidden beneath 
 the epidermis, hut which escapes when an opening is made. He 
 gave it the name of Soab. Rabelais twice mentions the itch 
 Insect. He relates that one of the ancestors of Pantagruel, 
 Enay, was very expert in removing mites from the hands. In 
 another place, Panurge is asked, but where did I get this insect 
 which is between my fingers? Ambroise Pare is still more 
 explicit ; he says, " The cirons are small animals, always hidden 
 beneath the skin, under which they creep and move about, 
 gnawing it away bit by bit, and producing a most troublesome 
 
 irritation and itching " Scaliger, Aldrovandus, 
 
 Mouffet, and especially Cestoni and Wichmann, have spoken 
 of the itch insect. In spite, however, of these authorities, and 
 of the tolerably accurate figures published in the Acta erudi- 
 torum 1682, by M. A. C. D. 1 1726, and by De Geer in 1778, 
 
 1 The anonymous author of a pamphlet, entitled System of an English 
 physician un the causes of all kinds of diseases, with, surprising figures of the 
 
 x 2 
 
308 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 many practitioners, not having succeeded in finding the ani- 
 mal, considered its existence as very doubtful. 
 
 In 1812, G-ales, of Belbeze, the chief apothecary to the hos- 
 pital of Saint Louis, published a treatise on the itch, in which 
 he declared he had seen more than three hundred of the insects, 
 all of them having the same form, but provided sometimes with 
 eight feet, sometimes with six, a circumstance which he referred 
 to the difference of the sexes. Grales does not describe the 
 animal, but he gives a drawing of it. This treatise was favour- 
 ably received, and the presence of an animal in the disease in 
 question was again admitted without opposition. The drawing 
 given by this writer continued to be copied into various works 
 for the space of fifteen years as an exact representation^ the 
 Parasite of the itch. Unfortunately, this drawing differed 
 materially from the animal described by those who had first 
 written upon it. Doubts were again entertained, and the sub- 
 ject was investigated more closely. Gales declared he had 
 found the animals in the pustules themselves, where it is quite 
 certain he never saw them. Alibert and Biett made a great 
 many searches for it, but they were always unsuccessful. It 
 was suspected that the writer of the treatise had imposed upon 
 the public. At length M. Baspail discovered that the animal 
 figured was nothing more than the cheese mite. 
 
 Persons were again incredulous, and the existence of the 
 itch insect was denied a second time. In 1821, Mouronval 
 published a dissertation to prove the cause of the itch was 
 neither a maggot nor a virus. The author had examined more 
 than eighteen hundred persons attacked with itch. Lastly, Dr. 
 Lugoe offered 300 francs as a premium to any one who would 
 undertake to demonstrate the presence of an animal in the 
 itch. 
 
 However, in 1834, a medical student, Francois Eenucci, a 
 native of Corsica, who was clinical assistant to Professor 
 Alibert, offered to extract and demonstrate the presence of the 
 creature which had given rise to so much controversy. The ex- 
 periment was perfectly successful, and some of the students who 
 were present succeeded themselves in insolating the insect. It 
 was proved, therefore, that the older writers were correct, and 
 that there really is a special parasite which gives rise to the 
 itch, and the matter was thus finally set at rest. 
 
 different varieties of minute insects which can be seen by means of a good 
 microscope in the blood and urine of sick people, and of those who are about 
 to become so. Paris, in-8. See p. 291. 
 
PARASITIC INSECTS. 309 
 
 MM. Haspail, Leroy, and Vandenkeck have studied the 
 structure and physiology of this curious animal. Several recent 
 writers, amongst whom it is sufficient to mention the names of 
 MM. Aube, Biett, Cazenave, Gras, Hebra, Piogey, and Kayer 
 have added several important points of detail to what was 
 previously known ; but most of these gentlemen have con- 
 sidered the matter rather from a pathological than from a 
 natural history point of view. M. Bourguignon presented the 
 French Institute An Entomological and Pathological Treatise 
 on the Itch insect of man. This important work received the 
 approval of the Institute, and was ordered to be printed. 
 Lastly, M. Lanquetin, in a valuable thesis, has recently sup- 
 plied several points which were incomplete in the remark- 
 able monograph just mentioned, and M. Robin, at the request 
 of M. Tandon, has made a careful examination of the various 
 parts of the rostrum with the microscope. 
 
 2. CLASSIFICATION. Linnaeus at first regarded this parasite 
 as a well-defined species, and placed it in the genus Acarus, 
 naming it Acarus scabei. Afterwards he associated it with the 
 Flour mite, under the name of Acarus Siro. He assigned 
 as a reason for this, that nurses often communicated the itch 
 to children who had any irritation on the skin by powder- 
 ing them with old flour which was infested by mites. Pallas has 
 clearly distinguished between the Acarus of the itch and that 
 which is found in flour. Latreille admitted the distinction, 
 and proposed a new genus, under the name of Sarcoptus* for 
 the reception of the first. From that time the creature has 
 been known as the Sarcoptus scabei. 
 
 The Sarcoptus differs from the Acarus in not having the 
 body divided into two portions, and in the cephalothorax not 
 being distinct from the abdomen ; by their feet being arranged 
 in two groups, those of the first pair being large, those of the 
 second very small, the first pair terminating in prolongations, 
 which support carunculae, having the form of suckers. In 
 the Acari these carunculae are rudimentary, and without any 
 prolongation. The Sarcopti are further characterised by the 
 absence of eyes, and by a rostrum in which may be noticed two 
 mandibles, two maxillae, two maxillary palpi, and a lower lip. 
 
 3. DESCRIPTION. The Itch insect (fig. 97) is extremely 
 minute, so that it is only just visible to the naked eye ; it is 
 012 of an inch in length, and '009 of an inch in breadth. The 
 body is nearly circular, flattened, and has been compared to 
 that of a tortoise. (P. Borel.) It is soft, shining, slightly 
 
 flesh, and ic6irrcu> to cut. 
 
310 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 transparent, of a white colour, a little opalescent, and has a 
 
 pinkish tint. The dorsal 
 surface is convex, and the 
 ventral somewhat less so. 
 The margin is slightly un- 
 dulating, and the surface of 
 the abdomen is marked by 
 more or less parallel, irre- 
 gular, but often curved, lines 
 or ridges. 
 
 The rostrum is anterior, 
 small, and straight ; it is 
 somewhat oval and obtuse ; 
 at its commencement there 
 are observed two hairs. 
 
 The posterior part of the 
 body is very obtuse, and 
 often slightly indented to- 
 wards the centre. 
 
 The limbs are eight in 
 Fig. 97. Female Sarcoptus. 1 number, two pairs in front, 
 
 and two pairs placed farther 
 
 back, and at some distance from the others. The limbs are 
 short, conical, distinctly jointed, and furnished with stiif hairs 
 of various lengths. The "two anterior pairs have the thighs 
 divergent from each other ; the feet terminate in a very slender, 
 straight, rigid, tubular portion, provided at its extremity with 
 a vesicular cushion or sucker. This slender portion, with its 
 sucker, has been named the ambulacrum (arotium). The four 
 posterior legs terminate in a long, curved, pointed thread, of a 
 brown colour, without any sucker ; these limbs are abdominal, 
 and not thoracic, a very important and distinctive character. 
 M. Bourguignon has ascertained that each limb consists of a 
 hip, trochanter, small trochanter, thigh, leg, and tarsus. 
 
 The body of the insect has a few hairs scattered here and 
 there, and on its dorsal surface are three kinds of horny appen- 
 dages or spines ; the first are arranged symmetrically on its 
 central and posterior part ; these are fourteen in number ; 
 they are of a conical form, are traversed by a canal, and fur- 
 nished with a dilatation or basal follicle ; the second are 
 smaller, and placed near the first ; the third are still more 
 minute ; they are arranged in concentric lines, have no canal, 
 and resemble conical pointed tubercles. 
 1 a, the egg. 
 
PARASITIC INSECTS. 311 
 
 The animal being soft, nature has furnished it with hard 
 resisting parts, or apodemata, which perform the part of a skele- 
 ton. These apodemata have a horny appearance, are of a dull 
 red colour, and form a solid frame work, to which the muscles 
 are attached. On examining the Sarcoptus on its ventral sur- 
 face, there are seen three of these apodemata, of which the 
 central one, which is placed longitudinally, performs the office 
 of a sternum. Anteriorly it is bifurcated, and each branch 
 again divides into two, the innermost of which unite to form a 
 complete ring, while the external pass to the base of the limb. 
 The lateral apodemata are analogous to the scaly pieces named 
 epimera, which in many insects give insertion to the limbs. 
 They are composed of a long, curved portion, and of two 
 branches, the internal passing to the anterior limb, the external 
 to the second limb. There are also epimera having a similar 
 arrangement at the base of the posterior limbs. 
 
 The digestive system of the Sarcoptus contains a mouth placed 
 at the anterior part of the rostrum, and consisting of mandibles 
 and maxillae, which will be presently described. It is probably 
 these mandibles and maxillae that Leroy and Vandenkeck have 
 spoken of as teeth. 
 
 The mouth communicates with a long and straight oesophagus. 
 Arrived at the anterior third of the body, this canal terminates 
 in an oblique reniform stomach, transparent, and very difficult 
 to be seen. (Wieger.) The intestine is short and slightly un- 
 dulating; it contains a number of brown granules, which oc- 
 casionally accumulate towards the commencement of the 
 rectum. The latter is nearly a straight canal. The anus may 
 be observed on the dorsal surface in the middle of the indenta- 
 tion on its posterior margin. 
 
 Neither stigmata nor tracheae are to be met with in the Sar- 
 coptus. M. Bourguignon thinks that the animal respires by 
 the mouth. It is more reasonable to suppose that in this kind 
 of arachnida this function is fulfilled by means of the skin. 
 
 In the centre of the anterior fourth of the body, and placed 
 against the oesophagus, may be noticed a small, oblong, trans- 
 verse mass, from whence a number of extremely delicate fila- 
 ments radiate. This is the nervous system. 
 
 In a state of repose the Sarcopti have their limbs retracted 
 beneath their bodies, as under a carapace. When they walk 
 they extend these organs, stretch out their ambulacra, and 
 fasten their suckers. They can tunnel their way with con- 
 siderable speed. M. Bourguignon considers that one of these 
 insects could travel from the hand to the shoulder in less than 
 ten minutes. 
 
312 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLO&Y. 
 
 Fig. 98. Male. 
 
 The Sarcopti are unisexual. The 
 males (fig. 98) are scarcer than the 
 females, the proportion being not 
 more than one of the former to ten 
 of the latter. We owe the discovery 
 of the males to MM. Bourgogne and 
 Lanquetin. The following are the 
 characters in which they differ from 
 the females ; they are smaller ('008 
 inch), more oblong, flatter, of a 
 darker colour, and more active ; the 
 rostrum is proportionally smaller 
 and less triangular ; they have not 
 so many horny appendages on the 
 dorsal surface ; the anterior apode- 
 mata extend beyond the anterior 
 third of the body, reaching nearly 
 to its centre; the posterior limbs 
 are not so wide apart, and the epimera on each side are united 
 together; the third pair of feet are furnished with longer 
 hairs ; lastly, the fourth pair are much shorter, and have am- 
 bulacra terminated by a sucker. 
 
 The genital apparatus of the male is placed towards the 
 middle of the body, near the third pair of limbs. It is sup- 
 ported anteriorly by a median apodemata, which is articulated 
 with those of the last pair of limbs. The male organ consists 
 of a deferent canal; of three bifurcated portions, which re- 
 present the testicles ; of one or two median glandular bodies, 
 which probably fulfil the part of prostate glands ; and of a toler- 
 ably long penis, contained in a groove. The male orifice opens 
 a little in front of the posterior margin of the body. 
 
 The vulva is placed on the ventral surface, at a short dis- 
 tance from the sternal apodemeta: it is a slightly sinuous 
 opening about '003 of an inch (Ch. Kobin) in length. It com- 
 municates with a granular body, which is hardly discernible 
 except at the period of reproduction. 
 
 At the time of heat, the males quit their dwelling-places 
 during the night to go in search of the females. They are 
 much more active than the latter, running about from right to 
 left, and occasionally fighting with each other. M. Bourguig- 
 non once found two males and a single female in the same 
 spot. The latter immediately began to fight, but as soon as 
 they were aware they were discovered, they speedily took to 
 flight. 
 
PARASITIC INSECTS. 313 
 
 These acari copulate belly to belly. (Worms.) A single 
 union suffices for impregnation. When the eggs enlarge they 
 are scattered through all parts of the body. The eggs (fig. 
 97, a) are quite enormous when compared with the size of the 
 mother ; when laid, they are at least one-third the length of the 
 animal. The female usually lays one egg daily, and has several 
 layings in succession ; she can produce as many as twenty in 
 the course of a month. The eggs are rarely placed in groups 
 of three or four. When laid they are elipsoid or oval, slightly 
 depressed, semitransparent, and have a whitish pearly look. 
 They resemble the pearls of the Unio margaritifer. They 
 measure '007 of an inch in the long diameter, and '003 of an 
 inch in the short. It has been noticed that they are partly 
 developed within the body. It is not until they have been 
 laid ten or twelve days that they are hatched. 
 
 At birth the Sarcopti are not more than '006 of an inch in 
 length. They have six feet instead of eight, one of the pos- 
 terior pairs being wanting. These larvae are very active, they 
 shelter themselves beneath the loose particles of the epidermis, 
 and seem incapable of boring a channel for themselves. At the 
 end of some days they are somewhat swollen, the skin becomes 
 first wrinkled, then torn, and afterwards falls off". An additional 
 pair of feet are developed, and the animal arrives at its perfect 
 state. 
 
 4. THE MOUTH (fig. 99). M. Ch. Eobin has carefully 
 examined the rostrum of the Sarcoptus (head of Bourguignon). 
 There is seen, first, a pair of strong oblong mandibles, carry- 
 ing towards their extremity and on their upper side a small 
 moveable hook ; this is pointed, 
 somewhat curved, and when not 
 in use it is received into an ob- 
 lique groove, with irregular den- 
 tated margins situated on the 
 opposite side of the prolonged 
 portion of the organ. This pro- 
 longed portion, together with 
 the hook just mentioned, acts 
 like a pair of pinchers. Next 
 are the maxillae ; these are small, 
 narrow, and curved from without 
 inwards. Their base is articu- Fig. 99. Rostrum. 1 
 
 lated to a small square piece, 
 
 1 A, the rostrum, from which the two mandibles have been removed ; a a, 
 maxillae; 6, chin ; c c, the large maxillary palpi, with three joints, and bear- 
 
314 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 the mentum or chin. Their free extremity is directed abruptly 
 from within outwards. The palpi are large pieces, supported 
 by the maxillae, curved, pointed, and composed of three unequal 
 joints. The terminal joint, which is the smallest, presents ex- 
 ternally a single long hair, while the middle joint has two. 
 The lower lip is nearly triangular, and somewhat pointed. 
 Towards its base and on both sides there is a very long hair ; 
 above and near to its middle portion it is provided with a 
 lancet-shaped tongue. The whole of the rostrum is surrounded 
 at its commencement by a thin sinuous margin (camerostoma), 
 This margin advances on to the sides of the palpi in the form 
 of transparent membranous plates, which are as long as the 
 organs themselves. It is these processes which have been 
 mistaken sometimes for false palpi, and sometimes for lips. 
 
 5. ACTION ON MAN. The Sarcopti are found more especially 
 upon the hands, in the intervals of the fingers, on the anterior 
 surface of the wrist, on the penis, in the bend of the arm, on 
 the breasts and on the abdomen in women, on the ankle, and, 
 last, more rarely on other parts of the body, the face forming 
 nearly always an exception. (Lauquetin.) 
 
 Their presence is recognised by that of the grooves. The 
 latter will be noticed presently ; their importance has been 
 strongly insisted upon as a means of diagnosis by MM. Biett, 
 Cazenave, and Piogey. 
 
 The Sarcopti give rise to an intolerable itching, causing the 
 patients to scratch themselves violently, and thereby increase 
 the disorder of the skin. The disease produced by the Sar- 
 copti has received the name of the itch. 1 
 
 The Sarcoptus of the itch is a nocturnal burrowing animal, 
 and is admirably adapted for eating its way through our 
 tissues, and living in them. Its great object, when it finds 
 itself on the skin, is to discover a fitting locality for its 
 habitation. It carefully explores the cracks and folds of the 
 epidermis ; it taps the base of the hairs where the follicle has 
 raised the cuticular covering (Bourguignon), and if the spot 
 seems suitable it immediately sets to work. 
 
 In the hollowing out of its gallery, the Sarcoptus is found to 
 exhibit distinct preferences. It prefers the hands ; it is found 
 in this part of the body seventy times out of a hundred ; it has 
 been noticed eight times out of ten on the penis. (Piogey.) 
 
 ing three hairs ; d, lower lip, with its small lancet-shaped tongue in the 
 middle, and supporting two small hairs; J5, a mandible separated; a, 
 its hook. 
 
 1 Psora, Linn., scabies, Sauvages, zoopsordermie, Piorry. 
 
PARASITIC INSECTS. 315 
 
 M. Bourguignon states that on the 4th of February, 1846, 
 he placed a female on his left fore arm. The animal, having 
 found a small portion of the epidermis detached between two 
 hairs, immediately fixed itself, and in less than ten minutes 
 had disappeared beneath the epidermis. But as the fore-arm 
 was not to its taste, the mischievous Sarcoptus, availing itself 
 of the sleep of the experimenter, during the night emerged 
 from its retreat to seek its fortune in some other part of the 
 body. 
 
 When a Sarcoptus, after several attempts, has selected a 
 locality which suits him, he elevates himself by the long hairs 
 attached to the posterior feet, so as to place himself at a con- 
 siderable angle with the skin, and with the rostrum placed 
 below. This position facilitates the first incision of the cuticle, 1 
 and the rostrum is soon buried beneath the epidermis. The 
 little miner continues working for about a quarter of an hour. 
 At the end of that time, he withdraws himself: it might be 
 supposed that he was about to select some other spot, but that 
 is not the case ; it is a necessary and intentional proceeding. 
 The animal next cuts the skin to the right and to the left of 
 the part where he first commenced. (Bourguignon.) The 
 object of this operation is easily understood as the original 
 aperture would not allow its body to enter, which is so much 
 larger than the rostrum. The Sarcoptus, therefore, enlarges 
 the passage so as to allow of his passing in. From this time he 
 is entirely buried in the skin, and does not again come out. 
 He continues to excavate to the right and to the left of him, 
 and in this way forms a curved passage. In this work the 
 jaws and the palpi move horizontally, and the maxillse nearly 
 vertically. M. Tandon does not consider that the hook be- 
 longing to the latter can be used in the work of excavation, 
 on account of its minute size (the supposed functions of this 
 organ are spoken of subsequently) ; the lower branch, however, 
 of the pincers may act as a kind of scoop. 
 
 The first difficulties having been overcome the parasite now 
 rapidly advances.* The horny appendage and the stiff hairs 
 support him, and furnish him with points of resistance in his 
 diminutive gallery. They are straightened out when the animal 
 is at work, but are laid smooth when he advances. 
 
 It is usually during the night that the animals are engaged 
 in excavating their galleries. 
 
 1 " Arant enim semper inter cnticnlum et cutem" (Caaal.) 
 1 " Proyrediuntur quati Cuniculi." (Casal.) 
 
316 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The galleries (cwiculi, Mouffet) (fig. 100), have the appear- 
 ance of white marks from one to two and a half lines in length, 1 
 
 and about two-thirds 
 of a line in diameter. 
 They resemble the 
 kind of mark which 
 is formed by a pin 
 being drawn lightly 
 over the skin. (Gaze- 
 nave, Lanquetin.) It 
 is not correct to com- 
 pare them to a 
 scratch. 2 These gal- 
 leries are curved, un- 
 Fig. 100. Groove. 9 dulating, or even 
 
 angular ; when fol- 
 lowing a natural fold of the skin they are straight. They never 
 open into each other. 
 
 The colour varies with the state of the patient. In young 
 children and in persons with a delicate skin, the galleries 
 appear of a greyish white ; in those who are dirty, and whose 
 skin is hard and coarse, they become of a dark blackish colour. 
 They also become of a particular colour in persons who are 
 engaged in certain occupations. (Lanquetin.) At certain 
 intervals, and generally where the furrows of the epidermis 
 cross each other, the galleries are pierced by small openings, 
 which allow the access of the external air, and mark the spot 
 where the little miner has rested himself. These openings 
 sometimes look like very small black dots ; it is through these 
 that the young escape. 
 
 Along the track of the galleries, or in its immediate vicinity, 
 is a vesicle about the size of a grain of millet seed, rounded, 
 pointed, and transparent at the summit, of a rose tint in the 
 child, and of a dark red or brownish colour in the adult. Its 
 base is sometimes surrounded by an inflamed areola, while at 
 other times the part of the skin upon which it is placed is pale. 
 These vesicles are sometimes apart, sometimes close together, and 
 
 1 It is said that at the period of laying the animal excavates with great 
 activity, and that at that time the groove may attain the length of from 
 four to five lines. 
 
 9 " Canaliculum longum instar sulculi relmquunt." (Casal.) 
 8 a, Sarcoptus at the end of its gallery; 6, the dead skin of the last 
 moult ; c c, eggs, the first about to be hatched ; d d, excrements ; e, young 
 or larva ; f, entrance to the gallery ; g g, small openings, through which the 
 air gains access to the interior of the gallery. 
 
PAEASITIC INSECTS. 317 
 
 at the end of a certain time are often confluent. In their interior 
 is a serous or viscous fluid, transparent, and of a yellow or rose 
 colour ; sometimes there is also a small portion of blood ; it is 
 then that the vesicle has a brownish tint. Occasionally the 
 gallery passes over the vesicle and rests upon it, an arrange- 
 ment which is easily understood, from the circumstance that 
 the gallery is beneath the epidermis, while Jhe vesicle is beneath 
 the derm or cutis. (Piogey, Lanquetin.) 
 
 The vesicle is not always present, owing to its passing 
 through its existence in four or five days, while the gallery 
 lasts for several months. 
 
 One end of the galleries terminates in a projection, which 
 requires to be carefully studied. This projection 1 looks like a 
 very small but well-defined white spot ; where this communicates 
 with the gallery, the latter appears as if it were interrupted ; this 
 arises from its being deeper at its termination. It is in this 
 depression that the Sarcoptus is lodged, for it is never met with 
 in the vesicle. (Renucci.) When the skin is carefully raised it 
 points to the posterior part of the animal. It was in conse- 
 quence of persons seeking for the Sarcoptus in the vesicle 
 itself that they were unable to find it, and were therefore led 
 to deny its existence. 2 
 
 The males do not form a gallery ; they are satisfied with ex- 
 cavating a space sufficient to conceal themselves in ; they hide 
 themselves beneath a raised portion of the epidermis, so small 
 that it is scarcely visible to the naked eye. Their hiding-place 
 is always near that of the female. (Lanquetin.) 
 
 In order to obtain a Sarcoptus the epidermis must be torn 
 away with a pin or a needle at about ^^ of an inch from 
 the white spot ; the part must be dissected very gently towards 
 the centre of the prominence already mentioned, the instrument 
 must then be passed beneath the animalcule, and the creature 
 carefully removed. (Benucci.) The only difficulty in the oper- 
 ation is to avoid killing the Sarcoptus. When exposed, the 
 little parasite looks like a grain of starch; he conceals his 
 rostrum and his limbs beneath the carapace, and pretends to 
 be dead ; if he is placed on the finger he remains for some time 
 motionless, but he soon regains his liveliness and moves 
 quickly away. (Eenucci.) 
 
 Is the Sarcoptus of the itch a venomous animal ? M. Tandon 
 
 1 Acarian eminence. (Bazin.) 
 
 1 " Hoc obiter observandum Syrones, non in ipsia pustulis, sed prope 
 habitant." (Mouffet, 1634.) " Acams sub ipsa pustula minime quaerendus 
 est, sed longius recessit, sequendo rugam cuticulae observatur." (Linn.) 
 
318 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 has no hesitation in believing that it is ; his jaws are miniature 
 representations of the antennal pincers of the spiders ; they are 
 provided with a moveable and pointed hook, which is received 
 into a groove with dentated margins, and can be opened in 
 accordance with the wants of the animal. In the spiders the 
 two hooks which are external move almost horizontally from 
 without to within, so as to antagonise each other, and so as 
 to seize and pierce tfieir prey. In the Sarcoptus these organs 
 are placed superiorly, and act from above downwards, but 
 without antagonising, so as to bury themselves in the tissue 
 and inoculate it with the poison. It has not, indeed, been 
 proved that the hook of the parasite is perforated at its ex- 
 tremity, 1 but it is reasonable to suppose that it is so ; since 
 that of certain acari, animals which are closely allied to it, 
 and whose mouth differs essentially from that of the Spiders, 
 does present a small but distinct opening. (Easpail.) 
 
 "When the Sarcoptus is working at its gallery it does not 
 make use of its poison ; but when the animal stops in any part 
 to eat, or for the purpose of depositing its eggs, it pierces the 
 tissue with its jaws, and discharges some drops of liquid. This 
 fluid acts like the poison of the Cynips, and produces a swelling 
 or vesicle, which may be regarded as an animal gall: * this explains 
 why the vesicles are situated deeper than the galleries. With 
 regard to those which are not placed in the tracks of the latter, 
 they probably arise from the absorption of the venomous fluid 
 by the lymphatics. 
 
 6. OTHEE SPECIES. It has been supposed that in Norway 
 there is another species of Sarcoptus peculiar to man, forming 
 a different kind of gall, the animal producing thick scabs, which 
 spread over nearly the whole of the body. Professor Boeck of 
 Christiana observed three cases of this disease in 1852. The 
 scabs presented masses of the Sarcopti, and of their excrements 
 and eggs. M. Boeck found that these Sartopti did not differ 
 from the species which has just been described. This view has 
 been confirmed by the observations of MM. Cazenave, Chauzit, 
 Lanquetin, Bourguignon, and Hebra. 
 
 The Sarcopti of the mammalia differ from that of man ; thus 
 the species belonging to the horse, of which a good representa- 
 tion has been given by M. G-ohier and M. Easpail, has a very 
 straight rostrum ; all the feet have carunculae, and at the same 
 time two rigid hairs longer than the ambulacra. 
 
 1 I believe T once detected a small opening. (Moq. Tandon.) 
 
 2 "In ipsa pustula proyeniem dcposuit." (Linn.) 
 
PARASITIC INSECTS. 
 
 319 
 
 Can the itch of animals communicate itself to man ? 
 
 M. Dumeril believes he has proved that a Phascolome from 
 New Holland transmitted its itch to several persons who were 
 employed in the Museum of Natural History. 
 
 Other examples appear to show that the Sarcopti of the 
 horse, the camel, the ox, the lion, the dog, and the cat, may be 
 developed on man, and produce a cutaneous disease similar to 
 that which occurs on the animal from which it had been taken. 
 
 It has moreover been recently shown that the species of 
 Sarcoptus which has hitherto been supposed to be peculiar to 
 man is met with on the hog and the llama. (Lanquetin, Robin.) 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE ACAEOPSE. 
 
 ALLIED to the Sarcoptus is an animal discovered by Dr. Leroy 
 de Mericourt in Newfoundland upon the person of an officer 
 who had come from the Havannah, and of which he has published 
 a description and drawing. M. Alexandre Laboulbene has 
 provisionally arranged this acarus in the group Tyroglyphus, 
 although he considers it must constitute a distinct genus. 
 
 Before he was acquainted with M. Laboulbene's memoir, 
 M. Tandon had named this animal in his lectures the Acaropse ; 
 he therefore continues to speak of it under this title. 
 
 DESCRIPTION. The Acaropse of Mericourt, Acaropsis Meri- 
 courti, TyroglypJius 
 Mericourti, Laboulb., 
 Acaropsis pectinata, 
 Moq. (fig. 101), is a 
 small acarus, '02 7 of an 
 inch in length, oval, 
 covered with long flex- 
 ible hairs, and of apale 
 colour ; the rostrum 
 (head, Laboulb.) is 
 projecting, conical, 
 and with a pointed 
 prolongation ; the 
 palpi are enormous, 
 
 Fig. 101. Acaropsis. 
 
 A, animal seen from its back ; B, right palpus. 
 
320 MEDICAL ZOOLOGT. 
 
 and greatly dilated at their base ; they form two oblong conical 
 bodies, attenuated at their extremities, slightly curved, and their 
 size is out of all proportion to that of the animal. These two 
 palpi are extremely divergent ; at the extremity is seen 1, a 
 kind of slender hook, slightly curved from without inwards, not 
 very pointed, and possibly articulated and moveable ; 2, another 
 hook placed internally, smaller and more slender, curved in 
 the same direction, of an oval shape, very pointed, beautifully 
 pectinated on its inner margin, and supporting at its base a 
 slender curved hair, which surpasses it in length, and appears 
 to be inserted on a small projection. The animal has no eyes ; 
 the thorax is confounded with the abdomen ; the feet are eight 
 in number, long, strong, and covered with hairs, but not having 
 one third the thickness of the palpi. They seem to terminate 
 in a rudimentary caruncule. 
 
 The animal is undoubtedly an Acarus, but it is distinguished 
 from all the known genera by the enormous development and 
 size of its palpi, and by the singular pectinated organ by which 
 they are terminated. The pointed rostrum appears to be com- 
 posed of modified jaws, which are straight, pointed, and form a 
 beak. 
 
 Ought not the enormous didactile arms, described as palpi, 
 to be considered as antennae converted into pincers ? 
 
 2. ACTION ON MAN. The Acaropsis Mericowrti was noticed 
 in a patient with an exanthematous eruption. Three indi- 
 viduals were procured from pus which was discharged from the 
 ear after inflammation of the auditory canal. They seemed to 
 
 have lived in the pimples on the skin surrounded by a serous 
 
 H. j * 
 
 quid. 
 
 Was the animal really developed in the pimple, or did it 
 come from without ? It is extremely probable that it is a 
 species of Acarus peculiar to this exanthema. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE DEMODEX. 
 
 THE Demodex folliculorum, Owen, Acarus folliculorum, Simon 
 (fig. 102), was discovered almost simultaneously by M. Grustave, 
 Simon, and M. Henle, in 1842. M. Dujardin has studied it 
 upon his own person, and M. Gruby carefully examined it in 
 1846. 
 
PAEASITIC INSECTS. 
 
 321 
 
 Fig. 102. Demodex. 1 
 
 1. DESCRIPTION. The Demodex folliculorum is one of the 
 lowest organised of the 
 Arachnida, and has a 
 worm-like form. It mea- 
 sures from T Q to yfs of 
 an inch in length, and 
 from jfo to ^ of an 
 inch in breadth. The 
 body is somewhat flat- 
 tened, of a greyish white 
 and semi-transparent; the 
 head is confounded with 
 the thorax, and forms an 
 oblong cephalothorax; the 
 rostrum is small, and is 
 composed of two lateral 
 palpi with a sucker placed 
 between them. The last or terminal joint of the palpi appears to 
 be notched ; above the sucker is a triangular lip formed by two 
 slender pieces placed close together; the abdomen, which is 
 small in the young animal, is elongated in the adult, and 
 gradually narrows and terminates in a point ; it might be. 
 compared to a long tail, and gives the animal a vermiform 
 appearance. When the Demodex is in motion, its diminutive 
 feet are moved alternately and with great quickness; they 
 are aided by the palpi and the rostrum, as well as by the 
 vermicular contractions of the abdomen. The feet are eight in 
 number, and are placed at equal intervals ; they are short, 
 conical, and composed of three joints, of which the last is pro- 
 vided with three hooks, one long and two short. The young 
 animal has only six feet ; these organs are remarkable for their 
 shortness, scarcely reaching to the margin of the cephalothorax ; 
 they appear to be quite rudimentary, especially when they are 
 compared with those of the Sarcopti. 
 
 When examined under a microscope with a high power, 
 the body of the Demodex presents a number of minute granules, 
 and some roundish uneven transparent corpuscles, which are 
 possibly the eggs or the extremely young animals. 
 
 The Demodex is oviparous. The eggs are very large in pro- 
 portion to the size of the animal; they are elongated and 
 somewhat pointed at the ends. (Lanquetin.) M. Tandon 
 examined one, shortly before it was hatched, when the feet 
 and rostrum of the young animal could be seen within it. 
 1 A, animal seen from the abdomen ; B, rostrum ; C, egg. 
 
 T 
 
322 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Three principal forms of this Acarus have been observed : 
 1, the cephalothorax, equalling one-third of the length of the 
 abdomen, which is soft, terminated by a rounded extremity, and 
 marked by fine transverse lines this is probably the typical 
 form ; 2, the cephalothorax, as long as the abdomen or nearly 
 so; 3, the cephalothorax longer than the abdomen, and the 
 latter terminating in a point. 
 
 2. ACTION ON MAN. The Demodex occurs in both sexes and 
 at every age, excepting that of the young infant. M. Simon 
 found them in the nose, and M. Henle in the external auditory 
 canal. They appear to be very common, since out of every ten 
 individuals they will be found in at least one or two. M. 
 Gruby states that he met with them in forty persons out 
 of sixty. 
 
 The Demodex is found in the normal or dilated ducts of the 
 sebaceous glands, particularly in those of the alse of the nose ; 
 they also live in the follicles of the hairs of the nose, especially 
 those which are distended by epithelial cells, or by the accumu- 
 lation of fatty globules ; lastly, they are found in the follicles 
 of the hairs of the face, lips, forehead, and cheeks. 
 
 The animals are placed parallel to the axis of the follicle 
 with their heads directed towards the base of the sac. Persons 
 whose skins are greasy and those who have freckles seem to be 
 most liable to them. 
 
 These Arachnida generally live in small communities; as 
 many as from fifteen to eighteen may be found in a single 
 follicle. 
 
 The Demodex is entangled in the midst of the fatty and 
 sebaceous matter. 
 
 These animals do not cause any diseased action. When they 
 are numerous the skin swells and becomes red and wrinkled ; 
 the mouths of the follicles are much dilated, and there is a 
 considerable amount of itching. 
 
 In order to procure these animals it is sufficient to squeeze 
 the parts which are affected by them between the fingers, and 
 then to examine the expressed matter beneath the microscope. 
 [The addition of a drop of sweet oil to the small particle of 
 sebaceous or fatty matter in which the Demodex is enclosed 
 facilitates the finding of the animal, and serves to free it from 
 the extraneous matter.] In the dead body, sections of the 
 skin may be made in the direction of the length of the 
 follicles. 
 
