! LIED <5O - 1* - 1'HK BRYANT YASK AM EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY GEORGE WARD NICHOLS AUTHOR OF "THE STORY OF THE GREAT MARCH" WITH ILLUSTRATIONS NEW YORK HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS FRANK I. IN SQUARE 1877 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by HARPER & BROTHERS, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. /Y.K TO MY FRIEND, PARKE GODWIN, IN ADMIRATION OF HIS EMINENT SERVICES IN BEHALF OF ART AND LITERATURE, is tJook is INTRODUCTION. THE object of this book is to show the present need of art education in the United States ; to relate something of its history in Europe ; to ex- plain what is meant by its application to industry ; and to propose a meth- od of instruction best adapted to our people and institutions. The broad meaning of the term " art education " has not always been understood. It is most often used in its relation to the fine arts of paint- ing, sculpture, and architecture, as if these higher arts and the industries were not mutually dependent, or as if the boundary which is supposed to separate them were not, in all three of the arts, constantly invaded, so that often the product of the industry may be called a work of art. In fresco-painting, monumental ornamentation, decoration of pottery, in the manufacture of bronzes, and in many other ways, the work of the mechanic becomes a work of art. But the term " art education " is used here in the largest sense. It means artistic and scientific instruction applied to common trades and oc- cupations, as well as to the fine arts. It means that the educated sense of the beautiful is not the especial property of one class, but that it may be possessed and enjoyed by all. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. THE UNITY OF ART. The Unity of Art. Drawing the First Step iii Art Education. Color. Knowledge and Taste for Art in the United States. No Systematic Effort toward Art Education. Drawing in the Public Schools Page 17 CHAPTER II. THE CLASSES WHO SHOULD BE INSTRUCTED. The Four Classes who should be interested in Art Education. First Class, Children. Second Class, Workmen. List of Some of the Trades wherein Art Instruction is needed. Fourth Class, Capitalists. Patrons of Art. The Metropolitan Museum. Boston Fine Art Museum 22 CHAPTER III. APPLICATION OF ART TO INDUSTRY. Application of Art to Industry. What is meant by the Terms Art and Industry. How Art may be applied to Industry. Architecture and Architects. Steamboat Archi- tecture. Building Architecture. Household and Other Furniture. Architecture of Musical Instruments. Pottery. Household Decoration. The Laws of Mo- hammed 29 CHAPTER IV. INFLUENCE OF INDUSTRY UPON ART. The Principles which control the Art of Design 43 CHAPTER V. INDUSTRY AND ART IN THE MIDDLE AGES AND RENAISSANCE. Industry and Art in the Middle Ages. Sphyrelatou, or Wrought-iron. Works in En- amel. Faience. Objects of the Toilet. Bronzes. Cabinet-work. Wood-carving. Cabinet carved by the Monks of Clairvaux. Art of Design in the Middle Ages and the Nineteenth Century. The Treasures of Hildesheim 47 12 CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. ART EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. English Plan of Art Education. Committee of the Council for Education seek Informa- tion. Lord Stanley's Letter in 1867, asking Foreign Ministers for Facts with Eegard to Technical and Art Education. The South Kensington Museum. Its Programme of Instruction. Tahle showing Number of Persons receiving Instruction in Draw- ing in 1873 Page 65 CHAPTER VII. ART EDUCATION IN FRANCE. Art Education in France. Schools of Design in Paris. No General Programme of In- struction directed by the Government as in Belgium and England. The ficole des Beaux Arts. Statistics showing the Increase of Art Productions in England over those of France from 1847 to 1868. The Union Centrale of Fine Arts applied to In- dustry at Paris. History and Plan of its Organization. Prosper Me'rime'e on the Universal Exposition of 1862. Expositions of the Union Centrale. Novelty and Beauty of those Expositions. Expositions of Art and Industry in the United States. The Sevres Manufactory 70 CHAPTER VIII. BELGIUM. Art Education in Belgium. The Congress of Art in 1868. Demand for Improved Meth- ods of Art Education based upon the Principles of Geometry. Decree of King Leo- pold appointing a Commission to investigate and report upon the Condition of Schools and Academies in Belgium. Report of Commissioners. Programme of Art Education adopted by the Government, and put in Practice in the Schools. Excel- lence of'this Programme 92 CHAPTER IX. ART EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA AND BAVARIA. Art Education in Prussia and Bavaria. General Survey of Plan of Industrial Schools in Prussia. Schools of Higher Instruction. The Trade Schools in Bavaria. Royal Industrial School in Nuremberg. Trade Schools in Nuremberg as an Example of Others in Bavaria 99 CHAPTER X. AUSTRIA. Art Education in Austria. Trade Schools established and conducted by the Provincial Authorities, and not by the Central Government. The Vienna Exposition of 1873. Schools of Design and Art applied to Industry in Vienna. Academy of Plastic Arts. School of Fine Arts applied to Industry. School of Design and of Modeling CONTENTS. 