STATE OF CAUFOHNIA DEPABTMENT OF NATURAL BESOUHCES SALT IN CALIFORNIA BDIXETIN 17S DIVISION OF MINES IZIST BUELDQfa SAN FBA3ICISCO THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS STATE OF CALIFORNIA GOODWIN I. KNIGHT, Governor DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DeWITT NELSON. Director DIVISION OF MINES FERRY BUILDING, SAN FRANCISCO 11 OLAF P. JENKINS, Chief SAN FRANCISCO BULLETIN 175 MARCH 1958 SALT IN CALIFORNIA By WILLIAM E. VER PLANCK With a chapter by ROBERT F. HEIZER Price $3.25 LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNLA DAVIS CONTENTS Page Letter of transmittal 5 Abstract ^ Introduction 9 Chapter 1: The geologic occurrence of salt 11 Chapter 2: Methods of recovery 39 Chapter 3: The refining of salt 81 Chapter 4: Marketing of salt 93 Chapter 5: Salt in California Indian culture, by Robert F. Heizer 101 Chapter 6: History of the California salt industry 105 Appendix 121 Index 165 PLATES 1. Map showing locations of crude salt plants on San Francisco Bay__In pocket 2. Map of California showing locations of salt plants and deposits In pocket (3) LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL The Honorable Goodwin J. Knight Governor of the State of California Dear Sir: I have the honor to transmit Bulletin 175, Salt in California, prepared under the direction of Olaf P. Jenkins, Chief of the Division of Mines. Salt is one of the principal basic raw materials required by the chemical industry, and California provides annually more than a million tons, worth over six million dollars, to the expanding west coast industries. This represents about six percent of the United States production of salt. This book represents one of the Division's series of statewide commodity reports. The author, William E. Ver Planck, is a member of the Division assigrned to the study of salines and he is also the author of Bulletin 163, Gypsum in Califoniia, i.ssued in 1952. Bulletin 175 deals in many phases of the salt industry, particularly as it is related to California: geologic occurrences and origin, methods of recovery, uses, marketing, refining, and history, including also the use of salt by the Indians, a chapter contributed by Robert F. Heizer. The book includes many systematic tables and is well illustrated by photographs, maps, and charts. Respectfully submitted, DeWitt Nelson, Director Department of Natural Resources (5) ■-9, t = ^ — . t: ^ •-' "^ ^ . ■- < It ^ ^ 5 -^ t - '- - 5 o i.S .a ^ o "^ S 'S .2 }1 = S B ^ o -g o ■- a H (J a: tc g o = = '^ »■: ■« ^ ■■ o o c ? 5 05 5 J c X « — ic S to <■• - ^ ^ >^ "H -^ "C S; =S ^ ^ ^ C b ~ ^ - ^- S - e ■i ^ o a C ^ - »' o '-' ^ n -c . ~ ? -3 « X 3 ii T= ai C 53 «.> a. ^- t- J3 Si X t; C C3 i, n oj > o ■^ 9 - = § S .5 -a ^ eI '- £' 2 OB £« E c fr ^ ?■ ABSTRACT Common salt (N'aCl) is a basic material for humnn existence as well as for the chemical industry. California's output in 1953 of more than a million tons valued at over $6 million was about (i percent of the United States production. Halite, natural sodium chloride, occurs dissolved in sea water, in the brines of some nuilrained desert basin.s, and in some springs and wells. Rock salt, formed by the evaporation of brine, occurs as crystal bodies in desert playas of Pleistocene age and as beds in older rocks. California is one of the few places in the United States where the recovery of salt from sea water by solar evap- oration is economically feasible. The salt industry is centered in the .south end of San Francisco Bay where the I/eslie Salt Co. operates one of the world's largest solar evaporation plants. Smaller jilants are operated on San Diego Hay, Newport Bay, and near Moss Landing. The .solar evaporation process is essentially fractional crystallization. Sea water is first brought to saturation in a series of concentrating ponds where calcium carbonate and gypsum precipitate. The saturated brine or pickle is run into crystallizing ponds where salt forms, and the magnesium-rich mother liquor or bittern is sold to chemical companies for further processing. Once a year the salt is harvested with mechanized equipment and washed with strong brine. The product, crude un- dried salt, contains 00.4 percent XaCl. Two general types of re- lined salt are produced, kiln dried, 99.8 i)ercent pure, and vacuum refined, more than 09.9.'"i percent pure. A minor proportion of the California salt production comes from the de.sert regions. Solar evaporation is applicable to many ter- restrial brines, although differences in brine composition and con- centration require moditicafion of the sea water process. The I..i)ng Beach Salt Company recovers salt from the surface brine of Koehn Lake liy solar evaporation, and this method has been practiced at Salton Sea. At Bristol Lake the California Salt Company quarries salt from a buried crystal body, and the Pacific Salt and Chemical Corporation scrapes salt from the exposed crystal body of Searles Lake. Large reserves of salt exist in the brine-permeated crystal bodies of Cadiz Lake, Danliy Lake, and Dale Lake, in the surface crusts of Death Valley and Saline Valley, and in folded and faulted Tertiary deposits in the Avawatz Mountains. Crude salt sold in bulk to chlorine-caustic manufacturers ac- counts for nearly half the California production. Water treatment, refrigeration, and livestock consume smaller amounts. Minor uses include food preparation, the processing of hides and leather, and the manufacture of soap. Table and household n.ses account for an estimated 2.7 percent of the total. One of the first salt plants on San Francisco Bay was built in 1802. Well into the 20th century the industry consisted of a host of small, inefficient plants, few of which had annual capacities of more than 10,000 tons. The series of events that lead to the con- .s(didation of nearly all the Bay area's salt-producing capacity in the hands of one organization began about 1900, and the process was completed in 1941. The desert salt deposits were known at an early date. In the Salton Sea region salt was produced from 1884 until the flood of 190."i and 190(5. Salt operations began at Danby Lake in 1890, at Bristol Lake in 1909, and at Koehn Lake in 1914. The production of salt fnmi Saline Valley followed the completion of an aerial tramway across the Inyo Range in 191.3. (T) INTRODUCTION Conunon salt, sodium chloride, is such a familiar com- modity that people tend to take it for granted. In mod- ern life it is scarcely possible to avoid contact with salt, the [iroducts of salt, or things in the preparation of which salt has i>layed a part. It is a necessity in the diet of man and aninuils, yet less than 5 percent of the United States production is consumed in the home. Salt is the basic chemical raw material from which most sodium and chlorine compounds are made, and chemical uses account for more than half of the United States production. It has in addition hundreds of other com- mercial applications includinf; livestock and ai;ricultural use, food processing, textile and leather processing, wa- ter treatment, ice control, and refrigeration. Salt costs only a cent or less per pound in carlots, but consmners demand a product of rigid specifications. Re- fined salt has a purity of over 99.9 percent, while even most of the crude salt produced in California is more than 99 percent pure. The Salt Industry In 1952 nearly 20 million tons of salt valued at $70,- 870,767 were produced in continental United States. As the following table shows, relatively few other mineral commodities are produced in greater cjuantity. Production in continental Vnifed Stutea of some mineral commodities, 195Z.* CommiKlit.v Quantif.v Iron ore (long tons) 97,2.'{6,3!(7 Clays (short tons) 33,847.00!! Salt (short tons) ^^ 19,532,270 Fluorspar (short tons) 15,3ri3,634 Phosphate rock (long tons) 11,324,158 Oypsum (short tons) 8,415..3()0 Sulfur and pyrite (long tons) 0,140,420 Potassium salts (K=0 equiv. short tons) 1,508,3.54 Bauxite (long tons) 1,677,047 Boron minerals (short tons) . 583,828 • D'Amico. K. J.. 1955, Statistical summary of mineral pruduction: Minerals Yearhmik. 1952 (preprint), table 2. The California production of salt in 1953 exceeded one million tons, and with a value of more than $6 million it equaled 6 percent of the total United States production of salt. The California salt industry is cen- tered in the southeast short of San Francisco Bay where the Leslie Salt Co. obtains salt from sea water in one of the world's largest solar evaporation plants. Since salt was first produced in this area, nearly a hundred years ago, the San Francisco Bay salt industry has undergone continual improvements and expansions that have kept pace with the industrial development of the region. Much smaller amounts of salt are produced at other points on the California coast and from certain dry lakes in the California desert. "With minor exceptions, all the salt consumed in Cali- fornia, Oregon, Washington, northern Idaho, western Nevada, and Arizona is produced in California. Nearly half of the total is crude salt consumed bv five large chlorine-caustic plants. Three, in the Pacific Northwest, receive .salt shijiped by .sea from the San Francisco Bay production center, and a fourth is in the San Francisco area. Salt from inland dejiosits cannot be brought to San Franci.sco or placed on ships for transport to Ore- gon and Washington at prices that these indu.strial con- sumers could pay and remain in business. The fifth chlorine-caustic plant, in .southern Nevada, is supplied from a southern California plant. Much of the .salt pro- duced in southern California is marketed in the Los An- geles area for purposes such as water treatment and refrigeration. Refined salt, which amounts to a compara- tively small portion of the total output, is produced by two refineries on San Francisco Bay. (leologic Occurrence. Halite, the natural sodium chloride, is among the most .soluble of the common min- erals and is present to .some degree in almost all natural water. Sea water is essentially a 3.5 percent solution of several salts of which a little more than 77 ])ercen't is sodium chloride. The waters of some springs and wells are high in salt, and .some undrained desert basins in California contain brines more than eight times as con- centrated as sea water. Halite also occurs as granular masses called rock salt and as efflorescent deposits and crusts. Some of the dry lakes of the California desert contain beds of rock salt, while in the Avawatz Moun- tains rock salt is interbedded with folded and faulted Tertiary sediments. Previous Work. References to the salt industry are to be found in the bibliographies that follow each chap- ter of this report. The only comprehensive published descriptions of the salt industry of California were written many years ago and have been long out of print. They include the survey by Hanks in the Second report of the State Mineralogi.st, summaries in the early vol- umes of the Mineral Resources of the United States series, and Parker's article in the Eighteenth annual report of the United States Geological Survey. Geologic descriptions of many of the desert saline deposits are to be found in studies of commodities other than salt. The salines of Death Valley, Saline Valley. Searles Lake, and Cadiz Lake are described in Gale's summaries of the potash investigations conducted by the United States Geological Survey in the World War I period. More recent descriptions of Searles Lake have been published by Teeple and Ryan. Danby Lake is described in Noble's rei)ort on nitrate deposits in California, while Durrell's recent report on celestite in the Avawatz Mountains in- cludes the associated .salt and gypsum deposits. ]\Iac- Dougal's book on the Salton Sea region contains a wealth of information on the formation of Salfon Sea and its development into a saline lake. Gale's article on Bristol Lake is one of the few published geologic de- scriptions of a saline deposit in California in which salt is given primary consideration. (3) 10 Salt ix California [Bull. 175 Scope and Acknowledgments. In this report the geologic oceurreiiee, methods of recovery, utilization and marketing of salt in California are described ; and the history of the California salt industry is reviewed. Be- cause surface mapping is relatively ineffective in study- ing playa saline deposits, the geologic data are drawn almost entirely from previous work, both published and unpublished. The Division of Mines is indebted to the Metropolitan AVater District of Southern California which freely gave information on Danby Lake and granted permission to publish the logs of test borings. It is also indebted to W. C. Reeder for permission to use unpublished data on his property on Danby Lake and to H. H. Kerckhoff, Jr., for furnishing material on a portion of the Avawatz Salt and Gypsum Company property in the Avawatz Mountains. Descriptions of operations are based on plant visits made in 1953 except as noted in the text. Marketing data were obtained from both producers and consumers at about the same time. Cooperation of the staff of the Leslie Salt Co., particularly Sheldon Allen, Rudolph Schilling, H. L. Bradley, Jlr. Dickerson, and Mr. Lopez is greatly appreciated. Other members of the salt in- dustry who gave freely of their time include N. B. Dittenhaver. Chester Hartley, Alden Oliver, A. F. Marsicano, F. A. Riehle Jr., Sam Scott, Kenneth Staples, and E. C. Vierra. CHAPTER 1 THE GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE OF SALT CONTENTS OF CHAPTER 1 Page Till' [iroiicrties of salt 13 Occurrence of salt 13 Brines 13 Classifioation of brines 13 Rocli salt 13 Plava deposits 14 Bedded deposits 14 Salt domes 14 California localities 14 Sea water 14 Salt deposits of isolated basins 15 Salton Sea region 15 Salt lakes of sontheastem San Bernardino County IS Dale Lake IS Salt deposits of Danby Lake IS Cadiz Lake and Bristol I^ke 22 Koehn Lake 25 Saline Valley, Inyo County 25 Death Valley 25 Soda Lake 26 Surprise Valley, Modoc County 26 Alkaline waters 26 Searles Lake 27 Owens Lake 28 Mono Lake 2S Deep Springs Valley 28 Borax Lake 28 Black Lake 28 Saline springs and wells 28 Salt deposits of the Avawatz Mountains 29 (ieologic setting 29 Stratigraphy 30 Tertiary beds 30 Funeral fanglomerate 31 Structure 31 Occurrences of salt 31 Page Origin 32 Origin of brines 32 Salt springs 33 Isolated basins 33 Origin of saline residues 33 The precipitation of sea salts 33 The evaporation of terrestrial waters 34 The formation of salt deposits 34 Deposits in desert basins 34 Pre-Pleistocene deposits 35 Bibliography 36 Illustrations Figure 1. Map of Saltou Sea region showing locations of salt plants and sampling stations 15 2. I>evel and salinity of the Salton Sea, 1907-54 10 3. Map of Danby Lake, San Bernardino County, showing saline properties 10 4. Map of northwest portion of Danby Lake, San Bernardino County 22 5. Sections through Danby Lake, San Bernardino County 23 C. Map of central and southeast portions of Danby Lake, San Bernardino County 24 7A. Map of Saline Valley area showing location of Saline A'alley Salt Company aerial tramway 26 7B. Photo showing Saline Valley from the southeast 26 8. Photo showing the floor of Death Valley 27 9. Map showing location of salt deposits in Avawatz Mountains, San Bernardino County 29 10. Geologic map of a portion of the Boston-Valley claims 31 Saline Gulch, San Bernardino County 32 12. Precipitation of sea salts 34 (12) THE GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE OF SALT THE PROPERTIES OF SALT* Coiiiiiion salt or sodium chloride (NaCI) occurs as the mineral halite. Pure sodium chloride contains chlo- rine 60.6 percent and sodium 39.4 percent. Halite crys- tallizes in the isometric .system and has cubic habit, al- thoufrh other forms are known. Halite occurs as crystals, cleavable crystalline ma.sses, or granular masses. Hop- per-shaped crystals resembling hollow ciuadrilateral pyra- mids often form when solutions eva[)orate slowly. Halite has perfect cubic cleavage, conchoidal frac- ture, a hardness of 2.5, and a specific gravity of 2.1 to 2.6. The index of refraction is 1.544. The pure mineral may be transparent and colorless or wiiite. Impure halite may be gray or various shades of yellow, brown, or red. The blue color of certain deposits of halite has not been explained but may be caused by the presence of finely divided free sodium. Although the other alkali halides have similar mineralogic properties, halite does not form isomorphous series with them. Sodium chloride transmits radiant heat more readily than most other materials. The melting point is about 800 degrees C, and at about 1440 degrees C. it vaporizes without decomposition. Pure sodium chloride is not ap- preciablj- hygroscopic, although the traces of other chlorides usually present cause commercial salt to readily absorb moisture from the air. It is moderately soluble in water and is among the most soluble of the rock forming minerals. One hundred grams of water dissolve 35.7 grams of salt at 0° C. and 39.1 grams at 100° C. This slight increase of solubility with temperature is in marked contrast to the great increase of most other salts, and facilitates the separation of sodium chloride from other salts by fractional crystallization. The vapor pressure and rate of evaporation of a salt solution are decreased as more salt is added. With a saturated solution of salt in water the rate of evapora- tion is only 40 percent of that of distilled water. An increase in the boiling point accompanies tlie addition of salt, thus the boiling point of a solution of 7.6 grams of sodium chloride in 100 grams of water is 102.2° C. while a solution of 28.7 grams of salt in 100 grams of water boils at 109.5° C. In a similar way, the freezing point of a salt solution is lowered as more salt is dissolved. Sodium chloride and water form a eutectic mixture of salt and ice containing 23.3 percent sodium chloride that freezes at minus 21.2° C. A solution containing less salt than the eutectic mix- tures precipitates ice when it is cooled, while from a solution containing more than 23.3 percent salt, there is precipitated the dihydrate XaCl • 2II.jO. Solutions of sodium chloride are chemically neutral under ordinary conditions, and they possess high elec- trical conductivity. OCCURRENCE OF SALT Brines Because of its relatively great solubility, .salt is pres- ent to some degree in almost all natural water. Sea water is essentially a solution of sodium chloride, the average •See MeUor, 1946. salinity of which is about 3.5 percent. Although the salinity of sea water varies in different parts of the world, and ranges from less than 1 percent to more than 5 percent, the composition of the dissolved .solids is remarkably uniform. Sodium chloride comprises a little more than 77 percent of the total, while six other salts, magnesium chloride, magnesium sulfate, calcium sulfate, potassium sulfate, calcium carbonate, and mag- nesium bromide account for all but a fraction of 1 per- cent of the remainder. The analysis of sea water is given in the table 1. Bodies of water, however, that are not freely connected with the sea so that circulation takes place may contain water unlike that of the ocean. Some salt water lagoons separated from the sea by beaches are in this class. Sodium chloride, together with other soluble salts, is to be found in terrestrial waters. The waters of the un- drained desert basins whose inflow is balanced by eva- poration are likely to be high in dissolved solids, while saline springs and wells, although perhaps most numer- ous in arid region, occur independently of climatic con- ditions. Unlike sea water, the terrestrial waters have a wide range of character and range in salinity from essentially fresh water containing less than 100 parts per million of dissolved solids to brines whose concen- tration is more than eight times that of sea water. They exhibit an equally wide range in the composition of the dissolved solids, but almost alwaj-s they contain more or less sodium chloride. Classification of Brines Although no two saline waters are exactly alike, they may be divided into three main types based on the pre- dominating acid radical. The metallic ions in greatest abundance are sodium, potassium, calcium, and magne- sium. First is the chloride type, which includes many terrestrial brines as well as sea water. Sea water, which is essentiall}' an impure solution of sodium chloride, contains enough chloride to combine with all the sodium, the most abundant metallic ion, and part of the mag- nesium, the next most abundant metallic ion. Terrestrial brines that contain chloride in excess of sodium are com- paratively rare, and in such brines calcium is more abundant than magnesium. Most terrestrial brines of the chloride type contain a higher proportion of sulfate than does sea water. There is a complete gradation between the chloride brines and brines of the second type, the sulfate brines, in which sulfate is the predominating acid radical. Similarly an increase of carbonate leads to the third type, the alkali or volcanic brines. JIany alkali brines contain carbonate, sulfate, and borate with chlo- ride present in subordinate amounts. Rock Salt Deposits of more or less pure halite, called rock salt, most commonly have formed by the evaporation of saline water. Although exposures of rock salt can exist only under arid climatic conditions, under favorable condi- tions, salt deposits have become buried and protected from solution. (13) u Salt in California [Bull. 175 Playa Deposits In California, important deposits of salt, associated with strong brine exist in some of the intermittent lakes or playas of the desert. An undrained basin in a desert region where evaporation exceeds the rate of water flow- ing in is likely to have one or more playas in its lowest parts. The occasional heavy rains wash fine sediments into it where they form a nearly flat, featureless plain. Beyond the area of mud are alluvial slopes of coarser material that in many cases merge with the fans that flank the mountains enclosing the basin. Pla.yas ordi- narily are dry, but after heavy rains they may be cov- ered by a few inches of water. Stone * has amplified and extended a classification of playas that was originally conceived by Thompson (Thompson, 1929). This classificatioii is as follows: I Dry type II Moist type A. Clay encru.sted B. Salt encru.sted III Crystal body type IV Compound type V Artificial type The dry type or "clay pan" includes playas such as Rogers Lake and the northern part of Panamint Valley in which the surface sediments are fine grained, hard, and impermeable. The storm water that occasionally lies on the surface penetrates but a few inches, and the salt content of the clays is negligible. These playas occupy basins that are not water tight, and the water table lies at depths greater than 10 feet, the height that capillary action can raise water through the sediments. The moist type of playa occupies a water tight basin, and any water that reaches it can escape only by evap- oration! The water table is less than 10 feet below the surface, and in many cases it is as shallow as three feet. The surface is characteristically a light, puffy soil called self rising ground ; and the subsurface, even in the hot- test weather, is moist. The sediments beneath the surface have a loose, granular texture caused by the continual passage of water drawn up by capillary action, and they contain disseminated crystals of salts. The moist type of playa has two sub types, the clay encrusted, and the salt encrusted which is covered with efflorescent salts formed by the evaporation of saline water brought up by capillary action. Probably the prin- cipal diff'erence is that the water table of of the clay encrusted playa is somewhat deeper than in the .salt encrusted playa. Clay encrusted playas include Borego Sink and the southern part of Panamint Valley, while Death Valley and Saline Valley are examples of the salt encrusted playa. The crystal body type contains one or more beds of salts that are more or less free from clastic sediments. A crystal body may consist of a single salt or a mixture of several salts ; often it is porous and contains a residual mother liquor that is in chemical equilibrium with the solid salts. While the crystal body may crop out, in some playas it is buried. A playa containing a buried crystal body cannot be distinguished by surface examination from a moist playa containing no crystal body. Oidy five playas of the crystal body type are known in California, • stone R. O., 1952, A sedimentary lnve.stlgatton and classlflcation of playa fades: Unpublshed thesis, University of Southern Cali- fornia, 139 pp. Searles Ijake, Bristol Lake, Cadiz Lake, Danby Lake, and Dale Lake. The compound type is a combination of the dry type and the moist type. This condition is the result of a sloping water table that is within 10 feet of the surface in a portion of the playa and at a greater depth in the other ])arts. Soda Lake, which is dry in the northern part and moist in the southern part, is an example of the compound type. The artificial type includes only Owens Lake and Lake Elsinore. These basins are naturally occupied by saline lakes that have dried up because their water sup- plies have been artificially diverted. Bedded Deposits The world's largest reserves of rock salt are sedi- mentary deposits interbedded with sandstone, shale, or limestone. In many cases, rock salt is associated with gypsum or anhydrite ; less often it occurs with potas- sium and magnesium salts. Such salt beds commonly are folded and faulted. Salt beds of the Salina forma- tion of New York and Michigan, the Permian beds of Texas and New Mexico, and other great salt-bearing formations of the world are as much as several hundred feet thick and cover areas of over a hundred square miles. Salt Domes Salt domes are plug-shaped masses of rock salt that intrude the enclosing sediments. They are best known along the Gulf coast of the Lhiited States, and none have been found in California. CALIFORNIA LOCALITIES Sea Water By far the most important source of salt in California is the solar salt industry, which is centered in the south end of San Francisco Bay. The successful production of salt by the evaporation of sea water is dependent on many factors, among the most important of which are a dry climate with high net evaporation and absence of rain for a considerable portion of the year, large areas of suitable land for the construction of water tight evaporating ponds, and above all, markets for salt within a minimum distance. Although salt has been produced from sea water since the dawn of history, in most areas it has been found more practical to obtain the best grades of salt from rock salt or from artificial brine. California is one of the few places in the world where the solar salt indus- try has been perfected and modernized. San Francisco Bay produces a substantial part of the solar salt manu- factured in the United States, and practically all of the remainder comes from three additional areas on the California coast. These are the south end of San Diego Bay, the head of Newport Bay, and salt marshes near Moss Landing. The bay water used for salt making is of the same composition as that of the open sea but differs somewhat in salinity. San Francisco Bay is affected by fresh water rivers, and during the rainy season a substantial reduc- tion in salinity is noted. San Diego Bay is but little affected by dilution. Net evaporation ranges from 31 to 43 inches per year in the San Francisco Bay area to as much as 50 inches per year at San Diego. A more de- Chapt. r Geologic Occurrence 15 tailed discussion of the solar salt industry is to be found in another section of this bulletin. Natural conditions are so favorable for making salt on the AJaiiu'da County shore of San Francisco Bay that the first white settlers found natural salt deposits in the tide pools among the marshes. These deposits, which were as much as eight inches thick, were very impure and contained appreciable amounts of magne- sium salts and the other dissolved solids in addition to sodium chloride that are present in sea water. Salt Ponds. Preston (1890) has described an inter- esting salt pond that in the 1890's existed just north of Redondo Beach, and within 300 yards of the ojcean. Lake Salinas, as the pond was called, has long ago been filled in. The pond was filled with a concentrated chlo- ride brine having a much higher proportion of magne- sium than sea water. Apparently no direct connection with the sea existed, for the bottom of the pond was composed of fresh-water-bearing clay, and the pond level was about 5 feet above the high tide mark. The pond appeared to liave received only the drainage of the immediate area, and perhaps its saline content was derived from salt spray. In 1901 and 1902, a company attempted to develop salt brine near Oceanside and Carlsbad, San Diego County. According to G. E. Bai'ey (1902, p. 133), brine was obtained from wells sunk in old, nearly dry lagoons. It would be interesting to know if this brine was merely sea water that seeped in from the ocean, or was, like the brine of Lake Salinas, of unusual composition. Salt Deposits of Isolated Basins Salton Sea Region The Salton Sea region, which is approximately the equivalent of the Colorado Desert, has been considered to be an example of an arm of the sea that has been cut off and desiccated (Grabau, 1920, pp. 146-151). The Colorado Desert, a northwest-trending structural trough, bounded by active branches of the San Andreas fault, is a continuation of the trough occupied by the Gulf of California and is separated from the Gulf by the delta of the Colorado River. The lowest part of the basin is a little more than 270 feet below sea level. Prior to 1905 a playa existed near Salton Station and substantial quantities of salt were recovered from the saline crust. With the flooding of the basin with fresh water from the Colorado River and the formation of Salton Sea in 1905 and 1906, this industry was destroyed ; but by 1935 evaporation had concentrated the fresh water to the point where recovery of salt by solar evaporation was feasible. Solar evaporation is favored by an average summer temperature of close to 100° and an average rainfall of only one to five inches a year. The trough occupied bv the Gulf of California and Salton Sea is thought to have been formed by faulting in early Pleistocene time. During the very late Pleisto- cene epoch, the Salton Sea region was occupied by a body of water called Lake Cahuilla or Blake Sea that left beach lines around the basin at about the 40 foot contour. The presence of fresh or at least brackish water fossils and reefs of calcareous tufa leave little doubt that Lake Cahuilla contained fresh water. The final disap- pearance by evaporation of the Quaternary lake is thought to have taken place comparatively recently, per- I'"^GiiBE 1. Map of Salton Sea region showing locations of salt plants and sampling stations. haps within 400 years (MacDougal, 1917, p. 457). Mae- Dougal has shown that Lake Cahuilla was but the last of a number of fresh water lakes that occupied the Salton Basin. Without doubt the water came from the Colorado River which in 1900 was flowing along the crest of the delta and may well have discharged into the basin in the geologically recent past. Much evidence (Sykes, 1937) has been accumulated to show that at the time of the flood the Colorado was tending to seek new channels toward the Salton Basin and would in all probabilitj^ have flooded the basin without assistance from man. Indeed, it was with considerable difSculty that the river has been forced back to the southeast side of the delta. W. P. Blake and many others believed that when the Salton Basin was formed the sea flooded it and that the Gulf of California extended to the vicinity of Indio. Gradually as the Colorado River built its delta into the Gulf the upper end was cut off from the open sea. At one or more times the Colorado River emptied into the part of the Gulf north of the delta barrier, displaced the sea water, and formed the fresh water lakes whose beaches and deposits remain. E. E. Free (1914, pp. 25- 27) has questioned that the Salton Basin ever was filled with sea water. He postulated that the basin floor orig- inally was above sea level and that the building of the delta dam accompanied a subsidence of the floor. The evidence furnished b.v the salines is inconclusive because the saline deposits of the Salton Basin are of terrestrial rather than marine character. Any evaporites that may have originated from sea water that might once have filled the basin have been either dissolved and swept out or modified before the desiccation of Lake Cahuilla by influxes oi fresh water from the Colorado River. Buried saline deposits of the marine type ma.y exist, but none have been discovered. 16 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Before the flood, Salton Basin was a bare, alluvium- filled plain bordered by alluvial fans that flanked the adjacent mountains. The playa near Salton Station varied in appearance. At times, as in 1849 and 1891, it was covered by as much as 6 feet of water that came from the Colorado River in periods of high water; at other times it was dry and covered with a crust of com- paratively pure salt. But a fragmentary description of the playa has come down to us, and the subsurface seems to have been explored by a single borehole that was about 15,000 feet west of Salton, a railroad station approximately 6 miles north of the boundary between Riverside and Imperial Counties. In 1891 according to Preston (1893) 6 inches of black mud covered a crust 7 inches thick that was composed of sodium and magnesium chlorides. Beneath the crust was 22 feet of black ooze with a water content of over 50 percent and consisting "largely of chlorides and carbonates of sodium and magnesium, the soda salts predominating, besides fine sand, iron oxide, and a small amount of organic matter." Below the ooze hard clay extended to the bottom of the hole, which was 300 feet deep. The brine had a specific gravity of 27° Be, but no other quantitative data are available. Salt produced from the brine by evaporation, however, had the follow- ing analysis (Preston, 1893, p. 388) : NaCl 94.68% CaSO. 0.77% MgSO. 3.12% Na.SO. 0.68% H.O 0.75% 100.00% An analysis of the crust made by E. T. Allen of the United States Geological Survey is as follows (Clarke, 1903) : NaCl 94.54% KCl 0.31% Na^SO. 3.53% CaSOr2H20 0.79% Moisture 0.14% Insoluble residue 0.50% 99.81% Salton Sea was formed during 1905 and 1906 by water from the Colorado River that broke into irrigation canals (Sykes, 1937, pp. 111-120). When the flow was controlled in February 1907, Salton Basin was flooded to the minus 195 foot contour. The fresh water im- mediately began to dissolve the exposed playa salts, and by the middle of 1907 the salinity of Salton Sea reached the nearly uniform value of 3648 parts per million, showing that the solution of the plava salts was com- plete (Ross, 1914). As the analysis included in table 1 shows, the water in 1907 was a dilute sodium chloride-sulfate brine with an appreciable content of the slightly soluble carbonates and sulfates of calcium and magnesium. On the assump- tion that all of the dissolved solids originated from either the playa salts or the fresh water of the flood, Ross calculated the average composition of the playa salts. He concluded that over 90 percent of the sodium and chloride and 70 percent or more of the magnesium and sulfate in Salton Sea came from the playa salts and that the river was the predominating source of only calcium and carbonate. On the further assumption that the playa salts originated from the desiccation of a hypothetical original Salton Sea, the water of the orig- inal Salton Sea can be compared with other chloride waters. The hypothetical sea is lower in magnesium, pot- ash, and bromine and higher in calcium and sulfate than sea water ; and it resembles much more closely the chloride-sulfate waters found in desert basins such as Death Valley, Saline Valley, and Dale Lake. Following the flood, evaporation began to lower the level of the water at the rate of four to five feet a year ; and if it were not replenished by the drainage from the irrigation systems of the Imperial and Coachella Valleys, Salton Sea would have returned to the playa state be- tween 1925 and 1930. As the accompanying graph shows, the level fell at a substantially uniform rate until the latter part of 1919. Since that time evaporation has been approxi- mately balanced by inflow. The seasonal variations in the amount of fresh water used for irrigation are re- flected in a rise in the level of Salton Sea in the spring 190 -S 40.000 o ■o I SALTON S EA 1907 - ,,s ANO SE ICH < I9S0 LEVEL VNO SALINITY. Leve Sol.n Incre , in So 954 o (. AU6 MA 'T' -- ^ v^ i I Level Toral OissolvE 1 1 \ \ 'y ose imry 1 O CENTEP OF SEA ^ ^-' ""■ ^ME AN OF SAMPLES \ V "1 ^ — ^ — - "^ .-^ ^^^t ALEB AV " 1 \ N / ; o \ / ; -^ 0) > f 241 7^\ -^ 241 \^ 24115 x 235-75 o Q. ?60 S.OOO ' "J^ LOW POINT/ 31 OCT, 24 250.7 ^ 8 ( \ ; ; : i s FlQUBE 2. Chapt. 1] Geologic Occurrence 17 and a drop in the fall. Superimposed on these annual level changes are long term changes. The level reached its lowest point, 250.7 feet below sea level, in November 1924. During the next 11 years it rose to 243 feet and declined nearly to the 1925 level. It averaged 240 feet or a little lower throughout the 1940 's, and in 1951 it began to rise again. On March 31, 1954, the level of Salton Sea was 234.75 feet below sea level. Complete analyses of the water of Salton Sea are available for 1907 to 1916 inclusive (MacDougal, 1917, p. 466) and from 1946 to the present. For the interven- ing years there are two analyses for 1929 and the mean of four analyses from different parts of the sea in 1942. In the years prior to 1920 when inflow was small the total dissolved solids present in Salton Sea remained substantially unchanged, but as evaporation reduced the volume of water the salinity rose at a uniform rate from 3648 parts per million in 1907 to 16,472 parts per million in 1916. Some samples taken in 1911 (Ross, 1914, p. 43) show that the salinity in all parts of the sea was essentially uniform. Some salts must be added by min- eral springs such as the mud pots at the southwest end of Salton Sea. The brine from wells on nearby Mullet Island is rich in chlorides (table 2, analysis 11). As will be shown, however, an increase in the relative proportion of chloride in Salton Sea has not occurred, and therefore additions of salts from mineral springs have not been significant. After inflow became significant the salinity was much less uniform. The Imperial Irrigation District has estab- lished five sampling stations where samples have been taken one to three times a year and at the same day beginning late in 1945. At one station, near the mouths of Alamo and New Rivers, the salinity is substantiality lower than the average, but at the other four stations the salinity differs by as much as 10 percent. This range of salinity, however, is of the same order of magnitude as that in different parts of the southern end of San Francisco Bay. Since 1945 the salinity has varied in- versely as the volume of the sea. It reached a maximum of about 40,000 parts per million in the fall of 1948 when the surface was about 241 feet below sea level. At the end of 1953 when the level stood a little higher than 236 feet the salinity was 35,000 to 35,500 parts per million. Prior to 1953 the level had been below 236 feet since the latter part of 1916. The salinity in 1916 and 1953 when the volume of the .sea was equal would have been the same if the total quantity of dissolved' solids present had remained unchanged, but, in fact, the salinity in 1953 was more than double that in 1916. Probably the additional dissolved solids have originated from the essentially fresh irrigation water that has been flowing into Salton Sea since 1920. The total quantity of dissolved solids can be compared at all times when the level was the same. The increase in the total dissolved solids present is shown on the graph by a dashed line connecting the points for Oc- tober 1942 and September 1948 when the level was be- tween 241 and 242 feet. Projected backward to 1918 when the level was about the same, this line passes close to the extension of the salinity curve plotted from the 1907-1916 analyses; and it is in agreement with the 1929 analyses of 32,200 and 36,500 parts per million when the level was considerably lower. Over the years the relative proportions of the dis- solved solids have changed. Between 1907 and 1916 marked decreases in calcium and carbonate and smaller decreases in potassium and magnesium were noted. Al- though tlie water was not saturated with respect to calcium carbonate, lime was withdrawn by organisms to form calcareous deposits (MacDougal, 1917, pp. 467- 469). The decrease in potassium has not been explained. During this period the proportion of chloride was noted to increase slightly, while that of sulfate decreased. The 1945-1953 analyses are not identical, but no changes in the relative proportions of the dissolved solids are apparent in this short interval. Compared with the 1907-1916 analyses, however, they show that significant changes have occurred. The most pronounced change has been in the ratio of chloride to sulfate which in 1907-1916 was about 3.7 to one and increasing slowly. In 1929 it was nearly five to one, but in 1945-1953 it was only 2.2 to one. Quite possibly it reached a maxi- mum at the end of 1919 when inflow of sulfate-rieh irrigation water from the Colorado River water became significant and has been decreasing subsequently. It seems likely that if this trend continues, the proportion of sulfate will become so great within a relatively few years that the water of Salton Sea will deposit sodium sulfate rather than sodium chloride upon evaporation. Regarding the other ions present in Salton Sea water, the relative proportion of sodium is about the same as it was in 1907-1916, and both calcium and carbonate seem to have become stabilized also. The relative proportions of potassium and magnesium have increased. The accompanying table illustrates the changes of salinity and level of Salton Sea. Chatiyes in salinity and level. Salton Sea. Elevation of surface Salinit.v Da te ( feet below sea level ) ( PPM ) June 3, 1007 (location not known) 10.").9 3,648 Ma.v 2."), 1908 " 19!).9 4,372 June 8, 1909 " 204.7 5,194 Ma.v 22, 1910 " 208.8 6,038 June 3, 1911 " 213.8 7.180 June 10, 1912 " 217.8 8,465.5 June 18. 1913 " 220.0 10,025.6 June 12, 1914 " 226.0 11,790 June 8, 1915 " 230.1 13,774 June 10, 191G " 234.3 16,472 March 21, 1929 (Fish Springs) 246.0 36,.500 March 21, 1929 (center of sea) 246.0 .32,200 October 1942 (mean of 4 samples) 241.7 36.713 December 12, 1945 (Salton Sea Beach ) __ 240.6 37,073 December 20, 1946 " 240.5 37,191 December 17, 1947 " 240.6 38,536 September 20, 1948 " 241.0 41.637 December 15, 1948 " 240.8 39.234 September 19, 1949 " 240.6 40,461 December 15, 1949 " 240.3 38,521 September 20, 19.50 " 240.1 39,520 December 22, 19.50 " 239.7 38,308 September 25, ^951 " 238.9 39,558 November 19, 1952 " 237.2 36,228 November 23, 1953 " 236.0 35,545 18 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Salt Lakes of Southeastern San Bernardino County age analysis of many cores cut from the saline lenses Dale Lake, Danby Lake, Cadiz Lake, and Bristol follows: Lake in southeastern San Bernardino County are four Xa.SO. 60% dry lakes that contain deposits of salt and other salines f^^\ i ^^^^ associated with concentrated chloride brine of the ter- Porosity^ "I""'! — II " — Ht restrial type. Chemically they form a series ranging from the sodium ehloride-sulfate association of Dale The saline bodies are permeated with a concentrated Lake to the uncommon sodium-calcium chloride associa- sodium ehloride-sulfate brine with which they are in tion of Bri.stol Lake. chemical equilibrium. A partial analysis follows: Danby Lake, Cadiz Lake, and Bristol Lake occupy a t^'^'i!^^ gravity 1.21-1.25 northwest-trending trough some 50 miles long that has Naa ."I'll '^2W^2w'' been formed largely by faulting. Dale Lake lies outside ' of this trough well to the southwest. Pew if any traces Salt Deposits of Danby Lake of the Pleistocene drainage pattern of southeastern San t^uti- ^ ^ i,_- ,,, ■ Bernardino County have been found, although there is ,v, I . '^ °"^- V^ salt bearing dry lakes in some evidence for the existence of a Pleistocene water l^^ southeastern portion of San Bernardino County. It way from Death Valley to the Colorado River bv wav of ^^^ between Amboy on L. S. Highway 66 and Rice on the Bristol and Danby basins (Miller, R. R., 1946) ' ^^^ Desert Center-Parker road. The Parker Branch of the Santa Fe Railway parallels the northeast shore. Mil- Dale Lake* ligan in the north and Salt Marsh in the south are rail- Dale Lake occupies an undrained basin in the south- ^°^^ stations on Danbj^ Lake A desert road follows the east portion of the T. 1 N., R. 12 E. SB., 20 miles east of '"'^"^^ °* *l'l roalroad from Cadiz to Rice, but it is not Twentyiiine Palms and about 30 miles south of Amboy. maintained between Milligan and Salt Marsh. With both these points it is connected by graded gravel Danby Lake is a playa in the lowest part of a narrow roads capable of bearing heavy truck traffic. The basin, northwest-trending trough that has no exterior drain- roughly elliptical in shape, is bounded on the northeast, ag^- The playa surface, at an elevation of about 600 feet, east, and northwest by the Sheep Hole and Bullion is 2 to 3 miles wide and roughly 14 miles long. To the Mountains and by the Pinto and Coxcomb Mountains to south and west the trough is bounded by the Iron Moun- the south and east. Westward a broad slope rises gently tains, composed of pre-Tertiary rocks, mostly granitic, toward Twentynine Palms. The playa surface is at an To the north lie the Old Woman Mountains consisting of elevation of about 1180 feet and has an area of 4 or 5 Archean micaceous schist, granitic gneiss, and carbonate square miles. rocks. Tertiary volcanics comprise the Turtle Mountains to the east. Southeastward toward Rice the trough floor Exploration and Development. Dale Lake has been rises to an alluvial divide, while Danbv Lake is separated developed primarily for its sodium sulfate, but a sig- from the Bristol Basin to the northwest bv a divide 500 nificant production of common salt has also been made. feet higher than the surface of Danbv Lake. The prin- Borings have been restricted to a 1-square-mile portion eipal drainage into Danbv Lake is from Ward Vallev, of the playa. Between 1920 and 1924 Irving E. Bush which extends northward between the Old Woman Mouii- demonstrated the presence of large deposits of sodium tains and the Turtle Mountains for some 40 miles, sulfate and .salt with bore holes up to 150 feet deep. Sub- panby Lake itself is a mud flat with minor relief, sequently holes have be^n drilled to about 2o0 feet, and Bordering it is a belt of brush-covered sand that merges the deepest is 308 feet Development was delayed because ^,5^,^ ^^^ ^^^^^ covered mountain slopes. The lake con- "^ ^H^i°°f *'■""'' ^^"' *.° the^railroad at Amboy and by ^ains two low areas, one south of Milligan, the other the difficulty of separating the salt and the sodium sul- 3^,,^^ of Salt Marsh. Infrequently thev may be flooded, fate. Both commodities were produced, however, by the 1,^^ ^he higher ground between them rarelv is. The lake Desert Chemical Company from 1939 to 1947 and sub- g^^face is dry, powdery clay covered with k saline efflor- sequently by Dale Chemical Industries, Incorporated, to ^^^^.^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^ „„,t up ^o one inch thick. At depth the end ot 1J48. jj^ nearly horizontal beds of stiff clay with a minor pro- The Saline Deposits. Borings to a maximum depth portion of sand, of 308 feet have disclosed that beneath the saline eiflores- Chemically, Danby is a chloride lake intermediate in cent surface crust a series of lenses of saline minerals character between Dale Lake, which contains abundant alternates with mud. A near surface body of thenardite sulfate in addition to chloride, and Bristol and Cadiz (Na2S04) exists on the southwest margin of the lake, Lakes, which are sulfate free. Lenticular beds of halite but its relation with the more deeply buried saline lenses occur in the stiff clays, especially in the two low areas, has not been established. The associated brines are nearly saturated solutions of The buried saline lenses consist of mixtures of halite sodium chloride with a minor proportion of sulfate, and tlieiiardite, or, less commonly, fairlv pure bodies of ^'P"" evaporation they yield nearly pure salt and sodium either mineral. While saline bodies as much as 70 feet sulfate-rich bitterns. In addition to massive bodies of thick have been encountered, typically they are thin and halite, the subsurface clays contain dis-seminated crys- discontinuous. The salines are concentrated in two prin- *»!« of halite, gypsum, and mirabilite (Na2SO4-10H2O). cipal zones, a 30 foot zone at depths of 20 to 40 feet, and Mining and Exploration. Production of salines has a zone about 100 feet thick at 120 feet deep. The aver- been sporadic. The most extensive exploration has been • See Wright, 1953. p. 220. Carried out by the Metropolitan Water District of South- Chapt. 1] Geologic Occurrence 19 FiGUKE 3. Map of Dauby Lake, San Bernardino County, showing saline properties. 20 Salt in California [Bull. 175 em California in order to insure a supply of salt for the monly in isolated concentrations well removed from water softening plant at La Verne. Preliminary work, known salt bodies. Selenite crystals have no apparent which included a number of desert salt deposits, was relation to the salt bodies. They occur both on the sur- done at Danby Lake during the winter of 1940-41. Fol- face and at depth and in places comprise 75 to 100 per- lowing the provisions of the Sodium Leasing Act, four cent of the mass. Mirabilite crystals are concentrated in prospecting permits were obtained covering lands, in the central part of the lake west of Salt Marsh, part marginal, that were open to exploration. Using a The low area south of Salt Marsh contains probably truck-mounted, dry rotary drill, 154 bore holes of 16, the largest salt body in Danby Lake. The area has been 24, and 36 inch diameter were made, most of which were explored with 84 jackhammer holes in portions of sec- 14 to 35 feet deep. Twenty-five holes were 40 to 60 feet tions 10, 11, 14, and 15, T. 1 N., R. 18 E., SB in addi- deep, and one was 127 feet deep. The logs of all but tion to test pits and small open cuts. Test borings have three, including the 127 foot hole together with brine been made only around the south and west margins, analyses from 18 scattered holes are attached. Detailed Probably salt underlies a 2 to 3 square mile area and exploration with closely spaced jackhammer holes fol- ranges in thickness from 1 foot or less at the margins lowed during 1945 to 1948 in three areas .shown by the to more than 10 feet in the center. Overburden ranges preliminary work to be most favorable for further in- from none to as much as 5 feet of brown clay. The jack- vestigation. They included an area in the northwest part hammer testing showed that the salt in a 1^ square of the lake south and southwest of Milligan, the central mile area, largely with no overburden, has an average part of the lake west of Salt Marsh, and, by arrange- thickness of 5.8 feet. Assuming a density of 135 pounds ments with the title holder, the southeast part of the per cubic foot for the salt in place, it has been calculated lake south of Salt Marsh. Pumping tests and brine evap- that the restricted area contains over ISJ million tons oration experiments, mostly in the area south of Milligan of salt. took place from approximately 1946 to 1950. An amended Analyses of three samples of salt from lease application was filed covering portions of Sections southeast end of Danby Lake. 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26, T. 2 N., R. 17 E., SB., south of #1 #2 #3 Milligan ; and the lease was granted in November, 1953. Percent Percent Percent Insoluble 7.6 4.9 6.7 The Salt Deposits. The clastic sediments of Danby CaSOi 0.1 0.1 O.l Lake include a surface layer of dirt and dry clay about 5 CaCU — Tr. 0.2 feet thick in nio.st places. Below lie sticky, impervious ulcu IIIIIIZIIZIIIIIII 0*1 01 Tr" lenticular clay layers, horizontal or nearly so, that can in Na2S04 11"I"1"I11I1"—11 — — -- general be correlated in bore holes as much as a quarter NaCl 92.2 94.9 93.0 to half a mile apart. Brown, gray, and black clays pre- — — — - — — dominate, but red and green clays occur also. Water- ^^,^^ ^^^^ loaj ^^^ bearnig sand mterfinger with the clays around the lake Moisture 0.2 0.1 0.1 margins and also form lenses in the clays well out from #i— Exact location not known. the shore. A subordinate amount of mud, most of which *"~N'!"R!"frE". s'T '" " *"" °" ""^ ""' """''" ''^^^ "^ ^^'* ^"' "' '^' ^ is black and much of which is crystal-bearing, is inter- bedded with the clays. In the southern part the sediments that lie beneath Rock salt forms nearly horizontal, tabular bodies en- the salt body have not been explored. Widely separated closed predominately but not exclusively in sticky gray holes along the west and south margins reveal that the clay. While some salt bodies contain many hundred thou- salt in most places is enclosed in sticky brown clay sand tons, they are irregular and cannot be positively underlain by gray-green or dark gray clay. Below the correlated in holes more than one or two hundred yards dark clay alternating sand and clay beds extend to 56 apart. Overburden ranges from virtually none to as much feet in the deepest bore hole in the area (Elder 9). as 15 feet. A series of superimposed salt beds such as The second low area, in the northwest part of the lake occurs in Bristol Lake has not been found by the shallow south and west of Milligan, most of which is leased to the drilling described above. Metropolitan Water District by the U. S. government, is Certain porous salt bodies are permeated with con- estimated to contain 15 to 20 million tons of recoverable centrated .sodium chloride brine. The clays yield meager salt. The salt bodies, however, are porous, discontinuous, amounts of brine, but the sands and many of the crystal contain much interbedded clay, and lie beneath 6 to concentrations yield abundant brine of a wide range in 20 feet of overburden. Salt bodies are largest and most concentration. Sands along the northeast margin of the numerous in and around sec. 23, T. 2 N., R. 17 E., S. B. lake yield dilute brine, and fresh water is obtained in In addition the section 23 area contains a sub surface two wells at Salt Marsh. While brines from the various pool of saturated brine that constitutes a substantial parts of the lake are of the same general type, they vary portion of the salt reserves. appreciably in the relative proportions of the dissolved The northwest end of the lake has been explored by solids. 41 bore holes and 56 closely spaced jackhammer holes. Disseminated saline crystals form lenticular eoncen- In the section 23 area the overburden is comparatively trations in the clays. While in most cases but one kind thick. Brown dirt or sand overlies sticky brown clay of crystal is present, some concentrations contain two which in turn rests upon sticky gray, commonly crystal kinds of crystals intimately associated. Halite crystals, bearing, clay that contains lenticular salt bodies. The comprising up to 75 percent of the mass, occur typically salt ranges in thickness from 5 feet or less to 15 feet as halos surrounding the rock salt bodies and less com- and contains a comparatively large amount of inter- Chapt. 1] Geologic Occurrence 21 bedded clay. The deepest bore hole in this part of the lake is 41 feet. Below the pray clay that encloses the salt lies sticky black clay that in some areas contains abundant selenite crystals. This clay is underlain by sticky brown clay or sand. Several salt lenses of moderate size have been found in the comparatively high central part of the lake about three miles west of Salt Marsh. They are aligned roughly along the lake's axis northwest of the much larger salt body south of Salt Marsh. Nearly 100 bore holes were made in the southern part of T. 2 N., R. 18 E. and the northwest quarter of T. 1 N., R. 18 E., S.B., and in addition the northeast quarter of section 4, T. 1 N., R. 18 E., was tested with 90 jackhammer holes. In the central area most of the salt bodies are en- closed in sticky gray clay that is overlain by sticky brown clay and a surface layer of brown dirt. Over the largest and thickest salt bodies the brown clay is thin or lacking, and the overburden is only a foot or two thick. In some places a thin layer of sticky black clay lies below the salt horizon; in others, gray clay extends in depth to a deep layer of sticky brown clay. Branch 2, the deepest hole in the area, is 60 feet deep. Sand lenses are found in the grav clav below the salt; and in por- tions of sections 29, 30, 32, and 33 T. 2 N., R. 18 E., this clay contains abundant mirabilite crystals. The salt body in the northeast quarter of section 4 is estimated to contain 800,000 to 900,000 tons of recover- able salt with an average thickness of 7.6 feet. It is very irregular, however; and in places the thickness of the salt diminishes from over 7 feet to none within a horizontal distance of 100 feet. It is of interest that the preliminary estimate of the quantity of salt in this body, based on nine widely spaced bore holes, was 1| million tons. Analyses of samples of salt from central part of Danhy Lake. Percent No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 Insoluble 16.0 23.9 25.1 19.7 16.1 18.7 CaSO. — 0.2 0.8 1.9 2.2 1.6 1.3 CaCIj — MgSO. __- Tr. Tr. Tr. 0.1 0.1 MgCl2 __ Tr. Tr. — XajSO. — Tr. 0.1 Tr. __ __ Tr. NaCl __ 83.8 75.2 73.0 77.1 82.2 79.9 Color __ Brown Brown Brown Brown Brown Brown Moisture 0.4 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.5 Smaller salt lenses occur in NWJ sec. 33, along the boundary between SEi sec. 29 and NEi sec. 32, T. 2 N., R. 18 E.', and NW i sec. 4, T. 1 N., R. 18 E., SB. Brines. Analyses of brines from selected bore holes are attached. Most of the brines are strong, 20 percent dissolved solids to saturated; but dilute brines, con- taining 5 percent dissolved solids or less occur, particu- larly along the northeast shore. Porous salt beds, sand lenses close to salt, and beds rich in halite or selenite crystals yield abundant concentrated brine; clays yield meager flows. The brines are sodium chloride brines with sodium sulfate and much smaller proportions of calcium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, calcium bicarbonate, and potassium chloride. Sodium sulfate ranges from less than 1 percent to nearly 12 percent of the dissolved solids. The control of the sodium sulfate distribution is not apparent. Brines from the porous salt beds in the northwest part of the lake, however, and those from some of the clay beds rich in selenite crystals are high in sodium sulfate. The calcium sulfate content ranges up to 3 percent of the dissolved solids and is lower in the northwest end of the lake than in the central or southeast parts. Probably the largest quantity of brine is in the pool that permeates the porous salt bodies in the section 23 area in the northwest part of the lake. Drafts totaling about two million gallons taken in a 6 month's period from a single well resulted in no permanent draw down. Analyses of brine from the pool, tec. 23 area, Danby Lake. Percent Well 51 ; 5-30-47 Well 51 ; 6-2-47 Well IC Insoluble Tr. Ca(HCO,)o Tr. CaSO. 0.12 MgSO. 0.05 NajSOi 1.98 NaCl 25.09 Tr. not givi Tr. Tr. 0.11 0.12 0.05 0.06 1.81 1.95 25.15 25.33 Total .solids 27.24 27.12 27.46 Fewer data are available concerning brines associated with salt bodies in the central and southeastern parts of the lake. Analysis of brine from a test icell south of Salt Marsh. Percent Ca(HCOs)j Tr. CaSO. 0.29 MgSO. 0.33 NasSO. 