PAEASITIC INSECTS. 323 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SOME OTHEE SPECIES OF ACAEI. 
 
 THE Dermanysus ofBory, Dermanyssus Boryi, Grerv. This 
 species of Arachnida was observed on a lady forty years of 
 age, and has been described and figured by Bory de Saint- 
 Vincent. 
 
 The lady was troubled with a slight itching on every part 
 her of body ; this gradually increased, and at length became 
 unbearable ; whenever she rubbed or scratched the parts which 
 were most irritable, a number of little acari, hardly visible to 
 the naked eye, came forth ; the largest was not half the size 
 of a tobacco seed ; they were of a brownish colour, and ran 
 about by thousands in every direction. Several of them, when 
 placed in a box on a piece of muslin, lived from forty-eight to 
 fifty hours. 
 
 Did these animals really come from the body of the person ? 
 
 Was it not the same in this case as in a similar one related 
 by M. Simon of a woman at Berlin, whose skin appeared to 
 produce a number of small acari? It was found that they 
 were the common Dermanyssus, Avium, which the woman got 
 every day in passing through a hen-house. 1 
 
 2. The Dermanyssus of Busk. Is the acarus described by 
 M. Busk to be considered as another species of Dermanyssus 
 which is peculiar to man ? This creature was found in some 
 large sores on the soles of the feet of a black sailor. 
 
 The patient appeared to have contracted the disease by wear- 
 ing a pair of shoes which he had lent to another negro, whose 
 feet were ulcerated in a similar manner. The latter was an 
 inhabitant of Sierra Leone, a circumstance which is remarkable 
 in conjunction with the fact that in some water which was 
 brought from the river Sirrae, on the coast of Africa, one very 
 nearly perfect specimen, and fragments of others very similar 
 to, if not identical with, the one noticed in the negro's foot, 
 were found. 2 
 
 3. EUTARSUS CANCEIFOEMIS. This arachnida was noticed 
 by Dr. Hessling in 1852, in a case of plica polonica. The 
 animal has a rounded cordiform shaped body, very obtuse, and, 
 as it were, hollowed out in front. The feet are close together, 
 and somewhat curved. 
 
 1 See page 296. 
 
 8 Kuchenmeister, opus cit, vol. ii p. 242. 
 
 T 2 
 
324 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 4. C(ELOGOTATmjs MOESITANS. This species was also found 
 by Dr. Hessling under the same circumstances as the preceding. 
 The body is* rigid, and somewhat pointed anteriorly and 
 posteriorly. The feet are arranged in two groups, like those 
 of the Sarcoptus, and armed with small hairs. 
 
 M. Hessling does not consider that either of these insects 
 is peculiar to the disease, but that it merely afforded a favour- 
 able locality for their development. 
 
 We find, therefore, that it is especially amongst the Acari 
 that we meet with the cuticular parasites. Messrs. Kirby and 
 Spence have proposed to designate the diseases which these 
 animals give rise to by the general name of Acariasis. 
 
 BOOK VII. 
 
 INTEENAL PAEASITES OE ENTOZOA. 
 
 THE study of the External Parasites naturally leads to that 
 of the Internal Parasites. The number of the latter animals is 
 very considerable, if we associate with the true Parasites the 
 animals which accidentally suck our blood or devour our organs, 
 creatures which are sometimes 1 even more formidable than those 
 that we are about to describe. The Internal Parasites, that 
 is to say, the animals which live constantly at the expense of 
 man, either when he is in health or in a state of disease, are 
 not numerous, nor need they alarm us, for the disorders which 
 they give rise to are not in general very severe. Thus, as it has 
 been mentioned elsewhere, 2 it is one of the conditions of para- 
 sitism that the animal upon which the parasite lives must not 
 be destroyed by it. We have seen that children sometimes 
 support thousands of worms, and yet they do not appear to be 
 ill. It is true that in many cases the parasite does not so much 
 attack the organism in which it is placed as its superabundant 
 products. (Beneden.) 
 
 In medical Natural History the term Entozoa is given to 
 those parasites which live in the cavities or tissues of the body. 
 Some writers have proposed to call them Entoparasites. 
 ' Most of the Entozoa are born externally, and are only intro- 
 duced in man's body at some determinate period of their 
 existence. 
 
 These animals may be divided into four series 1. INSECT 
 ENTOZOA ; 2. CEUSTACEOTJS ENTOZOA ; 3. ENTOZOIC WOBMS ; 
 4. INFUSOEIAL ENTOZOA. 
 
 1 See p. 239. 
 8 See p. 242. 
 
PA.EA8ITIO INSECTS. 325 
 
 SECTION L 
 
 INSECT ENTOZOA. 
 
 (Estridea. 
 
 VETERINARY surgeons and entomologists have long known 
 that the ox, sheep, horse, dog, <fec., are tormented by the larvae 
 of certain flies which live in their bodies as true parasites. 
 These larvae belong to the family (Estridea. 
 
 It was thought at first that these Insects were only met with 
 in the mammalia. Condamine and Barrere state that they 
 have found them under the skin and in the nostrils of man ; 
 but their accounts are very indefinite. Rudolphi admits the 
 fact. Latreille relates that larvae similar to those of the 
 tKstridea had been extracted several times from the maxillary 
 and frontal sinuses of man ; these cases are, however, by no 
 means well authenticated. 
 
 The majority of these instances, and many others which it 
 would be easy to accumulate, are wanting in accuracy, and 
 would equally apply to the larva of the Muscida as of the 
 (Estridm. 
 
 Facts which unfortunately cannot be doubted, prove that the 
 larvae of some of the latter family, which are parasitic upon the 
 mammalia, may occasionally be developed in man ; and that it 
 is even possible that one or two species exist which are peculiar 
 to him. 
 
 1. CUTEREBRA NOXIALIS, Goud. M. Justin Goudot has 
 mentioned that a species of (Estrus, which he names Cuterebra 
 noxalis, commits serious ravages in certain parts of America, 
 more particularly in New Grenada. 
 
 The genus Cuterebra was proposed by Bracy Clark, and 
 adopted by Latreille. Its characters are cavity of the mouth 
 straight and triangular, forming a small retractile proboscis ; 
 no palpi ; and the antennas with a plumose style. 
 
 The Cuterebra noxialis has been found in the ox, the dog, 
 and the jaguar. Its presence in man is more rare. 
 
 Description. The insect is eight lines in length. It has the 
 forehead projecting, obtuse, brown, and covered with blackish 
 hair ; the antennae are yellow, with the first joint furnished at 
 its extremity with a small tuft of short hairs ; the eyes are 
 brown, with a blackish band in the middle; the thorax, 
 of a blueish tinge, marked with grey and black longitudinal 
 bands, is covered with very short black hairs ; the abdomen, 
 spotted with a beautiful blue colour, has a dirty white tinge on 
 
326 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 the first segment, and on the anterior margin of the second ; 
 the wings are brown ; and the feet yellow, with hairs of the same 
 colour (male). 
 
 The larva is known in Cayenne as the Macaque, and in New 
 Grenada as the Gusano. It attains a length of nearly thirteen 
 lines. Its body is smooth, and of a whitish colour. The first 
 three segments are covered with irregularities, in the form of 
 very small black spines ; the three following have two circular 
 rows of hooks of the same colour, more robust, and directed 
 backwards. The mouth is armed with two hooks. 
 
 2. OTHEE, SPECIES. Linnaeus, in a letter to Pallas, mentions 
 another larva of a diptera which lives in the human body. 
 G-melin speaks of this insect under the name of (Estrus hominis. 
 This is also found in America. 
 
 The knowledge which we have of this animal is confined to 
 its size, which is that of the common fly ; and to its colour, 
 which is a uniform brown (totus fuscus) . 
 
 Its larva lives six months under the skin of the abdomen. 
 
 This is very probably another species of the Cuterebra. But 
 is it really confined to man, or does it, like the preceding 
 species, belong to the mammalia as well as to man ? M. Justin 
 Guidot regards it as altogether an imaginary species. 1 
 
 The larva of an (Estrus was found on the head of a man in 
 Trinity Island. It is deposited in the College of Surgeons in 
 London. Mr. Hope has named it (Estrus Guildingii. Is this 
 a distinct species from that of M. Goudot ? 
 
 Lastly, several cases have been observed in Europe of 
 (Estridea being found in the human body ; such as the Taon, or 
 (Estrus of the ox, and the (Estrus of the sheep. The one belongs 
 to the genus Hypoderma* the other to the genus CepJialemyia ; 3 
 the first is characterised by the opening of the mouth being 
 T-shaped, and by the absence of palpi and antennae ; the second 
 by the mouth being round, by tuberculiform palpi, and by 
 antennae consisting of a simple style. 
 
 3. ACTION ON MAN. The Cuterebra are found on various 
 parts of the body, but more especially on those which are acci- 
 dentally uncovered. 
 
 Fray Pedro Simon, in his History of the Conquest of New 
 
 1 And that it is the same with regard to the (Estrus humanus of Eudolphi 
 and M. Guerin Meneville. 
 
 2 Hypoderma bovis, Latr.; (Estrus bovis, Linn. ; called by Keaumur Wasp 
 
 fly- 
 
 3 Cephalemyia ovis, Latr. ; ^Estrus ovis, Linn. ; called by Keaumur Fly of 
 the nose-worm. 
 
PABASITIC INSECTS. 327 
 
 Grenada, mentions certain larvae which torment the human 
 species. He says that they settle principally between the collar 
 of the cuirass and the skin. 
 
 Arture, physician to the King of Cayenne, says, that worms, 
 which cause considerable tumours, are sometimes found in 
 America, on the bodies of persons who are of unclean habits. 
 
 Alexander Humboldt states, that in South America he saw 
 Indians whose abdomens were covered with small tumours, which 
 he presumed were caused by the larvae of certain (Estridea. 
 
 Dr. Koulin has reported an interesting case which occurred 
 at Mariquita, in Columbia. A man had on his scrotum a tumour 
 of a conical form, measuring something more than two inches 
 in diameter at its base, and about five or six lines in height. 
 The apex, which was very red, presented a small opening, about 
 a line across. Dr. Roulin having enlarged the opening with a 
 lancet, a whitish pyriform larva issued forth, measuring as much 
 as ten lines in length and five or six in breadth. On the 
 thickest part of its body it had several rows of blackish spines. 
 The larva resembles one which in those districts is met with 
 in the skin of the cattle, chiefly on the sides of the neck and 
 on the shoulders. Dr. Eoulin saw a second larva of the same 
 kind in another man, in the skin near the nape of the neck. 
 
 The observations published by Dr. Ghiyon are perfectly in 
 accordance with the details which have just been recorded. He 
 found parasitic larvae in a negro on the twelfth day of a variolous 
 eruption. In the pustules on his legs there were whitish 
 worms, which the patient expelled by gently tapping his limbs. 
 
 M. Justin Groudot and Weddell have noticed similar in- 
 stances, the first in New Grenada, and the second in Brazil. 
 These facts have been confirmed by other cases collected by 
 Mr. Say at Philadelphia, by Mr. Howship at Surinam, and by 
 M. Percheron in Peru. 
 
 All these diptera appear to belong to the Cuterebra, but it 
 is not ascertained that all belong to one and the same species. 
 
 When a larva begins to develop itself in any part of the 
 skin, a slight pain is felt, and a swelling, with a minute open- 
 ing, from which a small quantity of a serous fluid issues, is 
 perceived in the neighbourhood. At this period it is easy to 
 get rid of the parasite ; a mercurial friction and a small quan- 
 tity of ammonia are sufficient to kill it. 
 
 If curative means are neglected, the animal grows rapidly, 
 buries itself deeper in the tissues, and produces a tumour, 
 which becomes gradually larger and more painful. It is then 
 necessary to extract the larva. 
 
328 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 It is more particularly afc five or six o'clock in the morning, 
 and at night, that the larvae begin to suck. M. Groudot com- 
 pares the sensation which they produce to that of a number of 
 needles being driven into the skin, only the punctures occur 
 in jerks. 
 
 The (Estrii of Europe introduce themselves far more rarely 
 into the body of man than the Cuterebra of America. 
 
 Wohlfart has published a remarkable case of an old man 
 who had been troubled for several days with an intense 
 headache, and who afterwards discharged from his nose eighteen 
 worms ; these were placed in a glass, with a small quantity of 
 earth, and were metamorphosed at the end of a month. 
 Wohlfart has given drawings of the larva?, and the flies which 
 come from them, but, unfortunately, they are very badly 
 executed. 
 
 Latham, in England, states that he procured the larvae of 
 (Estri, similar to those of the ox, from the frontal sinus of a 
 woman. 
 
 Bracy Clark reports that a larva of the same species had 
 been extracted from the jaw of another woman. 
 
 In the Journal de Vandermonde is the case of a country- 
 woman, who, being exceedingly thirsty, drank some water 
 out of a muddy pond, where a shepherd was in the habit of 
 watering his flock. The water got into her nostrils as well as 
 her mouth ; some days subsequently, after being very ill, and 
 when she had taken an emetic, she discharged about seventy- 
 two small white worms, precisely similar to those which are 
 found in the nasal fossa? of the sheep. 
 
 Robineau-Desvoidy communicated to the Entomological 
 Society of France the case of a woman who, after suffering from 
 violent pains and symptoms of inflammation of the neck of the 
 bladder, expelled with the urine the larva of an CEstrus. This 
 learned entomologist gives no intimation as to the genus to 
 which the larva belonged. 
 
 Bateman speaks of three larva? of the (Estri being taken from 
 the throat of a man, and Mr. Hope of another larva found in the 
 stomach of a dead body. Eudolphi, in Prussia, Eschricht, in 
 Denmark, and Metaxa, in Italy, have mentioned the presence 
 of other larvae in the ear, beneath the skin of the forehead, and 
 elsewhere .... Unfortunately, in all these cases the species 
 of (Estri cannot be determined. 
 
PARASITIC INSECTS. 329 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 CEUSTACEOTJS ENTOZOA. 
 
 The Linguatula. 
 
 THE Linguatultf (Linguatula, Frolich)were at first considered 
 as intestinal worms, having the general appearance, hooks, and 
 habits of these animals. Some naturalists have classed them 
 with the Arachnida. M. Van Beneden 1 has shown good rea- 
 sons for associating them with the Crustacea. These extra- 
 ordinary animals may, in fact, be regarded as Crustacea which 
 have been degraded to the form of a helmintha. 
 
 The LinguatulfB are characterised by a flat, elongated, sub- 
 articulated body, which is dilated in front, and attenuated pos- 
 teriorly ; an antero-inferior mouth, having two pairs of retractile 
 hooks ; an anal orifice at the opposite extremity ; and no limbs. 
 
 These animals possess a complete intestinal canal, a kind of 
 dorsal vessel, a nervous system, consisting of a rudimentary 
 ring without cerebral ganglia, but with a moderately developed 
 subsosophageal ganglion, from whence two principal filaments 
 proceed in the length of the body. The sexes are separate ; 
 the male orifice is placed anteriorly, and the female posteriorly. 
 
 The LinguatulcB are oviparous. The young animals resemble 
 certain Crustacea which are parasitic upon fishes. (Van Bene- 
 den, Harley.) 
 
 The Linguatulcs are at first asexual, and live encysted in the 
 body of different herbivorous mammalia. They pass from 
 thence into the bodies of the carnivora which feed upon these 
 animals, where they complete their development, and become 
 sexual. (Leuckart.) 2 
 
 1. LINGUATULA DENTICULATA. This animal has been seen 
 in the lungs, the trachea, the larynx, the nasal sinuses, and the 
 liver of several of the mammalia ; it has been found in the hare, 
 rabbit, guinea pig, goat, and more rarely in the wolf, dog, and 
 horse. It has received different names, derived from the 
 animals in which it has been found. 
 
 Description (fig. 103). The animal is from two to three 
 lines in length, and about one line in width, oblong, tongue- 
 
 1 [Van Beneden, Recherches sur Corganization et le developpement des Lin- 
 guatules Memoir es de I'Acad. Roy. de Bruxettes, 1849.] 
 
 * Linguatula serrata, Frol., Toenia caprina, Albig. ,Tetragula cama, Bosc., 
 Pentastoma serratum et denticu/atum, Rudol., Pentastomum constrictum, Sie- 
 bold, Linguatula constricta elferox, Guiith. 
 
330 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 shaped, obtuse anteriorly, somewhat narrowed posteriorly, flat, 
 transversely striated, and notched at its margins. Beneath the 
 obtuse extremity is an elliptical mouth, 
 supporting on each side a pair of hooks, 
 differing somewhat in size, the exterior 
 being the smallest; they are directed 
 from before backwards. 
 
 2. ACTION ON MAN. Siebold, in 
 1853, published the first account of the 
 occurrence of this Crustacea in man. 
 
 Siebold has associated with the Lin- 
 guatula a parasite discovered in Egypt 
 by Dr. Pruner in the small intestines 
 of negroes, and in the body of a Giraffe, 1 
 and of which Dr. Bilharz has recently 
 recorded some other instances. 
 
 Somewhat later, M. Zenker, prosector 
 at the civil hospital at Dresden, met 
 with cysts filled with Linguatulce in 
 eight bodies (5 males, 2 females). 
 
 Dr. Heschl, of Vienna, has confirmed 
 the presence of this curious Crustacea 
 in our bodies. 
 
 Fig. IQS.Linguatukt* 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 ENTOZOIC WOEMS, OB HELMINTHA. 
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. The parasitic worms which 
 are developed in the bodies of men and animals are termed 
 Helminiha. They have also received the names of Intestinal 
 worms and Entozoa proper. The division of Zoology which 
 treats of these parasites is called Helmintliology. 
 
 If the other divisions of natural history delight us by the 
 varieties of colouring, the beauty of form, the complexity of 
 structure, and the marvellous instincts of the creatures they 
 include, the study of the Helmintlia is equally interesting, 
 especially to the medical man, when it is carefully pursued. 
 
 For a long time little was known of any of the intestinal 
 worms excepting those which reside in the body of man, or in 
 those of the domesticated animals ; even of these only such as 
 
 1 Nematoide, Pruner, Nematoideum hominis viscerum, Dies. 
 
 2 A, animal seen from the ventral surface ; B, one of the hooks. 
 
PAEASITIC WOBMS. 331 
 
 live in the intestinal canal had been noticed, and the facts 
 relating to their natural history were exceedingly vague. It 
 was towards the close of the last century that men began 
 seriously to inquire into their structure and modes of life. 
 
 In the present work only those species of Helmmtha will 
 be treated of which reside in and derive their nourishment 
 from the human body. I shall therefore pass over those species 
 which are found in the bodies of our domestic animals, as well 
 the Accessory worm? that is to say, those of the Helmintha 
 which are peculiar to the mammalia, the fishes, or to other 
 animals, and only become introduced into our bodies acci- 
 dentally, or are placed there for the purpose of deceiving. 
 
 The Helmintha are invertebrata, unprovided with limbs or 
 organs of respiration. The character which they possess in 
 common is to lodge and nourish themselves in the human 
 body, during a considerable portion or the whole of their 
 existence. 
 
 These parasitic worms are sometimes solitary, and are some- 
 times collected together in variable numbers. They are met 
 with in different parts of the body, as in the alimentary canal, 
 or the ducts which open into it ; in the blood vessels ; in the 
 substance of the liver ; in the parenchyma of the lung, and in 
 the structure of the brain. They have even been found.'in the 
 osseous tissue, and in the midst of the fat. It is exceedingly 
 important, even for the zoologist, to be aware of what part of 
 the body they inhabit, since it facilitates the determination of 
 the species. It may be said generally that the Helmintha 
 almost always reside upon the mucous membranes or in the 
 cellular tissue. 
 
 The presence of these worms occasionally produces scarcely 
 any appreciable disorder. The animals live, as it were, in a 
 latent state. In some cases there is a slight irritation, or a 
 trifling amount of itching. At other times there is a feeling of 
 weight, or increased appetite, occasionally an undefined feeling 
 of illness, or sudden and violent pain ; the person gets thin ; 
 there are pains in the intestines, haemorrhages, chronic inflam- 
 mation, and the formation of abscesses. These disorders are 
 followed by spasmodic convulsions, chorea, epilepsy, amaurosis, 
 apoplexy, and a disease similar to what is commonly termed 
 the " staggers " in sheep. In some cases, which are happily 
 very rare, these disorders terminate in death. The various dis- 
 eases attendant upon the presence of the entozoa are fully 
 
 1 Vermes accessorii. (Bremser.) 
 
332 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 described in the excellent work of M. Davaine, entitled Traite 
 des Entozoaires et des maladies vermineuses. 
 
 [The English reader will find a full account of the diseases 
 and their treatment in Dr. Lankester's valuable transla- 
 tion of Kiichenmeister's work on the Animal and Vegetable 
 Parasites of the Human body, published by the Sydenham 
 Society.] 
 
 The injurious effects of these Entozoa must not, however, 
 be exaggerated. M. Dujardin has met with cases in which the 
 animals were developed by thousands, and yet the persons 
 appeared to be in good health. 
 
 The multiplication of the worms is most rapid in debilitated 
 persons, who are living in cold and damp situations, and who 
 are already in a bad state of health from other causes. 
 (Grisolle.) Improper nourishment greatly favours the appear- 
 ance of the Helmintha. Damaged food, green fruits, stale 
 vegetables, sweets, impure water, are all of them circumstances 
 which have considerable influence on the development of these 
 animals. Childhood is the period of life which most favours 
 their presence, possibly in consequence of the preponderance 
 of the lymphatic system in the early periods of life. (Bouchut.) 
 Some families seem to be more predisposed to verminous affec- 
 tions than others. It appears, also, that the nature of the^con- 
 stitution (Jielminthous, E-eq.) has great influence. 
 
 Some Entozoa are indigenous to several countries, as, for 
 example, the Tcenia to Germany and to Holland, and the Both- 
 riocephalus to Switzerland and to Russia. (Boudin.) 
 
 The Helmintha are worms having generally long cylindrical 
 bodies. Some are thread-like, others ribbon-shaped, and some 
 resemble small leaves. In some the body is elastic, and covered 
 by a strong integument ; while others are soft, and have no 
 distinct integument. Their bodies are either transversely 
 striated or distinctly articulated, and of a white, greyish, 
 yellow, or reddish colour. The contents of the alimentary canal 
 and the ova frequently modify the colour. 
 
 One division of the Entozoa have a complete intestine, pro- 
 vided with a mouth and an anus. In a few the mouth pre- 
 sents certain hard parts ; some have a ramified digestive canal, 
 with only one orifice ; others have oral suckers, and have no 
 anal orifice or intestine. 
 
 A nervous system is only found in a small number, and is 
 always of a rudimentary kind. Some have suckers or hooks, 
 by means of which they can fix themselves. 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 333 
 
 The ancients believed in the spontaneous reproduction of the 
 intestinal worms. Some were supposed to originate from 
 imperfectly digested food; others from decomposing excre- 
 ments; some from vitiated and fermented bile; and others, 
 again, from the crude, thickened, and putrifying humours. 1 
 
 " Worms," says Ambrose Pare, " are formed from a thick, 
 viscous, crude matter, which, becoming corrupted in the 
 stomach, then descends into the intestines." 
 
 The theory of spontaneous generation has been maintained 
 in our own time oy several physiologists of repute, 2 Eedi, 
 Audry, and Vallisneri strongly protested against this ancient 
 doctrine. Thanks to the labours of many eminent naturalists 
 of the present day, 3 this mode of reproduction is no longer 
 admissible. It is now generally admitted that the Entozoa 
 are produced by other Entozoa. 
 
 In these animals the sexes may be separated or united. The 
 males are generally provided with a verge or xpicu\um, which 
 may be single or double. Their spermatozoa are sometimes 
 filiform, sometimes globular, diaphanous, and more or less 
 adhesive. There are oviparous Entozoa and ovoviviparous En- 
 tozoa. The larvae, in a great number, differ materially from 
 the adult. Some can reproduce themselves by gemmae or buds, 
 giving rise to the curious phenomena of the alternation of 
 generations. Lastly, it has been shown that at a certain 
 period of their lives some of these animals make extended 
 migrations, in order to reach the individual in whose body they 
 are ultimately to reside. 
 
 The Helmintha of man may be divided into two series : the 
 cylindrical, which are provided with a visceral cavity, and the 
 noncylindrical, which are deprived of a visceral cavity. Of the first 
 some live in the alimentary canal ; 4 these consist of the genera 
 ASCARIS, OXTURUS, TEiciiocEPHALus, and ANCY.LOSTOMA ; 
 others reside out of the alimentary canal ; these include the 
 genera STRONGYLUS, SPIROPTERA, and FILARIA. The second 
 are flat, and are found external to the alimentary canal ; these 
 constitute the genera THECOSOMA, DISTOMA, and FESTUCARIA; 
 or they may have a riband-like form, and live in the canal ; 3 
 
 * Ex cruda crassaque materia pituitosa putrescente. (Avicenna.) 
 
 * Bremser, Lamarck, Frey, Duges, Dujardin, Burdach, Berard, Pouchet, 
 etc. 
 
 8 Siebold, Van Beneden, Klichenmeister, Leuckart, Filippi, Claude Ber- 
 nard, etc. 
 
 4 This refers to the perfect state, for the larvee of a great number live out 
 of the alimentary canal, and even external to man. 
 
 * The larvae all live external to man, and external to the digestive canal. 
 
334 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 these are the genera T^ENIA and BOTHBIOCEPHALTJS ; in all, 
 twelve genera. The following is a table of these genera, with 
 their principal characters : 
 
 Genera of Helmintha living in Man. 
 I. CYLINDEICAL WITH A TISCEEAL CAYITY. 
 
 A. Living in the alimentary canal (unisexual). 
 
 1. ASCAEIDES. Body attenuated posteriorly, and still 
 
 more so exteriorly. Mouth with three tubercles. 
 Tail of the male narrower than that of the female. 
 
 2. OXYTJETJS. Body attenuated anteriorly, and still 
 
 more so posteriorly. Mouth with rudimentary 
 tubercles, and a dilatation around it. The tail of 
 the male somewhat thickened. 
 
 3. TEICHOCEPHALTTS. Body capillary anteriorly. Mouth 
 
 without tubercles. Tail of the male like that of the 
 female. 
 
 4. ANCYLOSTOMA. Body slightly attenuated anteriorly. 
 
 Mouth with four hooks. Tail of the male cup- 
 shaped. 
 
 B. Living out of the alimentary canal (unisexual). 
 
 5. STEONGYLTJS. Body attenuated posteriorly. Mouth 
 
 with six lobes. Tail of the male cup-shaped. 
 
 6. SPIEOPTEEA. Body attenuated anteriorly. Mouth 
 
 armed with papillae. Tail aliform. 
 
 7. FILAEIA. Body equal (filiform). Mouth with three 
 
 tubercles. Tail simple. 
 
 II. NON-CYLIKDEICAL AND WITHOUT A VISCEEAL CAVITY. 
 
 A. Flat (living externally to the digestive canal) .* 
 
 8. TnECOSOMA. 2 Unisexual. The male carrying the 
 
 female in a groove on its abdomen. 
 
 9. DISTOMA. Androgynous. An abdominal sucker. 
 
 10. FESTTJCAEIA. Androgynous. No abdominal sucker. 
 
 B. Riband-shaped (living in the alimentary canal, andro- 
 
 gynous) . 
 
 11. TJEJQA. Tour rounded suckers. G-enital pores mar- 
 
 ginal. 
 
 12. BOTHEIOCEPHALTJS. Two longitudinal fossae. Geni- 
 
 tal pores mesial. 
 
 1 Two species of Distoma are exceptional inhabitants. 
 
 2 Body slightly flattened. 
 
PARASITIC WOEMS. 335 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ASCAEIDES. 
 
 THE genus Ascaris was established by Linnaeus. The term 1 
 is especially applicable to the Oocyurus* which, unfortunately 
 for the etymology of the subject, is no longer associated with 
 the present group. 
 
 1. ASCABIS LUMBEICOIDES. A. ffiffas, Goeze, Fusaria Itm- 
 bricoides, Zeder. This species is one of the commonest and best 
 known of the Helmintha. It is noticed by the most ancient 
 writers. The first inquirers gave this animal the name of 
 Lumbricus teres, and regarded it as identical with the Earth 
 worm, or Lumbricus terrestris. They supposed it was the same 
 worm, which, having been accidentally introduced into the 
 alimentary canal, had become modified by its change of resi- 
 dence. The Lumbricus terrestris is, however, an animal having 
 a far higher grade of organization. 
 
 The following are the characteristic differences of the two 
 animals : 
 
 Ascaris. Lumbricus. 
 
 1. Body without seta?. 1. Body with eight rows of 
 
 setae. 
 
 2. Movements very slight. 2. Movements active. 
 
 3. Mouth with three tuber- 3. Mouth with two unequal 
 
 cles. lips, one superior, one 
 
 inferior. 
 
 In addition to these characters, the Ascarides have colour- 
 less blood, a rudimentary nervous system, the sexes separate, 
 a permanent genital constriction in the female, the eggs sepa- 
 rate and provided with a thin semitransparent covering ; while 
 the Lumbrici are provided with red blood, have a well-de- 
 veloped ganglionie nervous system (with an oesophageal ring 
 and an abdominal cord), a genital enlargement at the period of 
 reproduction in all the individuals, and ovigerous capsules, pro- 
 vided with a thick opaque covering. 
 
 The Ascaris of man was for a long time confounded with 
 those of the horse and of the hog. In the present day it is 
 well known, that although the latter parasites are closely 
 allied, they are nevertheless distinct species. 
 
 M. Jules Cloquet has published an excellent work on the 
 Ascaris lumbricoides. 
 
 1 cHTKapu, a kind of worm. 
 a See the next chapter. 
 
336 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Description (fig. 104). The Ascaris lum- 
 bricoides is from four to twelve inches in length, 
 and from one to four lines in circumference ; it 
 is slightly attenuated at the extremities, 1 but 
 rather more so at the anterior. Linnaeus was in 
 error when he described the tail as triangular, 
 or as having three surfaces ; this extremity is 
 cylindrical or awl-shaped. The surface of the 
 body is marked by annular ridges and four lon- 
 gitudinal lines, one dorsal, one abdominal, and 
 two lateral. 
 
 This worm has a somewhat polished surface, 
 is of a whitish or milk-white colour, sometimes 
 inclining to a dull red, or more rarely to a brown 
 or blood-red colour. The skin is thick, strong, 
 elastic, and almost perfectly transparent. 
 
 There is no distinct head, and consequently 
 no neck. At the anterior extremity (fig. 104) 
 is a somewhat triangular mouth. Around its 
 orifice are three small tubercles, of which one is 
 superior, and the others inferior ; these are capa- 
 ble of being alternately divaricated and approxi- 
 mated. Rudolphi terms them valves, Cuvier 
 fleshy papilla, Blainville nodules, and Dujardin 
 valves. 2 Some writers have unadvisedly desig- 
 nated the whole as the head. These tubercles are 
 provided with a small cavity at the inner part 
 of their base. 
 
 The mouth communicates with an oesophagus, 
 which may be seen through the skin ; it is long, 
 somewhat triangular, and provided with thick 
 muscular walls. Very narrow at its commence- 
 ment, it gradually increases in size, and is then 
 suddenly constricted. The stomach consists of 
 two globular dilatations; its walls are thinner 
 than those of the oesophagus. The intestine is 
 straight, and presents some slight bendings ; it 
 becomes narrowed towards the vent. It consists 
 of two membranes, which can be separated from 
 each other ; the external is thin, smooth, and transparent ; the 
 internal thick, rugose, and slightly coloured. The canal appears 
 
 1 Linnseus says : " Corpus teres utraque extremitate attenuatum." 
 8 Treutler observed amongst a number of Ascarides in the small intestine 
 of a female, one in which the mouth had only two tubercles. 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 Ascaris. 
 
PABASITIC WOBMS. 337 
 
 to be surrounded by white vesicles, suspended in the cavity of 
 the body, which are regarded by M. J. Cloquet as absorbent 
 vessels. It is supported by two pair% of ligaments, one of which 
 is placed superiorly, and the other inferiorly. 
 
 The anus is situated near the posterior extremity of the 
 animal, and has the form of a transverse opening. 
 
 Each of the pairs of ligaments which have just been mentioned 
 form a triangular canal. M. Blanchard believes that in the in- 
 terior of these canals there are two vessels, one of which is deep- 
 seated, and the other placed superficially. The two deep-seated 
 vessels anastomose together opposite the anterior third of the 
 oesophagus. One of them is moreover provided with a small con- 
 tractile sac (heart?). The superficial vessels unite behind 
 the preceding and anastomose with them anteriorly. This 
 arrangement is very remarkable, and resembles that of some of 
 the anellida). 
 
 The Ascaris lumbricoides, according to the observations of 
 MM. Jules Cloquet and Blanchard, is provided with a nervous 
 system, consisting of two white cords running along the sides 
 of the body. By following the track of these nerves two 
 ganglionic masses are met with, united together by a double 
 cord, which surrounds the oesophagus. 
 
 Beneath the skin there are transverse fibres, placed at 
 regular intervals, and covering a thicker layer of longitudinal 
 fibres, from which filaments are given off, having no particular 
 direction, and of which the majority are free and floating in the 
 interior of the body. Many of these filaments attach them- 
 selves to the internal organs, and assist in retaining them in 
 their proper place ; they are more numerous towards the extre- 
 mities than in the middle portion of the body. 
 
 The Ascaris lumbricoides is unisexual. *M. Jules Cloquet 
 has calculated that the females are four times as numerous as 
 the males. The latter are smaller than the females ; this cir- 
 cumstance is remarkable, because, as a general rule, it is con- 
 trary to what occurs amongst animals which are polygamous. 
 Amongst the males, the caudal extremity (fig. 105, b) is some- 
 what slenderer than it is in the females ; it is also slightly 
 curved. The penis, or spiculum, is double ; it is formed of two 
 slender horny curved processes, rather less than a line in length ; 
 they are placed close to the anus, and emerge from this aper- 
 ture. The testicles and the spermatic cords are filiform, and 
 surround the alimentary canal. At the anterior third of the 
 body in the female is a circular construction (fig. 105, c). 
 Linnaeus did not notice this narrowing, but stated that at this 
 
 z 
 
338 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 part the animal had no enlargement (clitellum) like that which 
 occurs in the Earth-worm, and from this alone he concluded 
 that the Ascaris lumbricoides is very different from the former 
 animal; 1 Linnaeus would have found the distinc- 
 tion far greater if he had noticed, that there is 
 a narrowing where in the Earth-worm there 
 is an enlargement ; and that the one is uni- 
 sexual, while the other is androgynous. It is 
 in this constriction that the vulva is placed on 
 the right side. This orifice is very small ; it 
 communicates with a narrow vagina (oviduct of 
 Blainville) from four to six lines in length, 
 which leads to a short uterus, provided with 
 two long flexible horns, arranged in the length 
 of the abdomen, and formed of two distinct 
 membranes. These horns become continuous 
 with the ovaries, which are excessively long 
 slender tubes, twisted upon themselves, and 
 surrounding the alimentary canal. The ova- 
 ries closely resemble the testicles. At the 
 period of reproduction, the horns of the uterus 
 are filled with an enormous quantity of eggs. 
 M. Eschricht calculates that they amount to 
 several thousands in each individual. 
 