13 for Art and Industry. Public School of Design and Industry. Schools for Builders, Masons and Stone-cutters, Carpenters, and Spinners Page 107 CHAPTER XL SWITZERLAND. Art Education in Switzerland. Thorough Result of Compulsory System of Education in Common Schools. Government does not favor Technical Education in Public or Special Schools. Private Technical Schools at Lausanne ; at St. Imier, for Watch- makers; at Brienz, for Wood-carvers ; at Trogen, for Weavers Hi CHAPTER XII. ITALY. Art Education in Italy. Not the Public Policy to give Art Education in the Public Schools. No General System of Art Education. It is confined to Particular Indus- tries. Schools for Wood-carving in Florence. Schools for Art Manufactures, etc., at Savona. Schools of Design and of Sculpture applied to Ornamentation at Serravez- za. Schools in Ornamental Design at Bologna, Milau, Bergamo, Modena, Brescia, Como, Naples, Rome, Venice, and many other Cities 113 CHAPTER XIII. ART INSTRUCTION AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN NORTHERN EUROPE AND SPAIN. Art Education in the Northern Countries of Europe. Trade, Sunday, and Night Schools. In these Countries no extended Effort in the Way of Art Education. Art Educa- tion in Spain. The Societies "Amigos del Pais," Academies, and other Institutions of Arts and Industries 117 CHAPTER XIV. GENERAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. Education in the United States. The Common School and its Programme of Instruction. Too many Studies and too much Study. Cramming. Education made Practical. Higher Institutions of Education. Colleges, Academies, Universities. Instruc- tion in these should be more Practical. University of Cincinnati 121 CHAPTER XV. ART EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. Art Education in the United States. The Need of Art Education. Difficulty of the Adoption of any of the European Plans. The State of Massachusetts. Professor Smith's Plan of Education. Results of the Experiment. Drawing taught in the Schools of Cincinnati and New York. Special Schools of Art Instruction. Cooper Institute. School of Design for Women at Philadelphia. School of Design of the 14 CONTENTS. University of Cincinnati. National Academy of Design, New York. Schools in Lowell and Worcester, Massachusetts 126 CHAPTER XVI. THE BEST METHOD OF ART INSTRUCTION FOR THE UNITED STATES. The best Method of Art Education for the United States. Differences between the Euro- pean Programmes of Education. The Methods of Instruction most practiced in this Country Injurious rather than Beneficial. General Plan of a Proper System of In- struction. Adaptation of the Scheme to the Common Schools in the United States. Merits of the System of Drawing from Solids in Relief. How this Plan is Useful to all Classes. Time occupied in these Studies. Superior Instruction. Course of Superior Instruction: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture. The Teacher. Nor- mal Schools. Plan of Instruction may be varied in the Interest of Localities. Practical Application of the Arts of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture to Vari- ous Industries Page 132 CHAPTER XVII. CONCLUSION. Re'sume' upon Art Education. Supplementary Chapter upon the Centennial Exposition. Art Industries at the Exposition. Influence of the Art Industries of Foreign Countries upon those of the United States. Brief Re'sume' of the Art Industries of All the Nations at the Exposition 152 APPENDIX : ART EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN 189 STATEMENT OF EXPORTS FROM, AND IMPORTS INTO, THE UNITED STATES, WITH THE RELATION OF EACH TO ARTICLES INTO THE MANUFACTURE OF WHICH ART ENTERS 201 LIST OF BOOKS AND ESSAYS USED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS WORK 203 INDEX... .. 