0.09 NaCl 25.77 Total solids 26.48 Sodium Sulfate. The east half of section 33 and the Avest half of section 34, T. 2 N., R. 18 E., SB., 1^ to 2 miles west of Salt Marsh, is reported to have contained deposits of sodium sulfate described as mounds that tapered downward. There has been no recent explora- tion in this area. Westward and slightly northward in NW^ section 33 and SJ section 29 lenticular concentra- tions of mirabilite crystals occur in the sticky gray clay below the salt horizon. Some cores contain gypsum or halite crystals intimately associated with mirabilite. Crystals comprise 50 percent or less of the mass except in one hole, Aultman 16, which encountered a 4-foot layer of solid mirabilite. Gypsum. No production of g.ypsum has been re- ported from Danby Lake although in the form of sele- nite crystals it is abundant, both on the surface and at depth. Gypsite is present also. South of Salt Marsh toward the edge of the salt body selenite crystals an inch or more in length are particularly thick in the surface layers. In the same area are mounds 10 to 15 yards in diameter and perhaps 5 feet high composed of small gypsum crystals 0.01 inches in length. Some bore holes, particularly at the northwest end of the lake, have encountered selenite crystals at depth. They are particularly numerous along the southwest margin in sections 17, 20, 21, and 22 where they occur in sticky black clay or maid permeated with concentrated brine. A bed 3 to 7 feet thick composed of 90 percent crystals to solid gypsum parallels the margin at a depth 22 Salt in California [Bull. 175 FiGiTRE 4. Map of northwest portion of Danby Lake, San Bernardino County. of 15 to 20 feet. Sand or, less commonly, gray clay, lies beneath the gypsum. A similar but less well developed occurrence exists along the northeast margin in sections 22 and 23. Cadiz Lake and Bristol Lake Northwest of the divide that bounds the Danby basin in that direction is the Bristol basin containing Cadiz Lake and Bristol Lake. The basin is a broad, northwest- trending trough that has been largely formed by fault- ing, and the elevation of the floor in somewhat less than 700 feet. To the south lie the Bullion and Sheep Hole Mountains which form a divide between the Bristol basin and Dale Lake. To the north and northeast are the Bristol and Marbl,e Mountains composed of granitic rocks and metamorphosed sediments. Northwestward the basin is bounded by Recent basalt flows that surround the Bagdad or Amboy crater. Both U. S. Highway 66 and the main line of the Santa Fe Railway follow the north edge of the basin and pass through the towns of Amboy, Saltus, and Cadiz. A secondary road running south from Amboy to Dale Lake crosses the northwest corner of the basin, and another that runs southeast from Cadiz to Milligan on Danby Lake follows the northwest margin. Both Cadiz Lake and Bristol Lake contain calcium chloride brine with a negligible sulfate content. The chloride concentration is unusually high, and H. S. Gale has postulated that it may have originated with the lava flows of the Bagdad crater. Cadiz Lake. Cadiz Lake, the least known of the four chloride lakes of southeastern San Bernardino County, has yielded no recorded production of salines. It occu- pies the southeast end of the Bristol basin, and the closest point on the lake is 5 miles from the Cadiz-Milli- gan road across loose sand that cannot be negotiated with two-wheeled-drive vehicles. The most extensive exploration of Cadiz Lake took place in 1917 when many desert basins were investigated for potash (Gale, 1920). Twenty-two wells were drilled, and their brines were sampled. The locations of the wells have not been recorded, but a representative analysis of the brine is included in table 1. More recently Cadiz Chapt. 1] Geologic Occurrence 23 2a 30 31 32 33 34 35 3$ 37 38 39 40 4/ r nz ^ ^ sc f .J ''^■v- ■'.'■T 50 ' G 3 m •;■;.*; NORTHWESTERN PART 1000 2000 3000 FEET HORIZONTAL SCALE 34 29 27 22 20 17 16 6' ^Hf^ Salt Gypsum cryslols in clay Sondy clay.sond end clay Damp brown dirt, sticky brown cloy Mirabilite (NaaSOjIO H2O) Reddish-brown clay Sticky green cloy CENTRAL PART Figure 5. Sections through Danby Lake, San Bernardino County. Lake has attracted attention as a source of calcium chloride. The 1917 drilling encountered about 26 feet of crystal- line salt and gypsum interbedded with sand and clay. The salines lay below 6 feet of mud covered with a salty, efflorescent crust. Brines, obtained at depths of 2 to 36 feet, were dilute and contained a high proportion of sodium chloride. The calcium chloride content was rela- tively low, and potassium chloride comprised less than 3 percent of the dissolved solids. Bristol Lake* Bristol Lake, in the northwestern part of the Bristol basin, has yielded salt since 1909 and is, in addition, the .source of the calcium chloride currently produced in California. The central part of the lake con- tains lenticular beds of rock salt and saturated sodium- calcium chloride brine substantially free from sulfate. Sulfate minerals are known only around the lake mar- gins outside of the central, salt-bearing area. Selenite crystals are particularly abundant in the clays on the east and north shores, and eelestite nodules occur along the south margin. Salt Lake is a trough-like area 1^ miles wide that lies along the south edge of the central part of the lake. It is the lowest part of the lake and may have been formed by faulting in comparatively recent • See Gale. 1951. times. Here a thin crust of salt covers mud that is per- meated with brine. The principal production of salt comes from a near- surface bed of rock salt north of Salt Lake. This bed is a nearly horizontal lens that ranges from a maximum of 6 or 7 feet in the center to a thin layer at the edges. It is believed to average 5 feet thick over an area of 5 square miles. Overlying the salt is a varying thickness of clay that approximates the thickness of the salt be- neath it. The salt itself is an open-textured mass of inter- locking halite crystals that contains mud not only in the spaces between the crystals but included within the crystals as well. Gale estimated the recoverable reserve of the topmost bed to be two to four million tons. Test borings have encountered a series of deeper salt beds alternating with clay to a depth of nearly 1,000 feet as determined in a single hole. Data from the deep test and shallower, widely spaced holes suggest that the deeper beds, like the near surface bed, are lens shaped bodies that formed by precipitation from brine in a basin whose deepest part shifted from time to time. Calcium chloride is recovered from brine that seeps into excavations sunk through the topmost salt bed. The brine varies in both strength and composition in various parts of the lake and at different depths, but typically it contains calcium chloride and sodium chloride in roughly equal amounts. Evidence from bore holes suggests that 24 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Figure C. Map of contral and southeast portions of Danby Lake, San Bernardino County. Chapt. 1] Geologic Occurrence 25 the calcium content is higher in brines from depths of less than 30 feet than in deeper brines, although brines rich in calcium were encountered in the 1,000-foot test well. Koehn Lake (Kane Lake) Koehn Lake is in T. 30 S., K. 38 E., M.D., about 20 miles northeast of Mojave. The Owenyo branch of the Southern Pacific Company passes through Gj'psite and Saltdale on the west and north shores respectively, and tlie lake can be reached from the secondary road through Oarlock that connects U. S. Highways 6 and 395. The lake, at an elevation of 1,920 feet, lies in Cantil Valley, an undrained, alluvium-filled trough between the El Paso I\Iountains to the northwest and the Rand Mountains to the southeast. The western El Paso Mountains adjacent to Koehn Lake, have a core of granitic and metamorphic rocks overlain by Tertiary volcanics and nonmarine sedi- ments, while the Rand Mountains are composed of gra- nitic and metamorphic rocks. The Cantil Valley basin is thought to have been formed by faulting in early Pleisto- cene time (Dibblee, 1952, p. 42). The central part of Koehn Lake contains clay covered with an efflorescent crust. Drilling in the vicinity of Saltdale has disclosed neither saline minerals nor sub- surface brine, but west of the lake near Cantil fresh water is obtained in wells. In most years rainfall in the basin is sufficient for a thin sheet of water to collect in the lake and dissolve the efflorescent salts. The brine thus formed yields salt and gypsum upon evaporation. Gypsum and ulexite are found around the lake mar- gins. Gypsite, the efflorescent variety of gypsum, occurs on the south margin in sections 28 and 29, T. 30 S., R. 38 E., M.D. Selenite crystals such as those that occur in Bristol Lake are not common, although they have been found in bore holes.i Cotton ball ulexite (NaCaBsOg- 8H2O) has been found on the west margin of the lake near Gypsite (Dibblee and Gay, 1952, pp. 45, 46). Saline Valley, Inyo County * Saline Valley is an undrained basin in T. 14 S., R. 38 and 39 E., MDM, about 15 miles northeast of Owens Lake. A 12-square mile circular area in the lowest part of the valley is occupied by a playa, whose surface is covered wdth mud and rough, broken blocks of dust- coated .salt. A pond of salt water called Salt Lake, fed by a fresh water spring, is to be found on the southeast side of the area of rough salt, and around it is about 1 square mile of smooth, clean salt, reerystallized by occasional floods of storm water. From 1911 to 1930, salt was recovered by scraping up the smooth salt and by solar evaporation both of natural brine and of artificial brine prepared from the smooth salt and fresh water from the spring. Some salt was produced and stockpiled in 1954. Solar evaporation was carried on from May 1, to October, when temperatures of 115° to 120° F. were reached. The smooth salt is unusually pure and contains no measurable amounts of calcium or magnesium. The fol- lowing is the analysis of a composite sample taken by Gale from six sacks of salt scraped up from various parts of the smooth-salt area : ' Information obtained from A. D. Daly. Lancaster. • See Gale, 1912b. Percent Ca 0.00 Mg 0.00 CO, 0.00 HCOa 0.00 NaCl 98.52 Na.SO. 1.02 KaSO. 0.37 In,solul)Ie 0.17 Moisture 0.12 Other parts of the playa contain a substantial propor- tion of borax, and borax was recovered from 1895 to 1907. The borax operations, which were outside of the rough-salt area, were about a mile north of the salt pond as well as on the east side of the valley. In 1953 the old evaporating ponds, which cover a large part of the smooth salt area, were in poor repair; and the plant had been burned. Erosion of the levees as well as the growth of salt crystals in timbers indicate that the area is frequently flooded to depths of as much as 2 feet. Shoreward of the ponds lies rough and dirty salt. Within the ponds about an inch of pinkish, mushy salt lies on black brine-saturated ooze that is crowded with crystals. Some work done in 1954 revealed that a 4-foot layer of thenardite (Na2S04) lies beneath the ooze. Shal- low drill holes are reported to have encountered alter- nating layers of mud and salines to a depth of 30 feet (Tucker, W. B., 1926 r 527). Brine that lies ju.st beneath the surface contains so- dium chloride with sodium sulfate. An analysis is given in table 1. This brine, which resembles that of Dale Lake, is comparatively high in sulfate ; and difficulty might be encountered in recovering pure sodium chloride from it by evaporation. Death Valley* The floor of Death Valley is occupied by a playa con- taining a salt field some 45 miles long and up to 4 miles wide. The salt is found in the central part, while playa mud occurs between the salt and the alluvial slopes that flank the mountains. As in Saline Valley, the salt that is flooded mo.st often is comparatively smooth and clean, while in the less frequently flooded parts, the crust is composed of rough, tilted blocks. In 1942 salt was mined with scrapers near Badwater. The surface salt contains about 95 percent NaCl. Most of the remainder is sodium sulfate, while gypsum, potassium chloride, and insoluble matter are present in amounts less than 1 percent. The surface salt is as much as 5 feet thick in places. Bore- holes sunk to a maximum depth of a little over 100 feet encountered beds of brine-saturated salt alternating with clay layers containing crystals of salt. Noble reports that a 600-foot well sunk in the valley floor did not pass through this series of salt and clay beds (Noble, 1941, p. 958). A well was drilled in 1913 and 1914 north of Badwater in T. 25 N., R. 2 E., S.B. to a depth of 1,000 feet (Bain, 1914). For its entire depth the well pene- trated beds of salts 1 to 20 feet thick alternating with clay. Salts comprised 40 percent of the total section. Sodium chloride was the salt encountered in the upper 250 feet, but below 250 feet sodium sulfate predomi- nated. In the lowest 150 feet of the hole the proportion of salts to clay declined. • See Gale, 1912a. 26 Salt in California I Bull. 175 Gale has recorded the logs of the holes drilled for potash, three near Badwater, and a fourth northwest of Furnace Creek Ranch. At Badwater a bed of salt 10 to 15 feet thick was found about 60 feet beneath the surface. The remainder of the salt found was in the form of numerous thin, discontinuous beds up to 5 feet thick. The northern hole encountered 12 feet of salt at a depth of 85 feet. The brines found in the various salt beds had different compositions, but they are all of the sodium chloride-snlfate tvpe. The analysis of one is included in tabic 1. Soda Lake Soda Lake or the sink of the ]\Iojave is in T. 12 and 13 N., R. 8 and 9 E., SBM., in the north-central part of Sau Bernardino County. It consists of an 80-square-mile area, covered by a saline crust or a thin sheet of satu- rated brine. At rare intervals it is more deeply flooded, and within historic times it has overflowed northward into Silver Lake in the direction of Death Valley. Under normal conditions the water of Soda Lake is a sodium cliloride-sulfate brine with a minor proportion of car- bonate and borate. A minute amount of potassium is jircsent, but calcium and mafinesium are absent. xVn analysis is included In table 1. In flood times, however, the dilute brine is able to hold salts of calcium and mannesium, for an analysis made in 1872, when the water contained less than 3 percent dissolved solids re- vealed the presence of these elements. The principal source of the salines is the Mojave River, a fresh-water stream that rises in the San Bernardino Mountains. As far down stream as Vietorville the water is a fresh wa- ter of the carbonate type in which the principal me- tallic ions are, in order of abundance, calcium, sodium, and magnesium; chloride is comparatively low. Below Vietorville the water becomes increasingly saline and dc]Kisits efflorescent salts. Surprise Valley, Modoc County (Russell, 1928) Although brines of Surprise Valley furnished a few tons of salt a year up to 1943, no analyses are available. Surprise Valley is a fault trough more than 40 miles long that lies in the extreme northeast corner of the state. To the west lies the Warner Range and to the east, in northwestern Nevada, the Hays Canyon Range, fault blocks composed of Tertiary lavas and pyroclastic rocks. Faulting began in late Pliocene or early Pleistocene time. Three playas in Surprise Valley called Upper, Miil(ll(>, and Lower Alkali Lake contain water in winter. but are usually dry in suunner. Brine was obtained from shallow wells on the east shore of Middle Alkali Lake, and salt was recovered from it by solar evaporation. Alkaline Waters A number of California lakes and playas contain com- plex alkaline water, some of which are important sources of sodium salts, potassium, and borax. These waters are rich in sulfate, carbonate, and sodium; but chloride amounts to less than half of the total acid radicals. Thej' may contain unusual concentrations of borate or potas- FlGl'BE 7B. Map of Saline Valle.v area showing location of the Saline Valle.v Salt Company aerial tramwa.v. Tramwa.v was built in l!)n-12, opened in ]!l]3, and operated until 1918. After F. C. i'aistiiipheii, liWi. ^IaIS*,-^ %''^' Fl(H KK 7A. Saline \'alli'.\ from Ilic southeast. Vhata hii Uicluinl M . Stcnnrt. Geologic Occurrence .-s«ii**» Figure 8. Death Valley, California, from Dante's View. The floor of Death Valley is occupied by a salt field some 45 miles long and as much as 4 miles wide. A few widely separated bore holes sunk to depths of as much as 1000 feet encountered salt beds 1 foot to 20 feet thick, alternating with clay. Photo by Mary H. Rice. slum, but calcium and magnesium are low or absent. Ordinarily, the alkali brines are not sources of salt, be- cause of their comparatively low salt content, and be- cause of the complexities of the processes required for the production of salts of commercial purity. Analyses of a number of complex alkaline waters are included in table 1, and descriptions of some of the alkaline lakes follow. Searles Lake * Searles Lake is the nearly desiccated remnant of a much larger lake that in Pleistocene time was part of the Owens River drainage system. For long intervals the Pleistocene Lake Searles was the sink of the Owens River and accumulated the dissolved salines from a large area of the eastern Sierra Nevada. For briefer intervals that probably can be correlated with the Pleis- • See Gale, 1913 ; Ryan, 1951, pp. 447, 448. tocene glacial stages, Lake Searles emptied into Pana- mint Valley and probably Death Valley. Today Searles Lake is a vast flat of mud and sand containing a permeable crystal body averaging 71 feet thick and having an exposed area of 13 square miles. The intenstiees, amounting to about 50 percent of the total volume, contain saturated brine in chemical equi- librium with the soluble salts. A second crystal body 35 feet thick lies beneath the upper and is separated from it by 10 to 15 feet of impervious mud. Additional salt bodies as much as 30 feet thick are buried in the mud in a 20 square mile area surrounding the exposed body. The principal salts of the upper bodv are halite, hanksite (9Na-S04-2Na2C03-KCl), glaserite (SK^SOi- Na2S04), trona (NaoC03-XaHCO,s-2HoO), and borax (Na2B4O7-10H2O), arranged in imperfect lenticular layers in which one salt predominates. The following 28 Salt in California [Bull. 175 log illustrates the tj-pical sequence (Teeple, 1929, pp. 15, 16): 0-1.". feet Halite 1.5-20 feet Halite, haiiksite, ami trona 20-2."> feet Mostly hanksite 25-40 feet Hanksite, halite, trona, and borax 40-5.5 feet Hanksite, halite, trona. borax, and glaserite 55-65 feet Mostl.v glaserite and halite 65-70 feet Trona, halite, and hanksite 70-75 feet Trona. halite, hanksite, and borax In other holes the surface layer of nearly pure halite is commonly found. Below the surface layer the same salts are encountered as in the example above but in different proportions. Neither the brines nor the crystal bodies contain cal- cium or magnesium salts, although they are present among the crystals disseminated in the impervious mud. Ovjens Lake Owens Lake is a source of sodium carbonate and borax. Salt has never been recovered from it. Mono Lake Mono Lake, because of its distance from transporta- tion and comparatively low salinity of its water, has never been an important source of salines. A few hun- dred pounds a year of high-priced medicinal salt have been prepared by evaporating the water in kettles heated by wood fires. Deep Springs Valley * Deep Springs Valley, a desert basin in T. 8 S., R. 36 E., MDM, 24 miles east of Bigpine, Inyo County, has been considered as a source of sodium and potassium salts. The valley is an alluvium-filled sunken fault block, whose floor is 13 miles long, 4^ miles wide, and from 1,000 to 3,000 feet below the mountains that inclose it. In the southeastern part is Deep Springs Lake, a shallow body of concentrated brine about a mile in diameter, that is fed by nearby springs of warm water and by occa- sional cloudbursts. Fossiliferous lake beds high on the mountains show that in relatively late Quaternary time the valley was a fresh water lake 400 to 500 feet deep, whose outlet was eastward through Soldier Pass to Eureka Valley. About 1920 the Inyo Chemical Company prospected Deep Springs Lake for potassium and sodium salts, but the results did not encourage further work. The lake water was found to contain 8.42 percent dissolved solids, while three shallow holes sunk on the northeast shore encountered brine containing about 20 percent dis- solved solids. The brine is of the sodium chloride-sulfate type with considerable carbonate and potassium. Sodium chloride, however, amounts to less than half of the dis- solved solids. Borax Lake Borax Lake, Lake County, contains water of the same type as those described above, except that the borate content is uiiusually high. Very similar was the brine of neighboring Lake Hachinhama from which borax was recovered by fractional crystallization in California's pioneer borate operation (Ayers, 1883). • See Miller, W. J., 1928 ; Tucker and Sampson. 1938. Black Lake Black Lake (Loew, 1876) is a body of earbonate-sul- fate water, near Benton, Mono County, in T. 1 S., R. 31 B., MDM. Chloride is present, but in a subordinate amount. The lake is a narrow body a mile long, up to 500 feet wide, and up to 70 feet deep, which is fed. at least in part, by nearby hot alkaline springs. No salines have been recovered from it. The dark color of the water, for which the lake is named, is caused by the presence of organic matter in solution. Saline Springs and Wells Saline springs and wells occur in California, but there has been production from only three. Salt was produced from springs near Sites, Colusa County from 1895 to 1908, from the waste water of a Solano County gas well from 1907 to 1918, and from hot, artesian wells on Mul- let Island, Imperial County. In all these cases, solar evaporation was practiced. At Sites (Goodyear, 1890; Watts, 1892) a number of salt springs occur on the margin of a small lake. They are reported to lie along an anticlinal axis, and the water rises through unaltered sandstone. Probably the connate water of these sediments is the source of the salines. No complete analysis of the brine is available, but of a total dissolved solids content of 3159 grains per gallon (about 5 percent) sodium chloride amounts to nearly half. Calcium chloride comprises most of the remainder of the dissolved solids ; a small amount of iodine is present also. The brine is associated with a small quantity of natural gas. Salt produced from the brine contained 96.84 percent sodium chloride. The Solano County gas well (Bradley, 1916) which was in sec. 24, T. 5 N., R. 1 W. MDM., was drilled by the Rochester Oil Company in 1901. The hole bottomed at 1820 feet in the Upper Cretaceous Chieo formation, but both the gas and brine came from a zone 1520 feet below the surface. No analysis of the brine is available. On Mullet Island, Imperial County, at the southeast end of Salton Sea some salt was produced in 1919 from salt springs. During 1927, 1928, and 1929 Captain Charles Davis sunk two wells 900 and 1,400 feet deep that encountered hot brine high in sodium and calcium chloride (Coleman, 1929, p. 221). An analysis is in- cluded in table 2. Salt was produced from this brine by solar evaporation in 1934; and the Mullet Island Salt works, productive from 1940 to 1942, obtained a portion of its brine requirements from the wells. In addition salt was produced from a well near Yreka, Siskiyou County, about 1884 (Williams, 1885, p. 847). The well, which was 675 feet deep, yielded brine at the rate of 10,000 gallons per hour. The first report of the State Mineralogist (Calif. Min. Bur., 1880) contains a description of a salt spring in sec. 30, T. 13 N., R. 8 E., MDM, in Placer County. The water, which on evaporation produced salt, had a salinity of 1143.6 parts per million. G. A. Waring (1915) has described a number of other springs that contain appreciable quantities of salt. Most of them are small and comparatively dilute, and it is believed that sodium chloride has not been produced Chapt. 1] Geologic Occurrence 29 from any of them. Most of them, like the springs at Sites, owe their salt content to the connate water of marine sediments ; and in a number of cases, natural gas accom- panies the water. Some analyses are given in table 2. Salt Deposits of the Avawatz Mountains In the northern foothills of the Avawatz Mountains, San Bernardino County, rock salt associated with gyp- sum and celestite occurs in folded and faulted Tertiary lake beds. The saline deposits lie at the south end of Death Valley and occupy a narrow belt that extends from the vicinity of Sheep Creek Spring northwestward through Salt Basin and beyond Denning Spring "Wash. All of the known deposits of salt, gypsum, celestite and talc are covered bj' approximately 50 claims, the ma- jority being patented, that belong to the Avawatz Salt and Gypsum Company and were located about 1911. No salt has been produced. For its entire length the salt-bearing belt lies north of the steep northern face of the Avawatz Mountains and above the large alluvial fans that slope northward to the floor of Death Valley. Some of the principal drain- ages that cut through the belt, listed in order from east to west, are Sheep Creek at the southeast end. Pipe Line Wash southeast of Salt Basin, Cave Spring Wash and Denning Spring Wash northwest of Salt Basin, and the broad unnamed fan northwest of Denning Spring. Big Gypsum Hill is a prominent gypsiferous outcrop on the northwest side of Denning Spring Wash ; and the Celes- tite Hills (West End) are a group of low, isolated hills in the fan northwest of Denning Spring. Most of the salt is confined to four localities; Salt Basin, the Jumbo claims southeast of Pipe Line Wash and two miles east of Salt Basin, the Boston-Valley claims between Cave Spring Wash and Denning Spring Wash, and the King salt claims extending northwest from Big Gypsum Hill. Portions of the saline-bearing belt are as much as 14 miles from the nearest paved road. State Highway 127, and over 70 miles to the nearest railroad loading point, Dunn Siding on the L'nion Pacific. The deposits are most easily reached by secondary roads that turn south from the south Death Vallej^ road. One, marked by a sign, leads to Sheep Creek and is passable at least as far as Sheep Creek Spring. The best route to Salt Basin is a road, rebuilt since 1948, that joins the south Death Valley road about 7 miles west of its junction with State Highway 127. Still another road follows Denning Spring Wash and continues to Barstow by way of Ava- watz Pass, Granite Pa.ss, and Camp Irwin. In 1954 the road through Camp Irwin was closed to through traffic. One branch, 1.3 miles from the south Death Valley road, trends southeastward across Cave Spring Wash to Salt Basin ; and a second southeasterly branch, 2.5 miles from the south Death Valley road, leads to the Boston- Valley area. The old road from Confidence Mill to Denning Spring passes half a mile east of the Celes- tite Hills and joins the road in Denning Spring Wash south of Cave Spring. The entire area was pro-spected by the Avawatz Salt and Gypsum Company about 1911. The work consisted of test cuts, trenches, and some underground explora- tion. In 1941 and 1942 Basic Magnesium, Incorporated conducted a thorough exploration of the Boston-Valley uiLts ( APPROXIMATE ) From u S G S Avofloll Ouodranglc Mop. 1951 FiOTRE 9. Map showing location of salt deposits in the Avawatz Mountains, San Bernardino County. claims that resulted in the only quantitative data on the reserves available in any part of the area. Geologic Setting The only detailed and comprehensive geologic descrip- tion of the Avawatz saline deposits is an unpublished report by J. 0. Lewis and H. R. Johnson ^ prepared for the Avawatz Salt and Gypsum Company in 1911. The Division of Mines has recently published the geologic map that accompanied this report (Ver Planck, 1952). Later workers have studied only portions of the deposits, and they have differing interpretations of the strati- graphic succession and structure. The development work of Basic Magnesium Incorporated is described in an unpublished report by H. C. Lee and L. F. Bayer ^ prepared in 1942. H. S. Gale in an unpublished report written in 1947 summarized and evaluated the earlier work after reviewing the area in the field with L. F. Noble. ^ A geologic map of the central third of the Ava- watz Salt and Gj-psum Company property accompanies it. The most recent published goelogic report is that by Durrell (1953, pp. 15-21), which Durrell characterized as a reconnaissance. Many areas including the Boston- Valley claims were not mapped. Although the structure is complex and the strati- graphic succession not certain, there is no disagreement concerning the major geologic features. The principal rock units occur in Jong narrow fault blocks or slivers 1 Lewis, J. O.. and Johnson. H. R., 1911, Report on the properties of the Avawatz Salt & Gypsum Company (unpublished report pre- pared tor Avawatz Salt & Gypsum Company). 'Lee, H. C, and Bayer, L. P., 1942. Avawatz salt mine project (un- published report prepared tor Basic Magnesium, Incorporated). ' Gale, H. S.. 1947, Avawatz salt, gypsum, celestite, and talc deposits, San Bernardino County, California (unpublished). 30 Salt in California [Bull. 175 bounded bv steeply dipping faults that strike roughly N. 50° W." These faults are part of the Death Valley fault zone, a major structural feature that fan be traced northwestward througrh south Death Valley and prob- ably continues beneath the salt deposits on the valley floor (Noble, L. P., and Wright, L. A., 1954). The Death Valley fault zone resembles the San Andreas fault zone in many respects. While the absolute movement is not known, the horizontal component is probably greater than the vertical. Less than a mile east of Sheep Creek the Death Valley fault zone merges with or is cut off by the east trending Garlock fault which separates the main Avawatz range from the foothills. Five principal fault-bounded slivers occur in the saline-bearing belt. From north to south the first, third, and fifth slivers are composed of breccias of pre-Tertiary rocks, while the second and fourth are made up of in- tensely folded saline-bearing Tertiary lake beds. The breccia slivers form ridges, the northermost of which borders the fans that slope down into Death Valley. The breccia consists mostly of granitic rocks but it contains other rock types also. West of Sheep Creek a large part of the first sliver is composed of pre-Cam- brian sedimentary rocks and diaba.se. The slightly con- solidated and in part soluble lake beds are more deeply eroded into depressions such as Salt Basin. The two lake bed slivers diverge slightly from the vicinity of Sheep Creek Spring. Northwestward, the northernmost can be traced through some low hills near the junction of the south Death Valley road and the road to Leach Lake, but the southerraost is covered with alluvium beyond the Celestite Hills. The major washes cut transversely across tlie slivers, and large areas of the breccia and lake beds are covered by younger, little folded gravels. Stratigraphy Pre-Tertiary rocks do not crop out south of the Gar- lock fault. The oldest rocks north of the Garlock fault in this area are the breccias which resemble somewhat the Jubilee phase of the Amargosa chaos. At the type locality (Noble, 1941) the chaos is characterized by a jumble of heterogeneous blocks of widely varying size, fault bounded and tightly packed. Although individual blocks are thoroughly shattered, their internal struc- tures are but little disturbed. In the Avawatz area the breccias are composed predominantly of granitic rocks. West of the mouth of Sheep Creek, however, is a block 1,000 feet wide and several thousand feet long of the Algonkian Crystal Springs formation. This block, which contains a tale deposit of the southern Death Valley- Kingston Range type, is faulted off east of Sheep Creek and disappears beneath alluvium to the northwest (Wright, L. A., 1953, p. 207). Tertiary Lake Beds The lake beds consist of a salt-bearing unit, a gypsum- bearing unit, and saline-free units that enclose the salt and gypsum beds. The correct interpretation of local structures and the estimates of saline reserves hinge in large measure upon the proper reconstruction of the Tertiary section. The lake beds are so highly deformed, however, that the relative ages of the subordinate units have not been positively determined. Lewis and Johnson believed that the deposition of salt followed that of gypsum in the usual and normal order. Durrell, however, has determined from the attitudes of cross bedding and graded bedding in Salt Basin and in the Jumbo area that the gypsum-bearing beds overlie the salt-bearing beds. The age of the lake beds is not positively known. They resemble the playa sediments of the Furnace Creek formation exposed in the northern part of the Black Mountains and are probably early to middle Pliocene in age (Noble, L. F., and Wright, L. A., 1954). The Basal Tertiary Beds. The lowest Tertiary unit recognized by Durrell varies in character from place to place. In Salt Basin it consists of 30 feet of sedimentary quartzite breccia exposed on the north side of the basin. In the Jumbo area a greater thickness of breccia com- posed of sandstone and shale is probablj' the equivalent. At Big Gypsum Hill the basal unit is a well bedded conglomerate composed of blocks of granitic rock in a sandy matrix. The Salt-Bearing Beds. The salt-bearing beds con- sist of rock salt enclosed in dark reddish-brown shale, clay, and fine sandstone forming a unit 100 to 600 feet thick. In Salt Basin and the Jumbo area the base, as interpreted by Durrell, is a breccia of quartzite and sandstone with a matrix of salty clay. The rock salt is concealed by a cover of residual clay left by solution of the salt except where it is exposed in artificial openings and in the cut banks of washes. The undercutting of banks along washes is a clue to the presence of salt beneath a shallow cover. The salt itself is a massive, coarsely crystalline material much of which is 90 per- cent or more pure. Near the surface the salt is rendered chocolate brown in color by the presence of included clay, but drilling has revealed the existence of colorless salt at depth. Drilling has also disclosed that the salt contains a minor proportion of interbedded clay and gypsum. The Gypsum-Bea)-ing Beds. The gypsum-bearing beds consist of 600 to 800 feet of predominantly light tan colored sedimentary rocks in gradational contact with the salt-bearing unit. Gypsum occurs as relatively thin beds of rock gypsum that alternate with greenish, gypsiferous clay. Although gypsum beds are found throughout the gypsum-bearing unit, they are most abundant in the lower part and form a small fraction up to two thirds of the lower 50 feet. The upper part of the gypsum-bearing unit is predominantly shale and sandstone with but a minor amount of gypsum. In general the southern sliver of lake sediments is poor in salines east of Cave Spring Wash. The gypsum- bearing and salt-bearing units are less different there than in other parts of the area, and both contain con- glomerate. The Upper Lake Beds. The gypsum-bearing beds grade upward into a unit nearly 1,000 feet thick com- posed of j-ellow and brown sandstone, shale, and con- glomerate. Gypsum is present in a minor degree. Celestite. Celestite in the form of nodules and len- ticular beds occurs in all of the lake bed units, but it is most abundant in the gypsum-bearing unit. In some Chapt. 1] Geologic Occurrence 31 cases a number of closely spaced beds form a celestite- rich body as much as 6 feet thick and several hundred feet long. Funaral Fanglomerate Overlying the lake beds with marked angular uncon- formity are beds of boulder conglomerate that are hori- zontal or broadly folded. Noble, (Durrell, 1953, p. 17) has correlated them with the Funeral fanglomerate of Pliocene or early Pleistocene age. Still younger are the terrace deposits, remnants of alluvial fans that have been dissected by the present streams. Structure The principal structural feature exposed in the area is the northwest-trending Death Valley fault zone that separates the slivers of breeciated pre-Tertiary rocks from the lake bed slivers. Lewis and Johnson * recog- nized, in addition, later faulting of several ages includ- ing post-Funeral fanglomerate faulting. The Garlock fault lies south of the lake beds except at Sheep Creek. Folding occurred before and after deposition of the Funeral fanglomerate. The first folding was the more intense, and the second folding is expressed in the broad, unbroken arching of the Funeral fanglomerate. Occurrences of Salt Significant deposits of salt occur in the Boston-Valley claims. Salt Basin, and Jumbo claims. Lewis and John- son reported the presence of salt in the King claims also. Only for the Boston-Valley claims are reliable estimates of tonnages available. Boston-Valley Claims. The Boston- Valley claims comprise 240 acres in the southern sliver of lake sedi- ments between Denning Spring Wash and Cave Spring Wash. The lake beds are partly covered by older gravels but are exposed in the narrow washes that drain into Denning Spring Wash. In 1941 and 1942 Basic Magne- sium Incorporated explored these claims with 27 vertical diamond drill holes several of which were more than 300 feet deep. A limited amount of shaft and tunnel work was done also. The logs of the holes as well as the large scale geologic map of the Boston-Valley claims prepared by J. Clordon Cole in cooperation with Basic Magnesium Incorporated are included with this report. Here the outcrop of the salt-bearing beds broadens from an average width of 200 feet to more than 1,500 feet, the widest exposure in the Avawatz Mountains. Rock salt is exposed on the walls of the tributary wash that passes through the area as well as in a short adit, but beyond the limits of the wash it is concealed beneath a cover of residual clay. The rock salt in these limited exposures is so massive that the structure is not readily apparent. On the south the salt-bearing beds grade into gypsiferous lake beds, and on the north they are in fault contact with the same or similar gypsiferous beds. It is to be noted that minor amounts of gypsum occur in most of the lake-bed units, and it has not been deter- mined to which unit the gypsiferous beds in the Boston- Valley area belong. From the broadening of the outcrop width of the salt- bearing beds and from faint traces of bedding in the • Lewis, J. O.. and Johnson, H. R., op. cit. salt, Gale inferred that the beds are broadly arched into an anticline with nearly horizontal attitudes in the cen- tral part of the area. Some nearly vertical fractures as well as steeply dipping inclusions of clay in the salt he attributed to pressure effects. The drilling disclosed that solid salt covered by an average of perhaps 30 feet of overburden extends to depths of at least 275 to 300 feet below the wash level. The holes, all of which were vertical, ranged from 116 feet to 313 feet in depth. All but seven exceeded 200 feet, and three were deeper than 275 feet. Only two holes passed through the salt into silt and clay, but the purity of the salt encountered in some holes was as little as 70 percent. A few holes encountered clay layers interbedded with the salt. Analyses of the cores showed that the principal impurity in the salt is insoluble mat- ter. L^p to four percent calcium sulfate is present, but sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate are absent or present in amounts of only a few hundredths of a per- cent. It was calculated that an area of less than two acres contains 1,300,000 tons of salt over 92 percent pure within 170 feet of the wash level. An estimated 370,000 cubic yards of overburden would have to be removed. y^y Si "To- JU FiGVBE 10. Geologic map of a portion of the Boston-Valley claims. Map by J. Gordon Cole, 1941. 32 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Salt Basin. Salt Basin, which lies in the northern sliver of lake sediments between Cave Spring Wash and Pipe Line Wash, is a valley trough formed by the solu- tion of salt. The reddish-brown, salt-bearing beds crop out beneath the basin itself and on the north margin, while to the south the gypsum-bearing beds and the upper lake beds are exposed. The outcrop width of the salt-bearing beds is 300 to 600 feet. Rock salt does not naturally crop out, but it is exposed within five feet of the surface by shallow excavations. The undercutting of banks by stream channels, particularly along the road into Salt Basin from the west, suggests that rock salt beneath but a thin cover exists below much of the basin floor. Some shafts sunk in the floor are reported to have penetrated 40 to 70 feet of rock salt. The structure of Salt Basin is synclinal (Durrell, 1953). The basal breccia and salt beds dip nearly ver- tically on the north side of the basin, but southward the dips flatten. The upper lake beds close to the fault that limits the sliver on the south are overturned. The gypsum-bearing beds, which lie south of the salt-bearing beds, are severely crumpled ; and it seems likely that similar minor structures may exist in the salt. The Jumbo Claims. In the Jumbo claims, the south- east extension of the northern lake bed sliver beyond Pipe Line Wash, the structure is also synclinal. The basal breccia, according to Durrell, is thicker here than in Salt Basin ; and the salt-bearing beds are correspond- ingly thinner. The basal breccia north of the salt-bear- ing beds has been arched into an anticline. South of FOOT LEVEL SALT PERCENTAGES ARE GIVEN AT SIDE OF DRIFT FIOITRE 11. Underground workings of the Boston-Valle.v claims in Saline Gulch, San Bernardino County. Map by M. C. Brooks, courtesy Avawatz Salt and Oypsuni Company. the salt-bearing beds the fault that separates the lake bed sliver from the sliver of breccia is close to the synclinal axis; and the upper lake beds are cut out. The King Claims. The salt-bearing beds extend northwest of Denning Spring Wash and Big Gypsum Hill through the King claims, but there is no record of the thickness of salt. Still farther northwest, however, the salt-bearing beds contain a layer of rock salt at least 10 feet thick (Noble, L. F., and others, 1922, p. 33). ORIGIN Origin of Brines Tt is not clear whether the ocean was originally fresh and the salts dissolved in it were leached from the land, or whether the ocean has been salt since its formation (Mason, 1952). The abundance of chloride in the sea supports the concept of an originally salt ocean. Clarke (1924, pp. 119-121) has calculated the weighted average mineral content of the rivers of the world and found that the river water being added to the sea is fundamen- tally different chemically from sea water. This average river water contains mainly carbonates and sulfates of calcium, and the comparativel.y small amount of sodium is more than enough to combine with all the chlorine in it. Sea water, on the other hand, contains predominantly chlorides ; and there is more than enough chlorine to combine with all the sodium. Some elements are with- drawn by precipitation, biological activity, or other means; but the excess of chlorine has not been fully ex- plained. Without doubt, a part, and perhaps a large part, of the sodium chloride of terrestrial waters originated in the sea. Most important is the connate water of marine sediments. The presence of chloride waters in oil fields is well known, and they occur in many deep mines also. This connate water is leached out by ground water or freed when the rocks are exposed to erosion. Another source is the atmosphere. It has been sug- gested that salt dust picked up from playas by the wind is the principal source of the salt of some terrestrial waters (Kindle, 1918). Rain water, especially near the sea, has an appreciable salt content. Estimated quan- tities of salt contributed to the land by rain, which is a function of both climate and proximity to the sea, range from 24 pounds per acre per year in England to 195 pounds per acre per year in British Guiana (Clarke, 1924, p. 56). The weathering of silicates is probably not an impor- tant source of sodium chloride. Much evidence indicates that although the soluble products of weathering include sodium, the acid radicals are carbonate and sulfate. The average igneous rock contains little chlorine. Volcanism, however, does produce chlorides and may be important locally. Ground-water is a very dilute solution of minerals acquired in some or all of these ways, and its chemical character is a reflection of the predominate rock types of the area. Cloride waters containing more or less sulfate occur in regions of sedimentary rocks. In arid regions sulfate may equal or exceed the amount of chloride. Where there has been recent volcanism, the waters con- tain alkali carbonates and sulfates, and the chloride content is comparatively low. Where granitic rocks Chapt. 1] Geologic Occurrence 33 abound, the ground water is likely to be a very dilute solution of c-aleium carbonate and silica with little salt. As waters from many sources and of different char- acter join to form rivers, the character of the water changes. In California, climate appears to be a major factor influencing the characters of river water. In semi- arid regions the mineral content of streams originates almost entirely from connate water, tlie products of weathering, and the other sources described above. In humid regions that have abundant vegetation these sources are supplemented and in some cases over- shadowed by another, the decay of organic matter, which ultimately contributes carbonates to the rivers. In a study of 37 California rivers made bj' Van Winkle and Eaton (1910), it appears that the rivers draining humid areas contain predominantly carbonate, while in drier regions, sulfate predominates. Calcium is the principal metallic ion in both classes of river, and in both the pro- portions of sodium and chlorine are about the same. As a river flows to the sea, the character of the water continues to change. Particularly where the river reaches the sea, chemical reactions may take place, and substances may be precipitated or absorbed by sediments. The sodium chloride, however, remains in solution and accumulates in the ocean. Salt Springs Certain mineral springs contain high-chloride waters, but in most cases, their contributions are not large enough to materially change the character of the streams into which they flow. Most mineral springs are fed by ground water that has dissolved unusual amounts of salts ; and, like ground- water, their character reflects the rocks through which their waters flow. Chemically, the waters of mineral springs differ from ground water chiefly in concentration. The temperature appears to be independent of the mineral content. An important class of salt spring owes its salt content to the connate water of marine sediments. In a number of California springs of this type such as those at Sites. Colusa County, natural gas accompanies the water. Sid- fate may be present, but bromine and calcium chloride are not common. Another class of spring, important out- side of California, is caused by ground waters dissolving buried deposits of rock salt. These springs are likely to contain bromine and calcium chloride. A third class, which occurs in regions of recent volcanic activity, is usuallj- high in silica. Boron, sodium carbonate, and carbon dioxide may be present ; but bromine is unusual. The origin of the sodium chloride is not easily explained, and a magmatie source has been suggested. Isolated Basins Isolated basins are likely to contain waters of unusual composition. The fresh waters flowing into them in most cases are not unique ; but because isolated basins are comparatively small, little opportunity is afforded for the mingling of different kinds of water. "Waters of one type may thus be isolated and concentrated to form a brine different from sea water or the brines of other basins. Each basin must be considered as an individual case, although generalizations can be made. Chloride and sulfate brines are found in basins where the rocks are marine sediments, while alkaline, or volcanic type brines are characteristic of basins where the rocks are volcanic. Origin of Saline Residues The Precipitation of Sea Salts Except for the salt found in some volcanic sublimates, almost all salt deposits are believed to have formed by the evaporation of salt-bearing brines. When a brine is evaporated, the salts are, in general, precipitated in in- verse order of their solubilities. Usiglio in 1849 evaporated water from the Mediter- ranean Sea in order to determine the order of precipita- tion of sea salts (Grabau, 1920, pp. 51-61). The salinity was 3.766 percent, somewhat higher than that of average sea water; and it had, according to Usiglio, the follow- ing composition : Percent by weight FeaO, 0.0003 CaCO, 0.0114 CaSO. 0.1357 MgSO. 0.2477 MgCU 0.3219 KCI 0.0505 XaBr 0.0556 XaCl 2.9424 Water 96.2345 100.0000 This analysis is not exactlj- the same as those made more recently; but in general, it is reasonably accurate. The following chart is a graphical interpretation of the results of Usiglio 's experiments. The weights of the salts precipitated expressed as weight percents of the total dissolved solids are plotted against the percent of the volume of the original sample remaining. It may be seen that, except for the removal of calcium carbonate and iron oxide, nothing happens until more than 80 percent of the water has evaporated and only 19 percent remains. G.ypsum then begins to precipitate, rapidly at first, and then at a decreasing rate. At about 10 percent of the original volume, salt begins to precipitate in quantity. It is to be noted that although precipitation of gypsum continues throughout the range of maximum salt precipitation and is not complete until the volume has been reduced to three percent of the original. 90 percent of the gypsum is removed before precipitation of salt begins. Most of the .salt precipitates in the 10 to 4 percent range. The very soluble chlorides, sulfates, and bromides of sodium, potassium, and magnesium, or bit- tern salts precipitate in the same range as the salt. At the concentration of maximum salt precipitation, liow- ever, only traces of bittern salts come down; and they do not precipitate in quantity until most of the salt has been removed from solution. In Usiglio 's experiment the bittern or the residual 1.62 percent of the original solution had a dissolved solids content of 39.62 percent, and the composition was as follows : Grams per 100 grams of solution CI 19.52 lir 1.20 SO. 6.93 Xa 5.12 K 1.30 Mg 5.55 39.62 34 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Continued evaporation of the bittern produces vary- ing results. Depending on the temperature and the composition of precipitated salts remaining in the bit- tern, different hydrated salts and complex salts may form. The last traces of sodium chloride are not pre- cipitated until nearly complete desiccation. Some natural chloride brines that contain high pro- portions of magnesium and bromine resemble bitterns artificially produced from sea water. They are called natural bitterns and are believed to have formed bj' the natural evaporation of sea water. No important natural bitterns are known in California. The Evaporation of Terrestrial Waters The precipitation of salts from terrestrial waters, while analogous, differs in detail from the precipitation of sea salts. Every brine must be considered as an indi- vidual case, although some generalizations can be made. First to be precipitated are the slightly soluble carbon- ates of calcium and magnesium, followed by gypsum. Many chloride waters yield salt and then sodium sulfate ; but if the proportion of sulfate is high, sodium sulfate may precipitate before salt. Because the solubility of sodium sulfate depends to a marked degree on tempera- ture, some chloride-sulfate brines precipitate sodium sulfate before salt in cold weather and salt before sodium sulfate in hot weather. A few chloride brines such as those of Bristol and Cadiz Lakes that are unusually low in sulfate and carbonate, precipitate salt from a calcium chloride mother liquor. From volcanic type brines, which contain abundant carbonate, trona (Xa2C03"NaHC0.3- 2H2O) is in many cases the first of the more soluble salts to precipitate, and trona is followed by salt or sodium sulfate. The study of systems of several salts is laborious, and but a comparatively few have been com- pletely investigated. The Formation of Salt Deposits From the above considerations, it would be expected that an evaporating body of saline water would deposit layers of saline minerals with the least soluble at the base and the most soluble at the top. The final deposit should be a mixture of complex and highly soluble salts. In nature the complete series of saline minerals is rare, although it occurs at Stassfurt, Germany, and near Carlsbad, New Mexico. More commonly salt and gypsum occur together, but the minerals more soluble than salt are not present. Other deposits, including those in Bristol Lake, Danby Lake, and Death Valley, California, consist of salt only. Probably the origin of most saline deposits is complex because the simple desiccation of a body of saline water is likely to result in a deposit of mixed salts. The tide pool deposits found on the San Francisco Bay marshes consisted of sodium chloride heavily contaminated with the calcium and magnesium salts also present in sea water. Deposits in Desert Basins Although the undrained basins of the California deserts are ideal localities for the concentration of sa- line water, only a few contain crystal bodies. Most playas contain salines only in the form of thin, efflorescent crusts or of crystals disseminated in the mud. Foshag (1926) has pointed out that saline matter reaches the typical playa by underground circulation, and much of it is brought to the surface by capillary action where it forms efflorescent deposits. In addition, the high temper- ature and concentration of brine close to the surface cause a portion of the brine to diffuse downward to cooler layers where euhedral crystals form. Crystal bodies seem to have formed only in basins that contained saline lakes and that received the clarified drainage from a large area for a long time. Salton Sea \ SC A lE foiol solts precipitoted - percent by weight FiGUBE 12. Chapt. 1] Geologic Occurrence 35 is a saline lake in which fresh water eontainingj but a few hundred parts per million of dissolved solids is be- ing concentrated by evaporation. As described elsewhere in this report, evaporation from the surface of Salton Sea, amounting to 5 or 6 feet per year, is roughly balanced by inflows of fresh water from the irrigation systems of the Imperial and Coachella Valleys. Dis- solved solids brought in with the irrigation water have accumulated in Salton Sea, and the salinity of its water more than doubled between 1916 and 1953. If existing conditions remain unchanged, the salinity will increase until the water is saturated with one or more salts. Pleistocene Lake Deposits. In Pleistocene time some of the rivers that rise in the Sierras flowed far out into the desert, and many of the desert basins contained lakes. From old shore lines and channels cut in bedrock the stream pattern during the later glacial stages can be reconstructed, but erosion has largely obliterated the evidence left by lakes and streams in the earlier glacial stages. The best known of the Pleistocene saline lake deposits are those of Searles Lake and Owens Lake. Gale (1913) and Blackwelder (1954) have described the Pleistocene Owens Valley drainage which flowed through Owens Lake, Haiwee Meadows, China Lake, and Indian Wells Valley to Searles Lake. At times Searles Lake had an outlet through Panamint Valley to Death Valley. Al- most all the salines existing in Owens Lake and Searles Lakes were derived from Owens River. Any lake in this chain that had an outlet must have contained fresh water. In 1912, when Owens Lake con- tained a saline body of water, Gale (1913) reasoned that the salts in it must have accumulated since the surface dropped below the level of the outlet. Prom the tonnage of salts in the lake and the annual contribution from the river, he calculated that the outlet ceased to flow about 4000 years ago. Following the completion of the Los Angeles aqueduct and the diversion of Owens River in 1913, Owens Lake has nearly evaporated. Today it contains a porous crystal body of mixed salts in equilib- rium with saturated brine. During two arid intervals Searles Lake was the sink of Owens River and received the entire flow, clarified in the basins upstream. The lower crystal body formed in the first interval and the upper crystal body in the sec- ond. Between the intervals of salt deposition the river flow was augmented, and Searles Lake contained fresh water or unsaturated brine. A layer of mud that was deposited protected the lower crystal body from solu- tion. The age of this mud layer has been calculated by the carbon 14 method to be a little more than 16,000 years, and the upper crystal body is believed to have been deposited following the close of the Tioga glacial stage (Mumford, 1954). The lower crystal body may have formed following the Tahoe stage (Blackwelder, 1954). At various times during the Pleistocene epoch Death Valley received the waters of the Owens, Mojave, and Amargosa Rivers, and it probably contained saline lakes during all the glacial stages (Blackwelder, 1954). No physiographic evidence for an outlet has been found, although the present distribution of fish suggests a Pleistocene connection between Death Vallev and the Colorado River, possibly by way of the Bristol Basin and Danby Lake (Miller, 1946). The salt on the surface of the Death Valley floor was deposited from a compara- tively small lake that occupied the valley in Tioga time; some of the buried salt beds may have been deposited from the larger Lake Manly of Tahoe age (Blackwelder, 1954). In contrast with the complex saline deposits of Owens Lake and Searles Lake, the salines of the other Pleisto- cene lakes of California are comparatively simple. The crystal bodies of Death Valley, Bristol Lake, and Danby Lake consist of salt only; that of Dale Lake consists of salt and thenardite ; and that of Cadiz Lake consists of salt and gypsum. One explanation is that because of particular local circumstances the lake brines contained little but the salts now present in the crystal bodies and mother liquors. A second explanation is that the con- centration of the brine was maintained by some means in the precipitating ranges of gypsum, salt, and thenar- dite; and the brine never became saturated with the more soluble salts. Pre- Pleistocene Deposits Several deposits of saline minerals in California occur in Tertiary lake deposits not greatly different from the Pleistocene lake deposits. They have been more or less folded and faulted, and the mother liquor from which the salines crystallized has been drained away. Al- though many of the gypsum and borate deposits of California formed in Tertiary lakes, the Avawatz Moun- tains salt deposits are the only known Tertiary salt deposit in the state. The structure of the Avawatz Mountains deposits is so complex that the geologic his- tory is obscure, but probably one or more saline lakes formed on a relatively flat surface. The precipitation of salines seems to have occurred at two distinct times separated by an interval when only clastic sediments were laid down. In the first, salt-precipitating condi- tions prevailed ; and in the second, gypsum was formed. For the great interbedded salt deposits of the world, a playa origin seems unlikely because of their size. They are commonly considered to have formed from the evap- oration of large volumes of sea water in basins cut oflf from the open sea by tectonic movements, although a continental origin (Rutten, 1954) has been proposed for the Zechstein of Germany. The bar theory of Ochsenius (Grabau, 1920, pp. 128-130) supposes a basin having a constricted connection with the open sea in a region of high evaporation. The loss of water from the basin by evaporation would establish an inflow of sea water, and the salts thus brought into the basin would accumulate in it. Under stable conditions enough sea water might enter and evaporate to form a thick de- posit of salts. Recently it has been shown (King, 1947; Scruton, 1953) that in an estuary with a restricted inlet where evaporation exceeds the inflow of fresh water, equilibrium is established between evaporation, supplies of fresh and sea water, and the return flow of concen- trated brine to the open ocean. Under conditions of high evaporation the return flow is hindered by dynamic restrictions such as friction between currents as well as physical barriers such as a bar. A strong salinity gra- dient is set up with the salinity increasing away from 36 Salt in California [Bull. 175 the inlet. In one area only the salinity is within the precipitating range of a given salt, and that salt forms there as long as the equilibrium is undisturbed. Salts of less solubility form closer to the inlet, and salts of higher solubility form farther from the inlet. BIBLIOGRAPHY A.vers, W. O., 1883, Borax in America, in Hanlts, H. G., Report on the borax deposits of California and Nevada: Calif. Min. Bur. Kept. 3, part 2. pp. 23, 24 (Borax Lake, Lake County). Bailey, G. E., 1902. The saline deposits of California : Calif. Min. Bur. Bull. 24 (salt, pp. 105-138). Bain, H. F., 1914, Potassium salts: Min. Industry, vol. 22, p. 617 (a deep test in Death Valley). Blackwelder, Elliot, 1933, Lake Manly : an extinct lake of Death Valley : Geog. Rev., vol. 23, pp. 464-471. Blackwelder, Elliot, 1954, Pleistocene lakes and drainage in the Mojave region, southern California : Calif. Div. Mines Bull. 170, Chap. 5, pp. 37-41. Bradley, W. W., 1916, Solano County : Calif. Min. Bur. Rcpt. 14, pp. 310, 312 (salt from gas well brine). Calif. Min. Bur., 1880, Salt: Calif. Min. Bur. Rept. 1, pp. 30, 31 (two salt springs in Placer County). Clarke, F. W., 1903, Mineral analyses from the laboratories of the United States Geological Survey : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 220, p. 17 (salt from Salton Basin). Clarke, F. W., 1924. The data of geochemistry : U. S. Geol. Sur- vey Bull. 770, pp. 63-260 (classification and origin of sea water, terrestrial brines, and saline residues). Coleman, G. A., 1929, A biological survey of Salton Sea : Cali- fornia Fish and Game, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 218-227. Davis, W. M., 1948, The lakes of California : Calif. Jour. Mines and Geology, vol. 44, pp. 211, 212 (georaorphology of Surprise Valley, Modoc County). Dibblee, T. W., Jr., 19.'J2, Geology of the Saltdale quadrangle, California : Calif. Div. Mines Bull. 160, pp. 7-43 ( includes Koehn Lake). Dibblee, T. W., Jr., and Gay, T. E., Jr., 1952, Mineral deposits of Saltdale quadrangle : Calif. Div. Mines Bull. 160, pp. 45-64. Dickinson, AV. E., 1944, Summary of records of surface waters at base stations in Colorado River basin, 1891-1938: U. S. Geol. Survey Water Supply Paper 918, pp. 271, 272 (levels of Salton Sea). Durrell, Cordell, 1953, Celestite deposits near the southern end of Death Valley, San Bernardino County, California : Calif. Div. Mines Special Hept. 32, pp. 1.5-21 (covers stratigraphy and struc- ture of a portion of the Avawatz Mountains salt deposits). P^'oshag, W. F., 1926, Saline lakes of the Mojave Desert region : Econ. Geology, vol. 21, pp. 56-64 (classification of playas). Free, E. E., 1914, Sketch of the geology and soils of the Cahuilla Basin, in MacDougal, D. T., and others, The Salton Sea : Car- negie Inst. Wash. pub. 193, pp. 21-33. Gale, H. S., 1914a, Prospecting for potash in Death Valley, California: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 540, pp. 407-415 (analyses of surface salt, well logs, and brine analyses). Gale, H. S., 1914b, Salt, borax, and potash in Saline Valley, California : U. S. Geol. Sur\ey Bull. 540, pp. 416-421. Gale, H. S., 1915, Salines in the Owens, Searles, and Panamint basins, southeastern California : U. S. (ieol. Survey Bull. 580, pp. 251-323. Gale, H. S., 1951, Geology of the saline deposits, Bristol Dry Lake, San Bernardino County, California : Calif. Div. Mines Spe- cial Rept. 13, 21 pp. Gale, H. S., and Hicks, W. B., 1920, Potash : Min. Res. of the II. S., 1917, vol. 2, pp. 418, 419 (test borings in Cadiz Lake). Goodyear, W. A., 1890, Colusa County : Calif. Min. Bur. Rept. 10, p. 164 (salt springs at Sites). Grabau, A. W., 1920, Principles of salt deposition, 435 pp.. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co. (classification and origin of the natural salts). Kindle, E. M., 1918, Separation of salt from saline water and mud : Geol. Soc. America Bull. vol. 29, pp. 471-488. King, C. R., 1948, Soda ash and salt cake in California : Calif. Jour. Mines and Geology, vol. 44, pp. 189-200 (contains a table of lirine analyses) . King, U. H., 1947, Sedimentation in the Permian Castile Sea : Am. As.soc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. vol. 31, pp. 470-477 (the reHux modification of the bar theory of evaporite deposition). Landes, K. K., 1951, The origin of thick-bedded salt deposits: Econ. Geol. vol. 46, pp. 798, 799 (abstract). Loew, Oscar, 1876, Report on the geological and mineralogical character of southeastern California and adjacent regions, in Wheeler, G. M., Annual report — surveys west of the 100th merid- ian, p. 191 (Black Lake, Mono County). MacDougal, D. T., 1917, A decade of the Salton Sea: Geog. Rev., vol. 3, pp. 457-473. MacDougal, D. T., and others, 1914, The Salton Sea : Carnegie Inst. AVash. Pub. 193, 182 pp. Mas(m, Brian. 1952, Principles of geochemistry, pp. 164-178, New York, John Wiley & Sons (the ocean and its salt). Mellor. J. W., 1946, Inorganic and theoretical chemistry, vol. 2, pp. 521-555, New York, Longmans, Green & Co. (properties of the alkali chlorides). Miller, R. R., 1946, Correlation between fish distribution and Pleistocene hydrography in eastern California and southwestern Nevada : Jour. Geology, vol. 54, pp. 43-53. Miller, W. J., 1928, Geology of Deep Springs Valley, California : Jour. Geology, vol. 36, pp. 510-525. Mumfurd, R. W., 1954, Deposits of saline minerals in southern California : Calif. Div. Mines Bull. 170, chap. 8, pp. 15-22. Noble, L. F., 1931, Nitrate deposits in southeastern California, with notes on deposits in southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 820, pp. 57-62 (salt in Danby Lake). Noble, L. F., 1941, Structural features of the Virgin Spring area. Death Valley, California : Geol. Soc. America Bull. vol. 52, pp. 941-999. Noble, L. F., and others, 1922, Nitrate deposits in the Amar- gosa region, southea.stern California : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 724, pp. 32-35 (salt in the Saratoga Hills). Noble, L. F., and Wright, L. A., 19.54, Geology of the central and southern Death Valley region, California : Calif. Div. Mines Bull. 170, chap. 2, pp. 145-162. I'halen, W. C, 1919, Salt resources of the United States : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. GG9 (California, pp. 159-192). Preston, E. B., 1890, Los Angeles County : Calif. Min. Bur- Rept. 10, p. 281 (Lake Salinas near Redondo Beach). Preston, E. B., 1893, Salton Lake: Calif. Min. Bur. Rept. 11, pp. 387-393 ( the pre-flood playa in Salton Basin ) . Ross, W. H., 1914, Chemical composition of Salton Sea and its annual variation in concentration, 1906-1911. in MacDougal, D. T., and others. The Salton Sea : Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 193, pp. 35-48. Russell, R. J., 1928, Basin range structure and stratigraphy of the Warner Range, Northeasten California: Univ. California Dept. Geol. Sci. Bull., vol. 17, pp. 387-496. Rutten, M. G., 1954, Continental origin of fossil salt layers: Geologic en Mijnliouw, new series, 16 jaargang, no. 3, pp. 61-68, March. Ryan, J. E., 1051, Industrial salts: production at Searles Lake: Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng. Trans., vol. 190, pp. 447-4,52 (covers the geology of the salines). Scruton, P. C., 1953, Deposition of evaporites: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. vol. 37, no. 11, pp. 2498-2512, Nov. Sykes, Godfrey, 1937, The Colorado delta : Am. Geog. Soc. Special Pub. no. 19, 193 pp. Teeple, J. E., 1929, The industrial development of Searles Lake brine, 182 pp. New Y'ork, Chemical Catalog Co. (covers the geology of the salines). Thompson, D. G., 1929, The Mohave Desert region, Calif. : U. S. Geol. Survey Water Supply Paper 578, pp. 124, 125 (classi- fication of playas). Thome, P. C. L., and Roberts, E. R., 1943, Inorganic chemistry, 4th ed., pp. 236-242, New Y'ork, Nordeman Publishing Co. (prop- erties of the alkali halides). Chapt. 1] Geologic Occurrence 37 Tucker, W. B., 1926, Inyo County: Calif. Min. Bur. Rept. 22, Ver PInnok, W. E., 1952, Gypsum in California: Calif. Div. p. 527 (Saline Valley). Mines Bull. 163, pi. 35 (geologic map of the Avawatz Mountains Tucker, W. B., and Sampson, K. J.. 1929, Riverside County: ^"^ «°'' g.vpsum deposits after J. O. Lewis and H. R. Johnson). Calif. Div. Mines and Mining Rept. 2.^ pp. 524-526 (salinity of „,'T'""'S^' ^,- ^n' ^^^^^oo'"'.',T °^ California: U. S. Geol. Survey . . J, I ri Water Supply Paper 838, 410 pp. Salton.ea water). ,o-,ca.- , , Watts, W. L., 1892, Colu.sa County : Calif. Min. Bur. Rept. 11, Tucker, A\ . B.. and Sampson. R. ,)., 19.38, Mineral resources of „ jg^ (g^if springs at Sites) Inyo County: Calif. Div. Mines Rept. 34, p. 497 (brine analyses Wright, L.\., and others, 1953, Mines and mineral resources and test holes in Deep Springs A alley). of ga,, Bernardino County, California; Calif. Jour. Mines and Van Winkle, Walton, and Eaton, P. M., 1910, Quality of the Geology, vol. 49, pp. 49-2,59 (salines, pp. 217-242). surface waters of California : U. S. Geol. Survey Water Supply Williams, Albert, Jr., 1885, Salt : Min. Res. U. S., 1883, 1884, Paper 237, 142 pp. (river water analyses). pp. 845-847 (brine well near Yreka, p. 847). CHAPTER 2 METHODS OF RECOVERY CONTENTS OF CHAPTER 2 Salt from sea water 41 Operations of the Leslie Salt Co 42 The crude salt plants 44 Concentrating pond systems 45 The crystallizing ponds 50 The harvest 52 Washing 55 Salt storage 56 Processing crude salt for market 57 Operations of the Western Salt Company 59 The Chula Vista plant 59 The Newport Bay plant 65 Amcriran Salt Company 66 Oliver Brothers Salt Company 68 Monterey Bay Salt Worlis 69 Salt from terrestrial brines 72 The system NaCl-Na^SOi-HzO 72 California practice 73 Salton Sea 73 Saltdale Worlis, Long Beach Salt Company 74 Salt recovery at Dale Lake 75 Operations in Saline Valley 76 Recovery of rock salt 76 Operations at Bristol Lake 76 The California Salt Company 76 Salt recovery from Searles Lake 78 Operations of the Pacific Salt and Chemical Co 78 Bibliography 78 Illustrations Figure 1. Diagram illustrating a complex series of concentrating ponds 41 2. Flow chart showing production of salt from sea water 43 3. Photo showing crystallizing ponds of Newark No. 2 crude salt plant, Leslie Salt Co 43 4. Photo showing principal plant of the Leslie Salt Co. at Newark, Alameda County 45 5. Photo showing Newark No. 2 crude salt plant, Leslie Salt Co. 46 6. Photo showing Baumberg crude salt plant, Leslie Salt Co. 47 7. Photo showing Newark No. 1 crude salt plant, Leslie Salt Co. 48 8. Map showing location of Leslie Salt Go's. North Bay property 49 9A. Graph showing the composition of normal brine at vari- ous concentrations 50 9B. Diagram illustrating the progress of brine concentration in a .series of concentrating ponds 50 10. Photo showing intake pump of Newark No. 1 crude salt plant, Leslie Salt Co 50 11. Photo showing brine ditch with control gate, Leslie Salt Co, 51 12. Photo showing harvesting machine, Leslie Salt Co 52 13. Photo showing harvesting machine, I^eslie Salt Co 53 14. Photo showing harvesting machine in operation, Leslie Salt Co. 54 15. Photo showing equipment for laying portable track in the pond, Leslie Salt Co 55 16. I'hoto showing track shifting. Leslie Salt Co 55 17. Typical washing plant, Leslie Salt Co 55 18. Photo showing salt being dumped at washer, Leslie Salt Co. 56 Page 19. Photo .showing gantry stacker and stock pile of crude salt, Newark No. 2 plant, Leslie Salt Co _ 07 20. Photo showing salt being reclaimed from stock pile, Leslie Salt Co 58 21. Flow chart for undried salt processing plant, Leslie Salt Co 58 22. Photo showing undried salt processing plant, Leslie Salt Co. 59 23. Photo showing ship loading terminal at Port of Redwood City 60 24. Photo showing loading of salt, Leslie Terminal Co., Port of Redwood City 61 25. Map showing location of Chula Vista plant, Western Salt Company 62 26. Photo showing Chula Vista plant of Western Salt Com- pany, San Diego Bay 62 27. Photo showing Chula Vista plant of Western Salt Com- pany 63 28. Photo showing crystallizing ponds, AVestern Salt Company 63 20. Photo showing loading of salt into ears. Western Salt Company 63 30. Photo showing dragline excavating salt. Western Salt Company 63 31. Photo showing ears being loaded with dragline. Western Salt Company 64 32. Photo showing salt train on permanent track, Western Salt Company 64 33. Photo showing Plymouth locomotive, AVestern Salt Com- pany 64 34. Photo showing dumping pit, Western Salt Company 65 35. Photo showing washer and stacking trestle, Western Salt Company 66 36. Map showing location of Newport Bay plant, Western Salt Company 67 37. Photo showing washer and stock pile, Western Salt Com- pany 67 38A. Photo showing evaporating ponds, washer, and stacks, AVestern Salt Company 68 38B. Ponds, stacks, and washer at the Newport Bay Salt AA'orks, Orange County 69 39. Photo showing American Salt Company 70 40. Photo showing washers, American Salt Company 70 41. Map showing location of Monterey Bay Salt AA'orks, Mon- terey County 70 42. Photo showing pickle pump, Monterey Bay Salt AA'orks 71 43. Photo showing washer, Monterey Bay Salt AA'orks 71 44. Chart showing solubilities of NaCl and Na2SO. in water 72 45. Sketch illustrating the system NaCl-NajSOi-HjO 72 46. The system NaCl - Na,.SO. -H=0 73 47. Chart showing solubility of Na:SO« in solutions saturated with NaCl 73 48. Photo showing ruins of washer. Imperial Salt AA'orks, Salton Sea 73 49. Photo showing Saltdale plant of Long Beach Salt Com- pany 74 50. Photo showing old evaporating pond, Dale Chemical In- dustries, Dale Lake 75 51. Photo showing auger drill, California Salt Company, Bris- tol Lake 76 52. Photo showing dragline for loading salt, California Salt Company. Bristol Lake 77 53. Photo showing surface of the crystal body, Searles Ijike__ 77 54. Photo showing scraping of salt with grader. Pacific Salt and Chemical Company, Searles Lake 77 55. Photo showing loading of salt. Pacific Salt and Chemical Company, Searles Lake 78 (40) METHODS OF RECOVERY SALT FROM SEA WATER Solar evaporation is the only method now used for producing salt from sea water on a commercial scale, and even this is feasible in only a relatively small num- ber of localities. Primarily, there must be sufficient evaporation and space available to produce a crop of salt large enough to handle economically. Of equal im- portance is the proximity of large industrial consumers that depend on low-cost salt with minimum freight charges. The California salt industry and the Pacific Coast chlorine-caustic industry in particular are mutu- ally interdependent. Neither without the other could have achieved its present state of development. California Practice. As primitive man knew, the production of salt by the evaporation of sea water is a simple operation. The commercial production of pure salt free from calcium and magnesium salts, however, requires a considerable degree of skill. Crude sea salt produced in California today contains at least 99 per- cent sodium chloride. The process is essentially fractional crystallization. Sea water passes first through a series of outer or con- centrating ponds where it is brought to saturation with respect to sodium chloride, and the less soluble salts are precipitated. The final concentrating pond is called the pickle or "lime" pond, and saturated brine is called pickle. To this point evaporation has reduced the volume of pickle to about 10 percent of the volume of sea water taken in. Next, pickle is run into a separate group of ponds called crystallizing ponds where continuing evap- oration causes salt to form. In order to avoid the pre- cipitation of the very soluble magnesium salts, the concentration of the liquor in the ponds is kept at a specific gravity of 29° to 30° Be by withdrawing mother liquor or bittern and replacing it with fresh pickle. The bittern may or may not be sold to chemical plants for the recovery of additional chemicals. It will be recalled from the discussion of the precipi- tation of sea salts in an earlier section of this report that there is an overlapping of the crystallizing ranges of gypsum, salt, and the bittern salts. Some gypsum con- tinues to crystallize in the range of maximum salt crys- tallization, and similarly the first traces of the bittern salts come down with the sodium chloride. Therefore the precipitation of neither gypsum nor bittern salts in the crystallizing ponds can be entirely prevented. Concentrating ponds have natural mud bottoms and are formed by levees built of nearly impervious mud. Pond bottoms must be naturally water tight because no economical way of sealing leaking ponds is known. As far as possible concentrating ponds are located between the high and low tide marks so that the intake can be by means of tidal gates to minimize pumping. As the brine becomes more concentrated through evaporation it is pumped from one pond to the next. Individual ponds are shallow to allow maximum evaporation and 100 to 500 acres or even larger in size. Typically the concentrating ponds are arranged in a series of about 10. Almost always terrain features make it necessary to divide the concentrating area into small units, but there is believed to be a fundamental reason also. It has been calculated that in a single pond of area equivalent to that of a series of smaller ponds it would take about 20 years for the brine to reach saturation. One reason is that the evaporation rate decreases with increasing concentration and at saturation is only 40 percent of that of distilled water. Crystallizing ponds are rectangular in shape and have flat bottoms prepared by scraping and rolling. Pumps and ditches are provided for rapid filling and draining. The ratio of concentrating ponds to crystallizing ponds ranges from 15 to 1 to the theoretical minimum of 10 to 1. In size they range from 10 acres or less to 50 or 60 acres, depending on the type of harvesting equip- ment used. Evaporation takes place only during the spring, sum- mer, and fall. During the winter the concentrating ponds remain full, and at some plants the crystallizing ponds are left full also. Rain water tends to lie on the surface of strong brine and does not mix with it unless the wind is strong. Crystallizing ponds are harvested once a \'ear and are drained one at a time shortly before the harvesting equipment is ready to enter it. All California plants Bay vialer intake Bay wafer intake Boy water mtoke Bay water intake PONO 1 - B PONO 2-8 PONO 3-B POND 4- A ' POND 5-A POND 6-4 POND 7-A 1 PICKLE POND To crystalhiinq ponds Figure 1. Diagram illustrating a complex series of concentrating ponds. (41) 42 Salt in California [Bull. 175 today use mechanized equipment that makes feasible ponds of comparatively large size. Immediately after harvesting, the salt receives one or more washes with saturated brine followed by a fresh water spray. The salt is stacked in the open without protection. Most of the salt is marketed as undried crude salt taken directly from the stack without further processing or ground and screened into several sizes. Undried crude salt contains 99.4 percent NaCl. Some salt is rewashed and kiln-dried and some is vacuum refined. The refined vacuum salt contains over 99.9 percent NaCl. Prerequisites. The commercial production of salt from sea water by solar evaporation depends on three principal factors : the presence of markets, a large area of suitable land, and a dry climate with little rain for at least the greater part of the year. The marketing of salt is discussed in another section of this report. Suitable land is limited and highly valued. With a maximum yield in the San Francisco Bay area of 40 tons per acre, thousands of acres must be in production. Small salt works of only 100 to 150 acres are in opera- tion today, but to obtain the maximum advantage from mechanized equipment, a single salt works should con- tain a minimum of 5000 acres. The land ideally should be absolutely level and at or close to sea level. Above all, it should be impervious to prevent leakage of brine. Salt marshes most nearly fulfill these conditions. For many years salt marshes were considered to be waste land of little value except for salt making, but this is no longer true. Today the salt industry must compete for it with expanding industries and communi- ties. Portions of the marshes must be left open for various public needs such as flood outlets, navigable channels, roads, or utility easements. It is becoming in- creasingly feasible to reclaim marsh land by draining and filling, and large areas of former marsh land are now covered with houses or industrial plants. The solar salt industry at Long Beach passed out of existence in 1946 when the last available marsh land was filled in and used for other purposes. Elsewhere on the Cali- fornia coast marsh land that could at one time have been used for salt production has been filled in. In San Francisco Bay, marsh land had an assessed value of $150 per acre, a figure reported to be 40 percent of its actual value (Leslie Salt Co., 1953, p. 5). Net evaporation must be high, and both rainfall and relative humidity must be low during the salt making season. In San Francisco the net evaporation is 34 to 49 inches per year, and an important contributing factor are the strong. prevailing northwesterly winds that blow during the summer. California Plants. The south end of San Francisco Bay most nearly combines all these factors and produces a high proportion of the solar salt manufactured in the United States. The largest producer is the Leslie Salt Co. with plant headquarters in Newark and nearly 30,000 acres of salt land in production in Alameda, Santa Clara, and San Mateo Counties. An additional area is under development on the north sliore of San Pablo Bay. This company manufactures practically all grades of salt, including crude, kiln-dried, and vacuum refined. Two other small plants that produce crude salt only belong to the American Salt Company and to Oliver Brothers Salt Company. Both are near Mount Eden. The Morton Salt Company has a plant at Newark in which salt is refined, but that company does not pro- duce crude salt in California. In addition to the plants on San Francisco Bay, three others on the California coast produce salt from sea water. The Western Salt Company has a medium-sized salt works near Chula Vista on San Diego Bay and a second smaller operation at the head of Newport Bay, Orange County. The third is the Monterey Bay Salt Works at Moss Landing, operated by E. C. Vierra. In the following pages the production of crude salt from sea water by the California plants is described. Salt refining is discussed in another section of this re- port. Operations of the Leslie Salt Co.* The Leslie Salt Co. (Buchen, 1937; Schrier, 1952) is the largest producer of salt in California and one of the leading producers of salt from sea water by solar evap- oration in the entire world. The main office is at 505 Beach Street, San Francisco ; and the plant office and principal facilities are on Central Avenue, Newark. Fred B. Bain is President, J. C. Buchen is Vice Presi- dent and Production Manager, and Sheldon Allen is Secretary and Treasurer. The Company owns 44,000 acres of land on the Bay shore of Alameda, Santa Clara, and San Mateo Counties and additional property on the north shore of San Pablo Bay southwest of Napa. It owns outright the subsidiary Leslie Terminal Company and has a controlling interest in the California Salt Company at Bristol Lake, San Bernardino County. Facilities included four crude salt producing units in production and a fifth under development at which cars and trucks are bulk-loaded, a deep water terminal for the bulk loading of ships at the Port of Redwood City, an undried crude salt processing plant at Newark, and a refinery at Newark that produces both kiln-dried and vacuum refined salt. The largest crude salt plant, Newark Number 2, lies south and west of Newark around the south end of San Francisco Bay. Another, Newark Number One, is bisected by the eastern approach to Dumbarton Bridge ; a third, the Baumberg plant, lies southwest of Mount Eden; and the fourth is on the San Mateo County marshes near Redwood City. A plant under construction near Napa is scheduled for production in 1959. The Leslie Salt Co. is a consolidation of numerous small plants, some of which had been in production since the 1860 's. Corrosion and maintenance of the small plants that were.^construeted of inferior materials con- tributed to high operating costs, while lack of capital and volume of business discouraged investment in mod- ern equipment. Most of these small plants adjoined one another so that combining their operations was practical. Consolidation started in 1924. Companies were merged, some plants were dismantled, others were relocated and modernized. The process was completed bj' 1941. • Plant visits 1953. See, D. S., The salt industry, unpublished paper presented at Non- metallic Minerals Conference, Pacific Chemical Exposition, San Francisco, Oct. 23. 1947. Chapt. 2] Recovery 43 WATEF VAPOK -NET gVAPORATION 41,000,000 TONS RAINFALL (RC-CVAPORATCD) NOT INCLUOCD IN DIAGRAM, BUT ACCOUNTED FOR IN NET EVAPORATION POND LEAKACES DISRECARDED ANNUAL INTAKE 30,600,000 TONS BAY WATER, 10' SAL (10*= 22411) solt/gal) S f BAY 20,000,000 ACRES CONCENTRATING AND CRYSTALLIZER PONOS llllllllll Gypsurn precipitated (not fecloimed) BITTERN TO WESTVACO ^ D □ Si ^^ a NOTE Sclt reclaimed from drained cryslol- lizer ponds by mechonical harvesters, thence by industrial roilroad to dumping pit, thence through washing process and by conveyors to storage areo PROCESS PLANT REFINERIES 240,000 TONS SALT PRODUCTS FlOTTlF, 2. Flow chart showing production of salt from sea water. The growth of the Leslie Salt Co. and its predecessors is startling. In 1936, the year Leslie Salt Co. was in- corporated, a production of 300,000 to 325,000 tons was obtained from approximately 12,000 acres of marsh. Ten FiouEE 3. Crystallizing ponds of the Newark No. 2 crude salt plant, Leslie Salt Co. near Newark, Alameda Count.v. With a maximum yield of 40 tons of salt per acre in the San Francisco area, thousands of acres of marsh land are required. Photo cour- teiy Leslie Salt Co. years later crops of 450,000 to 500,000 tons were har- vested, and the area in production had increased to 25,000 acres. In 1952 nearly 29,000 acres yielded 706,000 tons of salt. It is expected that by 1954, 30,000 acres, all that is available in San Francisco Bay, will be in production. By 1959, when the first crop of about 100,000 tons is expected from the plant now under con- struction near Napa, on San Pablo Bay, production will have reached 1,000,000 tons a year. Evaporating CoiidHions. Rainfall in the southern part of San Francisco Bay is 10 to 22 inches per year, and the total evaporation, less rainfall, is 34 to 43 inches per year. The accompanying table shows the monthly mean precipitation and temperature at San Francisco.* Mean monthly precipitation and temperature, San Francisco, Inches of rain ° F January 4.7 50 February 3.7 53 March 3.1 55 April 1.5 56 May 0.7 57 June 0.2 59 July 0.0 59 August 0.0 59 September 0.3 62 October 1.0 61 November 2.4 57 December 4.4 52 • U. S. Weather Bureau, 1954, Local climatological data. San Fran- cisco. 44 Salt in California [Bull. 175 The net evaporation is concentrated in the seven months from April to October inclusive when low rain- fall is combined with low humidity and strong, regular, northwesterly winds. Figures for a typical year are shown in the accompanying table (Phalen, 1917) : Net evaporation, typical year, San Francisco. Net evaporation (inches) April 2.02 May 4.17 June 5.95 July 7.81 August 7.81 September 4.94 October 2.17 Salinity. San Francisco Bay is influenced by the Sacramento River, and its salinity is in general slightly less than that of the open sea. At South San Francisco where the water normally contains 2 grams per liter of magnesium oxide, as little as 0.8 gram per liter may be present when the Sacramento River is in flood. For- tunately for the salt industry, the influx of fresh water is at its lowest during the evaporating season. The ae- compan.ying table shows the salinity in degrees salometer (percent of saturation) of water measured at the intake of two of the Leslie plants during 1950 at approxi- mately the first of the month. Salinity at Leslie Salt Co. plants, 1950.* Baumberg Newark No. 2 April 9 lOi May 9 10 June lOi llj July 11 11 August lOi 12 September 13 12i October 13 12 November 12 11 • Measured In degrees salometer. The Marsh Land. The Leslie Salt Co. 's holdings in- clude 40,000 acres of marsh land around the south end of San Francisco Bay. Of this, 10,000 acres cannot be used either because it must be left open for various public needs or because it is in small isolated tracts. The land is typical salt marsh that lies close to sea level and is flooded by spring tides. Meandering sloughs divide the area into tracts of slightly firmer and higher ground where a layer of peat and marsh grass covers soft mud that is impervious to water. The mud varies in thickness from zero at the landward edge to 40 feet at the edge of deep water ; and underneath, firmer clays are to be found in most places. (Allin, 1948, p. 82). The soft bay mud is very unstable and cannot support heavy loads. In former times when the salt plants were built on the marsh, the size of structures, particularly of the stock piles, was strictly limited. The construction of the ship-loadin<^ terminal at the Port of Redwood City was an interesting engineering problem that is discussed elsewhere in this report. Except for the Red- wood City installations, the present plants are well back from the marsh. At Newark a layer of clay provides support, and piles are necessary for only the heaviest loads. The Leslie Salt Co.'s property near Napa is former marsh land that was reclaimed for farming many years ago. The Crude Salt Plants Each of the four crude salt plants is complete in it- self with its own concentrating ponds, crystallizing ponds, harvesting equipment, and washer. Each is nor- mally operated independently of the others, although provision has been made for the transfer of brine be- tween some of the plants to afford greater flexibility of operations. The maximum size of a single plant is limited principally by features such as sloughs and un- available areas that form natural boundaries. The mini- mum area for maximum efficiency is a function of the maximum tonnage that one harvesting machine and its auxiliary equipment can efficiently handle during the harvesting season, roughly, 5,000 acres of concentrating and crystallizing ponds. Larger plants ideally would contain multiples of this area. The four plants now in operation depart somewhat from the ideal because of the distribution of the available area, and because their present form was determined in large measure by plants that existed before consolidation began. Newark Number 2. Newark number 2, the largest of the crude salt plants, lies south and east of Newark. The washing plant adjoins the plant office, refinery, and undried salt processing plant on Central Avenue, New- ark, in the northeast quarter of section 12, T. 5 S, R. 2 W., MD. The pond area in 1952 totaled a little over 11,000 acres, and the design capacity is 450,000 tons of crude salt a year. Built about 1929 as the Number 2 plant of the Arden Salt Company, it comprised origi- nally only about 5,000 acres between Newark and Coyote Creek. Since then the plant has been expanded continually. Principal additions have been the ponds of the Alviso Salt Company west of Alviso and ponds con- structed between Alviso and Coyote Creek to join the two detached areas. Baumberg. The Baumberg plant consists of approxi- mately 4,630 acres north of the Coyote Hills between Coyote Hills Slough and the eastern approach to San Mateo Bridge. The washer, which has a design capacity of 180,000 tons a year, is at Baumberg, off Arf Avenue and south of Mount Eden in section 5, T. 4 S., R. 2 W., MD. (projected). The pond area includes most of the important 19th century salt works, and portions have been in production since 1865. The plant achieved its present form when the ponds of the Oliver Salt Com- pany, north of Alameda Creek, were integrated with those of the Leslie-California Salt Company to the south of it. Newark Number 1. The concentrating ponds of the Newark number one plant are bisected by the east- ern approach to Dumbarton Bridge and lie west of the Coyote Hills between Dumbarton Point and Coyote Hills Slough. The washing plant is on Jarvis Road, Newark, in the northeast quarter of section 3, T. 5 S., R. 2 W., MD., and the crystallizing ponds are in the angle formed by Jarvis Road and the Coyote Hills. The design capacity is 160,000 tons a year, and the plant contains approxi- mately 4,400 acres. It was built as plant number one of the Arden Salt Company, which obtained its first crop of salt in 1919. The principal expansion of the pond area has been the inclusion of the northern group of ponds which were operated as a separate unit prior to Chapt. 2] Recovery 45 *5t MMi^^ ;' 'i»^.:\\ ^.F^ Figure 4. Principal plant of the Leslie Salt Co. at Newark, Alameda County. Crude salt stacks, center ; washer house, foreground ; evaporator house, left center ; undried salt processing plant, right. The Leslie Salt Co., the largest producer of salt in California owns 44,000 acres of land on the Bay shore of Alameda, Santa Clara, and San Mateo Counties and additional property southwest of Napa. Facilities include four crude salt plants plus a fifth under construction, ship-loading terminal, undried salt processing plant, and refinery. Photo hy Elmer Moss, courtesy Leslie Salt Co. 1940. The present washer is the oldest in operation on San Francisco Bay. It was built in the early 1920 's, to replace an earlier plant at Dumbarton Point. Redwood City. The washer of the Redwood City plant adjoins the ship loading terminal on the west shore of Redwood Creek. The crystallizing ponds are east of the road and railroad running to the Port of Redwood City, and the concentrating ponds extend east and west on the San Mateo County marshes. When full produc- tion is reached, 250,000 tons of salt a year will be ob- tained from an area of approximately 7,200 acres. Salt works formerly operated in San Mateo County were closed in 1941, and the construction of the present plant began about two years later on the same site. Compara- tively little of the old engineering works were incorpo- rated into the new plant. Small harvests were obtained in 1951 and 1952, and a capacity crop was expected in 1953. Napa. During the summer of 1953 construction began on a new plant near Napa that is expected to be in production by 1959. The property lies between Napa River and Napa Slough and extends from Buchli siding southward toward San Pablo Bay. Concentrating Pond Systems The evaporating ponds of the four plants now in oper- tion are shown on the accompanying map. Concentrat- ing ponds, in which the water is brought to saturation, are of irregular shape and from 100 acres to 500 acres or in a few cases even larger in size. Their depth is shal- 46 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Figure 5. Newark No. 2 crude salt plant, Leslie Salt Co. Photo .shows loaded train approaching washer house (left center), gantry stacker, and crude salt stacks. With a pond area of a little over 11,(H)0 acres, the design capacity of the Newark No. 2 plant is 450,000 tons of crude salt per year. Photo by Don Krogh, courtesy Leslie Salt Co. low to allow maximum exposure of the brine to tne sun and wind. Levees are not built across sloughs if it can be avoided, and consequently the ponds occupy the areas between sloughs. Pond systems are designed so that the flow of brine from pond to pond is by gravity through control gates. Pumping cannot be entirely eliminated, and often a pump is combined with a syphon to transfer brine across a slough. Wherever possible brine is par- tially concentrated and its volume reduced before han- dling it with pumps. Gates are constructed either of iron or of creosoted wood. While the treated wood lasts longer than iron, the action of teredos makes it difficult to keep wooden gates tight. The wooden gates are being replaced with iron ones. It will be noted that the concentrating ponds of none of the plants are arranged in the theoretical simple series of ten. Each plant has in effect several parallel series in which water taken in at a number of points is partially concentrated before joining the common path to the pickle pond. Such a system is schematically shown on the accompanying diagram. Some of these branches are ponds of formerly independent plants that have been tied into the larger system ; others are new ponds that have been added to an existing plant. The Construction of Levees. The Leslie Salt Co. is constructing new levees for its expanding operations almost continuously, and a technique has been devel- oped, using clamshell dredges that float in their own borrow pits. Care must be taken not to break through the thin, weak surface crust of the marsh by building the levee too rapidly. If the crust is broken, it is very difficult to build the levee up to the required elevation. Erosion and slow settlement require periodic mainte- nance. Outside levees are 40 feet wide at the ba.se, 12 feet wide at the top, and 3i feet high. To prevent leakage between the base of the levee and the old surface, the levee is keyed to solid material by coring. In coring, a trench is dug through the grass and peat along the center line of the levee and filled with clean mud. Cross levees, or levees that separate one pond from another, may be slightly lower and usually are not cored. Levees are constructed in stages. The borrow pit of a finished levee averages 50 to 55 feet wide and 5 to 6 feet deep, or 10 cubic yards per linear foot. This com- pares with the design section of 3.37 cubic yards per foot of the finished levee and reveals the extent of shrinkage and settling that takes place. On the first pass the dredge places 60 percent of the material that will be required, and the levee is built to a maximum height of three feet. The borrow pit is dug 38 feet wide by 4^ feet deep, just large enough to accom- modate the dredge which draws four feet when listing. Chapt. 2] Recovery 47 Figure 6. Baumberg oruiie salt plant, Lt-slie Suit Lu., m.uiii vi ..K.uiit EUru. The pond area of the Baumberg plant, which iucludes most of the important 19th-ccntur.v salt works, is 4,6.30 acres. The washer (center) has a design capacity of 180,000 tons a year. Bulk shipments only arc made from the bunker (right). Photo by Elmer 3Ioss, courteny Leslie Salt Co. An extra 6 inches is allowed because the water level averages that distance below the surface of the marsh. After drying for 6 to 18 months the levee will have set- tled to a height of only 2 feet in places. On the second pass 20 percent of the material is placed, raising the levee initially 1^ to 2 feet. After consolidation the final height may be 3 feet. The borrow pit is widened in the direction away from the levee. The final 20 percent of the material is placed on the third pass, raising the levee initially to 4^ feet. After drying the height has shrunk to 3| feet. The borrow pit is deepened on the side away from the levee. Thus the possibility of the levee's failing is reduced, and clean mud free from vegetation or peat is available for topping. If a slough must be crossed, it may be necessary to drive sheet piling to retain the levee. Sections that are exposed to erosion are reinforced. In the operation of the dredge, one swing of the bucket across the borrow pit is called a "fleet." Nine to twelve 2-cubic-yard buckets full comprise a fleet, which equals a 4-foot advance. Usually the dredge is set ahead after completing each fleet, but two or three fleets can be dredged from one position. Fifteen minutes are required to complete a fleet. Time is lost in coring, setting ahead, damming small sloughs, and in moving to new locations, so that the average rate of advance is 10 feet per hour on the first pass. Even after the levees are completed and a pond is flooded, production cannot begin at once. Impervious though the bay mud is, seepage takes place until the bottoms have been sealed by the slow precipitation of calcium carbonate and gypsum. This sealing process is complete only after 5 to 7 years. The Concentration Process. Bay water is taken in through automatic gates that open at high tide and close when the tide drops below the pond level. Where possible the gates are placed in north or northwesterly facing levees to take advantage of the prevailing wind. The intake at some points is by means of pumps. During the evaporating season brine is passed slowly through the system of concentrating ponds as evapora- tion in the pond ahead requires replacement. The flow is controlled by gates and pumps that are reached by roads built on the levees. Every pond is examined once a week, and both the salinity and the depth of the brine are recorded. It has been pointed out that as the result of growth and physical limitations, the concentrating ponds are arranged in rather complex, branching systems. The progress of the brine concentration may be illustrated, however, by the simple series of eight ponds followed by a pickle pond shown in the accompanying diagram. In the first stage, ponds one through six, evaporation has raised the concentration of the brine to a specific gravity of 12.9° Be and reduced the volume to nearly half of that taken in. Suspended matter settles, carbonates pre- cipitate, and the precipitation of gypsum begins. In the second stage, ponds seven through nine, evaporation con- tinues until, at 25.6° Be, the brine is saturated with respect to salt. By the time the specific gravity has reached 25.0° Be, most of the gypsum has precipitated. Some salt precipitates also at 25.0° Be, but any that forms in the pickle pond is dissolved when the concentra- tion is reduced by the next filling with weaker brine. By the time the brine is ready to leave the pickle pond, its volume has been reduced by evaporation to about ten percent of the volume of bay water taken in. The accompanying sketch portrays the vast quantity of water that must be evaporated. In order to produce 800,000 tons of salt, 30,600,000 tons of bay water con- taining 0.22 pounds of salt per gallon (10° salometer) 48 [Bull. 175 HB Chapt. Recovery 49 I22°25 I22°20' I22°I5' 38°I0'^ SS^IO" I22°25' I22°20' North Bay property of Leslie Salt Co. I22°I5 Fir.VRE S. Map showing location of Leslie Salt Co.'s North Bay property as of July 1953. 50 Salt in California [Bull. 175 K' \^ i 3 3 \ r s ] t I / \ / y \ \ \ / \ .-■ \ / /I ^■'"■' '\ / / l 1 / // / / / . / \/ • 5 / "&■ U«S04 Z ? ■ — — urr::; Si^-'i->i7 'l.'wr'" ■CI in : : • S S - Figure 9A. Graph showing the composition of normal brine at various concentrations. ® Bay Wale |0 intake ® (D 12° Sal 3,0° Be 16° Sal 4.0°Be 19° Sol 4 7° Be 32° Sol 8.0° Be 42° Sol 10 4° Be LIME POMDS (D ® ® ® 100° Sol 26.0°Be e5°Soi 209°Be *- 69° Sol 170° Be 52° Sol 12.9*Be of Pre gypsu cipifatton m begins nr k t* T "=" ^" to crystallizing ponds FiouKE 9B. Diagram illustrating the progress of brine concentration in a series of concentrating ponds. are required. The amount of water evaporated is 29,000,000 tons, yielding 800,000 tons of salt and 800,000 tons of bittern. Interesting biological changes take place in the evap- orating ponds (Peiree, 1914). Pond one contains live fish and the numerous micro-organisms present in sea water, and the water is muddy. In ponds two, three, and four (4°-8°Be) the sea water forms are dying, and new forms of life are appearing. In pond five (10° Be) no fish remain alive. Gray colored brine shrimp (Ar- temia salina) and yellow algae {Dunaliella viridi) ap- pear and thrive on dead matter. The algae color the water yellowish. Shrimp and algae continue to thrive in ponds six and seven (13° -17° Be), and the shrimp aid in the precipitation of calcium carbonate and calcium sul- fate. Additional micro-organisms appear in pond eight (20° Be) including red chromogenic bacteria that color the water red. Shrimp feed on the red bacteria and turn from gray to red. Algae and shrimp are dying in pond nine (26° Be). The red bacteria remain healthy until the brine has become a bittern of specific gravity 34° Be. As they die and settle to the bottom the bittern turns from red to light brown in color. Bay water is taken in during the highest tides and when the salinity of the water is highest. Depending on the year, the intake period begins in April or May and lasts through October or November. During the winter little if any evaporation occurs, and the concentrating ponds lie idle. Rain water lies on the surface of strong brine and does not mix with it a"ppreciably unless the wind is strong. A year is believed to be required for raw bay water to pass through the concentrating ponds and reach the pickle pond. Pickle is available for flooding the crystallizing ponds as soon as the winter rains are over, usually in April. The Crystallizing Ponds The ratio of concentrating to crystallizing pond area is about 15 to one, considerably more than the theoretical ratio of ten to one. The extra area of concentration pond is required because of pond leakage and dilution by rain water. Crystallizing ponds are rectangular in shape and have flat, grass-free bottoms with a slope of 1 inch per 300 feet to one corner to facilitate emptying. Indi- vidual ponds range from 20 acres or less to more than 60 acres in size. The size is determined by the capacity of the harvesting machine. With smaller ponds more time is lost in transferring equipment from one pond to '^^- Figure 10. Pumping brine. Intuke pump of Newark No. 1 crude salt plant, Leslie Salt Co. Wherever possible brine is par- tially concentrated and its volume reduced before handling it with pumps. Photo courtesy Leslie Salt Co. Chapt. 2] Recovery 51 Figure 11. Brine ditch with control gate, Leslie Salt Co. The flow of brine between ponds is controlled by gates that are reached by roads built on the levees. Photo courtesy Leslie Salt Co. another, while with larger ponds salt is left exposed for a longer time. Crystallizing ponds are provided with an elaborate system of ditches and pumps for rapid filling and emptying. Two 40-horsepower pumps of 5,000 gallons per minute capacity serve the crystallizing ponds of the Newark number 2 plant ; and for maximum flexibility and control, pickle may be drawn from any of the last tliree concentrating ponds. Pickle flows from the supplj' ditch to the concentrating ponds, and from thence bittern ditches carry bittern away. Close control is required to prevent, as far as possible, the precipitation of either gypsum or bittern salts in the crystallizing ponds. Pickle enters at 25.6° Be, and bittern is withdrawn at 29° Be. An effort is made to keep the specific gravity within these limits by con- tinuously drawing off a small amount of bittern. Two to five times during the season, however, it is necessary to empty the ponds and refill them with fresh pickle. As evaporation continues, tiny seed crystals of salt form on the surface and are supported by surface ten- sion. As their weight increases, they sink deeper. Growth is fastest on the upper edges, and distorted, hopper- shaped crystals form. Crystals sink when they are hea\y enough to overcome surface tension. Large intergrown crystals form on the bottom, often with faces two inches or more long. During the season 4 to 6 inches of salt forms, and about 70 percent of the salt in the pickle is extracted. Bittern is brought from the crystallizing ponds to bittern ponds where further evaporation raises the specific gravity to 30° Be, and some additional salt forms. The Westvaco Chemical Division of Food Machin- ery and Chemical Corporation currentlj- purchases all of the bittern that the Leslie Salt Co. produces. The facilities for transferring the bittern from the various bittern ponds to storage reservoirs are owned and oper- ated by the chemical company. 52 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Figure 12. Harvesting machine, Leslie Salt Co. A view from the side. The cutter, which is mounted on the rear of a caterpillar type tractor, is essentiall.v a horizontal, revolving shaft bearing picks. Salt is broTjen free by the picks and thrown onto a short drag conveyor that carries it to the waiting cars. When the salt is four inches thick, loading is at the rate of 150 tons per hour. Photo by Oabriel Moulin titudios, courtesy Leslie Salt Co. A typical analysis of bittern at 30° Be.* Percent NaCl 12.5 UgCh 8.7 MgSO. 6.1 KCl 1.9 MgBr, 0.18 • After Seaton. 1931. After the bittern ponds have been emptied the salt that forms in them is dissolved with weak brine and re- turned to the concentrating ponds. This salt is of the same high quality as that which forms in the crystalliz- ing ponds. Above 29° Be, however, the rate of crystal- lization is so slow that it does not pay to keep the bittern in the crystallizing ponds any longer. The Harvest Mechanization makes it possible to continue the crys- tallizing season into the fall yet to complete the harvest before the winter rains begin. Harvesting starts around October first and continues 24 hours a day, seven days a week until it is finished, usually toward the end of De- cember. One pond at a time is drained and harvested. Salt is left uncovered in the ponds for as short a time as possible. Not only does salt harden upon exposure to the air, but the thin layer of salt spread over the broad pond is particularly exposed to showers when it is not covered with pickle. In addition, no salt forms after the pond has been drained. The Harvesting Machine. The harvesting machine is a unique piece of equipment that was perfected in the 1030 's. The cutter, which is mounted on the rear of a caterpillar-type tractor, is essentially a horizontal, re- volving shaft bearing picks. Salt is broken free by the picks and thrown onto a short transverse drag conveyor. The conveyor is carried by means of wings to loading chutes, one on each side; and the conveyor is reversible so that loading is done on either one side or the other. The tractor, which is supported on wooden tracks about Chapt. 2] Recovery 53 >v «-r? Figure 13. Harvestin; machine, Leslie Salt Co. A close view from the front. Photo hy Elmer Moss, courtesy Leslie .'^'a// Co. five feet wide, runs on the salt and drags the cutter be- hind it. The elevation of the cutter, the conveyor wings, and the loading chutes are adjusted hydraulically. The harvesting machine cuts a swath 13 feet 8 inches wide and 4 to 6 inches deep. The speed may be varied from 5.34 feet per minute to 16.7 feet per minute. When the salt is four inches thick, loading is at the rate of 150 tons per hour. Six machines are in operation, one older machine is held in reserve as a spare, and an additional machine is under construction. Three are powered with D-7 diesel tractors, three with D-6 tractors, and the older machine has a gasoline engine. Two are used at the Newark number 2 plant, two at the Redwood City plant, and one each at the Newark number one and Baumberg plants. Transporting the Salt. Salt is transported from the ponds in narrow-gage cars. Trucks would be difficult to use because the salt has limited bearing capacity and because of the possibility of tracking stones from the gravel roads onto the salt. The railroad systems that serve the four salt producing units total approximately 75 miles of track and have 26 locomotives. Four-ton Vulcan gasoline-powered locomotives comprise the greater part of this number, but there are a few five-ton gas-electric locomotives and some other experimental models. Four Caterpillar straight diesel locomotives are under construction. The track gage is 24 inches at the two Newark plants and 30 inches at the Baumberg and Redwood City plants. Except at Newark Number one, where side dump cars are used, the cars have wooden bodies and bottom dumps. They have a capacity of about two tons of moist salt and weigh 1500 pounds. Perma- nent tracks are laid on the levees and temporary tracks on the salt in the form of a loop so that the trains always run in the same direction. The Harvester in Operation. In the harvesting oper- ation the basic unit consists of the harvesting machine, 54 Salt in California [Bull. 17;") Chapt. Recovery 55 Figure 15. Equipment for laying portable track in the pond, Leslie Salt Co. Photo by Elmer Moss, courtesy Leslie SoH Co. washer, four trains of 12 to 14 cars each, and track shift- ing equipment. At Newark number 2, where there are two machines, each operates entirely independently of the other and has its own dumpinp: pit. Nine men are required : two men on the harvesting: machine, four loco- motive operators, one man plus one helper to operate the track shifting equipment, and one at the dump- ing pit. The loading machine cuts a swath parallel to the long side of the pond. Trains run on portable track laid on the salt parallel to the swath and are loaded as they slowly pass the moving machine. Thirteen cars are heap loaded in 8 minutes. At the end of the swath the machine is turned around and cuts another swath parallel to the one just completed. In this way the harvest pro- gresses across the pond. After the harvest the crystallizing ponds are flooded with weak brine to dissolve any salt that remains, par- ticularly fine salt that accumulates on the windward sides. The brine is returned to intermediate concen- trating ponds, and the crystallizing ponds are prepared for the next season. They are allowed to dry almost to the point where dust would blow from them, then lev- eled with scrapers and rolled. Portable Track. The portable track is built of panels about 15 feet long composed of light rails permanently fastened to light steel or wooden ties. In laying the portable track, panels are brought to the pond on flat cars, and the track is extended onto the salt from spurs of the permanent tracks on the levees. A rubber-tired tractor with a special boom places the panels in position. After a panel has been loosely joined with splice bars to the track already laid, the tractor pulls the flat car ahead and places the next panel. Track is shifted without uncoupling it after the har- vesting machine has passed. A rubber-tired tractor equipped with a special tool bar moves it to the new position, one section at a time, without interrupting traffic. One tractor operator and a helper are required. ■>.»4, «r' V Figure 16. Track .shifting, Leslie Salt Co. After the harvesting machine has passed, the track is shifted with a tractor eiiuipped with a special tool bar. Traffic is not interrupted. Photo by Her- riiiyton-Olson, courtesy Leslie Salt Co. Special materials are not required for equipment used about the ponds. For most purposes ordinary iron is practical if corrosion is combatted with a rigorous pro- gram of scraping and painting. Some pump sumps and flumes are constructed of wood. Washing Salt is washed immediately after harvesting and then placed in outside storage piles. The salt from the ponds contains on the average 97.8 percent NaCl. Impurities are mud scraped up from the pond bottoms, gypsum, which cannot be entirely prevented from precipitating in the crystallizing ponds, and adhering bittern. Washed salt in the stacks contains 99.4 percent NaCl. The washers at all four plants are essentially the same but have had additional equipment added to increase their efficiency. The basic operation is a wash with con- centrated brine in a mechanical classifier that separates the salt from the dirt. This may be followed by addi- tional brine washes and a fresh water spray to remove the adhering magnesium-bearing brine. Washer includes f*o tjouble spiral classifiers, fwo double lag wosfiers ontl two dump pits Figure 17. Tjpical washing plant, Leslie Salt Co. Salt in California Figure 18. Dumping salt at the washer, Iveslie Salt. Co. The cars are discharged into rectangular briue-fiUed pits beneath the track. Photo by Gabriel Moulin Studios, courtesy Leslie filr i.:i Ui. crystallizing ponds. Western Salt Company, Chula Vista plant, San Diego Bay. FiGt'RF. 29. Loading salt into cars with a dragline. The exca- v:ited cut iin4^ J Figure 38A. Kvaporating ponds, washer, and stacks. The crystallizing ponds are divided into two groups by the levee with tlie line of poles. To the left are some of the concentrating ponds. Western Salt t'onipany, Newport Hay plant. Salt is bulldozed dowu from the stack as it is re- quired and raised to the top of the mill building with a bucket elevator. Here it is screened and crushed with adjustable corrugated rolls. Three bins are provided from which the salt can be either bulk loaded into trucks or packed in 12.5 pound burlap bags. In addition, stack- run salt can be bulk loaded directly from the stock pile by means of an inclined conveyor and loading chute. Three products in addition to stack run are shipped. They are screened hide (plus ^ inch minus one inch), half ground (plus ^ inch minus i inch), and quarter ground (minus | inch). The fine quarter-ground salt was formerly called three-quarters-ground. Oliver Brothers Salt Company * The Oliver Brothers Salt Company propert.y is bisected by the eastern approach to the San Mateo bridge and lies in sec. 31, T. 3 S., R. 2 W. and sec. 36, T. 3 S. ; R. 3 W., M.D. The company is owned by A. B. Oliver and A. A. Oliver Jr., whose family owned and operated the Oliver Salt Company from 1872 until 1931 when it was sold to a predecessor of the Leslie Salt Co. The present Oliver plant was built in 1937 on |)roperty that had belonged to A. L. Johnson in the early 2{)tli century. ♦ Plant visit April. 195-1. The total area in production is 200 acres including 24 acres of crystallizing ponds. The ratio of crystallizing ponds to concentrating ponds is thus well above that of the other sea-water plants. The crystallizing ponds occupy a triangular-shaped area between the bay shore, the north boundary of the property, and the San Mateo highway. Bay water is drawn from the head of a canal tliat follows the property boundary and circulated through eight concentrating ponds. The pickle pond is south of the highway, and the crystallizing ponds ex- tend eastward from it along the south property bound- ary. The harvesting method is unique. Salt is hand shov- eled into a skip-loader that carries the salt to trucks at the edge of the pond. The skip-loader operates on a portable runway of 4-foot scjuare wooden panels laid on the salt. Originally trucks were loaded directly by the skip-loader, but a portable hopper has been added into which the loader discharges. This hopper is ecpiipped with a screw elevator for filling the trucks. The loaded trucks carry the salt over the public highway to the washer. The Oliver Brothers Salt Company feels that this skip- loader-truck haulage method of harvesting has been out- grown, in part because it is becoming increasingly Chapt. 2] Recovery 69 Figure 3SB. Ponds, stacks, and washer at the Newport Bay Salt Works, Orange County. awkward to use the public highway. The company con- templates, therefore, the installation of rail-haulage and a loading machine of the revolving pick type. In the spring of 1954 the plans for the change over had reached an advanced stage. The washing plant, which is on the San Mateo high- way, contains a brine-filled dumping pit equipped with a drag chain that raises salt to a log washer. A second drag chain transfers the salt from the log washer over a screen and thence to storage. Fines from the screen are recovered and stacked separately. Products are undried salt in stack-run, coarse-hide, half-ground, and quarter- ground grades shipped in bulk or packed in paper or burlap bags. Monterey Bay Salt Works* The Monterey Ba}' salt works, which is owned and operated by E. C. Vierra, is in sections 7 and 8, T. 13 S., R. 2 E., M.D. near Moss Landing, Monterey County. The property consists of 800 acres of marsh land north of Elkhorn Slough and east of State Highway 1. Four hun- dred acres are in production including about 7 acres of crystallizing ponds. The crystallizing ponds, stock pile, and washer are on the north bank of Elkhorn Slough within 300 yards of the highway, and the concentrat- • Plant visit September, 1954. ing ponds extend about a mile to the north and ea.st. Sea-water pumped from Elkhorn Slough circulates through the concentrating pond system and returns as pickle saturated with sodium chloride to the vicinity of the crystallizing ponds. The intake pump is a centrif- ugal pump of 1500-gallons-per-minute capacity driven with a 10 horse-power electric motor. It is automatically controlled with a tidal float so that it operates near the top of the tide. During the evaporating season the pump is left on automatic control. The concentrating pond system has been modified many times, most recently in 1945. It now consists of five ponds. Number one is a long, sinuous pond running from the intake pump around the west, north, and northeast sides of the concentrating pond area. Brine is transferred at 35 degrees salometer to pond 2 which borders Elkhorn Slough in the southeast portion of the pond area. At 60 to 65 degrees salometer the brine is transferred to pond 3 and at 90 degrees salometer to pond 4, the lime pond. Gypsum that precipitates in the lime pond has formed a one- to two-inch crystalline layer on the bottom that is strong enough to support the weight of a man. From the lime pond the brine goes to two interconnected pickle ponds, number 5, where it is brought to saturation. The pickle, as at San Fran- cisco, has a pronounced red color. The flow from the 70 Salt in California [Bull. 175 nt .^M^'ic ^'L ..KiS5*! Fli.i Kt, ;;'.!. Aiijtii.iiii Sail ( oiiii.aii.v, Mount Kileii. A wiiitPr view with an crnply i rjstiilliziiiy [ntnd iii the rmi^roiuul. FiouRF. 40. Aintriciiu Suit Compaii.v, Muunt Eden. View of the first washer, a screw classifier, and the second washer, a drag chain classifier. Figure 41. Map showinp; the location of Montere.v Ba.v Salt Works, Moss Landing, Montere.v County. Chapt. 