 The eggs (fig. 105, d) are ovoid, and covered 
 by a transparent envelope. Tyson and Wer- 
 ner, and subsequently Brera and Rudolphi, 
 described them as being villous. Goeze and 
 M. Jules Cloquet maintain that they are 
 smooth. 
 
 According to the recent observations of M. Davaine, these 
 eggs are expelled with the fa3ces. M. Richter, having 
 placed them in pure water, found that at the end of eleven 
 months they each contained a living embryo, but he did not 
 see them hatch. (Kiichenmeister.) M. Davaine has been more 
 fortunate, and was able to follow out their development, which 
 commenced at the end of six months. The embryo is cylin- 
 drical. The three lobes of the mouth are not present, and are 
 characteristic of the adult worm ; the caudal extremity termi- 
 nates abruptly in a point. 
 
 1 " A Lumbrico distinctissimus." (Linn.) 
 
 3 a, a cephalic extremity, with the three tubercles of the mouth ; b, cau- 
 dal extremity of the male, with the two spicula ; c, genital constriction of 
 the female with the sexual orifice ; d, egg. 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 Ascaris. 2 
 
PAEASITIC WOBMS. 339 
 
 [The following is the account which Kiichenmeister gives of 
 Verloren's and Eichter's experiments upon the eggs of Ascaris 
 marginata and of A. lumbricoides. 
 
 In the early part of the month of August, 1853, Verloren 
 put a fragment of a mature female, Ascaris marginata, of the 
 dog into water, so as to preserve the eggs in the water by the 
 prevention of evaporation. Of these he examined specimens 
 from time to time under the microscope. The segmentation 
 of the vitelli and the development of the young, immediately 
 commenced. In about fourteen days the process was com- 
 pleted, and perfectly developed young worms made their 
 appearance; these moved briskly within the egg shells, but 
 did not break through them, as Verloren expected, from similar 
 successful experiments by Schubart. With the decrease of 
 temperature towards autumn and winter, the mobility of the 
 embryos within the egg-shells also diminished, until at last it 
 entirely ceased in the winter, but recommenced in the follow- 
 ing spring, and again became very distinct in the summer 
 months. During the whole course of the experiment a spon- 
 taneous exclusion of the embryos from the eggs never took 
 place. In these eggs, therefore, the following remarkable 
 peculiarities may be observed: The eggs of other animals 
 may, indeed, lie for a long time before the young make their 
 appearance ; as, for example, in many insects ; but this always 
 takes place within a year; 1 the eggs of many animals may 
 also be delayed for a long time in their development, but 
 then the development of the young cannot have commenced 
 at all. But if this be once the case, and the young be 
 developed, it must either be excluded soon, or it "dies in a 
 few days, whilst in the present instance, the ready-formed 
 embryo lives more than a year in the egg-shell, like other 
 worms in an encysted state, which live enclosed in their 
 cyst. Both are, probably, enabled to live for a certain time 
 unchanged in the egg-shells or cysts, both, as is well known, 
 agreeing in being asexual, and therefore their species difficult 
 to determine; this condition is only changed by other favour- 
 able circumstances, and the animals thereby carried on towards 
 their development. Lastly, it is certain that the embryos of 
 the nematode worms may pass the winter in a sort of torpid 
 state in the open waters. 
 
 When Verloren set free the embryos artificially by crushing 
 the eggs, they soon died, partly stifled by the fungoid struc- 
 
 1 [That is to say, naturally, for Reaumur, by placing the eggs of the insect 
 in an ice-house, retarded their development beyond the year.] 
 
 z 2 
 
340 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 tures growing about them, and partly from their becoming 
 the seat of fungoid growths. Independently of Verloren's 
 investigations, and at a period when the experiments of that 
 savant could not have been known in Germany, H. E. Eichter, 
 of Dresden, had also put the eggs of an Ascaris lumbricoides 
 into water (on the 15th of November, 1854). The eggs, 
 which were all without living embryos, and which had not 
 even exhibited globules of segmentation, were not examined 
 by Eichter for some time after their being placed in water ; 
 but on the 15th October, 1855 (consequently after the lapse 
 of eleven months), he found living embryos in all the eggs, of 
 which he sent a considerable number to Haubner, Leuckart, 
 and myself. These were employed in experiments, which 
 unfortunately furnished no result. 
 
 When I examined dry eggs of the same worm, which Eichter 
 had sent to me, I had only the opportunity of confirming 
 Eichter's statement, that on the 15th of November, 1854, the 
 eggs had hardly commenced any development. 
 
 All this shows that a portion of the eggs of the nematode 
 worms issues, in the first instance, passively from the body of 
 their previous host into the external world, and first of all 
 passes the stage of its development, up to the formation of 
 embryos, in the open water.] 1 
 
 2. ANOTHEB SPECIES. Mr. Bellingham has described 2 an- 
 other species of Ascaris peculiar to man, which he discovered in 
 Dublin, and for which he has proposed the name of Ascaris 
 alata. MM. Dujardin and Diesing admit the species, although 
 it has only been observed once. The two individuals which 
 were found were females. 
 
 This animal was three and a half inches in length, half a line 
 in width anteriorly, and three-fourths of a line posteriorly. 
 At the anterior extremity it had two semi-transparent mem- 
 branous wings, extending for about a line and a quarter, and 
 rather straighter anteriorly than posteriorly. The body was 
 bent anteriorly. The tail was straight and spotted with black. 
 It resembles the species of Ascaris which infests the cat, 
 Ascaris mystaoc, Eiid. 
 
 M. Diesing suspects that this worm might have been an 
 Ascaris lumbricoides, whose skin had become inflated and 
 raised up around the mouth. If this species is to be retained, 
 the oral appendages approximate it to the genus Oxyuris, and 
 justify M. Diesing's union of these genera. 
 1 Opus dt, vol. l, p. 310. 
 3 [Annals of Nat. Hist., vol. xiii. p. 173.] 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 841 
 
 [Kiichenmeister rejects the Ascaris alata, observing that it 
 is probably only a young individual of one of the long-known 
 Nematoda, if, indeed, he adds, it be a worm at all.] 1 
 
 3. ACTION ON MAN. The Ascaris lumbricoides inhabits 
 every country. It is frequently found in the intestines of 
 children, less frequently in those of adults, and hardly ever in 
 those of old people. It is found more particularly in young 
 persons of a lymphatic temperament, who live upon bad and 
 indigestible food, and who inhabit low, damp, and ill-venti- 
 lated localities, circumstances which in large towns are very 
 common to the children of the poorer classes. 
 
 M. Cruveilhier found more than a thousand in the body of 
 a young idiot girl. 
 
 According to Petit, of Lyons, the son of a veterinary sur- 
 geon at Roanne discharged two thousand in the course of five 
 months. 
 
 The Ascarides are generally met with in the small intestines. 
 They have, however, been found in other organs, but this was 
 an accidental occurrence. Thus M. Jules Cloquet has seen 
 them in the large intestines. Rudolphi thinks that they are 
 always expelled with the faeces, when they have passed into 
 the colon. 
 
 These Helmintha may ascend to the stomach and from thence 
 to the pharynx. It has been stated that some have passed 
 into the larynx (Blandin, Tonnelle), and even into the bronchi 
 (Chassaignac), giving rise to very dangerous results. 3 M. 
 Jobert de Lamballe has mentioned the name of a person who 
 died suffocated by one of these worms, which had penetrated 
 into the trachea. MM. Lepelletier and Lebert have also men- 
 tioned a case of death from suffocation. 
 
 It is not extremely rare to find the Ascaris lumbricoides 
 introducing itself into the nasal fossae, and then passing out 
 by the nostrils. Achille Richard met with a case of this kind 
 in an infant. Martin Slabber speaks of a man who discharged 
 one when in the act of sneezing. Bremser has described a 
 similar instance, in which an old woman discharged one of 
 these worms when blowing her nose. M. Cruveilhier relates 
 the case of a patient, who, after excessive pain in one of his 
 nostrils, to his great astonishment, drew from it a very long 
 Ascaris. 
 
 The Ascaris lumbricoides may enter the biliary ducts (Ton- 
 nelle, Estevenet) and may even lodge itself in the gall-bladder. 
 
 1 Opus cit, vol. 2, p. 100. 
 
 * These perforations often take place after death. (Cruveilhier.) 
 
342 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Laennec met with it in the dead body of an infant which had 
 vomited a large quantity of these worms, the biliary ducts were 
 distended, and the substance of the liver looked as if it had 
 been eaten away. M. Bouisson has recorded an instance in 
 which a fragment of an Ascaris had become the nucleus of a 
 biliary calculus. 
 
 Grmelin discovered an Ascaris three inches in length in the 
 pancreatic duct. 
 
 Several of these creatures have been expelled through an 
 opening in the umbilicus (Poussin), and others, in a case of 
 strangulated hernia which was gangrenous, issued from an ab- 
 scess in the abdominal walls. Dr. Brizet, of Chalabre, found a 
 live Ascaris nearly eight inches long in a tumour in the groin, 
 which appeared like an inflammation of the inguinal glands. 
 
 Authors have recorded cases in which the patients have had 
 one of these worms in the maxillary sinus (Deschamps), in 
 the frontal sinuses, in the kidneys, in the bladder (Dumeril), 
 or in the uterus. It is, however, necessary to remark that 
 many of these cases are incorrect, and that what has been 
 mistaken for Ascarides has been either worms belonging to 
 other genera, the larvae of other animals, or even foreign bodies 
 of an entirely different nature. 
 
 The instances in which the Ascarides have been found in the 
 neighbourhood of the alimentary canal after it has been per- 
 forated, are extremely rare, in spite of M. Haspail's assertion 
 to the contrary, who considers these Helmintha as intestinal 
 leeches. MM. Becquerel and Bailly have mentioned an instance 
 of perforation of the ca3cum. A very curious specimen of this 
 kind has been preserved in the Dupuytren Museum. In 1808 
 M. Cloquet found in the body of an infant three large Ascarides 
 on the anterior surface of the sacrum, in the folds of the meso- 
 rectum. These entozoa had emerged^ through an ulcerated 
 opening in the intestine, but they had not caused any inflam- 
 mation. 
 
 The abscesses caused by these worms have been divided into 
 two series : the non-stercoraceous, in which the perforation is so 
 small that the fa?cal matter cannot pass out, and the stercorace- 
 ous, which allow the excrements to filter out. (Gruersant.) 
 
 The Ascaris alata was found in the small intestines. 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 
 
 343 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OXYURIS. 
 
 THE Oxyuris vermicularis, Deslong., Ascaris vermicular is, 
 Linn,, was regarded by LinnaBus as a species of Ascaris.' 1 
 
 It was Deslongchamps who established the genus Oxyuris. 
 The meaning of the word is pointed tail* a character which 
 perfectly applies to the females, but not to the males. 
 
 The Oxyurides are distinguished from the Ascarides by the 
 rudimentary condition of their three oral tubercles, and by the 
 aliform enlargements at the mouth, which are wanting in the 
 Ascarides. In reality, these characters are insufficient, and it 
 is this which has induced M. Diesing to regard the Oxyurides 
 as a section of the Ascarides. 
 
 1. The OXYURIS VERMICULARIS is the only species be- 
 longing to the genus which is found in man. The animal bears 
 a strong resemblance to the Vibrio of paste made from flour. 
 
 Description (fig. 106). The Oxyurides are very small Hel- 
 inintha, measuring from three to four lines in length. Linnasus 
 has . undoubtedly confounded them with another worm, when 
 he says they may attain the length of an inch. Their width 
 varies from the y^ to the -^^ of an inch. The body is filiform, 
 attenuated at the two extremities, 
 and provided with indistinct trans- 
 verse markings ; it consists of a 
 strong, elastic, semi-transparent 
 tissue of a snow-white colour. 
 
 Anteriorly these animals have a 
 slightly enlarged portion, which is 
 known as the head, and is sup- 
 ported by a very imperfectly de- 
 nned neck. Several writers have 
 imagined that this part is provided 
 with two appendages or membra- 
 nous contractile vesicles in the 
 form of wings. According to 
 MM. Dujardin and Baspail, there 
 exists at this part a uniform vea- Fig. 
 
 1 See preceding chapter. 
 
 * Ovs sharp, ofywk tail. 
 
 a, male ; b, female; c, cephalic extremity, showing the three tubercle 
 and the aliform dilatation ; d, caudal extremity of the male; e, caudal ex- 
 tremity of the female ; /, egg 
 
344 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 icular enlargement surrounding the anterior extremity, and 
 not independent and lateral membranous wings. When this 
 vesicular portion is examined beneath the micrscope, it 
 puts on the deceptive appearance of two segments of cir- 
 cles placed against an opaque canal. These segments 
 are marked by transverse striae, which have a very pleasing 
 effect. (Kaspail.) The mouth is hollowed out anteriorly 
 into the form of a sucker, and is consequently surrounded by 
 the vesicular enlargement which has just been mentioned (fig. 
 106, c). It has three slight projecting tubercles, and com- 
 municates with a short triangular oesophagus, which is provided 
 with thick muscular walls, and is dilated into a kind of crop 
 at its junction with the stomach ; the latter is short and 
 globular. The commencement of the intestine is enlarged, 
 so that the alimentary canal has the appearance of three 
 stomachal dilatations, which succeed each other the crop, the 
 stomach, and the intestinal dilatation. These pouches resemble 
 globules united at their extremities. 
 
 The intestine, which is nearly straight, runs in the length of 
 the animal, and preserves a uniform diameter up to the rectum. 
 It is often filled with a brown, yellow, or greyish, granular 
 matter. When the intestinal canal has arrived at the posterior 
 part of the body it becomes enlarged, and forms a short rec- 
 tum which occupies nearly the whole width of the visceral 
 cavity. Towards its termination the canal gradually narrows, 
 like the tail of which it fills the cone. At this part it appears 
 to be slightly sinuous, but not spiral, as is stated by Bremser. 
 This part is frequently empty. 
 
 A small transverse opening, the anus, which is possibly of a 
 semicircular form, gives exit to the granules which have been 
 previously mentioned. It is placed towards the middle part of 
 the base of the tail ; its margins are everted, and form a pair 
 of slightly projecting lips. 
 
 M. Delle Chiaje has pointed out a longitudinal central vessel 
 passing from the mouth to the tail. 
 
 The skin presents four longitudinal bands or fibres, which 
 have been well described by M. Baspail. These are placed at 
 equal intervals ; they are somewhat elevated, and more opaque 
 than the rest of the tissues, and extend from the head to the 
 extremity of the tail. These fibres give the animal that kind 
 of rigidity by which it is characterized. According to Duges, 
 the skin which fills up the intervals between the bands is com- 
 posed of closely arranged fleshy fibrillse, forming a longitudinal 
 layer on the exterior, and a transverse layer on the interior. 
 
PAEASITTC WORMS. 345 
 
 According to M. Easpail, the skin, when seen beneath the 
 microscope, appears to be composed of flattened cells having 
 the form of transverse parallelograms separated by fibres or 
 bands, more distinct in the transverse than in the longitudinal 
 direction. 
 
 If the worm is divided, the pieces contract, or become coiled 
 up. Duges has skilfully availed himself of these contractions 
 in the study of the different organs. On wounding or cutting 
 a living animal, the viscera sometimes form a kind of hernia! 
 sac and become more distinct. 
 
 During life the Oxyurides move in an undulating and 
 tolerably active manner. They twist themselves about in vari- 
 ous ways in the midst of the thickened mucus by which they 
 are surrounded. They can advance or retreat with equal 
 facility. It is said they can even leap, and in that manner 
 clear spaces six or eight times the length of their bodies ; the 
 vivacity of their movements is increased when they are irritated. 
 They move out of the way of any impediment which they may- 
 meet with. They appear to avoid the light ; their abode is 
 no better lighted than that of the majority of the intestinal 
 worms. 
 
 When they are wounded, the extremity of the body, which 
 is nearest to the injured part, seems to turn towards the wound, 
 to examine it, and to endeavour to remove this as the source of 
 its suffering. (Duges.) Every section, to whatever part of the 
 body it may belong, continues to live for some time if it is of 
 a suitable length. Duges observed that the part to which the 
 head was attached lived longer than that belonging to the tail, 
 and this longer than a section from the middle of the body. 
 
 The Oxyurides prefer living in society, and are seldom found 
 solitary. They gather together in clusters, intertwine, roll 
 themselves up into balls, and often form masses of considerable 
 size. 
 
 These entozoa are unisexual. The males (fig. 106, a, d) 
 seem to be scarcer and smaller than the females. They are 
 not more than from one to two lines in length. Their bodies 
 are thread-like, with the caudal portion somewhat thickened, 
 and bent into a spiral form. They have two spiculae. The 
 females (fig. 106, b, c) are fusiform, very attenuated posteriorly, 
 with the caudal portion awl-shaped and straight. The sexual 
 orifice is placed a little in front of the anterior fourth of the 
 body ; it is a transverse opening with projecting lips, which oc- 
 casionally gives egress to the eggs during certain contractions of 
 the animal. The oviduct may be compared to a straight bag, very 
 
346 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 long, and with great power of contraction, although formed by 
 an extremely delicate membrane. It is no doubt bound down 
 by the general covering, for when it passes out of wounds it 
 becomes elongated and much increased in size ; it occupies the 
 whole length of the worm with the exception of the cephalic 
 extremity and the tail ; there seems to be no opening excepting 
 that opposite the vulva. Anteriorly it becomes narrower and 
 more twisted ; posteriorly it terminates in a pointed cul de sac. 
 Towards the anterior third it presents a constriction. M. Bas- 
 pail shows that the anterior portion is more especially the ovary, 
 and that the remainder corresponds to the uterus. This canal 
 seems to consist of two folds, for Duges has remarked that where 
 there are wounds in the middle of the body there usually 
 emerges a large gut and a small gut. 
 
 The OxyuridcB are sometimes found twined round each 
 other. Some of these animals are probably in the act of copu- 
 lation. The observations of Duges on the Rhdbditis give some 
 support to this notion. As the males and the females are not 
 always met with at the same time, Bremser has suggested that 
 the generation of the Oxyurides is analogous to that of the 
 Aphides, which only produce females during the summer, while 
 food is plentiful, but during the autumn they lay eggs, which 
 in the following spring produce both females and males. The 
 latter fecundate their own females, and also those of the follow- 
 ing generation. It is difficult to decide the question. It may, 
 however, be remarked, that the nutriment furnished by the 
 rectum to the Oxyurides is always equally abundant, and if 
 there are circumstances under which it varies it does so with 
 great irregularity. 
 
 Dugs has on several occasions surprised the Oxyurides in 
 the act of laying their eggs. The eggs are very numerous. 
 M. Raspail has calculated that each worm may contain 3,024. 
 The eggs (fig. 106, /) are elliptical or oval, flattened, provided 
 with two coverings, and filled with a gelatinous transparent 
 material. Their long diameter is five or six times the size of 
 the globules of the human blood. The surface is granulated. 
 While they are still in the animal they are constantly chang- 
 ing their place ; some pass from before backwards, and others 
 in the opposite direction. It is this movement which has caused 
 several observers to mistake them for embryos, and to con- 
 clude that the Oxyurides were viviparous parasites. Goeze 
 is amongst the number. But, as it is mentioned above, Duges 
 has seen the eggs issuing from the vulva. At the same time 
 it is not impossible that these entozoa may be oviparous at 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 347 
 
 one season, and viviparous at another, just in the same manner 
 as the Aphides and the Planaria, although the locality in which 
 they, reside cannot be much influenced by external agents. 
 
 2. ACTION ON MAN. The Oxyurides are found in infants. 
 They are also met with in adults, but not so frequently. M. 
 Tandou knew a tolerably robust man, fifty years of age, who 
 had been tormented with them [for ten years. M. Cruveil- 
 hier found them in a person of seventy. These worms are very 
 common. Their presence seldom produces any serious dis- 
 turbance of the health. 
 
 Notwithstanding what has been said, they are not met with 
 in very young infants. M. Tandon's colleague, M. Natalis 
 Guillot, physician to the Hopital Necker, in the course of twelve 
 years never met with the Oxyuris vermicularis in children 
 before they were weaned. 
 
 These entozoa reside in large intestines, particularly in the 
 lower part of the rectum, near the anus. Their presence 
 causes a peculiar and disagreeable itching, especially at night 
 when the person is going to bed. 
 
 The faeces usually contain some of the worms, which twist 
 and move themselves about on the surface of the expelled mat- 
 ter, and die as soon as this becomes cold. They are never 
 found either dead or alive in the centre of the excrements, and 
 they soon perish when placed in any saline liquid. (Easpail.) 
 
 When the Oxyurides increase to an alarming extent, they 
 ascend the intestines and pass into the ca3cum. (Bremser.) 
 Wolf, Bloch, and M. Andral state that they have found some 
 of these animals in a cyst formed in the walls of the stomach. 
 Brera says that he has observed them in the oesophagus of a 
 woman. Fernel has stated that they sometimes pass into the 
 mouth, and that during sleep they even get into the nose. 
 
 In young girls the Oxyurides may introduce themselves 
 into the vagina. Sauvages gives the name of pudendagra ab 
 Ascaridilus to a disease caused by the irritation of these 
 Helmintha in the vulva. Becker, Scharf, and Bremser speak 
 of aged females in whom the presence of the Oxyurides had 
 produced a kind of nymphomania. Benedetti found these 
 worms between the placenta and the walls of the uterus in a 
 woman who was in the eighth month of her pregnancy. 
 
348 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 TRICHOCEPHALTJS. * 
 
 THIS animal was noticed by Morgagni, but, like many other 
 discoveries, it was forgotten. During the winter of 1760-61, 
 a student of G-ottingen, who was dissecting the valve of the 
 colon in the body of a young girl five years old, accidentally 
 opened the caecum, when several entozoa came out. H. A. 
 Wrisberg and some other students considered that these worms 
 belonged to a species not previously known. The prosector, 
 Ch. Th. Wagler, maintained that they were Oxyurides^ of a very 
 large size. Other persons mistook them for very small Asca- 
 rides. 2 From this a serious discussion, or rather quarrel, arose, 
 which might have been easily settled if the newly discovered 
 worm had only been carefully compared either with an Ascaris 
 or an Oxyuris. Brederer, having heard of the dispute, had the 
 animal in question brought to him, and having examined it with 
 Buttner, they both came to the conclusion that it was a new 
 species. Buttner gave it the name of Trichiuris (hair-tailed). 
 
 About the same time an epidemic was raging in the division 
 of the French army stationed at G-ottingen. Bcederer and 
 Wagler give it the name of morbus mucosus ; and as the 
 Trichiures were frequently found in the bodies of the soldiers 
 who died from it, Boederer entertained the notion that these 
 parasites were the cause of the disease. But all the soldiers 
 did not have Trichiures, and on the other hand many persons 
 had them, who had died from other diseases besides the morbus 
 mucosus. Linnaeus regarded the Trichiuris as a species of 
 Ascaris. It was, however, soon discovered that the anterior 
 part of the animal had been mistaken for the posterior, and 
 it was therefore considered necessary to change the name of 
 Trichiuris to that of Trichocephalus? 
 
 1. THE TBICHOCEPHALTJS or MAN. Trichocephalos hominis, 
 Goeze, Ascaris Trichina, Linn., Trichocephalus dispar, Budolp. 
 As the name implies, this is the only species which is found 
 in man. 
 
 Description (fig. 107). The worm is from one and a half to 
 two inches in length, and from y|^ to -j-jfo of an inch in width. 
 The body is cylindrical, slender, slightly annulated, of a white 
 or whitish, sometimes yellow, colour, and at other times of the 
 
 1 See preceding chapter. 
 
 2 See page 312. . 
 
 3 Gplvl rpixbs a hair, and we^oA); the head. 
 
PAEASITIC WORMS. 349 
 
 same colour as its food. The body looks as if it was formed 
 of two portions ; one anterior and filiform, the other posterior 
 and somewhat thicker. 
 The slender portion oc- 
 cupies two-thirds of the 
 entire length. Some 
 writers describe it as 
 the neck. It does not, 
 however, support any 
 cephalic enlargement, 
 but gradually narrows 
 to a point. 
 
 The mouth (fig. 107, 
 
 c) is a small round ter- 
 
 minal opening, which it Fig> 107 ._ Trichoceptialus* 
 
 is difficult to detect. 
 
 "Wrisberg believed he had seen a small tube at this part, but 
 
 neither Muller, Rudolphi, nor Bremser, was able to discover it. 
 
 The anus is placed quite at the posterior extremity of the 
 body. 
 
 The digestive canal forms almost a straight line from the 
 mouth to the anus. The esophagus occupies the capillary 
 portion. It must necessarily be of extreme tenuity. The 
 remainder of the canal appears to be somewhat thicker, and as 
 if it were muscular. According to Meyer there is no distinct 
 gastric enlargement. 
 
 The Trickocephali are unisexual. The males (fig. 107, a) are 
 shorter than the females ; the thick portion of their body is 
 proportionately long, and is bent into a spiral form. The 
 spermatic vessels are situated posteriorly, and after pursuing 
 a very tortuous course terminate at the anal aperture. At 
 that part there is a small, subcylindrical, elongated sheath, 
 which forms a cup at its termination, is semi-transparent, and 
 forms a case for the spiculum. The latter is single, filiform, 
 pointed, and capable of being retracted. The females (107, b) 
 are always straight ; never spiriform like the males. This cir- 
 cumstance at first led B/oederer, Wagler, and Wrisberg to look 
 upon the two sexes as two distinct species. Pallas discovered 
 the male in the Trichocephalus of a lizard, and described it 
 under a specific name (Toenia spiralis) ; he also thinking that 
 the spiral form indicated a distinct species. The oviduct is 
 
 1 a, male ; b, female ; c, cephalic extremity with the terminal mouth ; 
 
 d, caudal extremity of the male with generative sheath and its spiculum ; 
 
 e, an egg. 
 
350 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 placed around the alimentary canal, and opens at the junction 
 of the capillary with the thicker portion of the body. 
 
 The eggs (fig. 107, c) are large in proportion to the size of 
 the animal ; they are elliptical, and terminated at each extrem- 
 ity by a small rounded nodule ; the shell is strong. According 
 to the recent observations of M. Davaine, the eggs are not 
 hatched in the intestine of man ; they are always expelled in 
 the same condition as when they were laid. 
 
 M. Davaine has succeeded in developing the eggs in water. 
 At the end of six months the segmentation of the yelk com- 
 mences, and the embryo makes its appearance two months 
 later. To a certain extent it possesses the form of the adult ; 
 it is about the -j^g- of an inch in length. 
 
 TRICHINA. MM. Kiichenmeister and Weiland think that 
 the larva of the Trichocephalus is probably the small encysted 
 entozoa discovered in 1835 1 by Prof. Owen in the dead body 
 of an Italian, who died in St. Bartholomew's Hospital, and to 
 which he gave the name of Trichina spiralis. All the volun- 
 tary muscles of the body were observed to be covered with 
 minute white spots. Upon examining these granulations, 
 Prof. Owen found that they were oval, and each containing a 
 small worm. He considered the worm to be a new species, 
 which was not referable to any known genera. Several in- 
 stances of its occurrence have since been recorded by different 
 observers. [It has been found in England, Germany, and 
 Denmark.] 
 
 The cysts are of an elliptical figure, with the extremities more 
 or less attenuated ; they are always more opaque than the in- 
 termediate part of the cyst, which is in general sufficiently 
 transparent to show that it contains a minute worm coiled up. 
 The usual size of the cyst is -^ of an inch in the long diameter, 
 an( J __ of an inch across their middle part. (Owen.) Each 
 cyst consists of two layers ; the external is produced by the 
 diseased- tissue, and is surrounded by a vascular net work, 
 while the interior is formed by the worm itself. (Luscha.) The 
 worm has no organic connection with the cyst ; sometimes two 
 Trichina, rarely three, occur in the same cyst. By cutting off 
 the extremity of the cyst, which may be done with a cataract 
 needle or a fine knife, and gently pressing on the opposite ex- 
 tremity, the Trichina and the granular secretion with which it 
 is surrounded will escape ; and it frequently starts out as soon 
 as the cyst is opened. When first extracted, the Trichina is 
 
 1 Tiedeman noticed similar vesicles as far back as 1822. 
 
PABASITIC WOEMS. 351 
 
 usually disposed in two or two and a half spiral coils ; when 
 straightened out it measures -^ of an inch in length, and -^ 
 of an inch in diameter, and now requires for its satisfactory 
 examination a magnifying power of at least 200 linear measure- 
 ment. 1 
 
 The worm is cylindrical and filiform, minutely annulated, 
 terminating obtusely at both extremities, which are of unequal 
 sizes, tapering towards one end for about one fourth part of 
 its length, but continuing of uniform diameter from that point 
 to the opposite extremity, which is trilabiate. 
 
 At this part, which is the mouth, a minute papilla is seen 
 to form from time to time, and then disappear. (Luseha.) The 
 oesophagus is very long, and extends nearly half the length of 
 the body, a circumstance which should be borne in mind on 
 account of its analogy with the organization of the Trichoce- 
 pJialus. 
 
 ACTION ON MAN. The TricliocepJialus is far from uncom- 
 mon. It is found in France, England, Egypt, Ethiopia, and 
 more rarely in Italy. In twenty-nine individuals of both sexes 
 and various ages, who died in Dublin of different diseases, Mr. 
 Bellingham met with it twenty-six times ; in seventeen bodies 
 Mr. Cooper, of Greenwich, found it eleven times ; and in 
 eighty individuals who died of cholera at Naples, Dr Thibault 
 found it in all of them. M. Davaine calculates that in Paris 
 one person in two is attacked by it. 
 
 These worms are sometimes found in considerable numbers. 
 As many as ninety-two were taken from the coecum of a 
 woman, who died from colliquative diarrhoea. (Lobstein.) Bel- 
 lingham found one hundred and nineteen in one body, and 
 Rudolphi even as many as one thousand. 
 
 The Trichocephalus inhabits the coecum, or as far as the 
 commencement of the colon. Werner assures us that he has 
 obtained it from the lower part of the ilium. 
 
 Its anterior extremity is usually buried in the mucous mem- 
 brane of the intestine, while the remainder of its body appears 
 free in the midst of the mucous secretion. 
 
 The animal is very common in persons attacked with typhus 
 fever, but it is also found in a great number of other diseases. 
 It is moreover met with in persons who are in perfect health. 
 Its presence does not produce any serious disturbance, unless 
 they are present in krge numbers. 
 
 The history of the Trichina has been fully cleared up by the 
 
 1 Kich^rd Owen, F.R.S., Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy of the 
 Invertebrata, p. 94, 2nd edit., Lond. 1855. 
 
352 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 researches of Virchow and Leuckart, 1 and there is no longer 
 any question as to its being a distinct species of entozoon. 
 
 On feeding rabbits with food containing Trichince, Virchow 2 
 found that in three or four weeks the animal became thin and 
 weak, and died in the course of five or six weeks after taking 
 the food which contained the entozoa. When the body of 
 such an animal is examined, the muscles are found filled with 
 thousands of Trichina, and there is no doubt that death has 
 been produced by the progressive atrophy of the muscular 
 system, owing to the migrations of the Trichinae. 
 
 When food containing Trichinae is swallowed, the entozoa 
 become liberated from the muscular tissue in which they are 
 lodged in the stomach, and from thence make their way into 
 the small intestines. On the third or fourth day sperm cells 
 and eggs are found, and the sexes have become distinct. Soon 
 afterwards the eggs are fecundated, and are developed in the 
 body of the females. The young are expelled from the vaginal 
 aperture situated on the anterior half of the worm. Virchow 
 has found them under the form of minute Filaria in the 
 mesenteric glands and in the serous cavities, particularly 
 those of the peritoneum and the pericardium ; they appear to 
 traverse the intestinal walls, in all probability by penetrating, 
 like the Psorospermia, the epithelial cells of the intestine. 
 Virchow has been unable to detect them in the blood or in the 
 course of the circulation. 
 
 As they continue their migrations they are found in the 
 primitive muscular fasiculi, where they are met with in con- 
 siderable numbers three weeks after the food has been taken, 
 and have attained nearly the same size as those which had been 
 enclosed in the flesh eaten by the animal. 
 
 In order to be certain that the animal was not already in- 
 fested by the Triehince, Virchow, on several occasions before 
 feeding the animal, excised and examined a portion of the 
 muscles of the back, and was unable to find a trace of the 
 entozoa, where they were afterwards so plentiful. 
 
 The Trichina penetrate the primitive muscular fasiculi in 
 succession. Behind them the muscle becomes atrophied while 
 an irritation is excited around them, and on the fifth week they 
 commence to be encysted, the sarcolemma becomes thickened 
 and a cyst is formed around them. 
 
 Virchow prosecuted his experiments by means of the muscles 
 of a woman who had died in the same manner as has been 
 
 1 Gottingen Nachrichten, April 30th, 1860, p. 135. 
 
 a Annales des Sciences Nat., tome xiii., serie 4me, 1860, p. 109. 
 
PABASITIO WOBMS. 353 
 
 mentioned with regard to the rabbits, and whose body pre- 
 sented no other lesion than the presence of innumerable Tri- 
 chinas. What is most important, is the fact that these entozoa 
 may exist even in fatal numbers, and yet not be visible to the 
 naked eye. This was the case with the body of the female 
 mentioned above ; it is only when the cyst is in a very ad- 
 vanced state of cretification that they are visible to the naked 
 eye, and this may not take place for months after the animals 
 are first encysted. 
 
 The patient had been under the care of Professor Zeucher, 
 of Dresden, and had been brought from the country. On 
 making inquiries in the locality from whence the woman had 
 come, Professor Zeucher found that a pig had been killed con- 
 taining Trichina, and that the hams and sausages which had 
 been made from it contained a large number of these entozoa. 
 The butcher who had killed the animal and several other 
 persons had had rheumatic and typhoid symptoms of greater 
 or less severity, but no other person besides Professor Zeucher's 
 patient had died in consequence.] 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE ANCYLOSTOMUM. 
 