205 ILLUSTRATIONS. BRYANT VASE (STEEL) Frontispiece ROMAN PLATE DISCOVERED AT HILDES- HEIM 19 AMPHORA. CAMPAGNA COLLECTION, MUSEE NAPOLEON 20 WEDGWOOD CAMEOS 21 PERSIAN JAR 24 HELMET OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 27 COPPER LAMP. FROM A MOSQUE 32 SURAHE. PERSIAN FAIENCE 35 CELTIC POTTERY. FOUND IN STAF- FORDSHIRE 37 AN EGYPTIAN POTTERY. FROM A TOMB 38 GREEK VASE, BY TIMOGRAS. CAM- PAGNA COLLECTION, MUSEE NAPO- LEON 39 COREAN JAR OF PERSIAN DECORATION. 41 POSSET -POT, STAFFORDSHIRE, FIF- TEENTH CENTURY 42 LEATHER SHOE OF THE EEGENCY 44 DAMASKEEN CASKET 45 BUCKLER OF THE PERIOD OF HENRI II. 49 ENAMELING 51 LEONARD LIMOUSIN 54 SALT-CELLAR. OIRON FAIENCE 56 TEA-POT. ELLERS WARE. 57 JAMES WEDGWOOD'S FIRST TEA-POT... 57 NORMAN WARE 58 NORMAN JAR 58 DECORATED VALENCIA VASE 60 ROMANO-BRITISH WARE 61 ROMAN DRINKING-CUP. FROM HILDES- HEIM 63 ANTIQUE ORNAMENT 64 JOSIAH WEDGWOOD'S CREAM WARE, PAINTED WITH AUTUMN LEAVES 66 SAXON JUG 67 SAXON JAR 67 OIRON FAIENCE 71 J. F.MILLET 73 TROYON 74 CHASUBLE, SIXTEENTH CENTURY 77 DALMATICA OF THE FIFTEENTH CENT- URY 79 INDIAN LEATHER SHOE 82 WOMAN'S SHOE, INDIA 82 SANDAL, INDIA 82 INDIAN SHOE WITH POINTED TOE 82 CHINESE SHOE FOR NATURAL FOOT.... 83 CHINESE SHOE FOR DEFORMED FOOT.. 83 PATTEN 83 POINTED SHOE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 83 PERSIAN SLIPPER WORKED WITH SEED- PEARLS 83 SHOE EMBROIDERED WITH SILVER 83 SANDAL. FROM PONDICHERRY 83 SHOE OF CATHERINE DE MEDICIS 84 SHOE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 84 SHOE OF DE MONTMORENCY 84 SLASHED VENETIAN PATTEN 85 HIGH VENETIAN PATTEN 85 GERMAN WOMAN'S SHOE, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 85 WOODEN SANDAL WITH BUTTON, INDIA. 85 PAINTED OPEN SANDAL. FROM INDIA. 85 INDIAN SHOE... 86 16 ILLUSTRATIONS. PATTEN OF CORDCAX, SIXTEENTH CENT- URY 86 GERMAN SHOE, SIXTEENTH CENTURY... 86 TILE. FROM MALVEKN ABBEY 88 THE RAPHAEL AND FORNARINA PLATE. 90 MIRROR-CASE ENAMELED WITH PRE- CIOUS STONES. PERIOD OF HENRI III. COLLECTION OF MADAME LA BARONNE GUSTAVE DE ROTHSCHILD. 93 TILE. FROM CHERTSEY ABBEY 98 EGYPTIAN NECKLACE 98 TILE DECORATION. FROM CRUDEN'S CHAPEL 101 PITCHER DECORATED BY BERNARD PA- LISSY 105 CHINESE ORNAMENT 106 VASE OF THE FERRARA MANUFACTORY. 108 OVIFORM MAJOLICA VASE 112 FAENZA FRUIT-DISH ORNAMENTED WITH AMORINI, TROPHIES, ETC 1 14 ROMAN BOWL OF SAMIAN WARE 115 ANTIQUE ORNAMENT 117 FORTUNY 118 ARAB URN 119 DESIGN OF MAN AND BIRD 120 ROMAN BOWL OF SAMIAN WARE 122 ROMAN BRITISH PITCHER, THIRTEENTH CENTURY 123 WELDON WARE, ENGLISH 125 ROMAN BRITISH PITCHER, THIRTEENTH CENTURY 127 ETRUSCAN VASE 129 ROMANO-BRITISH UPCHURCH WARE 130 FANCIFUL ORNAMENT 131 STAFFORDSHIRE TIG, OR DRINKING-CUP, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 133 BRONZE VASE DECORATED WITH SIL- VER. FOUND AT POMPEII 134 ARTICLES OF TOILET IN BRONZE AND OTHER METALS. FROM POMPEII 136 MILIARIUM BRONZE BRAZIER. FROM POMPEII 137 MARBLE VASE. FROM POMPEII... . 138 PACK ROMANO- BRITISH CASTER WARE 140 ROMANO-BRITISH URN, OF RED CLAY.. 141 BRONZE WATER PITCHERS. FROM POM- PEII 142 CELTIC URN 143 ETRUSCAN VASE IN BLACK BASALT 144 BRITISH BUTTER-CUP. YEAR 1500 146 LAMPS AND ORNAMENTS IN BRONZE AND TERRA COTTA. FOUND AT POM- PEII 150 KING CHARLES II. CUP 152 MASKS 154 PERSIAN COFFEE-POT 156 CANDELABRUM, IN THE COLLECTION OF JAMES GORDON BENNETT. MADE BY TIFFANY & Co 157 ROMANO -BRITISH CASTER WARE 161 STAFFORDSHIRE SAUCER 162 COMPOTIER WEDGWOOD WARE 162 CAMEOS BY WEDGWOOD WHITE ON BLUE AND OLIVE-GRAY GROUNDS 163 ICE PAILS WEDGWOOD WARE 164 SAXON PITCHER 165 WHITE-WARE PERFORATED DISH 165 ORNAMENT 166 PALISSY DISH, OF HIS EARLIEST WARE. 167 MEDIAEVAL WATERING-POT 168 WEDGWOOD CAMEOS 169 SAXON PITCHER 171 SPANISH DAMASKEEN 172 EGYPTIAN POTTERY AND METAL WORK. 173 CAMEL SADDLE, EGYPT 175 GLASS LAMP. FROM MOSQUE IN CAIRO. 176 POWTAI, THE GOD OF CONTENTMENT... 177 IMPERIAL ROBE, CHINESE 178 JAPANESE MILITARY COSTUME 180 CHINESE ORNAMENT 181 JAPANESE MONSTER 183 JAPANESE DRAGON 184 JAPANESE ORNAMENT 186 CHASING FLORAL DESIGNS ON COPPER. 187 CHINESE INSCRIPTION 188 JAPANESE PIKENIX... . 188 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. CHAPTER I. THE UNITY OF ART. The Unity of Art. Drawing the First Step in Art Education. Color. Knowledge and Taste for Art in the United States. No Systematic Effort toward Art Education. Drawing in the Public Schools. THE most important principle to be presented in this discussion is, that all art education should proceed upon the theory of the Unity of Art. It is an opinion too often accepted that there is a decided and wide sep- aration between the applied and the fine arts ; and a line has sometimes been drawn which has excluded from recognition as a work of art any ob- ject whose construction is based upon the useful. Neither in the ancient days of Greece and Rome, nor during the Renaissance, was such a