2] Recovery 71 Figure 42. Monterey Kay Salt Works, Moss Landing. The pickle pump. Pickle scooped up by the spiral projection on the revolving disk runs out the opening at the axis and is directed through ditches to the crystallizing ponds. intake pump through the concentrating ponds is by gravity, and it is controlled by gates between the ponds. A ditch brings the concentrated brine or pickle to the pickle pump which raises the pickle to a system of distributing ditches and flumes of about 1 square foot in cross sectional area for filling the crystallizing ponds. The pickle pump, which is of local design, consists of a hollow wooden disc 4 feet in diameter and 6 inches thick Figure 43. Monterey Bay Salt Works, Moss Landing. The washer. A slurry of salt and brine pumped from the ponds is dis- charged tangentially into the vertical cylinder. Brine and dirt overflow. A bucket elevator raises the salt from the base of the cylinder to draining screens. with a spiral projection on the periphery. The disc is mounted with its axis horizontal and its lower edge sub- merged so that as it revolves, pickle is scooped up and flows from an opening at the axis. With this type of pump the bearings are not submerged, and the growth of salt crystals does not clog the pump passages. The crystallizing ponds, which are rectangular, are each one-half to one acre in size. Most of them are inter- connected so that pickle flows from one to another, and the pickle is directed to the desired pond by manipu- lating small wooden gates that slide in grooves. When the ponds are drained for harvesting, bittern from the first few ponds is returned to the concentrating pond system, but that from the last pond is drained into Elkhorn Slough. Crystals of epsomite (MgS04-7H20) sometimes form in the last pond. Harvesting normally begins September 1 and is com- pleted by December 1. The salt is lifted by hand and pumped from the ponds as a slurry of salt and concen- trated brine. Men shovel the salt into a portable drag conveyor about 15 feet long placed normal to the direc- tion of travel. An elevated chute at one end of the con- veyor transfers the salt into a 40-foot trough placed parallel to the direction of travel. The trough is sup- plied with concentrated brine piped into the pond, and it discharges into a hopper that feeds a centrifugal booster pump for returning the salt with brine as a carrier to the plant. Two lines of light sheet iron pipe about six inches in diameter are required ; one from a main pump near the washer, and a second from the hopper back to the washer. The hydraulic system is balanced by means of a float in the hopper that is con- nected to the throttle of the booster pump engine. As the harvesting proceeds, the drag chain conveyor is moved forward by a clutch-operated winch powered from the same engine that drives the drag chain. Every 40 feet the operation is stopped ; and the trough, hopper, booster pump, and booster pump engine are advanced. The harvesting equipment is mounted on rubber-tired wheels, and for ease in handling it can be broken down into four units. With this equipment a crew of 13 men can harvest 200 tons of salt per day. Washing is accomplished by the turbulent action of the brine in the pipe line. The pipe line discharges tan- gentially into a classifier consisting of a steel cylinder about 3 feet in diameter and 4 feet high. Brine and dirt overflow and are discharged into a settling pond from which clarified brine is returned to the main pump, and a bucket elevator transfers the salt from the conical bottom of the classifier to the lower end of a draining trough made of monel metal. The salt, propelled up the trough by a drag chain, passes over drain holes, then through a curtain spray of fresh water, and finally to a stacking belt by means of which a stock pile of salt is built up on a wooden floor. Fine salt is recovered from the material that passes through the draining screen and sold for cattle salt. Salt is reclaimed from the main stack as it is required and ground with corrugated rolls. The separation be- tween the rolls is adjustable, and they are driven by an electric motor through gears in such a way that one roll revolves 30 percent faster than the other. A spout is provided beneath the rolls. All the salt is packed in burlap bags, and no bulk sales are made. 72 Salt in California [Bull. 175 E ^20 r> ^^ r 1 ^ ^ 02504 f WoCI-^ ^ — ""/ — /-.- ►-—•"' /rN Q2S04 . lOH 20 / / / J / / r 0° 20° 40° 60° 80° 100° Centigrade 32° 68° 104° 140° TEMPERATURE 176° 212° Fahrenhert Figure 44. Solubilities of NaCl and Na»SOi in water. Formerly the plant included a steam drier for pre- paring salt for the Monterey fish canneries. The drier was destroyed by fire about 1945 and has not been re- placed. SALT FROM TERRESTRIAL BRINES Solar evaporation is applicable to many terrestrial brines, although differences in brine composition and concentration usually require modification of the methods used by the sea water plants. With the strong brines that are common in the desert the concentrating ponds may be reduced or eliminated, and if sodium chloride comprises a high proportion of the dissolved solids, the amount of bittern is small. Evaporation rates are usually high in inland localities and in some desert areas may be two to three times that on the coast. The resulting high yields compensate in part for the distance from markets of the desert salt deposits. The System NaCi-NazSOi-HzO Many terrestrial brines from which salt is obtained are higher in sulfate and lower in magnesium than sea water and yield sodium sulfate rather than magnesium- rich bitterns. As the following discussion will show, the solubility of sodium sulfate is greatly influenced by temperature, and at the temperatures attained in winter in the California deserts it may be less than that of sodium chloride. Consequently if the brine contains sodium sulfate, a solar evaporation plant cannot in many cases be operated in winter. In the first diagram the solubilities of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate in pure water are plotted against temperature. It will be noted that the solubility of sodium chloride increases but little through a tempera- ture range of 100 degrees. With sodium sulfate, however, the solubility ranges from less than 5 percent at zero degrees to a maximum of 33.6 percent at 32.75 degrees. In this portion of the curve Na2SO4-10H2O is the solid phase, or in other words, if a solution of sodium sulfate were evaporated at a temperature less than 32.75 de- grees, ery.stals of Na2SO4-10H2O would precipitate. At higher temperatures anhydrous Na2S04 is the solid phase. As the sketch shows, the solubility of Na2S04 decreases as the temperature is raised. If a solution contains both sodium chloride and so- dium sulfate, the solubility curve is more complex, as shown in the second diagram which, for the sake of clarity, is not to scale. Point Cli represents the solu- bility of sodium chloride at temperature Ti and point S] the solubility of sodium sulfate at temperature Tj. If, the temperature remaining constant, sodium sulfate is added to a saturated solution of sodium chloride, some sodium chloride will crystallize out. Further additions of sulfate cause more chloride to crystallize until the point Pi is reached. Similarly, curve SiPi represents the decease in solubility of sodium sulfate caused by additions of sodium chloride. Along curve CliPi sodium chloride is the solid phase and along curve SiPi it is sul- o D £ o o o o o o z e D Grams NO2SO4 / 100 Grams Sat. Sol."*; Figure 45. Sketch illustrating the system NaCl-NasSO.-HiO. Field I : Unsaturated solutions. Field II : Variable saturated solu- tions plus solid NaCl. Field III : Variable siiturnted solutions plus solid sodium sulfate. Field IV : Solution of compo.sition P with varying amounts of solid NaCl and solid .sodium sulfate. (CliPiSi = solubility curve at temperature Ti ; CliPaS. = solubility curve at temperature Ta ; Qi = initial composition of the solution; Qi — Q.., = evaporation at temperature Ti, no change in the proportion of the dissolved solids; Q2 — Qs = evaporation of saturated solu- tion at temperature Ti, precipitation of NaCl; Qs — Q4 = precipi- tation of sodium sulfate upon cooling the system Ti to T2. ) Chapt. 2] Recovery 73 15- ^ 25'C *■'*»* . teiubiliiT 01 Nt ia)H'ot«d ■■•ri NoCi and No,SO,.0'-50'C . po.nti ot -Hi(H Mo, so, and Ne,SO, 10 M,0 ar« m «a».I.Dr»>in ot 25-C Ofd iO'C • NoCl s 1 1 v\ • No, SO. • NO.SO. tOH^O o \ V \ \ •■'° \ sccXV v^ \ \ \ \ "'*^ \ IT7-F1 \ ^^' \ .-P \ ,sO \ *\ \'-" \v' , \X% Figure 46. The system XaCl - N'a.SO. -II:0 fate. At point Pi the solution is saturated with both sodium chloride and sodium sulfate. At higher temperatures the solubility curve is shifted to the right and at lower temperatures to the left. CI2P2S2 is the solubility curve at a lower temperature To. An example will illustrate the practical significance of the solubility relations of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate. Let Q2 be the composition of an unsaturated solu- tion of temperature Ti. If the solution be evaporated the concentration will increase, but the proportions of chloride to sulfate remain the same. The composition will therefore reach point Q2 on the solubility curve. P\irther evaporation will cause the precipitation of so- dium chloride, and the composition will follow the solu- tion curve toward Pi. If, when the solution has reached the composition Q3 the temperature falls to To, the solubility curve will be shifted to CI2P2S2. Point Q3 will therefore fall in field III, and the solution will contain an excess of sodium sulfate. The line Q3-Q4 represents the precipitation of sodium sulfate resulting from the cooling of the solution from a temperature of Ti to To. ITSp /17.5 sJ k 02804 } y /^LrNozSo ,• IOH2O 1 y y^ < 1 The third diagram represents the system NaCl- NaoS04 - IIoO at several teniperatures drawn to scale. It will be noted that in the temperature range 0° C. to 50° C. the portion of the solubility curve CIP, in which sodium chloride is the solid phase, is shifted but slightly. At temperatures above 17.5° C. a third solid phase, anhydrous sodium sulfate, appears; and at above 32.75° C. hj'drous sodium sulfate disappears entirely. As may be deduced from the first diagram, the solubility curve reaches its farthest point to the right at 32.75° C. At higher temperatures it shifts progressively to the left. In the fourth diagram the P points are plotted against temperature. The curve shows the maximum sodium sul- fate content of sodium chloride-sulfate solutions that yield sodium chloride upon evaporation. California Practice Salton Sea Nattiral Conditions. The water of Salton Sea is a sodium chloride brine with an appreciable proportion of sodium sulfate. As mentioned in an earlier section of this report the proportion of sulfate seems to be in- creasing. The dissolved solids content, approximately that of sea water, was about 3.5 percent in November 1952. Rainfall in the area is about 2 inches per year, and the average evaporation rate determined by pan tests is 108 inches per year. From measurements of the sea level and estimates of the inflow made about 1910, the actual evaporation from the surface of Salton Sea itself has been computed to be 65 to 70 inches per year. 10 20 40 40 50 TEMPERATURE DEGREES CENTIGRADE Figure 47. Solubility of NazSOi in solutions saturated with NaCl. i+-r^H Figure 48. Imperial Salt Works. Salton Sea. Ruins of the washer. Between 1946 when the plant was last operated and 1954 Salton Sea rose about 5 feet and flooded the plant site. At present overflow and drainage from the Imperial Valley irrigation system is more than enough to com- pensate for the loss of water from Salton Sea by evapo- ration. In recent years the level has been rising, and large areas along the flat southern and southeastern shores have been flooded. The Imperial Salt Works. The Imperial salt works was the largest on Salton Sea and the last of a number of solar evaporation plants built by Seth and Chester Hartley. Salt was produced by them from 1935 through 1942. The operation was then sold to the Western Salt 74 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Company, and Chester Hartley was retained as superin- tendent. Production was last reported in 1946. The wash- ing plant and crystallizing ponds were under water in 1953. The plant was 2 miles south and west of Frink Station on the shore of Salton Sea on land lea.sed from the Imperial Irrigation District. When in operation the plant had a capacity of 16,000 tons of salt a year obtained from 160 acres of concen- trating ponds and 14^ to 15 acres of crystallizing ponds. Water was taken in through a canal roughly a quarter of a mile long driven approximately normal to the shore line and concentrated in two series of nine ponds, one on each side of the canal. The ponds were confined be- tween end levees parallel to the canal and were sepa- rated by additional levees normal to the gentle slope of the land towards Salton Sea. A pump or pumps of 2700 gallons per minute capacity lifted water from the head of the canal to the first pond in each series. After the initial pump lift, the water flowed by gravity through the ponds, controlled by gates set in the dividing levees. In order to minimize stagnant areas, the intake point of each pond was at the corner diagonally opposite the outlet. Evaporation in the concentrating ponds brought the brine to saturation with respect to sodium chloride. The first several ponds served also as settling basins in which insoluble matter, dead birds, and other rubbish were removed. In ponds seven and eight pink algae developed. The final pond, number nine or the gypsum pond, was filled with brine having a specific gravity of 22° Be, and pickle ready for the crystallizing ponds was withdrawn at 28.95° Be. At this concentration all traces of gypsum had precipitated. The formation of gypsum in pond nine w^as so copious that within the life of the plant pond nine became en- tirely filled, and it was necessary to use pond eight as the gj'psum pond. The plant had two crystallizing ponds, each supplied from a series of concentrating ponds. Eight inches of pickle were kept on the salt formed, because this condi- tion caused the maximum growth of half-ground-size crystals, the grade that was most readily marketed. Bittern was withdrawn at 31.85° Be and discarded. The temperature was a critical factor because the bittern was rich in sodium sulfate. At less than about 38° F. sodium sulfate would precipitate in the crystal- lizing ponds on the salt already formed. In order to pre- vent this "freezing out" of sodium sulfate, the harvest was started early in October. The salt was harvested once a year. The crystallizing ponds were drained and harvested at once before the exposed salt hardened. A dragline scraper lifted the salt and loaded it into side dump cars that were hauled to the washer by a gasoline locomotive. Two portable run- ways 4 feet wide built of planks were laid on the salt to support the treads of the dragline. At the washer cars were dumped into a pit large enough to accommodate five cars at a time. The salt received three washes with pickle, and the dirty wash brine was clarified in a set- tling pond before being used again. Mullet Island Salt Works. The Mullet Island salt works of the Reeder Salt Company was near Mullet Island in section 0, T. 11 S., R. 13 E., S.B. on land leased from the Imperial Irrigation District. Production was reported from 1940 to 1942 inclusive and a small pro- duction was reported from the same locality in 1919 and 1934. Salt was produced by the solar evaporation of the water of Salton Sea supplemented with brine from an artesian well on Mullet Island. Some bittern, recorded in the statistics files of the Division of Mines as calcium chloride, was sold for laying dust on roads. In the early operations well brine only was evaporated. An analysis of the well brine is included in table 2. The Reeder plant contained a series of three concen- trating ponds. In the first the concentration was raised to 30 percent of saturation, to 50 percent in the second, and to 70 percent in the third. The concentrated brine was pumped to crystallizing ponds where salt formed. A portion of the bittern was pumped out of the crystal- lizing ponds while crystallization was in progress, but most of the bittern was discarded just before the harvest. Much of the salt produced was used locally for the icing of refrigerator cars. The Salton Works. The Salton works, the first solar evaporation plant built on Salton Sea by Seth Hartley, was on the north shore 6 miles southeast of Mecca. It was active from 1927 to about 1930. Four concentrating ponds totaling 250 acres in area supplied pickle to 12 acres of crystallizing ponds. A crop of about 1500 tons was harvested in 1929, but little if any of it was mar- keted. Fkh RF 4!». Long Beach Salt Company, Saltdale plant. The mill and train of salt hloclis from the cr.vPtallii'.ing ponds. Saltdale Works, Long Beach Salt Company * The Saltdale works of the Long Beach Salt Company is in section 3, T. 30 S., R. 38 E., M.D. (projected) at Saltdale on the north margin of Koehn Dry Lake. Salt has been produced intermittently since 1914. The Long Beach Salt Company acquired the operation in 1928, and the Western Salt Company has owned the Long Beach Salt Company since 1950. Salt is produced by the solar evaporation of the sur- face brine of Koehn Lake. The operation is dependent u]ion the run off of storm water from the surrounding mountains which collects in the lake and dissolves a thin • Plant visits April 1953, February 1955. Chapt. 2] Recovery 75 erust of efflorescent salts. No analysis of the brine is available. Several times lack of rain has forced tiie shut down of the operation for periods of several years. Salt was harvested in 1952 for the first time since 1948. The surface brine is collected by a ditch 1.7 miles long that was constructed in the 1930 's by the simultaneous detonation of a series of dynamite charges buried in the mud. The ditch terminates at the shore close to the evaporating ponds. The plant contains five crystallizing ponds having a total area of 26 acres and a storage pond of 40 acres. The ponds are filled through flumes that connect them with pumps at the terminal of the ditch. Brine is collected whenever the specific gravity is be- tween 20° Be and 24° Be. At higher concentrations salt crystallizes in the pumps, and the brine cannot be handled. As the evaporating brine approaches 20° Be it is reduced to a thin sheet that the wind readily moves about over the nearly level surface of the lake. Fre- quently it is blown beyond the reach of the ditch, and upon its return it may be too concentrated to handle. In order to avoid the loss of a potential crop, brine may be taken at an earlier stage and brought to saturation in the 40 acre storage pond. Ordinarily however, the crys- tallizing ponds are filled with saturated brine taken di- rectly from the ditch. The crystallizing ponds are filled to a depth of 30 inches and allowed to evaporate almost to dryness. Xormallj' four months are required. Before the harvest a small amount of bittern is drained off. Then the salt is lifted with mechanical equipment and loaded into dump cars that are hauled by a Plymouth locomotive to the mill, about three quarters of a mile to the north. At the mill the cars discharge through a grizzly to a hammer mill. The crushed product is elevated to the top of the building where a multiple section trommel screen produces three sizes, number one, number two, and num- ber three. Nominally these sizes are minus four mesh, plus four mesh, minus "/ig inch, and plus Yiq inch minus f inch respectively, conforming to the standard sizes of the Western Salt Company. Belts carry the sized prod- ucts to sacking machines or to bins for bulk loading. Shipments are made both by truck and by rail. The mill contains a rotary kiln and hummer vibrating screens for producing kiln dried salt. Figure .'iO. Old salt evaporating pond, l)ale Chemical Indus- tries, Dale Lake. The salt encrusted structure formerl.v supported a pump for emptying the pond. Salt Recovery at Dale Lake Salt has been produced at Dale Lake as a by-product of the recovery of sodium sulfate. Dale Lake, which is 20 miles east of Twentynine Palms and about 30 miles south of Amboy, contains a series of superimposed, lenticular halite and thenardite (Na2S04) beds per- meated with strong sodium chloride-sulfate brine. The principal production of salines has been from the brine which contains 7.5 to 8 percent sodium sulfate, 20 to 22 percent sodium chloride and has a specific gravity of 1.21 to 1.25. The nearest shipping point is at Amboy on the Santa Fe railway. Fresh water is obtained from two wells west of the lake. Dale Chemical Industries Incorporated recovered so- dium sulfate and sodium chloride from brine pumped from wells. Chilling of the brine, effected by spraying in winter, caused the crystallization of mirabilite (Na2S04 -101120) which was then converted to anhy- drous sodium sulfate. Sodium chloride was produced from the sulfate free tail liquor by solar evaporation. The plant has been idle since December 1948. Don's Salt Service, however, is salvaging in a small scale operation the salt that was left unharvested in the crys- tallizing ponds. Dale Chemical Industries Incorporated. Although Dale Lake was explored by Irving E. Bush between 1920 and 1924, production was first achieved in 1940. The Desert Chemical Company initially as lessee and later as owner, operated the property from that date until 1947 when it was sold. The present owner. Dale Chem- ical Industries Incorporated, has not operated the plant since December 1948. Brine was pumped from 10 wells sunk about 250 feet deep into the crystal body. Normally the brine level averaged about 57 feet below the surface, but it is pos- sible that at some time in the early 1940 's the brine supply was depleted. A crater-like sink 100 feet in diameter has formed where fresh water had been pumped into the crystal body through a well. The first step in the recovery of salines was the spray- ing of the brine in winter. The brine was thus chilled enough for mirabilite to crystallize and collect like snow in the spraying ponds. The following summer the mi- rabilite was dissolved and then evaporated in solar ponds. Under the high summer temperature conditions thenardite crystallized. Losses of mirabilite, probably caused by pond leak- age, were high ; and Dale Chemical Industries developed a chemical process for the conversion of mirabilite to anhydrous sodium sulfate. The new process had been used for only three months and all problems had not been completely solved when a drop in the price of sodium sulfate forced the closing of the plant. Salt was recovered by solar evaporation from the low-sulfate brine remaining in the spraying ponds after mirabilite had crystallized. Pan evaporation tests at Hayfield on the Colorado River Aqueduct about 30 miles to the south show that evaporation is 140 to 150 inches per year (Young, 1948). At Dale Lake salt was recov- ered during the summer months when the evaporation rate was highest. An 80-acre storage pond was provided to receive the low sulfate brine resulting from the winter spraying; and the salt was recovered in four crystalliz- 76 Salt in California [Bull. 175 ing ponds, each 5 acres in size that were supplied with brine by a system of electric pumps and 6-inch diameter pipe lines. Don 's Salt Service * Don Beiter Jr., through an ar- rangement with Dale Chemical Industries Incorporated, is recovering salt that was left unharvested in the crys- tallizing ponds when the main operation was shut down. By 1950 when the operation began, the salt had become dust covered, and the forces of crystallization had broken the original smooth surface into blocks that were heaved into ridges. Bulldozing is required to recover the salt. A small plant has been built in which the salt is crushed and sacked. The product, in which insoluble and sulfate are the principal impurities, contains 94 percent NaCl. Most of the output is trucked to the Indio area where it is sold to cattle feeders. Operations in Saline Valley A substantial tonnage of salt has been produced in Saline Valley by the Saline Valley Salt Company from 1911 to 1914, the Owens Valley Salt Company from 1915 to 1918, and the Sierra Salt Company from 1926 • Plant visit April 1953. Floi'RE .')1. California Salt Company, Bristol Lake. An auger drill. The cluick rests on the axle. The drill stands on rock salt exposed in a long pit from which the overburden of clay has been stripped off. The salt in front of the drill has been blasted. to 1930. ilost of the salt was shipped out of Saline Val- ley by means of an aerial tramway across the Inyo Range to a point near Keeler in Owens Valley. The Saline Valley terminal of the tramway was on the south side of the pond of water called Salt Lake. Several methods of recovery have heen employed. At first the salt was merely scraped from the playa surface. Much salt was recovered by recrystallizing the crude salt in place. A supply of fresh water was developed by dam- ming up the small stream that flows into Salt Lake. By means of levees, selected s,ections of the playa were flooded with water ; and after the brine thus formed had evaporated, the recrystallized salt was harvested. At another time a number of crystallizing ponds were built near the tramway terminal in which brine obtained by flooding the playa with fresh water was evaporated. In 1954 D. O. ilorrison, J. J. McKenna, and Tony Pinheiro of Bakersfield leased the Saline Valley salt deposit from T. K. Temple of Los Angeles.* The dam was rebuilt, levees were constructed, and some salt was recrystallized in place. About 2000 tons of salt were harvested and stockpiled on the northwest side of Salt Lake. RECOVERY OF ROCK SALT Operations at Bristol Lake From 1912 to 1951 inclusive Bristol Lake has yielded more than 1,630,000 tons of salt. Although claims were located as earl.y as 1908 little salt was recovered before World War I, and not until the World War II period did the rate of production exceed 10,000 tons per year. More than 98 percent of the salt has been produced by the California Salt Company and its predecessors. Bristol Lake contains a series of superimposed len- ticular rock salt beds that are permeated with a meager amount of saturated sodium-calcium chloride brine. The California Salt Company quarries salt from the topmost bed. This company and the National Chloride Company of America produce calcium chloride from brine col- lected in pits or trenches and concentrated in solar ponds to 40° Be. At this density all but a trace of the sodium chloride has crystallized out, and the residual liquor is either sold as liquid calcium chloride or further processed to produce flake calcium chloride. The salt that precipitates in the concentrating ponds is dis- carded. The California Salt Company f The California Salt Company owns 35 claims in the eastern and southern portions of T. 5 N., R. 12 E., S.B., south of Amboy and has a washer at Saltus on the main line of the Santa Fe Railway. The main office is at 2436 Hunter Street, Los Angeles. W. F. Biedebach is Presi- dent, and Kenneth Staples is Plant Superintendent. The California Salt Company can be traced back to the Crystal Salt Company of California which reported the production of salt in 1909. But little salt was pro- duced, however, until 1921 when the California Rock Salt Company leased the property. This company, now the California Salt Company, has been in continuous production since that time and has owned the deposit since 1927. Production was increased many fold in • Gay, T. E., Jr., personal communication, 1955. t Plant visits May 1951, April 1953. Chapt. 2] Recovery 77 Figure 52. California Salt OomiKin.v, Bristol Lake. Dragline for loading salt. Overburden has been stripped from the salt and stacked in long rows. After the salt thus exposed has been drilled and blasted, the dragline loads it into cars. A service road appears in the foreground. World War II when salt was furnished to Basic Mag- nesium Incorporated at Las Vegas. Since the war the output has remained high. Quarrying. The California Salt Company quarries salt from a near surface lens in the south central por- tion of T. 5 N., R. 12 E., S.B. The present workings are in sections 33 and 34 and have been extended from the original diggings in the southeast quarter of section 28. With a maximum thickness of 7 feet, the salt lens is believed to average 5 feet thick over an area of 5 square miles. The overburden, consisting of salty clay 3 to 7 feet thick, is stripped; and the salt thus exposed is drilled and blasted. In stripping, a Northwest dragline with a 70 foot boom excavates a series of parallel trenches as much as 1000 feet long. The trenches are made in pairs, one on each side of a line of temporary narrow gage track laid on the lake surface. The spoil is piled on salt-bear- ing ground on the sides of the trenches away from the track, and no attempt has been made to recover the salt beneath the spoil banks. The salt that has been exposed is drilled with a gasoline-powered auger and blasted with 30 percent dynamite, and a second Northwest drag- line loads the broken salt into wooden dump cars of five cubic yards capacity. After mining has been completed Figure 53. Surface of the crystal body, Scarles Lake. Photo taken in August 1951 before the Pacific Salt and Chemical Com- pany commenced scraping operations. This portion of the lake had been scraped smooth by the American Potash & Chemical Corpora- tion in 1926. Phoio hy Frank A. Richie. in the stripped areas, the two trenches are widened in the direction toward the track ; and before the area is abandoned, the narrow pillar beneath the track itself is removed. Gasoline-powered locomotives haul the salt in trains of 20 cars to the washer at Saltus, 4 miles away. The Washer. The crude material mined has a salt content of but little more than 50 percent. Most of the impurities are clay that fills the crystal interstices, and washing yields a product 98 percent pure. The present washer, which was built in 1940, has an output capacity of 50 tons per hour. Cars of salt are dumped through a grizzly to crushing rolls, and the crushed salt is elevated to the first washer, a mechanical classifier with two screws. Salt from the first washer is recrushed with a second set of rolls before going to the second washer, also a screw classifier. The product from the second washer is sent to a bin or di- FiGURE 54. Pacific Salt and Chemical Company, Searlcs Lake. Scraping salt with a grader from the surface of the crystal body. Salt obtained in this way is approximately 99 percent pure. Photo by Frank A. Riehte. 78 Salt in California [Bull. 175 rectly to railroad cars. Shipments are made of both bagged and bulk salt. Most of the equipment in the washer is driven through belts and shafts by a single large electric motor. Wash water flows countercurrently through the two washers and is discharged with the entrained dirt on the lake surface west of the plant. The consumption of water approximates the output of salt. The wash water, a dilute brine of roughly the salinity of sea water, is obtained from a group of small wells near the plant. These wells, which are 160 to 200 feet deep, are equipped with air lift-pumps. Salt Recovery From Searles Lake Searles Lake, a world< famous source of potash, borax, soda ash, and other salines, has yielded a comparatively small commercial production of common salt. While com- plex borates, carbonates, and sulfates make up much of the crvstal body, the upper 10 or 15 feet is sodium chlor- ide of'high purity (Teeple, 1929, pp. 11-19; Ryan, 1951, pp. 447, 448). Salt has been produced from the surface of the crystal body at two periods; by the American Potash & Chemical Corporation and its predecessor from 1921 to 1926, and by the Pacific Salt and Chemical Com- pany beginning in June 1951. In addition, sodium chlor- ide is produced from the lake brine in tlie main evapora- tors of the American Potash & Chemical Corporation at the rate of 2500 tons per day, but it is discarded (Ryan, 1951, p. 451). Operations of the Pacific Salt and Chemical Company* The Pacific Salt and Chemical Company recovers salt from fee holdings of the American Potash & Chemical Corporation on Searles Lake. Frank A. Riehle Jr. is the owner, and the company office is at 1517 East Olympic Boulevard, Los Angeles. The Pacific Salt and Chemical Company pa3's royalties on the salt mined to the Amer- ican Potash & Chemical Corporation. The operation, which began in June 1951, consists of scraping salt from the surface of the crystal body and trucking it over the principal service road of the Amer- ican Potash & Chemical Corporation to a siding on the Trona Railway at Argus, a distance of about four miles. Salt is obtained from the same portion of the lake that was worked in the 1921-1926 operation. In this area the natural surface consists of rough, dust covered salt that has been broken into cakes and thrown into hummocks by the force of the growing crystals. When the surface is thoroughly dry, the cakes are hard and can be broken free only by bulldozing. The few inches of storm water that may collect in winter, however, dissolves some of the salt; and as the water evaporates it leaves a mushy layer of clean salt that can be readily scraped up. Dur- ing the 25 years when no salt was produced and the surface was not touched, the rough cakes of salt formed again. Although the rough, untouched surface of the crystal bodv can be broken only by bulldozing, a patrol grader suffices for the mushy salt. The grader scrapes the salt into long windrows from which a Hough Payloader, a machine of the skip loader type, loads it into a truck. At the loading point in Argus a stock of 10,000 tons is maintained in order that shipments can be continued • Plant visit April 1953. Figure .lij. Pacific Salt and Chemical Company, Searles Lake. Loading salt. Salt is scraped into windrows and then loaded into trucks for h.iulinK to railroad cars at Argus. Photo by Frank A. Riehle. when the water in the lakes is so deep that equipment cannot operate there. A toothed roll crusher fed by a reciprocating pan feeder has been installed to crush the hard cakes obtained early in the operation, but at pres- ent the crushing equipment is used only for salt that is to be shipped in bags. Salt shipped in bulk is loaded directly into gondola cars from the truck that brings it from the lake. Anali/sis of salt shipped from Searles Lake, Pacific Salt and Chemical Company. Water insoluble 0.04 percent Iron and aluminum oxide Trace Calcium carbonate Trace Calcium sulfate none Calcium chloride none Magnesium carbonate Trace Magnesium sulfate none Magnesium chloride none Sodium carbonate 0.31 percent Sodium sulfate 0.72 percent Sodium chloride 98.93 percent Sodium borate Trace Arsenic oxide 0.0009 percent Although the presence of arsenic renders this salt unfit for food use, it has been found to be acceptable for cattle. Moreover, its freedom from calcium gives it an advantage for some purposes. BIBLIOGRAPHY Allin, B. C, 1948, Salt port built on mud foundations: Western Construction News, vol. 23, no. 7, pp. 82-84, July (the Redwood City plant). Badger, W. L., and Baker, F. M., 1941, Inorganic chemical technology. 2 ed., pp. 19-26, New York, McGraw-Hill (vacuum refining). Bartlett, H. W., 1930, Salt yielded by sea-water evaporation harvested by huge tractor: Pit and Quarry, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 22-26, 62, July 16 (Alviso Salt Co.). Blasdale, W. C, 1927, Equilibria in saturated salt solutions, 197 pp., New York, Chemical Catalog Co. Bloch, M. R., and others, 1951 : Solar evaporation of salt brine : Indus, and Eng. Chemistry, vol. 43, no. 7, pp. 1544-1553, July (a mathematical approach). Chapt. 2] Recovery 79 Bucheii, J. C, 1087. Evaporating salt from world's largest min- eral deposit: >lin. and Mptallurgy, vol. 18, no. 307, pp. 335-338, •Tilly (Leslie Salt Co.). Chemical Week, 19.">la, Salt or sewage: Cliein. Week. vol. 69, no. 1.'^, p. li), Xov. .'{ (the Leslie-San Jose ease). Chemical Week, li)511). Salt wins: Chem. Week, vol. 69, no. 26, p. 17, l>ec. 29 (the Leslie-San .Tose case). Coleman. C H., 1929, A biological survey of Salton Sea : Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 218- 227, .July (Salt works at Mullet Island, includes well brine analysis) . Davis, F. F., 19.50, Mines and mineral resources of Alameda County : Calif. Jour. Mines and Geology, vol. 46, pp. 307-316. Dibblee. T. W., Jr., and Gay, T. E., Jr., 19.j2, Mineral deposits of Saltdale quadrangle: Calif. Div. Mines Bull. 160, p. 51, (Salt- dale operation) . Leslie Salt Co., 1953, Report on a sewage effluent disposal plan for San Jose. MacMullin, R. B., 1942, Natural salts and by-products, in Furnas, C. C. Rogers' industrial chemistry, 6th ed., v. 1, pp. 3,55-382, New York, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc. Mellor, J. W.. 1946, Inorganic and theoretical chemistry, v. 2, p. 691, New Xork, Longmans, Green & Co. (the system NaCl- Xa.SO.-H;0). Peirce, G. J., 1914, The behavior of certain micro-organisms in brine, in MacDougal, D. T., and others, The Salton Sea : Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 193, pp. 49-69 (observations near Redwood City). Phalen, W. C, 1917, Technology of salt making in the United States: U. S. Bur. Mines Bull. 146. pp. 40-48 (California). Ryan, J. E., 1951, Industrial salts: production at Searles Lake: Am." Inst. Min. Met. Eng. Trans., vol. 190. pp. 447-452. San Diego Div. Nat. Res., 1948, Annual Rept. v. 4, no. 4, pp. 9, 10 (Chula Vista salt operation). San Diego Div. Nat. Res., 1950, Annual Rept. v. 6, no. 2, pp. 7-12 (Chula Vista salt operation). Schrier. Elliot. 19.52, Passing the salt: Chem. Eng., v. 59, no. 10, pp. 139-141, Oct. (Leslie Salt Co.). Seaton, M. Y., 1931, Bromine and magnesium compounds drawn from western bays and hills: Chem. and Metall. Eng. v. 38, no. 11, Xov. (analysis of sea water bittern). Seidell, Atherton, 1940, Solubilities of inorganic and metal or- ganic compounds, 3d ed. v. 1, 1698, pp.. New York, D. Van Nostrand Co. Teeple, J. E., 1929, The Industrial development of Searles Lake brine. New York, Chemical Catalog Co., 182 pp. Tressler, D. K., and Lemon, J. McW., Marine products of com- merce, 2d. ed., pp. 12-46, New Y'ork, Reinhold Publishing Corp. (the solar salt industry including that of California). Tucker, W. B., and Reed, C. H., 1939, Mineral resources of San Diego County: Calif. Div. Mines Rept. 35, p. 48 (Chula Vista salt operation). Tucker, W. B., and others, 1949, Mineral resources of Kern County, California : Calif. Jour. Mines and Geology, v. 45, p. 2.50 (Saltdale operation). Walker, W. H., and others. 1937, Principles of chemical engi- neering, 3d. ed., pp. 365-423, New Y'ork, McGraw-Hill Co. (evap- oration) . Wright, L. A., and others, 19.53, Mines and mineral resources of San Bernardino County, California : Calif. Jour. Mines and Geology, v. 49, pp. 49-257 (salt, pp. 237, 239, and 240. 241). Young, A. A., 1948, Evaporation from water surfaces in Cali- fornia : Calif. Div. Water Res. Bull. 54-A, p. 84, Table 147 (evap- oration pan records at Hayfield, Riverside County). CHAPTER 3 THE REFINING OF SALT CONTENTS OF CHAPTER 3 Page The Leslie Salt Co., refinery 85 Kiln dried salt 85 The vacuum refinery 86 The Morton Salt Company refinery 89 The vacuum refinery 89 Kiln dried salt 91 The dairy mill 91 Illustrations 1. Diagrammatic sketch of the Newark salt refinery, Leslie Salt Co. 83 2. Photo showing Leslie Salt Co. refinery, Newark 84 3. Photo showing kiln drier, Leslie Salt Co 85 Page 4. Photo showing press for producing cattle blocks, Leslie Salt Co. 85 5. Photo showing brine preparation tanks, Leslie Salt Co. refinery, Newark 87 6. Swenson basket type evaporator 88 7. Photo showing upper floor of evaporator house, Leslie Salt Co. refinery 88 8. Photo showing lower floor of evaporator house, Leslie Salt Co. refinery 89 9. Photo showing mixing of additives with vacuum salt, Leslie Salt Co. refinery 90 10. Photo showing filling of 100-pound paper bags, Leslie Salt Co. refinery 91 11. Photo showing filling of rounds, Leslie Salt Co. refinery, Newark 92 (82) THE REFINING OF SALT The washing of crude salt could be considered as a kind of refining. As shown in an earlier section of this report the mere washing of solar salt in concentrated brine raises the sodium chloride content from less than 98 percent to more than 99 percent. At least as late as 1920 some small plants in the San Francisco Bay area sold unwashed salt. Two general t3-pes of refined salt are produced today. One is semirefined or kiln dried salt with a sodium chloride content of about 99.8 percent. It is a moisture free, sterile product produced by heating rewashed crude undried salt in a kiln to about 365° F. The second general type is refined by the recrystallization of a chemically treated brine prepared by dissolving crude salt in fresh water. The recrystallization is usually done in vacuum pans, and the product is called vacuum salt. With a sodium chloride content of 99.95 percent or more, vacuum salt is the purest type commercially available. Not only is it possible with the vacuum pan to produce salt of high purity, but the particle shape and size can be controlled as well. The grains of vacuum salt are nearly perfect cubes. Some salt is recrystallized in a type of open pan called a grainer, but no grainers are in operation in California. Grainer salt characteristically consists of flaky grains and is used to a limited extent for certain purposes such as salting crackers. California Salt Refineries. Throughout the 19th cen- tury fine salt for table and other use was prepared in California by grinding, drying, and sizing crude salt. Grainer salt was made by the old Union Pacific Salt Company from about 1900 to 1915 and by the Oliver Salt Company in 1925. The first, or at least one of the first, vacuum refineries in California was built in 1910 at San Mateo by the Leslie Salt Refining Company. About the same time the California Salt Company built a refinery near Alvarado. Both of these companies were predecessors of the Leslie Salt Co. A third refinery was operated in San Francisco from the pre- World War I period into the 1920 's by an affiliate of the Stauffer Chemical Company. The San Mateo refinery was closed in 1930, and the Alvarado refinery remained in operation until, in 1941, the Leslie Salt Co. replaced it with a plant at Newark. Also at Newark is the Morton Salt Company's refinery, built in 1926. Outside of the San Francisco Bay area, the Reeder Salt Company produced vacuum salt in South Pasadena during the 1930 's and the Saltdale plant of the Long Beach Salt Company contains equipment for making kiln dried salt. The refineries of the Ijeslie Salt Co. and the Morton Salt Company are the only ones in operation in Cali- fornia at present. Both are at Newark. K.D. WASHER SALT TO L KILN DRIER SALT TRANSFER TANK 9-* Tunnel sprayi water return f . Well woter SALT DISSOLVING TANK TUNNEL SPRAYS 3 KD. WASH BRINE TANKS BRINE CIRCULATING TANK Wosti brine TUNNEL SPRAY WATER TANK Various wosti brines j_TreaIed fresh wotc 1 >^>'^>^>'^ 3 BOILERS Pan feed line CONDENSER VACUUM PUMP Condensate tine PAN FEED SETTLING TANK (GYPSUM SETTLES) Condensate PAN BRINE RETURN TANK 5 BRINE TREATMENT AND STORAGE TANKS Lime hydrate • Soda ash CO2 Sludge settles C0CO3 Gypsum Mg(0H)2 -Treoted brine CONDENSATE STORAGE TANK PAN FEED TANK Coke (to drier) Figure 1. Diagrammatic sketch of the Newark salt refinery, Leslie Salt Co. (83 84 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Chapt. 3] Refining 85 The Vacuum Process. In the vacuum process, brine is prepared by dissolving crude salt in fresh water and treating it chemically to remove some impurities. The treated brine is then evaporated by boiling with steam in a closed vessel called a pan. Salt of high purity con- tinuously crystallizes and falls to the bottom, leaving most of the remaining impurities in the mother liquor. Because the vapor pressure and hence the boiling point of a liquid is reduced when the pressure on the surface is lowered, the pan is operated under vacuum. In order to obtain greater economy of steam two or more pans or "effects" are operated in multiple in the following man- ner. The first effect is heated with exhaust steam or live steam from a boiler that passes through the steam belt or heat exchanger immersed in brine. Vapor rising from the boiling brine is piped to the steam belt of the sec- ond effect. This low temperature steam contains heat enough to boil the brine in the second effect because the second effect is under a higher vacuum than the first. In a similar manner, vapor from the second effect heats the brine in a third effect operating at a still higher vacuum. The final effect is exhausted with a vacuum pump or other means of producing a vacuum. As many as five effects may be used. THE LESLIE SALT CO. REFINERY The Leslie Salt Co.'s refinery is off Central Avenue, Newark, near the Newark number two crude salt plant and the undried salt processing plant. Kiln dried and vacuum salt are produced. The refinery is supplied with stack-run crude salt drawn from the belt that feeds the undried salt processing plant. The refinery feed may also consist in part of off sizes or surplus sizes produced by the undried salt processing plant. Within the refinery the flow splits and goes part to the kiln dried section and part to the vacuum section. Kiln-dried Salt The crude salt is first rewashed with treated brine. The washer consists of a drag-classifier with a perforated bottom section to allow drainage. Wash brine overflows and is recirculated. After several days of draining, the rewashed salt passes through a rotary hot air drier where a temperature of about 365° F. is reached. The fuel is natural gas or butane if natural gas is not available. Traces of organic matter are charred by the firing, and the moisture content is reduced to a few hundredths of a percent. After passing through a rotary cooler, the salt is processed into several sizes with hummer screens and roll crushers. The various sizes are then automatic- ally weighed into paper or cloth bags. With a sodium chloride content of over 99.8 percent, kiln-dried salt is used for livestock feeding, meat pack- ing, fish curing, canning, water softening, and many Figure 3. Kiln drier for producing kiln dried salt, Leslie Salt Co. Crude rewashed salt is heated to about 36.^° F in a gas-fired drier to produce a moisture-free, sterile product for many food- preparation and industrial uses. Photo by International Nickel Co., courtesy Leslie Salt Co. FlGlTiE 4. Press for producing cattle blocks, Leslie Salt Co. Salt blocks ranging in size from the 50-pound cattle block to the small Petlick are made by compressing salt dust. No binder is re- quired. Photo by Gabriel Moulin Studios, courtesy Leslie Salt Co. 86 Salt in California [Bull. 175 other purposes. Because of its low moisture content and freedom from caking many consumers prefer it even though undried salt would be pure enough chemically. Kiln-dried salt is available in five sizes ranging from minus i inch plus 6 mesh (K. D. Extra Coarse) to minus 20 mesh plus 65 mesh (K. D. Topping). "It is also avail- able with added potassium iodide or trace minerals. Salt Blocks. Salt dust from the kiln dried salt crusher is collected and made into cattle blocks with hydraulic presses. They are made in several sizes from the 50 pound cattle block to the small Petlick. Cattle blocks are available plain or may have potassium iodide, phosphate, sulfur, molasses, or trace elements added. The Vacuum Refinery Brine Preparation. Brine is prepared by dissolving crude salt in a mixture of fresh water obtained from wells and condensed steam returned from the steam belts of the evaporators. To this may be added brines obtained from various sources including the concen- trated brine drained from the pans when they are shut down for cleaning and a portion of the kiln dried salt rewasher brine. Dust from the various screens and crushers throughout the plant is collected with a vacuum system and dissolved by passing it through fresh water sprays. This spray dust-collector water also forms part of the pan feed. The untreated brine contains gypsum and magnesium salts present in the crude salt, bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium from the dissolving water, dirt, and organic matter. Unless removed, they would accumulate rapidly in the evaporators, reducing the yield, and con- taminating the salt. The brine is treated with lime hydrate and soda ash in batches in five 100,000 gallon tanks. The chemical re- actions of the lime hydrate-soda ash treatment are as follows : Ca(HC03)2 + Ca(0H)2-^ 2CaC03 i + 2H2O Mg(HC03)2 + 2Ca(OH)2 -^ Mg(0H)2 i + 2CaC03 + 2H2O MgCl2 + Ca(0H)2 -^ Mg(0H)2 i -f CaCl2 MgS04 + Ca(OH)2^Mg(OH)2i + CaS04 The soluble calcium salts resulting from these reac- tions together with gypsum present in the crude salt are precipitated with soda ash. CaCl2 -f Na2C03 -^ CaCOs i + 2NaCl CaS04 + Na2C03 -^ CaC03 i + NagSOi Any excess Ca(0H)2 is precipitated with boiler flue gas. Ca(0H)2 + COs^ CaCOs i + H2O The bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium, mag- nesium sulfate, and magnesium chloride have been pre- cipitated leaving sodium sulfate as the only impurity in solution. In practice only a portion of the gypsum pres- ent in the crude salt is removed by the lime hydrate- soda ash treatment, and therefore the treated brine con- tains some calcium sulfate also. Because each batch is composed of varying propor- tions of raw brine from the sources enumerated above, each tankful must be individually treated. The treat- ment tank is filled, stirred by agitation with air, and sampled to determine the quantities of lime hydrate and soda ash that must be added.* The calculated amounts of lime hydrate and soda ash are prepared in a small metal tank equipped with a motor driven agitator. First the lime hydrate in the form of milk of lime is added. The treatment tank is agitated with air for 5 or 10 minutes while the soda ash is being dissolved in hot water. Then the soda ash is added, and after 5 minutes more of stirring, a second sample is taken for a laboratory check to determine the amount of calcium compounds remaining in the treated brine. t Enough lime hydrate has been used to give an excess alkalinity of from 0.03 to 0.06 gram per liter of Ca(0H)2, sufficient to precipitate all but a trace of the magnesium salts. Even this amount of Ca(0H)2 would revert to CaCOs by the action of CO2 gas liberated from the boiling brine within the pans. In addition NaHC03 present in the dissolving water and the small amount of Na2C03 usually present in the condensed steam used for making up the brine also would be sources of CaCOs in the pans. To avoid forming CaCOs scale on the heat- ing surfaces of the pans the final step in the treatment of the brine is to pass boiler flue gas through the treat- ment tank. The CaS04 content of the brine is reduced to about 0.50 gram per liter. Following the treatment, the brine is allowed to stand for 12 hours. All precipitated matter settles, leaving a clear brine free from organic matter and dirt. Filtration is not required. Brine is drawn from close to the surface through a reinforced rubber hose supported by a wooden float. Beneath the float are legs that, when the tank is emptied, rest on the tank bottom and keep the hose above the precipitated sludge. In addition an electric alarm bell rings in the boiler house when the brine has been drawn down to a predetermined low level. Peri- odically the sludge in the treatment tanks is washed out. The Evaporators. The Leslie Salt Go's, refinery con- tains four Swenson basket type evaporators, three of which are used at a time in triple effect. The pans are made of cast iron and are about 11 feet in inside dia- meter and 26 feet high. Each pan has a heat exchanger or basket consisting of a vertical cylindrical shell within which are some 900 copper tubes 5 feet long and 2^ inches in diameter. Tube sheets that form the ends of the shell and through which the tubes project complete a jacket surrounding the tubes into which steam is ad- mitted. In addition the basket is provided with an air • A quick laboratory check is made by measuring a 50 ml. portion into each of two 600 ml. beakers. To the first beaker 12.5 ml. of N/6 NaOH is added tor the lime hydrate determination. To the second beaker 10 ml. of a standard NasCOs solution about N/2 strength is added for the soda ash determination. Both beakers are brought to boiling and boiled 1 to 2 minutes. They are then filtered through 15 cm. paper, catching filtrates in 300 ml. Erlen- meyer flasks. The precipitates are washed twice on the paper. The first fiask is titrated while still hot with a N/6 HCl solu- tion, using phenolphthalein as the indicator. From the amount of acid used the an^.ount of lime hydrate required for treating the tank is calculated. The second flask is cooled under the cold water faucet and then titrated against N/6 HCl using methyl orange as the Indicator. The amount of soda ash required is cal- culated from the quantity of acid consumed. t The sample is first filtered free from precipitated matter. Then Ca(OH)3 is determined by titration with N/6 HCl, using phe- nolphthalein. Soluble CaCOs is determined by a second titration using methyl orange. On another portion CaO is determined by precipitation as oxalate and subsequent titration with permange- nate. The CaSO« content can now be determined because no other calcium compounds are present. Chapt. 3] Refining 87 l£?«5.>tM*iJfc*, Figure 5. Brine preparation tanks, Leslie Salt Co. refinery, Newark. Brine feed for the vacuum refinery is prepared by dissolving crude salt in fresh water followed by treatment with lime hydrate and soda ash to precipitate calcium and magnesium salts. Each tankful of raw brine is individually treated. Photo by Oabriel Moulin Studios, courtesy Leslie Salt Co. vent and a drain to remove condensed steam. A motor- driven impeller beneath the basket causes the brine to circulate upward through the tubes and back down through the annular space between the basket and the evaporator body. The design capacity of the plant with three evaporators in operation is 6 tons per hour. Actual production is about 10^ tons per hour. Operation. The pans are fed from a 6,000-gallon feed tank supplied with treated brine. Each pan is fed continuously at the rate required to maintain a level within the pan that depends on the rate of evaporation. Salt together with some adhering brine is continuously discharged by means of barometric legs into a 700-gal- lon cone tank where it is given a counter-current wash with treated brine. The salt with enough brine to act as a carrier is pumped to a second cone tank where it is rewashed with fresh treated brine. Finally the salt is dewatered with a filter drier. The filtrate together with the overflows from both cone tanks are returned to the pan feed tank. A baffle wall in this tank assists in the settling out of the small amount of gypsum in the returned wash brine and prevents it from being drawn back into the pans. Cleaning the Pans. The Leslie Salt Co. has found it to be good practice to boil out the pans every 24 hours. At the end of 21 hours of operation the heating surfaces have fouled up enough to cause a noticeable reduction in output. In some cases salt starts to crust over the tops of the heating tubes. Calcium sulfate, which is settling out all the time, is not entirely removed in the feed tank and clings to some extent to the tubes. Although no hard scale forms, the heat transfer is cut down to some extent. In addition, soluble salts, particularly sodium sulfate, accumulate in the brine ; and if the run were 88 Salt in California [Bull. 175 nett effect' vopo bnne level Figure G. Swenson basket type evaiiorator. prolonged it would be necessary to bleed off some brine to maintain the purity of the salt. The pans are operated for 21^ hours under full steam. They are then shut down, and the brine is emptied into a special tank. As described above, this pan end-run brine is reconditioned and forms part of the pan feed. After the brine has been drained out, the pan is filled with condensate water and boiled for 1 hour. Finally the pan is again emptied and refilled with fresh brine ready to start another cycle. This daily boiling prevents the formation of calcium sulfate ; but every 3^ to 4 months, calcium carbonate scale must be washed from the tubes with acid. The cleaning is staggered so that one pan is cleaned about every 5 weeks. To clean a pan it is filled with hot con- densate water to the top of the basket. Then by means of the vacuum system acid is sucked in. Usually 65 gal- lons of commercial muriatic acid is used which yields a 1^ percent acid solution. The solution remains for 2 hours in the pan without being boiled but with the im- peller running. Then it is dumped to waste, the pan and lines are well flushed with water, and the pan is ready for operation again. The acid solution is not strong enough to harm the equipment yet removes about 200 pounds of scale from the vital heating surfaces. The daily boiling and the acid wash are simple opera- tions compared with the task of turbining out the heavy calcium sulfate scale that would result from the use of improperly treated brine. Finishing the Salt. The salt discharged from the filter drier contains about 3^ percent moisture. The cake Figure 7. Upper floor of evaporator house, Leslie Salt Co. refiner.T, Newark. The refinery <'ontains four Swenson basket type evaporators, three of which are used at a time in triple effect. As the brine is boiled under vacuum within the evaporators, salt crystallizes in nearly ))erfect cubes. Photo hy Gabriel Moulin .S7i(dtos. I'nurtexy Leslie Salt Co. is heated in a gas fired rotary drier to a temperature of 365° F., reducing the moisture content to a few hun- dredths of a percent. After passing through a rotary cooler the salt goes to air conditioned storage bins. Magnetic hummer screens separate it into various screen sizes and discharge it into packing bins. A product con- taining about 99.99 percent NaCT is obtained from this process. Most of the vacuum salt is mixed with a conditioning agent to coat the crj^stals and keep it dry and free running. Three grades, "Butter," "Cheese," and Can- ner's" salt, are packed with no conditioner. All the other grades are conditioned with one-half to one per- cent of basic magnesium carbonate or hydrated calcium silicate except for one grade of very fine particle size called "500." This grade contains one percent tri cal- cium phosphate. Table shaker salt is available with 0.01 percent potassium iodide added or without potassium iodide. The packaging of .salt is a highly mechanized opera- tion. Cylindrical and rectangular cartons, called rounds and squares, are manufactured from waterproofed card- board. Machines fill each carton with a measured quan- tity of salt. Other machines cap the carton, place the label on it, and prepare it for packing in boxes. Other grades of salt are weighed into cloth bags and into smaller bags called pockets. Chapt. 