 THE genus Ancylostomum l is allied to that of Strongylus, 
 which will be noticed in the next chapter ; it is characterized 
 by having its mouth provided with a corneous armature. This 
 genus includes only a single species. 
 
 1. THE ANCYLOSTOMUM DUODENALE, Kuch., Ancylostoma 
 duodenale, Dub., was discovered, in 1838, by Dr. Angelo Dubini, 
 in the body of a young peasant in the hospital at Milan. 
 
 Description (fig. 108). The body of these entozoa varies from 
 about two and a half to rather more than four and a half lines 
 in length; it is nearly straight or slightly curved, cylindrical, and 
 transparent at the anterior part, yellow, reddish, or brown pos- 
 teriorly, and marked in the central portion with a small dark 
 spot, which corresponds to the commencement of the intestine. 
 
 The mouth is circular, and consists of a large horny capsule, 
 which is obliquely truncated, and is furnished at its upper part 
 with four strong teeth in the form of hooks, which curve towards 
 its centre ; on the inferior portion are four small conical pro- 
 
 1 "A7trv\os curved, and (rrj/to mouth. 
 
 A A 
 
354 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 jections, which are probably organs of touch. The oesophagus 
 is clavate, and the stomach globular, and of a dark colour. 
 
 The male is from two and a half to 
 about four lines in length, narrowed an- 
 teriorly, and with the caudal extremity 
 curved. At this part there is a sac with 
 a membranous cup-like appendage, pro- 
 vided with eleven radiating processes, five 
 of which are placed on either side, and 
 one in the centre ; all these processes are 
 simple, except the central, which is bifur- 
 cated. The spiculum is long and double. 
 The female is somewhat larger than the 
 male, measuring from three to four and 
 a half lines in length. One male is 
 found to three females. 
 
 M. Dubini once found a pair in coitu ; 
 the male was firmly attached by means of 
 his caudal membrane around the vulva 
 of the female. 
 
 2. ACTION ON MAN. Since his first 
 discovery of the Ancylostomum, Dr. Du- 
 bini has met with it twenty times in one 
 hundred bodies. MM. Pruner, Bilharz, 
 and Griesinger, found it at Cairo, in 
 Egypt, and M. Eschricht met with it in 
 Iceland. 
 
 The Ancylostomum inhabits the duo- 
 denum and the commencement of the 
 jejunum. The number of individuals is 
 sometimes very considerable. 
 
 The worm is firmly attached to the 
 mucous membrane by means of its hooks. 
 Where it fixes itself there is a slight 
 echymosis about the size of a lentil, in the centre of which is a 
 white spot perforated in the middle. It is said that these entozoa 
 sometimes give rise to intestinal haemorrhages. M. Dubini 
 believes that when numerous they may destroy the patient. 
 
 [Upon the latter point there seems to be no doubt. Grie- 
 singer states that from the wounds formed by the worms blood 
 often freely enters the intestines, and that such a piece of in- 
 
 1 Female Ancylostomum. 1, natural size ; 2, highly magnified ; a. 
 mouth ; b, anus ; c, common opening of the organs of excretion ; d, vulva ; 
 the convolutions of the genital tube are seen in the interior of body. 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
 Ancylostomum Duodo- 
 nale. 1 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 355 
 
 testine may be entirely filled with blood, which has flowed out 
 of the punctured places. One consequence of this disorder is 
 anaemia, and the same writer concludes that the chlorosis, so 
 generally diffused in Egypt, which he had previously described 
 as the Egyptian chlorosis, and which in a greater or less 
 degree attacks at least one fourth of the population, is pro- 
 duced by this worm. 
 
 In the milder form of the disorder, there is paleness of the 
 general integument and mucous membrane, palpitation of the 
 heart, quick pulse, slight bodily lassitude without emaciation, 
 and occasionally slight disturbances of the digestion (G-astro 
 enteritis) occur. If this condition remains uncured for a long 
 time it passes through many intermediate steps to the higher 
 degree of the disorder, which closes as chlorotic marasmus. 
 The disease often lasts for years, but in many cases its progress 
 is very acute. Even with great care the individuals remain 
 pallid, sickly, and miserable ; slight acute diseases, which make 
 their appearance, are very serious, and at last dysentery carries 
 off the patient. Only occasionally a patient recovers by a 
 change of climate and all other conditions of life. Fatiguing 
 labour and debilitating antiphlogistic treatment hasten the 
 end. Or the patients die from diarrhaea general dropsy with- 
 out albumen in the urine, &c., in spite of all the iron and 
 wine.] l 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 STRONGYLUS. 
 
 THE genus Strongyht* was founded in 1788 by Otto 
 Frederick Miiller in his Zoologia Danica. 
 
 The characters of the Strongyli are as follows: The body 
 elongated, cylindrical, and attenuated posteriorly ; the mouth 
 has six tubercles ; the tail is simple in the female, but in the 
 male it terminates in a cup, in the centre of which is the 
 double penis. 
 
 Lamark considers these animals as the most highly organized 
 of the entozoa. 
 
 The type of the genus was the species which is found in the 
 horse, tne StrongylvA equinus of Miiller, or Strong yliis armatus 
 of Kudolphi. 
 
 1 [Kiichenmeister, Opus cit, vol. i. pp. 386-387.] 
 a s, cylindrical. 
 
 A A 2 
 
356 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 1. THE STRONGYLUS or THE KIDNEY, Strongylus renalis, 
 Strongylus gigas, Rud., Eustrongylus gigas, Dies., has been long 
 known. Grmelin regarded it as an Ascaris, and made two 
 species of it. Rudolphi recognized that the 
 parasite belonged to the genus Strongylus 
 of Miiller. 
 
 Description. Strongylus renalis (fig. 109) 
 varies in length from six to thirty-two 
 inches ; it is said that it may even attain to 
 the length of six feet ; its thickness is equal 
 to that of a large quill, occasionally it is 
 equal to the diameter of the little finger. 
 Cuvier considered it was the most volumi- 
 nous of all the intestinal worms. It is, in 
 fact, the giant of the cylindrical entozoa. 
 Bremser speaks of a Strongylus from the 
 martin which was thirty-two inches in 
 length; this was probably a different 
 species. But if the kidneys of this small 
 mammal could sustain a worm of such a size, 
 there would be nothing surprising in finding 
 one three feet long in the human subject. 
 
 [A worm one foot eight inches in length, 
 occupying the entire capsule of the left 
 kidney, whose parenchyma was entirely de- 
 stroyed by it, is in the Museum of the B/oyal 
 College of Surgeons (No. 177a).] 
 
 The body of the Strongylus renalis is 
 cylindrical, and only very slightly attenuated 
 at the two extremities ; the surface is smooth, 
 and obscurely annulated. Bremser was not 
 able to perceive the rings. "When alive 
 it is of a reddish hue, either of a rose tint 
 or of a more or less intense brick red 
 colour. Some are of a blood red colour, 
 but this tint is soon lost when the animal is 
 placed in spirits of wine. 
 
 The Strongylus renalis has no cephalic 
 enlargement. The anterior extremity (fig. 
 110, a) is obtuse, and, as it were, truncated. 
 ^ ^ is P^ced in its centre ; it is cir- 
 cular, and surrounded by six tubercles. 
 The alimentary canal is straight, and more or less striated 
 transversely. Numerous filaments connect it to the subcuta- 
 
PARASITIC WO EMS. 357 
 
 neous muscular layer. The anus is 
 situated at the extremity of the tail. 
 The nervous system consists of 
 a single nerve, of a dead white 
 colour, passing along the ventral 
 surface from the anterior to the 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ posterior extremity; it is provided 
 ^^^ with a series of ganglions, from 
 
 rig. 110. titronqylus. 1 , . , i. r n^ 
 
 which a number ot nervous fila- 
 ments are distributed to the neighbouring parts. 
 
 The Strongylus renalis is unisexual. The males (fig. 109) 
 are smaller than the females. The dilated portions of their 
 caudal extremity (fig. 110, b) has the form of a sucker, with a 
 smooth even margin; in the centre is a projecting vesicle, 
 from which a long double filiform penis emerges in the shape 
 of two rigid and pointed threads. 
 
 The female has no caudal dilatation; the tail is simply 
 obtuse and slightly curved; the genital orifice is placed in 
 front of the centre of the body ; the ovary is single, and has 
 the form of a tube of considerable length ; it is estimated to be 
 three or four times as long as the body. 
 
 [It commences by an obtuse blind extremity close to the 
 anal extremity of the body, and is firmly attached to the 
 termination of the intestine ; it passes first in a straight line 
 to the anterior extremity of the body, and when arrived within 
 a short distance from the vulva is again attached to the parietes 
 of the body, and makes a sudden turn backwards; it then 
 forms two long loops about the middle of the body and returns 
 again forwards, suddenly dilating into a uterus, which is three 
 inches in length, and from the anterior extremity of which a 
 slender cylindrical tube or vagina, about an inch in length, is 
 continued, which, after forming a small convolution, terminates 
 in the vulva at the distance of two inches from the anterior 
 extremity of the body.] 2 
 
 This species has not been seen in coitu, but in a neigh- 
 bouring species the sucker of the male was firmly applied 
 against the female, and the two animals adhered strongly 
 together. 
 
 SECOND SPECIES. M. Diesing has described another species, 
 under the name of Strongylus longevaginatus. 
 
 1 a, cephalic extremity, showing the six tubercles ; b, caudal extremity 
 of the male with its pouch and the principal spiculum or penis. 
 
 9 Richard Owen, opus cit, p. 108; and Art. Entozoa, Cyclopedia of Anatomy 
 and Physiology, vol. ii. 1837. 
 
858 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 This was found in 1845, in Transylvania, by Dr. Jovistis. 
 The body is nearly even throughout its length, straight, and of 
 a brownish white colour. The cephalic extremity is conical 
 and truncated. The mouth is provided with six papilla?. 
 
 The male is from -^ to T % of an inch in length, and -^ of an inch 
 in breadth ; it is slightly attenuated anteriorly ; the tail is bent, 
 and is provided with a subcampanulated bilobed pouch, each 
 lobe consisting of three rays. There is only one filiform penis ; 
 its sheath is composed of two long slender pieces with fine 
 transverse stria?, and is of an orange colour. 
 
 The female is two inches in length, and -fa of an inch in thick- 
 ness ; it is attenuated anteriorly and posteriorly. The genital 
 orifice is placed beneath the end of the tail. 
 The Strongylus longevaginatus is ovoviviparous. 
 The distinction between this species and the Strongylus 
 renalis is very marked, so that M. Diesing has no hesitation in 
 making these worms the types of two distinct genera. The 
 first, Emtrongylus, contains the Strongylus renalis ; the second, 
 Strongylus, applies to the Strongylus longevaginatus. The two 
 genera are principally distinguished by the evenness of the male 
 pouch and its having a double penis in the first, while it is 
 bilobed and has only a single penis contained in a divided 
 sheath in the second. 
 
 3. ACTION ON MAN. The Strongylus renalis, as its name 
 implies, is found in the kidney. It is also found in the cellular 
 tissue surrounding the kidney, and possibly in the midst of the 
 neighbouring muscles. 
 
 It is sometimes discharged with the urine, but that only 
 happens with the young worm. Bremser has figured some small 
 filiform worms, f of an inch in length, which had been expelled 
 with the urine. He supposes, with reason, that they were 
 imperfectly developed Strongyli. 
 
 Dr. Artaud had a female under his care who discharged 
 eleven of these worms through the urethra, and yet she con- 
 tinued to live. 
 
 The Strongylus of which he speaks often shows itself only in 
 one kidney, the other remaining uninjured. It enlarges, 
 becomes folded upon itself, causes the organ to swell and to 
 become inflamed; it gradually destroys its substance and 
 paralyses its functions, giving rise to the most frightful 
 sufferings. 
 
 Strongylus longevaginatus was met with in the lung of a 
 child six years old, in whom there were several, some free, 
 others adherent to the substance of the lung. 
 
.PABASITIC WOBMS. 350 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SPIBOPTEBA, 
 
 THE genus Spiroptera established by Rudolphi is principally 
 characterised by the tail of the male being twisted into a spiral 
 form, and furnished with marginal appendages, between wnich 
 the penis emerges. 
 
 This genus comprises a large number of species which live in 
 the bodies of the mammalia and of birds, and some few in 
 those of fishes. M. Diesing enumerates fifty-eight species; 
 only one of these has been found in man. 
 
 1. SPIBOPTEBA HOMINIS. This worm was discovered by 
 Dr. Barnett, of London. Rudolphi gave it the name of Spirop- 
 tera Ho minis, which has been adopted by MM. Dujardin and 
 Diesing. 
 
 Description. The Spiroptera is from eight to ten lines in 
 length ; the body is narrow, cylindrical, and attenuated at both 
 extremities. The head is truncated, and provided with one or 
 two papillae. The tail in the male is provided on either side 
 with a delicate membranous aliform expansion, between which 
 is the spiculum, in the form of a pointed appendage ; the tail 
 of the female is thicker, and has a short obtuse apex. 
 
 The two sexes differ in length, the male being the smallest ; it 
 is about eight lines in length, while the female is as much as ten. 
 
 This entozoon is still imperfectly known. Dr. Brighton dis- 
 covered a similar but larger animal in South America. M. 
 Diesing regards it as a variety of Dr. Barnett's entozoon. 
 
 ACTION ON MAN. The Spiroptera was discharged from the 
 bladder of a female twenty-four years of age, who had been 
 troubled for some time with retention of urine. Dr. Lanza 
 and Lucarelli have since found this worm in the urine of 
 another female. 
 
 The larger variety from South America was discovered in 
 the bladder of a female aged thirty-five. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 TILABIA. 
 
 1. HISTOBT. The Filaria Medinensis has been known from 
 the earliest times. The first person who appears to have 
 mentioned it is Agartharchides, an historian and philosopher, 
 born at Cnidus, and who lived between 140 and 150 years, 
 B.C., at the time of Ptolemus Alexander. 
 
360 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Plutarch speaks of this entozoon in his Table Talk, where he 
 says, " The people who live near the Red Sea are tormented by 
 an extraordinary and hitherto unheard-of disease. Small 
 worms issue from their bodies in the form of serpents, which 
 gnaw their arms and legs ; when these creatures are touched 
 they withdraw themselves, and insinuating themselves between 
 the muscles give rise to horrible sufferings." 
 
 Many medical men, who have not had the opportunity of 
 examining the Filaria medinensis for themselves, and are only 
 acquainted with it through the imperfect descriptions of the 
 older writers, have put forward the most extravagant statements 
 concerning this worm. Soranus maintains that it is a diseased 
 nervous plexus ; Pollux says it is a corrupted nerve ; Ambroise 
 Pare regards it as a tumour produced by an ebullition of the blood ; 
 Gui de Chauliac sees in it a thickening of a vein ; Fragantius, 
 a portion of Hack bile ; Bicherand, a fibrous concretion; J. D. 
 Larrey, a quantity of atrophied cellular tissue. 
 
 In 1752, Henri Grallandat gave some correct ideas concerning 
 this worm; in 1830, Dr. Brulatour; in 1844, Dr. Maisson- 
 neuve ; in 1858, Dr. Cezilly ; and recently, Dr. Thibaut and 
 Dr. Benoit published minute details on the same subject. Lin- 
 na3us placed this Helmintha in his genus Gordius. 
 
 Muller having proposed the genus Filaria 1 for the reception 
 of certain entozoa, the present worm has since been arranged in 
 that group. 
 
 The Filaria Medinensis, or Dracunculus? occurs in Arabia 
 Petra, Senegal, Congo, on the coasts of Angola, in India, and 
 America. It is exceedingly rare in Europe, and when it does 
 occur it has been imported from one of the countries of which 
 it is a native. 
 
 2. DESCEIPTIOK. The Filaria medinensis has a very simple 
 organization. The animal varies much in length ; some have 
 been mentioned which were not more than 4^ inches long, 
 while Dr. Giutrac, of Bordeaux, received one from the Havannah 
 which measured 19^ inches. Heath states that out of seventy- 
 four cases the smallest had this length, while the longest 
 
 1 Filum, a thread, orfilarium, a ball of thread. 
 
 2 Filaria Medinensis, Gmel. (Gordius Medinensis, Linn., Filaria Dracun- 
 culus, Brems.), commonly Worm of Medina, Guinea Worm, Worm of Senegal, 
 Cutaneous Worm. It was the Aptutovrtov of the Greeks, a name which the 
 Komans translated by the word Dracuncvlus, and the French by Dragon- 
 neau. Amatus Lusitanus named it Vene mitena; Sloane, Vena Medini; 
 and Kampfer, Dracunculus Persarum. It is called in Senegal, Soungouf; 
 in Arabia, Farentit; in Persia, Pejunch ; in India, Narambo and Narampoo- 
 Chalandy. 
 
PARASITIC WOBMS. 361 
 
 measured 8 feet. Some writers have recorded the existence of 
 Eilaria which had attained the length of from 9| to 16 and even 
 30 feet. The latter measurements are evidently exaggerated. 
 
 The body of this entozoon is slender, cylindrical, and some- 
 what compressed ; it resembles the string of a violin. It is of the 
 same thickness throughout its whole length, except at the pos- 
 terior extremity, where it is somewhat attenuated. It is of an 
 opaque milk-white colour, but becomes yellow when placed in 
 alcohol. (E-udolphi.) On each side there is a longitudinal, 
 greyish, semi-transparent line the j- 1 ^ of an inch in diameter. 
 (Maisonneuve.) 
 
 When examined by the microscope, the body of the animal 
 is seen to be marked by numerous transverse lines. 
 
 The anterior or cephalic extremity terminates in a bluntish. 
 point having the form of a sucker. Kampfer describes thia 
 pucker as a proboscis ; he says that the Persians call it the beard, 
 and that when it is examined by the microscope it appears to 
 be formed of hairs. According to Fermin, Hemersand, and 
 Lachmund, the oral extremity supports two filaments which 
 these writers regard as hairs or antennas. Bremser observes 
 that these pretended filaments probably arise from some injury 
 to the animal. May they not have mistaken the tail for the 
 head, and the double penis for two antennae ? Adanson states 
 that the mouth of the Filaria is provided with two obtuse 
 points. M. Diesing describes this orifice as circular, and 
 furnished with four spinules arranged crosswise. M. Maison- 
 neuve declares that there are neither beard, points, or hooks. 
 In the young animals (fig. Ill, a) which M. Tandon examined 
 while alive with M. Ch. Kobin, the mouth did not offer any 
 kind of appendage, but was provided with three small rounded 
 nodules. 
 
 The tail is short, obtuse, and always curved. The transverse 
 markings are very distinct, especially on the concave side. 
 
 According to Dr. Maisonneuve the body may be compared to 
 a tube with thickish walls (about T -Jo of an inch), consisting of 
 two membranes, the external hard and coriaceous, the internal 
 thin, and readily separating into very delicate longitudinal 
 filaments, but not easily torn in the transverse direction, 
 
 In the interior of the body there is no canal or any distinct 
 tube, but a whitish pulpy substance, which will be spoken of 
 presently. 
 
 Analogy would lead to the notion that this creature is 
 organised with respect to its digestive organs in the same 
 manner as all the internal worms, especially those which are 
 
362 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 allied to it. On examining with M. Ch. Robin, young indivi- 
 duals taken from the body of the parent while they were still 
 alive, M. Tandon satisfied himself of the correctness of this; 
 supposition. He distinctly saw the alimentary canal commenc- 
 ing at the mouth, and passing without any convolutions to the 
 anal orifice placed at the commencement of the tail. This 
 canal consists of a narrow oesophagus, occupying half the length 
 of the body. The oesophagus terminates in a canal of double 
 its size, representing the stomach and intestines; this is 
 slightly contracted posteriorly, and terminates in a pointed 
 conical cul de sac, which opens at the base of the tail. When 
 the Filaria contracts itself, the alimentary canal is seen to be 
 unadherent to the cutaneous envelope ; its walls are thinner 
 than those of the oesophagus ; the anus is transverse, and sur- 
 rounded by a projecting contractile lip. 
 
 Dr. Dariste and Doumeing have witnessed very distinct 
 vermicular movements in the Filaria. 
 
 Patients are said to feel the movements of the animal, which 
 cause them considerable pain. M. Malgaigne has noticed that 
 if the animal is drawn out and becomes broken off, that it 
 suddenly retracts itself within the limb. He therefore observes 
 that in order to extract the animal without difficulty it must 
 be killed by means of some application. 
 
 The Filaria medinensis is ovoviviparous and very prolific. 
 (Jacobson, Eobin.) 
 
 When the body of an adult specimen is opened it is seen to 
 contain the pulpy matter which has already been referred to ; 
 this substance, when examined by the microscope, presents, 
 according to M. Guitrar, a multitude of transparent elongated 
 depressed bodies, partly folded upon themselves, and which 
 this gentleman regards as small unbranched vessels. M. Jacob- 
 son has seen these transparent bodies moving rapidly about, 
 and has recognised in them a prodigious number of small active 
 worms. MM. Mac Clelland, Ch. Eobin, and Benoit, have 
 confirmed this view of them. It appears that after the Filaria 
 has been fecundated, that the excessive development of the 
 generative organs, the exclusion of the eggs, and the growth of 
 young, ultimately obliterate the alimentary canal, already 
 singularly contracted in so slender an animal, and that the 
 individual henceforth becomes converted into a thread-like sac 
 filled with diminutive worms. 
 
 When examined in the interior of the mother, the young 
 (fig. Ill, A) are rolled up sometimes with the tail projecting,, 
 and at other times coiled up. The body (fig. Ill, E) is not 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 
 
 363 
 
 cylindrical, but flattened, Just before the period of birth the 
 body is the ^Vo of an i^ in length, and the ToW m diameter. 
 Its anterior extremity is somewhat nar- 
 rowed, and terminates in a mouth provided 
 with three tubercles (fig. Ill, a). The 
 anus (fig. Ill, B and b) is situated about 
 the posterior fourth of the body, where 
 there is a slight enlargement. Prom this 
 part the body suddenly contracts, and forms 
 a very slender and very pointed tail. The 
 tail is YoVo of an inch in length, not curved, 
 somewhat rigid, but capable of being bent 
 in every direction ; there is a marked dif- 
 ference between it and that of the adult 
 animal ; it bends abruptly opposite the 
 anus after death. The surface of the body 
 is finely ridged over the whole of its surface. 
 These traces of segmentation are situated 
 at regular distances from each other. 
 
 The young worms will live for some 
 days in water at the ordinary temperature. 
 (Jacobson, Maissonneuve.) They move 
 about in it with great rapidity. They 
 may be left in a drop of water until it dries 
 up so as to deprive them of motion, and they 
 will subsequently recover their activity upon the addition of 
 fresh water/six or twelve hours after their desiccation. (Deville, 
 Robin.) In order that the experiment should succeed, it is 
 necessary that the desiccation should be incomplete : when 
 they have been rendered absolutely dry, they do not recover 
 their vitality. 
 
 3. OTHEB SPECIES. Some writers have described three 
 other species of Filaria living in man. These are : 
 
 1st. Filaria oculi (F. lachrymalis of some writers), which is 
 not uncommon in the negroes on the Angola coast, where it is 
 called Loa ; it is also met with at Guadeloupe ; it has been 
 seen by Mongin at Cayenne, and by Blot at Martinique. 
 
 This entozoon is from 1 inch and -fa to 1 inch and T 9 ^ in length, 
 filiform, slender, pointed at one end, and obtuse at the other ; 
 it is tolerably firm, and of a white or yellowish colour. 
 
 1 Young Filaria Medinensts.A, individual coiled up, as seen in the 
 body of its parent ; B, the same uncoiled in a drop of water ; a, the head, 
 with its three nodules and the mouth ; b, the commencement of the tail 
 and the anus. 
 
 Fig. 111. Filaria, 1 
 
364 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 M. Gruyon approximates this animal to the Strongylus ; 
 others consider it is a young Filaria medmensis. 
 
 2. The Filaria lentis, Dies. (M oculi kimani, Nordm.), noticed 
 by M. Nordmann, in 1831. 
 
 This species is from -^ to T 6 ^ of an inch in length, and the 
 -g-i-o in width. The body is filiform, thickened posteriorly, 
 and provided with a pointed tail ; it is transparent and partly 
 coiled up in a spiral form. 
 
 The alimentary canal may be seen through the integument, 
 and is surrounded by the folds of the oviduct. 
 
 This animal is very imperfectly known ; only the female has 
 been seen. 
 
 Is this species to be considered as really distinct from the 
 preceding ? 
 
 3. Filaria lympliatica (Hamularia lymphatica, Treutl., Ten- 
 tacularia subcompressa, Zeder, Trickosoma subcompressa, Biid., 
 Filaria bronchialis, Dies.). This species was discovered in 1790, 
 by Treutler, who formed a new genus for its reception, under 
 the name of Hamularia, characterized by the presence of two. 
 filamentary tentacula or oral hooks. Further observations have 
 
 shown that in this case the tail was mistaken for the head, and 
 the double male organ for appendages belonging to the mouth ; 
 the new genus was therefore suppressed and the worm trans- 
 ferred to the Filaria. 
 
 This worm is from ^f to -J-J of an inch in length ; it is cylin- 
 drical, filiform, slightly narrowed anteriorly, somewhat com- 
 pressed at the sides, semi-transparent posteriorly, and of a 
 blackish-brown colour with white spots. After it is dead the 
 extremities are somewhat curved. 
 
 The male possesses a double penis, which resembles a pair of 
 slightly curved pointed booklets. 
 
 According to M. Weinland this species does not differ from 
 the Strongylus longevaginatus. 
 
 4. ACTION ON MAN. The negroes are often tormented with 
 the Filaria Medinensis ; and Europeans who visit India are 
 equally liable to its attacks. M'Gregor relates that an English 
 regiment arrived at Bombay in the month of September, 1789 ; 
 at that time not one of these men was attacked by the worms, 
 but at the period of the monsoons 300 soldiers were ill with it. 
 It has already been stated, that where the worm has been met 
 with in Europe, the individuals had always come from the 
 countries inhabited by the worm. Dr. Brulator met with two 
 cases at Bordeaux ; both the patients had come from Bombay : 
 the same was the case with a patient of Dr. Thibaut; Dr. 
 
PARASITIC WOBMS. 865 
 
 Maisonneuve noticed it in an old soldier who had resided at 
 Senegal ; Professor Malgaigne in a sailor under similar circum- 
 stances. Kaempfer has recorded the case of a man who was 
 attacked with the worm long after he had returned from the 
 coast of Africa, and who, up to that time, had never had the 
 slightest symptom of the complaint. 
 
 The Filaria Aledinensis lodges beneath the skin in the cellular 
 tissue, and sometimes between the muscles. It most frequently 
 selects some part of the lower extremities, such as the foot or 
 leg, and works its way upwards towards the thigh. Ka3mpfer 
 extracted two of these worms from the scrotum. Baillie has 
 seen it in the testicle. The worm is also found, but more 
 rarely, in the arm, elbow, neck, or even the head. Carter 
 noticed it in the chin of a woman. M. Clot-bey met with it 
 in the frenum of the tongue. In one of the plates belonging 
 to the Voyage aux Indes orientales of Jean Hugens (Theodore 
 de Bry's edition) is the representation of an Indian having a 
 Filaria extracted from the leg by winding it round a stick, and 
 another in whom it is being removed from the eye 1 by the 
 same means. According to Dr. Cezilly, in Senegal, the Filaria 
 is frequently developed in the parietes of the chest, principally 
 upon the ribs. He once saw it in the mammary gland. 
 
 Are we to admit, with Nysander, that the Guinea worm can 
 introduce itself into the bones ? 
 
 Out of 181 cases published by M'Gregor, the worm oc- 
 curred 134 times in the feet, 33 times in the legs, 11 times in 
 the thighs, 2 in the scrotum, and once in the hand. 
 
 The worm has never been found in the visceral cavities. 
 
 The Filaria Medinensis sometimes occurs singly, while at 
 other times there are several of them. Heath noticed that 
 out of 74 patients several had as many as two, three, four, 
 or even five. Bosmann says they may amount to as many as 
 nine or ten. Arthus mentions a case in which there were 
 twelve. Chapotin treated a patient who had thirteen. Andry 
 cites a case of twenty-three. Hemersand saw thirty in the 
 cook of a vessel. Pouppee-Desportes mentions a case in 
 which he counted fifty. 
 
 The Guinea worm having gained an entrance into the body, 
 takes a long time to become developed. This period varies 
 from two months to a year or more. M. Maisonneuve men- 
 tions an incubation of six months ; M. Ficipio one of eight ; 
 M. Thibaut another of eight and a half; MM. Labat and 
 
 1 Is this the same, or is it not rather the Filaria oculis or F. lentit ? 
 
366 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Bernier mention a case in which this period extended over fifteen 
 months ; and M. Cezilly has recorded cases in which two, nine, 
 ten, fifteen, and sixteen months elapsed. Ksempfer speaks of 
 a case in which two years had passed by. 
 
 The presence of the Filaria is announced by a sensation of 
 itching in the part ; at first this is slight, but it gradually in- 
 creases until it becomes quite unbearable. The part affected 
 resembles a varicose vein, and can be moved under the skin. 
 This kind of subcutaneous knot gradually extends, and the pain 
 becomes excruciating. Eor the greater part of the time there 
 is no derangement of the general health, but sometimes there 
 are shiverings alternating with attacks of heat. At other 
 times there is fever and a feeling of anxiety. A small abscess 
 forms, which is often pointed, and terminated by a vesicle or 
 by a black point surrounded by a brownish areola. When it 
 opens a kind of serous liquid, or sometimes a small quantity 
 of pus, comes out, and occasionally a white slender thread. 
 The tumour may be transformed into a diffuse inflammation, 
 but this seldom happens. 
 
 Is the presence of the Filaria ever fatal ? The cases which 
 have been mentioned are rare, and, at the same time, inconclu- 
 sive. Grallandat mentions the case of a negro who was attacked 
 in the scrotum, and Clarke of a child who had Filarice in the 
 right thigh and foot. Both these cases are imperfect, and it 
 does not appear that death was caused by the worms. (Cezilly.) . 
 The Filaria oculis resides in the lachrymal gland and in the 
 globe of the eye. In 1768, Bajon extracted one of these 
 worms from the eye of a young negress about six or seven 
 years of age. Dr. Gruyon extracted another from the eye of 
 a negress in Guinea. 
 
 The worm is seen winding about and moving around the 
 globe of the eye, in the cellular tissue which unites the con- 
 junctiva with the sclerotic. Sometimes its presence does not 
 occasion any disagreeable sensation (Bajon) ; while at other 
 times it causes very acute pain (Mongin). Occasionally it is 
 accompanied by a constant watering of the eye. 
 
 The Filaria of the crystalline lens, as its name implies, is 
 found in that part of the eye. It was found for the first 
 time by M. Grsefe, after an operation for cataract in the 
 liquor of Morgagni. M. Normann detected two Filarice coiled 
 up together, by means of the microscope, half an hour after 
 the operation. The following year the same observer met 
 with another Filaria in a crystalline lens which had become 
 opaque, and had been extracted by professor Jiingken. Lastly, 
 
PARASITIC WORMS; 307 
 
 M. Gescheidt, of Dresden, obtained it from the crystalline 
 lens of a man sixty-one years of age, who had been operated 
 on by Professor Ammon ; there were three specimens of the 
 worm, of which one was coiled up in a spiral form. 
 
 The Filaria lymphatica occurs in the bronchial glands. It 
 was found in the body of a man aged twenty-eight, who died 
 from phthisis, brought on by onanism, venereal excesses, and 
 mercurial medicines. 
 
 5. GENERAL REMARKS. How do the Filarice introduce 
 themselves into the human body ? 
 
 Valmont de Bomare pretends that the Guinea worm is pro- 
 duced by an insect which introduces its eggs beneath the skin. 
 Dr. Chisalm also supposes that this Filaria is introduced in 
 the form of an egg. It has been shown that this animal ia 
 ovo viviparous. 
 
 MM. Maisonneuve and Deville, when examining a furuncu- 
 lous tumour produced by a Filaria, found in some a whitish 
 looking fluid which came from thousands of small living worms, 
 precisely resembling those which have been previously de- 
 scribed. The young Filarice are therefore deposited in the part 
 inhabited by their parents ; there they become developed, and 
 thus render the disease more dangerous and more prolonged. 
 
 But from whence do these worms come, and how do they 
 gain access to the individual in whom they appear for the first 
 time? 
 
 The resemblance of the Guinea worm to the Gordius aquations 
 or hair worm of our ponds and rivers led Meyer to suppose 
 that the entozoon was the latter animal which had penetrated 
 the cellular tissue. This opinion has been recently revived by 
 Dr. Cezilly. Linnaeus had, however, already distinctly denned 
 the two species, although he placed them in the same genus. 
 
 This illustrious naturalist nevertheless supposed that the 
 Filaria normally lived out of man's body in the morning dew, 
 and that it introduced itself parasitically into the naked legs of 
 the slaves. 1 This explanation is rendered extremely probable 
 from what we know of the habits of the Gordim aquaticus, 
 of several other species, and of the Mermis, which constitutes 
 a closely allied genus. It is well known that these animala 
 are erratic worms which reside in water or moist earth, that 
 they afterwards introduce themselves into the body of an in- 
 sect, where they undergo a certain amount of development, that 
 they then emerge from the body of their victim, copulate, and 
 
 1 This is also the opinion of Joerdens, Chapotin, Leath, Ilcat, Oken, &c. 
 
368 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 return into the water or into moist earth [where they deposit 
 their eggs]. 
 
 Dr. Carter believes that the Guinea worm is an inhabitant 
 of marshes, and that it enters the body by penetrating the 
 skin. He relates the case of a school at Bombay, of which the 
 pupils went to bathe in a pond in the neighbourhood : out of 
 fifty children twenty-one were attacked by the Guinea worm 
 some of them had as many as four or five. In confirmation of 
 this view may be adduced the case of the negroes, who, being in 
 the habit of entering the water more frequently than the whites, 
 and generally having their feet naked, are far more subject to 
 the attacks of the worm than Europeans. 
 
 It is difficult to explain how the young worms can penetrate 
 the skin, since they have neither jaws, mandibles, or osseous 
 pieces attached to the mouth. Some have supposed that the 
 Guinea worm is taken into the body with the drink. 1 The 
 larvaB are swallowed when the brackish waters of certain rivers 
 are drank. Dr. Cezilly rejects this explanation on account of 
 the absence of the worm in the visceral cavities, and because 
 of their being constantly found in the subcutaneous cellular 
 tissue ; there are, however, other worms which enter the body 
 by means of the digestive organs, but which do not reside in 
 them. 
 