separa- tion known. It was not until the reign of Louis XIV., of France, in the eighteenth century, that the distinction between the fine arts and applied arts was made, and then it was devised as a protection of the artist against the rapacity of the wealthy corporations. In later days the arts again be- came united ; and at the present time the industries employ the highest order of artistic genius and skill. In the past, artistic culture was the privilege of the few ; now it is the opportunity of the many. In Europe, art instruction is freely to be ob- tained, and is sometimes obligatory. In the United States, it is a work just begun, and nowhere certainly recognized or established. DRAWING. Drawing is the first step in art instruction, for it is by means of the sense of sight that the best faculties of men are cultivated. The knowl- edge of drawing enables its possessor to see objects truthfully ; and while it is an accomplishment which occupies spare time and gives pleasure, it is also one of the necessities of the working-man's education. It is as useful 2 18 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. to the mason, carpenter, goldsmith, potter, engraver, and other artisans, as are the respective tools of their trades. To the artist, drawing is the al- phabet and grammar of his language ; it presents the life and understand- ing of his thought : without it he could not express an idea. Drawing is the language of the engineer as well as of other men of science. Indeed it would be difficult to name any department of art, science, or industry where it is not called into requisition, for by its means, facts and ideas are expressed which could not otherwise be understood. Drawing, then, is the beginning of any system of instruction which has for its aim general art education. COLOR. In this book reference is often made to what is assumed to be good taste in color; such as the rugs, shawls, and manuscripts of Persia and India, the mural decoration of the Moors, the cloisonne work and deco- ration of pottery of the Chinese and Japanese, and in other examples. These are thought by persons who observe and study, to be especially pleasing to the eye. Undoubtedly we admire certain combinations of form and color, and dislike others, without knowing why ; and although these conclusions are innate, or in some measure the results of education, vet the final development of form and color is obtained in obedience to scientific laws. In the art industries, color occupies a place next to form. In painting, it is necessary to know what are the effects of combination, juxtaposition, and contrasts of color upon objects of different texture, such as paper, cot- ton, silk, wool, or other substances. This knowledge comes only with long experience, or by the study of the science of color. Within a few years this science has made important progress, especially in its physical and physiological features, which have been developed by the experiments of Ilelmholtz, Maxwell, and others. The new theories have been admirably set forth by Wilhelm Von Bezold, in a work which has been translated and recently published in this country. The Theory of Color, in its relation to art industries, is a subject which requires far mx)re serious attention than has been given by any of the sys- tems of art education now in operation in this country or in Europe. In many of the schools and academies, an attempt to teach the use of color is based upon false and injurious principles. It is one of the remarkable incidents in scientific discovery that Young's theory, developed in 1802, that " the three primal colors depend only upon the eye," was set aside or forgotten for more than fifty years. During this interval, Sir David Brewster and others advanced the ART KNOWLEDGE IN THE UNITED STATES. 19 opposite proposition that " the three primal colors were in light itself." Young's theory did not re-appear until 1853, when Helmholtz, in his mas- terly investigations, demonstrated its truth. The artist and the artisan are continually misled by various theories and " schemes," such as color-charts with false combinations of colors, but especially by their failure to appreciate the differences between the mixt- ure of colors and of pigments. It is well, therefore, to recognize the fact that we can not attain the best success, either in our arts or industries, except by the careful study of, and adherence to, sound principles. ART EDUCATION. In this country the conditions of art knowledge are exceptional. It would not be strictly true to say that there is but little art taste here, when our citizens go into the ateliers of the most famous artists, and into the Roman Plate discovered at Hildesheiui. 