3] Repining 89 Corrosion. Much of the machinery and equipment that comes in contact with salt is made of stainless steel. Corrosion is minimized by heating the buildings to keep the air dry. THE MORTON SALT COMPANY REFINERY The Morton Salt Company, whose operations are nationwide, has produced kiln dried and vacuum re- fined salt at Newark continuously since 1926. The plant is on Central Avenue. Crude salt, after passing through a weightometer, is discharged into a cylindrical receiving tank with a conical bottom from which it is pumped as a slurry to the plant. Brine to serve as a carrier enters the conical section of the tank tangentially. and slurry is pumped from the apex. Because the slurry is appreciably abra- sive, the pipe line that carries it is rotated a few degrees periodically to distribute the wear. The slurry discharges into a drag classifier that sepa- rates the solid salt from the brine and removes any trace of insoluble matter present in the crude salt. The over- flow from the classifier is circulated through the brine preparation section of the vacuum refinery, while the solid salt is feed for the kiln dried salt section of the plant. The small amount of sludge that collects in the lower part of the classifier is occasionally drawn off. The proportion of solid salt to brine in the plant feed can be controlled by varying the strength of the carrier brine. Unless saturated brine is used, some salt dissolves in the pipe line; but even with fresh water, the liquid fraction of the slurry arrives at the classifier saturated or nearly so. The Vacuum Refinery Brine Preparation. The vacuum refinery contains substantially the original equipment installed in 1926, although the capacity has been increased. Raw brine is prepared in the saturator, an open-topped rectangular concrete bin kept filled with solid salt by diverting into it when necessary the entire slurry flow. The saturator is supplied with condensed steam from the evaporators plus fresh water from wells, and saturated brine is drawn from screen covered drains. In addition, the overflow from the drag classifier is discharged into the saturator ; Figure 8. Lower floor of evaporator house, Leslie Salt Co. refinery, Newark. Photo by Oabriel Moulin Studios, courtesy Leslie Salt Co. 90 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Figure 9. Mixinj; additives with vacuum salt, Leslie Salt Co. refinery, Newarli. Table salt as well as some other grades of vacuum salt have one-half to one percent of basic magnesium carbonate or hydrated calcium silicate added to coat the grains and keep them dry and free running. Photo iy Gabriel Moulin Studios, courtesy Leslie Salt Co. and a portion of the saturated brine plus a varying amount of fresh water is recirculated through the salt receiving tank and slurry line as described above. The raw brine for the evaporators is then treated with soda ash and sodium hydroxide to remove impurities, principally calcium and magnesium salts. The treatment is carried out in one of three rectangular concrete batch tanks. Because the batch contains varying proportions of fresh, raw brine and various brines returned from the plant, each tank full is analyzed ; and the amounts of chemicals required for its treatment are calculated. Calcium salts are precipitated as the carbonate and magnesium salts as the hydroxide. After treatment, the brine is pumped to one of a number of cylindrical tanks with shallow conical bottoms where the flocculant precip- itates settle out. Clear brine is drawn from the base of the cylindrical section, and the sludge that settles in the conical section is sluiced into a nearby pond. Evaporation of the brine is carried out in three stand- ard vertical tube evaporating pans operated in triple effect. The pans, which are 10 feet in diameter, were built by the Manistee Iron Works. In this type of evapo- rator the heat exchanger is a steam belt formed by tube sheets that extend completely across the evaporator body. Brine circulates upward through a large number of ver- tical copper tubes and returns through a central passage called the downtake. The circulation is forced by a pro- peller in the downtake. The standard evaporator differs from the Swenson basket evaporator principally in the position of the downtake. Operation. Treated brine is fed independently to each pan, and the level is maintained manually or by automatic control a few inches above the top of the tubes. Steam at a pressure of 8i pounds per square inch is sup- plied to the steam belt of the first effect, and the con- densate is returned to the boiler. The pressure in the Chapt. 3] Repining 91 Figure 10. Filling 100-pound paper bags, Leslie Salt Co. refinery, Newark. Photo hy Elmer Moss, courtesy Leslie Salt Co. steam belts of the second and third effects are 23^ and 27 inches of vacuum respectively, and the condensate from these pans is returned to the saturator. Salt crystals are pumped from the pans and dewatered with a Robison top feed filter drier, a vacuum filter sup- plied with air heated in a gas furnace. When operating at 400° F. this machine delivers salt with a moisture content of 2.2 percent. Its capacity is 11 tons per hour. The dewatered salt is then heated to 350° F. in a gas fired rotary drier that removes all but a few hundredths of a percent of the moisture. In order to avoid overheat- ing the equipment used in subsequent steps, the dried salt passes through a rotary cooler before it is placed in a storage bin. Every 65 hours the evaporators are shut down for the removal of salt that has begun to crust over the evaporator tubes and reduce the rate of heat transfer. In addition, sodium sulfate that accumulates in the pan liquor must be removed. The formation of calcium sul- fate scale is negligible because the chemical treatment has removed all but traces of the calcium salts from the pan feed. The pans are emptied of brine, filled with fresh water, and boiled. Following the boil out, they are drained into the sewer and refilled with treated brine for another run. At long intervals carbonate scale is removed from the tubes with acid. Kiln Dried Salt Solid salt from the drag classifier is placed in one of three bins where it drains for perhaps 24 hours. It is then heated to about 250° F. in a gas-fired counter cur- rent rotary drier and cooled in a trough that contains screw conveyors through which cold water circulates. Ths Dairy Mill Both kiln dried and vacuum salt are further processed and packaged in the dairy mill. This portion of the plant, which has been rebuilt since the refinery was constructed, is housed in a building with several floors. As the salt works downward through the building, the various grades are prepared on the upper floors, pack- aging is carried out on intermediate floors, and the ground floor serves as a warehouse where the products are temporarily held pending shipment in cars or trucks. One side of the building is devoted to the processing of vacuum salt and the other to kiln dried salt. While all grades of salt except flake are prepared, the principal product is table salt packed in the familiar round can holding one pound, 10 ounces. Vacuum salt is first separated into grades with Rotex screens that have several decks of wire cloth. The Rotex is a screen of the oscillating type that has a gyratory motion sup- plied by a motor-driven eccentric. To the table salt, which is available either plain or iodized, a small amount of basic magnesium carbonate is added as an anti-caking agent. Iodine is introduced with an additive mixture composed of an iodide solu- tion and a small amount of salt to serve as a carrier. To prepare the solution, potassium iodide and enough so- dium thiosulfate to prevent the decomposition of the iodide are dissolved in water. After the additive mixture has been dried in a small gas furnace, it is measured into the main flow of salt. The filling of the rounds is a highly mechanized opera- tion. The rounds are purchased complete with ends and metal pouring spouts but without labels. To prevent heat from the salt, which may be still warm from the drier, from wrinkling the labels, the rounds are dried with a bank of infra-red lamps before the labels are put on. Then the rounds are filled through their spouts, sealed, and repacked in the cartons in which they came from the manufacturer. The numerous other grades of salt for special pur- poses are packaged with less completely mechanized methods. In grain size they range from the coarse cheese salt to the very fine salt used for peanuts and potato chips. Most grades contain basic magnesium carbonate as a conditioner, but salt for some bakery purposes eon- tains tricalcium phosphate rather than the magnesium compound. Grades such as cheese salt and butter salt contain no conditioner. Kiln-dried salt undergoes several stages of crushing with rolls and sizing with Hummer screens. Six grades are produced that are used mainly for industrial pur- poses and livestock feeding. One grade for livestock contains added molasses and trace elements such as manganese, iron, copper, phosphorous, cobalt, iodine, and zinc. For this salt a stable organic iodine compound is used. Salt dust from the crushers is collected and made into blocks with hydraulic presses. The blocks range in size from the 50-pound cattle block to the small 2-inch diameter lick for rabbits. They are available plain or with added molasses, sulfur, or trace elements. 92 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Figure 11. Filling rounds, Leslie Salt Co. refinery, Newark. Cylindrical cartons, called rounds, are manufactured from waterproofed cardboard at the refinery. Machines fill the rounds with a measured amount of salt, cap them, label them, and prepare them for packing in boxes. Photo hy Elmer Moss, courtesy Leslie Salt Co. CHAPTER 4 MARKETING OF SALT CONTENTS OF CHAPTER 4 Page Salt-consuming industries and their specifications 95 Salt packages 97 Marketing channels 98 Prices and pricing 98 Freight rates 98 Producing centers and marketing areas 98 Bibliography 98 Illustrations Figure 1. Chart showing uses of salt from San Francisco Bay 96 (94) MARKETING OF SALT SALT-CONSU^llNG INDUSTRIES AND THEIR SPECIFICATIONS California, for salt-marketing purposes, is included within the Paeifie coast region, which comprises in addi- tion Oregon, Washington, northern Idaho, western Ne- vada, and Arizona. With minor exceptions all the salt consumed in this area is produced in California. The grades of salt and packaging in the Pacific coast region differ somewhat from those used in the remainder of the United States, and the end-use pattern of salt in the west is not exactly the same as that of the United States as a whole. The California production of salt in 1953 totaled 1,123,365 short tons valued at $6,263,059 compared with 1,148,693 short tons valued at $4,880,392 produced in 1952. According to the latest figures released by the United States Bureau of Mines, 536,809 tons of salt were shipped to destinations in California in 1952, a figure that closely approximates the consumption of salt in the state. Much of the remainder of the California salt output is consumed in the other states of the Pacific coast region ; and, when salt is available, a substantial tonnage is exported to Asia. In the following table the end-use pattern of salt pro- duced in California is estimated. End-use pattern of salt produced in California. Percent of the total Chlorine-caustic 47.3 Water treatment 13.6 Refrigeration 11.8 Livestock 6.9 Canning 3.8 Meat packing 3.0 Fish curing 1.2 Butter and cheese 1.0 Other food processing 3.0 Table and household uses 2.7 Hides and leather 2.1 Soap 1.3 Chemicals other than chlorine-caustic 1.6 Ice control 0.5 Within California the uses of salt are probably in roughly the same proportions except for chlorine-caustic. California furnishes salt to five chlorine-caustic plants, only one of which is within the state. It is to be noted that while nearly 40 percent of the United States' production of salt is consumed by the Jsoda ash industry, none is used for this purpose in the Pacific coast region. In the west soda ash is produced from natural alkali brine. Refrigeration consumes sub- stantially more salt in California than in the United States as a whole, perhaps because of the large volume of perishable rail freight originating in the state. Chlorine-Caustic. In the chlorine-caustic industry, chlorine and caustic soda are produced by the electrol- ysis of brine. Chlorine is liberated at the anode, and at the cathode sodium is liberated which reacts instantly with either the cathode or the electrolyte to produce sodium hydroxide and hydrogen as the end products. The anode and cathode products must be kept separate. Two general types of cell are in use, the diaphragm cell and the mercury cell. The diaphragm cell contains a graphite anode, a porous asbestos diaphragm, and an iron cathode. Hydrogen is discharged at the cathode, and sodium hydroxide forms in the cathode compartment. The mercury cell contains a graphite anode and a mer- cury cathode. Sodium released at the cathode forms so- dium amalgam that is removed from the cell and de- composed in a separate operation. The brine feed must be very pure. For the diaphragm cell silt or insoluble reaction products such as calcium hj^droxide or magnesium hydroxide are highly objection- able. The feed must be free from insoluble, calcium, and magnesium and low in sulfate, iron, nickel, and chro- mium. For the mercury cell some calcium and sulfate can be tolerated, but magnesium and heavy metals must be substantially removed from the feed. Brine is customarily prepared and purified by the chemical company from crude salt. Within limits the grade of crude salt used is a function of the price of the crude salt and the cost of the brine treatment. Most of the West Coast plants use stack-run crude salt from Newark containing 99.4 percent NaCl. Many United States plants, however, use rock salt about 98 percent pure. Refrigeration. Although refrigeration brine con- sumes some salt, most of the salt for refrigeration is used as a salt-ice mixture for the icing of refrigerator cars. Railroads or their subsidiaries that operate refrig- erator cars ice the cars initially and re-ice them en route according to the cutomer's specifications. At some locali- ties the railroad maintains icing facilities, and at others the icing is contracted to ice companies. The salt used must be reasonably clean and dry and have a sodium chloride content of 98 to 99 percent. Because some salt from the desert has been found to contain harmful substances, sea salt may be specified. The salt is furnished in bags. Some lines purchase half ground undried salt; others the 101 size or its equiv- alent. An important qualification of a supplier of salt for refrigeration is the ability to fill substantial orders on short notice. Water Treatment. The zeolite method of water sof- tening requires substantial tonnages of salt. Hard water contains the carbonates, sulfates, and chlorides of cal- cium and magnesium, compounds that cause waste of soap, the formation of scale in boilers, and have many other deleterious properties. A water that contains 100 parts or more parts per million of calcium and magne- sium salts is considered to be hard. The zeolites are natural or synthetic hydrous silicates of aluminum or iron with sodium or potassium. Al- though they are insoluble, they have base exchange properties; that is, when they are placed in water the sodium or potassium of the zeolite is exchanged for bases such as calcium or magnesium that may be dis- solved in the water. In zeolite water softening, hard water is passed through a bed of granular zeolite. Calcium and magne- (95) 96 Salt in California [Bull. 175 1,000,000 TONS OF SODIUM CHLORIDE BULK 335,000 ELECTRO-CHEMICAL INDUSTRY SOAP MANUFACTURE OIL REFINING ION EXCHANGE HEAT TREATING SALTS SOIL STABILIZERS WEED ERADICATORS FLOTATION AGENTS 220,000 7 29,000 INSECTIDE CONCENTRATES WATER. SEWAGE AND SWIMMING POOL STERILIZATION! INDUSTRIAL 8 HOUSEHOLD SANITATION Ti,000 PETROLEUM REFINING 1,470,000 TONS OF RESIDUAL BRINE 62,000 MAGNESIA BROMINE 75,000 GYPSUM Figure 1. Uses of salt from San Francisco Bay. /, Chapt. 4] Marketing 97 sium are completely removed, leaviiifi: the eflhient with Hides and Leather. In the leather industry salt is zero hardness. The dissolved solids content of the effluent spread on the raw skins to prevent their decay. A coarse is not reduced, however, because it contains all of the grade of undried salt is used. carbonate, sulfate, and chloride of the raw water as g^^p jj, tj,g manufacture of soap a boiling mixture compounds of soduim. of tallow, oils, and caustic soda is prepared. When salt When substantially all of the soduun zeolite has been j^ g^jj^j ^r brine form is added the mixture separates converted to calcium and magnesium z.n)lite, the sottener i^^^ gQ^p and glycerin. The salt is recovered and used is taken out of service and regenerated. Passing a 5 to ^gain. Salt losses are made up with crude stack-run salt. 10 percent sodium chloride solution through the sottener ^ , , « ,^ m • . , • i . • • , .. serves to reconvert the exhausted zeolite to sodium Table Salt Table salt is a clean, white material of zeolite. Following a wash with raw water to displace the ^^'gh P""ty that is free running. Factors that contribute brine, the softener is again ready for service. The con- *« the free running properties are the shape and size sumption of salt is about half a pound per 1,000 grains distribution of the grains and the presence of an anti- of hardness removed caking agent. A high proportion of the grains, which Synthetic resin base exchange compounds have been have the cubic shape characteristic of salt produced in developed that function in a manner similar to the ^^^ vacuum pan, are minus 28 mesh plus 65 mesh in zeolites ^^^^' *^°^*' *' grains and prevent them from sticking Several types of zeolite water softening units are in together, one-half to one percent of basic magnesium use. Most numerous is the domestic type of as little as carbonate, tricalcium phosphate, or hydrated calcium 100 gallons per day capacity that the user regenerates silicate is added. himself. For industrial water softening, larger units are Food Uses. The requirements of the salt used for available that are regenerated by water softener service canning, meat packing, cheese, butter, and other food companies. A comparatively few municipal water sup- preparation cannot be stated exactly because tradition ply systems include zeolite water softeners of very large and the personal prejudice of the manufacturer as well capacity. ^s the manufacturing process govern the salt chosen. The tentative specifications for sodium chloride Most of the food industries in California use vacuum adopted by the American Water Works Association salt of a particular size distribution. Some consumers, (American Water Works Association, 1950) are in part however, demand salt of special grain shape such as flake as follows : salt or Alberger process salt that is brought into the Tolerance limit, percent by weight state in limited quantities. Rock salt Evaporated salt Several salts are offered for bakery use. One grade is Moisture 2.00 0.20 similar to table salt in grain size distribution and con- Ca -1- Mg 0.60 0.60 tains an anti-caking agent. A much finer grade of T*^' I M 2 00 05 vacuum salt is available for salting peanuts and potato rpgjgj IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 4^00 2!oo chips. For salting crackers some bakers prefer the finely Grease, fat and oil 0.00 0.00 ground Kiln Dried Topping grade because the particles „ • • , i-x ± c^ 11 u • resist melting during baking and remain shiny. For municipal zeolite water softeners, well-brine or g^j^^ ^^^ canning and for butter are similar in grain sea-water has been used where they are available^ In ^.^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^j^ ^^^ ^^^^^^.^ ^^ anti-caking agent. Coarse most installations, however, crude salt is dissolved to ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^.^^^ ^^ anti-caking agent is used for cheese form a strong brine that is diluted to the desired makine strength before use. Any impurity in the salt that would coat the zeolite grains is objectionable, and some plants P^sh Curing. Fish curing is among the oldest indus- specify salt at least 99 percent pure. The La Verne plant trial uses of salt. By osmosis salt draws water from the of the Metropolitan Water District of Southern Cali- Ssh and replaces it with brine that prevents or retards fornia (Hinds, Julian, 1950) uses somewhat less pure the growth of bacteria. Even when fish is packed m dry salt, but the brine must be filtered. For domestic water salt enough water is extracted to dissolve the salt and softening, coarse kiln-dried salt is offered in special cover the fish. Less fish is salted than formerly, but packages before smoking and canning of many kinds of fish, the fish are soaked in brine. Livestock. Animals, like humans, require salt with xhe composition of the salt influences the salting. their food. The salt may be either mixed with the feed (Tressler, D. K., and Lemon, J. McK., 1951). Calcium, I or given by the free choice method in which salt in the magnesium, and sulfates retard the rate of penetration form of licks is available to the animals at all times. In of the brine. Calcium and magnesium salts give the fish ' addition, salt is the carrier for administering elements a bitter taste and affect the firmness and color. Two per- '„ such as iron, copper, cobalt, manganese, iodine, and zinc pent of calcium had been found to cause brittleness of that animals need in minor amounts. the product. Although some cattle salt containing as much as 6 Formerly the United States fishing industry used much percent insoluble and sulfate is produced in California, comparatively impure sea salt imported duty free from most salt for livestock is a high-grade product espe- Turk's Island and elsewhere in the West Indies. This cially prepared for that purpose. Salt blocks are made trade virtually ended with World War II. in several sizes, either plain or with added trace ele- PATKArES ments. For mixing with feeds the finer sizes of both kiln dried and undried salt as well as kiln dried salt mixed The number of grades of salt and salt packages used with trace elements, are used. in the Pacific coast region are fewer than in the eastern 98 Salt in California [Bull. 175 part of the United States. The packaging was standard- ized and simplified following World War II, and in February 1954 the Salt Producers Association proposed still further simplifications, particularly the substitution of paper bags for cotton bags and the elimination of some of the less used sizes of containers. Table salt is packed in 26-ounce round cartons and f-ounce round shakers. It is also available in 5-pound paper pockets * and 50- and 100-pound paper bags. The special vacuum salts are packed in 50- and 100-pound paper bags. Kiln dried salt is prepared in five grades, Extra Coarse, Coarse, Medium, Fine, and Topping, in addition to mill run. All grades are packed in 50- and 100-pound paper bags, and there is in addition the 10-pound paper pocket of ice-cream salt. Trace-mineral salt, which contains stearic acid, cobalt, copper, manganese, iron, iodine, cassein, and molasses, comes in 50- and 100-pound bags. Three sizes of cattle lick are standard, the 50-pound block, the 5-pound brick, and the 3-ounce pet lick. All sizes are available plain, with sulfur, with iodine, with iodine and molasses, with phosphorus, or with trace minerals. Undried or crude salt is packed in 100-pound paper bags and 125-pound burlap bags. In addition to the stack run grade the larger plants offer it crushed and screened to a coarse (plus i inch) grade, a medium (minus ^ inch plus i inch) grade, and a fine (minus -J inch) grade. Most grades of vacuum, kiln dried, and undried salt are available in bulk as well as packages. MARKETING CHANNELS Air retail sales are made through jobbers. The pro- ducers have salesmen, however, who visit the retail stores to stimulate sales. Salt for commercial and industrial use is sold by the producers' salesmen who regularly contact the consumers. A third method of marketing salt is the long term contract between the producer and a large scale consumer such as a chlorine-caustic manu- facturer. Only a handful of such contracts are out- standing in California, but they account for a substantial portion of the total salt production. PRICES AND PRICING With few exceptions salt is sold in the Pacific coast region on f.o.b. producer's plant basis. In fringe areas, that is localities where salt produced in California is competitive with salt from other production centers, prices may be adjusted so that the price plus freight equals that of the competitor. The fringe areas, which are all outside of California, are Reno, Nevada ; Spokane, Washington; Phoenix, Arizona; and Honolulu, Hawaii. Typical carload prices f.o.b. plants in the San Francisco area in 195i. Undried, stack run or half ground : Bulk $6.40 per ton 100-pound paper bag 13.40 per ton 125-pound burlap bag 14.60 per ton Kiln dried mill run, coarse, extra coarse : Bulk (mill run not available in bulk) $9.20 per ton 100-pound paper bag 16.20 per ton Vacuum table : Bulk $16.00 per ton 100-pound paper bag 23.00 per ton • A bag holding 10 pounds or less. It is not possible to quote the f.o.b. plant prices of the individual southern California producers. The price at the plants close to Los Angeles is higher than the pub- lished price f.o.b. Newark, but for the more remote plants in the desert it is considerably less. The terms of the contracts between producers and large consumers are seldom revealed. The price of rock- salt delivered to chlorine-caustic plants in the United States is $3.00 to $10.00 a ton (MacMuUin, 1947), and it has been stated (Chemical Week, 1951) that bulk salt sells for $3.00 per ton on the West Coast. The Metropoli- tan Water District of Southern California (Hinds, Julian, 1950) paid $4.60 per ton for salt delivered to the La Verne plant on a 5-year contract. FREIGHT RATES Freight rates amount to a substantial portion of the price f.o.b. plant and limit the marketing area of a producer. Representatiie rail frieight rates in 195^. Origin Destination (rate per ton including 3% federal transportation tax) San Francisco Los Angeles Seattle Portland Las Vegas Newark- - San Diego $1.42 $7.83 2.76 4.33 4.26 9.89 $8.86 $7.42 $12.15 Saltus (Bristol Lake) Trona (Searles Lake) 6.80 10.64 10.51 12.57 16.83 14.83 11.12 15.38 14.42 4.16 Salt Lake City, Utah. 9.89 PRODUCING CENTERS AND MARKETING AREAS Little salt produced out of the state is marketed in California. Independent producers on Great Salt Lake, Utah, truck some crude salt into southern California, and at times crude salt is imported from Mexico. The California producers obtain a few hundred tons a year of special refined salt from eastern plants for sale in California. The two refineries at Newark supply vacuum refined and kiln dried salt to the entire state. Very little salt produced in southern California is sold north of Los Angeles. In the Los Angeles area crude salt in bulk in comparatively small quantities sells for $10 to $12 per ton. At times crude salt from San Francisco Bay is com- petitive in southern California. The marketing area of the Monterey Bay plant lies mainly southward and ex- tends as far as San Luis Obispo. BIBLIOGRAPHY Applebaum, S. B., 1952, Modern practice in municipal water softening : Water and Sewage Works, vol. 99, no. 4, pp. R-85- R-89, April (salt in zeolite water softening). American Water Works Association, 1950, Tentative specifica- tions for sodium chloride — 5W1.01-T-49: Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour., vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 317-326, March. Camp, T. R., 1942, Water treatment, in Handbook of applied hydraulics, pp. 777-834, New York, McGraw Hill Book Co. (zeo- lite softening, pp. 822-825). Chem. Week, 1951 (Nov. 3), Salt or sewage: Chem. Week, vol. 69, no. 18, p. 19. Harris, F. E., 1939, Marketing of salt: U. S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 7062, 56 pp. Chapt. 4] Marketing 99 Harris, F. E., and Barsigian, P. M., 1953, Salt: U. S. Bur. Mines Minerals Yearbook 1950, pp. 1063-1080. Hinds, Julian, 1950, Base exchange softening : The American City, vol. 65, no. 10, pp. 85-87, Oct. (La Verne plant of Metro- politan Water District of Southern California). Looker, C. D., 1938, Some recent developments in the use of sodium chloride : Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng. Trans., vol. 129, pp. 423-431. MacMuUin, R. B., 1947, Diaphragm vs. amalgam cells : Chem. Industries, vol. 61, no. 1, p. 43, July (salt for the chlorine-caustic industry). Montgomery, J. M., and Aultman, W. W., 1940, Water-softening plant of the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California : Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour., vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 1-24, January. Ries, H., 1938, Use of sodium chloride in road stabilization : Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng. Trans., vol. 129, pp. 432-438. Rosenstein, Ludwig, 1953, Industrial growth requires salt: California Mag. of the Pacific, vol. 43, no. 6, pp. 13, 33, June (San Francisco Bay Salt Industry). Shreve, R. N., 1945, Natural and synthetic rubber, in the Chemical Process Industries, pp. 773-795, New York, McGraw- Hill Book Co. (Manufacture of Buna S rubber, pp. 789-792). Tressler, D. K., and Lemon, J. MeW., 1951, Marine products of commerce 2d. ed., pp. 363, 3(>4, New York, Reinhold Publishing Corp. (salt in fish curing). Western Industry, 1953, Salt industry : Western Industry, vol. 18, no. 1, p. 92, January. CHAPTER 5 SALT IN CALIFORNIA INDIAN CULTURE By ROBERT F. HEIZER SALT IN CALIFORNIA INDIAN CULTURE Robert P. Hbizbr • At the time of settlement of California by Caucasians in 1769 the state was occupied by about 200,000 Indians. This population, which represented a density of about 1.3 persons per square mile, was divided into 104 tribes speaking dialects of 21 language stocks or families. Relative to the rest of North America, California held more Indians and different languages than any area of comparable extent. The diversity of tongues and culture, the tens of thousands of ancient village sites, and the special adjustment of native ways of life to such differ- ing environments as ocean coast, inland valleys, lofty Sierras and arid interior deserts, all indicate a popula- tion of long residence. In recent years the application of the radiocarbon (Carbon-14) technique of age calcula- tion has demonstrated that by 2000 B.C. most of the better favored regions had long been settled, and there is convincing evidence that men were present in Cali- fornia, though perhaps in small numbers, by 5000 B. C. Fifty years of studying and recording the manners and customs of the surviving natives have resulted in an extensive literature, and from these records the follow- ing data on the Indian use of salt are taken. First, it has been established that with less than half a dozen exceptions all California Indian tribes ate salt, and that California marks the northern boundary of the salt-using tribes of western North America as the accom- • Professor of Anthropology, Director of the Archaeological Survey, and Associate Curator of the Anthropology Museum, University of California. O Solt from eating seaweed A Salt from gross \ FiouBE 1. How California Indians obtained their salt. panying map will show. Although several explanations have been advanced to account for the primary impulse to use or deny salt as a dietary item, none is very con- vincing. Some northern coastal peoples of California whose subsistence is largely sea food nevertheless eat free salt. Some tribes who are largely meat eaters use salt, while others with similar diet do not.^ Climate may be one of the factors, for to many tribes in the hot and arid regions salt ranks high in the social, as well as economic life. The only conclusion which can be drawn safely is that the use or nonuse of salt is a social or cultural custom, regardless of the effect of primary physiological or environmental urges and impulses. The sources of salt were rather varied, and the efforts of many groups to secure this item from local supplies, and the extent to which salt was an item of intertribal trade clearly indicate that it ranked among the Cali- fornia Indians, as among ourselves, as an essential item. Salt was obtained from the following sources: (1), from saline waters (marshes, lakes, springs, ocean) ; (2), from seaweed; (3), from grass, and; (4), from dry mineral deposits. Saline waters were commonly exploited as a salt source. A few tribes boiled sea water to extract this sub- stance, and others such as the Kamia of Imperial Valley and the Cahuilla Indians of Riverside County, leached salt-impregnated earth from the shore of Salton Sea or similar saline deposits, and crystallized the salt by boil- ing the decanted liquid. On the upper Stanislaus River the Miwok Indians put sticks of rotten, punky wood into a salt spring, and when well soaked these were removed, dried and burned to "melt" out the salt into a cake. Coastal tribes scraped salt from the rocks along the ocean where it had accumulated by evaporation. One tribe, the Tolowa, of extreme northwestern California in the vicinity of Crescent City, used sea water to salt their food. This custom is unreported for other California tribes. In the vicinity of Humboldt Bay the Wiyot tribe staked down a wooden plank in a small basin dug in a salt marsh, and as the water evaporated it left a film of salt on the plank which was then scraped off. The earth immediately surrounding a salt spring or marsh commonly bears a surface concentration of salt deposited there by natural evaporation. All over the state such spots occur and were visited by people who scraped up the salt and pressed it into cakes or stored it in bags. Although all such spots were owned by a particular group, neighboring tribes were ordinarily given permission to collect salt. Often a present of food or shell bead money accompanied such a request to gather salt. Near Stonyford, 1 mile west of Big Stony Creek in Glenn County, was a famous salt seepage near the Indian village of Cheetido, to which place tribes from the Sacramento Valley and Sierra to the east and the Coast Ranges came to collect salt. In the summer 'Mendlzabal, M. O., Influencia de la sal en la distribucion georraflca de los grupos indigenaa de Mexico. International Congress of Americanists, New York, 1928, pp. 93-100, 1930. Proposes that a vegetal diet is the basic influence in leading people to eat salt. In view of the many exceptions to this generalization his theory cannot be seriously maintained. (103) 104 Salt in California [Bull. 175 the top crust of salt which had been formed as a result of evaporation was scraped up, dissolved in water, de- canted and evaporated to purify the product. Salt springs, whose waters were air-evaporated, or boiled by means of dropping fire-heated stones in baskets were known to most of the tribes of the western slope of the Sierra Nevada. Such springs were owned by the local group, and ordinarily other members of the tribe were allowed to secure this commodity at what were, in effect tribally owned salt sources. If a group was unwilling to offer bead money or food for the privilege of gather- ing salt, and while attempting to steal it was discovered, a war might result. There are several records of these "salt wars." A purple seaweed, Porphyra perforata, is gathered, pressed tightly into cakes, dried and nibbled at spar- ingly during meals. Indians consider it both a food and a source of dietary salt. This custom of eating seaweed was followed, in California, in two regions — from the Oregon-California boundary south to Mendocino County, and along the southeentral coast from Monterey Bay to Santa Barbara. Peoples living in the interior directly behind the coast secured seaweed in trade from their neighbors living on the ocean front. North of Tehaehapi a common means of securing salt was by roasting or burning salt grass (Distichlis spicata) in a pit over wood coals in such a manner that the salt dripped to the bottom of the pit and collected there as a cake. Alternatively, some grasses collect free salt on the leaves and these are carefully cut, laid on a flat sur- face, and beaten with a stick to detach the salt grains from the plant. An account of salt gathering from grass is given in Gayton's account of the Western Mono tribe of Eshom Valley, Fresno County : "To obtain salt a pit was dug about 2 feet long, 1 foot wide, and 1 foot deep. In this a fire was built and let burn down to coals. A grating was made by laying hardwood sticks across the earth's surface and on this the plants were laid. The material then oozed out of the plants and dropped on the coals forming large lumps. Then the whole thing was covered with earth and left over- night. In the morning the pit was opened and the salt, which was now a hard large mass, was cleaned of dirt. These lumps were trimmed and sold. This salt was eaten in tiny bits with meat ; it was never put directly on food or cooked with it. It was some- times boiled and the liquid drunk to cure nausea." ' This product, derived by heat from the plant, seems rather to be a tar rendered from the plant. Although spoken of as "salt" by the Indians, its exact chemical nature is likely to be something additional to simple NaCl. Its taste is variably described as being "very salty," or "like vinegar," or "bitter."^ It was colored pink or red. Rock salt deposits were known to the West- ern Mono of Fresno County, who traded this item to the Yokuts of the southern San Joaquin Valley. Before it was used this salt was placed on hot coals which caused it to crumble. The Owens Valley Paiute were major collectors and purveyors of salt to the Sierran and In- terior Valley tribes. The sources were in Saline Valley, Klondike Lake, Silver Peak and Fish Lake. In parts of the Sierra Nevada region (for example near Auburn, along Cow Creek, on Shasta and Bogus Rivers, from Round Mountain in Lassen County, and along Cotton- wood Creek in Mendocino County) were small dry de- posits of salt, but so far as the ethnographic record goes these were of minor extent and served the needs of small local groups only. Nowhere in California, so far as known, were there salt deposits known to the Indians which were actually mined, though in southern Nevada * and in Arizona ^ there is evidence of extensive aboriginal mining of rock salt. We may be certain that the California Indians possessed the necessary skill to carry out such mining,^ and that the absence of salt mining is due either to a lack of suitable deposits, a demand insufficient to sup- port such an activity, or that salt gathering was rarely carried beyond the level of exploiting one of the varied local sources. "Gayton, A. H.. Yokuts and Western Mono ethnography. Part II. University of California, Anthropological Records, vol. 10, no. 2, 1948, p. 222. ' Salt was often employed for medicinal purposes by California In- dians. Thus, the Sierra Miwok of Tuolumne County ate salt to alleviate stomach ache. The Atsugewi of Lassen County ate salt sparingly because they believed its overuse caused sore eyes, and the Patwin tribe of Colusa County ate salt to cure colds. ' Harrington, M. R., Ancient salt mine near St. Thomas, Nevada. Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, Indian Notes and Monographs, vol. 2, pp. 227-231, 1925. Another ancient salt mine in Nevada. Same series, vol. 3, pp. 221-232, 1926. " Morris, E. H., An aboriginal salt mine at Camp Verde, Arizona. American Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Papers, vol. 30, part 3, 1928. ' For California Indian raining see California Journal of Mines and Geology, vol. 40, pp. 291-359. 1944. CHAPTER 6 HISTORY OF THE CALIFORNIA SALT INDUSTRY CONTENTS OF CHAPTER 6 Page Solar salt 107 -The early salt industry 107 Consolidation of salt companies 107 Independent salt works 111 -- ^Salt works of San Mateo County 112 North Bay plants 112 Other sea-water plants 113 The development of salt-making techniques 113 The utilization of bittern 114 Salt in the desert 115 Salton Sea 115 Bristol Lake 115 Danby Lake 116 Koehn Lake' 116 Saline Valley 116 Miscellaneous salt operations 118 Bibliography 119 Illustrations Figure Page 1. Map of San Francisco Bay showing location of salt works 108 2. Chart illustrating consolidation of San Francisco Bay salt industry 109 3. Photo showing windmill at American Salt Company, Mount Eden 111 4. Photo showing windmill pump, American Salt Company, Mount Eden 111 5. Photo showing Saline Valley aerial tramway 116 6. Photo showing a carrier, Saline Valley aerial tramway 117 7. Photo showing buggies used for harvesting salt. Saline Valley salt deposit 117 8. Photo showing wooden gable bottomed cable car. Saline Valley salt deposit 117 ( 106 ) HISTORY OF THE CALIFORNIA SALT INDUSTRY SOLAR SALT The Early Salt Industry The salt industry of California may be said to have started in 1856 when a small quantity of natural salt was placed on the market. In those days the demand for salt in California was small. Not only was most of the salt fish and meat consumed shipped in, but much of the small amount of salt used as such was imported. Prior to 1850 the Spaniards, Mexicans, and Indians used to gather salt that they found in the tide pools on the marshes along the Alameda County shore. These pools were filled by the high tides of June and July but evaporated when the lower tides of August and Sep- tember did not reach them. The natural salt that formed was of poor quality, and its harvest was uncertain. It was a simple step to increase the yield of salt by building levees to increase the capacity of the natural tide pools. A. A. Oliver, one of the Bay area's early salt producers, recalled (Parker, 1897, pp! 1311, 1312) that John Johnson in 1854 was the first to improve the tide pools in this way. It is reported that the first crop sold for $50 a ton. Within a few years, however, others, fol- lowing Johnson's example, had taken up much of the suitable marsh land, and the price fell to only $2 or $3 per ton. Perhaps the discovery of the Comstock Lode was the greatest single stimulus to the California salt industry. Salt was one of the chemicals used in the Washoe process for treating silver ores and until 1862 all the salt used was shipped from San Francisco to Virginia City where is sold for $150 a ton. (Williams, 1883, p. 544). With the discovery of salt deposits at Rhodes Marsh and Sand Springs, Nevada, shipments from San Francisco declined, but metallurgy remained an important market for salt throughout the 19th century. With the growth of San Francisco a local food-curing industry developed. Salt-fish and meat formerly im- ported from the east coast were replaced by Alaska fish and California beef that were salted locally. San Fran- ciscans in the 1860 's, however, considered the Bay salt j to be an inferior product scarcely fit for use (Williams,' 1885, p. 846), and they much preferred imported salt. Crude salt came from Carmen Island on the coast of Lower California, from Peru, and from Asia, while from Liverpool came fine salt. Much of the salt, particularly that from Liverpool, was shipped at ballast rates in vessels that came to load California cargoes. The first attempt to improve the quality of the natural salt was made in 1862 by John Quigley who built a salt works near Barron's Landing in the vicinity of Alvarado (Hanks, 1882, p. 218). The Quigley works was an inde- pendent operation until 1909. Plummer Brothers' Crys- tal Salt Works was built in 1864 near Mayhew's Landing west of Newark. This company, which in 1869 added the Turk Island Salt Works south of Alvarado, remained in the salt business until 1925. The American Salt Com- pany of the Marsicano family, which is still in operation, was founded in 1865. By 1868 the number of salt works in Alameda County had increased to 17 (Hanks, 1882, pp. 218, 219). These pioneer salt producers very soon evolved a salt-making technique that in principle is followed today. The Crystal Salt Works in the late 1860's contained crystallizing ponds preceded by con- centrating ponds and receiving ponds. By discarding the bittern at the proper time, salt was produced that is reported to have contained 99.63 percent sodium chlo- ride (Parker, 1897, p. 1311). Much of the San Francisco Bay salt output was cleaned and ground in San Fran- cisco. Gradually the quality of the salt improved, and about 1870 imports, especially of crude salt, began to decline, although fine salt from Liverpool was received through the middle 1880 's. By 1880 the export of crude salt to Mexico, South America, and Asia had begun. The Salt Industry in the Late 19th Century. In the latter part of the 19th century the San Francisco salt industry was largely confined to the northern part of the Alameda County shore. The evaporating ponds ex- tended from San Leandro Creek to the vicinity of Alvarado, and the only plant south of Alvarado was the Crystal Salt Works. The following statistics for 1885 (Baker, 1914, p. 107) illustrate the character of the salt industry at this time : Production (tons) Union Pacific Salt Company 20,000 John Quigley, Alvarado 2,000 B. F. Barton, Alvarado 1,500 L. Whisby, Mt. Eden 1,500 A. Oliver 1,500 F. Lund 200 S. Liguori 400 Olson & Co. 800 R. Barron 600 Peter Michelson 5,000 John Michelson 300 P. Marsicano, Mt. Eden 5,000 C. & D. Pestdorf, Mt. Eden 4,000 J. P. Tuckson, Mt. Eden 800 Peter Christensen, Mt. Eden 800 Plummer Brothers, Newark 4,000 47,400 With few exceptions these plants were small family enterprises, some comprising as little as 20 acres oper- ated by a single man. They changed hands compara- tively often, frequentlv at the death of the owner. Of 17 plants listed in 1882 (Hanks, 1882, p. 225), only seven can be identified on a list of producers published in 1896 (Calif. Min. Bur. 1896, Kept. 13, pp. 644, 645). Throughout the 19th century the salt industry seems to have suffered from chronic over production. The price of salt remained low, the cheapest of hand labor was employed, and little capital was available for improve- ment. The industry grew, nevertheless, from a produc- tion of 17,000 tons in 1868 to 30,000 tons in 1880 and nearly 100,000 tons at the end of the century. Even as late as 1900, however, only four plants. Union Pacific Salt Company, Carmen Island Salt Company, Oliver Salt Company, and American Salt Company, reported outputs of 10,000 tons or more per year. (107) 108 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Figure 1. Map of Snn Francisco Bay showing locations of salt works. Union Pacific Salt Company. The largest of the 19th century plants was that of the Union Pacific Salt Com- pany which was in continuous production from 1872 to 1927. In 1882 (Williams, 1883, p. 547) the plant, which represented an investment of $100,000 and employed 80 men, occupied 1200 acres of marsh land near the mouths of Alameda Creek and Mount Eden Slough, formerly called Union City Slough. The marsh land was divided by levees into five concentrating ponds of from 100 to 300 acres. Bay water was admitted at the highest tides through fifteen 12-foot hand-operated gates (Hanks, 1882, pp. 221, 222). Pickle at 25° Be was transferred to a large number of crystallizing ponds six to eight acres in size, and bittern was drawn off at 28° Be. Many of the cr3'stallizing ponds were floored with boards, and for preparing table salt the cleanest pickle available was evaporated in elevated wooden pans. After the bittern had been drained from the crystallizing ponds, the salt was raked into heaps and shoveled into baskets. The baskets full of salt were transported on cars from the ponds to dry ground where stacks of 200 to 1200 tons were built. The salt remained in the stacks through one rainy season where weathering hardened and whitened it and tended to wash away traces of the adhering bit- tern. All shipments were made by water. Consolidation of Salt Companies The excess of plant capacity over the demand for salt inevitably leads to attempts to control production and stabilize the price of salt. In 1885 the Union Pacific Salt Company, following a meeting of the Alameda County salt producers, agreed to lease the other plants on San Francisco Bay (Baker, 1914, p. 106). Although a num- ber of the smaller plants did not join this combination, Chapt. 6] History 109 the Union Pacific Salt Company succeeded in controlling the production until the late 1890 's. In 1900 New York interests formed the Federal Salt Company with the objective of gaining control of the entire San Francisco Bay salt crop. This objective was achieved in 1902, but the monopoly did not survive for another year. The series of events that eventually lead to the con- solidation of nearly all the Bay area's salt-producing capacity in the hands of one organization began with the founding of three new salt producers. They were the California Salt Company, formed in 1901 ; the Con- tinental Salt and Chemical Company, organized in 1900 ; and the Leslie Salt Refining Company, established in 1901. California Salt Company. The California Salt Com- pany with W. G. Henshaw as president and H. C. Cow- ard as manager, built a plant south of Coyote Hills Slough and west of the Coyote Hills where salt had never been produced before. The land was obtained from the Dumbarton Land and Improvement Company, a subsidiary of A. Schilling and Company, which had purchased most of the marsh land between Coyote Hills Slough and the Santa Clara County line as a speculative investment. In addition to the new plant, which produced its first crop in 1902, the California Salt Company acquired a number of existing works. They included the Carmen Island Salt Company on the bay shore north of Coyote Creek which employed 71 men in 1899, the Hayward Lumber Company's works north of Hayward Landing, and small parcels of salt land near Hayward Landing that belonged to D. Pestdorf, C. Pestdorf , Peter Mathieson, and others. In 1917 the California Salt Company had 6000 acres in production and employed 90 men. The opera- tion included two crude salt plants southwest of Alva- rado, a third near Hayward Landing, and a vacuum refinery of 100 tons daily capacity 3 miles southwest of Alvarado on Coyote Hills Slough. Continental Salt and Chemical Company. The Conti- nental Salt and Chemical Company, organized in 1900, built a salt works north of Coyote Hills Slough. It in- cluded the former Union City Salt Works of Putnam Brothers as well as additional land to the west. With 1100 to 1200 acres in production in 1919 the plant had a yearly capacity of about 30,000 tons. Although there was no vacuum refinery, the plant contained a number Leslie Solt Co. Nov. 2, 1936 Arden Sail Co. absorbed 1931 Sept. 1927 Leslie-California Soil Co Alviso Solt Co. organized 1929 absorbed 1927 obsorbed 1931 Oliver Salt Co. Leslie-California Salt Co. Arden Soil Co. 1919 Turl( Island Salt Co. 1920 organized California Soli Co. 1901 T May 29, 1924 absorbed 1920 Continental Soil a Chemic ol Co 1900 ~^ Leslie Salt Refining Co. 1901 obsorbed before 1915 obsorbed before 1909 1927 Pioneer Solt Co 1920 FIOUBE 2. Chart illustrating consolidation of San Francisco Bay salt industry. 110 Salt in California [Bull. 175 of unusual features, including covered storage for an entire year's crop. The salt may have received a pre- liminary wash at harvest time, but the principal treat- ment was carried out in a plant of 200 tons per day capacity as it was required for shipment. The processing included washing with cold and hot brine, drying, and screening. Another innovation, which has played a key role in the modernization of the Bay area salt industry, was the revolving pick loading machine. Leslie Salt Refining Company. The Leslie Salt Refin- ing Company, one of the first salt producers on the west side of San Francisco Bay, was established June 25, 1901. The principal plant was about a mile south of San Mateo in an area that following World War II has been filled in and covered with houses. A second plant near Redwood City was in operation in 1908 but was closed in 1909. A vacuum refinery began production at the San Mateo plant in January 1910. In 1919 the officers of the company were Louis E. Spear, President; Leslie Whit- ney, Vice President, and St. John Whitney, General Manager. Production at this time was about 25,000 tons per year, mostly refined salt, obtained from 1850 acres of marsh land. Leslie-California Salt Company. The California Salt Company, the Continental Salt and Chemical Company, and the Leslie Salt Refining Company joined forces on May 29, 1924 and were reincorporated as the Leslie- California Salt Company. As part of a continuing pro- gram of increasing efficiency by modernization and ex- pansion, two important contiguous salt plants were ac- quired in 1927. These were the Turk Island Salt Com- pany and the Oliver Salt Company. Ttirk Island Salt Company. The Turk Island Salt Company was the name applied in the 1920 's to the Alvarado plant of Plummer Brothers which was east of the California Salt Company refinery near Coyote Hills Slough. Plummer Brothers, it will be recalled, were pio- neer producers who built the Crystal Salt Works west of Newark in 1864 and the Turk Island plant in 1869. The Crystal Salt Works was operated continuously by the Plummer family, after 1918 by the Plummer Estate, until it was closed in 1925. The Turk Island plant, how- ever, was leased in 1920, possibly to the California Salt Company, and operated separately until 1927. In that year the Leslie-California Salt Company leased the plant and combined it with its other operations. Oliver Salt Company. Among the few large 19th century salt producers was the Oliver Salt Company whose plant was about 2 miles southwest of Mount Eden. It was founded by Andrew Oliver, who was born in Sweden in 1834 (Guinn, J. M,, 1904) and went to sea at the age of 15. He came to California about 1854, and in 1872, after a period spent at mining and farming, purchased 120 acres of salt land near Mount Eden. Here he settled and brought his family. In the years follow- ing, Oliver gradually increased his salt holdings and twice rebuilt the original salt plant. When he died in 1890 his estate included not only the salt works of 15,000 tons annual capacity but a lumber yard, a grist mill, and interests in dairy farming and poultry raising. These enterprises Mrs. E. A. Oliver, his widow, carried on for many years with the oldest son, Adolph A., as general manager of the salt works. The three younger sons held other positions. The salt works continued to prosper. In 1909 the E. A. Oliver Salt Company included in addition to the orig- inal holdings the neighboring Mount Eden Salt Works of H. L. Petermann, the Rock Springs Salt Works of Mrs. Mary Nielsen which she had inherited from her father, Peter Michelson, the L. N. Whisby works, and the Ohlsen and Cox works. By 1915 the Oliver prop- erty included in addition the Occidental Salt Works of J. W. Sinclair, the Paradise Salt Works of F. Lund, and salt land that had belonged to the Liguori family. About 1920 the Commercial Salt Company of James Baumberger was absorbed. All were small salt works that dated from the pre-1900 period. In September 1927 the Oliver Salt Company pur- chased the Pioneer Salt Works of B. F. Barton that had been in operation at least as early as 1885. This plant, near the mouth of Alameda Creek, was originally known as the Solar Salt Works ; and it was not until some years after Barton's death that the name Pioneer Salt Works was used. After 1920 the owner was the Pioneer Salt Company, an organization that previously had marketed the output of the Solar Salt Works. The Oliver Salt Company in the 1920 's had an annual capacity of about 30,000 tons of crude salt produced from 1400 acres of land. Some of the crude salt was re- fined in grainer pans. The Leslie-California Salt Company leased the Oliver Salt works late in 1927 and purchased the property in 1931. The company was now able to consolidate its widely scattered operations. The separate units around Alvarado were combined and rebuilt into two crude- salt-producing plants, the Baumberg plant north of Coyote Hills Slough, and the Alvarado plant south of it. These two plants included the greater part of the land occupied by the 19th century salt works. Thereafter all refining was done at the Alvarado plant, which had been rebuilt in 1924 following a fire; and no salt was produced at San Mateo after 1930. The small and iso- lated Hayward Landing plant was closed about 1925. Arden Salt Company. Meanwhile A. Schilling and Company organized the Arden Salt Company and pro- duced the first crop in 1919. Like the California Salt Company in 1901, the Arden Salt Company built a new plant in virgin territory, and a comparable ex- pansion of the salt industry followed. Land was obtained from the affiliate, Dumbarton Land and Improvement Company. The first comparatively small plant was at Dumbarton Point, and the evaporat- ing ponds probably did not extend north of the present Dumbarton highway. Expansion, however, was rapid, and about 1923 the crystallizing ponds and washer were moved to the vicinity of Jarvis Landing. This salt works, with 4000 acres of evaporating ponds extending from Dumbarton Point north along the shore to the Leslie-California property, is today, with some addi- tional area to the north, the Newark number one crude salt plant of the Leslie Salt Company. Late in 1926 the Arden Salt Company built a second crude salt plant, initially of 5000 acres, south of Newark and obtained the first crop from it in 1928. Chapt. 6] History 111 In September 1927 the Union Pacific Salt Company was purchased. This old plant seems to have changed but little since the 1880 's, and the wooden-floored crys- tallizing ponds were in use as late as 1920. The Arden Salt Company did not operate it after 1929. Another addition to the Arden Salt Company came in 1931 with the purchase of the Alviso Salt Company. Owned by the same interests that had been back of the Continental Salt and Chemical Company, it occu- pied the marshes of Santa Clara County from Alviso to Mayfield. The plant with its belt conveyors and barge for transporting the salt and washer at Alviso (Bart- lett, 1930, pp. 22-26) was used for a single year in 1929. Eventually the washer was dismantled, and the pond system was joined with that of the Newark number two plant. By 1935 the Arden Salt Company's output ap- proximated the combined production of all the other salt producers in California. Leslie Salt Co. On November 2, 1936 the Leslie Salt Co. was incorporated and took over the assets of the Leslie-California Salt Company and the Arden Salt Company. A further consolidation of the salt plants was now possible. The ponds of the old California Salt Company at Alvarado were joined with those of the Newark number one plant, while the old Union Pacific Salt Company land was in part added to the Baumberg plant. With the completion of a new washer and re- finery at Newark in 1941, the Alvarado refinery was closed and dismantled. Some of the equipment, including three of the vacuum pans, was moved from Alvarado. Today there is little of the salt industry to be seen near Alvarado except a vast expanse of concentrating ponds. The sun and the wind silently at work give b\it little hint of the salt works that once clustered in this area nor of the modern salt industry carried on at Baumberg and Newark. Independent Salt Works A number of independent salt works that survived well into the period of consolidation remain to be ac- counted for. Of these only the American Salt Company is in operation today. American Salt Company. The American Salt Com- pany was founded in 1865 by Patrizio Marsicano. For three generations the plant at the end of Depot Road in Mount Eden has been owned and operated by the Mar- sicano family. During the 19th century it was among the largest of the Alameda County salt producers. This plant may well be the one called the California Salt Works in the 8th Report of the State Mineralogist (Calif. Min. Bur., 1888, Rept. 8, p. 32). An accompany- ing illustration shows a windmill and a group of build- ings almost identical with some old structures still standing on the Marsicano property. The Marsicano windmill at any rate dates back to the earliest days of the salt industry and was used for the grinding of salt. In the 1870 's and 1880 's, however, the American Salt Company owned a mill in San Francisco to which a fleet of schooners brought the salt for drying and grinding. After 1900 when the new generation of salt companies was beginning to take over the industry, the operations of the American Salt Company dwindled almost to the Figure 3. American Salt Company, Mount Eden. A wind- mill used for grinding salt in the 1870's. The mill stones have been removed. Figure 4. American Salt Company, Mount Eden. Old wind- mill pump used before 1900. This type of pump was displaced by the Archimedes screw pump, a few of which are still in operation. 