 CHAPTER VIIL 
 
 THECOSOMA. 
 
 THE existence of entozoa in the blood was long doubted, 
 but in the present day it can no longer be questioned. These 
 worms are even somewhat numerous, when considered in rela- 
 tion to the entire animal series. They are found both in the 
 Warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals, 2 and belong to genera 
 which differ essentially from each other. These parasites are 
 collectively termed the Hcematozoa, or Sanguicola? 
 
 Amongst these parasites, the genus which forms the subject 
 of the present chapter is one of the most curious. The animal 
 which is the type of it was found in Egypt in 1851, by Dr. 
 Bilharz, who regarded it as a species of Distoma. M. Weinland 
 has formed a special genus of it, founded principally upon its 
 unisexual character, and on the extraordinary difference which 
 
 1 Burckhardt, Bilharz. 
 
 * They have been seen in the dog, rat, field mouse, horse, dolphin, seal, 
 crow, rook, heron, lizard, frog, pike, tench, gudgeon, &c. 
 3 Under this term are included the Helmintha and Infusoria. 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 369 
 
 exists between the male and the female. He gave the new 
 genus the name of Schistozoma, a term which had been pre- 
 viously applied by Greof. St.-Hilaire to a particular form of 
 monster. M. Tandon therefore proposed for it the name of 
 Tkecosoma. 1 
 
 1. THECOSOMA HJEMATOBIUM, Distoma Tiamatooium, Bilh. 
 Dr. Bilharz first discovered the male of this curious species, 
 and three months afterwards the female. The two sexes are so 
 dissimilar, both as regards size and form, that they may easily 
 be regarded as two distinct animals. The male carries the 
 female in a kind of canal under its belly. 
 
 Description. The male Thecosoma is from j% to -^ of au 
 inch in length. It is soft, smooth, and of a white colour ; the 
 anterior part (trunk) is depressed, and lancet-shaped; it is 
 somewhat convex above, and plane or concave below ; the pos- 
 terior part (tail) is round and eight or nine times longer 
 than the trunk. In front of the cephalic portion is a kind of 
 cup, placed somewhat inferiorly, and of a triangular form. 
 Beneath the body is another cup, of the same size as the pre- 
 ceding, but of a circular form. These two cups are covered 
 with fine granules. The alimentary canal appears to be divided 
 into two portions. 
 
 Commencing from the vicinity of the cup, on the under sur- 
 face of the abdomen, is a longitudinal groove, in which the female 
 is lodged, like a sword in its sheath ; the cephalic portion is 
 placed anteriorly, and the tail posteriorly, the latter being free. 
 
 The genital pore of the male is situated between the groove 
 and the tail. 
 
 The female is much smaller than the male, especially with 
 regard to its thickness, it being very slender, and somewhat 
 transparent. The body is flattened, and does not consist of two 
 distinct portions, like that of the male ; its tail has no groove. 
 
 M. Taiidon believes that the sexes have been mistaken, and 
 that it is the female which is the largest, and carries the male 
 on the under surface of her abdomen. The presence of the 
 two cups, or depressions, indicates its alliance with the genus 
 Distoma. 
 
 2. ACTION ON MAN. The Thecosoma inhabits the vena 
 porta), and the mesenteric, hepatic, and intestinal veins. The 
 worm is by no means uncommon, since out of 363 autopsies, 
 Dr. Griesinger met with it 117 times. It occurs most fre- 
 quently from June to August, and is scarcest from September 
 to January. 
 
 1 erj/cTJ a case, and (tupa a body. 
 
 i; B 
 
370 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 TLUKES. 
 
 ETEET medical man is familiar with the name of the liver 
 Fluke, but few have had the opportunity of seeing it. 
 
 Linnaeus at iirst regarded the Fluke as a Slug, while Goeze 
 considered it to be a Planaria. In the Systema Naturce the great 
 Swedish naturalist created the genus Fasciola 1 for the recep- 
 tion of this entozoon and two other parasites, which are found 
 in fish and in the calamary. He, however, confounded the human 
 Fluke with that of animals Clericus and Doeveren showed 
 that the human Fluke was different to that of the mammalia. 
 Gmelin adopted this separation. Subsequently Retz (1786) 
 and Zeder (1800) needlessly changed the name of Pasciola for 
 that of Distoma. 2 
 
 1. LIVER FLUKE [Distoma hepaticum'], Fasciola Jiepatica, 
 Linn., 3 is found in France. According to Moulin it is not un- 
 common in Holland, Sweden, Norway, and even in Greenland. 
 Description (fig. 112). The liver Fluke 
 is from -5^ to ^ of an inch in length, 
 rarely exceeding the latter measurement ; its 
 breadth varies from -^ to -^ of an inch. The 
 body is flat, oval, and somewhat oblong, 
 more contracted anteriorly than posteriorly, 
 and obtuse at its terminations ; the margins 
 of the body are exceedingly narrow. Lin- 
 na3us compares the animal to a pumpkin 
 seed, Bremser to the blade of a lancet, and 
 Cuvier to a small leaf. It is of a soft con- 
 sistence, and of a greyish livid brown colour. 
 The body is capable of contracting and ex- 
 tending itself either partially or in its entire 
 Fig. 112. Fluke, length, much after the manner of a leech, 
 
 but with greater energy and regularity. 
 The anterior part of the Fluke is contracted, and forms a 
 kind of cylindrical neck, which is paler than the rest of its body, 
 
 1 Fasciola, a band. 
 
 3 This denomination is, moreover, incorrect, for these worms have not two 
 mouths. F. Muller (1787) very properly restored the Linnaean name. 
 
 3 Fasciola hominis, Gmel., Distoma hepatica, Ketz., D. hepaticum, Abilg. 
 [It is the Distoma hepaticum of English authors, a name which has also 
 been retained by Kuchenmeister in his Manual of Animal and Vegetable 
 Parasites], 
 
PARASITIC WOBMS. 371 
 
 and often of a yellowish white colour. At the anterior extre- 
 mity is a cup-like depression (acetabulum) , directed obliquely 
 downwards, and having a somewhat triangular form. Within 
 this depression is the oral aperture. Towards the anterior 
 third of the ventral surface, is another depression (fig. 112, a), 
 whose position varies somewhat ; several writers have supposed 
 that this was also perforated. According to some it was a second 
 sucker, while others considered it was either the anus, or the 
 aperture of the female organs. Linnaeus described the two cups 
 as pores ; this opinion has been adopted by those helmintholo- 
 gists who either proposed or accepted the inappropriate term of 
 Distoma. Observation has shown that the second depression 
 is not furnished with any opening, but is a shallow sub-triangular 
 sucker, by means of which the animal attaches itself. 
 
 Somewhat further back are some white opaque spots, and a 
 fasciculus of vessels or tubes of a brown colour. 
 
 The body of the Distoma has no visceral cavity ; it is a small 
 parenchymatous mass, without any apparent muscular fibres, 
 and is covered with a fine closely adherent skin. 
 
 From the oral sucker an (esophagus passes off, which soon 
 divides into two slender branches, which descend on either 
 side of the abdominal cup. These branches approach each 
 other, and communicate by a system of transverse vessels, and 
 are then continued to the posterior extremity of the body. In 
 their course the canals give off a number of branches from their 
 exterior, which subdivide and terminate near the margins of 
 the animal ; these branches are placed at an equal distance from 
 the two surfaces of the body, and, what is remarkable, the ter- 
 minal divisions are of nearly the same diameter as those which 
 are first given off. Deslongchamps regarded the whole of this 
 apparatus as a ramified intestine; it is rather a branching 
 stomach, analogous to that of the small leeches, which are para- 
 sitic upon the mollusca. There are as many branches as there 
 are subdivisions, and an extremely delicate network of minute 
 vessels are sent off, which ramify principally over the dorsal 
 surface of the animal. These minute vessels communicate in 
 the manner of veins, and give rise to a number of transverse 
 branches, which communicate with a longitudinal vessel situated 
 in the median line. The latter, which is of a large size, is 
 regarded as an urinary apparatus ; it commences opposite the 
 abdominal sucker, passes beneath the skin, and enlarges in its 
 course to the posterior extremity of the body, where it termi- 
 nates in an open orifice. 
 
 The bile forms the exclusive nourishment of the Distoma. 
 
 B B 2 
 
372 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 This entozoon is androgynous ; MM. Mehlis and Blanchard 
 have well described its double genital apparatus. A little in 
 front of the abdominal sucker is a small elongated appendage 
 (fig. 1.12, a), twisted once or once and a half times upon itself, 
 and capable of being retracted ; this is the penis, which has 
 been mistaken by some naturalists for a tentacle or cirrhus. 
 Its base communicates with a pouch, which serves it as a case 
 when it is retracted (receptacle of the cirrhus, Rudolphi). 
 Passing backwards from the pouch is a straight canal, placed 
 near the middle of the animal, which terminates in an oval 
 seminal vesicle, filled with a white semifluid humour. A semi- 
 nal duct, which is common to all the branches, secreting the 
 white fluid, terminates at the posterior part of the vesicle. To 
 the right and left of the vesicle there are also some after 
 branches belonging to the testicle. More externally are two 
 long canals communicating with the sheath of the penis ; these 
 are probably deferent canals or accessory ducts of the testicles. 
 Except at the period of reproduction, only a small opening is 
 seen at the part which is occupied by the penis. 
 
 The opening of the female organs is close to, and behind the 
 base of, the male organ. According to Deslongchamps, it is 
 difficult to perceive the opening, especially in the adult. The 
 vulva communicates with an oviduct, which is at first situated 
 in the median line, is slender and tortuous, but afterwards 
 increases in thickness, becomes twisted, and forms several 
 enlargements, which pass from right to left; it then again 
 becomes slender, and placed in the median line, and reaches 
 an oval cavity, which is possibly the uterus ; from behind this 
 there passes off to the right and to the left two slender 
 horizontal canals ; these soon divide into two portions, one of 
 which passes forwards, and the other backwards, parallel to the 
 margin of the animal. These canals give off a great number of 
 branches externally, and represent the ovaries. 
 
 The Distoma is oviparous ; its eggs (fig. 112, 5) are extremely 
 small, elliptical, and semitransparent. At one end there is a 
 kind of oblique lid. 
 
 The Distoma undergo a very curious series of transformations; 
 but these have only been traced in those species which do not 
 infest the human body. At birth these worms have a ciliated 
 body, resembling that of the infusoria ; in its interior another 
 animal becomes developed, which has the form of a locomotive 
 sac. These young sacciform larvae (nurses) continue to live for 
 a certain time. They are sexless individuals, but can never- 
 theless reproduce themselves by the process of gemmation ; they 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 373 
 
 give rise to another series of beings of an oblong form, and pro- 
 vided with a tail (Cercaria). The latter introduce themselves 
 into the bodies of other animals, where they become transformed 
 into the fully developed Fluke, capable of reproducing itself by 
 a true act of generation. 1 
 
 2. OTHER SPECIES. Four other species of Fluke have been 
 detected in the human body ; these are the Distoma Ianceolatum^ 
 Distomum ophthalmobium, Distoma heterophyes, and the Distoma 
 Buskii. The following are their characters, compared with 
 those of the Distoma hepaticum : 
 
 Inteat* I ramified 1. Distoma hepaticum. 
 
 ( simple. , subanterior 2. Distoma ianceolatum. 
 
 Abdominal sucker 1 
 
 ( subcentral, 
 
 Undescribed species 
 
 scarcely larger than 
 
 the mouth. 3. Distoma ophthalmobium 
 
 much larger than 
 
 the mouth. 4. Distoma hcterophyes. 
 
 5. Distoma Buskii. 
 
 Distoma Ianceolatum. 2 This species was first described by 
 MM. Bucholz and Mehlis. It is rarer than the first, with 
 which it has been often confounded. Chabert met with it in 
 France, in a young girl twelve years of age, from whom he 
 expelled a large number of the worms by the use of his empy- 
 reumatic oil. 
 
 The size of this Fluke is smaller than that of the Distoma 
 hepaticum. Its body is from the f s to the ^ of an inch in 
 length, and from -% to the -fa of an inch in breadth ; its form 
 is lancet-shaped, it is very flat, tolerably transparent, and 
 of a whitish colour. The oral sucker is proportionally larger 
 than in the preceding species, and about the same size as the 
 ventral sucker ; they are both circular. 
 
 The intestines are straight and unbranched. 
 
 The penis has not a spiral form. 
 
 The eggs may be seen through the integuments, and are of a 
 brown or black colour, according to their stage of development. 
 
 Distoma ophthalmobium. M. Gescheidt, of Dresden, met 
 with this species of Fluke once in Germany. 
 
 This worm is from *009 in. to *196 in. in length, and '006 in. 
 in breadth. The body is of a lanceolate oval form. The two 
 suckers are circular ; the posterior is farther from the cephalic 
 extremity than in the other species, being nearly in the centre 
 of the body. 
 
 1 Steenatrup, Van Beneden, de Fillippi, Wagener. 
 3 Fasciola lanceolata, Moq. Tand. 
 
374 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Distoma Tieterophyes. 1 We are indebted to Dr. Bilharz for a 
 knowledge of this curious species. He met with it twice in 
 
 Egypt, in 1851. 
 Thi 
 
 is Fluke is about '039 in. in length, and '019 in. in breadth. 
 The body is oval, somewhat more dilated at its posterior than 
 at its anterior part, depressed, and of a reddish colour. It has 
 a small funnel-shaped oral sucker, which opens more inferiorly 
 than anteriorly. The ventral sucker is twelve times the size of 
 the former. 
 
 In consequence of the transparency of the animal the dilated 
 oesophagus is seen anteriorly, and in the median line the uri- 
 nary canals. 
 
 The sac of the penis may be also seen, bearing a strong re- 
 semblance to one of the suckers, surrounded by seventy-two 
 horny filaments. The testicles are placed posteriorly. 
 
 The eggs are of a red colour. 
 
 Distoma Buskii. [In the winter of 1843, fourteen flukes 
 were found by M. Busk in the duodenum of a Lascar who died 
 in the Seaman's Hospital. There were none in the gall, 
 bladder, or gall ducts. These flukes were much thicker and 
 larger than those of the sheep, being from an inch and a half to 
 near three inches in length. They resembled the Distoma 
 hepaticum in shape, but were like the Distoma lanceolatum in 
 structure ; the double alimentary canal, as in the latter variety, 
 being not branched, and the entire space between it towards 
 the latter part of the body being occupied by a branched uterine 
 tube. Two specimens of this fluke are in the Museum of King's 
 College] .2 
 
 3. ACTION ON MAN. The Liver fluke is found in the gall 
 bladder, the hepatic ducts, and perhaps also in the substance 
 of the liver. The presence of these animals produces great 
 dilatation of the biliary ducts ; their internal surface becomes 
 covered with a thick dark coloured mucous secretion. Some- 
 times this mucosity hardens and becomes converted into a kind 
 of osseous matter. Fortassin mentions the case of a woman in 
 whose liver there were more than two hundred ^Flukes. Dr. 
 Bilharz has described a curious disease which occurs at Cairo, 
 produced by the presence of these entozoa, consisting of 
 fungus-like excrescences of the mucous membrane of the 
 bladder. According to M. Siebold, a Fluke has been seen in a 
 tumour on the foot by Dr. Griesker. M. Dujardin says that 
 
 1 Fasciola heterophyes, Tand. 
 
 2 Kuchenmeister, opus jam cit, vol. i. p. 437. 
 
PABASITIC WOBMS. 375 
 
 this species was found on one occasion by M. Duval in the 
 vena port. 1 
 
 The Distoma lanceolatum also inhabits the liver. 
 
 The Distomum ophthalmobium lives between the crystalline 
 lens and its capsule. Grescheidt once found four of these para- 
 sites in the eye of a child five years old. 
 
 The Distoma heferophyes was found on two occasions in large 
 quantities in the intestines of a boy. 
 
 The Distoma Buskii was found in the duodenum. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 FESTUCABIA. 
 
 THE genus Festucaria* was first established by Schrank 
 (1788). In 1800 Zeder gave it the name of Monostoma? which 
 Kudolphi and other writers have adopted, although it is a more 
 recent and less appropriate name. 
 
 The genus Festiwaria differs from that of Distoma in the 
 absence of the ventral sucker. In the previous chapter it was 
 seen that this sucker had been mistaken for a mouth. Hence 
 the reason of the name Distoma being applied to the Flukes, 
 and that of monostoma to those parasites which were supposed 
 to have only one mouth. In reality, both genera have but a 
 single mouth. 
 
 1. FESTUCABIA LENTIS, Monostomum lentis, Nord. This 
 small worm, which is very imperfectly known, is the only species 
 which has been found in man. 
 
 Description. The Festucaria lentis is '003 of an inch long. 
 It might be mistaken for the Fasciola oculis. Its body is 
 depressed, it has a single sucker, the mouth is anterior 
 and terminal in its position, and there is a small anal pore 
 towards the caudal extremity. Below and behind the oral 
 sucker is the opening of the male genital organ, which consists 
 of a protractile penis. Close to this is the opening of the female 
 organs, which it is difficult to detect. 
 
 ACTION ON MAN. All that is known about this worm is 
 that it was discovered in Grermany, by Professor Jiingken, in the 
 crystalline lens of an old woman who had cataract. He obtained 
 eight specimens. 
 
 1 This example probably referred to the Tliecosoma hcematobium : see 
 p. 369. 
 
 * Probably from fettuca, a branch. 
 Mows one, and <rr<6/xa a mouth. 
 
376 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOQY. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 TJENTA. 
 
 Two kinds of flat worms are met with in the human body, 
 belonging to two different genera ; these are the Tcenia and the 
 Bothriocephalus. These animals have been known to medical 
 men from the earliest times, but they have not always been 
 distinguished from one another. In most 
 works they have been confounded toge- 
 ther under the name of Solitary worm or 
 Tcenia. The name of solitary worm was 
 given to it from the belief, which was 
 long entertained, that these parasites 
 lived singly. The word Tcenia 1 signifies 
 a ribbon or band, and is derived from the 
 general form of their body. 
 
 1. COMMON T^NIA, Tcenia Solium, 
 Linn. This species, which is familiarly 
 known as the Solitary or Tape worm, is a 
 very common entozoon. It is found in 
 France, Italy, Holland, Germany, and 
 England. It has also been observed 
 in Egypt, and is so common in Abys- 
 sinia that it is only absent as it were 
 by chance. "Whenever a slave is sold he 
 is always provided with a plentiful sup- 
 ply of consso. 
 
 Description (fig. 113). The body of 
 the animal is flat and narrow, resem- 
 bling a piece of tape, and is composed of 
 segments, which are joined together at 
 their extremities. The body is very long, 
 but it is very difficult to determine its 
 actual dimensions. "I believe," says 
 Bremser, " that no one has ever yet seen 
 an entire Tape worm, that is to say, pro- 
 vided with both its head and the whole 
 of its tail ; for it often happens that the 
 last segments, which are usually filled 
 with eggs, become detached, and passed 
 off from the body with the stools before 
 Fig 113 the anterior segments nearest to the head 
 
 Common Tcenia. are completely developed. For this rea- 
 
 1 Taivia, Tcenia. 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 377 
 
 son it is impossible to determine what is the precise length 
 which this worm can attain if all its segments remained attached 
 together." The Tosnice which are found in dead bodies are not 
 any the more entire. Writers have varied exceedingly as to 
 the dimensions which they have assigned to this entozoon. 
 Some state that they measure from 9 to 12 feet. Bremser says 
 that specimens 25 feet in length are not uncommon. Robin 
 found in the body of a man who, shortly before his death, had 
 evacuated a part of a Tcenia measuring more than three-and- 
 twenty feet, one of these worms folded up immediately below 
 the pylorus, one portion of it extending the whole length of 
 the intestine to the vicinity of the anus. The animal, when it 
 was unfolded and the portion added which had been previously 
 discharged, measured thirty-two feet. The average length of 
 the Common Tosnia may be estimated at from 12 to 15 feet. 
 M. A. Foster says its dimensions vary from 14 inches to 32 feet. 
 The body of the Tcenia gradually narrows from behind for- 
 wards, until it becomes a mere thread. Thus the width of the 
 animal varies considerably. At the anterior part it is scarcely 
 *025 inch in width, while towards the posterior part it is often 
 as much as '2 to '4 inch. Bremser observes that when a Tcenia 
 
 is measured it is necessary to notice whether it is in a state of 
 contraction or not, for without that precaution the measure- 
 ments will not be correct. The thickness of the animal is also 
 
 very variable. Some are thin, and in consequence they are 
 
 almost transparent, while others are tolerably thick. 
 The parenchyma of this entozoon 
 
 is soft, and almost white ; it contains 
 
 a number of microscopic calcareous 
 
 granules disseminated through nearly 
 
 every part of it. 
 
 According to Linnaeus, the Tcenia 
 
 has no head. Its anterior extremity 
 
 presents, however, a small enlargement, 
 
 which usually receives that name (fig. 
 
 114). This enlargement is generally 
 
 very small, and is difficult to distinguish 
 
 with the naked eye. Bremser only 
 
 met with one individual which had a 
 
 large and very apparent head. But 
 
 even what Bremser terms large, did not Fi S- U4- Head.* 
 
 measure more than *078 of an inch ; in 
 
 1 A, head ; a, anterior part, somewhat attenuated ; b b, oscula ; c, double 
 crown of tusks ; </, proboscis ; e, commencement of neck ; /, first articu- 
 lations ; B, hooks ; a, haft ; 6, guard ; c, claw. 
 
378 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 general the head is not more than '039 or '058 of an inch in dia- 
 meter. The form of the head varies, but it is always more or less 
 globular ; occasionally it is ovoid ; it is provided with four cir- 
 cular projections, placed at equal distances from one another, 
 and arranged in a crucial form. In the living animal each pro- 
 jection has a circular disk (oscula) in its centre, surrounded by 
 a rim of denser material than the rest of the tissue, and which 
 appears to be of a muscular nature. These mouths have been 
 compared to small suckers. While it is alive, the Toenia con- 
 tinually elongates and retracts, the mouth bearing papillae; 
 Bremser remarks that the animal always extends the opposite 
 projections, and at the same time retracts the other two. 
 
 Between and in front of the mouth is a convex protuberance 
 forming a kind of rudimental proboscis, which, however, is not 
 perforated, but is surrounded by a double row of hooks. These 
 bodies are of a horny nature, and vary in number from 12 to 
 15 in each row. Each hook consists of a stem or handle, which 
 is almost straight, of moderate thickness, and forms nearly 
 half its length ; of a curved pointed claw ; and of a guard 
 or tubercular projection placed at the junction of the stem 
 with the claw. This projection serves as a point of resistance 
 during the backward and forward movements of the hook ; it 
 is generally surrounded by a sheath. The hooks alternate 
 with obtuse appendages, which are nothing more than the dis- 
 articulated stems. According to Bremser a Tcenia loses its 
 hooks as it becomes old. Some writers have supposed that the 
 proboscis had an opening in the centre of the double crown of 
 hooks which represented the mouth. According to this view 
 the openings in the disks would be accessory mouths ; it was 
 in accordance with this idea that Virey gave the animal the 
 name of Pentastoma, or five-mouthed. It has been previously 
 mentioned that the projection is not perforated. 
 
 The head is supported upon a short slender neck, which has 
 no visible articulations. This neck, as well as the head, ap- 
 pears to be composed of a gelatinous looking material. 
 
 Beyond the neck is the body, composed of segments or 
 Zoonites, 1 (fig. 115). These segments are very numerous. M. 
 Eschricht possesses a Tcenia in which there are more than 1000. 
 Adanson asserts that the worm may have as many as 1240. 
 The segments are united together in a single linear series. 8 
 The first segments are always shorter than they are wide ; as 
 they grow in size their length increases proportionally much 
 
 i See page 59. 
 
 8 These zoonites are generally from -472 in. to '787 in. in length, and 
 from '275 in. to -472 in. in breadth. 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 
 
 379' 
 
 Fig. 115. Separate segments? 
 
 more than their width. They soon become of a square form, 
 and afterwards oblong, and ultimately their length is equal to 
 twice their width. 1 Individuals are occasionally met with in 
 which some of the segments are 
 wider than they are long, followed 
 by others in which these propor- 
 tions are reversed ; a circumstance 
 which proves the irregular con- 
 traction of the Ta&nia. In some 
 cases these unequal contractions 
 arise from the sudden destruction 
 of the animal by placing it in 
 spirits of wine. At other times 
 the contractions are still more 
 marked, and produce actual mon- 
 strosities. (Ttayer, Follin.) In 
 general, however, the segments 
 which are most developed are longer 
 than they are wide. The last seg- 
 ments are only slightly united to- 
 gether and readily separate. 
 
 Each segment has four borders and two surfaces. The an- 
 terior border unites with the previous segment ; it is always 
 thinner than the posterior and generally narrower. The pos- 
 terior border is thickened, and appears to project ; it is either 
 undulating or indented. The lateral margins are seldom straight 
 or parallel, but incline slightly towards each other. One of 
 them is provided with an opening, which will be described 
 presently. These borders form with the posterior a projecting 
 angle, which gives the animal the appearance of being notched 
 at its sides. The two surfaces are flat, but sometimes they pro- 
 ject slightly towards the centre. 
 
 The entozoon is covered with a very thin skin, which is in- 
 timately united to the subjacent tissue, so that it can only be 
 taken off in strips, and then only on the largest segments. 
 
 The digestive system of the Tcenia consists of four slender 
 canals, which pass from the mouths. These canals, which look 
 like so many white lines, soon unite to form two, which pass 
 along the whole length of the two sides of the animal. They 
 take a parallel course at a short distance from each lateral 
 margin. At the posterior part of the segments they com- 
 
 1 " A nimalia composite, simplici catena" Linn. 
 
 3 a, genital openings ; d, deferent canal and testicle ; /, oviduct ; g h, 
 ovaries. 
 
380 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 municate by means of transverse branches which run along 
 .the posterior margin. The lateral canals are provided with 
 valves, which prevent the nutrient fluid moving in a retrograde 
 direction. Carlisle endeavoured to inject one of these canals 
 from behind forward, but the fluid would not pass ; in order 
 to succeed it must be injected from one of the mouths. 
 
 M. Blanchard has described a circulatory system in the 
 Tcenia, consisting of four slender vessels, two corresponding to 
 each surface, and communicating together by means of very 
 delicate branches. Some recent observations tend to show that 
 these canals are urinary vessels. (Van Breneden.) 
 
 Nervous centres are said to have been discovered in the head 
 of this entozoon. These consist of two cerebral ganglions united 
 together by a slender commissure, and of two long cords which 
 are given oif from the ganglions and can be traced along the 
 margins of the different segments. A small ganglion is also 
 stated to exist beneath each mouth, which is connected by a 
 delicate filament with the cerebral ganglion. M. Dumeril, 
 who has dissected a large number of Tcenice, and has noticed 
 these lateral cords, does not regard them as nerves, but as 
 ligaments. 
 
 Beneath the general integuments some longitudinal muscular 
 fibres are said to be present, which are not intercepted at the 
 articulations. 
 
 When the Tenice are examined in the living state, and when 
 they are surrounded by the mucous secretion of the intestines, 
 they are seen to move about with an undulating motion. 1 Des- 
 longchamps having placed some of the young Tcenice in tepid 
 water, states that they swam about in the same manner as 
 leeches. A. Richard relates, that, having immersed a living 
 Tenia in tepid milk, it executed very distinct movements, 
 which were renewed when the liquid was changed. 
 
 The Tenice are androgynous, each adult segment containing 
 both male and female organs (fig. 116). An opening situated 
 at the side constitutes the sexual aperture ; the orifice is very 
 distinct, and pierces a prominent papilla. It is in the middle 
 segments that this opening is seen most clearly, and is stated 
 to be surrounded by a small projecting margin. For a long 
 time these apertures were regarded as mouths or suckers which 
 were intended to fix the animal to the intestine and to suck 
 up its food. 2 The great length of the entozoon, the extreme 
 tenuity of the alimentary canals, the size of the last segments, 
 
 1 Gomes, Deslandes. 
 
 2 " Singulo articulo proprium os. Linn. 
 
PAEASITIC WOBMS. 
 
 381 
 
 Fig. 116. Sexual organs. 1 
 
 and the prominence of the genital pore, which is able to apply 
 itself with a certain force in the manner of a sucker, gave 
 some show of proba- 
 bility to this opinion. 
 The pores are placed 
 sometimes on one side, 
 sometimes on the 
 other, but without any 
 regular alternation. 
 Sometimes there are 
 two, three, or even 
 four, arranged conse- 
 cutively on the same 
 side,while there will be 
 only one or two on the 
 opposite side. When 
 examined with a magnifying glass, the genital pore resembles a 
 cup-shaped depression. In the centre is a minute aperture 
 from which a short small spiculum is occasionally seen to pro- 
 ject ; this opening leads to a horizontal tortuous (deferent) canal; 
 the latter is of an opaque white colour, and terminates in 
 the testicle, which is placed towards the middle of the segment. 
 Behind the male orifice, and frequently confounded with it, is 
 the opening of the female organs. This opening communicates 
 with a canal (var/ina) which passes parallel to the deferent canal, 
 but which is longer and becomes connected with a granular, irre- 
 gularly lobed organ, having a grape-like form. This organ, which 
 some authors have described as a ramified intestine, is the ovary. 
 
 When a Tcenia has attained a certain stage of develop- 
 ment, its ovaries enlarge and become very apparent. At 
 this period individuals have been found folded up so to place 
 some of the genital pores opposite to each other ; a circum- 
 stance which has led some writers to think that the animals were 
 in the act of copulating. The invertebrata, however, which 
 can procreate of themselves, do not copulate. In these 
 animals there is an internal communication between the 
 ova and spermatozoa. Copulation takes place in all those 
 androgynous animals which are deprived of this communica- 
 tion, but then it occurs between two or more individuals. 
 
 The Tenice are oviparous. They deposit their eggs (fig. 116, 
 JB) in incalculable numbers, each segment containing hundreds. 
 
 1 A, double sexual apparatus; a, genital depression; i, spiculum; c, 
 female orifice ; </, testicle ; e, deferent canal ; /, oviduct ; g t axis of ovary; 
 h, grape-like ovaries ; .?, egg. 
 
382 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The egg lias a rounded form, and is of a white colour. It is 
 provided with three coverings ; an exterior one which is of a 
 kind of albuminous layer, a middle one which is hard and re- 
 sisting, and an internal one which is very thin and easily torn! 
 The embryo may be seen in the interior, having its head armed 
 with three pairs of spines which resemble those of the adult ; 
 only they are proportionally larger. The eggs are liberated in 
 three ways : 1. The impregnated segments separate from each 
 other 1 (fig. 114). These zoonites have been mistaken for a dis- 
 tinct species of worm, and received the name of Cucurbitini 
 (Vermes cucurbitini, cucumerini), from having been compared 
 to the seeds of the pumpkin. (Lamarck.) Andry regards them 
 as the eggs of the animal. In reality they are ovigrous cap- 
 sules, but at the same time they retain their vitality and pos- 
 sess a very distinct motion. (Siebold, Mignot.) The vitality 
 of the segments is speedily extinguished, they become decom- 
 . posed, and the eggs are set at liberty. 2. The eggs are 
 discharged through the genital pore in the usual manner ; the 
 latter process does not occur so frequently as the former. 
 Goeze only noticed it once. Lamarck states that by lightly 
 pressing some of the segments the eggs can be discharged. 
 3. Under certain circumstances the ovary and the segment 
 burst at the sides, and the zoonite becomes perforated. 
 Masars de Cazeles mistook a Tcenia perforated in this manner 
 for a new species, to which he gave the name of Tcenia fenestrata. 
 
 M. "Weinland has described, under the name of abietina, a 
 variety of the Common Tcenia, which was sent from North 
 America to Professor Agassiz, and in which the ovaries were 
 ramified in a peculiar manner. 
 
 2. OTHER SPECIES. The other species of Tcenice which have 
 been noticed in the human body are : the Ttenia nana, the 
 Tcenia Jlavopunctata, the Tcenia JZchinococcus, and the Tcenia 
 inermis. The following are their characters : 
 
 very numerous. ( alternate ... 1. Tcenia solium. 
 Sexual orifices 4 / Uniform 
 
 with hooks. (^unilateral -I colour. 2. Tania nana. 
 
 Segments ( Spotted. 3. Tcenia flavo- 
 
 punctata. 
 
 3 or 4 4. Tcenia Echi- 
 
 nococcus. 
 withouthooks 5 .Tcenia inermis, 
 
 1 When a Tcenia has attained a certain stage of development the adult 
 segments filled with eggs are continually cast off from the posterior extremity 
 of the worm. 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 383 
 
 The Tcenia nana 1 was found in considerable numbers in 
 Egypt in 1851 by Dr. Bilharz, in the small intestines of a young 
 man who had died from meningitis. 
 
 This entozoon is very small, not being more than half an 
 iDch in length, and not thicker than a needle. The segments 
 are proportionally somewhat large. The head is large, obtuse 
 anteriorly, and supported upon a long neck. Its proboscis is 
 pyriform, and the mouths projecting. 
 
 The eggs are globular and furnished with a thick, smooth, 
 yellow shell, through which the three pairs of hooks with 
 which the embryo is provided can be readily seen. 
 
 The Tcenia flavopunctata was discovered in Massachusets in 
 1842, by Dr. Erza Palmer, and described, unfortunately, from 
 portions without the head by professor Weinland. It came 
 from an infant nine months old, who was however in good 
 health, had been weaned at six months, and fed in the usual 
 manner. 
 
 It was mistaken at first for a Bothriocephalw. 
 The worm is from 8 to 12 inches in length, and from '078 to 
 "118 of an inch in width. It is of a whitish colour, with a dis- 
 tinct yellow spot in Ihe centre of each segment. The segments 
 are very regular, excepting towards the posterior extremity, 
 where they are so much contracted anteriorly that they are 
 almost of a triangular form. 
 
 The most remarkable character of this species is the situa- 
 tion of the sexual orifices, which are all situated on one side, 
 as is the case in the Tcenice of several of the mammalia. The 
 ovary does not consist of a central stem with lateral branches, 
 but of a mass of germs in the centre of each segment. 
 
 The eggs are spherical and transparent, and have a yellow 
 spot in the centre. They are provided with three coverings, 
 of which the innermost is resisting, and breaks under pressure 
 at acute angles ; the second is thicker and wrinkled. 
 
 The Tcenia EcJiinococcus is a species which is still imper- 
 fectly known ; it is often met with in Iceland, where it is found 
 in large numbers in the intestines of the dog ; it is believed 
 that it is also found in the human subject. M. Tandon con- 
 siders that the latter statement is extremely doubtful. 
 