20 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. auction-room, and contest possession of costly works with the richest con- noisseurs of Europe. In Europe as well as in the United States, people sometimes buy pictures upon the strength of the author's name, and with- out caring for their artistic merit. Among us, as among older nations, there is genuine taste for pictures, music, fine architecture, house decora- tion, dress, ornamentation, landscape-gardening, rare books, and all objects which art has touched and beautified. This art culture is, however, indi- vidual rather than general. It is possessed by a considerable number of persons ; but these rarely come together, and they exert little or no per- ceptible influence upon society. Occasionally gentlemen of generous pub- lic spirit, as was recently the case in the city of New York, gather rare works of art from private collections, and make of them a public exhibition for the benefit of art or charity ; but these are rare exceptions to the general practice. The National Academy of Design in New York has been a powerful means of education ; yet, like the Royal Academy in London, its influence is crip- pled, because, with excellent in- tentions, it is conducted by pro- fessional artists in the interests of themselves rather than in furtherance of the general in- terests of art. It is a praise- worthy institution, and fills an important office, so far as its influence extends. The Metropolitan Museum in the same city has the better organization ; it is broad and receptive. There are also the Bos- ton Athenaeum, the Pennsylvania Museum at Philadelphia, and the Cor- coran Gallery at Washington. These and similar efforts are doing good, to a limited extent. They exercise an influence for culture and refine- ment ; but it is general, and not direct. In order to reach the people at large, it is necessary to organize a plan which shall begin with primary instruction in drawing in the public schools. We require a system of education which shall be comprehensive in its conception, universal in its application, and practical in its results. Such organized means of Amphora. Campagna Collection, Mns6e Napoleon. ART IS PRACTICAL AS WELL AS ^ESTHETICAL. art education has existed among us only in a restricted way. There arc a few schools of design in diiferent parts of the country ; but until very recently there has been no effort toward the art education of the masses of the people, and especially of those industrial classes whose occupations require a knowledge of Design. The American mechanic has heretofore been more ingenious than ar- tistic. His inventive faculty exceeds that of any other people, but he has not had the advantages of artistic training. He has tilled the world with useful labor-saving machines, without adding much to the sum of grace and beauty. We have attempted to put the machine in the place of the man. It has been the tendency of our industries to save labor by making the la- borer almost as automatic as the machine itself. The idea that art has any necessary relation to industry rarely enters into the mind of those most interested in the matter. Our mechanics are too often workmen, and not artisans. If this condition of things is not changed, we shall go on in our subserviency to European art products, and will never be able to gain any independence or individuality. Art is not simply an amuse- ment, an indulgence which delights the fancy of the idle and rich. It is decidedly practical, and concerns the well-being, the advancement, the pleasure, of the laborer and the poor. Whenever art is applied to the simplest, commonest product of labor, there will come order, intelligence, grace, and increased value. Art is not the privilege of a class ; it is essen- tially human, and is both individual and universal. How can it be developed ? How can it be applied ? How can it be put to the best use? There need be no uncertain answer to these ques- tions. The experience of other nations teaches us what we have to do, and how it is to be done. It is by technical education in public and special schools ; by the study of great works of art ; by the establishment of museums which shall be open to the public ; by the organization of societies in the interest of special industries ; by expositions of pictures, statuary, objects of ancient art, and of all products into whose composi- tion art may enter. ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. CHAPTER II. THE CLASSES WHO SHOULD BE INSTRUCTED. The Four Classes who should be interested in Art Education. First Class, Children. Second Class, Workmen. List of some of the Trades wherein Art Instruction is needed. Fourth Class, Capitalists. Patrons of Art. The Metropolitan Museum. Boston Fine Art Museum. THE most serious difficulty encountered in the beginning of this dis- cussion is in ascertaining how to approach and influence the persons who most need art instruction. If this want were confined alone to children, the matter could be easi- ly arranged. It would be simply to ascertain the best method of teaching in schools, special and public, and then go about it vigorously. But other classes need instruction ; and the trouble in America is, that many of the master-workmen, the manufacturers, and the capitalists are as uninformed and indifferent as the men they employ. There has been so little of tech- nical education, so little of instruction showing how art may be applied to the common uses of life, that the persons most requiring knowledge are surprisingly ignorant. Under the employer, there is another class for whose special education there is no provision in this country. This class consists of the master- workmen, who organize and elaborate those more difficult works which require scientific culture. The master -workman is the superintendent. All over Europe, such men are instructed in special schools which provide for all important branches of trade. In America, with the exception of a few schools of mines and technol- ogy, there is no attempt to build up this class. The master-workman, in some way or other, principally because he is more energetic and intelligent than his fellows, reaches the superintendent's place ; but of that wide range of scientific knowledge which he ought to possess, he lias nothing, and stumbles on by such light only as experience has given him. Every day we find it necessary to send to Europe for men to manage important interests, because we have so few schools in which they can be properly INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING IN EUROPE. 23 taught. Meanwhile our children in the public schools are burdened with studies they never will be able to utilize. In all of our public education, from the primary school to the college, we need more that is practical. The Royal Superior Industrial School, the Architectural School, and the Work - masters' School at Chemnitz; the trade schools all over Germa- ny ; the Ecoles Industrielles in Belgium ; the Central School of Arts and Trades of France, are a few of the many institutions in Europe devoted to that instruction which enables its pupils to fill any position in the im- portant industries. MEANS OF INSTRUCTION FOR THE FOUR CLASSES NAMED ABOVE. FIRST CLASS. As soon as children are old enough to go to school, they should be taught the elements of design as based upon the study of descriptive ge- ometry. In the primary classes they might first be taught geometrical terms, so that the ear shall be familiar with their sounds and meaning. At the same time the slate and pencil should be placed in the hands of the pupil, so that he may learn to draw simple geometrical forms. From these simpler lessons he should be advanced to higher grades. It is not proposed, at this time, to define what should be the methods of study ; but the proposition can not be too clearly established that there can be no gen- eral art education, except by the teaching of drawing in the public schools. This is not the hasty conclusion of a few persons ; it is the matured judg- ment of the educational authorities of the great European nations. The governments of France, England, Belgium, and Germany have ap- pointed commissioners, who have thoroughly examined this question, and in each instance it has been the deliberate conclusion that the interests of society and commerce require that drawing should be one of the studies in common-school education. Besides the advantage of higher culture, it is asserted with great force that, in order to establish and maintain those industries into which taste and beauty enter, the children in all schools should be taught to draw. The wisdom of this system has been proved by the results of its practice. The case of England is specially significant. Through the adoption of a plan of general education, by which, in the year 1874, some three hundred thousand children were taught the art of design, she has gained pre-emi- nence in the commerce of many important industries. France and Bel- gium have not been idle. Through every effort of public instruction, they are striving to regain their former control in the manufacture and sale of those articles which are the offspring of taste and knowledge. In