112 Salt in Califorkia [Bull. 175 vanishing point. Upon the death of Patrizio Marsicano about 1912 his -widow, Mrs. Mary Marsicano, carried on the business. Only six men were required to harvest the 1917 crop. Frank Marsicano, who became manager in 1921, operated the plant through 1927. Then for a num- ber of years the plant lay idle except for maintenance which was performed by the Leslie-California Salt Company. Ten years later when the lease to the Leslie-California Salt Company had expired, A. F. Marsicano, son of Frank Marsicano and the present manager, reopened the plant. Marsicano may well have been encouraged by the fact that the Oliver Brothers Salt Company was building a new plant in the vicinity. The old warehouse and landing on the bay shore were abandoned and re- placed with new facilities on the landward side of the property. At the same time a modern washer was con- structed and mechanized harvesting instituted. Begin- ning in 1938, the American Salt Company was again producing a modest tonnage of crude salt. Oliver Brothers Salt Company. It will be recalled that the old Oliver Salt Company was sold to the Leslie- California Salt Company in 1931. A. E. Oliver and A. A. Oliver, Jr., younger members of the Oliver family, decided to re-enter the salt business and purchased some salt land from F. Lemos. Lemos, who produced but little salt, had in turn purchased the property from A. L. Johnson who operated a small plant from about 1900 to 1924. Oliver Brothers Salt Company built a new plant on this land in 1937 and obtained the first crop a year later. Hayward Landing Plants. Two small salt works near Hayward Landing were never incorporated into the plant formerly operated there by the California Salt Company and Leslie-California Salt Company. One, the Peter Mathiesen works had belonged to P. J. Christensen before 1903. A few hundred tons of salt were produced each year through 1920. Some time after 1926 the prop- erty was sold and now belongs to the Leslie Salt Co. Tuckson's works, containing only 47 acres of land, was operated by J. P. Tuekson from at least as early as 1895. Martin C. Tuekson, who inherited the property in 1907, worked his small holdings single handedly through 1920. The property was leased to the Arden Salt Com- pany in 1931. The Quigley Works. John Quigley, who built the first salt works on San Francisco Bay, seems to have all but retired from the salt business by 1900. Maintenance only was performed at the plant between 1899 to 1907. About that time the plant was sold to the West Shore Salt Company with principal operations in San Mateo County. Salt Works of San Mateo County The Stauffer Chemical Corporation has been the prin- cipal producer of salt in San Mateo County other than the Leslie Salt Refinery Company, which is described above, and the new Redwood City Plant of the Leslie Salt Co. The Stauffer operation can be traced back to the "West Shore Salt Company which was active in the early years of the 20th century. West Shore Salt Company. The West Shore Salt Company operated a small plant on the marshes east of Redwood City. Production at the Redwood locality began in 1906, and in 1910 two additional plants were in operation. One, as mentioned above, was the Alvarado Salt Works of John Quigley ; the other was an unidenti- fied plant near Mount Eden. In 1911 the West Shore Salt Company was disincorporated ; and the San Fran- cisco Salt Refinery, an affiliate of the Stauffer Chemical Company, took over the operation. Redwood City Salt Works. A small contemporary of the West Shore Salt Company was the Redwood City Salt Works which first reported production in 1901. The plant was managed by G. J. Liguori whose family owned salt land near the Oliver Salt Works in Alameda County and had been in the salt business for many years. In 1910 the family retired from the salt business. The Ala- meda County property was sold to the Oliver Salt Com- pany and the Redwood City Salt Works to Stauffer interests. San Francisco Salt Reining Company. The San Francisco Salt Refining Company which was associated with the Stauffer Chemical Company, operated one of the first vacuum refining plants in California. Prior to 1911 the operation comprised refining only, and the crude salt was obtained from the West Shore Salt Com- pany. In 1912 it took over the crude salt plant, quite pos- sibly combining it with the Redwood City Salt works. The plant was in the vicinity of the present Port of Red- wood City, and the crystallizing ponds covered the area now occupied by the installations of the Leslie Terminal Company. Crude salt was produced through 1925, but the plant was shut down in the following year. Stauffer Chemical Company. The Stauffer Chemical Company reopened the crude salt plant at Redwood City in 1929, and operated it under its own name through 1940. Two years later the Leslie Salt Co. purchased the entire operation. For a year or two the Leslie Salt Co. operated the plant in order to furnish bittern to a neigh- boring customer, but no salt was harvested. The construc- tion of the new Redwood City crude salt plant that followed incorporated very few of the old plant facilities. Greco Salt Company. V. C. Greco owned and oper- ated a small salt works in the Redwood Creek area from 1905 through 1920. The plant occupied a marsh island on the bay shore south of the mouth of Redwood Creek. Crude salt only was produced ; but unlike many of its Alameda County contemporaries, the Greco plant in- cluded a washer. Shipments were made by rail as well as by water. North Bay Plants Practically all the salt produced in San Francisco Bay has come from the Alameda, San Mateo, and Santa Clara County marshes around the south end of the bay. So far as known, salt has not previously been produced in San Pablo Bay where the Leslie Salt Co. started construction of a crude salt plant in 1953. In Marin County, accord- ing to Bradley (Bradley, 1916, p. 250) salt was pro- duced near San Rafael in 1867. In addition an old map dated in the 1870 's in the possession of the Leslie Salt Co. shows a small salt works in the northeastern portion of Richardson Bay. The Federal Salt Company in 1902 reported that a few hundred tons of salt were produced Chapt. 6] History 113 in Marin County which may represent the outputs of several small plants. The only other recorded production is that of James Baumbergjer whose Golden Gate Salt Corporation was active in 190G. Other Sea-Water Planti The history of the sea salt industry of San Francisco Bay is far more involved than that of other parts of Cali- fornia. At San Diego Bay this simplicity ma.y be more apparent than real, for N. B. Dittenhaver believes that salt has been produced there since the 1860 's. A salt works was in operation at Chula Vista before the Coro- nado Belt Railway was built, about 1887 (Smythe, 1908, p. 439). The earliest recorded production from San Diego Bay was 300 tons in 1870 (San Diego Div. Natural Resources, 1950, p. 7). The Division of Mines records, however, begin in 1901 when E. S. Babcock purchased the plant and founded the Western Salt Company. The present owner acquired the property about 1926. A sec- ond San Diego Bay plant was the Chollas Valley works of J. P. Duncan and Sons, active from 1912 to 1920. Both the Duncan plant and the Western Salt Company plant were severely damaged by flood waters released when the Lower Otay dam failed in January 1916. At Long Beach the San Pedro Salt Company, organ- ized in 1901, produced salt for the first time in 1902. Late in 1909 the Long Beach Salt Company succeeded the San Pedro Salt Company and produced salt regu- larly through 1945. In 1927 and 1928 two salt producers on Koehn Lake, Kern County, were acquired. The com- pany operated a grinding and drying plant at Long Beach that treated crude salt not only from their own plants but from Lower California as well. The loss of marsh land was an important factor in the closing of the Long Beach plant in 1946. At Moss Landing production was first reported in 1916. The operation has remained in the same hands. The Newport Bay works was built by the Irvine Com- pany in 1936 and operated by them through 1949. Since that time the plant has been leased to the Western Salt Company. ^ The Development of Salt Making Techniques The consolidation of the San Francisco Bay salt in- dustry accompanied and made possible a steady evolu- tion of salt-making techniques. As pointed out above, the control of the brine concentration to prevent con- tamination with bittern salts was achieved at an early date, and it is mechanization that transformed the small family-operated salt works of the 19th century into the multimillion dollar industry that we know today. Pumping. Pumping, which cannot be entirely elim- inated, required perhaps the first use of machinery in the solar salt industry. Originally all pumps were pow- ered by windmills. The Union Pacific works in 1880 employed a windmill-driven paddle wheel running in an inclined wooden trough to raise brine the necessary few inches between ponds. Another type of windmill pump, built before 1900, may be seen at the American Salt Company plant. Two vertical pistons were driven through a crank and gear system. The more familiar Archimedes screw pumps were used at a later date and have been displaced by gasoline and electric pumps only within the past 25 years. Three Archimedes pumps, probably the last still in operation in California, are used by the American Salt Company. Steam pumping was never generally adopted, although the American Salt Company had one installation. Electric pumps, especially for large intake pumps, date back to before World War I. Lifting the Salt. For lifting the salt, hand shoveling was the only method until after World War I, and com- monly Japanese or Chinese contract labor was employed. In 1917 the wages paid by the Union Pacific Salt Com- pany were 18 cents an hour. Today machinery has re- placed the shovel except at the Vierra and Oliver Brothers plants. The Leslie Salt Co. abandoned hand shoveling after 1940 when the Alvarado plant was closed. The revolving pick loading machine was developed in 1919 by the Continental Salt and Chemical Company. The first machine had a low-angle scraper in front of the picks to help free the salt. The Alviso Salt Company, which was closely associated with the Continental Salt and Chemical Company, further developed it ; and it was perfected in the 1930 's by the Arden Salt Company after the purchase of the Alviso plant. The Alviso ma- chine, which the Leslie Salt Co. maintains as a stand-by unit, is gasoline powered. The dragline scraper is not applicable in the Bay Area because of the limited bearing capacity of the salt. At Chula Vista draglines replaced the pick and shovel in the late 1930 's. Transportation. For transporting the broken salt from the ponds the wheelbarrow was used at the smaller plants into the 1920 's. Even as late as 1930 the Stauffer Chemical Company employed this method. For the larger plants such as the Union Pacific Salt Company, tram cars running on temporary track were standard equip- ment as early as 1880. The American Salt Company employed horses to pull the cars, and at that time the track -was constructed of round iron rails spiked to stringers. Gasoline locomotives were introduced before World War I. No use of steam locomotives by the solar salt plants has been recorded, although they were used at some of the early desert operations. The Western Salt Company operated an electric locomotive, however, until about 1926 ; and rope haulage was practiced at Long Beach in 1914 (Phalen, 1915, p. 948). Trackless vehicles and equipment other than the wheelbarrow and auxil- iary equipment have been used only by the Oliver Brothers Salt Company. The combination of a scoop loader operating on a portable runway in the ponds and trucks running on the levees is probably not applicable to a large plant. Four plants have transported the salt from the ponds without vehicles of any kind. By 1914 at Alvarado the California Salt Company had installed a portable con- veyor-belt extending across the crystallizing pond and onto which men shoveled the salt. Stock piles were built up on the edges of the pond. This equipment was aban- done when the Alvarado plant was closed in 1940. At Long Beach a similar installation with a screw-conveyor instead of a belt-conveyor replaced the cable cars used earlier. The crystallizing ponds measured 200 by 250 114 Salt in California [Bull. 175 feet, and the conveyor was 250 feet long. The Alviso Salt Company in 1929 also installed portable conveyor- belts for transferring salt lifted by a revolving pick machine to a barge that was towed through canals among the ponds to the washer at Alviso. Four con- veyors 100 to 125 feet long were used in series to reach half way across the crystallizing pond. They were mounted on caterpillar tracks and equipped with electric motors and remote controls so that the entire chain could be moved along together. The Monterey Bay Salt W'^rks' method of lifting the salt by hand and pumping it from the pond as a slurry was in use in 1919. Washing. In the early plants crude salt received no washing except that accomplished by exposure to the weather in the stacks. The salt was stored after harvest- ing in small stacks that in many cases were limited in size by the bearing-capacity of the ground. Even as late as 1920 the small Alameda County plants had no wash- ing plants of any kind. Washing was initiated in the 1890 's by the Oliver Salt Company. At first fresh-water was used to remove traces of bittern more completely than was possible by the exposure of the salt to the winter rains. Later, in order to reduce the loss of salt by solution, brine-wash- ing was adopted. Gradually various types of classifiers were introduced that made possible the removal of gyp- sum and insoluble as well as adhering bittern, and by 1914 washing was commonly practiced at the larger plants. The San Francisco Salt Refining Company in 1916 used a portable washer that was taken to the edge of the pond being harvested. Washing has always im- mediately followed harvesting except in the case of the Continental Salt and Chemical Company which stored the crop under cover and washed the salt as it was re- quired for shipment. Preparation of Fine Salt. Before 1900 the only method for preparing the best grades of salt was drying, grinding, and sizing. Although both wind and steam powered grinding mills were used to a limited extent at the salt works, most of the fine salt was prepared in San Francisco because it was felt that the San Francisco climate was drier than that on the marshes. In the 1880 's both the Union Pacific Salt Company and the American Salt Company had steam operated processing plants in San Francisco. At the American Salt Company plant, the salt was dried in galvanized iron plans heated by steam and then ground in buhr mills (California Min. Bur., 1888a). The Oliver Salt Company was the first to demonstrate that salt could be dried successfully at the salt works. The use of steam for drying was continued well into the 20th century. In 1917 both the Union Pa- cific Salt Company and the Oliver Salt Company pre- pared some salt in rotary steam heated driers. Vacuum refining, although invented about 1885, was probably not generally practiced in the United States much before it reached California. The San Mateo re- finery of the Leslie Salt Refining Company was placed in operation in January 1910. The San Francisco Salt Refining Company's plant in San Francisco and the California Salt Company's Alvarado refinery were built about the same time. Then as now a purified brine pre- pared by dissolving crude salt in fresh water was the pan feed. The report (Huguein, and Castello, 1921a, p. 34) that the California Salt Company used pickle as the pan feed has not been verified. An unsuccessful attempt was made, however, to prepare the pan feed by dissolving in fresh water the salt in the crystallizing pond after draining off the bittern. The Morton Salt Company refinery at Newark was built in 1926, and the existing refinery of the Leslie Salt Co. in 1941. Grainer pans for the recrystallization of salt have had but little application in California. Both the Union Pacific Salt Company and the Oliver Salt Company, however, produced some grainer salt at times. Miscellaneous Developments. Gasoline engines for small pumps and the like were appearing about 1914. For large power requirements, however, electricity was purchased as early as 1916. The Union Pacific Salt Com- pany burned coal to provide steam for the plant opera- tion, and did not convert to electricity until about 1919. In 1917 the vacuum refineries, with their large require- ments of steam, were generating electricity with steam from oil fired boilers. All the older plants in Alameda County used vessels for shipping salt to market. The Arden Salt Company was the first that did not use water transportation. In 1928 the Leslie-California Salt Company was making water shipments from the Alvarado plant and rail ship- ments from the San Mateo plant. Labor trouble on the water front was one factor that hastened the change from water to land transportation. Size and Number of Plants. The effects of consolida- tion and mechanization in the Bay Area are reflected in the trend toward a small number of large plants. In 1900 some 20 plants produced about 100,000 tons of salt. In 1926, the year the Leslie-California Salt Com- pany was incorporated, 10 plants owned by seven com- panies had an output of a little more than 230,000 tons. When the Leslie Salt Co. was incorporated two com- panies with five plants produced between 300,000 and 350,000 tons a year. The 1949 production of 772,572 tons was produced by three companies, including the small independents, with five plants. The Union Pacific Salt Company's plant with 1200 acres and an annual production of around 10,000 tons was considered large in 1880. Today the Baumberg plant of the Leslie Salt Co., into which most of the 19th cen- tury plants have been merged, contains over 4500 acres and has a design capacity of 180,000 tons a year. The Newark number two plant, with nearly 12,000 acres in production, has a capacity of 450,000 tons a year. Crystallizing ponds of one acre were common before mechanization, and few were as large as 10 acres. By the mid-1930 's 15 acres was considered to be the maxi- mum practical size where hand shoveling was practiced, or, if loading machines were used, 30 acres (Buchen, 1937, p. 336). Some of the crystallizing ponds of the new Redwood City plant are over 50 acres in size, large enough to contain an entire salt plant such as the Tuck- son works of 1917. The Utilization of Bittern The large scale use of bittern has developed within the past 25 years. In 1880, however, the Union Pacific Salt Company was producing magnesium carbonate at Chapt. 6] History 115 the rate of 50,000 pounds a year. The product was used by the Hercules Powder Company as an absorbent in the manufacture of dynamite. The bittern after the re- moval of sulfate with calcium hydroxide, was treated with carbon dioxide gas obtained by burning coke; and the magnesium carbonate precipitate was filtered and dried (Hanks, 1882, p. 223). The manufacture of magnesium oxychloride cement created a market for magne sium chlorid e, and this salt was produced at San Diego Bay prior to the failure of the Otay Dam in 1916 (Mason, 1919, p. 530). Salt works bittern was evaporated to precipitate the remaining so- dium chloride and sulfates, yielding an impure mag- nesium chloride liquor. Following the flood the salt plant was rebuilt, but bittern salts were not recovered for a number of years. The shortage of chemicals during World War I created a new interest in bittern. Several plants were built in which, by further evaporation of the bittern in vac\ium pans followed by cooling, sodium chloride, mag- nesium sulfate, and carnallite (KCl-MgCl2'6HoO) were precipitated, leaving a magnesium chloride mother liquor. Magnesium chloride was produced in both liquid and solid form, and some plants recovered magnesium sulfate and potassium chloride also (Tressler, 1923, pp. 66-69). Production by the Oliver Salt Company at Mount Eden and the Marine Chemical Company at Long Beach began in 1916. The Whitney Chemical Company, a subsidiary of the Leslie Salt Refining Company, fol- lowed in 1917; and in 1919 the California Chemical Company began production at Chula Vista. The National Kellestone Company, a large manufac- turer of ox3'chloride cement, decided to enter the mag- nesium chloride field and organized a subsidiary, the California Chemical Corporation. In 1923 the plant of the California Chemical Company at Chula Vista was purchased, and a much larger plant was built that is still in operation. The management of the California Chemical Company then built another plant at Newark and operated it under the name of Industrial Chemical Corporation until 1927. When chemicals became plentiful again, the California magji£sium__clilQxide producers operated at a disadvan- tage; and by 1928 all but the California Chemical Cor- poration had ceased production. Then the California Chemical Corporation arranged long-term contracts for bittern with the salt companies on San Francisco Bay and purchased the small plant of the Industrial Chem- ical Corporation at Newark. Because the market for magnesium chloride was limited, the California Chemical Corporation developed ways to recover additional commodities from bittern. Bromine was produced for the first time in California in 1926. The plant, at Chula Vista, contained a Kubierschky tower in which chlorine displaced bromine from the bit- tern; and it operated until 1946. A second tower was operated at San Mateo until late 1929 or early 1930; and a larger plant with three towers was built at Newark in 1931. Research was also initiated on the precipitation of magnesium hydroxide from bittern with lime. The calcination of San Francisco Bay shells to form the lime required was studied in a small plant at Newark that began commercial production in the fall of 1930. A pilot plant was then built at Newark in which magnesium hydroxide precipitated from bittern with lime could be carbonated to make basic magnesium carbonate or calcined to make magnesia. In February 1937, soon after the operation was acquired by Westvaco Chlorine Products Corporation, construction began on a magnesia plant at Newark. Today Westvaco Chemical Division of Plant Food Machinery & Chemical Corporation, succes- sor to the California Chemical Corporation and West- vaco Chlorine Products Company, produces magnesia, bromine, and gypsum products at Newark and magne- sium chloride at Chula Vista. The Plant Rubber and Asbestos Company at Redwood City also produced magnesia from bittern between 1933 and 1941. In this operation magnesium hydroxide was precipitated with crude soda ash made by calcining trona (Na2C03-NaHC03-2H20). The magnesium hy- droxide was converted to basic magnesium carbonate and used for thermal insulation. SALT IN THE DESERT Although the large scale production of salt from sources other than sea water did not begin until World War II, most of the desert salt operations date back to the World War I period. Some operations originated in the late 19th century. Salton Sea The salt deposits of the Salton Sea region were known and described as early as 1848 and were worked on a small scale. The first organized production, however, came in 1884 (Bailey, 1902, p. 124) when the New Liver- pool Salt Company commenced operations. The plant, at the north end of Salton Sink, was connected with the railroad at Salton by a mile long spur. Several methods of operation have been described, but most of the salt was scraped from the playa crust with plows. The New Liverpool Salt Company's works were de- stroyed by the flood of 1905 and 1906 which left the property 60 feet beneath the surface of Salton Sea. No more salt was produced from Salton Sea until, in 1927, Seth Hartley began experimenting with solar evapora- tion near Caleb at the north end of the sea. A crop of 1500 tons was harvested in 1929 (Tucker and Sampson, 1929, p. 526), but no further activity has been recorded. Seth Hartley and his son Chester, however, built two more solar salt plants. The last and largest was the Im- perial Salt Works near Frink which was brought into production in 1935. In 1943 the Western Salt Company bought the plant; and in 1947, after the precipitation of sodium sulfate caused the loss of a year's crop, the operation was abandoned. The only other production of salt by solar evapora- tion in this area has been near Mullet Island. In 1919 the Mullet Island Paint Company produced some salt from salt springs and in 1934 the Mullet Island Develop- ment Company obtained salt from well brine. The Reeder Salt Company's Mullet Island Salt Works, pro- ductive from 1940 through 1942, evaporated Salton Sea water supplemented with well brine. Bristol Lake The California Salt Company may be traced back to the Crystal Salt Company of California. The claims were located for calcium chloride, and the production 116 Salt in California [Bull. 175 of calcium chloride was the principal activity into the 1920 's. The Crystal Salt Company of California, how- ever, reported the production of salt from 1909 through 1913. In 1910 a mill was completed to which salt ob- tained by quarrying was hauled in narrow gauge cars The California Inland Salt Company and the Amboy Salt Company were also active at about the same time but neither produced salt, and they may have been developing calcium chloride. The Consumers Salt Company, apparently a reor- ganization of the Crystal Salt Company, took over the Bristol Lake property and operated it in 1916 and 1917. In 1918 the Pacific Rock Salt Company leased it and in 1920 built a new plant. The following year the operation became the California Rock Salt Company which in 1927 purchased the property from the Con- sumers Salt Company. The name was changed to Cali- fornia Salt Company in 1950. The only other producers of salt on Bristol Lake have been some of the predecessors of the National Chloride Company of America. Although calcium chloride has been the principal product, the Aal Salt Company pro- duced salt by quarrying in 1921 and the Saline Products Company obtained some salt from the solar ponds used for separating calcium chloride from the lake brine. The salt was finished in a plant at Funston Sidhig. Since 1931 only calcium chloride has been produced. Danby Lake One of the earliest rock-salt mining operations in California was the Surprise mines at the north end of Danbv Lake in the vicinity of section 16, T. 2 N., R. 17 E., s!b. southwest of Milligau. The Crystal Salt Com- pany quarried a substantial tonnage reported to be of bigh purity between 1890 and 1894 and sunk prospect shafts in 1882 (Bailey, 1902, p. 128). The mine build- ings were constructed of salt blocks, and one remained standing until World "War II. While some of the best salt was shipped to San Francisco, most of the output was consumed by the silver mills at Calico. Because the Parker Branch of the Santa Fe Railway had not yet been built, the salt was hauled to the railroad at Danby in wagons drawn by steam traction engines. No trace of the Crystal Salt Company's operation remains. Work at Danby Lake since the closing of the Crystal Salt Company's quarry has been on a small scale, much of it experimental. The later operations have centered in the northea.st quarter of T. 1 N., R. 18 E., S.B., south of Salt IMarsh in the southeastern portion of the lake. R. B. Evans quarried a few tons of rock salt in 1916 and 1917. Danby Lake was among numerous localities investi- gated for nitrates bv the United States Geological Sur- vey following World War 1 (Noble. 1931). Samples of the salt, brine, clays, and surface efilorescence were analyzed for nitrate with negative results. Sodium sulfate was produced from the Doran-Scho- field property li to 2 miles west of Salt Marsh, and during the 1920 's 90 to 100 car loads were reported shipped to pulp mills. From 1934 to 1942 J. W. Reeder's Rock Salt Products Company quarried salt that was refined in a small vacuum plant in South Pasadena. Reeder also conducted solar evaporation tests on brine pumped from wells. The exploration and development work of the Metro- politan Water District of Southern California began in 1940. Koehn Lake Although the Diamond Salt Company carried out de- velopment at Koehn Lake in 1911 and 1912, salt was first produced in 1914 by the Consolidated Salt Com- pany. Then as now the salt was recovered from surface brine by solar evaporation, and from the time of the earliest production the operation has been hindered by dry j-ears and lack of rain to supply brine. The Consolidated Salt Company's mill was at Salt- dale. A second producer appeared in 1917 when the Freemont Salt Company constructed a plant east of the Consolidated Salt Company's plant and south of Toby. Late in 1927 the Long Beach Salt Company bought the Freemont operation and obtained control of the Consolidated Salt Company the following April. Work was then concentrated in the Saltdale operation, and the facilities at Toby were dismantled. In 1933 the Consolidated Salt Company was dissolved, leaving the Long Beach Salt Company as the operating company. Saline Valley The salt deposit in Saline Vallev was discovered in 1864 (Hanks, 1882, p. 219). Although its potential value must have been known to the early miners in the Ubehebe district, lack of transportation delayed its de- velopment. Even after the narrow gauge Carson and Colorado Railroad was completed through Owens Valley to Keeler in 1883, the problem was not solved. A wagon reciuired two days for the roundabout journey across the Inyo Range to the salt deposit by way of Waucoba Canyon, a distance of only about 12 miles by air. The salt deposit was first worked on a small scale in 1903 and 1904 by the Saline Valley Salt Company. The death of the president, J. L. Bourland, in 1905, brought an end to this phase of the salt development. n .riLl T V •'■-"■■V itt. -— Figure 5. Saline Valley aerial tramwa.v ; view west from the east terminal. This tramway was built in 1911 and 1912 to carry salt from Saline Valley to Owens Valley. In its 13i-mile length it rose from an elevation of 1100 feet at the east terminal to 8500 feet at the crest of the Inyo Range and dropped to 3600 feet at the west terminaL Chapt. 6] History 117 Fiia ui; (!. Saline Valley aerial tramway. A iar:n.. 'Ihv car- riers weighed 800 pounds and held about 7(X) pounds of salt. The capacity of this tramway was 20 tons per hour. Several years later a thorough study of the transpor- tation problem was made by the Saline Valley Salt Company, the president of which was White Smith. The building of a railroad into Saline Valley being imprac- ticable, the company made cost estimates of two other ways of moving the salt into Owens Valley. One was the construction of an aerial tramway; the other a pipe line through which the salt could be pumped as brine. Al- though the cost of transportation by pipe line compared favorably with that of the tramway, the tramway was chosen because it provided a means for shipping supplies into Saline Valley. Surveys began in April 1911, and in August a contract was made with the Trenton Iron Works, a subsidiary of the American Steel and Wire Company, for the construction of a double-rope tram- way from the salt deposit to Owens Valley. The Saline Valley aerial tramway was ISi miles long and had a capacity of 20 tons per hour (Carstarphen, 1917). Other tramways that had been built were longer and had greater capacity, but the Saline Valley line had steeper grades than any other in the United States. The final location ran from Salt Lake in Saline Valley at an elevation of about 1100 feet, up Daisy Canyon to a saddle at the crest of the Inyo Range, elevation about 8500 feet, and to the terminal near Swansea in Owens Valley at an elevation of about 3600 feet. The rough terrain of the Inyo Range hindered con- struction. For the transport of materials to the struc- tures on the west slope, an old road was rebuilt. It con- tained grades up to 25 percent, and a team of eight t "^^^ 1 T^k'^«WIBM«i -m"' jS1l^^^'"V,"-mt rTjfp^-^^S^^ "^"''wii-^ m. horses could move only 5000 pounds of equipment over it. For the east slope structures, some material was freighted in to Saline Valley, but much of it was de- livered by means of temporary tramways of the reversi- ble type. FlQlTBE 7. Saline Valley salt deposit. Buggies used for harvest- ing salt by the Saline Valley Salt Company and Owens Valley Salt Company, 1912-18. Salt was recrystallized in place and after a period of draining in piles it was loaded into buggies that were drawn by cable to a dumping point. Figure 8. Saline Valley salt deposit. Wooden gable bottomed cable ear used by the Saline Valley Salt Company to haul salt from the deposit to the mill. In operation it ran on the double tracked trestle behind the car. The car stands in one of the crystallizing ponds built by Sierra Salt Company about 1930. The tramway was divided into five sections, three on the east slope and two on the west. Each section was in effect a separate tramway at each end of which was a control station where both the carrier wires and the traction wires terminated. The carriers, which were sus- pended from wheels that ran on the carrier wires and attached to the traction cable by friction grips, passed through the control stations on rails. At each control station a 75-horsepower electric motor supplied power to the endless traction cable through a grip sheave eight feet in diameter. Power was obtained from a three-phase line that paralleled the tramway. The maximum hori- zontal angle, about 30°, was at control station one at the head of Daisy Canyon, while the vertical angle was as much as 40° in places. The carriers weighed 800 pounds and held about 700 pounds of salt. Unlike most tramway buckets, they were cylindrical in shape, and the suspension was designed so that they hung horizontally regardless of the angle of the carrier wire. To protect the salt from dust, rain, and grease from the cables, the carriers were equipped with tightly fitting covers. The tramway required for its operation two men at each of the terminals, two men at each of the four con- trol stations, and four "line riders" who performed lubrication and other maintenance work. All stations were connected by telephone. At the loading terminal carriers were dispatched at the rate of 56 an hour on the signal of an automatic gong. Construction of the tramway progressed through 1911 and 1912. The following June all was ready for the first test, and on July 2, 1913, the tramway delivered the 118 Salt in California [Bull. 175 first salt to Owens Valley. When fully loaded, however, the carriers slipped on the traction wire, and new grips had to be designed. Investigation showed that, while the salt had been assumed to weight 60 pounds per cubic foot, it actually weighed as much as 70 pounds per cubic foot because of entrained moisture. In spite of these difficulties more salt was produced in 1913 than in any other year. Most of the salt produced in Saline Valley was re- crystallized in place with fresh water from Hunter Canyon. Men raked the recrystallized salt into conical piles 2 feet high and 3^ feet in diameter at the base. The piles were spaced in rows 12 feet apart in one direction and 6 feet apart in the direction at right angles. After a period of draining, the salt was loaded into buggies of 500 to 1000 pounds capacity that were constructed of steel and galvanized iron and had wheels with broad tires. The loaded buggies were drawn by a cable to a dumping point where the salt was trans- ferred to small, wooden, gable-bottomed cars. From the dumping point the cars ran on a double tracked cable railroad half a mile long to a 50-ton bin at the tramway loading terminal. The mill at the discharge terminal in Owens Valley (Waring and Huguenin, 1919, p. 123) contained equipment for drying, grinding, and sizing the salt. The construction of the tramway exhausted the Saline Valley Salt Company financially, and in 1915 the oper- ation was leased to the Owens Valley Salt Company. This company produced salt until 1918 when it, too, went out of business. Between 1912 and 1918 several tens of thousands of tons of salt were produced, more than half the total production from Saline Valley. The Taylor Milling Company, G. W. Russell, super- intendent, then acquired the Saline Valley plant and produced some salt in 1920. After five years of in- activity the Sierra Salt Company, G. W. Russell, presi- dent, was formed; and in 1926 salt was produced once more. Trucks were used to haul the salt to Keeler over the newly built Saline Valley road until the tramway was overhauled in 1929. The Sierra Salt Company modified the operation of the salt plant by installing crystallizing ponds. Brine was prepared by dissolving the crust in fresh water as in the earlier operation. The plant was last operated in 1930, and in 1935 the Sierra Salt Company went into receivership. MISCELLANEOUS SALT OPERATIONS Silver Lake, San Bernardino County. On July 16, 1907, the Pacific Salt and Soda Company of Silver Lake started work on a solar evaporation plant to treat brine. A small quantity of salt was recovered the following year, but the operation did not get into full production. The location of the plant has not been ascertained; but it is unlikely that the brine came from Silver Lake playa, which is of the dry type. Oceanside, San Diego County. The California Salt Company, owned by Chicago and Los Angeles interests, produced a small amount of salt along the San Diego County coast in 1901 and 1902. Plants were built at Carlsbad and La Costa. Brine was pumped from wells 30 to 50 feet deep sunk in nearly dry sloughs and evaporated in a series of solar concentrating and crys- tallizing ponds (Bailey, 1902, p. 133). Difficulty was encountered in preventing pond leakage, and this trouble may well have contributed to the failure of the enterprise. Redondo Beach, Los Angeles County. A salt plant was built at Lake Salinas near Redondo probably in the 1890 's. Little if any production has been recorded from this locality, however, and the plant was dis- mantled in 1901. Yreka, Siskiyou County. Williams (1885, p. 847) reports the recovery of salt from a well near Yreka about 1884. The well, which was 675 feet deep, yielded brine at the rate of 10,000 gallons per hour. Salt was produced by graduation, a method of concentration in which evaporation is increased by allowing the brine to trickle over stacks of brush wood. Although several hundred tons of salt produced in this way were sold locally, the operation apparently was short lived. Sites, Colusa County. Salt was produced at Sites, Colusa County, from 1892 to 1908 at a rate that seldom exceeded 50 tons a year. J. P. Rathbun in 1890 began solar evaporation experiments on brine from the salt springs on land belonging to Peter Petersen. The first attempt with earth ponds failed because the salt became contaminated with mud. Small wooden vats, however, were successful ; and Rathbun formed the Antelope Crystal Salt Company to produce salt regularly. In 1894 the plant contained 86 vats 10 feet square and 6 to 8 inches deep for the evaporation of the brine. The salt was sold locally at up to $20 a ton at a time when the Bay Area producers valued their product at between $1.00 and $3.00 per ton. Rochester Oil Company. Although brine commonly accompanied petroleum, only one instance of the re- covery of salt from this source is known in California. Beginning in 1907, J. A. Keyes obtained brine from a gas well of the Rochester Oil Company in section 24, T. 5 N., R. 1 W, M. D., seven miles south of Vacaville, Solano County. Brine was run into a pond in the spring and allowed to evaporate until August or September. After the bittern had been drained off, the salt was har- vested with fork and wheelbarrow. About 1912 John H. Keyes took over the operation and produced salt through 1918. Two years later the gas well was abandoned. Surprise Valley, Modoc County. In Surprise Valley, as at Sites, a few tons a year of salt were obtained by solar evaporation and sold locally at a comparatively high price. The brine was pumped from shallow wells on the shore of Middle Alkali Lake. S. S. and E. H. Buck, who first produced salt in 1912, sold the property to Joshua Hutchinson in 1917. At that time windmill pumps were used. Hutchinson produced a small tonnage of salt regularly until 1943 when the plant was closed. Miscellaneous Salt Lakes and Playas. A number of additional salt lakes or playas are reported to have fur- nished salt in the late 19th century, but no geologic data are available. In Kern County salt was obtained from saline crusts in the northeast corner of the county, and from Cameron Lake on the east side of Tehachapi Pass. At Cameron Lake, 200 to 300 tons a year of material containing over 90 percent sodium chloride is reported to have been obtained in summer from the crust left Chapt. 6] History 119 after the water had evaporated (Goodyear, 1888a, p. 312). In San Luis Obispo County, Black Lake, de- scribed as being near the summit of the San Jose Moun- tains, contained a stronjj brine that was used for curing meat (California Min. Bur.. Kept. 8, 1888b. p. 532). In Shasta County, production was reported from Stinking Creek, east of Redding (California ^Mining Bureau, 1896, p. 646). The salt may have been in the form of efflorescent deposits left by salt springs that occurred in Chieo sandstone. Ko doubt the list of places where salt has been recovered from saline crusts is lengthy. BIBLIOGRAPHY Baker, J. E., 1914, Past and present of Alameda County, Cali- fornia, pp. 89120, Ciiicago, S. J. Clarke Publishing Co. (references to the salt industr.v pp. 95, 106, 107, 109, 114). Bailey, G. E., 1902, The saline deposits of California : California Min. Bur. Bull. 24 (salt pp. 105-138). Bartlett, H. W., 1930 (July 16), Salt yielded by sea-water evap- oration harvested by huge tractor : Pit and Quarrv, vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 22-26, 62 (Alviso Salt Co.). Boalich, E. S., Monterey County : California Min. Bur. Kept. 17, p. 157 (the Moss Landing plant). Bradley, W. W., 1916a, Marin County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 14, p. 251 (Golden Gate Salt Corp.). Bradley, W. W.. 1916b. Solano County : California Jlin. Bur. Rept. 14, p. 312 (salt from well brine). Bradley, W. W., 1922, Magnesium salts : California Min. Bur. Rept. 18, p. 383 (some early bittern treatment plants). Bradley, W. W., and others, 1919, Monterey County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 15, p. 614 (the Moss Landing plant). Buchen, J. C, 1937 (July), Evaporating salt from world's larg- est mineral deposit : Min. Met., vol. 18, no. 367, pp. 335-338 (Leslie Salt Co.). California Mining Bureau, 1888a, Alameda County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 8, pp. 30-33 (Quigley works, "California Salt Works." California Mining Bureau, 1888b, San Luis Obispo County : Cali- fornia Min. Bur. Rept. 8, p. 532 (salt from Black Lake). California Mining Bureau, 1894, Salt : California Min. Bur. Rept. 12, pp. 408, 409. California Mining Bureau, 1896, Salt : California Min. Bur. Rept. 13, pp. 644-646. Carstarphen, F. C, 1917, An aerial tramway for the Saline Valley Salt Company, Inyo County, California : Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Trans., vol. 81, pp. 709-742. Cloudman, H. C, and others, 1919, San Bernardino Cotinty : California Min. Bur. Rept. 15, pp. 892-894. Franke, H. H., 1930, Santa Clara County: California Dlv. Mines Rept. 26, p. 33 (Alviso Salt Co.). Goodyear, W. A., 1888a, Kern County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 8, p. 312 (recovery of salt from Cameron Lake). Goodyear, W. A., 1888b, San Diego County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 8, p. 518 (pre-1900 salt plants— brief ). Goodyear, W. A., 1890, Colusa County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 10, p. 164 (the salt operation near Sites). Guinn, J. M., 1904, History of the State of California and bio- graphical record of coast counties, California, pp. 484, 485, Chicago, Chapman Publishing Co. (biography of Andrew Oliver). HaUey, William, 1876, The centennial yearbook of Alameda County, California, Oakland. William Halley (references to the salt industry pp. 475, 478, 482, 483). Hanks, H. G., 1882, On the occurrence of salt in California and its manufacture : California Min. Bur. Rept. 2, pp. 217-226. Huguenin, Emile, and Castello, W. O., 1921a, Alameda County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 17, pp. 33-36. Huguenin, Emile, and Castello, W. O.. 1921b, San Mateo County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 17, pp. 174-177. Laizure. C. McK, 1924, Alameda County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 20 (an early bittern treatment plant at Newark). Laizure, C. McK, 1925, Monterey County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 21, pp. 53, 54 (the Moss Landing plant). Ijaizure, C. McK, 1929, Alameda County : California Div. Mines and Mining Rept. 25, pp. 441-447. Mason, F. H., 1919, The recovery of salt from sen water : Min. and Sci. Press, vol. 118, pp. 528-530, Apr. 19 (Western Salt Co.). Merrill, F. J. H., 1916, San Diego County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 14, pp. 713-716. Merrill, F. J. H., 1919a, Los Angeles County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 15, pp. 511-513 (mostly Lake Salinas). Merrill, F. J. H., 1919b. Riverside County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 15, pp. 582, 583 (the pre-flood operation in Salton Basin). Noble, L. F., 1931, Nitrate deposits in southeastern California, with notes on deposits in southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 820, pp. 57-62. Parker, E. W., 1897, Salt: V. S. Geol. Survey Ann. Rept. 18. pt. 5, vol. 2, pp. 1273-1313 (includes history of the California salt industry). Phalen, W. C, 1915, Salt making by solar evaporation : Am. Inst. Min. Eng. Trans., vol. 50, pp. 934-5)50 (California, pp. 940-950). Phalen, W. C, 1917, Technology of salt making in the United States: U. S. Bur. Mines Bull. 146 (California, pp. 40-48 essen- tially the same as Phalen, 1915). Preston, E. B., 1893, Salton Lake: California Min. Bur. Rept. 11, pp. 387-393 (the pre-flood salt operation in Salton Basin). Sampson, R. J., 1937, Mineral resources of Los Angeles County : California Div. Mines Rept. 33, p. 207 (the Long Beach plant). Sampson, R. J., and Tucker, W. B., 1942, Mineral resources of Imperial County, California : California Div. Mines Rept. 38, p. 138 (solar evaporation plants on Salton Sea — brief). Senior, S. P., 1929, San Mateo County : California Div. Mines and Mining Rept. 25, pp. 252-2&4. Smythe, W. E., 1908, History of San Diego, p. 439, San Diego, The History Co. (electric railroads in operation Jan. 1, 1888). Tressler, D. K., 1923, Marine products of commerce, 1st ed., pp. 24-69, New Tork, Chemical Catalog Co. (sea salt including contemporary California practice; see also ed. 2). Tucker, W. B., 1921a, Inyo County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 17, p. 297 (Saline Valley— brief). Tucker, W. B., 1921b, Kern County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 17, p. 316 (Koehn Lake — brief). Tucker, W. B., 1921c, San Bernardino County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 17, pp. 356, 357. Tucker, W. B., 1921d, San Diego County: California Min. Bur. Rept. 17, p. 383 (brief). Tucker, W. B., 1926, Inyo County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 22, p. 527 (Sierra Salt Co.). Tucker, W. B., 1927, Los Angeles County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 23, pp. 329, 330 (the Long Beach operation). Tucker, W. B., 1929, Kern County : California Div. Mines and Mining Rept. 25, p. 81 (Koehn Lake). Tucker, W. B., and Sampson, R. J., 1929, Riverside County : California Div. Mines and Mining Rept. 25, pp. 524-»26 (solar evaporation plant on Salton Sea near Caleb). Tucker, W. B., and Sampson, R. J., 1930, San Bernardino County: California Div. Mines Rept. 26, pp. 319-321. Tucker, W. B., and Sampson, R. J., 1931, San Bernardino County: California Div. Mines Rept. 27, pp. 395-397 (identical with Tucker and Sampson, 1930). Tucker, W. B., and Sampson, R. J., 1938, Mineral resources of Inyo County: California Div. Mines Rept. 34, p. 498 (Saline Valley). Tucker, W. B., and Sampson, R. J., 1943a, Current mininc ac- tivities in southern California : California Div. Mines Rept. 39, pp. 129, 130 (the Dale Lake operation — identical with Tucker and Sampson, 1943b, pp. 540, 541). Tucker, W. B., and Sampson, R. J., 1943b, Mineral resources of San Bernardino County : California Div. Mines Rept. 39, pp. 537-541. Tucker, W. B., and AVaring, C. A., 1919, Modoc County: Cali- fornia Min. Bur. Rept. 15, p. 253 (The Surprise Valley operation — brief). Waring, C. A., and Huguenin, Emile, 1919, Inyo County : Cali- fornia Min. Bur. Rept. 15, pp. 121-123 (the Saline Valley opera- tion ) . Watts, W. L., 1892, Colusa County : California Min. Bur. Rept. 11. p. 180 (operations near Sites). AViley, W. D., 1952, The salt in Salton Sea : Desert Mag., vol. 15, no. 10, pp. 26-28 (pre-flood operations). Williams, Albert. Jr., 1883, Salt : U. S. Geol. Survey, Min. Res. U. S. 1883, pp. 542-549 (development of the California industry and contemporary plants) . Williams, Albert, Jr., 1885, Salt : U. S. Geol. Survey, Min. Res. U. S., 1883, 1884, pp. 845-847 (California). APPENDIX CONTENTS OF APPENDIX Page Table 1. California brines (lakes and playas) 123 Table 2. California springs and wells 124 Chart showing principal minerals of California dry lakes 125 Logs of test borings in Danby Lake with brine analyses 126 Logs of test borings in the Boston- Valley area, Avawatz Mountains 144 Table 3. Relation between specific gravity, degrees Baume, and degrees salometer of solutions 151 Typical chemical and screen analyses of salt produced in California 151 Table 4. Salt production in California 155 List of California salt producers, by county 157 List of San Francisco Bay salt producers 161 (122) Appendix] California Brines 123 1 1 d 00 o 00 CO d i ci U50 dS s? '• s ■s > 1 ■I •3 (15) 'll raid's d 8 1-^ ; 00 CI ! 1 1 ; : 8§ d CO CO to d (OS) ;f)anoj 3H«1 s d d lO C4 : o s d S3 d o d o d °i CO o to (61) Ximoo ouow ■ail iioia 00 CO H ^ d CO i I i : d 3| g OD CO d (81) Xjonoo o;(ni 'a3(?7 sSaudg daaQ 1 si d U3 i 00 si 5 : ■ ■ i oo c» >o (il) sin o™W CO i ?3 d ■ g eo ^ d d H H d ^ g CO (91) -(^II^A 11«'>a 00 to ; oo © ; • wd g " ; S d ; ■ ■' § US s" CM : (51) -tsn'A 3I1IISS to 00 1 ci s 1 e4 d «o M 3 d o d V i ■«»« 1 (H) sntAJOl^iA : to ' CO CO lO d ; S5 dS CO (£1) 'IST «P«S 3 ; d 1 « H ; : CO o> (Zt) 81«1 lOlSIlfl CO I d o d ; i s? d CM OO «o 00 CO d CO d OS c» CO CO (11) am 2!P«0 g 00 « d 1 i : g ■"J- CO CO d '■ CO s oo (01) 'in -tqo'a t- 5 i i S g C^ d s d '■ ; 1 1 g CM CM to CM (6) 3II51 SIBQ ■^ : 00 to H i i s d i '■ ■ CM g 00 CO (8) 8S6I ■£? -AON «3S no,ps 00 3 ; o : CO d o g r* M N : : to to CO (i) 6S61 ■15q3"K«3S"S a C S5 ■ES-.S ti-^ - je ^- i o ^ - 5 ^ 2 "a ^ w •? — .OS JU ** " 2 5i 5 S ■= u o a o S 00 S 3 a -o w o o ^ •a ■g " I2 ** 5 o 5 ^ B ^ c ° * £|.2-o 03 pa^:£ = = I lf2 «5 SgS d ed ro ft) >4 C -Ml '^ 3 .Sti • I '"' »rt* .- Eb a o 3 » ft.«ii a § n .3 . 5l|^^ iS? g g - 5c Ea-I t»d*S =S S ee t- as S-^ CO aj " arc 0-05 .So a'S jjs = 5t. S o o ■^ O — ^ M S_T. . .r Sm CD '.="•3 = g|c ■a -a b"SS « ^ O *J r en cd f 5M30 Soi ^■.-' E o ;^ s ,s 124 Salt in California Table 2. California springs and wells. [Bull. 175 Na K Li NH. Ba Sr Ca Mg Fe Al__ Mn... SO4 NO. &N0. CI Br - I Sulfide (S) CO. BO. AbO. PO, SiO. OH Misc. A org Salinity (ppra) . NaCl (% of solids) Flow (gpm) Percent of the dissolved solids 30. 10.4 Tr 0.3 0.1 0.0 2.5 55.3 0.6 27,182.4 — So SJ-Sz 31.7 3.8 Tr Tr 3.0 Tr Tr Tr 13.5 48.0 0.1 20,313.3 slight 32.1 0.4 Tr Tr 4.6 1.1 Tr 0.2 60.4 Tr Tr 0.6 Tr 321,389.5 Si: 25.1 Tr Tr Tr 0.0 0.0 11.7 0.7 Tr Tr 0.3 Tr 60.5 0.2 0.1 Tr 0.5 0.2 0.0 Tr 0.2 10,858.4 ■a £ a st| "' o '^ O 37.8 0.8 0.6 Tr Tr Tr 0.2 57.5 1.7 Tr 0.0 0.0 Tr 0.7 26,758.7 to 36.4 1.8 0.1 1.3 Tr 0.2 Tr 0.6 Tr (NO3) 42.4 Tr 0.1 14.2 1.8 0.8 22,959.1 21 ^ ^ 01 36.7 0.3 0.3 1.0 1.0 1.5 Tr 0.1 0.3 (NOj) 42.2 Tr 0.2 16.5 Tr 0.0 0.0 0.9 .a " CO 2 z 42.4 0.3 0.6 Tr Tr Tr 1.0 27.9 1.0 18.6 Tr Tr Tr 1.6 6.6 26,179.2 > 38.0 1.6 0.0 Tr 9.9 26.5 22 1 Tr 1.7 75.49 grams per liter 31.40 large 1.0 about 3% 77.8 31.2 18.6 (incl. K) 0.3 Tr 0.8 14.5 3.8 3.6 Tr 0.04 Tr ... Tr ... 11.4 0.2 0.96 (NOj) 51.4 61.7 0.6 ... Tr ... O.i 0.3 (HCO3) Tr Not given 99,140 (1) Waring, C. A.. Springs of California: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 338. analjsls 5, p. 290, 1915 (Tehama County). (2) Waring, G. A., op. cit., p. 292 (Butte County). (3) Waring. G. A., op. cit., analysis 11, p. 110 (Contra Costa County). , analysis 3, p. 294 (Contra Costa County). p. 298 (Lake County), analysis 3, p. 102 (Colusa County), p. 207 (Colusa County). (8) Waring, G. A., op. dt., p. 265 (Siskiyou County). (41 (5) (6) (7) Waring. G. A. Waring. G. A. Waring. G. A. op. cit., op. cit., op. cit., op. cit.. (9) King. C. R., Soda ash and saltcake in California: Calif. Jour. Mines and Geology, vol. 44, p. 190. 1948 (San Bernardino County). (10) Anderson, Winslow, Mineral springs and health resorts of California, p. 133, San Francisco, Bancroft Co.. 1892 (Humboldt County). (11) Coleman, G. A.. 1919. A biological survey of Salton Sea: California Div. Fish and Came. California Fish and Game. vol. 15. no. 3. p. 221, July (Imperial County). Waring, G. A., op. cit.. Appendix] Minerals of California Dry Lakes Principal mineral/ of California dry lakes. 125 r xS P o Bristol Lake S-3 Q o Borax Lake (Uke County) Halite (rock salt) — NaCl - Present Massive and crystals Present Massive and crystals Crystals prob- ably Surface crust Massive (near surface) Present Present Present Fieaent Reported at shal- low depth Massive at depth MirabiUte (Glauber's salt)— NaiSO. . 10H.O. Crystals Gyp«um (selenite) — CaSOi.2HiO . Crystals Present Crystals Scarce crystals Glaserite — SEtSOi . Na jSC. Present Hanksite— 9NatSO.. 2NaiC0i . KCl - - Present Burkeite — 2NaiS0i . NaiCOi Present Trona (sodium sesquicarbonate) — NaiCOj. NaHCOs .2HiO Present Present Borax— NaiB«O7.10HK} Present in the margi- nal crust Present ITlexite — NaCaBiOo.SHjO Present in the margins Celestite — SrS04 . .. _. Present in the margins 126 Salt in California [Bull. 175 LOGS OF TEST HOLES IN THE VICINITY OF DANBY DRY LAKE Permit No. L. A. 053539 Test Bole No. 1 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 2i hours Depth Material encountered (y- 4' Damp gray clay 4'- 8' Sticky brown clay 8'- 9' Gray sand 9'-12' Sticky brown clay 12'-16' Sticky gray and reddish-brown clay mixed 16'-18' Gray sand 18'-21' Gray quicksand ; heavy flow of water Test Hole No. 2 Location : 30' W., SE corner section 15, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 28' Drilling time : IJ hours (y- 5' Damp brown and gray clay mixed 5'- 8' Sticky brown clay 8'-ll' Sticky brown, black and gray clay mixed ; 5% gyp- sum crystals ll'-15' Sticky black clay ; 40% gypsum crystals ; heavy flow of water 15'-26' Gypsum crystals 26'-28' Gray quicksand Test Hole No. 2 Diameter : 36" Drilling time : Depth 0'- 2' 2'- 5' 5'-ll' ll'-17' 17'-18' 18'-22' 17'-24' 22'-24' 16" to & depth of 24' to a depth of 21' 2J hours Material encountered Damp brown dirt Damp brown clay Sticky brown clay Sticky greenish-gray clay Gray sand Sticky gray clay and sand mixed Heavy flow of water Gray quicksand Test Hole No. S Location : 30' S., i corner sections 14 and 23, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 31' Drilling time: li hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 2' Damp brown clay 2'-10' Sticky brown clay 10'-12' Few gypsum crystals 12'-17' 50% gypsum crystals 10'-17' Sticky red. black and gray mud mixed 17'-31' Sticky black clay ; 75% gypsum crystals ; flow of water 28'-31' 10% powdered gypsum heavy Test Hole No. S Diameter : 36" to a depth of 21' 3 hours Drilling time Depth C- 7' 7'-10' 10'-12' 12'-14' 14'-16' 16'-19' 19'-21' Material encountered Damp greenish-gray and brown clay mixed Sticky dark green clay Sticky reddish-brown clay and sand mixed Brown sand ; heavy flow of water Sticky gray clay Brown sand Brown quicksand Test Hole No. 4 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 21' Drilling time: 2i hours Depth Material encountered (y- 3' Damp light green clay ; 30% gypsum crystals 3'- 7' Sticky light green clay 7'-14' Sticky blue-black clay 14'-17' Gray sand ; heavy flow of water 17'-18' Sticky light green clay 18'-20' Thin alternate layers of gray sand and green clay 20'-2r Gray quicksand Test Hole No. 1 Location : 40 R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24' Drilling time : Depth (y- V V- 5' 5'-12' 12'-18' 18'-21' 21'-26' 21'-31' 26'-28' 28'-31' 31'-34' 34'-36' Permit No. L.A. 053590 ' S., 20' W., i corner sections 14 and 15, T2N, " to a depth of 36' ; 2i hours Material encountered Damp brown dirt Damp white dirt Damp brown sand Damp gray sand Dry white, powdered gypsum Sticky brown clay Small seepage of water Wet gray powdered gypsum and dirt mixed Wet gray sand Wet brown clay and sand mixed Brown quicksand ; heavy flow of water Remarks : This is fresh water. Test Hole No. i Location: 100' S., 30- W., NE corner section 23, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 36" to a depth of 19' ; 24" to a depth of 41' Drilling time : 5 hours Depth 0' - 3' 3' - 8' 8' - 9' 9' -12'3' 12'3" -35' 16' -17' 16' -24' 24' -35' 35' -41' Material encountered Damp brown dirt Sticky brown clay Sticky gray clay 3'3" layer of salt (very hard and clean) Sticky black clay 10% gypsum crystals Small seepage of water 75% gypsum crystals ; heavy flow of water Sticky brown clay Test Hole No. 5 Location: 30' S., 700' W., NE corner section 23, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" Drilling time : Depth 0'- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'- 7' Damp brown sand 7'-ll' Sticky brown clay ll'-15' Sticky gray clay ; few gypsum crystals 15'-2r Sticky black clay ; 5% gypsum crystals to a depth of 21' } hour Material encountered Test Hole No. 6 Location : 800' S., 30' W., NE corner section 23, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material eyicountered 0'- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'- 5' Sticky brown clay 5'-14' Sticky red. black, gray and brown clay mixed ; few gypsum crystals 14'-21' Sticky black clay ; 50% gypsum crystals Appendix] Test Holes 127 Test Hole J\'o. 7 Location : 800' S., 600' W., NE corner section 23, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 27' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material encountered C- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'- 8' Sticky brown clay 8'-10' Sticky red. brown, black and gray clay mixed ; few Kypsum crystals 10'-19' Sticky black clay lij'-16' 25% gypsum crystals 16'-19' 75% gypsum crystals; heavy flow of water 19'-22' ?,' layer of 75% salt crystals: 25% brown clay 22'-27' Sticky black clay ; 25% gypsum crystals Test Hole Xo. 8 Location : 700' S., 1200' W., NE corner section 23, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 29 Drilling time: 1| hours Depth Material encountered (y. 1' Damp brown dirt 1'. 3' .Sticky brown clay 3'- 8' Sticky gray clay 3'-10' Few gypsum crystals 8'-10' Sticky red. brown, lilack. and gray clay mixed 10'-18' Sticky brown clay 10'-12' 25% salt 12'-21' 9' layer 75% salt 10'-21' Small flow of water 21'-29' Heavy flow of water 21'-26' 50% salt and gypsum crystals mixed 26'-28' 25% salt and gypsum crystals mixed 28'-29' 75% gypsum crystals 18'-29' Sticky black clay Test Hole A'o. 11 Location : Center of section 23, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 32' Drilling time : 3 hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 3' Damp brown dirt 3'- O" Sticky l)rown clay 9'-10' Heavy flow of water ; 5% gyp.sum crystals &'-15' Sticky gray clay 10'-13' 25% salt crystals 13'-15' 50% salt crystals 15'-18' 3' layer of salt (small amount of dirt) 18'-24' 6' layer of salt (very hard and clean) 24'-27' Gray sand and clay mixed; few salt crystals 27'-.S0' Gray sand 30'-32' Gray quicksand Test Hole No. 12 I,ocation : 1320' E., center section 23, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 12' ; 16" to a depth of 30' Drilling time : 2 hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 8' Damp brown dirt 3'- 6' Sticky brown clay C'-13' Sticky gray clay 6'- 9' 2% gypsum crystals !)'-12' 10% salt crystals 12'-13' 50% salt crystals; heavy flow of water 13'-19' 6' layer of salt (clean and hard) 19'-25' 6' layer of salt (small amount of dirt) 25'-27' 50% salt crystals 27'-30' 3% gypsum crystals 25'-30' Sticky gray clay Test Hole .V Location : SBBM Diameter : Drilling ti Depth 0' - 2' 2' - 3' 3' - 6' 6' -10' 10' -15' 10' -13' 13' -15' 15' -24'8" 24'8"-2G'0" 20'9"-30' 30' -31' 26'9"-31' 1320' S., 1320' W., NE corner section 23, T2N, R17E, 24" to a depth of 22' ; 16" to a depth of 31' ime : 5 hours Material encountered Damp brown dirt Damp brown sand Sticky brown clay Sticky red, brown, black and gray clay mixed ; &%> gypsum crystals Sticky brown clay 25% salt 50% salt 9'8" layer of salt (very hard and clear) 2'1" layer of salt (small amount of dirt) 50% salt and gypsum crystals mixed Few gypsum crystals Sticky black clay Test Hole No. 13 Location: 100' W., i corner sections 23 and 24, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 13' ; 16" to a depth of SCy Drilling time : 2 hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'- 9' Sticky brown clay 9'-ll' 1% gypsum crystals ll'-13' 10% salt crystals 13'-16' 25% salt crystals 16'-18' 50% salt crystals 18'-24' 75% salt crystals 24'-25' 50% salt crystals 25'-26' 25% salt crystals 26'-.30' Few gypsum crystals 13'-18' Heavy flow of water 9'-30' Sticky gray clay Test Hole N Location SBBM Diameter Drilling ti Depth C- V 1'- 3' 3'- T 7'-19' 8'-13' 13'-19' ll'-15' IS'-l^' 19'-24' 24'-26' 26'-28' 24'-30' 0. 