 This Tania is extremely small, being almost of microscopic 
 dimensions. Its length is hardly more than '118 of an inch ; 
 it has only three or four segments, of which the last is already 
 fully developed, being impregnated and filled with eggs. It 
 has from 28 to 36 hooks. 
 
 1 Titnia Eyyptiaca. BilL 
 
384 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The penis is seen at the side, behind the middle of the seg- 
 ment. Its ovary is large and winding. 
 
 The eggs are spherical. 
 
 The segments after their separation become as large as the 
 entire Tcenia. 
 
 The Tcenia inermis x was discovered, in 1855, by M. Kuchen- 
 meister. It is an inhabitant of Europe, and appears to be not 
 uncommon in Germany. It is found in the small intestines. 
 An individual of this species was recently obtained from a pork 
 butcher of Louvain, and another from a young girl of Liege. 
 (Yan Beneden.) 
 
 This Tcenia closely resembles the Common Tcenia, with which 
 it has been confounded. It is, however, clearly distinguished 
 by the absence of the hooks and the simplicity of its ovaries. 
 Those who first noticed it probably mistook it for an individual 
 of the common species in which the hooks had become lost 
 either through accident or age. 
 
 The head of the Tcenia inermis is somewhat larger than that 
 of the Tcenia communis, and is very obtuse, and as it were 
 truncated. It has neither hooks nor proboscis ; the suckers are 
 very large ; and the segments separate very readily. Its 
 ovaries consist of a longitudinal canal, which gives off some- 
 thing like sixty lateral parallel branches, which are either 
 simple or bifurcated, but never dendritic. 
 
 The eggs are oval and smooth. 
 
 Some writers have mentioned the following species as para- 
 sitic upon man ; further information is still required concerning 
 them. 
 
 1. The Tcenia of the Cape, Tcenia Capensis, is mentioned by 
 Kuchenmeister as having been obtained from a Hottentot. 
 M. "Weinland considers it is a variety or monstrosity of the 
 Tcenia communis or the Tcenia inermis. M. Leuchart thinks it 
 is the same as the latter, [Kuchenmeister has founded this 
 species upon the characters of the separated segments, not 
 having seen either the head or the neck of the worm. He 
 himself expresses a doubt as to whether it is really a distinct 
 species.] 
 
 2. The Tcenia tropica is common in the Indies, one half of 
 the negroes being affected with it. It is seldom met with in 
 Europeans. It has, however, been noticed in those who have 
 resided on the coasts of Guinea, and who were at the same time 
 
 1 Tcenia mediocanellata, Kuch. This name cannot be retained, as it is 
 badly compounded, one of its roots not being a Latin word. 
 
PAEASITIC WOEMS. 385 
 
 affected with the Filaria Medinensis* It has never been seen 
 in the Malay race. It is said not to have hooks ? 
 
 M. Van Beneden approximates this species to the Tcenia 
 inermis. 
 
 3. The Tcenia serrata, which is very common in the dog, is it 
 ever found in man as some medical men have stated ? 
 
 4. M. Eschricht says he received a Tcenia canina* Linn., 
 which had been passed by a negro slave. Is this fact correct ? 
 
 3. ACTION ON MAN. The Teenies usually inhabit the small 
 intestines. When they are numerous or greatly developed 
 they descend into the large intestines. It is very rarely 
 that they ascend into the stomach. Aubert, of Geneva, has 
 described a tumour in a testicle, caused by the presence of a 
 Tcenia ( ! ) 
 
 This entozoon is sometimes solitary, while at other times 
 there are several of them together. Two or three are often met 
 with in the same patient. Eudolphi mentions a case in which 
 there were four. M. Barth had charge of a patient who had 
 six ; M. Monod succeeded in expelling fourteen at the same 
 time, and De Haen cured a woman aged thirty who had 
 eighteen. The name of Solitary Worm by which this creature 
 is generally known is, therefore, very ill chosen. 
 
 These worms gain access to the intestinal canal in the larval 
 state. 3 The cephalic hooks are at this time directed forwards 
 and can easily penetrate the mucous tissues. They are then 
 moved from before backwards, the claw penetrating at the 
 same time, and, by this means, the head of the worm is buried 
 in the thickness of the mucous membrane. (Van Beneden.) 
 
 M. Sappey found a Tcenia serrata in the intestines of a dog 
 where the head had penetrated the epidermis, and was resting 
 in contact with the subjacent layer of the mucous membrane. 
 He succeeded in dissecting out the worm with a portion of the 
 epidermal layer remaining around its neck like a collar. 
 
 The presence of the Tcenice gives rise to a feeling of uneasi- 
 ness, to a sensation of weight, to flatulency, and to pains in 
 the abdomen ; the latter are usually sb'ght, especially at the 
 commencement of the disease. The patient is subject to 
 shiverings ; he has a feeling of anxiety, and has an inordinate 
 desire for food, while at the same time he gets thin. 
 
 M. Van Beneden suspects that it was the larvaB of the 
 Tcenia Echinococcus which produced the terrible epidemic, 
 
 1 See p. 360. 
 
 3 T. cucumerina, Bloch. 
 
 3 See chapter xiii. on the cystic helmiutha. 
 
 C C 
 
386 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 which destroyed one sixth of the inhabitants of Iceland. 
 (Schleisner.) 1 
 
 When the person has expelled a large number of the frag- 
 ments of a Tcenia the parasite ultimately perishes. During 
 the treatment of a patient the anterior portion of the worm, 
 and more especially the head, is anxiously sought for. The 
 patient is often supposed to have discharged only a number of 
 segments, while, in reality, he has got rid of the most active 
 and important portion of the worm. By a careful examination 
 of the faecal matter the head can sometimes be detected. Out 
 of a hundred persons affected with Tcenia, who were treated by 
 Bremser, only one of them detected the expulsion of the head 
 of the worm, and yet ninety-nine out of the hundred were 
 cured. 
 
 Some writers have asserted that a Tcenia will live for ten 
 years, a statement which appears to be very doubtful. Patients, 
 however, have been known to discharge portions of Tcenice 
 during that space of time, but in all probability they came 
 from different individuals. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 BOTHEIOCEPHALTJS. 
 
 THE genus Hoihriocephalus was established by Bremser. It 
 differs essentially from that of Tcenia. The head has two fossae 
 or pits instead of the four mouths, and has no circlet of hooks. 
 
 1. BOTHEIOCEPHALUS I/ATUS. 2 This entozoon inhabits the 
 north of Europe, where it is more common than the Tcenia 
 solium ; it is found more particularly in Russia, Poland, and 
 Sweden. M. Kiichenmeister says he has met with it in Ham- 
 burg, but only in Jews. It has also been observed in Prance. 
 Two years ago Professor Grisolle succeeded in expelling a 
 very long one from one of his patients. Mr. Jackson has twice 
 met with this worm in England. In general the Bothriocepha- 
 lus is common where the Taenia is rare, and vice versa. 
 
 [Mr. Jackson's cases occurred in America, one of the patients 
 being an Englishman. In the College of Surgeons, No. 204 of 
 the Natural History series, is a specimen of the Bothriocephaliis 
 latus, which was procured by the late Sir Anthony Carlisle from a 
 
 1 M. Siebold considers it was caused by the Tcenia serrata. 
 a EoQpiof a pit, and K6<J>aA.$? the head. 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 
 
 387 
 
 female who was a native of Switzerland. 
 Professor Quekett has kindly informed 
 me that five other specimens have since 
 been added to the collection. Three 
 of these were purchased at the sale of 
 the late Mr. Gardener's collection. 
 One of them was said to have come 
 from a person belonging to the Rus- 
 sian embassy, another from a person 
 who had been travelling in Switzer- 
 land, and the history of the third was 
 unknown. The fourth specimen oc- 
 curred in the practice of Dr. Gull: the 
 patient was a little girl five years old, 
 who resided at Woolwich, where there 
 is always a number of foreign sailors. 
 The fifth came into the possession of 
 Mr. Camplin, and was passed by a 
 lady who was a native of Russia, and 
 who, after a residence of some years 
 in England, paid a temporary visit to 
 her native country. In all the cases, 
 therefore, in which the history of the 
 disease can be traced, with the ex- 
 ception of that which came under the 
 notice of Dr. Gull, the Geographical 
 distribution of the worm is most 
 rigidly maintained. In the case of 
 the child residing by the water-side, 
 the presence of foreigners readily ex- 
 plains the mode in which the worm 
 might have been conveyed to this 
 country, and impure drinking water 
 would suggest itself as the means of 
 transmission from one individual to 
 another.] 
 
 Description. The JBothriocepJialus 
 lafus (tig. 117) is also one of the flat, 
 articulated entozoa. Its usual length 
 is from 6 to 20 feet. Bremser men- 
 tions the case of a young Swiss who 
 expelled three pieces, of which the longest measured twenty- 
 five Vienna feet. Other writers mention 60 feet. Goeze 
 asserts that he received a specimen from Bloch which measured 
 
 c c 2 
 
 
 1 f * 
 
 ! i | 
 
 ' ' F -~4 
 
 \ 3 1 
 
 1 i I 
 
 i % *!* 
 
 i! i I 
 
 s a ^ 
 
 J , m 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 117. 
 Botkriocepkahu atus. 
 
388 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 more than 230 feet. Boerhave declares that he expelled a 
 Bothriocephalus from a Eussian which was not less than 1200 
 feet in length ? The greatest width of this worm is from the 
 393 of an inch to the 1*220 of an inch. Eudolpbi, however, 
 asserts that he saw one which was 3*296 inches in width. It 
 is difficult to admit the correctness of this measurement. 
 
 The JBothriocepJialus is generally of a greyish white or yel- 
 lowish colour ; it never has the milky whiteness of a Tsenia. 
 The middle of the last segments are more or less of a brown 
 colour arising from the presence of the eggs. When this worm 
 is put into alcohol it assumes a grey colour. From this cir- 
 cumstance it received the name of Tcenia grisea, which was 
 given to it by Pallas. 
 
 The head of the BotJiriocephalus (fig. 118) is 
 very small (about '093 inch), oblong, somewhat 
 depressed, and obtuse ; there are two oblong, 
 lateral depressions or pits placed opposite to 
 each other, which Eudolphi justly regards as the 
 oral apertures. 
 
 [Kiichenmeister examined five heads of the 
 Bothriocephali, only one of which was, however, 
 tolerably iresh. The two lateral pits (the ana- 
 logues of the sucking discs of the Tsenia) are 
 fissuriform ; they appear, like the sucking discs 
 on the feet of flies and mites, on leeches, &c., 
 rather to affect the adhesion in accordance with 
 the well-known laws of partial or total vacua, 
 than to have anything to do with the nourish- 
 ment, which is probably introduced through the 
 entire skin. An actual opening on the head of 
 the Bothrioceplialus could not be detected any 
 more than in the other Cestoidea. 1 '] 
 
 The neck is sometimes very apparent and 
 distinctly developed, while at other times it can 
 be scarcely discerned. Bremser has figured two heads with 
 well-developed necks, and a third in which it is almost absent. 
 The neck appears to possess no articulations, but by means of 
 the microscope a number of closely arranged ridges can be per- 
 ceived. 
 
 The segments or zoonites are at first nearly square, but they 
 soon become wider than they are long. At the posterior part 
 of the body the transverse greatly exceeds the longitudinal 
 
 Fig. 118. 
 Head. 
 
 1 Kiichenmeister, opus cit. vol. i. p. 97. 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 
 
 389 
 
 diameter (fig. 119). M. Eschricht calculated that a single 
 Bothriocephalus contains 10,000 segments. 
 
 At the posterior extremity of the animal there is sometimes 
 observed a kind of incision or longitudinal rent, which divides 
 the worm into two portions, and may give to this extremity the 
 appearance of a head. Bremser has figured a portion of a 
 Bothriocephalus with a fissure of this kind. At other times the 
 rent is longer, and the worm appears to be furnished with two 
 tails. M. Rayer has seen several examples of this. 
 
 As in the Tsenia, filiform alimentary canals may be noticed at 
 the anterior part, which pass in the 
 length of the body. These canals can 
 sometimes be seen through the skin. 
 
 According to M. Blanchard, the Botli- 
 riocephalus has a nervous system re- 
 sembling that of the Taenia, but not so 
 distinct. 
 
 The animal contracts and dilates it- 
 self in a very irregular manner, but its 
 movements are generally sluggish. The 
 head is said, however, to be distinctly 
 movable. 
 
 About the centre of the under surface 
 of the segments (fig. 119) is an oval 
 or conical papilla, provided with an 
 aperture through which there emerges 
 a small slender somewhat pointed body, 
 which is regarded as the penis. Behind this body is another 
 smaller pore without a papilla. This does not always exist ; it is 
 supposed to be the vulva, and, like the penis, is not present in 
 every segment ; the hermaphroditism of the animal is not there- 
 fore uniform; it possesses some segments which are androgynous, 
 while others are male and female. 
 
 According to M. Eschricht, the penis is furnished with a 
 small sheath and communicates with a tolerably long deferent 
 canal ; this is folded several times upon itself, gradually increases 
 in thickness, and terminates in a vesicula seminalis, having the 
 form of an oval pouch. The testicle consists of white granules, 
 and is furnished with three slender ducts, which terminate in 
 the before-mentioned vesicle. The female organs are some- 
 what more complicated ; the ovaries are oblong and very 
 distinct, the oviduct presents itself under the form of a tortuous 
 
 Fig. 119. 
 Separate Segments. 1 
 
 1 a, male orifice with the penis ; b, vulva. 
 
390 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 canal, especially at the period when the ova are mature. The 
 uterus has two pouches or diverging horns, which communicate 
 together. 
 
 The eggs of the Bothriocephalus (fig. 120) are exceedingly 
 numerous. According to M. Eschricht, 
 each individual has as many as ten millions. 
 The eggs are of an elliptical form; when 
 highly magnified they appear to be filled 
 with granules. 
 
 The larva of the Bothriocephalus is un- 
 known, as well as the circumstances under 
 which it passes the first period of its exist- 
 ence. The propagation of this entozoon 
 is supposed to occur in the same manner as 
 that of the BotkriocepkaU of other animals. 
 The egg produces an asexual larva, pro- 
 Fig 120. 1 vided with a pouch-like body; this larva 
 Sexual Organs. lives for a time in the body of some animal, 
 and subsequently introduces itself into the 
 human body, and is there transformed into the perfect animal. 2 
 M. Van Beneden observes that the herbivorous mammalia 
 have tape-worms which are not furnished with hooks, and that 
 these animals cannot swallow the larvae of these worms with 
 the flesh of other animals, as is the case with the carnivora. 
 It is therefore possible that the human Bothriocephalus is 
 produced from a larva which does not become encysted. 3 
 
 2. ANOTHER SPECIES. Mayor, of Geneva, has recognised 
 two species of the Bothriocephalus latus, one with short the 
 other with long segments. The first attains a length of sixty- 
 five feet, and is about half an inch in width ; the segments are 
 about '078 of an inch (two millimetres) in length. The second 
 is not more than twenty-six feet long and about '354 of an 
 inch in width ; its segments are '157 of an inch in -length. 
 According to this gentleman, the oil of the male fern invariably 
 expels the Bothriocephalus with the long segments, while that 
 with the short segments usually resists it, and requires to 
 effect its expulsion that the powdered root of this plant, 
 or a decoction of the bark of the root of the pomegranate 
 tree, should be employed. Zoologists consider that these sup- 
 posed species are mere varieties of the large Bothriocephalus. 
 
 1 A, bisexual apparatus ; a, male orifice with the penis ; 6, testicle ; c, 
 vulva; d, uterus with horns; e, tortuous oviduct; f t ovary; B, egg. 
 3 See p. 396. 
 3 See p. 399. 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 391 
 
 3. OBSERVATIONS. On comparing the Bothriocephalus latus 
 with the Tcenia communis, their distinctive characters may be 
 arranged as follows : 
 
 The Bothriocephalus 1, is of a grey colour; 2, it has an 
 elongated head, without any terminal "enlargement or circlet 
 of hooks ; 3, it is furnished with two elongated fossae ; 4, the 
 segments are wider than they are long ; 5, the sexual orifices 
 are central. 
 
 The Tcenia 1, is white; 2, the head is globular, with a 
 terminal enlargement and two circles of hooks ; 3, it has four 
 rounded oscula; 4, the segments are longer than they are 
 wide ; 5, the sexual orifices are marginal. 
 
 ACTION ON MAN. Like the Tcenia, the BothriocepJialus 
 inhabits the small intestines. 
 
 The disorders which these worms produce, and the symptoms 
 which indicate their presence, are the same in both species. 
 
 The Tape worms without hooks belong to the herbivora, and 
 those with hooks to the carnivora. In man, who is omnivorous, 
 both species are met with. As a vegetable feeder he is tor- 
 mented with the Bothriocephalus latus, and also with the Tcenia 
 inermis, and as a flesh feeder with the Tania communis and 
 the Tcenia nana. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 CYSTIC HELMINTHA. 
 
 UNDER the name of Vesicular or Cystic Helmintha, 1 are 
 included those entozoa which terminate in a vesicle, are con- 
 tained in a cyst, or are composed of the latter only. The old 
 writers gave them the name ofHydatids, orHydatid Worms. All 
 these Helmintha are agamic, that is, are deprived of sexual 
 organs. The reason of this will be seen hereafter. 
 
 Zoologists have distinguished three genera of the Cystic Hel- 
 mintha 1, the Cysticerci ; 2, the Echinococci ; 3, the Acepha- 
 locysts. 
 
 I. Cysticerci. 
 
 The CrsTiCEBCi 2 are helmintha which are furnished with a 
 caudal vesicle. 
 
 They become developed in the cellular tissue of the muscles, 3 
 
 1 Cystica, Rud.; Verities vesicular es, Linn.; Blassenvurmer of the Germans. 
 a KWTTIJ a bladder, and Ktpitot a tail. 
 * Werner, Himley, Demarquay. 
 
392 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 they have also been noticed in the liver, 1 the heart, 2 the choroid 
 plexus, 3 the brain, 4 between the sclerotic and the conjunctiva, 5 
 and in the anterior chamber of the eye. 6 
 
 These animals are very minute, and are contained in a 
 circular or oval cyst of a somewhat fibrous structure, which is 
 developed at the expense of the organ which nourishes the 
 parasite. This cyst contains a second, furnished with an open- 
 ing, around which a third sac is adherent, and encloses the 
 worm which is attached to it. (Follin, Eobin.) This sac is of 
 a globular, oval, pyriform shape ; its parieties are thin, smooth, 
 or granulated, semitransparent, of a whitish colour, and tolerably 
 strong. 
 
 The head and the neck are always contained in the vesicle, but 
 they can be partly or entirely withdrawn at the will of the animal. 
 
 The head is provided with four suckers placed on a similar 
 number of projections, and with a terminal proboscis sur- 
 rounded by a double circle of spines, just in the same manner 
 as in the head of a Tsenia. The neck varies in length, and is 
 formed of a number of closely arranged segments. 
 
 When the head is retracted the opening has the appearance 
 of a small navel, which appears to be surrounded with a kind 
 of whitish coloured sphincter; beneath this spot is the re- 
 tracted head and neck. 
 
 There are three principal species of the Cysticerci : 1, Cesti- 
 cercus celluloses; 2, Cysticercus tenuicollis ; 3, Cysticercus 
 Acanihotrias. 
 
 1. The Cysticercus Celluloses (fig. 121)7 is not commonly met 
 with in man ; it is supposed to be the same as the worm which 
 is so frequently developed in the pig, and produces the peculiar 
 affection which is known as measly pork ; it has also been 
 noticed in the ox. 
 
 The cysts measure from the '590 to the 787 of an inch in the 
 large diameter, and from the '198 to the '236 in the small. The 
 head has 32 hooks. 8 Some writers consider that the species which 
 is met with in animals, and is furnished with from 26 to 28 
 hooks,9 is a different species from that which is found in man. 
 
 1 Leuckart. 
 
 2 Morgagni, Kudolphi, Bouillaud, Andral, Leudet. 
 
 3 Treutler, Fischer. 
 
 4 Euysch, Chomel, Dubreuil, Leudet, Calmeil, Bouchut. 
 
 5 Estlin, Hsering, Siebold, Cunier. 
 
 6 Soemmering, Lugan. 
 
 7 Tcenia celluloses, Gmel. ; Hydatigera celluloses, Lamk. 
 ' Himley, Gervais, Ch. Kobin. 
 
 9 Davaine, Follin. 
 
PAEASITTC WORMS. 
 
 393 
 
 Fig. 121. Cysticerci* 
 
 There is a variety (albopunctatus) which has a well-marked 
 white spot at the 
 opening of the vesi- 
 cle. 1 
 
 The Cysticercus 
 dicystus of Laennec 
 which was found 
 in the brain of a 
 man who had died 
 of apoplexy, and in 
 which the body ter- 
 minated in a double 
 vesicle, must be re- 
 garded as a mon- 
 strosity. 
 
 2. The Oysticercus AcantJiotrias (Weinl.) or three-armed 
 cysticercus, was found in 1845, at Richmond, in Virginia, by 
 Professor Wyman, in the muscles of a woman fifty years of 
 age, who had died of phthisis. 
 
 It is nearly the '393 of an inch long without the vesicle, which 
 resembles that of the Cysticercus cellulosa. 
 
 It is characterised by having three kinds of hooks arranged 
 in three rows, fourteen in each . row ; its suckers are visible to 
 the naked eye, and its neck is distinctly articulated. 
 
 M. Weinland proposes to found a separate genus on this 
 species under the name of Acanthotrias. 
 
 3. The Cysticercus tenuicollis (Eud.) has been seen occasion- 
 ally in the liver and in the mesentery, but only very rarely. 
 Bosc and H. Cloquet have had the opportunity of examining 
 it. It is also found in monkeys, horses, pigs, and oxen. 
 
 The neck is long, round, and rugose. Its vesicle appears to 
 be small in man, but in other animals it becomes very large. 3 
 
 The following species must be regarded as doubtful, the 
 characters which have been assigned to them not being suffici- 
 ently marked. 
 
 1. The Cysticercus hepaticus, Delle Chiaje, which resides 
 in the liver, and has an oval elongated body. 
 
 2. The Oysticercus visceralis, Rud., which resides in the 
 abdomen and the thorax, and has a globular body. 
 
 1 Tcenia albo punctata, Treutl. 
 
 1 A, animal withdrawn into its vesicle ; B t animal extended ; C, head 
 and neck ; D, one of the hooks. 
 
 3 The Tsenia which produces this species is rety common in the animals 
 which are slaughtered for food. It is also found in the butcher's dog and 
 in the shepherd's dog. 
 
394 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 3. The Cysticercus Fischerianus, IJaenn., which has a very 
 slender body and a pyriform vesicle. 
 
 4. The Cysticercus aorticus, Notar., which has an oval body 
 and filiform hooks. 
 
 5. The Cysticercus vesicce, Crepl., in which the body is 
 rudimental. 
 
 In March, 1859, M. Kaeberle communicated to the Society 
 of Natural History of Strasbourg, a description of what he 
 considers to be two new species of Cysticerci the C. turbinatus 
 and the C. melanocephalus. The first is characterised by the 
 manner in which it is coiled up and by the possession of 32 
 hooks ; the second by a cephalic spot, and by having 24 hooks. 
 Both animals were found in the brain. 
 
 II. Echinococci. 
 
 The EcHiNococci 1 are worms which are enclosed in very 
 variable numbers in a membranous cyst (sporocyst). 
 
 The Echinococcus kominis (fig. 122), Hud., has been described 
 in several special memoirs. 
 
 This worm is found in several organs, but more especially in 
 the kidneys and lungs. Zeder met with it in the brain of a 
 young girl Budolphi, Eschricht, and Lebert have seen it in 
 the liver. Morgagni once found it in the heart. Ludersen 
 mentions the case of a man aged 40, who had died of 
 dropsy, and whose spleen was transformed into a large 
 dilated sac, containing an enormous number of Echinococci. 
 Collet has recorded the case of a woman, aged 47, who, in 
 about four months, discharged 135 Echinococci in coughing. 
 Albers and Boch have both seen a case of goitre which was 
 occasioned by an Echinococcus. (Poster.) M. Grescheidt found 
 it between the choroid and the crystalline lens. 
 
 The cyst or capsule of the Echinococci varies generally in 
 size. Some are not larger than a mustard seed, while others 
 are of the size of a chicken's egg. This cyst causes the paren- 
 chyma of the diseased organ to recede, and induces around it 
 the formation of a new tissue, so that the hydatid is completely 
 embedded in an adventitious cyst. These cysts are not always 
 solitary. 
 
 The shape of the cyst is globular, oval, or pyriform. It is 
 composed of two membranes, the one enclosed in the other. 
 The external (Hydatid of authors) consists of a structure which 
 has the appearance of coagulated white of egg, without either 
 fibres or cells, and is arranged in layers. (Davaine.) The in- 
 
 8 EXM* a hedgehog, and K&KKOS a grain. 
 
PARASITIC WORMS. 395 
 
 tmial cyst, corresponding to the germinal membrane of Goodsir, 
 
 is formed of a fibrous 
 tissue, with a number 
 of elementary granules 
 dispersed through it. In 
 the interior is a clear 
 limpid fluid, sometimes 
 colourless, and at other 
 times with a slight yel- 
 low or reddish tinge. 
 
 Small corpuscles, like 
 Fig. 122. EchinocuccusS grains of sand, float free 
 
 in the fluid; these are 
 
 at first attached to the internal surface of the cyst by means 
 of a very slender pedicle, which tears with great facility. 
 (Davaiue.) When examined beneath the microscope, these 
 corpuscles are seen to be elongated, more or less ovoid, globu- 
 lar, or pyriform in shape, and depressed. Each of these is a 
 small intestinal worm. Its anterior extremity is furnished, 
 like that of the Cysticerci, or the Ta?nia, with four suckers and 
 a double row of hooks. Germs are also developed on the exter- 
 nal surface of the first membrane, and sometimes in its sub- 
 stance. They usually become detached, like the first-mentioned 
 bodies, when they have attained the size of a hemp seed. At 
 the end of a certain time they form in their interior the second 
 membrane, and it is from this that the young Echinococci are 
 produced. (Davaine.) 
 
 Some writers consider that the Echinococctts of the monkey, 
 the dog, the ox, and the sheep, is a distinct species from that of 
 man, and have given it the name of the Echinococcus veterino- 
 rum, Rud. 
 
 Others go even further, and admit that each of the animals 
 which have been named is infested with a distinct species. 
 
 III. Acephalocysts. 
 
 The ACEPHALOCYSTS, Acephalocystis (fig. 123) ,* described by 
 Laennec, are growths in the form of membranous cysts, but 
 which are without head, mouth, or alimentary canal, even in 
 the embryonal condition. 
 
 1 A, animal attached to the internal wall of the sporocyst, the head and 
 neck retracted within its body; a, the head ; b, the mouths ; c, the circlets 
 of hooks ; d, the proboscis ; e, the body ; /, the pedicle ; B, the animal de- 
 veloped ; a, the head ; 6, the oscula ; c, the circle of hooks ; d, the proboscis ; 
 e, the neck ; /, the body ; C, one of the hooks ; a, the claw ; 6, the guard ; 
 c, the handle. 
 
 2 a priv. Kc<p aAr; the head, KVOVIS a bladder. 
 
396 
 
 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Fig. IZZ.Acephalocysls. 
 
 The AcepJialocysts are found in the liver, spleen, and kidneys. 
 Beclard met with them in the bladder, Cullerier in the substance 
 of the bones, and M. Rostan in the arachnoid membrane. Dr. 
 Carrere found one which weighed over three ounces and a half 
 (119 grammes), in the brain of a young man. 
 
 Many naturalists have considered these cysts as true Hel- 
 
 mintha, but an or- 
 ganization of such 
 extreme simplicity 
 belongs to the class 
 Monadaria (Blain- 
 ville), and is allied 
 to the Yolvocidae. 
 (Leuckart.) 
 
 [The last state- 
 ment in the preced- 
 ing paragraph will 
 scarcely be admit- 
 ted, since there 
 are few naturalists 
 in the present day who have any doubts as to the vegetable 
 nature of the Volvocidae.] 
 
 Goeze and Rudolphi do not admit their animal nature ; and 
 Cuvier and Meckel held the same opinion. These vesicles 
 have, however, separate and independent life, which may be 
 traced through its several stages. (Dujardin.) 
 
 The membranous, tremulous, semi-transparent vesicles which 
 are found encysted in various parts of the body, are therefore 
 to be regarded as Jiydatid Helmintha. 
 
 The true AcepJialocysts are simple spherical non-adherent 
 bodies, often containing other vesicles, enclosed the one within 
 the other. 
 
 In the present state of the science, the AcepJialocysts must 
 not be regarded as a special genus of Helmintha, but as 
 Cysticerci and EcJiinococci, which are incompletely developed, 
 that is to say, whose evolution has been arrested. It is not 
 uncommon to find some of these cysts contain both unarmed 
 vesicles and larvae furnished with hooks, and which consequently 
 possess the characters both of an AcepJialocyst and of an JSchi- 
 nococcus. (Van Beneden.) 
 
 IV. Transformations of the Cystic Helmintha. 
 
 The Cystic or Jiydatid Helmintha, that is to say, the Cysticerci 
 and the EcJiinococci become transformed into the flat Hel- 
 
PABASITIC WOBMS. 397 
 
 mintha. The first are incompletely developed or larval stages 
 of the second. 
 
 A knowledge of these transformations has afforded a ready 
 explanation of the origin of verminous diseases. 
 
 The history of this discovery possesses the greatest possible 
 interest for the medical practitioner as well as for the naturalist. 
 More than a century ago, Abilgaard noticed that a particular 
 species of parasite, known as the Schistocephalus dimorplius^ 
 which infests certain fishes belonging to the family of the Gas~ 
 terostei or Stickle-backs, is sometimes found in the water-fowl, 
 which feed upon the latter, but that the parasite has then passed 
 into a further stage of development. M. Creplin, in 1829, by 
 carefully comparing the intestinal worm of the Grasterostei, 
 which annually ascend the tributary rivers of the Baltic, with 
 those of the piscivorous birds which frequent these streams, 
 clearly proved that the Schistocephalus dimorphus only acquires 
 its sexual organs (that is to say, becomes a perfect animal) when 
 it has been developed in the interior of the bird. 
 
 The changes which this worm undergoes consist only in its 
 attaining a larger size, and in the appearance of the sexual 
 organs. Other changes of a more complicated and curious 
 character, amounting to a true metamorphosis, have been 
 noticed by M. Van Beneden in other worms, such as the 
 Bothriocephali of fishes. Many fishes are inhabited by small 
 entozoa, known under the name of Scolices. These worms have 
 neither hooks nor suckers, and are entirely deprived of sexual 
 organs. At a later period the Scolices are furnished with four 
 cephalic suckers, armed with a series of hooks, and are con- 
 verted into Tetrarhynci. These remain in their cyst until the 
 fish in whose intestines they are lodged are eaten by some 
 larger species. The worm then emerges from its cyst, makes 
 its way through the intestine of the devourer, and fixes itself 
 to its mesentery. At a subsequent period, if, in its turn, this 
 fish is devoured by another, as, for instance, by a shark, the 
 worm becomes elongated, its body flattened, segments are 
 formed, the sexual organs are developed, and the entozoon 
 is transformed into a Bothriocephalus. 
 
 These remarkable facts serve to explain the great resem- 
 blance which M. Siebold has pointed out between the head of 
 the Cysticercm fasciolaris, which lives in the mouse, and the 
 head of the Tcenia crassicollis, which inhabits the cat. One is 
 led to the conclusion that the two parasites are identical. 
 In fact, they only differ from each other in the presence of a 
 small cavitary ve'sicle in the first, and in the greater length of 
 
398 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 the second. M. Siebold introduced several species of Oysticerci 
 into the stomachs of dogs and rabbits ; he found that after a 
 time the worm lost the caudal vesicle, elongated, became flat- 
 tened, divided into segments, and was transformed into a Tcenia. 
 
 Siebold gave encysted JEchinococci to dogs mixed with their 
 food. He showed that in some of these cases the last segment 
 became dilated into the vesicle, and the entozoon was developed 
 into a Cysticercus ; but, in a large number the worm became 
 elongated, flattened, articulated, and was converted into a 
 Tcenia. 
 
 Kiichenmeister, in 1835, by some experiments which he per- 
 formed upon a woman condemned to death for assassination, 
 showed that when the Cysticercus celluloses passed into the 
 human intestines, it became developed into the common Tcenia. 
 He administered to the woman a number of Cysticerci obtained 
 from a pig : twelve were given in some blood puddings, and 
 eighteen in rice, eighty-four hours before death ; fifteen in ver- 
 micelli soup, thirty-six hours before; twelve mixed with 
 sausage-meat, twenty-four hours before ; and eighteen in soup, 
 twelve hours before. The woman had, therefore, swallowed 
 seventy-five Cysticerci. The examination of the body was 
 made forty-eight hours after execution. Four small individuals 
 of the Tcenia communis were found attached to the mucous 
 membrane of the abdomen. In the water with which the in- 
 testines had been washed six other young Tcenice were found, 
 but they were not furnished with hooks. 
 
 It appears, therefore, that the Cysticercus celluloses becomes 
 converted into the common Tcenia in the alimentary canal of 
 man. 
 
 Similar experiments were made by Leuckart, who adminis- 
 tered a number of the Cysticerci from the pig to a young man 
 thirty years of age. At the end of two months this man had 
 Teenies. 
 
 M. A. Humbert, of Geneva, even went so far as to experi- 
 ment upon himself. On December the llth, 1854, he swal- 
 lowed fourteen fresh Cysticerci in the presence of MM. Yogt 
 and Moulinie. Early in the month of March, 1855, he felt the 
 presence of Tcenia, and discharged large fragments of them. 1 
 (Bertholus.) 
 
 On the other hand, it has been proved that the mature eggs 
 of the Tcenice give rise to the development of Cysticerci in the 
 
 1 Similar experiments made with other Cysticerci on dogs fully confirm 
 these results. 
 
PAEASITIC VOEMS. 399 
 
 tissues of animals. 1 Pigs have been fed with the eggs of the 
 Tcenia communis when the animals have become measly. 
 
 The Cysticerci found in the butchers' shops, and at the pork 
 butchers, 2 are the principal source of the common Tape worm. 
 These hydatids are consumed with the flesh of the pig (an ani- 
 mal which is so often infested by them) especially when this is 
 eaten raw, or merely salted and smoked, or when it is only 
 half-cooked. More rarely they are found in the flesh of the ox 
 and some other animals. 
 