the city of Paris all the school-children are taught to draw ; and the min- ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTEY. ister of public instruction asks that the study of drawing shall be intro- duced into the fif ty thousand public schools of the republic. In Belgium, a royal decree has placed art education upon a new and broad basis of in- struction for the whole people. In the United States, in the midst of our inaction, we have, at least, the great advantage of having no false steps to retrace. In an attempt to lay the foundation of a great system, we have the opportunity of beginning in the right way. The other nations named above are teaching us what not to do, as well as what to do ; and while the difference between their political institutions and methods of public in- struction and ours will require us to modify and change the details of art education, the general principles of a proper method will remain the same in the United States as in Europe. This chapter is devoted more espe- cially to the best method of instruct- ing the poor classes in the community. If the first class (children) are properly instructed, in the course of several gen- erations the second class (workmen) will naturally become very much small- er. But it can not be expected, for a long time to come, that drawing in the public schools will be adopted so generally that there will not always be large numbers of adult mechanics who have never had any art education. THE SECOND CLASS. The second" class, who are working-men, are not so easily reached. They can be taught drawing and other special studies, fitted for their particular occupation, in night-schools. The impediment in the accomplishment of this work, however, will be to get at this class, and persuade them that they need such instruction. Schools could be provided for them either by the State, or by the benefac- tions of wealthy persons ; but the greatest and best influence toward their instruction would be by co-operation not the co-operation of "trades- unions " and " strikes," whose purpose it is to get higher rates of wages for less work, but that co-operation which helps them to become better Persian Jar. INSTRUCTION NEEDFUL FOR CERTAIN TRADES. 25 workmen, more skilled in the use of their tools and material. If a hun- dredth part of the money which has been deceitfully and fruitlessly ob- tained from the working-man upon pretense of the rights of labor had been used co-operatively in establishing industrial schools, the interests of the mechanic and workman would have been far in advance of their pres- ent position. Let us see, for example, what trades would be benefited by instruction, and what kind would be best. We will here enumerate a few trades, with the particular kinds of in- struction proper to each : Fresco -painters. Drawing ; knowledge of composition ; color ; and chemistry. Silver and Gold Smiths. Drawing ; modeling ; color ; chemistry. Engravers and Lithographers. Drawing ; composition ; color ; chem- istry. Photographers. Drawing; color; chemistry; composition. Farmers. Drawing ; chemistry. Jloot and Shoe Makers and Tailors. Drawing ; color ; design ; knowl- edge of good material. Button-makers. Drawing ; color ; chemistry. Manufacturers of Silk, Cotton, Linen, and Woolen Cloths. Drawing ; chemistry; color. Machinists. Drawing ; mechanics. Printers. Drawing ; color. Molders. Drawing and modeling. Mechanical Engineers. Drawing ; and perhaps a few hints as to al- loyage, and the working of iron ore; mathematics enough for the pur- poses of construction. Masons and Carpenters. Drawing ; perhaps, also, some knowledge of the materials used in building, and the modes of preparing them ; the elements of geometry. Weavers. Drawing of patterns ; directions as to gluing the warp ; perhaps, also, an account of the preparation of the raw material until fit for weaving, and of the qualities of yarns. Cabinet - makers and Turners. Modeling ; color ; drawing. Potters. Drawing ; modeling, and knowledge of various kinds of glaz- ing; color. Comb-makers. Drawing. Millers. Drawing of the various details of the mill ; mathematics ; methods of grinding ; mill arrangements. Dyers. Notices of the character of the different dye-stuffs, and their action on the different materials to be dyed ; color. 