10 1320' S. i corner sections 14 and 23, T2N, R17E, 24" to a depth of 19' ; 16' me : 3i hours to a depth of 30' Material encountered Damp brown dirt Damp brown sand Sticky brown clay and sand mixed Sticky brown clay Few gypsum crystals 25% gypsum crystals Few salt crystals 50% salt crystals 5' layer of salt 75% salt and gypsum crystals mixed Few gypsum crystals Sticky black clay Test Hole No. IJ, Location: 1320' S., 30' W., i corner sections 23 and 24, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 32' Drilling time : 2 hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'- 7' Sticky brown clay 7'- 9' Sticky gray clay ; 1% gypsum crystals 9'-13' 4' layer of salt (hard and clean) 13'-15' 50% salt 15'-24' 9" layer 75% salt 13'-24' Heavy flow of water 24'-28' 3% gypsum crystals 13'-28' Sticky gray clay 28'-32' Sticky black clay 128 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Test Hole A'o. 15 Location r 1320' S., 1320' \V., i corner sections 23 and 24, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 14' ; 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time: 2 J lionrs Depth Material en countered (y - 1' Damp brown dirt 1' - i^lO" Sticky brown clay 1' - 9' Few gypsum crystals 9' - 9'10" 50% salt crystals ; heavy flow of water 9'10"-17' 7'2" layer of salt (hard and clean) 17' -21' Black silt ; 5% salt crystals Test Hole No. 16 Location: 1320' N., i corner sections 23 and 26, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 9' ; 16" to a depth of 30' Drilling time : 4 hours Depth 0' - 1' 1' - 4' 4' - 6' 6' - 9' 8' - 9' 9' -20' 20' 2' -24' 24' -26' 26' -30' 20' 2' -30' Material encountered Damp brown dirt Sticky brown clay Brown sand and clay mixed ; few gypsum crystals Sticky gray clay Heavy flow of water ll'-2" layer of salt (very hard and clean) 50% salt 25% salt and gypsum crystals mixed 50% gypsum crystals Sticky gray clny Test Hole Xo. 10 Location : 1320' X., N'E corner section 20, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 33' Drilling time: 5 hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 1' Damp brown dirt ; 50% gypsum crystals 1' - 5' Sticky brown clay ; 10% gypsum crystals .V - 8'4" Sticky gray clay ; 20% gypsnm crystals 8' 4"- 9' 8" layer of salt (dirty) 9' -13' 5% salt crystals 13' -15' 50% salt crystals 15' -16' 80% salt crystals 16' -18' 50% salt crystals 9' -18' Sticky black clay 18' -19' 1' layer of salt (very hard, dirty) 19' -20' 1' layer of salt (very hard, almost clear) 20' -24' 4' layer of salt (broken up, but clean) 24' -20'10" 2'10" layer of salt (hard and clean) 26'10"-30' Sticky gray clay 30' -33' Black sand and clay mixed T2N, R17E, SBBM Test Hole No. 20 Location : i corner sections 16 and 17, Diameter : 24" to a depth of 26' Drilling time : 2 hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 2' Damp gray sand 2'- 7' Black clay ; 50% gypsum crystals 7'-10' Green clay 10'-12' Gray sand 7'-12' 75% gypsum crystals 12'-15' Sticky black clay 12'-19' 90% gypsum crystals; heavy flow of water 15'-23' Gray sand 23'-20' Gray quicksand Test Hole No. 17 Location : 1320' E., NE corner section 20, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 10" to a depth of 20' Drilling time : 4 hours Depth Material encountered C - 2' 6" Damp brown dirt 2' 6"- 4'10" 2'4" layer of salt (cracked and dirty) 4'10"- 8' 2" 50% salt 8' 2"- 9' 90% salt 9' -12' 50% salt 12' -14' 50% gypsum crystals 14' -20' 90% gypsum crystals 12' -20' Heavy flow of water 4'10"-18' Sticky black clay 18' -20' Black mud Test Hole No. 18 Location : NE corner, section 20, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 15' ; 16" to a depth of 31' Drilling time : 7 hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 1' Damp brown dirt 1' - 3' Sticky brown clay and sand mixed 3' - 7' 6" Sticky gray clay 3' - 7' 6" 25% gypsum crystals 7' 6"- 9' 6" 2' layer of salt (dirty) 9' 6"-15' 60% salt; sticky black clny 15' -22' 6" 7'6" layer of salt (very hard and clean) 22' 6"-24' 6" 2' layer of salt (broken up, but clean) ; heavy flow of water 24' 6"-31' Gray quicksand Test Hole No. 21 Location: 1320' N., \ corner sections 16 and 17, T2\, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 5' Damp gray sand 5'- 8' Damp brown sand 8'-10' Damp gray sand 10'-17' Damp white sand 17'-19' Wet gray sand 19'-21' Gray quicksand ; small flow of water Test Hole No. 22 Location : 1320' N., 1320' W., i corner sections 16 and 17, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 26' Drilling time : 1 hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 4' Damp gray sand 4'- 6' Damp gray sand and white clay mixed 6'- 9' Damp brown sand and green clay mixed 9'-14' Damp brown sand 14'-16' Damp gray sand 16'-24' Wet brown sand ; heavy seepage of water 24'-26' Brown quicksand ; light flow of water Test Hole No. 23 Location : 800' S., i corner sections 8 and 17, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 28' Drilling time: 1 hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 7' Damp brown sand 7'- 9' Damp white clay and brown sand mixed 9'-12' Damp gray sand 12'-20' Damp brown sand 20'-24' Wet red and brown sand mixed 24'-26' Wet brown sand ; heavy seepage of water 26'-28' Brown quicksand ; light flow of water Appendix] Test Holes 129 Teat Hole So. ?} Location: 1320' \V.. i ccnier sections It! nnd 17, TL'N, RITE, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 20' ; 16" to a depth of 32' Drilling time : 4 hours Depth Matcriiil encountered 0'- 1' Gray blow sand V- C' Dry powdered gypsnni 6'-10' Sticl' Sticky gray clay 19'-21' Green quicksand Test Hole No. 39 Location : 1320' S., center section 15, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 3 hours Depth Material encountered (f- 2' Damp gray dirt 2'- 8' Damp gray sand 8'-10' Damp red sand lO'-lSK Damp gray sand 1!)'-21' Gray quicksand ; light flow of water Test Hole No. 1,0 Location: 2400' S., 200' E., center section 15, T2N, Ri7E, SBBM Diameter: lt»" to a depth of 21' Drilling time: 3 hours Depth Material encountered 0^-13' Sticky brown clay 5'-13' 50% gypsum crystals 5'-15' Heavy flow of water 13'-15' Sticky green clay 15'-17' 80% gypsum crystals; sticky black clay 17'-10' White sand 19'-21' Gray quicksand Test Hole No. 41 Location : 1320' E., SE corner section 15, T2N, R17E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 30" Drilling time : 5 hours Depth Material encountered (y- 3' Damp gray sand S'-IO- Sticky brown clay 8'-10' 10% gypsum crystals lO'-ir Sticky black clay ; 60% gypsum crystals ; heavy flow of water 17'-18' Sticky white powdered gypsum 18'-21' 90% gypsum crystals ; black clay 21'-23' Gray sand 23'-28' Sticky green clay 28'-30' Gray quicksand Permit No. L.A. 053591 Test Hole No. 1 Location : 25' S,. 25' E., NW corner, section 29, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 30" to a depth of 29' ; 16" to a depth of 41' Drilling time: W hours Depth Material encountered 0'-18' Damp lu-nwn clay 18'-23' Damp black cl.ny 23'-27' Sticky black clay 27'-41' Sticky brown clay 28'-41' Heavy seepage of water Appendix] Test Holes 131 Test Hole No. 2 Location : 25' S., 25' E., center section 30, T2N, R18E, SRR.M ninniPter : 3(i" to n depth of 14'-6" ; 16" to a depth of 41' Drilling time : 5 hours Depth 0' - 1' 1' - 3' 3' -12' 10' -12' 12' -25' ]4'6' '-25' 25' -41' Material encountered Damp l>rown dirt Damp hrown ohiy Sticky hrown clay 30% gypsnm crystals Sticky hlack clay ; 40% gypsum crystals Small flow of water Sticky brown clay 700' W., i corner, sections 4 and 33, T2N, .'1' Teat Hole No. 7 Location : 2000' X RIHP^ SBHM Diameter : 16" to a depth of Drilling time: 3 hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 2' Damp hrown dirt 2'-14' Sticky gray clay 2'- 5' 5% salt crystals 5'-14' 10% gypsum crystals 14'-21' Sticky gray clay and sand mixed A piece of rock salt about 5" one side of hole dia. was found on sections .TO and 31, T2X, 16" to a depth of 41' Test Jlole No. 3 Location : 25' N., 25' E., i corner R18E, SBBM Diameter : 36" to a depth of 16 Drilling time : 5 hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 2' Damp gray sand 2'- 4' Damp brown sand 4'- 9' Damp brown clay 9'-18' Sticky brown clay 16'-18' 40% salt crystals 16'-24' Heavy flow of water 18'-19' 1' layer of salt 19'-24' Brown clay and gray sand, 30%, salt crystals 24'-34' Sticky brown clay 34'41' Sticky black clay SW corner, section 32, T2N, R18E, to a depth of 41' Test Hole No. 4 Location : 600' N., 50' E SBBM Diameter : 36" to a depth of 20' ; 16' Drilling time : 3 hours Depth Material encountered C- 3' Damp green and brown clay 3'- 7' Damp gray sand 7'-10' Sticky greenish-gray clay 10'-13' Sticky brown clay 13'-16' Sticky brown clay streaked with slippery white silt 16'-18' Wet brown and white sand mixed ; few salt crystals 18'-33' AVet brown sand 18'-20' 30% gypsum 19'-33' Small flow of water 20'-33' Few salt crystals 33'-37' Sticky red clay 37'-41' AVet brown sand Test Hole No. 5 Location : 1100' N., .50' W., i corner sections 4 and .33, T2X, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 36" to a depth of 7' ; 24" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 4 hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 6'6" Damp brown dirt 6'6"-16'6" 10' layer of rock salt (very hard) 16'6"-21' Sticky dark gray clay 20' -21' Very small seepage of water Test Hole No. 6 Location : 1800' N., 30' W., i corner sections 4 and 33, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : } hour Depth Material encountered (y- 3' Dry brown dirt 3'- 9' Damp brown dirt ; few gypsum crystals 9'-12' Damp brown clay 12'-16' Sticky brown clay 16'-21' Sticky gray clay Test Hole No. 8 Location : S.-JOO' X., 900' W., } comer, sections 4 and .33, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 24" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 2 hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 2' Damp brown dirt 2' - 5' Damp gray clay ; 25% salt crystals .5' - 5'6" Damp gray sand ; .50% salt crystals 5'6"-10'2" 4'8" layer of rock salt (very hard) 10'2"-21' Sticky gray clny 20' -21' Light flow of water Test Hole No. 9 Location : 3100' X., 2200' W., i corner, sections 4 and 33, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter: 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : | hour Depth Material encountered (y- 8' Damp brown dirt 8'-10' Sticky brown clay 10'-21' Sticky gray clay 12'-16' 75% salt crystals 16'-20' 25% gypsum crystals 20'-21' Small flow of water Test Hole No. 10 Location : 1600' N., 2000' W., J corner, section 4 and 33, T2X, R18B, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'-12' Sticky brown clay 9'-12' 20% gypsum crystals 12'-14' Sticky blue-black clay ; 50% ; 14'-2l' Sticky gray clay 20'-21' Very small seepage of water rypsum crystals Test Hole No. 11 Location : 2.50' X., 3.50' W., SE corner, section 32, T2N, R18R, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'-14' Sticky brown clay 6'-14' 90% gypsum (crystals and powder mixed) 14'-21' Sticky dark gray clay Test Hole No. IZ Location : .500' iX., 300' E., SW corner, section 33, T2X, RISE, SBBM Diameter: 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 1' Damp brown dirt 1'- 3' Sticky brown clay ; 30% gypsum crystals 3'-15' Gypsum, powdered and crystals mixed 15'-21' Sticky dark gray clay 132 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Test Hole No. IS Location : 20' W., center section 33, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 28' Drilling time: li hours Depth ilatfrial encountered CK- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'-14' Sticky brown clay; 1% salt crystals 14'-22' Sticky damp gray clay 14'-18' 25% Glauber's salt crystals 18'-25' 5% Glauber's salt crystals ; few salt crystals 18'-28' Very small seepage of water 22'-25' Sticky brown clay ; few salt crystals 25'-28' Sticky gray clay Test Hole No. li Location: 1320' N., 40' W., center section 33, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 1' Damp brown dirt 1'- 8' Damp brown clay l'-12' Few gypsum crystals. 2% Glauber's salt crystals 8'-12' Sticky brown clay 12'-21' Sticky gray clay ; few Glauber's salt crystals Test Hole No. 15 Location: 1300' N., 800' W., center section 33, T2X, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : i hour Depth Material encountered 0'. X' Damp brown dirt 1'. 6' Damp brown clay 6' -21' Sticky brown clay 6'-16' 2% gypsum crystals 16'-21' Very small seepage of water Test Hole No. 16 Location: 1400' N., 1500' W., center section 33, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : li hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 1' Damp brown dirt 1' - 4'6" Damp brown clay 4' 6"- 8' 3' 6" layer of salt 6' -14' Heavy flow of water 8' -10' Gray clay ; 50% Glauber's salt crystals 10' -14' 4' layer of Glauber's salt 14' -18' 10% Glauber's salt crystals 14' -21' Sticky gray clay Test Hole No. 17 Location : 1500' S., 500' E., NW corner section 33, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 27' Drilling time : 2i hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 1' Damp brown dirt 1' - 5' Damp brown clay 5' - 6'4" Damp brown sand 6'4" -10' 3' 8" layer of salt 10' -12' Gray clay ; 50% salt crystals 12' -14' Sticky brown clay; 10% salt crystals 14' -15' Sticky gray clay ; 75% salt crystals 15' -15'6" 6" layer of salt 15'6" -21' Sticky gray clay 15'6" -16'6" 5% salt crystals 20' -21' 50% Glauber's salt crystals; small flow of water 21' -25' Sticky brown clay ; 10% Glauber's salt crystals 25' -27' Gray sand Test Hole No. 18 Location : 1500' S., 200' W., NE corner section 32, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 25' Drilling time : 1 hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 3' Damp brown dirt 3'-25' Sticky gray clay 3'-14' 20% gypsum crystals 14'-18' 30% Glauber's salt crystals 18'-25' 10% gypsum crystals 20'-25' Small flow of water Test Hole No. 19 Location : 2300' S., 1000' W., NE corner section 32, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : | hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'-21' Sticky gray clay 7'- 9' 10% gypsum crystals 9'-ll' 90% gypsum crystals ll'-14' 10% gypsum crystals 17'-19' 30% gypsum crystals Test Hole No. 20 Location : 1000' S., 100' E., NW corner section 33, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 30" to a depth of 21' Drilling time: 1| hours Depth Material encountfrcd Damp brown dirt Damp brown clay 9' 8" layer of salt Sticky gray clay 60% salt crystals 5% salt crystals Sticky brown clay; 25% 25% gypsum crystals .'1' Small flow of water 0' - 3' 3' - 5'8' 5'8" -15'4' 15'4" -20' 15'4" -17' 17' -20' 20' -21' (ilauber's salt crystals; Test Hole No. 21 Location : 8.50' S., 600' W., NE corner section 32, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter ; 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour Depth Material encoutitered 0'- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'-12' Damp brown clay 12'-15' Few salt crystals ; few Glauber's salt crystals ; few gypsum crystals 12'-21' Sticky gray clay Test Hole No. 22 Location : 500' S., 400' W., NE corner section 32, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : } hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'- 8' Damp brown clay 8'-13' Sticky brown clay ; few gypsum crystals 13'-16' Damp brown sand and clay mixed 16'-21' Sticky gray clay ; few Glauber's salt crystals Test Hole No. 23 Location : 400' S., 250' E., NW corner section 33, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 1' Damp brown dirt l'-12' Damp brown clny 12'-1.5' Sticky brown clay ; few gypsum crystals 15'-21' Sticky gray clay ; few (ilauber's salt crystals Appendix] Test Holes 133 Teat Hole .Vo. 24 Location : 400' S., 1100' E., NW coruer section 33, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter: 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time: 1 hour Depth Material encountered C- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'- 8' Damp brown clay 8'-14' Few gypsum crystals 8'-18' Sticky brown clay 14'-18' Light flow of water 18'-21' Sticky dark gray clay ; heavy flow of water Teat Hole A'o. 30 Location: 600' N., 1350' W., SE corner section 29, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 3 hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 1' Damp brown dirt 1'- 3' Damp brown clay 3'-15' Sticky brown clay 8'-21' Few gypsum crystals 15'-21' Sticky gray clay Test Hole A'o. 25 Location : 300' N., 500' E., SW corner section 28, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 5' Damp brown dirt 5'-19' Sticky brown clay 5'-21' Few gypsum crystals 19'-21' Sticky gray clay Teat Hole Xo. 26 Location: 40' N., 400' W., SE corner section 29, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter: 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'-15' Sticky brown clay 15'-20' Sticky gray clay ; few Glauber's salt crystals 15'-18' Small seepage of water 20'-21' Gray sand Test Hole Xo. 27 Location: 40' N., 900' W., SE corner section 29, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'- 6' Sticky brown clay 6'- 9' 3' layer of salt 9'-21' Sticky gray clay ; 10% gypsum crystals 9'-15' 20% salt crystals ; 10% Glauber's salt crystals lO'-lo' Heavy flow of water Teat B ole Xo. 28 Location : 500' S., 1300' W., NE corner section 32, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : } hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 1' Damp brown dirt 1'- 3' Damp brown clay 3'-10' Gray sand 10'-13' Sticky gray clay 10'-16' Few gypsum crystals 13'-16' Sticky brown clay ; very small seepage uf water 16'-21' Sticky dark gray clay Teat Hole No. 29 Location : 30' S., 1700' W., NE corner section 32, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter: 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : labours Depth Material encountered 0' - 2' Damp brown dirt 2' - 5'10" Sticky brown clay 5'10"-15'2" 9'4" layer of aalt 15'2" -16' Sticky gray clay ; 50% aalt crystals 16' -18' Gray sand 18' -21' Sticky gray clay Teat Hole No. SI Location : 800' N., 650' W., SE corner section 29, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'- 6' Sticky brown clay ; few gypsum crystals 6'-10' Brown clay and sand mixed 10'-18' Sticky brown clay 18'-21' Sticky gray clay Test Hole No. 32 Location : 1300' N., 1000' W., SE corner section 29, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : } hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 1' Damp brown dirt 1'- 6' Damp brown clay 6'-17' Sticky brown clay ; few gypsum crystals 17'-21' Sticky gray clay ; few Glauber's salt crystals Teat Hole No. 33 Location : 1000' N., 1800' W., SE corner section 29, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : } hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 5' Damp brown dirt 5'-17' Sticky brown clay 5'-ll' 5% gypsum crystals ll'-13' Few salt crystals 13'-17' 2% gypsum crystals 17'-21' Sticky gray clay Teat Hole No. 34 Location: 400' N., 1900' W., SE corner section 29, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time: } hour Depth Material encountered 0' - 5' Damp brown dirt 5' - 8'10" Sticky brown clay 8' - 8'10" 10% salt crystals 8'10"-11' 2'2" layer of aalt IV -21' Sticky gray clay ; 2% gypsum crystals Teat Hole No. 35 Location: 30' S., 500' E., i corner sections 29 and 32, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth 0'- 5' 5'- 9' 9'-ll' ll'-14' ll'-21' Material encountered Damp brown dirt Sticky brown clay Sticky gray clay and sand mixed 5% gypsum crystals Sticky gray clay 134 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Test Hole No. 36 Location: 700' S., 550' E., i sections 29 and 32, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'- 8' Sticky brown clay ; .'»% gypsum crystals 8'-13' 75% gypsum crystals 13'-15' 5% gypsum crystals 8'-21' Sticky gray clay Test Hole No. 37 Location : 1100' S., 1400' E., i corner sections 29 and 32, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : i hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 6' Damp brown dirt 6'-13' Sticky brown clay 9'-ll' 5% gypsum crystals ll'-16' 20% gypsum crystals 16'-19' 5% gypsum crystals 13'-21' Sticky gray clay Test Hole No. 38 Location : 2200' S., 200' E., i corner sections 29 and 32, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time: {hour Depth Material eticountered 0'- 5' Damp brown dirt 5'-12' Sticky brown clay 9'-14' 10% gypsum crystals 14'-16' 30% gypsum crystals 16'-19' 10% gypsum crystals 12'-21' Sticky gray clay Test Hole No. 39 Location: 4000' S., i corner sections 29 and 32, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : i hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 5' Damp brown dirt 5'-12' Sticky brown clay 12'-18' Sticky gray clay ; 10% gypsum crystals 18'-21' Sticky blue-black clay ; 25% gypsum crystals Test Hole No. iO Location : i corner sections 29 and 32, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time ; J hour Depth Material encountered 0' - 6' Damp brown dirt 6' -14' Sticky brown clay 10' -15'6" 10% gypsum crystals 15'6"-18' 50% Glauber's salt crystals 18' -21' 25% Glauber's salt crystals 20' -21' 75% gypsum crystals ; heavy seepage of water 14' -21' Sticky gray clay Test Hole No. 1,1 Location: 650' N., \ corner sections 29 and 32, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time ; j hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 3' Damp brown dirt 3'-ll' Sticky brown clay 7'-ll' 25% gypsum crystals ll'-15' Brown clay and sand mixed 15'-17' Sticky brown day 17'-21' Sticky gray clay; few gypsum crystals; few Glauber's salt crystals Test Hole No. 42 Location : 1.300' N., 250' E., J corner sections 29 and 32, T2N. RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 41' Drilling time: IJ hours Depth .Material encountered C- 1' Damp brown dirt 1'- 8' Damp brown clay 8'-16' Sticky brown clay ; few gypsum crystals 16'-20' Sticky gray clay ; few Glauber's salt crystals 20'-25' Gray clay and sand mixed 25'-27' Sticky gray clay 27'-31' Sticky black clay ; 25% gypsum crystals ; heavy flow of water 31'-41' Sticky brown clay Test Hole No. iS Location : 1800' N., 800' E., i corner sections 29 and 32, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour Depth Material encountered C- 5' Damp brown dirt 5'-12' Sticky brown clay 8'-12' 2% gypsum crystals 12'-15' Brown clay and sand mixed 15'-18' Sticky brown clay 15'-2r 2% gypsum crystals 18'-21' Sticky gray clay Te.it Hole No. l,k Location : 1800' N., IOC W., \ corner sections 29 and 32, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour Depth Material encountered O'- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'-18' Sticky gray clay 4'-21' 3% gypsum crystals 18'-24' Sticky black clay Teat Hole No. 45 Location : 2100' N., 250' E., J corner sections 29 and 32, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour Depth Material e7icouniered (y- 5' Damp brown dirt 5'- &" Sticky brown clay ; 1% gypsum crystals 9'-ll' Brown sand and clay mixed ll'-15' Sticky brown clay 15'-21' Sticky gray clay ; 1% gypsum crystals Test Hole No. 46 Location : 1000' N., SOC W., i corner sections 29 and 32, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hours Depth Material encountered (y- 5' Damp brown dirt 5'-ll' Sticky brown clay ll'-15' 1% gypsum crystals ll'-21' Sticky gray clay Test Hole No. 47 Location : 500' N., 900' W., } corner sections 29 and 32, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'- C' Sticky brown clay 6'- y 25% gypsum crystals ll'-Kl' 20% gyiismn crystals; 20% Glauber's salt crystals 6'-16' Sticky gray clay 16'-21' Sticky black clay ; 25% gypsum crystals I Appendix] Test Holes 135 Test Hole Xo. 48 Location : 1300' N., 1400' W., J corner sections 29 and 32, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : } hour Depth Material encountered (y- 1' Damp brown dirt 1'- &' Sticky brown clay 7'- y 25% gypsum crystals 9'-21' Sticky red, black and gray clay mixed ; few gypsum crystals Test Hole No. i9 Location : 200' N., 350' E., SW corner section 29, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : } hour Depth Material encountered (y-Ky Damp brown dirt 10'-15' Sticky brown clay 15'-17' Sticky red, black and gray clay mixed 17'-21' Sticky black clay ; 50% gypsum crystals ; heavy flow of water Test Hole \o. 50 Location : 1320' N., SW corner section 29, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material encountered (y- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'- 9' Sticky brown clay Q'-IT Sticky red, black and gray clay mixed 9'-16' 75% gypsum crystals 16'-17' 25% Glauber's salt crystals 17'-21' Sticky black clay ; 25% gypsum crystals ; heavy flow of water Test Hole Xo. 51 Ixjcation : 100' E., J corner sections 29 and 30, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16 " to a depth of 21' Drilling time: IJ hours Depth Material encountered (y- V Damp brown dirt 1'- 6' Damp gray clay 6'-19' Sticky red, black and c'liy clay and sand mixed ; few gypsum crystals 19'-21' Sticky gray clay ; 50% gypsum crystals ; heavy flow of water Test Hole No. 52 Location : 1320' E., i corner sections 29 and 30, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 3 hour Depth .\laterial encountered 0'- 1' Damp brown dirt l'-12' Sticky brown clay 12'-16' (Jray sand 16'-18' Sticky red, black and gray clay mixed 18'-21' Sticky black clay ; few gypsum crystals ; very small seepage of water Test Hole No. 53 Location : 500- N. center section 29, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : } hour Depth Material encountered (y- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'-14' Sticky brown clay and sand mixed 14'-16' 1% gypsum crystals 14'-21' Sticky gray clay Tett Hole No. 5i Location : 1320' N.. 1320' E., i corner sections 29 and 30, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : } hour Depth Material encountered 0' - 5' Damp brown dirt 5^ -15'6" Sticky brown clay 15'6"-16' Damp white sand 16' -21' Sticky gray clay Tett Hole No. 55 Location : 1320" S., NW corner section 29, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter: 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : i hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 5' Damp brown dirt 5'-ll' Sticky brown clay ll'-17' Gray clay and sand mixed 17'-21' Sticky gray clay Test Hole No. 56 Location : 1320' E., NW corner section 29, T2X, RISE, SBBM Diameter: 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material encountered 0'- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'-12' Sticky brown clay 12'-21' Brown clay and sand mixed Test Hole No. 57 Location : 30' S., 30' W., NE corner section 29, T2X RISE SBBM Diameter : 36" to a depth of 41' Drilling time : 4 hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'- 6' Damp brown sand and dirt mixed 6'- S' Sticky brown clay S'- 9' Damp white sand and brown clay mixed 9'-23' Damp white sand 23'-26' Damp white and gray clay and sand mixed 26'-2S' Damp white clay 2S'-30' Damp brownish-white clay 30'-36' Damp brown and white clay mixed 36'-41' Sticky brown clay ; very small seepage of water Test Hole No. 58 Location : 30' S., i corner sections 2S and 29, T2X. RISE SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 41' Drilling time : 2} hours Depth Material encountered (y- 1' Damp brown dirt l'-20' Sticky brown clay 20'-25' Sticky gray clay 25'-32' Sticky brown ciny 32'-37' Very small seepage of water 37'-41' Light flow of water 25'-41' Sticky brown clay Test Hole No. 59 Location : 50' S., i corner sections 27 and 28, T2X, RISE, SBBM Diameter: 36" to a depth of 41' Drilling time : 4} hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 8' Damp gray, sandy dirt 8'-10' Damp light gray clay and sand mixed 10'-12' Damp brown clay 12'-15' Sticky brown clay 15'-19' Damp gray clay 19'-26' Damp white sand 26'-28' Damp brown clay and sand mixed 28'-41' Sticky brown clay 136 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Test Hole Xo. 60 Location : aO' W., SE corner section liT. TJX, RISK, Sl'.BM Diameter : 36" to a depth of 41' Drilling time: 4 hours Depth Material encountered O'-li' Damp brown sandy dirt ll'-13' Damp white sand 13'-36' Damp brown dirt 36'-38' Damp brown clay and gray sand mixed 38'-41' Wet gray sand Teat Hole No. 61 Location : 100' N., 100' W., i corner sections 34 and 35, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter: 16" to a depth of 41' Drilling time : 1^ hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'- 6' Damp brown clay 6'-18' Damp brown dirt 18'-38' Damp brown clay 38'-41' Sticky brown clay and wet sand mixed Test Hole No. 62 Location : 50' N., 50' E., center section 34, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 41' Drilling time: IJ hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 9' Damp brown dirt 9'-20' Sticky brown clay 15'-17' Very small seepage of water 20'-23' Sticky gray day ; few gypsum crystals 23'-29' Sticky brown clay 25'-30' Heavy seepage of water 29'-30' Gray sand 30'-38' Damp brown clay 38'-41' Gray sand and clay mixed ; light flow of water Test Hole No. 63 Location : 60' E., i corner sections 27 and 34, T2N, RISE, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 41' Drilling time : 2 hours Depth Material encountered 0'-18' Damp brown dirt lS'-24' Damp gray clay and sand mixed 24'-33' Damp brown clay and sand mixed 33'-34' Gray sand 34'-41' Damp gray clay and sand mixed 39'-41' Very small seepage of water Test Hole No. 6i Location : 30' N., 1600' E., i corner sections 28 and 33, T2N, R18E, SBBM Diameter : 16" to a depth of 41' Drilling time : 2 hours Depth Material encountered C - 2' Damp brown dirt 2' -20' Sticky brown clay 20' -26'6" Sticky black clay 26'6"-27' Damp gray sand 27' -37' Sticky black clay 37' -38' Wet brown sand 37' -41' Very small seepage of water 3S' -41' Brown sand and clay mixed Permit No. L.A. 053592, TIN, R18E, SBBM 16" to a depth of 35' Test Hole No. 1 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 21' ; Drilling time: 4i hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 8' Sticky gray and brown clay mixed 8'-12' Gray sand ; light flow of water 12'-16' Sticky brown clay 16'-25' Gray sand 25'-32' Sticky brown clay 32'-35' Gray quicksand ; heavy flow of water Test Hole No. ? Diameter : 36" to a depth of 19' Drilling; time : '2 hcmis Depth Material encountered ()'- ()' Damp gray and brown clay mixed 6'- S' Sticky greenish-gray clay 8'-12' (iray and l)rown sand mixed 12'-14' Sticky reddish-brown clay 14'-1.")' Brown sand 15'-16' Sticky soft white clay 16'-17' Sticky reddish-brown clay 17'-19' Gray quicksand; heavy flow of water Test Hole No. 3 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 21' ; 16" to a depth of 40' Drilling time : 4 hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 5' I>amp gray and limwn clay mixed 5'-17' Sticky brown, red and green clay mixed 14'-17' Heavy seepage of water 17'-25' Sticky brown clay 25'-38' Gray sand 38'-40' Gray quicksand ; heavy flow of water Test Hole No. i Diameter : 36" to a depth of 20' Drilling time : 2^ hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 9' Damp gray clay 9'-14' Damp brown sand 14'-16' Sticky reddish-brown clay 16'-18' Damp brown sand 18'-20' Brown quicksand ; heavy flow of water Test Hole No. 5 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 21' ; 16" to a depth of 28' Drilling time: 3 hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 2' Damp gray clay 2'- 5' Damp brown clay 5'-10' Sticky brown clay 10'-13' Brown sand and clay mixed 13'-16' Sticky brown clay 16'-18' Gray sand and brown clay mixed 18'-21' Gray and brown sand mixed 16'-21' Light flow of water 21'-26' Sticky reddish-brown clay 26'-28' Gray quicksand ; heavy flow of water Test Hole No. 6 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 24' ; 16" to a depth of 32' Drilling time : 2* hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 5' Damp brown clay 5'-12' Sticky reddish-brown cla.v 12'-17' Brown sand 17'-26' Sticky brown clay 21'-24' Small seepage of water 26'-30' Gray sand 30'-32' Gray quicksand ; heavy flow of water Teat Hole No. 7 Diameter : 16" to a depth of 41' Drilling time: .3 hours Depth Material encountered 0'-37' Sticky reddish-brown clay 14'-17' 10% gypsum crystals ; small seepage of water 37'-39' Gray sand 39'-41' Gray quicksand ; heavy flow of water Appendix] Test Holes I'r, 16" to a depth of 37' Teat Hole No. 8 Diameter : 30" to a depth of 25' Drilling time : 3 hours Depth Miiterial encountered 0'- 1' Dry gray sand 1'- 6' Damp greenish-gray clay 6'-19' Sticky greenish-gray clay 19'-20' Gray sand ; small seepage of water 20'-22' Sticky hrown clay 22'-24' Gray sand 24'-26' Sticky greenish-gray clay 26'-30' Gray sand 30'-35' Sticky hrown clay 35'-37' Brown quicksand ; light flow of water 16" to a depth of 60' Teit Hole No. 9 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 21' ; Drilling time : 5} hours 16" to a depth of 50' Depth 0' - 1' 1' - 5'8' 5'8" -17' 5'8" - 7' 17' -19' 19' -29' 29' -31- 31' -35' 35' -39' 39' -42' 42' -54' 54' -56' Material encountered Sticky brown clay 4' 8" layer of salt (dirty) Sticky greenish-gray clay Small seepage of water Gray sand ; small flow of wafer Sticky brown clay Gray sand Sticky brown clay Gray sand Sticky gray clay Sticky brown clay Brown quicksand Test Hole No. 10 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 2i hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 8' Sticky brown clay 4' - 4'3" 0' 3" layer of salt 5' - 8' Very small seepage of water 8' -17' Sticky gray clay 17' -21' Sticky brown clay and sand mixed Test Hole No. 11 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 15' ; 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time: 2i hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 4' Sticky brown clay 4' . 4'8" 8" layer of salt 4'8" -15' Sticky gray clay 15' -21' Brown sand ; light flow of water Test Hole No. 12 Diameter : 18" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 3 hours Depth 0' - 2' •>' - 5'«' 5'8" -17' 5'8" -21' .7' -21' Material encountered Sticky brown clay and dirt mixed 3' 8" layer of salt (very hard, dirty) Sticky gray clay Small seepage of water Gray clay and sand mixed Permit No. L. A. 053593, TIN, R18E, SBBM 16" to a depth of 41' Test Hole No. 1 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 14' ; Drilling time : 3 hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 1' Damp brown sand 1'- 9' Damp brown clay 9'-12' Sticky black clay ; few salt crystals 12'-14' Sticky brown clay; 75% gypsum crystals; heavy flow of water 14'-39' Sticky brown clay 39'-41' Sticky brown clay and slippery white silt mixed Test Hole No. 2 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 14' Drilling time: 8 hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 1' Damp brown sand 1' - 3' Damp brown clay 3' -13' Sticky brown clay 12' -13'6" Few salt crystals ; light flow of water 13'6" -13'8" 2" layer of salt 13'8" -14' Sticky black clay 14' -45' Gray sand and clay mixed 45' -60' Sticky brown clay Test Hole No. 3 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 21' ; 16" to a depth of 41' Drilling time : 4J hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 6' Damp brown clay 6'-12' Sticky brown clay 12'-19' Sticky black clay 19'-21' Sticky brown clay and sand mixed 21'-29' Gray sand and clay mixed 29'-37' Brown sand and clay mixed 20'-37' Heavy seepage of water 37'-38' Sticky greenish-gray clay 38'-41' Sticky brown clay Test Hole No. 4 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 32' Drilling time : 6 hours Depth 0'- 6' 6'-15' 15'-22' 22'-29' 29'-32' 32'-37' 37'-42' 42'-55' 55'-57' 16" to a depth of 57' Material encountered Damp brown clay Sticky brown clay Sticky grayish-green and red clay mixed Sticky reddish-brown clay Gray sand and clay mixed ; very small seepage of water Sticky reddish-brown clay Gray sand ; small seepage of water Sticky reddish-brown clay Gray quicksand ; heavy flow of water Test Hole No. .5 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 21' ; 16" to a depth of 41' Drilling time: 4 hours Depth O'-IO' 10'-17' 17'-23' 19'-23' 23'-25' 25'-30' 30'-32' 32'-41' Material encountered Sticky reddish-brown clay Sticky gray clay Gray sand Light flow of water Sticky black clay Sticky reddish-brown clay Gray sand ; heavy flow of water Sticky reddish-brown clay and gray sand in thin alternate layers Test Hole No. G Diameter : 36" to a depth of 21' ; 16" to a depth of 27' Drilling time : 3 hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 3' Damp brown dirt 3'- 9' Damp light green clay 9'-17' Sticky light green clay 17'-22' Sticky light green clay and sand mixed 22'-27' Light flow of water 22'-25' Green, gray and brown sand mixed 25'-27' Brown quicksand Test Hole No. 7 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 14' ; 24" to a depth of 37' Drilling time: 5 hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 3'6" Sticky brown clay 3' - 5'8" Heavy flow of water 3'6"- 5'8" 2'2" layer of salt (broken up and dirty) 5'8"-13' Sticky dark gray clay 13' -35' Sticky reddish-brown clay 35' -37' Brown quicksand 138 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Teat Hole Xo. 8 Dinmeter : 16" to n depth of 21' Drilling time : 2 lioiirs Depth Material encounteml 0'- 7' Sticky lirown clay 7'-ir)' Sticliy l)lack clay ir)'-19' Sticky green clay 19'-21' Gray qnicksand ; heavy flow of water Test Hole No. 9 Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 2 hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 2' Sticky brown clay 2' - 4'3" 2'3" layer of salt (broken and dirty) 4' - 5' Heavy flow of water 4'3"- 5' Sticky brown clay 5' - 9' Sticky black clay 9' -10' Gypsum crystals 10' -16' Sticky black clay 16' -17' Sticky brown clay 17' -19' Sticky green clay 19' -21' Gray sand Test Hole No. 10 Diameter : 36" to a depth of 16' ; 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 3 hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 2' Damp brown dirt 2' - 5'9" 3'9" layer of salt (broken up and very dirty) 5'9"-14' Sticky dark gray clay 9' -10' Heavy flow of water 14' -16' Sticky green clay 16' -19' Sticky gray clay 19' -21' Gray quicksand Test Hole No. 11 Diameter : 16" to a depth of 23' Drilling time : 1 hour Depth Material encountered C- 3' Damp brown dirt 3'- 7' Sticky dark green clay 7'- 8' Gypsum crystals ; heavy flow of water 8'-14' Sticky black clay 14'-17' Sticky gray clay and sand mixed 17'-21' Sticky green clay 21'-23' Gray quicksand Test Hole No. 12 Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : IJ hours Depth Material encountered C- 3' Wet brown dirt 3'- 4' Sticky black clay 4'-ll' 50% gypsum crystals ; heavy flow of water 4'-13' Sticky gray clay 13'-16' Gray clay and sand mixed 16'-21' Sticky black clay Test Hole No. IS Diameter : 36" to a depth of 21' ; 16" to a depth of 41' Drilling time : 2i hours Depth .Material encountered 0'- 1' Dry brown sand 1'- 5' Damp brown clay 5'- 8' Sticky brown clay 8'-10' Sticky gray clay and sand mixed 8'-14' 40% gypsum crystals; very small seepage of water 10'-12' Sticky brown clay 12'-14' Sticky gray clay and sand mixed 14'-15' Sticky black clay 15'-20' Gray sand ; small seepage of water 20'-21' Sticky reddish-brown clay 21'-22' Sticky green clay 22'-26' Gray sand ; heavy flow of water 26'-30' Sticky green clay 30'-34' (iray clay and sand mixed 34'-37' Brown clay and sand mixed 37'-41' Sticky reddish-brown clay Test Hole No. 1), Diameter : 36" to a depth of 25' ; 16" to a depth of 41' Drilling time : 4^ hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'-19' 15' layer of salt (small amount of dirt) 19'-21' Sticky dark gray clay ; very small seepage of water 21'-22' Gray sand ; small flow of water 22'-32' Sticky gray clay ; few gypsum crystals 22'-25' 10% salt crystals 32'-41' Reddish-brown clay Test Hole No. 15 Diameter : 24" to a depth of 20' Drilling time : 2\ hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 2' Damp brown dirt 2' -14'6" 12'6" layer of salt (small amount of dirt) 14'6"-19' Sticky gray clay 19' -20' Gray sand Test Hole No. 16 Diameter : 22" to a depth of 18' Drilling time : 2J hours Depth Material encountered 0' - 1' Damp brown dirt 1' -12'9" 11'9" layer of salt (small amount of dirt) 12'9"-18' Sticky black clay ; 5% salt crystals ; heavy flow of water Test Hole No. 11 Diameter : 16" to a depth of 36' Drilling time : 2 hours Depth Material encountered 0'- 4' Damp brown dirt ; 50% gypsum crystals 4'- 8' Damp brown sand 8'-22' Sticky black clay 22'-24' Wet gray sand 24'-30' Sticky reddish-brown clay 30'-36' Gray sand and clay mixed ; small flow of water Test Hole No. 18 Diameter : 22" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1^ hours Depth Material encountered (y - 4'6" Damp brown dirt 4'6"-13' 8'6" layer of salt (very dirty) 13' -15' Sticky black clay ; few salt crystals 15' -21' Sticky gray clay ; small seepage of water Test Hole No. 19 Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour. Depth Material encountered 0'- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'- 8' Damp gray clay ; few gypsum crystals 8'-10' Damp white powdered gypsum 10'-15' .Sticky dark gray clay 15'-21' Gray sand and brown clay mixed ; very small seep- age of water Test Hole No. ZO Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour. Pepth Material encountered 0'- 1' Damp brown dirt 1'- 8' Sticky gray clay 8'-14' Sticky brown clay 8'-12' 75% gypsum crystals ; heavy seepage of water 14'-1G' Sticky gray clay 16'-21' Sticky gray clay and sand mixed ; small flow of water Appendix] Test Holes 139 Tett Hole No. SI Diameter : 18" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour. Depth Material encountered (y- 2* Damp brown dirt 2'- 8' Damp brown clay ; few gypsum crystals 8'-16' Sticky gray clay 16'-21' Gray sand ; very small seepage of water Teat Bole No. 26 Diameter : 24" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour. Depth Material encountered (y- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'- 4' 2' laver of taU (dirty) 4'- 6' Sticky brown clay 6'- ft' Gray clay ; 35% »o» crystals ; 35% gypsum crystals y-lS' Sticky gray clay ; few gypsum crystals 13'-21' Sticky gray clay ; small seepage of water Te$t Bole No. 22 Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour. Depth Material encountered (y- 3' Damp brown dirt 3'- 6' Damp gray clay ; few gypsum crystals 6'-14' Sticky gray clay 14'-17' Sticky green clay 17'-21' Sticky gray clay ; very small seepage of water Tett Bole No. 21 Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour. Depth Material encountered C- 3' Damp brown dirt 3'- 5' Damp brown clay and sand mixed S'-ICK Damp gray clay ; few gypsum crystals KK-IS' Damp gray clay ; 40% gypsum crystals 16'-21' Sticky gray clay Test Bole No. 23 Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour. Depth Material encountered C- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'- 6' Damp brown clay and sand mixed 6'- 9' Damp gray clay 9'-l& Sticky bluish-gray clay 16'-21' Sticky gray clay ; very small seepage of water Teit Hole No. 28 Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour. Depth Material encountered 0'- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'- 8' 4' (oyer of salt (dirty) 8'-21' Sticky gray clay 14'-17' Few gypsum crystals 17'-21' Small flow of water Test Bole No. 2i Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour. Depth Material encountered 0'- 4' Damp brown dirt 4'- 7' Sticky brown clay 7'-14' Sticky gray clay ; 10% gypsum crystals 14'-21' Very muddy gray clay Test Hole No. 29 Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour Depth Material encountered (y- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'- 4' Sticky brown clay 4'- 5' Damp gray clay 5'-21' Sticky dark gray clay 10'-14' 50% gypsum crystals Test Bole No. 25 Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : 1 hour. Depth Material encountered 0'- 3' Damp brown dirt 3'- 8' Gypsum crystals 8'-10' Damp gray clay and sand mixed 10'-15' 30% gypsum crystals 10'-21' Sticky gray clay; very small seepage of water Test Hole No. SO Diameter : 16" to a depth of 21' Drilling time : J hour Depth Material encountered C- 2' Damp brown dirt 2'-13' Sticky brown clay 5'- 8' 10% gypsum crystals 8'-13' 80% gypsum crystals 13'-17' Sticky gray clay 17'-21' Sticky gray clay and sand mixed 140 Salt in California Permit No. L.A. 053590 [Bull. 175 Test Hole No. 14 40 GRAVLMETRIC ANALYSIS (mUligranu per liter) Calcium (Ca). Magnesium (Mg) Sodium (Na) - Bicarbonate (HCOi) Chloride (CI) Sulphate (SO.) Total salines, approx Total hardness as CaCOa Carbonat* hardness as CaCOa Noncarbonate hardness as CaCOj REACTING VALUES (milligram equivalents): Calcium (rCa)__ Magnesium (rMg) Sodium (rNa) ._ Bicarbonate (rHCOa) _ Chloride (rCl) Sulphate (rSOO CONCENTRATION VALUE CHARACTER FORMULA (percent): Calcium (rCa) Magnesium (rMg) Sodium (rNa) Bicarbonate (rHCOj) -. Chloride (rCl) Sulphate (rSO.) GROUPS: Alkalies Alkaline earths Weak acids Strong acids CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: Primary salinity Secondary salinity Primary alkalinity Secondary alkalinity Hydrogen ion, pH "Percent sodium" 575 27 59,433 78 89,725 4,074 154,400 1,548 64 1,484 28.6925 2.2194 2585.3355 1 . 2792 2530.2450 84.7392 5232.54 0.55 0.04 49.41 0.02 48.36 1.62 49.41 0.59 0.02 49.98 98.82 1.14 0.04 7.5 98.82 729 92 126.732 90 189.150 10,638 327,800 2,199 74 2,125 36.3771 7.5624 5512.8420 1.4760 5334.0300 221.2704 11113.56 0.33 0.07 49 . 60 0.01 48.00 1.99 49.60 0.40 0.01 49.99 99.20 0.78 0.02 7.9 99.20 500 200 110,800 200 150.350 29,712 292,100 2,070 164 1,906 24.9500 16.4400 4819.8000 3.2800 4239.8700 018.0096 9722.32 0.26 0.17 49.57 0.03 43.61 6.36 49.57 0.43 0.03 49.97 99.14 0.80 0.06 7.9 99.14 483 245 104,562 233 145,500 23,354 274,700 2,212 191 2.021 24.1017 20.1390 4548.4470 3.8212 4103.1000 485.7032 9185.36 0.26 0.22 49.52 0.04 44.68 5.28 49.52 0.48 0.04 49.96 99.04 0.88 0.08 8.1 99.04 638 259 95,241 265 133.375 20,700 251,000 2,665 217 2,448 31.8362 21.2898 4142.9435 4.3460 3761.1750 430.5600 8392.18 0.38 25 49 37 0.05 44 81 5 14 49 37 0.63 0.05 49 95 98 74 1 16 10 8 1 98.74 Appendix] Test Holes Permit No. L.A. 053593 141 Test Hole No. GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS (mUligram. per liter) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium (Na)__ Bicarbonate (HCOi) Chloride (CD- Sulphate (SO.) Total salines, approx Total hardness as CaCOi Carbonato hardness as CaCOi Noncarbonate hardness as CaCOi -. REACTING VALUES (milligram equivalenU): Calcium (rCa) Magnesium (rMg) Sodium (rNa) Bicarbonate (rHCOi) Chloride (rCl) Sulphate (rSO.) CONCENTRATION VALUE. CHARACTER FORMULA (percent): Calcium (rCa) Magnesium (rMg) Sodium (rNa) Bicarbonate (rHCOi) Chloride (rCl) . . Sulphate (rSOO GROUPS: Alkalies Alkaline earths Weak acids Strong acids CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: Primarj' salinity Secondar>' salinity Primary alkalinity Secondary alkalinity Hydrogen ion, pH "Percent sodium" 1,558 277 51.621 143 77,6(X) 7,469 I39,(X)0 5,031 117 4,014 77.7442 22.7694 2245.5135 2.3452 2188. 32(K) 155.3552 4692.06 1.65 0.49 47.86 0.05 44.64 3.31 47.86 2.14 0.05 49.95 95.72 4.18 0.10 8.0 95.72 465 185 89,017 93 126.100 16,976 233,300 1,921 76 1.845 23.2035 15.2070 3872.2395 1.5252 3556.0200 353.1008 7821.30 29 19 49 52 02 45 46 4 52 49 52 48 02 49 98 99 04 92 04 8.0 99 04 979 47 123.052 51 189,150 3,395 317,000 2,640 42 2,598 48.8521 3.8634 5352.7560 0.8364 5334.0300 70.6160 10810.98 0.45 0.04 49.51 0.01 49.33 0.66 49.51 0.49 0.01 49.99 99.02 0.96 0.02 7.7 99.02 1.618 208 56,758 129 84,875 8,231 152,200 4,897 106 4,791 80.7382 17.0976 2468.9730 2.1156 2393.4750 171.2048 5133.60 1.58 0.33 48.09 0.04 46.63 3.33 48.09 1.91 0.04 49.96 96.18 3.74 0.08 8.0 96.18 23 540 81 40.201 104 60,625 3,415 105,400 1,682 85 1..597 26.9460 6.6582 1748.7435 1.7056 1709.6250 71.0320 3564.74 0.78 0.19 49.05 0.05 47.96 1.99 49.05 0.95 0.05 49.95 98.10 1.80 0.10 8.0 98.10 142 Salt in California Permit No. L.A. 053591 [Bull. 175 Test Hole Number 1 58 GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS (milligrams per liter) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg)_ _. Sodium (Na) Bicarbonate (HCOi) Chloride (CD Sulphate (S0<) Total salines, approx Total hardness as CaCOa- Carbonate hardness as CaCOa Non-carbonate hardness as CaCOi REACTING VALUES (milligram equivalents) : Calcium (rCa) Magnesium (rMg) Sodium (rNa) Bicarbonate (rHCOi) Chloride (rCl). Sulphate (rSOi).. CONCENTRATION VALUE CHARACTER FORMULA (percent): Calcium (rCa) Magnesium (rMg) Sodium (rNa) Bicarbonate (rHCOi) Chloride (rCl) Sulphate (rSOi) GROUPS: Alkalies Alkaline earths Weak acids Strong acids- - CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: Primary salinity Secondary salinity Primary alkalinity Secondary alkalinity Hydrogen ion. pH "Percent sodium" 498 324 108,616 232 145,500 32,182 287,700 2,573 190 2,383 24 . 8502 26.6328 4724.7960 3.8048 4103.1000 669.3856 9552.58 26 28 49 46 04 42 95 7 01 49 46 0.54 0.04 49 96 98.92 1 00 0.08 8 1 98.92 1,604 195 118,604 65 181,875 6,029 308,800 4,809 53 4,75fi 80.0396 16.0290 5159.2740 1.0660 6128.8750 125.4032 10510.68 0.76 0.15 49.09 0.01 48.80 1.19 49.09 0.91 0.01 49.99 98.18 1.80 0.02 7.9 98.18 375 204 105,423 162 147,925 21,502 276,000 1,773 132 1,641 18.7125 16.7688 4585.9005 2 . 6568 4171.4850 447.2416 9242.78 20 18 49 62 0.03 45 13 4 84 49 62 0.38 03 49 97 99 24 70 0.06 8.0 99 24 109 25 14,280 227 19.400 3,745 38,000 375 186 189 5.4391 2.0550 621 . 1800 3.7228 547.0800 77.8960 1257.40 0.43 0.16 49.41 0.30 43.50 6.20 49.41 0.59 0.30 49.70 98.82 0.58 0.60 8.3 98.82 Appendix] Test Holes Permits L.A. 053592 and 053539 143 Teat Hole Number GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS (miUigrams per liter) Calcium (Ca) MaKneaium (Mg) Sodium (Na) Bicarbonate (HCOi) Chloride (CD Sulphate (SO.) Total salines, approx Total hardness as CaCOi. Carbonate hardness as CaCOi Non-€arbonate hardness as CaCOj REACTING VALUES (milligram equivalents) : Calcium (rCa) Magnesium (rMg) Sodium (rNa) Bicarbonate (rHCOi) Chloride (rCI) Sulphate (rSOi). CONCENTRATION VALUE CHARACTER FORMULA (percent): Calcium (rCa) Magnesium (rMg) Sodium (rNa) Bicarbonate (rHCOj) Chloride (rCl).. Sulphate (rSO.) GROUPS: Alkalies Alkaline earths Weak acids Strong acids CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: Primary salinity Secondary salinity Primary alkalinity Secondar>' alkalinity Hydrogen ion . pH "Percent sodium" L. A. 053592 775 148 15.918 283 23,280 3.950 44,500 2,544 232 2,312 38.6725 12.1658 692 . 4330 4.8412 858.4960 82.1600 1486.60 2 80 82 46 58 31 44 17 5 52 48 58 3 42 31 49 69 93 16 6 22 62 8 1 93 16 146 22 10,708 181 14.550 2,963 28,775 455 148 307 7.2854 1.8084 465.7980 2.9684 410.3100 61.6304 949.82 0.77 0.19 49.04 0.31 43.27 6.42 49.04 0.96 0.31 49.69 98.08 1.30 0.62 8.3 98.08 1.058 136 124.363 45 191.575 3.395 32 1.000 3,203 37 3,166 52.7942 11 1792 5409 7905 7380 5402 4150 70 6160 0947 50 49 10 49 41 01 49 35 64 49 41 59 01 49 99 98.82 1 16 0.02 7 5 98.82 L. A. 053S39 1.012 212 46.755 110 70,325 6.617 134,500 3.399 90 3.309 50.4988 17.4264 2033.8425 1.8040 1983.1650 116.8336 4203.60 1.20 0.42 48.38 0.04 47.18 2.78 48.38 1.62 0.04 49.96 96.76 3.16 0.08 7.9 96.76 LOGS OF HOLES DIAMOND-DRILLED AT AVAWATZ SALT DEPOSIT FOR BASIC MAGNESIUM, INC. Page Drill holes at Boston claim 144 Analyses by Hole no. Hole no. Hole no. Hole no. Hole no. Hole no. Hole no. Hole no Smith-Emery 1 2 3 4 8 9 10 Company 144 144 144 144 14ri 145 145 145 14fi 140 14G 146 Determinations by California Testing r,al)oratories, Inc. Hole no. 13 Hole no. 14 Drill holes at Valley claim 147 Analyses by Smith-Emery Company 147 147 147 148 148 148 148 149 149 149 149 Hole no. 11 Hole no. 12 Hole no. 16 Hole no. 19 Hole no. 20 Hole no. 21 Hole no. 22 Hole no. 23 Hole no. 26 Hole no. 27 Determinations by California Testing Laboratories, Inc.. Hole no. 12 Hole no. 15 Hole no. 24 Numerical List of Holes Page _ l."iO _ 150 _ 150 _ 150 Hole no. 1, Boston claim 144 2, Boston claim 144 3, Boston claim 144 4, Boston claim 145 7, Boston claim 145 8, Boston claim 145 9, Boston claim 145 10, Boston claim 146 11, Valley claim 147 12, Valley claim 147, 150 13, Boston claim 146 14, Boston claim 146 15, Valley claim 150 16, Valley claim 148 19, Valley claim 148 20, Valley claim 148 21, Valley claim 148 22, Valley claim 149 23, Valley claim 149 24, ralley claim 150 26, Valley claim 149 27, Valley claim 149 144 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Drilling t)y : Continental Drilling Company Logs of diamond-drill holes, Avatcatz salt deposit. Boston claim of Basic Magnesium, Inc. Analyses by : Smith-Emery Company Depth, in feet 0- 14 14- 24 24- 34 34- 44 44- 54 54- 61 61- 71 71- 81 81- 91 91-101 101-111 111-116 116-126 126-140 140-150 150-160 160-170 170-180 180-190 190-200 200-210 210-220 220-230 230-240 240-248 248-2U0 260-270 270-280 280-286 286 0- 5 5- 15 15- 25 25- 35 35- 45 45- 55 55- 65 65- 75 75- 86 86- 96 96-106 106-116 116-126 126 0- 35 35- 40 40- 62 52- 64 64- 75 75- 85 85- 95 95-105 105-115 115-125 125-135 135-147 147-157 157-167 167-177 177-187 187-197 197-215 215 SAMPLE INTERVAL Core, ft. of 7.5 1.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 3.5 5.0 0.0 4.0 4.5 0.0 1.7 9.5 10.0 10.0 8.5 8.0 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 7.0 5.5 5.5 5.0 10.0 10.0 6.0 171.7 3.5 9.0 10.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 10.0 11.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 112.5 2.3 10.0 6.0 10.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 153.75 Hole, ft. of 14 10 10 10 10 7 10 10 10 10 10 5 10 14 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 8 12 10 10 6 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 10 10 10 10 35 5 12 12 II 10 10 10 10 10 10 12 10 10 10 10 10 18 Description SAMPLE NO. PERCENTAGES NaCl Inaol. CaSOj Hole No. 1, driUed 10/30/41; elevation coUar 960.67 feet. Overburden. Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Core lost — Salt Salt Core lost Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt- -- Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt -- Salt Salt.._ Average. 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A 9A lOA llA 12A 13A 14A 15A 16A 17A ISA 19A 20A 21A 22A 23A 24A 25A 26A 92.4 92.8 93.0 90.9 90.5 94.4 91.7 92.7 87.0 93.5 93.3 93.6 93.8 95.0 95.8 93.3 94.7 91.6 94.6 93.0 94.4 95.0 90.8 91.2 90.4 90.4 92.7 5 2 5 5 9 7 9 4 6 6 3 5 4 1 4 5 4 9 5 4 6 3 5 2 9 4.9 3 7 6 6 4 1 5 4 4 2 3 9 7 6 8 7 2 7 8 5.6 1.6 1.3 1.9 1.3 1.0 1.7 1.6 2.0 1.9 1.6 1. 1. 1. 1. 0.9 1.9 1.6 2.1 1.5 1.5 Hole No. 2, driUed 11/6/41! elevation coUar 946.17 feet. Overburden. Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt... , Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Average. 27A 28A 29A 30A 31A 32A 33A 34A 35A 30A 37A 38A 94.9 91.9 90.1 89,6 89.4 94.3 94.9 90.8 90.4 91.0 93.5 95.5 92.2 3.8 6.4 8.5 8.5 8.4 4.0 3.4 7.3 7.6 7.2 4.7 3.0 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.4 Hole No. 3, drilled 11/14/41; elevation collar 993.83 feet. Overburden Salt Salt with excessive amount of clay Same as 40A Same as 40A Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt- Salt- Average. 39A 40A 41A 42A 43A 44A 45A 46A 47A 48A 49A 50A 51A 52A 53 A 54 A 55A 90.2 88.1 91.1 94.0 92.8 89.5 85.1 92.8 92.2 92.3 92.7 90.2 93.0 91.1 8.2 10.0 7.4 4.8 5.9 8.7 13.0 5.6 5.9 5.9 5.4 8.0 5.7 7.2 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.4 NaiSO. 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0,0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0,1 0,1 0,0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Tr. 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 Tr. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mg 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0,00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Appendix] Diamond-Drill Logs, Avawatz Salt Deposit 145 Logs of diamond-drill holes, Avan-at: salt deposit. Hoslon claim of linsic Mngnesium, Inc. — Continued SAMPLE INTERVAL SAMPLE NO. PERCENTAGES Depth in feet Core, ft. of Hole, ft. of Description NaCl Insol. CaSO. Na,SO. Mg ppm N 0- 38 38 7 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 10 10 10 12 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Hole No. 4, driUed 11/19/41: elevation collar lOlS.ia feet. 38- 45 4.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 Salt - 56A 57A S8A 59A 60A 61A 62A 63A 64A 65A 66A 67A 68A 69A 70A 71A 72A 73A 74 A 92.1 93.4 89.2 91.0 82.2 82.2 74.7 75.6 90.4 85.4 81.2 87.6 92.4 87.0 84.7 78.9 73.0 88.5 88.1 6.2 5.2 8.8 7.3 14.6 14.7 21.9 21.4 7.8 12.5 16.6 10.4 6.0 10.9 13.3 18.9 22.7 9.1 9.5 1.4 1.1 1.8 1.3 2.6 2.3 2.3 2.0 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.6 3.2 1.9 1.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6 45- 55 Salt 5 55- 65 Salt - 65- 75 Salt g 75- 85 Salt 85- 95 Salt g 95-105 Salt 9 105-114 Salt 10 114-124 Salt 8 124-134 Salt 7 134-144 Salt 7 144-156 Salt 7 156-166 Salt 7 166-176 Salt 8 176-186 Salt 10 186-196 Salt 10 196-206 Salt 10 206-216 Salt - 10 216-226 Salt 10 38' to 75' average 226 183.5 91.4 83.5 6.9 14 1.4 1.8 Bt. 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 10 86 10 10 10 10 10 25 10 20 59 75' to 226' average 9 0- 86 Hole No. T, driUed 12/9/4 . ; elevation collar 1046.66 fe 86- 96 96-106 10.0 9.0 8.5 5.0 10.0 10.0 8.0 12.5 0.0 Salt.... Salt 75A 76A 77A 78A 79A 80A 81A 82A 79.5 82.8 88.1 78.5 79.8 81.3 91.1 86.2 16.9 14.2 9.9 18.4 17.1 15.9 7.2 10.9 3.0 2.4 1.6 2.6 2.4 2.4 1.5 2.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14 8 106-116 Salt 7 116-126 Salt 8 126-136 Salt 10 136-161 Salt 8 161-171 Salt 8 171-191 Salt 10 191-250 Clay and salt, not sampled. 250 73.0 83.4 elevation colla 13.9 I 1030.25 feet 2.3 0.0 0.00 9 0- 65 65 14 10 11 21 10 10 10 11 15 13 Hole No. 8, dril led 12/18/41; 65- 79 11.5 Salt 83A 83.1 13.8 2.8 0.0 0.00 10 79- 89 No sample (sand and salt; 2.5' recoverj') 10.0 12.0 10.0 10.0 5.0 10.0 11.0 6.0 89-100 Salt.. 84A 85A 86A 87A 88A 89A 90A 9IA 93.2 74.2 83.4 4.8 22.3 13.4 1.8 3.1 2.7 0.0 0.0 o.o 0.00 0.00 0.00 10 100-121 Salt 11 121-131 Salt 11 131-141 Withheld (large amount of 141-151 Salt 85.5 83.6 86.1 89.9 12.0 13.4 11.2 7.8 2.2 2.7 2.6 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 15 151-162 Salt 17 162-177 Salt 17 177-190 Salt 17 85.5 190 57 8 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 84.8 n; elevation c< 12.3 )llar 1013.64 f< 2.5 et. 0.0 0.00 13.5 0- 57 Hole No. 9, driUin S date unknow 57- 65 8 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Salt 92A 93A 94A 95A 96A 97A 98A 99A 1 00 A lOlA 102 A 103 A I04A 105A 106A 107A 108 A 109A llOA 94.3 96.6 94.1 93.3 90.8 93.2 94.8 94.2 92.9 93.5 93.6 94.1 89.8 93.6 93.7 94.0 90.8 95.7 98.0 4.1 2.2 4.4 5.0 7.1 5.4 3.9 4.1 5.6 5.8 5.8 5.0 9.4 5.5 5.4 5.1 7.2 3.7 1.5 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.9 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.3 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 o.a 1.8 0.5 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 17 65- 75 Salt 10 75- 85 Salt 10 85- 95 Salt n 95-105 Salt. 14 103-115 Salt 16 115-125 Salt ..'. 11 125-135 Salt 15 135-145 Salt 15 145-155 Salt 18 155-165 Salt 18 165-175 Salt 18 175-185 Salt 18 185-195 Salt 15 195-205 Salt 17 205-215 Salt 17 215-225 Salt 18 225-235 Salt 16 235-245 Salt 15 Average 188 245 93.7 6.1 1.0 0.0 0.00 15.2 146 Salt in California l,0(/s of diumond-drill holes, .\i-aiiiit: salt deposit. Ho.itoii elitim of Basle Ma^ Withheld (clay, gypsum, etc.) 215)^-228 Salt 132A 133 A 87.9 79.9 9.5 16.8 2.4 2.9 0.0 0.0 0.00 Tr. g 228-233 Salt 233-235 Withheld (clay, gypsum, etc.) . - 235-248 Salt.-.- -- 134A 135A 136A 137A 138 A 139 A 140A 79.9 89.4 85.2 92.3 93.5 93.9 94 3 17.1 8.5 12.5 6.3 5.2 4.9 4.4 2.7 2.0 2.1 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 248-258 Salt 11 258-273 Salt 273-283 Salt - - - 12 283-293 Salt - 15 293-303 303-313 Salt --- Salt 10 12 313 257 4 R.I Q 1 1 6 •? 5 0.0 Tr. 13 0- 40 40 15 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Hole No. 12, drilled 1/16/48; elevation collar 976.18 feet. (see page 150 for continuation of log) Overburden .- -- - - ,- . 40- 55 55- 65 65- 75 75- 85 85- 95 95-105 105-115 13 10 10 9 10 10 10 10 Salt Salt-- - - Salt Salt Salt _ Salt Salt 141A 142A 143A 144 A USA 146A 147A USA 86.6 82.8 87.2 86.7 94.4 91.1 84.7 81.0 11.4 14,1 10.4 10.6 3.9 6.6 13.1 16.1 1.9 2.8 2.2 2.5 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0,0 0,0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 12 15 15 15 13 IS 15 115-125 Salt 18 86.6 88.9 10.77 8.4 2.2 2.18 0.0 0.00 Average. Calif. Test. Labs. Inc.. determination (see their analysis, HoleNo. 12) AVERAGE -- 87.85 9.6 2.2 148 Salt in California [Bull. 175 //0(/.t of diamond-drill holes, Avau-atz salt deposit. V alley claim of Basic Magnesium, Inc. — Continued Depth in feet SAMPLE INTERVAL Core, ft. of Hole, ft. of Description SAMPLE NO. PERCENTAGES NaCl Insol. CaSO. NaiS04 Mg 0- 35 35- 45 45- 55 55- 65 65- 75 75- 85 85- 95 95-105 105-115 115-125 125-135 135-145 145-155 155-165 165-175 175-185 185-195 195-205 205-215 215-225 225-235 235-245 245-255 255 0- 21- 30- 39- 21 30 39 51H 51 H- 57 ,^ 57 H- 67 H 67H-147 147-157 157167 167-177 177-187 187 0- 33 33- 47 47- 57 57- 67- 77- 87- 97-107 107-117 117-127 127-137 137-147 147-157 157-167 167-177 177-187 187-197 197-207 207 0- 37 37- 42 42- 57 57- 67 67- 77 77- 87 87- 97 97-107 107-117 117-127 127-132 132-142 142-152 152-162 162-173 173-181 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 218H 12H 6 10 79M 10 10 10 10 166 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 7 9 10 10 167 181 5 15 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 5 10 10 10 11 8 143 35 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Overburden - Salt... Salt... Salt... Salt... Salt... Salt... Salt... Salt... Salt... Salt... Salt... Salt... Salt.. Salt-.. Salt... Salt... Salt... Salt... Salt... Salt.. Salt... Salt.- Hole No. 16. driUed 2/2/42; elevation coUar 933.31 feet. 21 9 9 12H 6 10 79H 10 10 10 10 33 14 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 207 37 5 15 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 .'» 10 10 10 11 8 Average. 200A 201 A 202A 203A 204A 205A 206A 207A 208A 209 A 210A 211A 212A 213A 214A 215A 216A 217A 218A 219A 220A 221A 95.7 93.2 95.0 93.9 92.6 95. 95. 92. 91. 94. 92. 92.9 93.8 94.1 94.1 94.5 93.4 91.4 89.3 76.8 80.8 88.6 91.9 6.7 7.2 6.4 1.0 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.4 0.9 1.0 0.6 0.7 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.4 0.7 1.7 2.0 1.8 2.9 2.4 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 0.0 222A 223A Hole No. 19, driUed 2/13/12; Overburden Salt Salt Not sampled (clay) Salt Salt Not sampled (clay) Salt Salt Salt Salt -- Average. elevation collar 1002.37 feet. 224A 225A 226A 227A 228A 229A 88.0 78.6 75.9 78.0 81.8 80.6 71.6 85.4 79. 9.5 18.2 20.7 18.9 15.1 16 1 24.7 11.7 Ifi 2.3 2.8 2.9 2.6 2.9 3.3 2.8 2.8 Hole No. 20, drilled 2/17/42: elevation collar 995 85 feet Overburden. Salt Salt.. Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt- Salt -. Salt Salt Salt Salt .-- Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Average. 230A 231A 232A 233A 234A 235A 236A 237A 238A 239A 240A 241A 242A 243A 244A 245A 246A 95.0 96.9 93.8 93.6 92.9 92 . 4 93.5 94.4 92.5 95.2 93.3 94.0 94.4 92.6 94.0 96.9 95.7 94.2 4 1 2.1 4.6 5.0 5.8 6 4.H 4 3 5.9 3.3 5.0 4.2 3.9 5.5 4.3 2.0 3.1 4.3 0.7 0.9 1.5 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.0 1.1 1.2 Hole No. 21, drilled 2/21/42: elevation collar 1023.23 feet. Overburden Not sampled (clay, salt) Not sampled (clay. salt, etc.) Salt Salt Salt Salt - Salt Salt Not sampled Not sampled Salt... Salt Salt Salt Salt .- Average. 247A 248A 249A 250A 251A 252A 253A 254A 255A 256A 257A 258A 259A 260A 91.9 90.8 93.0 91.1 91.8 87.2 91.5 90.4 90.0 89.9 91.3 90.8 7.5 7.5 5.5 6.6 5.9 10.7 6.6 7.8 8.2 8.6 7.4 7.48 0.4 1.2 1.1 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3 0.9 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Tr. Tr. Tr. Tr. 0.0 Tr. Tr. Tr. 0.0 Tr. Tr. 0.0 Tr. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Appendix] Diamond-Drill Logs, Avawatz Salt Deposit Logs of dittmond-drill holes, Avairatz salt deposit. \'alley claim of Basic ilagnesiutn, Inc. — Continued 149 SAMPLE INTERVAL SAMPLE NO. PERCENTAGES Depth. ID feet Core, ft. of Hole, ft. of Description NaCl Insol. CaSO. NajSO. Mg ppm N 0- 25 25 20 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 13H 10 10 10 8 12 8 8 25 Hole No. 21, driUed 2/25/43; Overburden . .- elevation coUar 968.07 feet. 1 25- 45 14 10 10 10 84 10 10 11 14 10 10 9 8 12 8 8 25 Salt 261A 262A 263A 264A 265A 266A 267A 268A 269A 270A 271A 272A 91.6 87.8 96.9 94.3 96.2 84.9 86.7 88.4 92.3 91.2 89.3 86.0 7.4 10.6 Vr 3.2 12.3 10.6 8.7 5.5 6.9 8.6 11.4 0.9 1.3 OS 0.8 0.5 2.5 2.7 2.6 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7 8 6 5 6 7 7 7 8 7 8 45- 55 55- 65 Salt Salt. 65- 75 75- 85 85- 95 95-105 Salt... Salt..-.: Salt.. Salt.. 105-116 116-130 130-140 Salt... Salt. Salt . 140-150 150-160 Salt... Salt... 160-168 Not sampled 168-180 Salt....'. 273 A 274A 275A 83.2 76.1 71.4 14.3 20.5 24.4 2.2 2.8 3.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 Tr. Tr. 180-188 Salt. g 188-196 Salt 196-221 Not sampled Average 221 185 221 15 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 87.75 elevation colle 10.1 r 939.36 feet. 1.87 0.0 Tr. 7 26 0- 15 Hole No. 23, dr illed 2/28/42; 15- 25 10 10 8 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 10 Salt 276A 277A 278A 279A 280A 281A 282A 2S3A 284A 285A 286A 287A 288A 289A 290A 291A 292A 86.3 93.5 92.2 92.0 94.4 94.4 95.2 92.6 93.2 95.8 96.3 95.0 96.5 95.2 96.1 96.3 95.8 11.9 5.7 6.9 6.4 4.2 4.5 3.8 5.7 5.4 3.0 2.8 4.0 2.8 3.7 3.2 3.0 3.2 1.2 0.5 0.6 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.7 1.4 1.1 1.0 1.1 0.9 0.5 0.9 0.6 0.6 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 25- 35 Salt 7 35- 45 Salt 45- 55 Salt g 55- 65 65- 75 75- 85 Salt Salt Salt.. 8 7 85- 95 95-105 105-115 115-125 125-135 135-145 Salt... Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt.. 8 8 8 8 7 7 145-155 155-165 Salt Salt 7 165-175 175-185 Salt Salt- 8 g Average 167 185 30 6 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 94.2 ; elevation co 4.7 Jar 1006.44 fe 0.9 et. 0.0 0.00 7 5 0- 30 Hole No. 26, driU ed March 191S 30- 36 36- 46 46- 56 56- 66 66- 76 6 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 Salt Salt. Salt Salt.... Salt 322A 323A 324A 325A 326A 327 A 328A 329A 330A 95.5 90.3 91.2 93.8 85.5 89.1 96.1 94.7 94.5 3.0 7.9 7.3 4.9 12.9 9.1 2.8 4.5 3.6 1.1 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.7 1.1 0.8 0.4 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Tr. Tr. Tr. Tr. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 30 30 20 10 5 76- 86 86- 96 96-106 106-116 Salt Salt Salt. Salt.. 5 5 5 5 85 116 92.3 elevation colla 6.2 r 1024. 44 feet 0.9 0.0 Tr. 12 6 0- 40 Hole No. 27, dr Overburden Ued 3/21/12; 40- 62 9 22 4^ 5H 4 11 5 9 6 11 6 9 11 11 6'A 8H 10 Salt 331A 82.7 12.8 3.8 0.0 Tr. 62- 661-2 Not sampled 66H- 72 4 4 11 5 9 6 11 6 9 11 11 6H 8H 10 Salt 332A 80.6 13.5 5.3 0.0 Tr. 72- 76 Not sampled 76- 87 Salt 333A 334A 88.8 78.3 8.3 17.5 2.1 3.1 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 87- 92 Salt 92-101 101-107 Salt 334A 335A 78.3 80.5 17.5 15.5 3.1 3.1 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 107-118 Salt 118-124 Not sampled 124-133 Salt 336A 337A 338A 87.5 95.4 91.4 9.0 2.8 5.9 2.7 1.4 2.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 Tr. 0.00 Tr. 133-144 Salt 144-155 Salt 155-161 H Not sampled 16U^-170 Salt 339A 340A 90.0 91.8 7.0 5.9 2.3 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 170-180 Salt 121 180 0.0 Tr. 150 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Drilled by : Continental Drilling Company Logs of diamond-drill holes, Avawatz salt deposit. Valley claim of Basir Magnesium, Inc. Determined by : California Testing Laboratories, Inc. Depth in feet SAMPLE INTERVAL Core, ft. of Hole, ft. of Description SAMPLE NO. DETERMINATIONS NaCl Insol. CaSOi MgS04 MgO 12S-13S 135-145 145-155 155-165 165-175 175185 185-195 195-205 205-215 215-225 225-235 235-245 245-255 255 265 265-275 275-285 285-295 295-305 305 0- 39 39 50 50- 55 55- 65 65- 75 75- 87 87- 97 97-107 107-117 117-124 124-206 206 0- 28 28- 35 35- 45 45- 55 56- 65 65- 75 75- 85 85- 95 95-105 105-115 115-125 125-135 135-145 145-155 155-165 165-175 175-185 185-195 195-205 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 261 11 5 10 9 12 10 10 10 7 7 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 305 39 11 5 10 10 12 10 10 10 7 82 206 28 7 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Hole No. 12, drilled 1/16/12; elevation coUar 976. 18 feet, (see page 147 for log. 0-125 feetj 10 Salt. 10 Salt 10 Salt. 10 Salt. 10 Salt. 10 Salt 10 Salt. 10 Salt. 10 Salt. 10 Salt. 10 Salt. 10 Salt 10 Salt. 10 Salt 10 Salt. 10 Salt. 10 Salt. 10 Salt Average .\verage, Smith-Emery Company analysis (see their analysis, Hole No. 12). _ AVERAGE. 149A 150A 151A 152 A 153 A 154A 155A 156 A 157 A 158 A 159 A 160A 161A 162 A 163 A 164 A 165A 166A 85.0 81.2 86.6 88.4 82.0 94.4 89.2 91.8 88.3 86.6 91.6 92.6 86.8 93.3 86.3 91.4 91.4 93.3 88.9 86.8 87.85 12.3 14.8 10.5 8.4 14.0 3.7 8.6 6.2 8.5 9.4 5.4 5.6 10.7 5.2 9.9 6.0 7.3 5.4 8.4 10.8 9.6 2.2 3.6 2.0 2.9 3.7 1.3 1.7 1.4 2.6 3.2 2.5 1.7 2.2 1.3 2.4 2.1 1.6 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.18 0.0 2.2 Hole No. IS, driUed 1/28/43; elevation coUar 964.11 feet. Overburden Salt-- Not sampled (clay)_ Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt-- Not sampled (clay)- Average 192A 193A 194A 195 A 196 A 197A 198 A 199A 86.3 84.6 89.2 88.2 87.7 80.2 82.5 67.7 83.3 10.9 12.5 8.5 9.9 8.9 15.9 14.7 26.2 13.4 1.6 1.7 1.3 1.4 1.8 2.7 2.4 4.3 2.1 Hole No. 24, driUed March 1942; elevation coUar 1014.61 feet. Overburden- Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt Salt-- Salt -- Salt Salt Salt Salt -- Salt Salt Salt Salt -- Salt Salt- Salt--- Average. 293 A 294A 295A 296A 297A 298A 299A 300A 301 A 302A 303A 304 A 305A 306A 307 A 308A 309A 310A 80.0 86.5 86.6 85.1 90.6 85.1 90.2 88.8 86.9 88.5 91.9 91.7 89.9 92.1 92.7 90.6 81.3 88.2 88.2 9.7 16.9 2.2 10.9 1.4 11.0 1.4 12.5 1.4 7.1 1.3 12.6 1.4 7.5 1.6 9.4 1.4 10.9 1.6 9.8 1.1 6.4 1.6 6.4 1.4 8.2 1.4 5.6 1.4 5.5 1.3 7.2 1.8 16.3 1.5 10.1 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.006 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.006 Appendix] Table S. Analyses Relation between specific gravity, degreet Baume, and degrees salometer of solutions. 151 O.O.. O.6.. 1.0.. I.S.. 2.O.. 2.2.. 2.4.. 2.6.. 2.8.. 3.O.. 3.2.. S.4.. 8.6.. 3.8.. 4.O.. 4.6.. 6.O.. S.5-. 6.O.. 6.5.. 7.0-. 7.5._ 8.O.. 8.5.. 9.O.. 9.6.. 10.0.. 10.5.. 11.0.. U.5.. 12.0.. 12.5.. 13.0.. 13.5.. 14.0.. 14.5- 15.0.. 15.5.. 16.0.. 16.5.. •Be Specific gravity 1.0000 1.0035 1.0069 1.0104 1.0140 1.0154 1.0168 1.0182 1.0196 1.0211 1 . 0225 1 . 0240 1.0254 1.0269 1.0284 1 . 0320 1.0357 1.0397 1.0432 1.0469 1 . 0507 1.0584 1.0584 1.0623 1.0662 1 . 0702 1.0741 1.0781 1.0821 1.0861 1.0902 1.0944 1.0985 1.1027 1.1069 1.1111 1.1154 1.1197 1.1240 1.1284 **Salometer 0.0 2.0 4.1 6.1 8.1 8.9 9.7 10.5 11.3 12.2 13.0 13.8 14.6 15.4 16.3 18.3 20.3 22.3 24.4 26.4 28.5 30.5 32.5 34.5 36.6 38.6 40.7 42.7 44.7 46.7 48.8 50.8 52.9 54.9 56.9 58.9 61.0 63.0 65.0 67.0 "Be Specific gravity .1328 .1372 .1417 .1462 .1508 .1554 .1600 .1619 .1638 .1657 .1676 1694 .1713 .1732 1751 .1770 .1789 1898 1827 1846 1865 .1885 .1904 .1924 ,1943 ,1963 1983 2003 2023 2043 2063 2083 2103 2123 2143 2164 2185 2205 2225 2246 "Salometer 71 73 75 77 79 81 82.1 82.9 83.7 84.5 85.4 86.2 87.0 87.8 88.6 89.4 90.2 91.0 91.8 92.6 93.5 94.3 95.1 95.9 96.7 97.6 98.4 99.2 100.0 100.8 101.6 102.4 103.2 104.0 104.8 105.6 106.4 107.2 108.0 "Be 26.8 27.0 27.2 27.4 27.6 27.8 28.0 28.2. 28.4. 28.6. 28.8. 29.0. 29.2. 29.4. 29.6. 29.8. 30.0. 30.2. 30.4. 30.6. 30.8. 31.0. 31.2. 31.4. 31.6. 31.8- 32.0. Specific gravity 1.2267 1.2288 1.2309 1.2330 1.2351 1.2.372 1 . 2393 1.2414 1.2435 1.2456 1 . 2478 1.2500 1.2521 1.2543 1.2565 1.2587 1.2609 1.2631 1.2653 1.2875 1.2697 1.2719 1.2741 1 . 2763 I . 2786 1.2809 1.2832 Temperature correctiona: I'C =0.05° Be 1°F = 0.025° Be 1°F = 0. 10° Salometer For conversion : °Be X 4.065 = °Salometer •Salometer 108.8 109.8 110.4 111.2 112.0 112.8 113.6 114.4 115.2 116.0 116.8 117.6 118.4 119.2 120.0 120.8 121.6 122.4 123.2 124.0 124.8 126.6 126.4 127.2 128.0 128.8 129.6 TYPICAL CHEMICAL AND SCREEN ANALYSES OF SALT PRODUCED IN CALIFORNIA KEY TO CHEMICAL SYMBOLS CaCOa Calcium carbonate CaSO* Calcium sulfate Caa(PO«)i TriKjalcium phosphate HjO - Water KI Potassium iodide MgCOi Magnesium carbonate MgCli Magnesium chloride MgSOi Magnesium sulfate NasSOi Sodium sulfate NajSjOi.5HiO Sodium thioaulfate NajPO.- 12HiO _ Tri-sodium phosphate NaCl Sodium chloride SiOi&RaOj Silica, iron, and alumina CaSiOaHyd Hydrated calcium silicate VACUUM SALT "500" Screen analysis Chemical analysis Mesh Percent passing Component Percent 100 80 27.0 60.0 78.0 99.0 100.0 H,0 SiOiand RiOi. CaSOi 0.041 65 006 48 _. CaCOi 35 NajS04 008 Cai(PO«)i.-- 0.970 NaCl... 98.975 100.000 Table Salt Round and Square Package Screen analysis Mesh Percent passing 100 3.0 65 14.0 48 56.0 35 98.0 28. 100 Chemical analysis Component Hrf) SiOi and RK)i- CaS04 CaCOi NasSO... CaSiOjHyd NaiSiOj. 5HiO- NaiPO.. 12HiO KI NaCl Iodized salt (percent) 0.056 trace 0.006 0.020 0.008 0.980 0.100 0.001 0.010 98.819 100.000 Plain salt (percent) 0.054 trace 0.006 0.020 0.008 0.980 98.932 100.000 152 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Baker's Butter Screen analysis Chemical analysis Mesh Percent passing Component Percent 100 3.0 12.0 61.0 99.0 100.0 HjO 0.046 65 SiOjand Rrf)i CaSO, trace 48 0.006 35 CaCO. NaiSO. 0.010 28--- 0.008 Basic MgCOi NaCl 0.480 99.450 100.000 Screen analysis Chemical analysis Mesh Percent passing Component Percent 100--- 65 0.1 11.0 63.0 99.0 100.0 HjO SiOiand RiOi CaSO. 0.000 48- 0.006 35 CaCOi 28 NaiSO. 0.008 MgCO. NaCl 99.986 100.000 Table Salt — Pockets and Bags Screen analysis Chemical analysis Mesh Percent passing Component Percent 100 1.0 5.0 38.0 76.0 99.5 100.0 H,0 SiOjand RjOi CaSOi CaCOj NajSO. Basic MgCOi NaCl 0.046 65 -- 48 --. 35 28 0.006 0.010 0.008 20 0.480 99.450 100.000 Screen analysis Cheese Chemical analysis Mesh Percent passing Component Percent 48 35 5.3 51.0 99. 100.0 H,0 SiOiand RiOs CaSO. CaCOi 0.000 28 0.006 20 . NajSO*-.- 0.008 MgCOi NaCl... 99.986 100.000 Iodized Vacuum Screen analysis Chemical analysis Mesh Percent passing Component Percent 100 1.0 5.0 38.0 76.0 99.5 100.0 H^ 0.046 66-.- SiOiand RiOi. CaSO. 48 0.006 36 CaCO. , 0.010 28 .- NajSOi 0.008 20 Basic MgCOi Na.8.0.-5H,0 KI 0.480 0.050 0.010 NaCl- 99.390 100.000 Screen analysis Canners Chemical analysis Mesh Percent passing Component Percent 100 1.0 8.0 42.0 87.0 99.5 100.0 HiO . 0.00 65 SiOiand RiO. CaSOi . . . 48 0.006 35 CaCO. 28 NaiSO. . 0.008 20 MgCOi NaCl--- 99.986 100.000 Appendix] Analyses 153 KILN-DRIED SALT GRADES Mill Run, Fine, Medium, Coarse, Extra Coarse, and Topping Grades Chemical analysis for all grades Screen analyses Mesh Percent passing Mill run: 100 20.0 65 30.0 48 44.0 35 65.0 28 88.0 20 93.0 14 95.0 6 100.0 Fine: 48 3.0 35 - 6.0 28 18.0 20 72.0 14 99.0 10 100. Medium: 20 3.0 14 20,0 10 70.0 8 99.0 6 100 Coarse: 8 - 20.0 6 -- 61.0 96.0 3 100.0 Extra coarse: 2.0 4 10.0 3 -. . 81.0 3i' 99.0 H' 100.0 48 2.5 35 18.5 28 82.0 20 100 Component HiO SiOj and RiOj CaSO, MgSO. MgCh NaiSO. NaCl-- Percent As reed. Dry 0.056 0.018 0.176 0.019 0.013 0.053 99.665 100.000 0.000 0.018 0.176 0.019 0.013 0.053 99.721 100.000 Mill Run, Iodized Screen analysis Chemical analysis Percent passing Component Percent Mesh As reed. Dry 100 20.0 30.0 44.0 65.0 88.0 93.0 95.0 100.0 HiO 0.056 0.018 0.176 0.019 0.013 0.100 0.001 0.010 0.053 99.554 000 65 SiOj and RiOi CaS04-.- 018 48 176 35 MgSO. . . 019 28 MgCli 0.013 20 NaiSiO. 5H,0- NaaPO.- 12H>0 KI 100 14 0.001 6 010 NajSO. 0.053 NaCl 99 610 100.000 100.000 Trace Mineral Screen a nalysis Percent Mesh passing 100 18.8 65 29.2 48 45.8 35 68.0 28 93.4 20 99.8 14 100.0 Chemical analysis Component Stearic acid Cobalt carbonate Copper carbonate Manganese carbonate Iron oxide Potassium iodide Sodium thiosulfate Casein Molasses Salt Percent 0.007 0.026 0.069 0.686 0.297 0.016 0.099 0.094 1.500 97.206 100.000 Ele- ment Co Cu Mn Fe I Percent 0.013 0.039 0.328 0.179 0.012 154 Salt in California [Bull. 175 PRESSED BLOCKS Iodized, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Plain, Molasses Iodized, and Trace Mineral Blocs UNDRIED CRUDE SALT Screen analysis, all blocks Mesh 100 65 48 35 28 20 Percent passing 18.0 29.0 46.0 66.0 99.6 100.0 Chemical analysis Component Iodized blocks: HK)- SiOi and RiOs CaSO. MgS04. MgCh Iron oxide Sodium thiosulfate. Potassium iodide- -. NaiS04 NaCl Phosphorus blocks: HiO - SiOiand RjOi CaSO» MgSO. MgCli Mono-calcium phos- phate Bone char NaiS04 NaCl Sulfur blocks: HiO SiOi and RiOi. CaS04 MgS04 MgCl, - S Na.S04 NaCl Percent Plain blocks: HiO SiOiaod RiOa. CaSO» MgS04 MgCl. NaiS04 NaCl-- Molasses iodized blocks HiO--- SiOiand RiOi CaS04- MgS04 MgCli-- Iron oxide Potassium iodide Molasses -. -- Na.S04 NaCl Trace mineral blocks: Stearic acid Cobalt carbonate Copper carbonate . Manganese carbonate. Iron oxide Potassium iodide Sodium thiosulfate Casein Molasses- Salt 0.056 0.018 0.175 0,019 0.013 0.150 0.100 0.010 0.053 99.406 100.000 0.048 0.016 0.152 0.016 0.011 13.600 0.260 0.046 85.851 100.000 0.055 0.018 0.173 0.019 0.013 2.000 0.052 97.670 Ele- ment 100.000 0.056 0.018 0.176 0.019 0.013 0.053 99.665 100.000 0.055 0.018 0.173 0.019 0.013 0.100 0.010 1.600 0.052 98.060 100.000 0.007 0.026 0.069 0.686 0.297 0.016 0.099 0.094 1.500 97.206 Percent 100.000 Co Cu Mn Fe I 0.013 0.39 0.328 0.179 0.012 Screen analysis Chemical analysis for stack run, No. 101 coarse, half ground, and No. 403 undried crude salt Percent passing Component Percent Mesh As reed. Dry 4.3 9.0 14.6 36.2 69.2 91.5 100.0 0.7 2.7 23.2 72.3 99.7 100.0 8.3 20.3 34.5 66.4 89.9 99.6 100.0 3.1 7.4 14.3 25.5 35.0 60.3 60.8 84.8 95.8 100.0 H:0 3.20 0.01 0.22 0.12 0.16 98.26 0.00 10 --- SiOiand R1O3 CaS04 0.01 g 0.23 6 MgS04 -- 0.12 4 MgCli 0.17 3 NaCl - 99.47 3/8" 100.00 100.00 No. 101 coarse: 6 4 3 3/8" H"--- %" Half ground : 10 8 6 4 3 3/8" H" No. 403: 48 -- 35 -- 28 20 - 14 - 12 10 - 8 -- 6 4 Appendix] Production Table i. Salt production in California. 155 Alameda Coluoa Imperial Inj'O Kern Los Anjieles Marin Modoo Short tons Value (J) Tons Value (S) Tons Value (t) Tons Value (t) Tons Value (1) Tons Value (t) Tons Value ($) 1887... 1888 .- 1889... 1890 .. 1891. -- 1892 1893... 1884 44.450 43.810 55,826 61.353 87,800 78.434 64.718 114.450 80.000 76.877 52.990 49.100 68.450 54.922 78.462 104.978 131.868 121.540 126.211 129.318 126.983 103.768 111,206 148,846 130,132 157,751 145,368 108,925 139,556 177,389 189,217 180,712 202,777 180,623 224,000 264,666 232,808 * * * • * * * * • * « • * • 540,943 663,108 772.572 * * * * 125.125 114,575 122,810 139.830 155,812 137.088 158.674 324.136 160,000 143,605 76.340 54.200 126.838 163.127 108.694 214.808 285.217 201.542 212.150 233.388 292.641 220.977 263.773 315.970 410.345 552.178 574,837 370,296 434,076 585,585 635,653 497,692 628,470 366,346 611,888 1,623,397 694.371 1895... 40 400 1896 1897... 8 21 20 20 18 18 18 18 18 150 16 10 160 439 300 80 270 396 360 180 225 1,700 240 125 1898 1899... 1900... 1901 6.650 90 8,000 7,560 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 10,000 6,000 7,592 10,360 10,000 20.000 19,950 180 20.000 24,480 20,000 36,000 36,000 48,000 30.000 12.000 16.113 46.370 40.000 60.000 1902 700 1,400 1903 300 400 2.400 800 1904 1905 1906... ISO 300 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 50 40 40 1913 13.500 13.500 * 54.000 54 000 1914 20.000 * * * 17.000 22.000 18.500 18.000 18,921 10.506 6,890 11,279 14.960 50.000 720 1915 1916 6,502 1917 1918 « * * * * 1919 ♦ 81.000 87,000 93.500 66,000 97.336 44.115 28.858 41.116 69,839 1920 6.577 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 * 1927 1928 * * * 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941... 1942 * * 1943 . 1944 * 1945 .. 1946 1947. 4.292,339 3,091,370 3,482.356 1948 1949.. 1950... 1951 .. 1952... * * 1953 - 1954.., 1 1 * Production not disclosed. 156 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Tahle J . Salt production n Cnlifornia — Cotit niied. Monte- rey Orange Riverside San Bernardino San Diego San Mateo Santa Clara Solano Total California production Tons Value (S) Short tons Value Tons Value (S) Tons Value ($) Tons Value (S) Short tons Value (J) 1887... 28,000 30,800 21,000 8,729 20,094 23,570 50,500 49,131 ^3,031 64,743 67,851 93,421 82,654 89,338 126,218 115,208 102,895 95,968 77.118 101.650 88.063 121.764 155.680 174,920 173,332 185,721 204,407 223,806 169,028 186,148 227.825 212.076 233.994 230.638 197.989 222,238 275,979 318,800 284,068 311,761 263,028 340,580 392,039 347,945 330,951 256,353 321,312 332,194 365,711 398,249 370.431 395.746 417,956 462,282 434,237 672,324 631,776 769,873 734,736 796.761 768.397 914.035 964,807 868,496 1,275,574 1.148.693 1,123,365 112,000 92,400 63,000 67.085 90..303 104,788 213,000 140,087 150,576 153,244 157,520 170,855 149,588 204,754 366 376 1888... 1889... 1890... 1891... 1892... 1893... 1894... 1.981 4,000 4.317 4,840 5,000 3,600 4,000 4.000 20,000 10,000 15,000 3 962 8,000 8,634 9,680 10,000 7,200 8,000 12,000 20,000 20,000 15,000 1,000 3,841 3,000 3.000 20.101 15,000 700 700 600 650 600 600 600 1,060 7,900 5,000 5,000 4,800 5.850 5.000 5.000 4,000 9,620 7,900 1895... 1896. . 1897... 1898... 1899... 1900... 1901... 40 6,500 7,700 12,000 16,000 14.900 14.000 23.800 22.100 26.000 27.500 33.000 28,000 27,500 25,500 28,540 36,483 26,434 30,238 37,409 32,587 32,428 35,757 54,258 31,325 * * * * * * * * * 400 16,000 25,000 62,. 500 67.. 500 44.920 56.000 60,900 95,400 64,750 55,000 80,000 72,250 76,750 63,750 70,807 114,689 144,604 136,190 206,897 167,022 149,302 199,192 205,176 155,925 1902... 205,876 211,365 187 300 1903... 1904... 1905. 141,925 213,223 310,967 281.469 414.708 395.417 324,255 383,370 462 681 1906. . . 6,000 7,000 7,000 15,000 8,000 13,000 12,4.50 20,500 15,300 17,616 * 4.500 10.631 12,400 15.300 * 5.000 55.000 60.000 60.000 24.000 37.500 31.350 61.750 46.200 19.616 1907. 125 400 100 50 100 50 600 2,800 200 1.50 300 100 1908 90 3,500 3,000 3,600 3,600 3,049 482 542 2,355 * • 650 14,000 9,000 13,800 12,600 10,573 2.892 3.324 13830 1909. 1910 1911. 1912... 1913... 1914... 583 553 1915 * * * 368 737 1916. 455,695 584,373 806 328 1917 9,750 61.717 52,800 77,100 1918. 1919... 896 963 1920. 202 13,279 12,222 17,350 29,699 28,319 22,522 * 42,244 24,949 • * * * « * * * * * • * 156,181 * * 150,293 * « * * 1,220 67,782 54,2.59 65.550 99,791 101,085 85,463 972 648 1921... 832 702 1922... 819,187 1923... 1 130 670 1924... * * * + * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * « * * * 1 159 137 1925. 949 826 1926... 1 124,978 1927. 639 127 1928... 186,470 114,796 1 024 656 1929. ♦ 2 665 436 1930... 1 167 487 1931 1 233 567 1932. 918 480 1933... 1,251,024 1934. 1 222 810 1935... 1,230,480 1936. * • * Id * * * * ♦ * ♦ * * * * 1 227 505 1937... 1,044,325 1938. 1 099 737 1939... 1,174,386 1940. 1 290 728 1941... 1,180,929 1942. 473,760 1 922 991 1943... 1,695,231 1944. 2 060 960 1945.. 2,030 226 1946- 2 274 722 1947... 386,742 3,810,898 1948. 3 927 722 1949... 4.110.271 1950... 3.816.655 1951... 5,261.780 1952... 4,880.392 1953... 6.263.059 1954. Appendix] List of California Producers Lilt of California talt producert by countiet. 157 Map no. Claim, mine, or group Owner, name, address Location (plate 2) Sec. T. R. B&M Remarks 1 Alameda Countjtt American Salt Co., P.O. Box I. Mt. Eden. . Leslie Salt Co., 505 Beach St.. San Francisco. Leslie Salt Co.. 505 Beach St.. San Francisco. Leslie Salt Co., 505 Beach St., San Francisco. Morton Salt Co.. 120 S. La Salle St.. Chicago, Illinois Leslie Salt Co., 505 Beach St., San Francisco. Oliver Brothers Salt Co., P.O. Box 6, Mt. Eden J. P. Rathbun. -- 36* 6* 3* 12* 12 12 31» 32 NW cor. 9 9 9 23, 26 1, 2" 1,2, 3, 9-16 34, 35 3 34 3S 43 (proj.) 58 5S 53 53 38 18N IDS 113 113 113 24Nor 25N 14S 303 308 293 43 53 (proj.) IS 43 (proj.) 3W 2W 2W 2W 2W 2W 2W 4W 13E 13E 13E 13E 2E 38E 38E 38E 38E 13W 13W 12W 14W MD MD MD MD MD MD MD MD SB SB SB SB SB MD MD MD MD SB SB SB Solar evaporation. Founded 1865 crude un- dried salt, in bulk and sacked. Solar evaporation. Crude undricd salt in bulk. Solar evaporation. Crude undried salt in bulk. Solar evaporation. Concentrating ponds extend into Santa Clara County. Crude undried salt packaged and in bulk. 2 3 4 5 Baumberg Crude Salt Plant ._ Newark No. 1 crude salt plant. Newark No. 2 crude salt plant. Vacuum-refined and kiln-dried salt. Adjoins Newark No. 2 crude salt plant. Solar evaporation. Crude undried salt in bulk and sacked. Production 1892-1908. Solar evaporation of brine from springs on P. R. Petersen ranch near Sites. Solar evaporation of Salton Sea water. Production 1935-46. Built by Seth and Chester Hartley. Sold 1943 to Western Salt Co. Plant abandoned and partially flooded in 1953. South of Frink. Production 1934. Solar evaporation, prob- ably of a mixture of Salton Sea water and well brine. Production 1919. Solar evaporation, prob- ably of well brine. Production 1940-42. Solar evaporation of a mixture of Salton Sea water and well brine. Bittern sold as calcium chloride. e 7 Oliver Brothers Salt Co Colusa County Antelope Crystal Salt Co Imperial County s (9) Mullet Island Development Co. Mullet Island Paint Co (9) 9 Mullet Island Salt Works Inyo County Death Valley salt deposit Saline Valley salt deposit Kern County Fremont Salt Co Reeder Salt Co. 10 11 12 Leased to D. 0. Morrison and others, 1954 floor of Death Valley near Badwater. Production 1903, 1904 by J. L. Bourland. Aerial tramway to Owens Valley built 1911-13 by Saline Valley Salt Co. Produc- tion by Owens VaUey Salt Co. 1915-18, by Taylor MilUng Co. 1920, and by Sierra Salt Co. 1926-30. Most of the salt produced was recrystallized in place from the natural salt crust. Production 1954 by D. 0. Morrison, Jack J. Mc- Kenna, and Tony Pinheiro. 13 Long Beach Salt Co., 2476 Hunter St., Los Angeles Long Beach Salt Co. solar evaporation of surface brine. Bought by Long Beach Salt Co. and plant dismantled. Koehn Lake. Solar evaporation of surface brine. Development 1911, 1912 by Dia- mond Salt Co. Production 1914-28 by Consolidated Salt Co. Purchased by Long Beach Salt Co. Idle in dry years. Solar evaporation. Plant built 1901 by San Pedro Salt Co. First production 1902. Succeeded by Long Beach Salt Co., 1909. Last operated 1945. Vacuum refinery. South Pasadena. Crude salt from company's deposit at Danby Lake, San Bernardino County. Operated 1934-42, approx. 14 Lob Angeles County Long Beach Salt Works 15 Reeder Salt Co., J. W. Reeder, Free 16 Redondo Salt Works 1901. • Location of washer. ♦• Location of crystallizing ponds. t See also tabulated list of San Francisco Bay salt producers. 158 Salt in California Liat of California salt producers by counties. — Continued. [Bull. 175 Map no. Claim, mine or group Owner, name address Location (plate 2) Sec. T. R. B stal Salt Co. 1895. Built the salt house. (29) Crystal Salt Co. of California: predecessor of California Salt Co., which see Appendix] List of California Producers List of Cnlifoinia salt producers by counties. — Continued. 159 Mftp no. (plate 2) Claim, mine, or group Owner, name, address Location Sec. B 4 M Remarks (30) 31 (31) (31) (25) 32 33 34 35 (29) (24) (25) 37 39 San Bernardino County — Continued Crystal Salt Co.: predecessor of Crj'stal Rock Salt Mining Co., which see Dale Chemical Industries Inc. Desert Chemical Co.: predecessor of Dale Chem- ical Industries Inc., which see Don's Salt Service Dale Chemical Industries Inc. way. New York, N. Y. 61 Broad- R. B. Evans: see Avery-Evans Jumbo claims. King claims. -- Metropolitan Water District of Southern California Milligan Salt Co.. Pacific Rock Salt Co.: predecessor of California Salt Co., which see Pacific Salt & Chemical Co... Pacific Salt & Soda Co. J. W. Reeder: see Rock Salt Products Co., San Bernardino County: Mullet Island Salt Works, Imperial County: and Reeder refinery, Los An- geles County Rock Salt Products Co Saline Products Co.. Salt Basin deposit Saratoga Hills deposit. Soda Lake Don Beiter .Jr., 615 S. Los Robles, Pasadena Avawatz Salt & Gypsum Co., 2545 Raleigh Dr., San Marino Avawatz Salt & Gypsum Co., 2545 Raleigh Dr., San Marino Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, 306 W. Third St., Los Angeles F. A. Richie Jr., 1517 E. Olympic Blvd., Los Angeles J. W. Reeder. Mineral rights controlled by W. C. Reeder, 845 El Centro, South Pasadena (1953) X. H. Hollar, Mgr.. Avawatz Salt & Gypsum Co., 2545 Raleigh Dr., San Marino 23, 26, 27, 34. 35 35, 36 (proj.) 16, 21 (proj.) 22,23 24, 25 26 35 1. 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14. 15, 22, 23, 1-15 7, 8 29-30 27 (proj.) 6, 8 IN 12E 18N 18N 2N 2N 25S 5E 17E 43E SB SB SB MD 2N 4N 4N 5N 18N 18N 12N 18E 12E 13E 12E 5E 5E 9E SB SB SB SB SB SB SB SB Dale Lake. Production of salt and sodium sulfate from well brine. Desert Chemical Co. 1939-46. Dale Chemical Industries Inc., 1947, 1948. Salt in unharvested solar ponds leased 1950 to Don's Salt Service, which see. Dale Lake. Salt is recovered from solar ponds left unharvested by Dale Chemical Industries, Inc., which see. Avawatz Mtns. Rock salt in folded Terti- ary beds. Undeveloped. Avawatz Mtns. Rock salt in folded Terti- ary beds. Undeveloped. Danby Lake. Development 1940-50. Lease granted under the terms of the Sodium Leasing Act 1953. Salt to be used in the La Verne water treatment plant. Danby Lake, exact location not ascertained. Solar evaporation of well brine. Plant at Milligan. Production 1915. Searles Lake. Salt scraped from surface of the crystal body. Royalties paid to American Potash & Chemical C^orp. In operation. Silver Lake. Construction of solar evapor- ation plant started July 1007. A small production reported 1908. Location not ascertained. Danby Lake. Property includes Avery- Evans holdings (leased) plus additional holdings. Production of rock salt by stripping and blasting. Crude salt refined in South Pasadena. Production 1934-42. Bristol Lake. Principal product calcium chloride from brine, with salt a by-prod- uct. Production of salt reported by: Aal Salt and Chemical Co., 1921; Saline Products Co., 1924-36. Property now owned by National Chloride Co. of America which produces calcium chloride only. Avawatz Mtns. Rock salt in folded Tertiary beds. Undeveloped. Northwest extension of Avawatz Mtns. Salt deposit. (Noble and others, 1922: 33) No recorded production. No known salt beds. Lake contains sodium chloride- sulfate brine of varying concentration. • Location of plant. 160 Salt in California List of California salt producers by counties. — Continued. [Bull. 175 Location Map no. (plate 2) Claim, mine, or group Owner, name, address Sec. T. R. B & M Remarks 40 San Diego County 12S 4W SB Plants near Carlsbad and La Costa; exact locations not ascertained. Solar evapora- tion of brine obtained from shallow wells in nearly dry laEoons back of the shore. Production 1901. 1902. (Bailey, 1902: 133, 134). Chollas Valley Salt Works J. P. Duncan and Sons -- -- -- -- San Diego Bay, exact location not ascer- tained. Solar evaporation of sea water. Production 1912-20. 41 Chula Vista crude salt plant.. Western Salt Co., 1245 National Ave.. San Diego 16, 17 19, 20 21 18S 2W SB Solar evaporation of sea water. In operation. La Punta Salt Works.. -- -- -- -- Otav. exact location not ascertained. Solar evaporation cf sea water. Production 1896-98, 1900. 42 San Mateo Countyt Redwood City crude salt plant Leslie Salt Co., 505 Beach St., San Francisco. 16* (proj.) 5S 3W MD Solar evaporation of sea water. In operation. Plant adjoins the ship-loadjng facilities of Leslie Terminal Company. (4) Santa Clara Countyt Newark No. 2 crude salt plant : see Alameda County SUkiyou County -- Production of salt from well brine by grad- uation about 1884 (Williams, Albert, Jr., 1885, p. 847). Exact location not ascer- tained. (20) Solano County Napa Crude Salt plant: see Napa County 43 Rochester Oil Co. well J A Keyea 24 5N IW MD South of Vacaville. Solar evaporation of brine from a gas well. Production 1907-18. • Location of washer. t See also tabulated list of San Francisco Bay salt producers. Appendix] San Francisco Bay Producers San Francisco Bay salt producers. 161 Map no. (plate 1) Claim, mine, or group Owner, name, address Location Remarks Alvarado Crude Salt Plant. Leslie Salt Co. Alvarado SaJt Works- John Quigley. Alviso Salt Co- American Salt Co.. Marsicano family Arden Rait Co._ A. Schilling & Co.. Richard Barron . B. F. Barton see Solar Salt Works John Barton W. F. Barton Baumberg Crude Salt Plant- Leslie Salt Co.. James Baumberger see Commercial Salt Co. and Golden State Salt Corp. J. Block see West Coast Salt Co. California Salt Co — Carmen Island Salt Works. Capt. John Chisolm Peter J. Christiansen Carmen Island Salt Co.. Comet Salt Co.. _.. Commercial Salt Co. James Baumberger Continental Salt and Chemical Co. H. C. Coward see California Salt Co. A. Cox see Anna Ohlsen, Ohlsen & Cox Alvarado south of Coyote Hills Slough Alvarado. Alviso to Mayfield. Mt. Eden. Newark . Barron's Landing, Mt. Eden. Baumberg. Alvarado and Hayward Landing - North of Coyote Hills Slough on the shore Near San Lorenzo Hayward Landing _ M t. Eden Baumberg Alvarado Slough nortli of Coyote Hills Built 1901 by California Salt Co., expanded about 1927 by Leslie-California Salt Co. Abandoned 1940; pond area combined with Newark No. 1 and Baumberg plants. Built 1862; production reported 1895. 1896, 1898. 1907. Sold 1908 to West Shore Salt Co. which reported production through 1910. Production 1929. Sold 1931 to Arden Salt Co. and ponds later joined with Newark No. 2 plant, which see. Founded 1865. Production 1895-1903, 1908-27. Leased 1931-37 to Leslie-Cali- fornia Salt Co. for maintenance. Re- built 1938; in operation at present. First production from No. 1 plant in 1919 and from No. 2 plant in 1928. Arden Salt Co. and Leslie-California Salt Co. merged in 1936 to form Leslie Salt Co. Active 1882 (California Min. Bur. 1882). Land sold to Oliver Salt Co. between 1900 and 1910. President of Union Pacific Salt Co. before 1900. which see. President of Union Pacific Salt Co. 1907 and after, which see. Built about 1931 by Leslie-California Salt Co. when the OUver Salt Co. was absorbed and consoUdated with other plants in the area. In operation. Formed 1901, H. C. Coward, mgr. Built new plant; also absorbed Carmen Island Salt Co., Hay wards Lumber Co., and numerous small plants. In 1917 had two crude salt plants and vacuum refinery near Alvarado plus a crude salt plant near Haywards Landing. Merged with Leslie Salt Refining Co. in 1924 to farm Leslie- California Salt Co. An important 19th century plant. Absorbed by California Salt Co. 1901. Active 1876; property not identified. Active 1882. Estate of, in 1897. P. J. Mathieson supt. 1898, 1899 and owner after 1902. Listed in 1902 (California Min. Bur. 1902); unidentified. Production 1898. 1899. 1903, 1907-20. Sold to Oliver Salt Co. Organized 1900. Land included Union City Salt Works. Sold to Leslie-California Salt Co. about 1925. 162 Salt in California San Francisco Bay aalt producers. — Continued [Bull. 175 Map no. (plate 1) 10 13 26 16 Claim, mine, or group Crystal Salt Works. Mrs. A Droste. Dumbarton Land and Improve- ment Co. Federal Salt Co -_. Golden Gate Salt Corp. Greco Salt Co. Hay ward Landing crude salt plant Haywards Lumber Co.. Hettrick Salt Works. A. P. Jesson A. Jones A. L. Johnson - F. L. Lemos- Leslie-California Salt Co.. Leslie Salt Co.. Leslie Salt Refining Co.. Leslie Terminal Co.. Alice Ligouri G. L. Ligouri R. E. Ligouri Sebastian Ligouri. A. Liudenbcrg Owner, name, address Plummer Brothers- A. Scliilling & Co.. James Baumberger. Vic C. Greco California Salt Co... S.F. Salt Refinery. Leslie Salt Co. . F. F. Lund see Paradise Salt Works Chris Madsen. Marsicano see American Halt Co. Hans Mathiesen. Location Mayhew's Landing west of New- ark Mt. Eden. Alameda County marshes soutli of Alvarado Marin County _ Greco Island near Redwood Creek. San Mateo County North of Hayward Landing. North of Hayward Landing. Alameda County. Mt. Eden .. Hayward Landing. Mt. Eden Mt. Eden. Alvarado, San Mateo . Newark. Baumberg, Redwood City, Napa San Mateo. Port of Redwood City . Mt. Eden... Mt. Eden. Mt. Eden. Hayward Landing. Remarks Hayward Landing. Hayward Landing. Founded 1864. Plummer Brothers estate in 1918. Last worked 1925. See also Turk Island Salt Works. Production 1899. Not identified. Salt land purchased as a speculative in- vestment. Most of it turned over to Arden Salt Co. and company dissolved 1929. Salt production reported in 1922. Active 1900-02. ObUined control of the entire Bay area crop. Production 1906. Exact location not de- termined- Production 1905-22. Built about 1901 when Haywards Lumber Co. consolidated with adjoining small plants. Last worked about 1925. Production 1897-1901. Absorbed by Cali- fornia Salt Co. Also contracted for the salt of other producers. Production reported 1913, 1914. Not identi- fied. Active 1898. Not identified. Production reported 1906. Property sold to California Salt Co. 1907. Production 1912-18, 1922. Sold to F. L. Lemos. Property now owned by Oliver Brothers Salt Co. Purchased A. L. Johnson property. Pro- duction 1929, 1930. Sold to Oliver Brothers Salt Co. 1925-35. Consolidation of Leslie Salt Re- fining Co., California Salt Co., Continen- tal Salt and Chemical Co. Merged with Arden Salt Co. in 1936 to form Leslie Salt Co. Incorporated Nov. 2, 1936 as a consolidation of Lestie-Cahfornia Salt Co. and Arden Salt Co. In operation. Organized 1901. Vacuum refinery in operation 1910. Merged with California Salt Co. May 29. 1924. Last production from San Mateo plant 1930. Operates facilities for the bulk loading of ships. In operation. Production 1897. 1898. Called Mt. Eden Salt Works. 1900. supt. of Mt. Eden Salt Works. 1901- 06, supt. of Redwood City Salt Works. Small production 1908. Property sold. Production 1895. 1898, 1900. CaUed Mt. Eden Salt Works in 1900. Production reported 1908-20. Supt. of C. Peatdorf Works 1897, 1898 and Peter Mathiesen Works 1899. Production 1896-1900. 1904-17. Chris Madaen & Sons after 1907. Sold to Cali- fornia Salt Co. Production 1895-1904. Sold to California Salt Co. Appendix] San Francisco Bat Producers San Francisco Bay salt producers. — Continued 163 Map no. (plate 1) Claim, mine, or group Owner, name, address Location Remarks 17 1897-1901. Production as owner 1903- 20. Sold to Leslie-California Salt Co. about 1926. Peter Mathiefien Hayward Landing - _ Production 1899-1901 Estate of Hans John MicheUon see Rocky Point Salt Works Mathiesen mgr. in 1902. Miss Mary Michelson see Rock Spring Salt Works Peter Michelson see Rock Spring Salt Works 18 Refinery completed Oct. 1926. In operation. Leased 1901-04 to J. Block (West Coast Salt Co.). Operated 1904 by H. L. Peter- mann. leased 1905 to Oliver Salt Co. and purchased by Oliver Salt Co. in 1907. 19 Mount Eden Salt Works Leslie Salt Co Construction begun 1953. No. 1 plant of Arden Salt Co.. first produc- tion 1919. In operation. 20 Newark No. 1 Crude Salt plant. Leslie Salt Co. Washer on Jarvis Road. Newark .. 21 Newark No. 2 Crude Salt plant- . Nielsen Salt Works see Rock Spring Salt Works Leslie Salt Co. Washer off Central Ave., Newark- . No. 2 plant of Arden Salt Co., first produc- tion 1928. In operation, refinery in opera- tion 1941. Mrs. Mary Nielsen see Rock Spring Salt Works Oakland Salt Works . . 22 Occidental Salt Works . . - J. W. Sinclair Oliver Salt Co. 23 Estate of F. Ohlsen. A. Cox. mgr. Also called Ohlsen & Cox. and Cox's Works. Production 1895-1900. Leased 1903 to Oliver Salt Co. and owned by Oliver in 1909. Ohlsen & Cox see Anna Ohlsen 24 Oliver Brothers Salt Co A. E. Oliver and A. A. Oliver. Jr. Mt. Eden First production 1939. Property bought from F. L. Lemos estate. In operation. 25 Oliver Salt Co -- Mt. Eden fornia Salt Co. 1927 and purchased 1931. 26 Paradise Salt Works F. F. Lund-- . Mt. Eden Production 1895-1913. Absorbed by OUver Salt Co. 27 C. Pestdorf berg supt. 1898-1905 and D. Pestdorf executor 1908. 1909. Absorbed by Cali- fornia Salt Co. 28 D. Pestdorf Production 1896-98. Absorbed 1903 by Hayward Lumber Co. See also C. Pest- dorf. Mt. Eden Production 1898-1900. See also Mt. Eden Pioneer Salt Co. see Solar Salt Work.s Salt Works. Plummer Brothers see Crystal Salt Works and Turk Island Salt Works Putnam Brothers see Union City Salt Works > John Quigley see Alvarado Salt Works 29 Redwood City Crude Salt Plant Leslie Salt Co.-- Port of Redwiod City Land purchased from Stauffers Chemical Co. Construction began about 1943, first full- scale harvest obtained 1953. In operation. 164 Salt in California [Bull. 175 San Francisco Bay salt producers. — Continued Map no. (plate 1) Claim, mine, or group Owner, name, address Location Remarica 29 30 31 32 (14) 33 34 35 37 Redwood City Salt Works. Rocky Point Salt Works. . Rock Spring Salt Works Ligouri family John Michetson Mary Nielson (nee Michelaon) . k. Roesow San Francisco Salt Refining Co. J. W. Sinclair see Occidental Salt Works Stauffer Chemical Co.. SoUrSalt Works. B. F. Barton. Stauffer Chemical Co.. J. P. and Martin C. Tuckaon . Turk Island Salt Co. see Turk Island Salt Works Turk Island Salt Works. Plummer Brothers. Union City Salt Works. Union Pacific Salt Co... West Coast Salt Co West Shore Salt Co Putnam Brothers. J. Block - Stauffer Chemical Co.. L. N. Whisby. Redwood City — Mt. Eden Mt. Eden Mt. Eden Redwood City — Alvarado Redwood City Hayward Landing Alvarado Alvarado Mt. Eden Mt. Eden Redwood City. .Mvarado. Mt. Eden Mt. Eden. Production 1901-09. 1911. Sold to SUuffer Chemical Co. interests. Production 1895-99. 1901. 1903-05. Estate of. in 1905. Absorbed by Oliver Salt Co. The Peter Michelson property. Production 1895-1900, 1902. 1904-06. CaUed Nielsen Salt Works after 1903. Absorbed 1907 by Ohver Salt Co. Production 1906. Production 1912-25. Absorbed West Shore Salt Co. plant. .\lso operated a vacuum refinery in San Francisco. Production 1895-1927. Plant owned by Pioneer Salt Co. after death of Barton about 1916. Sold to Oliver Salt Co. San Francisco Salt Refinery Plant operated 1929-40. Land sold to Leslie Salt Co. 1895-1920. Property leased 1931 to Arden Salt Co. Built 1869. Plant leased to Turk Island Salt Co. about 1920 and combined with Baum- berg plant of Leslie-California Salt Co. about 1927. See also Crystal Salt Works. Production 1895. 1897-99. Absorbed by Continental Salt & Chemical Co. Established 1872. Plant sold in 1927 to .\rden Salt Co. and last operated 1929. .\cquired Mt. Eden Salt Works. Production 1903-04. Defunct in 1907. Production 1906-10. Purchased .\lvarado Salt Works. Alvarado, 1908. and had a third plant near Mt. Eden. Disincor- porated 1911 and Redwood plant taken over by S. F. Salt Refining Co. Production 1895-98. Absorbed by Oliver Salt Co. INDEX Aal Salt Co., 116 Aerial tramway, Saline Valley, 117 : photo showing, 116, 117 Alameda County, salt from, frontispiece, 15, 57, 107-112; see also Leslie Salt Co.. Oliver Bros. Salt Co. Algae, in concentrating ponds, 50 Alkali Lakes, part of Surprise Valley, 26, 118 Allen, Sheldon, 10, 42 Alvarado Salt Works, 112, 113 Alvlso Salt Co., 44, 111, 113, 114 Amargosa chaos, 30 Amboy (Bagdad) crater, 22 Salt Co., 116 American Potash & Chemical Corp., 77, 78 Salt Co., 42, 66-68, 70, 107, 111, 113, 114 Antelope Crystal Salt Co., 118 Archimedes pump, 112, 113 Arden Salt Co., 44. 56, 110-111, 112, 113, 114 Arsenic, associated with salt, 78 Artemia salina. In concentrating ponds, 50 Asia, salt from, 107 Auger drill, photo showing, 76 Avawatz Mountains, salines In, 7, 10, 29-32 Salt & Gypsum Co., 10, 29, 32 salt deposit, logs of test holes at, 143-lBO Anhydrite, associated with salt, 14 B Babcock, E. S., 113 Bacteria, in concentrating ponds, 50 Bagdad (Amboy) crater, 22 Bags, photo showing filling of, 91 Bain, Fred B., 42 Barron, R., 107 Barton, B. F., 107, 110 Basic Magnesium, Inc., 29, 31, 77, 143-150 Baumberg plant. Leslie Salt Co., 42, 44, 47, 53, 56, 110, 111, 114 Baumberger, James, 110, 113 Beiter, Don, Jr., 76 Bibliographies, 36-37, 78-79, 98-99, 119 Biedebach, W. F., 76 Big Gypsum Hill, 29, 30, 32 Black Lake, analysis of brines at, 123 ; salines at, 28, 119 Mountains, 30 Blake Sea, 15 Borax, 125 ; at Borax Lake, 28 ; at Lake Hachinhama, 28 ; at Owens Lake. 28 ; at Saline Valley, 25 : at Searles Lake, 27, 28, 78 Borax Lake, analysis of brines at, 123 : salines at, 28 Borego Sink, 14 Boston-Valley salt claims, San Bernardino County, 29, 31, 143-150 Bourland, J. L., 116 Bradley, H. L., 10 Brine, pumping of, 113 Brine ditch, photo showing, 51 preparation tanks, photo sliowing, 87 shrimp. In concentrating ponds, 50, 61 Brines, analyses of California. 123; at Bristol Lake, 22, 123; at Cadiz Lake, 22, 23, 123 ; at Danby Lake, 20, 21, 123 ; at Death Valley, 25, 26, 123; at Leslie Salt Co. plants, 47-52; at Saline Valley, 25, 123: at Salton Sea, 16-17, 123; at Sites Springs, 28; at Soda Lake, 26, 123 ; at Surprise Valley, 26 ; classification of, 13 ; graphs showing concentrating process for, 50 ; origin of, 32-33 ; precipitation of salines from, 33-34 ; preparation of, 86, 89-90 ; salt In, 13 ; salt reco\-ery from, 7. 14-18 Brines, terrestrial, salt from, 72-76 Bristol Lake, 25; analysis of brines from, 123; salines at, 7, 14, 18, 20, 22, 23-25, 34, 35, 42, 76-78, 115-116 Mountains, 22 Bromine, from bittern, 115 Brooks, M. C, 32 Buchen, J. C, 42 Buck, E. H., 118 ; S. S., 118 Bullion Mountains, 18, 22 Buhr mills, 114 Burkeite, 125 Bush, Irving E., 18, 75 Butter grade salt, 88, 91 Cadiz Lake, analysis of brines from, 123 ; salines at, 7, 14, 18, 22-23, 34, 35 Cahuilla. Lake, 15 Calcium carbonate, precipitated during solar evaporation, 7 California Chemical Co., 115 Corp., 115 Inland Salt Co., 116 Rock Salt Co., 76, 116 Salt Co., 42, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 118; quarry at Bris- tol Lake, 7, 76-78, 115-116 Cameron Lake, salines at, 118 Canner's grade salt, 88 Cantil Valley, locale of Koehn Lake, 25 Carmen Island Salt Co., 107, 109 Carnalllte, precipitation of, 115 Carstarphen, F. C, 26 Caterpillar Tractor Co., photo by, 58 Cattle blocks, 85, 86 Celestite, 125 ; in Avawatz Mountains, 29, 30-31 ; in Bristol Lake area, 23 Celestite Hills, 29, 30 Cheese grade salt, 8 8, 91 Chico formation, in Solano County gas well, 28 sandstone, salt in, 119 Chlorine-caustic industry, use of salt in, 95 Chollas Valley salt works, 113 Christensen, P. J., 112 ; Peter, 107 Chula Vista plant. Western Salt Co., 59-65, 66 Cole, J. Gordon, 31 Colorado Desert, 15 River, 15, 16, 35 ; analysis of brines from, 123 Colusa County, salt from, 28, 33, 118 Commercial Salt Co., 110 Comstock Lode discovery, influence on .salt industry, 107 Concentrating ponds, diagram illustrating a complex series of, 41 ; see also Salt ponds Consolidated Salt Co., 116 Consumers Salt Co., 116 Continental Salt & Chemical Co., 109-110, 111, 113, 114 Copeland, R. L., photo by, frontispiece Coward, H. C, 109 Coxcomb Mountains, 18 Crystal Salt Co. of California, 76, 115, 116 Works, 107, 110 Springs formation, 30 Crystallizing ponds, see Salt ponds Dairy mill, 91 Dale Chemical Industries, Inc., 18, 75-76 Lake, 25 ; analysis of brines from, 123 : salines at, 7, 14, 16, 18, 35, 75-76 Danby Lake, analysis of brines from, 123 ; logs of test holes, 126- 143; salines at, 7, 14, 18-22, 23, 24, 34, 35, 116; sources of infor- mation on, 10 Dante's View, photo showing Death Valley from, 27 Davis, Capt. Charles, 28 Death Valley, 27, 35 ; analysis of brines from, 123 ; photo showing, 27 ; salines in, 7, 14, 16. 25-26, 29, 30, 34, 35 Death Valley fault zone, 30, 31 Deep Springs Lake, analysis of brines at, 123 Valley, salines at, 28 Desert Chemical Co., 18, 75 Diamond Salt Co., 116 Dickerson, Mr., 10 Distichlis spicata, source of salt, 104 Dittenhaver, N. B., 10, 59 Domes, salt, 14 Don's Salt Service, 75, 76 Doran-Schofleld property, Danby Lake, 116 Dragline for loading salt, photo showing, 77 Dumbarton Land & Improvement Co., 110 Dunaliella Viridi, in concentrating ponds, 50 Duncan & Sons, J. P., 113 Dynamite, magnesium carbonate in manufacture of, 115 El Paso Mountains, 25 Eisinore, Lake, salt at, 14 Epsomite, 71 Eureka Valley, 28 Evans, R. B , 116 Evaporator, photo showing, 88 Evaporator house, photo showing, 88, 89 Evaporators, 86-87 (165) 166 Salt in California [Bull. 175 Federal Salt Co., 109, 112 Fish, In concentrating ponds, 50 Flah canning, salt for, 72 curing, use of salt In, 97, 107 Food, use of salt In, 97, 107 Fremont Salt Co., 116 Funeral fanglomerate, 31 Furnace Creek formation, 30 Gabriel Moulin Studios, photos by, 52, 56, 57, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90 Garlock Fault, 30, 31 Glaserlte, 125 ; at Searles Lake, 27, 28 Glauber's salt, 125 Golden Gate Salt Corp., 113 Grader, photo showing scraping of salt by, 77 Grainer salt, definition of, 83 Greco, V. C, 112 Greco Salt Co., 112 Gypslte, at Koehn Lake, 25 Gypsum, 125 ; associated with salt, 14, 31, 32, 65 ; at Cadiz Lake, 23, 35 • at Danby Lake, 18, 21-22 ; at Koehn Lake, 25 ; in Avawatz Mountains, 29, 30 ; In Death Valley, 25 ; precipitated during solar evaporation, 7, 33, 34, 41, 74 ; production of, 115 H Hachinhama, Lake, borax at, 28 Halite, 7, 13, 75, 125; at Danby Lake. 18, 20, 21; at Searles Lake, 27, 28; geologic occurrence of, 9; see also Salt (common). Rock salt Hankslte, 125 ; at Searles Lake, 27, 28 Hartley, Chester, 10, 73, 74, 115 ; Seth, 73. 74, 115 Hays Canyon Range (Nevada), 26 Hayward Lumber Co., 109 Heizer, Robert F., Salt m California Indian culture, 101-104 Henshaw, W. G., 109 Hercules Powder Co., 115 Herrington-Olson, photo by, 55, 59, 60 Hutchinson, Joshua, 118 Imperial County, salt from Mullet Island artesian wells, 28 ; see also Imperial Salt Works, Salton Sea Salt Works, 73-74, 115 Indian culture, salt in, 101-104 Industrial Chemical Corp., 115 International Nickel Co., photo by, 85 Inyo Chemical Co., 28 County, see Death Valley, Deep Springs Valley, Owens Lake, Saline Valley Range, transportation of salt across by aerial tramway, 7, 117- 118 Iodine, from springs at Sites, 28 Iron Mountains, 18 Irvine Co., 65, 113 Johnson, A. L., 68, 112 ; John, 107 Johnson Landing, 67 Jubilee phase, Amargosa chaos, 30 Jumbo salt claims, San Bernardino County, 29, 31, 32 K Kane Lake, see Koehn Lake Kerckhoff, H. H., Jr., 10 Kern County, salt in, 118 ; .see also Koehn Lake, Long Beach Salt Co. Keyes, J. A., 118 ; John H., 118 Kiln-dried salt, 85-86, 91, 98 drier, photo showing, 85 King salt claims, San Bernardino County. 29, 31, 32 Koehn Lake, salt at, 25 ; solar evaporation plants at, 7, 74, 113, 116 Krogh, Don, photo by, 46 Lake beds, minerals in California, 32, 35-36 ; see also Playas County, see Borax I.,ake Lakes, see under name of lake Leather Industry, use of salt In, 97 Lemos, F., 112 125: salt deposits In, 29, 30-31, Leslie-California Salt Co., 44, 110, 111. 112, 114 Salt Co., frontispiece, 7, 9, 10, 42-59, 83, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114; see also Baumberg plant, Newark Nos. 1 and 2 plants Salt Co. refinery, 83, 85-89, 90, 91, 92 Refining Co., 109, 110, 112, 114, 115 Terminal Co., 42, 58, 60, 61, 112 ; photo showing shiploading terminal of, 60 Levees, construction of, 46-47 ; photo showing dredge used in main- taining, 63 Liguori, G. J., 112 ; S., 107, 110 Liverpool, salt from, 107 Livestock, salt requirements of, 97 Long Beach Salt Co., 7, 59, 74-75, 83, 113, 116 Lopez, Mr., 10 Los Angeles County, salines In, 118 Lower California, salt from, 107 Lund, F., 107, 110 M Magnesia, production of, 115 Magnesium salts, precipitation of, 41 Manly, Lake, 35 Map, showing central and southeast portions of Danby Lake, 24 showing geology of a portion of the Boston-Valley claims, 31 showing location of Chula Vista plant. Western Salt Co., 62 showing location of Leslie Salt Co.s North Bay property July 1953, 49 showing location of crude salt plants on San Francisco Bay, In pocket showing location of Monterey Bay Salt Works, 70 showing location of Newport Bay .salt plant, 67 showing location of salt deposits In Avawatz Mountains, 29 showing location of salt works on San Francisco Bay, 108 showing location of Saline Valley Salt Co. aerial tramway, 26 showing location of salt plants and deposits in California, In pocket showing location of salt plants and sampling stations In Salton Sea region, 15 showing northwest portion of Danby Lake, 22 showing saline properties, Danby Lake, 19 showing underground workings of Boston-Valley claims in Sa- line Gulch, 32 Marble Mountains, 22 Marin County, salt in, 112-113 Marine Chemical Co., 115 Marsicano, A. F., 10, 66, 67, 112; Frank, 112; Mrs. Mary, 112; Pa- trizio, 107, 111, 112 Marsicano Landing, 67 Mathieson, Peter, 109, 112 McKenna, J. J., 76 Mediterranean Sea water, analysis of, 33 Metallurgy, use of salt in, 107 Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, 10, 18, 20, 97, 116 Micheison, John, 107; Peter, 107, 110 Michigan, salt deposits In, 14 Mill of Long Beach Salt Co. plant, photo showing, 7 4 Miller, David M., 59 Mines, chloride waters In, 32 Mirabilite, 125 ; at Dale Lake, 75 ; at Danby Lake, 18, 20, 21 Modoc County, see Surprise Valley Mojave River, analysis of brines from, 123 ; source of salines, 26 Mono County, see Black Lake, Mono Lake Lake, analysis of brines from, 123 ; salines at, 28 Monterey Bay Salt Works, 42, 69-72, 114 County, see Monterey Bay Salt Works Morrison, D. O., 76 Morton Salt Co., 42, 83, 114; photo showing Newark plant of, frontispiece Morton Salt Co., refinery, 89-91 Moss, Elmer, photo by, 45, 47, 53, 54, 55, 61, 91, 92 Moss Landing, solar evaporation plant at, 7, 14, 42. 113 Mount Eden salt works, 110 Mullet Island, brine from wells on, 17, 28, 74, 115 Mullet Island Development Co., 115 Paint Co., 115 salt works, 28, 74, 115 N Napa plant, Leslie Salt Co., 45 National Chloride Co. of America, 76, 116 Kellestone Co., 115 Natural gas, from springs near Sites, 28, 33 ; from Solano County, 28 New Liverpool Salt Co., 115 Mexico, salt deposits in, 14 York, salt deposits In, 14 Newark No. 1 plant, Leslie Salt Co., 42, 44-45, 57, 59, 111; photo showing, 48, 53, 56 ; photo showing pumping of brine at, 60 Newark No. 2 plant, Leslie Salt Co., 42, 44, 53, 111 : photo showing, 46 ; photo showing crystallizing ponds of, 43 ; photo showing gantry stacker and stock pile of salt, 57 Index 167 Newark refinery, Leslie Salt Co., diagrammatic sketch of, 83 ; photo showing, 8 4 Newport Bay, solar evaporation plants on, 7, 14, 42, 113 Newport Bay plant, Western Salt Co., 59, 65-66, 67 Nielsen, Mrs. Mary, 110 O Occidental Salt Works, 110 Ohlsen & Cox salt works, 110 Oil fields, chloride waters in, 32 Old Woman Mountains, 18 Oliver, A. A., 107 ; A. A., Jr., 68, 112 ; A. E., 68, 112 ; Adolph A.. 110 ; Aiden, 10 ; Andrew, 110 : Mrs. E. A., 110 Oliver Bros. Salt Co., 42, 68-69, 112, 113 Salt Co., 44, 83. 107, 110, 112, 114, 115 Olson & Co., 107 Orange County, see Western Salt Co. Owens Lake, salines at, 14, 28, 35 Owens River, 27, 35 ; analysis of brines, 123 Valley Salt Co., 76. 117. 118 Oxychloride cement, 115 Pacific Rock Salt Co., 116 Salt & Chemical Co., salt works at Searles Lake, 7, 77, 78 Soda Co., 118 Panamint Valley, 14, 27 Paradise Salt Works, 110 Peru, salt from, 107 Pestdorf, C, 107, 109; D., 107, 109 Petersen, Peter, 118 Petermann, H. L., 110 Petllck, 85, 86 Pickle, see Brine Pickle pump, photo showing, 71 Plnhelro, Tony, 76 Pinto Mountains, 18 Pioneer Salt Works, 110 Placer County, salt spring in, 28 Plant Rubber & Asbestos Co., 115 Playas, salines in. 14, 18-28, 34, 72-78, 118-119: see also Lake beds, and under names of saline and dry lakes Pleistocene glaciation, 27 Plummer Bros, salt works, 107, 110 Porphyra perforata^ source of salt. 104 Potash, from Searles Lake, 78 Potassium chloride, in Death Valley, 25. 26 Press for cattle blocks, photo showing, 85 Pump, windmill, 118 ; photo showing. 111 Putnam Bros., 109 Quigley, John, 107, 112 Rand Mountains, 25 Rathbun, J. P., 118 Red color, in concentrating ponds, 50. 69. 74 Redwood City plant, Leslie Salt Co.. 45, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 112, 114 salt works, 112 Reeder, J. W., 116 ; W. C. 10 Reeder Salt Co.. 74. 83 Refrigeration, use of salt In. 95 Rhodes Marsh salt deposit (Nevada), 107 Rice, Mary H.. photo by, 27 Riehle, Prank A., photo by, 77, 78 : Frank A., Jr.. 10. 78 Riverside County, see Salton Sea Rochester Oil Co.. brine from well of. 28. 118 Rock salt. 7. 9. 13, 14, 76-78 ; at Bristol Lake, 23, 115-116 ; at Danby Lake, 20, 116; in Avawatz Mountains, 29, 31, 32; use by Indians, 104 ; see also Halite Rock Salt Products Co.. 116 Springs salt works, 110 Rogers Lake, 14 Rounds, photo showing filling of, 92 Russell, G. W., 118 S Sallna formation, salt in. 14 Salinas, Lake, 15, 118 Saline Products Co., 116 residues, origin of. 33-34 Valley, analysis of brines from, 123 ; borax from, 25 ; photo showing, 26 ; salines in, 7, 14, 16, 25, 76, 116-118 Valley Salt Co.. 76. 116, 117, 118 salt deposit, photo showing, 117 Salt, 7 ; body of crystalline, photo showing, 77 ; concentrating of, 47-52 ; excavating of. photo showing. 63 ; freight rates for. 98 ; geologic occurrence of. 13-37; grades of. 97-98. 151-154; harvest- ing of. 52-55, 62-65, 67. 68. 71, 74, 118; harvesting of, photo show- ing machine for, 52. 53. 54 ; history of production In California. 7. 15. 103-104. 105-119; in Avawatz Mountains, 30; in Bristol Lake area, 23, 35; in Cadiz Lake area, 23. 36; In Dale Lake area, 18, 35; In Danby Lake area, 20-21, 35; In Death Valley, 25, 35; In Koehn Lake area, 25; in Saline Valley, 116-118; In Surprise Valley, 26 ; In Tertiary lake beds, 30 ; loading of, photo showing, 61, 63, 64, 78: markets tor California-produced, 9, 93-99; packag- ing of, 97-118 : precipitation of, 33, 34, 35, 41. 62 ; pricing of. 98 ; processing of. 67-59. 65. 67-68, 69-72, 75 : processing of, chart of plant for, 58 ; processing of, photo showing plant for, 59 : pro- ducers in California, 157-160; producers in San Francisco Bay region, 161-164; production from sea water, chart showing, 43: recovery of, 39-79. 103-104 ; refining of. 81-92. 114 ; statistics on production of. 9, 76, 95, 107, 155-156; storage of, 56-67; tech- niques for making, 113-114; transporting of. photo showing, 64, 65; uses of. 7. 9. 95-97, 107; washing of, 55-56. 65, 67, 69, 71. 77-78. 83; washing of. photo showing, 55, 56, 66. 67, 68, 70, 71: see also Halite Salt, fine, preparation of, 114 Salt Basin salt claims, San Bernardino County, 31. 32 blocks, 86, 91 ; see also Cattle blocks, Petllck crystals, formation of, 61 deposits, formation of. 34-36 domes, 14 grass, source of salt. 104 industry, chart showing consolidation of San Francisco Bay, 109 Lake, part of Bristol Lake. 23 ; part of Saline Valley. 25. 76 marshes, as salt ponds. 42. 44 plants, photo showing, frontispiece. 45, 47, 62 ponds, 15, 41-42, 45-52, 60-62, 67. 68, 69. 71. 74, 75; biological changes in. 50 ; photo showing. 63. 68, 70. 75 ; photo showing equipment for laying track in. 55 Producers Association, 98 stock pile, photo showing reclaiming of salt from, 58 Saltdale works. Long Beach Salt Co., 74-75 Salton Sea, 28. 73-74 ; analyses of brines from, 16. 17. 123 ; solar evaporation plant at. 7 Salton Sea region, borehole data from. 16; salines in. 15-17. 34-35, 115: geology of. 15-16: see also Imperial Salt Works, Mullet Island Salt Works, Reeder Salt Co., Salton Works Salton Works, 74 Salts, solubility in water. 72-73 San Andreas fault. 15, 30 Bernardino County, see Avawatz Mountains. Bristol Lake, Cadiz Lake. Dale Lake, Danby Lake, Searles Lake, Sliver Lake, Soda Lake Diego Bay, solar evaporation plants on, 7, 14, 59-65. 66. 113. 115 : see also Chula Vista plant of Western Salt Co. Diego County, salt from, 15, 118: see also California Salt Co., Western Salt Co. Francisco Bay, chart showing uses of salt from. 96 ; salinity of, 44; salt deposits near, 34, 108; solar evaporation plants on, 7, 9, 14. 42. 107-113 Francisco Bay area, salt producers in. 161-164 ; salt yield of. 42 : solar evaporation plants in. see Newark Nos. 1 and 2 plants. Baumberg plant, of Leslie Salt Co. Francisco Salt Refining Co.. 112. 114 Jose Mountains. 119 Luis Obispo County, see Black Lake Mateo County, salt works in. 112 : see also Leslie Salt Co. Pablo Bay. solar evaporation plants on, 42. 43 Pedro Salt Co.. 113 Sand Springs salt deposit (Nevada). 107 Santa Clara County, see Leslie Salt Co. Schilling. Rudolph. 10 Schilling & Co.. A.. 110 Scott. Sam. 10 Sea water, anaylsis of brines, 123 : salt from, 14-17. 41-72 Searles Lake, analysis of brines at, 123; salines at. 7. 14. 27-28. 35, 77, 78 Seaweed, source of salt, 104 Sections, through Danby Lake. 23 Selenite, 125 ; at Bristol Lake. 23 ; at Danby Lake, 20, 21 ; at Koehn Lake, 25 Shasta County, salt in, 119 Sheep Creek Spring. 29 Hole Mountains. 18, 22 Sierra Nevada, 27 Salt Co., 76. 117. 118 Silver Lake. 26, 118 ores, use of salt in treatment of. 107 Sirclair. J. W.. 110 Siskiyou County, salt from well near Yreka. 28. 118 Sites, salt from springs near, 28, 33, 118 Smith, Will, Photo by, 84 : White, 117 Soap industry, use of salt in, 97 Soda ash, at Searles Lake, 78 ; production of, 115 Lake, analysis of brine from, 123 ; salines at, 14, 26 168 Salt in California fBiill. ITo Sodium carbonate, at Owens Lake, 2 8 Leasing Act, 20 sulfate, at Dale Lake, 18, 75: at Danby Lake, 20, 21, 116; at Saline Valley, 25 ; in Death Valley, 25 Solano County, salt from gas well in, 28, 118 Solar evaporation, recovery of salt by, 7, 9, 14-17, 25, 26, 2S, 41-73, 118 Salt Works, 110 Soldier Pass, 28 Spear, Louis E., 110 Springs, analysis of waters of some California. 124 ; salines from, 28-29, 33 Staples, Kenneth, 10, 76 Stauffcr Chemical Co., 83. 112, 113 Stewart, Richard M., photo by, 26 Surprise mines, Danby Lake, 116 Valley, Modoc County, salines at, 26, 118 Table salt, 88, 91, 97, 98 Tahoe glacial stage, 35 Talc, in Avawatz Mountains, 29, 30 Taylor Milling Co., 118 Temple, T. K., 76 Texas, salt deposits in, 14 Thenardlte, 125 ; at Dale Lake, 18. 35, 75 ; at Saline Valley, 25 Tioga glacial stage, 35 Trace-mineral salt, 98 Trona, 125 ; at Searles Lake, 27, 28 ; precipitation of, 34 Tuckson, J. P.. 107, 112 ; Martin C, salt works, 112. 114 Turk Island Salt Co., 107, 110 Turtle Mountains, 18 lUexite, 125 ; at Koehn Lake. 2 Union City Salt Works, 109 Pacific Salt Co., 83, 107, 108, 109, 111, 113, 114 Vacuum refinery, 86-91, 116 refining, 85 salt, definition of, 83 Vierra, E. C. 10, 42, 69 Vierra salt plant. 113 Volcanism. brines associated with. 33. 34 W Waring. G. A., 28 Warner Range, 26 Washer, photo showing remains of a. 73 Water treatment, use of salt in, 95, 97 Wells, analysis of waters in some California, 124 ; brines from. 26 ; salines from, 15, 17, 28-29, 118 West Shore Salt Co., 112 Western Salt Co., 42, 59-66, "3-74, 75, 113. 115 ; see also Chula Vista plant, Newport Bay plant Westvaco Chemical Division, Food Machinery & Chemical Corp.. 51, 62, 115 Chlorine Products Co., 115 Whisby, L., 107, 110 Whitney, Leslie, 110; St. John, 110 Whitney Chemical Co., 115 Windmill for grinding salt, photo showing. Ill Zeolite water-softening method, 95, 97 printed in califohnia state printing office 57104 6-57 3M i- J-'XVi viv i STATE OF CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS BULLETIN 175 PLATE I tl Son Laondro 5? i CRUDE SALT PLANTS ON SAN FRANCISCO BAY 1953 EXPLANATION Outer levees Inner levees Leslie Salt Co .property boundary (additional leased property) American a Oliver Bros. Salt Cos. property boundary ~~* Direction of flow t .. 1 Concentrating ponds ; I Crystallizing ponds Bose from portions of U.S.G S Ir62500 topographic mops. Son Moteo-, 1943, Hoyword; 1942, Halfmoon Boy, 1943, Polo Alto-, 1943, Son Jose, I943,quads- L Newark -^ Washer- Redwood City a=-^ ^ ^c^i Menio Pork "W r\l K V I, \ '> I '/a o Mountain View S.i mi. ^ ■^ Son Jose IZ 2 n THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW BOOKS REQUESTED BY ANOTHER BORROWER ARE SUBJECT TO IMMEDIATE RECALL RFCFfVFn -/3 GCl MAR 8 198/ PHYS SCI LIBRARY OEC 1 9 1992^ DEC3 0l992«^l'i JUN - 1 1994 utc'o LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS Book Slip-Series 458 nber: Bulletin. 6'?Lli4ornl3^ C3 A3 '.^ 1B4394 Wfi 2 '84 3 1175 00647 2305 SEOLOa^ LIBRARY- UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA bulletin irs DAVIS "^''^ ' -1? 2 Glides