 According to the report of the medical men of Vienna per- 
 sons who are employed in butchers' shops and in kitchens are 
 those who are most frequently aifected with Tape worms* In 
 Abyssinia, where the people are in the habit of eating raw 
 meat, this parasite is very common. (Auber, Siebold.) The 
 Carthusian monks of the same country, who neither eat meat 
 nor drink milk, are entirely free from the worm. (Ruppell, Rein- 
 lein.) At Stettin Tcenice were found in seven children, for 
 whom raw meat had been prescribed. (Scharlau.) 
 
 The following are then the successive transformations which 
 the Tcenia communis undergoes before arriving at its perfect 
 state. 
 
 The egg encloses a short unarticulated embryo, which, when 
 it is hatched, is furnished with three pairs of hooks (hexa- 
 canthi), of which the two central are for the purpose of fixing it 
 to the tissues of the animal selected by the parasite for its abode. 
 Once it is attached to an animal, as for instance a pig, 
 this kind of rudimental larva becomes, or more correctly speak- 
 ing engenders by an agamic process, a new individual enclosed 
 within its parent ; the latter becomes encysted in the infected 
 animals, like a caterpillar in its coccoon, where it becomes trans- 
 formed into a chrysalis. (Van Beneden.) 
 
 This second larva has a head with four suckers, a double cir- 
 cle of hooks, and a moderately long neck, which terminates in 
 a membranous enlargement or vesicle with delicate walls, and 
 filled with serum ; within this the young animal can withdraw 
 itself, or entirely close itself up. This kind of minute worm 
 resides in large numbers in the cellular tissues, on the fat, 
 beneath the skin, in the midst of the muscles, and in the peri- 
 toneum. 
 
 1 Kiichenmeister, Van Beneden, Gurlt, Eschricht, Leuckart, &c. 
 
 1 A piece of pork weighing four drachms and a half, which Kuchenmei*- 
 ter obtained from a pork butcher in Saxony contained 133 Cysticerci. 
 
 8 Pork butchers and butchers are very subject to the common Tape worm. 
 (Deslandes.) 
 
400 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The animal lives in its cyst like a Cynips in a gall-nut. 
 
 In this second state the larva, forms the Cysticercus celluloses ; 
 it is the hydatid stage. 
 
 The larva is capable of producing other individuals similar to 
 itself by the process of gemmation, but not by a true act of 
 generation. When the pig becomes measly it contains mil- 
 lions of individuals. 
 
 If this larva and its progeny cannot escape from the tissues 
 in which they have become encysted, their development does not 
 pass beyond the condition of the Cysticercus. 
 
 When the Cysticercus enters the alimentary canal of man, it 
 attaches itself by means of its hooks and its suckers to the sur- 
 face of the mucous membrane. It soon loses its vesicle, 
 which becomes degenerated by exosmosis, and assumes the ap- 
 pearance of a flattened appendage. The animal becomes more 
 transparent, lengthens, assumes a flattened form, and produces 
 a number of segments, which constitute special organisms 
 placed end to end, and enjoying a community of life, but each of 
 which, at the same time, is provided with all the elements 
 essential to its individuality. 1 This long chain of zoonites may 
 be regarded as another form of agamic reproduction. 
 
 This third stage corresponds to the perfect animal, and con- 
 stitutes the Tcenia. 
 
 It has been seen that the larva}, when they emerge from the 
 egg, are neither flat nor vesicular, and that the Cysticerd are 
 flat worms furnished with an Hydatid termination. The 
 AcepJialocysts may be described as large Hydatids without 
 the flat anterior body, while the Toenioe, on the contrary, have 
 long flat bodies without the terminal Hydatid. 
 
 In the course of two or three months a Tcenia may attain 
 the length of several yards. 
 
 Each segment is both male and female. At the period 
 of procreation the ovaries are enlarged and become distended 
 with an enormous number of eggs. After this the articula- 
 tions separate from each other, and each of these becomes an 
 independent organism. 
 
 The fourth stage is that of the Cucurbitins* or separated 
 segments. 
 
 These are passed out with the excrements ; they continue 
 to live for some days ; they then decompose, and the eggs 
 which they contain are dispersed abroad. 
 
 1 " Tcenia natos suos nepotes concatenata serie longitudinaliter producunt" 
 (Linn.) 
 
 2 See page 382. 
 
WORMS. 401 
 
 The eggs retain for a long time the power of germinating ; 
 they resist the effects both of high and low temperatures, of 
 dryness and humidity, and also of water and of alcohol. At 
 length they pass either with the food or the drink into the 
 interior of some animal or of man : they then become hatched, 
 and give rise to a new generation of Cysticerci, which in their 
 turn are developed into Tcenioe. 1 
 
 These four states of the HelmintJia the rudimentary, the 
 vesicular, the flat, and the disjointed have been named by M. 
 Van Beneden the protoscolex, the deutoscolex, the strobila, and 
 the proglottis* These names had previously been used in a 
 generic sense, when each of the forms to which they refer was 
 regarded as a distinct species of animal. M. Van Beneden 
 would now make use of them as general terms, a useless inno- 
 vation, since we have already the terms larva, Cysticercus, 
 Toenia, and cucwrbitin? 
 
 The first larva or protoscolex, and the Cysticercus or deutosco- 
 lex, live in the substance of the different tissues. The Toenia 
 or strobilis resides in the alimentary canal. The cucurbitins or 
 proglottis emerge from this cavity. The first larvae and the 
 Cysticerci developed within them are compelled to become 
 encysted. The Tcenice and the cucurbitins, meeting with no 
 obstacle or hindrance, do not form a cyst. The first become 
 elongated, develop themselves, but remain adherent ; the 
 second separate, move away, and become locomotive. 
 
 The first larvce and the Cysticerci are very short, and fur- 
 nished with an imperfectly articulated neck, and have no sex- 
 ual organs; they propagate themselves by gemmation. The 
 Tcenia are very long, form distinct zoonites, and are androgyn- 
 ous ; they reproduce by a true act of generation. Lastly, the 
 cucurbitins are disarticulated zoonites, that is to say, single 
 individuals, formed at the expense of a multiple individual; these 
 disseminate the mature eggs. 
 
 These remarkable transformations occur therefore in one and 
 the same species ; germs which emigrate, Iarva3 which repro- 
 
 1 M. Siebold is of the opinion that the Cysticercus ceUulosce give rise to 
 different kinds of Tcenice, according to the animal into which it is trans- 
 ported. Thus it becomes Tcenia serrate in the dog, Toenia crassipes in the 
 fox, Toenia marginata in the wolf, and Toenia crassicollis in the martin. 
 M. Van Beneden justly considers that the Cysticercus cellulosce can only 
 give rise to the Tomia communis. 
 
 1 Scolex, 0. F. Miiller ; strobila, Saare; proglottis, Dujardin. The name 
 strobila is applied in botany to that form of fruit which is commonly known 
 as a cone. 
 
 3 We have also those of hydatid and zoonite. 
 
 D D 
 
402 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 duee themselves, parts which are repeated, organisms which 
 become individualized, and zoonites which become isolated. 
 
 What takes place in the development of the Tcenia communis 
 also occurs in other Tcenice. Just as the Cysticercus celluloses 
 is transformed into the Tcenia communis y so the Echinococcus 
 veterinorum is metamorphosed into the Tcenia echinococcus. 1 
 Unfortunately our present knowledge does not enable us to 
 trace these transformations in all the species. There are 
 whose larvae are not known, and there are larvae whose 
 are not ascertained ; which, for example, are the 
 Gysticerci that produce the Tcenia nana, the Toeniaflavopunctata, 
 and the Tcenia inermis ? And, again, which is the Tcenia that 
 gives rise to the Cysticercus Acanthotrias ? 
 
 The following conclusions may be drawn from the preceding 
 facts : 
 
 1. The vesicular Helmintha or hydatids are the larvce (scolex) 
 of the flat Helmintha. 
 
 2. The Acephalocysts are vesicular Helmintha, whose de- 
 velopment is incomplete or arrested. 
 
 3. The larvae assume the forms of lEchinococci or of Cys- 
 ticerci. 
 
 4. The larvae attain the perfect or flat state (strolilis) by 
 passing from one animal of a lower grade to another which is 
 more elevated. 
 
 5. The same thing occurs between animals and man. 
 
 6. A difference in the locality influences their development. 
 A residence in the alimentary canal is necessary for their 
 complete development. 
 
 7. Certain vesicular Helmintha which become diverted from 
 their proper migrations never arrive at the perfect state ; they 
 live as larvae and perish sexless. 
 
 8. The vesicular Helmintha are of no sex, because the larvae 
 have none. 
 
 9. The vesicular Helmintha multiply themselves by gemmae 
 or buds. 
 
 10. The flat Helmintha reproduce themselves by sexual 
 generation ; they are androgynous and form eggs. 
 
 11. The cucurlitins or zoonites (proglottis) are segments 
 
 1 Transformations which are equally curious occur in animals. The 
 Cysticercus fasciolaris of the mouse produces the Tcenia crassicollis of the 
 cat ; the Cysticercus pissiformis of the rabbit, the Tcenia serrata of the 
 dog; the Cy&ticercus longicollis of the field mouse, the Tcenia Crassipes 
 of the fox ; the Ccenurus cerebralis of the sheep, the Tcenia ccenurus of the 
 wolf, &c. 
 
PAEASITIC WOBMS. 403 
 
 of the flat Helmintha, which become separated and isolated 
 when the eggs are mature. 
 
 12. The gemmae, eggs, or larvae of the flat Helmintha pass from 
 an animal into man's body, or from one animal to another, by 
 means of the food or the drink. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 ZOOLOGICAL VIEWS. 
 
 THE division of the Helmintha into those which reside in the 
 alimentary canal, and into those which live out of it, although 
 a convenient classification for the medical practitioner, is quite 
 insufficient for the zoologist. Moreover, it is not altogether 
 correct. It has been seen that the Ascaris lumbricoides, although 
 it is a true intestinal worm, yet that it is occasionally found 
 in the bladder, the nasal cavities, and in the meso-rectum, &c. 
 The Flukes are also met with external to the intestine as well 
 as in its interior. 
 
 The twelve genera that have been described, when considered 
 in relation to their structure, present three distinct types of 
 organization ; these are represented by the Ascaris, the Fluke, 
 and the Tcenia. 
 
 In the first type the animal is vermiform, possesses a visceral 
 cavity, and has a more or less complete alimentary canal, which is 
 provided with a mouth and an anus. The sexes are always 
 separate. 
 
 In the second type the body is short and flat, it has no 
 visceral cavity, the digestive organs are incomplete, there is a 
 minute pore which takes place of a mouth, and the anus is 
 either rudimentary or absent; the animal is almost always 
 androgynous. 
 
 In the third type, the body is flat, and composed of seg- 
 ments placed end to end, the visceral cavity is absent, the 
 digestive organs are incomplete, the mouth is represented by 
 absorbing pores, the anus is wanting; the animal is andro- 
 gynous. 
 
 The cucurlitins, or separated zoonites of this third type, 
 possess many of the characters which belong to the second, for 
 a series of Flukes placed end to end would resemble a Tamia. 
 
 The Helmintha which form the first section belong to the 
 genera Ascarides, Oxyuris, Tricocephalus, Ancylostoma, Strong- 
 ylus, Spiroptera, and Filaria. The Helmintha which form the 
 
 DD 2 
 
404 * MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 second belong to the genera Thecosoma, Distoma, and Festucaria. 
 Lastly, the third includes the genera Tcenia and Bothriocephalus. 
 
 Zoologists have placed these three types of animals in dif- 
 ferent orders or in different classes. Linnaeus arranged the 
 two first amongst the Intestina, and the third amongst the 
 Zoophyta. Zeder, Eudolphi, and Bremser term the Entozoa 
 belonging to the first type Nematoidea, those of the second 
 Trematoda, and those of the third Cestoidea. Cuvier divides 
 these animals into two orders : the Cavitary, which includes 
 and corresponds, therefore, to the Nematoidea, and into the 
 Parenchymata, which includes the others ; he subdivides the 
 latter into the Trematoda and Tcenioidea. M. Milne Edwards 
 considers them all as Entomozoairia or Annelida, but he divides 
 them into three separate classes, each of which corresponds to 
 one of the types that have been spoken of. These are the 
 Helmintha, the Turbellaria, and the Cestoidea. M. Tandon 
 accords with these views of the learned professor of the 
 Museum of Natural History. He admits of these three groups 
 which constitute his sixth, seventh, and eighth classes of 
 worms, Annelida or Entomozoaria, belonging to the sub- 
 kingdom Zoonites. He considers, however, that it is desirable 
 to retain the older titles by which they have been distin- 
 guished. For this reason he has given the name of Nematoidea 
 to the first group, Trematoda to the second, and Cestoidea to 
 the third. There is a less amount of relationship between the 
 Nematoidea and the Trematoda than there is between the latter 
 and the Cestoidea. 
 
 The most perfectly organized of the intestinal worms are 
 unquestionably the Nematoidea, and amongst these the Asearides 
 and the Strongyli. 
 
 The following table contains all the species which are met 
 with in man. The number of these species amounts to twenty- 
 nine ; amongst them there are ten species which are either 
 imperfectly known, or their presence in man has not been 
 clearly established. These are distinguished by an asterisk. 
 
 [In the original table, M. Tandon has included five other 
 species under the title of doubtful Helmintha ; these have been 
 omitted ; while the Trichina is not included amongst the perfect 
 worms, but is inserted with a query as to its being the young 
 of Tricocephalus dispar. The grounds upon which the Trichina 
 is raised to the rank of a distinct species are given at page 
 352. M. Tandon has also placed an asterisk before Distoma 
 Buskii ; the distinctive characters of this species having been 
 given at page 374, this has been removed.] 
 
PABASITIC WOEMS. 
 
 4,05 
 
 Species of Helmintha living in Man. 
 
 I.- NEMATOIDEA. 
 
 III. CESTOIDEA. 
 
 1. Ascaris lumbricoides. 
 
 21. Taenia communis. 
 
 *2. Ascaris alata. 
 
 Larva, Cysticercus cel- 
 
 3. Oxyurus vermicularis. 
 
 lulosce. 
 
 4. Tricocephalus dispar. 
 
 22. Taenia nana. 
 
 5. Trichina spiralis. 
 
 Larva, .... 
 
 6. Ancylostomum duode- 
 
 23. Taenia flavopunctata. 
 
 nalis. 
 
 Larva, .... 
 
 7. Strongylus renalis. 
 
 *24. Taenia echinococcus. 
 
 8. Strongylus longevagina- 
 
 Larva, JEchinococcits 
 
 tus. 
 
 veterinorum. 
 
 9. Spiroptera hominis. 
 
 *25. Taenia inermis. 
 
 10. Filaria medinensis. 
 
 Larva, .... 
 
 *11. Filaria oculi. 
 
 *26. Taenia acanthotrias.i 
 
 *12. Filaria lentis. 
 
 Larva, CysticercusAcan- 
 
 *13. Filaria lymphatica. 
 
 thotricus. 
 
 
 *27. Tsenia tenuicollis. 2 
 
 II. TEEMATODA. 
 
 Larva, Oysticercus tenui- 
 
 
 collis. 
 
 14. Thecosoma sanguicola. 
 
 *28. Taenia dentalis. 3 
 
 15. Distoma hepaticum. 
 
 Larva, Echinococcus 
 
 16. Distoma lanceolatum. 
 
 hominis* 
 
 *17. Distoma opthalmobium. 
 18. Distoma heterophyes. 
 
 *29. Bothriocephalus latus. 
 Larva, .... 
 
 19. Distoma Buskii. 
 
 
 20. Festucaria lentis. 
 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 INFUSOEIAL ENTOZOA. 
 
 THE infusorial animalculse, which are the most diminutive 
 of living beings, are developed in all climates, in every possible 
 locality, and at every period of the year. They are found in the 
 bodies of living beings, and in the midst of inorganic substances. 
 
 1 Perfect state not known. 
 
 9 Perfect state not been observed in man. 
 
 8 Perfect state doubtful in man. 
 
 4 The Taenia Capensis and the Taenia tropica are not well defined. 
 
 and vesicce, are too 
 
 The 
 
 Cysticercus hepaticus, visveralis. Fucherianus, aorticus, 
 imperfectly characterised to be included in the table. 
 
406 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Parasitic infusoria, whose presence is either the cause or the 
 result of certain disorders, are met with in the human body, 
 sometimes when it is in a healthy state, and at other times 
 when it is in a state of disease. 
 
 Lebert has justly remarked that these animalcules are 
 principally found in wounds where the discharge has been 
 retained or has decomposed. They are found in the mucus of 
 the intestinal canal (Leeuwenhoek, Pouchet) ; in stale or infected 
 secretion of the vagina (Donne, Dujardin) ; in the tartar of the 
 teeth (MandL); and in the milk (Fuchs). 
 
 The species which are most deserving of notice belong to the 
 genera 1, Parameciim; 2, Cercomonas ; 3, Trichomonas; Vir- 
 gulina; 5, Vibrio. The following is a summary of the 
 characters of these genera : 
 
 Infusoria 
 
 ( with a mouth. , . . .1. Paramecium. 
 
 One large yibratile ( A tail . 2. Cercomonas. 
 
 Uithouta mouth. cilium ' ' ' < No tail< 3 * Trichomonas ' 
 
 XT -1. j.'i -T \ A tail . 4. Verqulina. 
 Novibratilecilmm. NotaiL5> y ^ 
 
 1. PABAMECIUM. This genus consists of flattened oblong 
 infusoria, provided with a longitudinal fold which leads to the 
 mouth. The body is covered with fine cilia. 
 
 On examining with the microscope some pus obtained from 
 a small ulceration of the rectum, and the mucous secretion of 
 this part of the intestines, in a sailor who had survived an 
 attack of cholera, but who had subsequent derangement of the 
 digestive organs, Dr. Malmstein, of Stockholm, found in 
 these secretions, besides pus cells and blood globules, a large 
 number of infusoria, which he has described and figured under 
 the name of Paramecium coli. 
 
 He afterwards observed the same infusoria in a woman who 
 had chronic inflammation of the large intestines. The patient 
 having died, M. Malmstein found the infusoria were more 
 abundant on those parts of the mucous membrane which had 
 undergone the least amount of change than where the disease 
 was further advanced, or in the pus which it had given rise to. 
 
 These animalculse are very active ; they present themselves 
 in large numbers, as many as from twenty to twenty-five were 
 found in a single drop of mucus. They die very quickly 
 when removed from the intestine. 
 
 2. CEECOMONAS, Cercomonas Davainei, M. Tandon. M. 
 Davaine, in 1853, discovered in the warm dejections of cholera 
 patients a species of Cercomonas, which occurred in large 
 numbers. 
 
PABASITIO WOBMS. 407 
 
 Subsequently the same gentleman met with this animalcule 
 on two occasions in the evacuations of patients attacked with 
 simple diarrhoea. The cholera was still prevalent. 
 
 The animalcules are ^ of an inch in length. The body is ovoid 
 or pyriform, but somewhat variable in shape, and very pointed 
 at the two extremities. The integument is soft, and of a white 
 colour. One or two very small corpuscles, or nucleolar bodies, 
 may sometimes be seen in the interior. Anteriorly is a very 
 slender, long, flexible vibratile filament, which commences 
 abruptly from the anterior margin ; this is detected by the 
 motion it produces in the water, but it can only be seen at 
 intervals, and by prolonged examination. At the opposite ex- 
 tremity is another filament, which is thicker at its commence- 
 ment where it becomes blended with the posterior part ; it is 
 about the same length or a little longer than the body ; it is 
 rigid, nearly straight, and sometimes attaches itself to sur- 
 rounding objects ; when this is the case the Cercomonas vibrates 
 to and fro like the pendulum of a clock. 
 
 The Cercomonads are extremely active, a circumstance which 
 renders it very difficult to determine their characters. 
 
 These animalcules die as soon as the fluids in which they are 
 contained become cold ; this proves that their formation does 
 not depend upon the decomposition of the fluids. They are 
 true parasites, which live in the intestines of man when certain 
 conditions are present that are requisite for their existence. 
 (Davaine.) 
 
 Another species of Cercomonas was found on one occasion in 
 a young man in a well-marked case of typhoid fever, and with- 
 out any symptoms of cholera. This was also discovered by M. 
 Davaine. 
 
 This second species differs somewhat from the first ; it is 
 smaller and more oval ; its anterior cilium is of the same length 
 and equally flexible ; it commences less abruptly. The caudal 
 filament arises somewhat from the side; it is proportionally 
 smaller, and is not blended with the posterior part of the body. 
 This Cercomonas has an undulatory motion in the length of its 
 body, which sometimes appears to be slightly wavy. This 
 species might be termed the Cercomonas obliqua. 
 
 3. TRICHOMONAS, Trichomonas vaginalis, Duj. This species 
 was discovered by M. Donne in the mucus of the vagina 
 (fig. 124). 
 
 The TricJiomonads assemble together and form irregular 
 masses with the particles of thickened mucus. 
 
 Some writers do not admit the animal nature of these minute 
 
408 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. 
 
 objects. 1 They regard them as 
 detached epethelial cells. Others 
 have adopted the views of MM. 
 Donne and Dujardin. 3 Some 
 have even looked upon these 
 
 animalcules as Acari. 3 
 
 Fig. 124. Trichomonas vaginalis. The TricJiomonas vaginalis is 
 
 1 3 inch in its long diameter. 
 
 The "body is globular, oval, or pyriform, unequal, slightly 
 granular, gelatinous, transparent, and colourless, or of a milky 
 appearance. They often adhere to other bodies. They have 
 an anterior flabelliform filament (sometimes two, rarely three), 
 thick at its base, flexible, and about yoVo f an ^ ncn ^ n l en g*h ; 
 there are also four or five short cilia placed on one side of it at 
 its commencement. 
 
 Some have assigned to this animalcule a small, oblique, ter- 
 minal mouth. MM. Scanzoni and Kolliker have not observed 
 it, but they believed they had seen a shallow, oblique groove at 
 the anterior part, near the cilia. 
 
 The Trichomonas vaginalis is not found in recently secreted 
 mucus, but only in that which is beginning to decompose. 
 "Whenever this animalcule is met with the vaginal mucus 
 encloses bubbles of air, which give it a frothy appearance. 
 (Donne.) 
 
 [The Trichomonas vaginalis only occurs in women with 
 gonorrhseal discharge, or with an abundant vaginal secretion 
 mixed with mucus and pus corpuscles ; never in a normal and 
 healthy vaginal secretion, but only in pathological conditions. 
 The mucus, however, need not be frothy, as Donne supposes, 
 so long as it is not quite normal. 4 ] 
 
 4. VIKGKULINA, Virgulina tenax. This animalcule is found 
 in the tartar of the teeth. A small portion must be mixed 
 with a drop of distilled water, which has been previously 
 warmed, and examined with a magnifying power of from 400 
 to 500 diameters. 
 
 These animalcules vary in size from the -J-^-Q of an inch 
 upwards, and move about rapidly. (Mandl.) 
 
 They are found in large quantities in patients who have been 
 put upon a low diet for some months. They also form the 
 greatest portion of thickened mucus of the tongue in persons 
 who are troubled with indigestion. 
 
 1 MM. Labert, Yalentin, J. Yogel, Siebold, L. Wagner. 
 3 MM. Raspail, Scanzoni, Kolliker. 
 
 3 MM. Froriep, Ehrenberg. 
 
 4 Kiichenmeister, opus cit, vol. i. p. 7. 
 
PABASITIC WOBM8. 409 
 
 The Virgulina tenax has an elongated, membranous, trans- 
 parent body, somewhat thickened, and truncated at its anterior 
 part ; it is furnished with a tail one third or one fourth shorter 
 than the body. 
 
 M. M andl. is of opinion that these animalcules contain a cal- 
 careous element in their tissues, which assists in hardening the 
 tartar. 
 
 5. VIBRIO, Vibrio rugula, Mull. Leeuwenhoek first noticed 
 this animalcule in his own digestions during a slight illness. 
 
 Miiller, who has described and figured it, saw it by thousands 
 in an infusion of flies. 
 
 Dujardin found it in an infusion of crushed hemp seed, of 
 Neufchatel cheese, of stale gelatine, and of the liver of the 
 sheep. 
 
 M. Pouchet detected it in the dejections of cholera patients, 
 where it was present in myriads. It was not found in the 
 romited matters. 
 
 Dr. Hassall also found the Vibrios in the dejections of cholera, 
 and in the intestinal secretions some time after death. 
 
 These animalcules are hardly visible. They are from -5-^3-^ 
 to Tff.ihnT. of an inch in length, and from -nnjfore to i60 ?oo6 of> 
 an inch in width. (Dujardin.) The body is cylindrical, at- 
 tenuated at each extremity, sometimes straight, sometimes with 
 from five to eight inflexions, and semitransparent. Its vacuoles 
 are distinct, globular, and hyaline. 
 
 This animalcule moves about with great activity in an undu- 
 lating or serpentine manner. Leeuwenhoek compared these 
 movements to those of an eel. 
 
 Some naturalists question the animal nature of these minute 
 bodies. 
 
 In all persons, whether ill or well, two other species of Vi- 
 brios are met with in the mucus of the mouth, mixed with the 
 scales of epithelium and large granular molecules. These are 
 the Vibrio Bacillus and the Vibrio lineola of Miiller. The first 
 is 10 1 66 of an inch in length, very flexible, and very slender, 
 and contains a number of well-defined oval vacuoles. The 
 econd, which measures about TfoW^ of an inch in length, is 
 thick, somewhat bent, and the vacuoles are globular, but in- 
 distinct. 
 
 The blue and the yellow colours which, under some circum- 
 stances, are found in milk, are caused by the Vibrio cyanogenus 
 and the Vibrio xanthogenus of Fuchs. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abd-el-Kader, 28. 
 Acanthia ciliata, 222. 
 
 lectularia, 
 
 rotundata, 222. 
 
 Acaridee, 307. 
 Acaropsie, 307, 319. 
 
 Mericourtii, 319. 
 
 pectinata, 319. 
 
 Acanthrotrias, 393, 
 Acarus, 309. 
 
 Americanus, 303. 
 
 autumnalis, 305. 
 
 . domesticus, 130. 
 
 folliculorum, 319, 320 321. 
 
 nigua, 303. 
 
 reduvius, 302. 
 
 ricinus, 302. 
 
 scabei, 309. 
 
 Siro, 309. 
 
 Acephala, 51, 62, 86. 
 Acephalocysts, 391, 395, 400, 402. 
 Acetum cantharidis, 133. 
 Achatina carinata, 86. 
 Acipenser, 181. 
 
 Huso, 182. 
 
 Ruthenus, 182. 
 
 stellatus, 182. 
 
 Sturio, 182. 
 
 Aconitum Napellus, 206. 
 Actiniae, 235. 
 Actinizoaria, 60, 62. 
 Adipose tissue, 41. 
 African, 34. 
 
 Aglossa farinalis, 243. 
 
 pingualis, 243. 
 
 Alcyonium Lyncurium, 91. 
 Album Greecum, 66. 
 
 nigrum, 66. 
 
 Albumen, 179. 
 
 Alcyonia, 91. 
 
 Alcyonium Lyncurium, 91. 
 
 Allantoidians, 62. 
 Allocotyledons, 58. 
 Alimentary canal, 43. 
 Ambergris, 110, 125, 126. 
 Ambra cinerea, 126. 
 Ambreine, 127. 
 American, 26, 31, 33. 
 Ammodytes, 249. 
 Amphibia, 54. 
 Anallantoidians, 62. 
 Anatomy of Man, 3. 
 Ancyclostoma, 333, 334. 
 
 duodenale, 353. 
 
 Ancylostomum duodenale, 353, 405. 
 Angle, facial, 5. 
 Andromeda Mariana, 205. 
 Animal, definition of, 37. 
 
 organization of, 37. 
 
 Animal charcoal, 161. 
 
 kingdom, 35. 
 
 Annelida, 60, 137, 404. 
 Anolius bullaris, 69. 
 Ant, 65, 213. 
 
 fire, 213. 
 
 flaming, 213. 
 
 red, 213. 
 
 Antelope Dorcas, 185. 
 
 rupicapra, 184. 
 
 Anthremis musajorum, 130. 
 Anthropomorpha, 35. 
 Aphides, 154, 196. 
 Aphis, 155. 
 
 Chinensis, 155. 
 
 Pistadee, 156. 
 
 Apis Mellifica, 196, 275. 
 
 unicolor, 204. 
 
 Arachnida, 62, 98, 260, 286. 
 Aranea, 98. 
 
 diadema, 261 . 
 
 Florentina, 260. 
 
 guttata, 260. 
 
 mactans, 261. 
 
 Araneidse, 98. 
 
412 
 
 I^DEX. 
 
 Argades, 304. 
 Argas, 291. 
 
 of Persia, 304, 
 
 Persicus, 304. 
 
 Chinche, 304. 
 
 marginatus, 305. 
 
 Armadillo ofncinalis, 70. 
 Aromia Moschata, 110. 
 Articulata, 57, 60, 62. 
 Arteries, 45. 
 Artificial teeth, 81. 
 Ascarides, 334, 335, 403, 404. 
 Ascaris, 333, 335. 
 
 alata, 340, 405. 
 
 gigas, 335. 
 
 marginata, 339. 
 
 mystax, 340. 
 
 - lumbricoides, 335, 405. 
 
 vermicularis, 334, 
 
 Asp, 248, 253, 282. 
 
 Ass, 65, 66, 67. 
 Astacus flaviatilis, 96, 176. 
 Australian, 26, 31. 
 Autumn fly, 234. 
 Azalea Pontica, 205. 
 
 Badger, 65, 66, 67, 110. 
 Balaena Australis, 93. 
 
 Mysticetus, 93. 
 
 Balistes, 245. 
 Barbel, 67, 245. 
 Bat, 64, 65. 
 Batrachia, 62. 
 Bear, 66. 
 
 Beaver, 65, 118, 119. 
 Bedeguar, 149, 153. 
 Bee, 275. 
 
 eater, 66. 
 
 humble, 275, 279. 
 
 moss or carder, 279. 
 
 red-tailed, 279. 
 
 Beef, 163. 
 Bezoars, 67, 68. 
 Bigaye, 233. 
 Bile, 95. 
 Biline, 95. 
 Bizigaye, 233. 
 Blaps mortisaga, 242. 
 Blattidae, 214. 
 Blood, 160. 
 
 - transfusion of, 161. 
 
 Blood globules, 37, 40. 
 Blumenbach characteristics of 
 
 man, 1 ; races of men, 28. 
 Boat-fly, 224. 
 Bombycidse, 234. 
 Bombus lapidarus, 279. 
 
 muscorum, 279. 
 
 terrestris, 279. 
 
 Bombax globosum, 100. 
 Bombyx Pityocampa, 234. 
 Bone of cuttle fish, 82, 83. 
 
 composition of, 83. 
 
 Bones, 159, 160. 
 Bone black, 160. 
 Boschesman, 15. 
 Bothriocephali, 397. 
 Bothriocephalus, 332, 334, 386, 404. 
 
 latus, 386, 405. 
 
 Bothrops, 255, 257. 
 
 Jararaca, 258. 
 
 lanceolatus, 258. 
 
 Bory de Saint Vincent races of 
 
 men, 28. 
 Brachinidae, 214. 
 Brain, human, 5. 
 
 average weight of, 5, 6, 7, 9. 
 
 Branchiae, 45. 
 
 Breeze-fly, 234. 
 
 Brosmius vulgaris, 102. 
 
 Bryozoa, 62. 
 
 Buffon characteristics of man, 1. 
 
 Bufo calamita, 288. 
 
 vulgaris, 287. 
 
 Bug, 65. 
 
 ciliated, 222. 
 
 common, 219. 
 
 of miama, 304. 
 
 round, 222. 
 
 Burbot, 102. 
 Bull, 65, 67. 
 Bustard, 67. 
 Butea frondosa, 78. 
 Buthus Occitanus, 272. 
 
 palmatus, 272. 
 
 Butter, 190. 
 Byron, brain of, 6. 
 
 C. 
 
 Cachlot. 92, 94, 126. 
 Cactus Bonplandii, 71. 
 
 cochinellifera, 71. 
 
 opuntia, 71. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 413 
 
 Calculi cancrorum, 97. 
 Callichroma muscata, 131. 
 Calliphora vomitoria, 237. 
 Callochalia esculenta, 185. 
 
 fucifaga, 185. 
 
 nidifica, 185. 
 
 Calmar, 56. 
 Calves, 164, 165. 
 Camel, 65, 66, 67, 68. 
 Cameleon, 65. 
 Cantharidin, 181. 
 Cantharides, 127, 128, 243. 
 
 collecting of, 130. 
 
 Cantharis dubia, 132. 
 
 vesicatoria, 128. 
 
 Capalan, 102. 
 
 Caranx, 246. 
 Carabidae, 214. 
 Carbo animalis, 161. 
 Carcinaa maenas, 176. 
 Cardium edule, 173. 
 Carmine, 76. 
 Carp, 65, 66. 
 Caryophyllia, 89. 
 Cases, 154. 
 Casowary, 65. 
 Castoreum, 110, 119. 
 
 glands of, 120. 
 
 American, 121. 
 
 Canadian, 121. 
 
 Hudson's Bay, 121. 
 
 Russian, 121. 
 
 Castor Fiber, 118. 
 
 Cat, 66. 
 
 Caucasian race, 28, 30, 31, 82. 
 Cavia Capensis, 122. 
 Cavitaria, 404. 
 Cellular tissue, 41. 
 Celto-Scyth Arabs, 26. 
 Cephalopoda, 110, 125. 
 Ceratum cetacei, 94. 
 Cerastes, 255. 
 
 JSgyptiacus, 255. 
 
 Persicus, 255. 
 
 Cerate, 210. 
 
 Ceratum, 210. 
 Cercaria, 373. 
 Cercomonas, 406, 407. 
 
 Davainei, 406. 
 
 Cerine, 210. 
 Cerocoma, 128, 135. 
 
 Scheefferi, 135. 
 
 Ceroleine, 
 
 Oervua Alces, 181. 
 
 Cervus, Capreolus, 166. 
 
 Dama, 181. 
 
 Tarandus, 181. 
 
 Cestoidea, 404. 
 
 Cetacea, 92, 126. 
 
 Cetonia aurata, 131, 136. 
 
 Chamois, 184. 
 
 Chevrotain, 114. 
 
 Chigoe, 291, 300. 
 
 Chinche, 304. 
 
 Chinese gall, 154, 155. 
 
 musk, 113. 
 
 Chrysomela, 131. 
 
 Cicada, 214. 
 
 Cimex lectularius, 219. 
 
 Civet, 110. 
 
 scent of, 116. 
 
 Classification of animals, 52 ; Aris- 
 totle, 53 ; Linnaeus, 53; Lamarck, 
 55 ; Cuvier, 56 ; Moquin-Tandon, 
 62. 
 
 Clubione medicinalis, 263. 
 
 Clubiones, 261. 
 
 Cobra de Capello, 259. 
 
 Coccus cacti, 71. 
 
 illicis, 77. 
 
 lacca, 76, 78. 
 
 Polonicus, 76, 78. 
 
 Cochineal, 68, 71, 83. 
 
 Cochinella, 76. 
 
 Cockle, edible, 173. 
 
 Cockroach, 65. 
 
 Cod, 67, 101,102. 
 
 oil, 103 ; varieties of, 103, 104. 
 
 Coelognathus morsitans, 300, 324. 
 
 Coenurus cerebralis, 402. 
 
 Coluber Ammodytes, 250. 
 
 Berus, 250. 
 
 Conger eel, 102. 
 Conops calcitrans, 234. 
 Common gall, 148. 
 Coral, 87. 
 
 composition of, 88. 
 
 varieties of, 88. 
 
 Corallium nobile, 87. 
 
 rubrum, 87. 
 
 Cornu ustum, 181. 
 Cow, 66. 
 
 Crab, 97. 
 
 land, 245. 
 
 river, 96. 
 
 Crabs' eyes, 97. 
 
 stones, 97. 
 
 Crane, 66, 67. 
 
414 
 
 I^DEX. 
 
 Cray fish, 96, 102. 
 Creamometer, 191. 
 Creeping gnat, 233. 
 Cricket, 165. 
 Cromwell, brain of, 5. 
 Crotalus durissus, 256. 
 - horridus, 256. 
 
 miliaris, 256. 
 
 Croton lacciferum, 78. 
 Crow, 66. 
 Crowned gall, 151. 
 Crustacea, 62, 96, 213, 244. 
 Cuckoo, 67. 
 Cucumerini, 382. 
 Cucurbitini, 382. 
 Cucurbitins, 400, 401, 402. 
 Culex annulatus, 233. 
 
 pipiens, 230. 
 
 Cuterebra noxialis, 325. 
 Cuttle-bone, 82, 83. 
 Cuttle-fish, 67, 81, 82. 
 Cuvier races of men, 28. 
 Cynanchum excelsum, 136. 
 Cynips, 148, 149. 
 gallse tinctorise, 148. 
 
 quercus folii, 150. 
 
 quercus tojae, 150. 
 
 rosse, 153. 
 
 Cysticerci, 391, 396, 398. 
 Cysticercus, 401. 
 
 Acanthrotias, 393. 
 
 aorticus, 384. 
 
 cellulosse, 392, 398,400, 
 
 402, 405. 
 
 dicystus, 393. 
 
 . . fasciolaris, 397, 402. 
 
 Fischerianus, 394. 
 
 hepaticus, 393. 
 
 longicollis, 402. 
 
 melanocephalus, 394. 
 
 pisiformis, 402. 
 
 tenuicollis, 393. 
 
 turbinatus, 394. 
 
 vesicse, 394. 
 
 visceralis, 394. 
 
 D. 
 
 Daman of the Cape, 122, 123. 
 Dasjespis, 123. 
 Decatoma, 128. 
 Decoctum gallae, 155. 
 Delphinus globiceps, 189. 
 
 Delphinus marginatus, 189. 
 Demodex, 307, 320. 
 
 folliculorum, 320, 321. 
 
 Dentalium, 66. 
 Dermanyssus, 296. 
 
 avium, 323. 
 
 Boryi, 323. 
 
 of Busk, 323. 
 
 Dermatophilus penetrans, 300. 
 Dermestes lardarius, 130, 242. 
 Desman, 110. 
 
 of Muscovy, 40. 
 
 Deutoscolex, 401. 
 Diodon, 246. 
 
 tigrinus, 246. 
 
 Diplolepis rosae, 153. 
 
 Dippel's animal oil, 189. 
 
 Diptera, 227, 230, 237. 
 
 Distoma, 333, 334, 404. 
 
 Buskii, 373, 374, 405. 
 
 hsematobium, 369. 
 
 hepaticum, 370, 405. 
 
 heterophyes,373, 374, 405, 
 
 lanceolatum, 373, 405. 
 
 opthalmobium, 373, 405. 
 
 Distylium racemosum. 155. 
 
 Dog, 65, 66. 
 
 Dog-fish, 108. 
 
 Dormouse, 65. 
 Dorse, 102. 
 Dracunculus, 360. 
 
 Persarum, 360. 
 
 Dsaanja, 110. 
 
 Dsehija, 110. 
 
 Duck, 65, 66. 
 
 Dugong, 189. 
 
 Dumeril races of man, 28. 
 
 Dupuytren, brain of, 5. 
 
 Dyticus marginatus, 242. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eagle, 65, 66, 67. 
 
 ray, 106, 107. 
 
 Ear, 50. 
 
 Earth worm, 65. 
 
 Echinococci, 391, 394,396, 398, 402. 
 
 Echinococcus hominis, 394, 405. 
 
 veterinorum, 395. 
 
 Ectoparasites, 291. 
 Ectozoa, 291. 
 
 Eel, 65, 66. 
 Eel-pout, 65, 66. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 415 
 
 Eggs, 193, 194, 195, 196. 
 Eider duck, 211. 
 
 Elementary bodies in animals, 88. 
 Elephant, 65, 66, 67, 80. 
 
 tusks of, 81. 
 
 Elephas Africanus, 80. 
 
 Indicus, 80. 
 
 Emplastrum cantharidis, 133. 
 Encephalon, 6, 7, 8. 
 Entomozoaria, 404. 
 Entozoa, 324, 330. 
 Epeira, 261. 
 Epicauta adspersa, 132. 
 
 cavernosa, 132. 
 
 Epizoa, 291. 
 Erucse, 234. 
 Ethiopian race, 29. 
 Eustrongylus gigas, 356. 
 Eutarsus cancriformis, 323. 
 Eutoma, 234. 
 Eye, 50. 
 
 F. 
 
 Facial angle, 5. 
 
 in Chinese, 5. 
 
 European, 5. 
 
 Negro, 5. 
 
 Falcon, 65. 
 Fallow deer, 65, 66. 
 Fasciola, 370. 
 
 hepatica, 370. 
 
 Fat, 186. 
 
 Feathers, 211. 
 Fel bovinum, 95. 
 tauri, 95. 
 Festicularia, 333, 334. 
 Festucaria, 375, 404. 
 
 lentis, 378, 404, 405. 
 
 Ficus religiosa, 78. 
 
 Indica, 78. 
 
 Filaria, 333, 334, 359, 403. 
 
 bronchialis, 364. 
 
 dracunculus, 360. 
 
 lachrymalis, 363. 
 
 lentis, 364, 406. 
 
 lymphatica, 364, 405. 
 
 Medinensis, 360, 465. 
 
 oculi, 363, 405. 
 
 Fishes, 244. 
 
 Flesh, 162. 
 
 of articulata, 163, 176. 
 
 jof fish, 163, 167. 
 
 Flesh of game, 163, 166. 
 
 of mollusca, 163, 168. 
 
 of poultry, 163, 166. 
 
 of radiate, 163, 176. 
 
 Flamingo, 66. 
 Flea, 291, 297. 
 Flies, 213, 237. 
 Fly, flesh, 237. 
 
 bluebottle, 237. 
 
 golden, 237. 
 
 hominivorous, 237. 
 
 Fluke, 370, 403. 
 Forficula auricularia, 242. 
 
 minor, 242. 
 
 Fox, 65, 66. 
 
 shark, 102. 
 
 Frigate bird, 65. 
 Frog, 67. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gaduine, 105. 
 Gadus, 102. 
 
 JSglefinus, 102. 
 
 Brosme, 102. 
 
 Callarias, 102. 
 
 Carbonarius, 102. 
 
 Lota, 102. 
 
 Merlangus, 102. 
 
 Merlucius, 102. 
 
 minutus, 102. 
 
 Molva, 102. 
 
 Morrhua, 102. 
 
 Galls, 100, 148, 149. 
 Gall of Aleppo, 152. 
 
 artichoke, 152. 
 
 crowned, 152. 
 
 gooseberry seed, 151. 
 
 horned, 152. 
 
 Hungarian, 152. 
 
 Piedmont, 152. 
 
 smooth, 152. 
 
 squamous, 152. 
 
 Gamasus, 297. 
 Gasteropoda, 62, 83. 
 Gasterostei, 397. 
 Gastric glands, 44. 
 Gazelle, 185. 
 Gecarcinus ruricola, 267. 
 Gelatine, 179, 180. 
 Genette, 110. 
 Geophilus electricns, 242. 
 Geotrupes vernalis, 242. 
 
416 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Glandular tissue, 41. 
 Glossina morsitans, 228. 
 Gnats, 230. 
 Gnat, ringed, 233. 
 Gneion, 246. 
 Goat, 65, 66, 67. 
 Goatsucker, 64. 
 Goose, 211. 
 Goldfinch, 65. 
 Gordius, aquaticus, 367. 
 
 Medinensis, 360. 
 
 Gorgonia antipathes, 89. 
 
 . nobilis, 87. 
 
 Grasshopper, 65. 
 Great cachelot, 92. 
 Grebe, 211. 
 
 Greenland whale, 93, 188. 
 Green or officinal leech, 140. 
 Grouse, 66. 
 Guinea worm, 360. 
 Gryllus J3gyptius, 163. 
 .. . migratorius, 163. 
 Tartaricus, 163. 
 
 Haddock, 102. 
 Hajmenteria, 141, 144. 
 
 Ghiliani, 141. 
 
 Mexicana, 141. 
 
 officinalis, 141. 
 
 Hsemopis, 215, 218. 
 
 sanguisuga, 215. 
 
 Hair, 210. 
 
 Hairy galls, 149. 
 Haje serpent, 259. 
 Hake, 102. 
 Hare, 65, 66, 67. 
 Harvest bug, 291, 305. 
 Hawk, 65, 66, 67. 
 Heart, 45. 
 
 Hedgehog, 64, 65, 66. 
 Helicidse, 83, 84. 
 Helicinea, 85. 
 Hen, 211. 
 Hermit crab, 247. 
 Heron, 65. 
 Helix, 83. 
 Algira, 175. 
 
 aperta, 175. 
 
 arbustorum, 175. 
 
 aspersa, 85. 
 
 cespitum, 175. 
 
 ericetorum, 175. 
 
 Helix hortensis, 175. 
 
 lineata, 175. 
 
 melanostoma, 175. 
 
 - nemoralis, 85. , 
 
 Pisana, 175. 
 
 Pomatia, 84, 85. 
 
 stagnalis, 86. 
 
 sylvatica, 174. 
 
 variabilis, 175. 
 
 vermiculata, 85. 
 
 Helmintha, 330, 332, 334, 401, 402, 
 404. 
 
 cystic, 391, 396. 
 
 hydatid, 896. 
 
 Hippobosca equina, 227. 
 Hippoboscidae, 227. 
 Hippocolle, 184. 
 Hippopotamus, 81. 
 
 amphibius, 81. 
 
 tusks of, 81. 
 
 Hirudo, 137. 
 
 medicinalis, 140. 
 
 ' officinalis, 140. 
 
 sanguisuga, 215. 
 
 troctina, 141. 
 
 Hirundo esculenta, 185. 
 
 fucifaga, 185. 
 
 Hirundiniculture, 147. 
 Holothuria edulis, 177. 
 
 tubulosa, 177. 
 
 Homarus vulgaris, 176. 
 Homo, 2. 
 
 ferus, 2. 
 
 Lar, 26. 
 
 sapiens, 2, 26. 
 
 Troglodytes, 26. 
 
 Honey, 196, 202. 
 
 adulteration of, 206. 
 
 bee, 196, 197. 
 
 poisonous, 208. 
 
 Horned gall, 157. 
 Hornet, 279. 
 Horse, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68. 
 fly, 227. 
 
 leech, 215, 216, 217, 218. 
 
 Human kingdom, 35. 
 Humantis, 109. 
 
 Huso, 182. 
 Hycleus, 128. 
 Hydatids, 391,400. 
 Hymenoptera, 148, 153, 196, 268, 
 
 275, 286. 
 
 Hyraceum, 110, 122, 123, 124. 
 Hyrax Capensis, 122. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 417 
 
 I. 
 
 Ibex, 68. 
 
 Iguana caerulea, 163. 
 
 - cornuta, 163. 
 
 delicatissima, 163. 
 
 fasciata, 163. 
 
 tuberculata, 1 63. 
 
 Indian elephant, 80. 
 hog, 67. 
 
 ink, 82. 
 
 Insects, 296. 
 Intestines, 43. 
 
 divisions of, 44. 
 
 Isinglass, varieties of, 183. 
 Isis nobilis, 87. 
 Itch insect, 309. 
 lulus, 268. 
 
 terrestris, 268. 
 
 Ivory, 80, 81. 
 
 black, 81. 
 
 Ixodes, 302. 
 
 hominis, 303. 
 
 Nigua, 303. 
 
 Kicinus, 302. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jararaca, 258. 
 Javelin bat, 212. 
 
 snakes, 257. 
 
 Jaws, 42. 
 
 Jigger, 300. 
 Juvenis bovinus, 2 1. 
 
 lupinus, 21. 
 
 ovinus, 21. 
 
 ursinus, 21. 
 
 Kabardin, 113. 
 Kermes, 76, 77. 
 Kingfisher, 66, 66. 
 Kite, 65, 66. 
 Kranchil, 114. 
 
 Lactodensimetre, 191. 
 
 Lactoscope, 192. 
 
 Lamb, 163. 
 
 Lamprey, 65. 
 
 Lapis porci Ceylonici, 67. 
 
 Malaccensis, 67. 
 
 porcinus, 67. 
 
 Lard, 186, 187, 188. 
 Larinus odontalgicus, 159. 
 
 subrugosus, 157. 
 
 Lark, 65, 66. 
 
 Latham on the races of men, 31, 
 
 32. 
 
 Leblanc (Mademoiselle), 21. 
 Leech, 100, 139, 142, 143, 144, 146. 
 
 dragon, 140, 141. 
 
 green, 100. 
 
 grey, 139, 140, 141, 142. 
 
 Leptus autumnalis, 305. 
 
 Liebig's soup, 177. 
 
 Life, average duration of, 17. 
 
 table of, for England, 18. 
 
 Ling, 102. 
 
 Linnaeus characters of man, 2. 
 
 on the races of men, 27. 
 
 Lion, 65, 66. 
 Linguatula, 329. 
 
 denticulata, 829. 
 
 Liparis auriflua, 234. 
 
 . canifolia, 234. 
 
 Liver, 44. 
 
 Lizard, 60, 65, 66, 67. 
 Lota vulgaris, 102. 
 Louse, 291. 
 
 body, 292, 294. 
 
 head, 292. 
 
 pubic, 292, 296. 
 
 of sick persons, 292, 295. 
 
 Lucilia hominivora, 238. 
 Lungs, 45. 
 Lydus, 128. 
 
 LymncBus stagnalis, 86. 
 Lytta adspersa, 132. 
 
 dubia, 132. 
 
 segetum, 132. 
 
 Syriaca, 132. 
 
 vidua, 132. 
 
 Lac, 79. 
 
 Lacerta agilis, 69. 
 Scincus, 68. 
 
 M. 
 
 Macaque, 326. 
 Magpie, 65. 
 Male organs, 47. 
 
 B E 
 
418 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Malmignatte, 261. 
 Man, 1. 
 
 erect position, 11. 
 
 height of, 14. 
 
 original state of, 20. 
 
 species of, 25, 26. 
 
 weight of, 15. 
 Mandibles, 42. 
 Marabout, 211. 
 Marmot, 65. 
 
 Martin, 66. 
 
 Maxillse, 42. 
 
 Medicinal leech, 140. 
 
 Medusae, 235. 
 
 Meletta, 240. 
 
 Meloe, 127, 123, 136, 243. 
 
 Algeria, 137. 
 
 autumnal is, 137. 
 
 bimaculata, 136. 
 
 cichorii, 134. 
 
 Gallicus, 137. 
 
 mailis, 137. 
 
 Proscarabaeus, 137. 
 
 punctatus, 137. 
 
 rugosus, 137. 
 
 Schsefferi, 135. 
 
 variegatus, 137. 
 
 Merlangus carbonarius, 102. 
 
 vulgaris, 102. 
 
 Merlucius vulgaris, 102. 
 
 Mermis, 367. 
 
 Milk, 189. 
 
 preservation of, 193. 
 
 of ass, 190,191. 
 
 of cow, 190. 
 
 of goat, 190, 191. 
 
 of sheep, 190, 191. 
 
 of mare, 190, 191. 
 
 of woman, 190, 191. 
 
 Millipedes, 265. 
 
 Mistura spiritus Vini Gallici, 196. 
 Mole, 64, 65, 66. 
 Molva vulgaris, 102. 
 Mollusca, 244, 246. 
 Mongolian race, 29, 31, 32. 
 Monk-fish, 109. 
 Monkey, 65, 66, 67. 
 Monostomum lentis, 375. 
 Montpellier drops, 100. 
 Morbus mucosus, 348. 
 Morrhua JEglefinus, 102. 
 
 Callarius, 102. 
 
 minuta, 102. 
 
 Moschus Altaicus, 114. 
 
 Moschus Javanicus, 114. 
 
 Kranchil, 114. 
 
 moschiferus, 110. 
 
 Mouse, 65, 66. 
 Mucilage of snails, 86. 
 Mule, 60. 
 
 Musaraigne, 110, 213. 
 Musca Caesar, 238. 
 
 carnaria, 237. 
 
 vomitoria, 237. 
 
 Muscles, 51. 
 Muscular tissue, 41. 
 Musk, 100, 110. 
 
 deer, 111,113, 
 
 ox, 110. 
 
 rat, 110. 
 
 Musquitoes, 233. 
 Mussel, 66, 246. 
 
 common, 172. 
 
 Mutton, 163. 
 Mygale, 260, 262, 263. 
 
 Muscovita, 110. 
 
 Mylabris, 128, 134, 243. 
 
 bimaculata, 136. 
 
 cichorii, 134. 
 
 cyanescens, 135. 
 
 Indica, 135. 
 
 olese, 135. 
 
 punctum, 135. 
 
 pustulata, 135. 
 
 Sidse, 135. 
 
 variabilis, 135. 
 
 Myricine, 210. 
 Mytilus edulis, 172. 
 
 N. 
 
 Naia, 255, 299. 
 Naja Haje, 25. 
 
 tripudians, 259. 
 
 Napu, 114. 
 
 Navicella elliptica, 179. 
 
 Negro, 5. 
 
 Nematoidea, 62, 604, 605. 
 
 Nematoideum hominis viscerum, 
 
 330. 
 Nepa, 226. 
 
 cinerea, 226. 
 
 Nervous system, 34. 
 
 tissue, 41. 
 
 Nightingale, 66. 
 Noctonecta glauca, 224. 
 Noxious animals, 212. 
 Nutgalls, 153. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 419 
 
 0. 
 
 Oculina, 89. 
 
 virginea, 89. 
 
 CEnas, 128. 
 OEstridea, 325. 
 (Estrus bovis, 326. 
 
 Guildingei, 326. 
 
 hominis, 326. 
 
 ovis, 326. 
 
 Oil, 188. 
 
 of dugong, 189. 
 
 of porpoise, 189. 
 
 of whale, 188. 
 
 Oniscus asellus, 70. 
 Ophidia, 283. 
 
 Opuntia cochenillifera, 71. 
 
 Tuna, 7 1. 
 
 vulgaris, 71. 
 
 Orang-outang, 10. 
 
 Organic world, divisions of, 36. 
 
 tissues, 41. 
 
 Organs of motion, 51. 
 
 of nutrition, 42. 
 
 of relation, 49. 
 
 Ornithorynchus, 268. 
 Ostracion, 244. 
 Ostrea cristata, 168. 
 
 edulis, 168. 
 
 hippopus, 168. 
 
 lacteola, 168. 
 
 lamellosa, 168. 
 
 Mediterranea, 168. 
 
 plicata, 168. 
 
 rosacea, 168. 
 
 Ostreaculture, 169. 
 
 Ostrich, 65, 66, 67, 187, 211. 
 
 Otter, 66, 67, 
 
 Ovis Aries, 185. 
 Ox, 66,67, 68, 164, 165. 
 gall, uses of, 95. 
 Oxyporus subterraneus, 242. 
 Oxyuris, 333, 334, 403. 
 
 vermicularis, 343, 405. 
 
 Oyster, 86, 168, 169, 246. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pachydermata, 80. 
 Paederus elongatus, 242. 
 Pagurus Bernhardus, 247. 
 Palinurus vulgaris, 176. 
 PaHulinia Australis, 205. 
 
 Pancreas, 44. 
 Papilio brassicse, 243. 
 Paramecium, 406. 
 
 coli, 406. 
 
 Parenchyma, 404. 
 Partridge, 66, 67. 
 Peacock, 67. 
 Pearl oyster, 66. 
 Pediculus, 291. 
 
 capitis, 292. 
 
 cervicalis, 292. 
 
 corporis, 294. 
 
 humanus, 292. 
 
 - inguinalis, 296. 
 
 morphio, 296. 
 
 pubescens, 294. 
 
 pubis, 296. 
 
 subcutaneus, 295. 
 
 tabescentium, 295. 
 
 Pee-wit, 66, 67. 
 
 Pelias Berus, 240. 
 Pelican, 65. 
 Penguin, 211. 
 Pentastoma, 376. 
 Perdix cinerea, 166. 
 
 petrosa, 1 66. 
 
 rubra, 166. 
 
 saxatilis, 166. 
 
 Phalangioides, 261. 
 Phalaena processionea, 234. 
 
 quercus, 234. 
 
 Phasianus Colchicus, 166. 
 
 Gallus, 193. 
 
 Pheasant, 65, 66. 
 Pholci, 261. 
 Phthiriasis, 295. 
 Phyllostoma haustatum, 212. 
 Physalia pelagica, 236. 
 Physeter macrocephalus, 92. 
 Pig, 66, 164, 265. 
 
 stone, 67. 
 Pigeon, 64, 65, 66, 67. 
 Pithecus Lar, 21. 
 Pike, 66, 67. 
 Platessa flesus, 167. 
 
 vulgaris, 167. 
 
 Plover, 64. 
 
 Polistes Lecheguana, 205. 
 
 Porcupine, 65. 
 
 Pork, 163, 165. 
 
 Potentilla alba, 77. 
 
 reptans, 77. 
 
 Portuguese man of war, 286. 
 Poulp, 56, 126. 
 
420 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Processionary moths, 234. 
 Protoglottis, 401. 
 Protoscolex, 401. 
 Ptinea, 130. 
 Pulex, 297. 
 
 hominis, 297. 
 
 irritans, 297. 
 
 penetrans, 300. 
 
 vulgaris, 297. 
 
 Pulmones preparati, 66. 
 Pupipara, 227. 
 Pupivora, 148. 
 Pygocentrus, 214. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quercus coccifera, 77. 
 
 Pyrenaica, 150. 
 
 sessiflora, 150. 
 
 Quail, 65, 67. 
 
 Quetelet weight of man, 16. 
 
 Kabbit, 65. 
 Races of men, 27. 
 Eadiata, 57, 58, 61, 62. 
 
 flesh of, 176. 
 
 Raia Aquila, 107. 
 
 batis, 107. 
 
 clavata, 106. 
 
 Pastinaca, 107. 
 
 Rana esculenta, 178. 
 
 temporaria, 178. 
 
 Rat, 65, 213. 
 Rays, 106, 213. 
 Red coral, 83. 
 Reduviidse, 222. 
 Reduvina, 222. 
 Reduvius personatus, 222. 
 
 serratus, 224. 
 
 Reproduction, modes of, 48. 
 
 fissiparous, 46. 
 
 gemmiparous, 46. 
 
 organs of, 46. 
 
 sexual, 46. 
 
 Reptilia, 62. 
 Respiration, 45. 
 Rhamnus Jujuba, 78. 
 Rhinoceros, 65, 66, 67. 
 Rhizostoma Aldrovandi, 236. 
 Cuvierii, 236. 
 
 Rodentia, 118. 
 Roebuck, 66. 
 Rorqual, 188. 
 Ruminantia, 110. 
 Russian musk, 113. 
 
 S. 
 
 Salamander, 65, 87. 
 Salamandra rnaculata, 289. 
 Salar Ausonii, 167. 
 Salivary glands, 44. 
 Salmo fario, 167. 
 
 salar, 167. 
 
 Salmon, 66. 
 
 Sanguisuga interrupta, 141. 
 
 medicinalis, 140. 
 
 officinalis, 140. 
 
 Sarcophaga carnaria, 237. 
 Sarcopsylla penetrans, 300. 
 Sarcoptus, 307, 318. 
 
 scabei, 309. 
 
 Saunders (Mr.) eruption of molar 
 
 teeth, 13. 
 Scarabseus, 65. 
 
 vernalis, 242. 
 
 Scarus, 246. 
 
 capitaneus, 246. 
 
 Schistocephalus dimorphus, 397. 
 
 Scink, 68. 
 
 Scolices, 397. 
 
 Scleranthus perennis, 77. 
 
 Scolopendra, 265. 
 
 cingulata, 265. 
 
 electrica, 244. 
 
 Scopoliana, 266. 
 
 Scolopendridae, 260. 
 Scomber Scombrus, 167. 
 
 capitaneus, 246. 
 
 Scorpio Europseus, 271. 
 
 Occitanus, 272. 
 
 palmatus, 272. 
 
 Scorpion, 64, 65, 268, 270. 
 
 African, 271. 
 
 common, 271. 
 
 palmated, 271. 
 
 red, 271. 
 
 Seed lac, 79. 
 Segestria cellaris, 260. 
 Sepia, 82. 
 
 officinalis, 81. 
 
 Sepiadae, 81. 
 Sepiostaire, 82. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 421 
 
 Sepium, 82, 83. 
 Serpent, 68, 248, 255. 
 Serrasalmes, 214. 
 Sewruga, 182. 
 Shad, 65. 
 Shark, 102. 
 
 oil of, 108, 109. 
 
 Sheep, 67, 68, 164,. 165. 
 
 skin of, 185. 
 
 Shell lac, 79. 
 Sight, 49. 
 Silkworm, 67. 
 Simulium reptans, 233. 
 Silphidee, 214. 
 Size of foetus, 12, 14. 
 Skate, 106, 107. 
 
 oil of, 105, 106, 107. 
 
 Skeleton, 52. 
 
 Skin, 184. 
 
 Slug, 65. 
 
 Smell, 49. 
 
 Smooth gall, 150. 
 
 Snail, 66, 83, 174, 246. 
 
 Snipe, 66. 
 
 Solea vulgaris, 167. 
 
 Solitary worm, 376. 
 
 Soulouque, 30. 
 
 Spermaceti, 91,94. 
 
 Sphaerodus leucothalmus, 242. 
 
 Sphyrsena Becuna, 246. 
 
 Caracauda, 246. 
 
 Spider, 64, 67, 98, 99, 262. 
 
 cave, 260. 
 
 web of, 91 , 98. 
 
 Spiroptera, 333, 334, 359, 403. 
 
 hominis, 359, 405. 
 
 Spodium Graecum, 66. 
 Sponge, 89. 
 
 composition of, 90. 
 
 nature of, 90. 
 
 brown, 91. 
 
 common, 90. 
 
 fine Archipelago, 91. 
 
 hard, 91. 
 
 Syrian, 91. 
 
 gelatine, 91. 
 
 Grecian, 91. 
 
 Marseilles, 91. 
 
 Salonica, 91. 
 
 white of Syria, 91. 
 
 Spongia officinalis, 89. 
 
 spiculae of, 90. 
 
 Sporocyst, 394. 
 Squalus, 108. 
 
 Squalus Acanthias, 108. 
 
 Catulus, 108. 
 
 Centrina, 109. 
 
 Mustelus, 109. 
 
 Squatina, 109. 
 
 Vulpes, 109. 
 
 Stag, 65, 66, 67. 
 
 horn of, 180. 
 
 Staphilinus fuscipes, 242. 
 
 politus, 242. 
 
 punctatus, 242. 
 
 Sterlet, 182. 
 
 Stick lac, 79. 
 
 Stickle back, 397. 
 
 Stigmata, 46. 
 
 Stomach, 43. 
 
 Strobila, 401. 
 
 Stronsrylus, 333, 334, 355, 403. 
 
 - gigas, 356, 405. 
 
 longivaginatus, 357, 
 
 405. 
 
 renalis, 356, 405. 
 
 Struthio camel us, 187. 
 Sturgeon, 181. 
 Sturio, 182. 
 
 stellatus, 182. 
 
 Suet, 186, 187. 
 Bus scropha, 81. 
 Swallow, 65, 66. 
 
 esculent, 185; nests of, 
 
 185. 
 
 Swan, 65, 66. 
 Syrupus cocci, 76. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tabanus bovinus, 234. 
 
 Table of the animal kingdom, 62. 
 
 Tamia, 332, 334, 376, 404. 
 
 Acanthotrias, 405. 
 
 jEgyptiaca, 383. 
 
 canina, 385. 
 
 . Capensis, 384. 
 
 communis, 399. 
 
 crassipes, 402. 
 
 crassicollis, 397, 402. 
 
 cucumerina, 385. 
 
 dentalis, 405. 
 
 Echinococcus, 382, 383, 405. 
 
 faenestrata, 382. 
 
 flavopunctata, 382, 383, 405. 
 
 inermis, 382, 384, 405. 
 
 mediocanellata, 384. 
 
422 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Teenia nana, 382, 383, 405. 
 
 serrata, 385, 402. 
 
 Solium, 376, 382, 405. 
 
 tenuicollis, 405. 
 
 tropica, 403. 
 
 Teenioidea, 404. 
 Tannin, 153. 
 Tapeworm, 376. 
 Tapir, 67. 
 Tarantula, 263. 
 Taste, 49. 
 Teeth, 13. 
 
 eruption of, 13. 
 
 Tegenaria medicinalis, 182. 
 Tench, 65. 
 
 Tenebrio molitor, 242. 
 Testudo Europea, 178. 
 
 Graeca, 178. 
 
 marginata, 178. 
 
 Mauri tanica, 178. 
 
 Tetrao lagopus, 166. 
 
 tetrix, 166. 
 
 urogallus, 166. 
 
 Tetraonix, 128. 
 Tetrarhynci, 397. 
 Thecosoma, 333, 334, 368, 404. 
 
 hsematobium, 369. 
 
 sanguicola, 405. 
 
 Theridian mactans, 261. 
 Thornback, 106. 
 Thread lac, 79. 
 Ticks, 291, 302. 
 Tick of wolf, 302. 
 
 reticulated, 302. 
 
 Tiedman on the human brain, 6. 
 Tinctura cantharides, 133. 
 
 castorei,122. 
 
 Galte, 153. 
 
 Tincture of cantharides, 133. 
 
 of galls, 153. 
 
 Titmouse, 64. 
 Toad, 64, 65, 66, 287. 
 
 common, 288. 
 
 Natter Jack, 288. 
 
 Tooth powder of French codex, 83. 
 Torpedo, 213. 
 Tortoise, 65, 66, 67. 
 
 sea, 67. 
 
 Touch, 49. 
 
 Tracheae, 45, 
 
 Transfusion, 161. 
 
 Trahala, 100, 156, 157, 158, 189, 
 
 Trahalose, 158. 
 
 Tree-frog, 64, 65. 
 
 Trematoda, 405. 
 Trepang, 177. 
 Trichina, 350. 
 
 spiralis, 350, 405. 
 
 Trichomonas, 406. 
 
 vaginalis, 407. 
 
 Tricocephalus, 333, 334, 348,351,403. 
 
 dispar, 405. 
 
 Tricula, 156. 
 Triton, 289. 
 
 custatus, 288. 
 
 Trombediidse, 305. 
 
 Trout, 66. 
 
 Trunk-fish, 244. 
 
 Tsetse, 228. 
 
 Tunny, 245. 
 
 Turbellaria, 404. 
 
 Turbot, 167. 
 
 Turpentine gall, 156. 
 
 Tyroglyphus Mericourtii, 269. 
 
 U. 
 
 Unguentum cantharidis, 133. 
 Gallae compositum, 153. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vampire, 212. 
 Vampyrus spectrum, 212. 
 Yegetable wax, 206. 
 Vena Medini, 334. 
 
 mitena, 334. 
 
 Veins, 45. 
 Veneridae, 172. 
 Vermes accessorii, 331. 
 
 cucumerini, 382. 
 
 cucurbitini, 382. 
 
 Vesicating insects, 100. 
 Vespa Crabro, 280. 
 
 vulgaris, 280. 
 
 Vespertilio vampyrus, 212. 
 Vibrio, 406. 
 
 Bacillus, 409. 
 
 cyanogenus, 409. 
 
 lineola, 409. 
 
 regula, 409. 
 
 xanthogenus, 409. 
 
 Victor, 23. 
 
 Viper, 68, 248, 283. 
 
 common, 248. 
 
 Vipera ammodytes, 249. 
 
INDEX. 423 
 
 Vipera aspis, 248. Whalebone, 211. 
 
 - Berus, 248. -- whale, 93. 
 
 - lanceolata, 258. Whiting, 65, 67, 102. 
 
 - Msegera, 258. Wolf, 65, 66. 
 Virgulina, 406. Woodcock, 66. 
 
 - tenax, 408. Woodlouse, 68, 69, 70. 
 Viverra civetta, 115. Wren, 64. 
 
 - Zibetha,117. 
 Volvocidae, 396. 
 
 Volvox, 60, 62. Y. 
 
 Water scorpion, 226. 
 
 -- wagtail, 64. Z. 
 
 Wax, 206, 209, 210. 
 
 - organs, 207. Zebra. 184. 
 
 Weasel, 65, 66. Zebud, 228. 
 
 Weight of brain, 7. Zebeth, 117. 
 
 - of child at birth, 14. - scent of, 117. 
 Wild boar, 81. Zimb, 228. 
 
 - boy of Aveyron, 23. Zoonites, 59, 60, 62, 376, 402. 
 
 - cat, 64, 65. Zoophyta, 60, 404. 
 Whale, 64. Zoophytes, 61, 62, 245. 
 
 Printed by W. II. COX, 5, Great Queen Street, W. C. 
 

I