26 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. Basket-makers. Drawing. Glaziers. Drawing ; modes of testing the qualities of glass. Stucco-plasterers. Drawing ; modeling. House-painters. Drawing ; a knowledge of colors, and how to unite them. Gardeners. Drawing. Cotton-printers. Drawing ; and some notions of chemistry. Tinmen. Drawing. Tile-layers. Drawing ; mathematics. Wagon-builders. Drawing ; mathematics. Coppersmiths. Drawing ; modeling ; mathematics. Iron and Brass Founders. Drawing ; modeling ; allojage. THE THIRD CLASS. Master-workmen must receive the education necessary for the impor- tant functions they may be called upon to fill, in special schools. These men, who are the practical directors in the various establishments and the manufactories, must have the opportunity of receiving the benefit of the highest technical and scientific instruction. D THE FOURTH CLASS. This limited class occupies a position of highest importance in the successful solution of this educational problem. It consists of the capi- talists, the employers. They are most immediately concerned in the suc- cess of a scheme of progress by which our products shall find sale in the markets of the world. It would be better, of course, could they have all the practical knowl- edge which is required of every one whom they employ, from the highest to the lowest ; yet that is scarcely possible. A certain amount of tech- nical information they must have, in their particular business. The influ- ence of this fourth class is found in their power of co-operation, by which art education may be advanced in all directions. They can establish museums, expositions, art schools, and other effective agencies of education. Under the title of " Co-operation among Manufacturers and the Mercantile Class," in another part of this book, these means of powerful influence are set forth more at length, and a detailed history and description of the soci- ety, the "Union Centrale," is given as an example of what such associations may accomplish. The means of improving, in a large and effective way, our various in- dustries must come from the producers themselves. It is they who should organize public effort, stimulate interest and enthusiasm. From their in- ART BENEFACTORS. 27 dividual and associated exertions should come public exhibitions which will elevate and create a standard of taste. In technical education the capitalist can not expect the public schools to do more for these commer- cial interests than furnish a broad, general education in drawing or me- chanics, such as may be applied to any of the mechanic arts. Special tech- nical education should be under the patronage of each industry, which knows best what it needs. The special schools at Vienna and in other parts of the Old World are conducted in this way, and will serve as models for similar institutions in the United States. ART BENEFACTORS. After all, from the merchant and manufacturer, those who control the capital by which the machinery is put in motion, must come successful art progress. These are the men who can set to work the fertile imagi- nations and skilled fingers of those who have had technical instruction. Helmet of the Sixteenth Century. The list of those who have shown practical interest in art education is small, in contrast to the thousands of merchants and manufacturers who appear not to know or care about the matter. Mr. Peter Cooper has founded a school of design which is attached to the Cooper Institute. It 28 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. has already accomplished excellent results. Col. R. M. Hoe, of New York, the celebrated inventor of improved printing-presses, has established a school for technical education, for the benefit of his employes. The re- sults have been highly encouraging. The Philadelphia Academy of Fine Arts owes its existence to the enlightened exertions of Mr. James L. Claghorn, who, with some twenty-three other gentlemen of Philadelphia, contributed two hundred and forty thousand dollars for the erection of a very handsome building, and the establishment of a school of art. Mr. Joseph Longworth, of Cincinnati, has given one hundred thousand dollars for the support of the School of Design connected with the University of Cincinnati. Mr. Lick, of San Francisco, has also bequeathed a large amount of money for the endowment of an art school. Besides these few private benefactions, for the express purpose of art instruction, there are several institutions, organized by wise and generous men and women, which have direct and beneficial relations to this subject of art education. Prominent among these, as has already been stated, is the Metropolitan Museum of New York. In the study of its admirable collection of paintings, the young artist finds invaluable examples of drawing, color, and texture. In the varied display of porcelain and pottery, the student of design discovers inexhaustible material for his occupation. In all its rich display of engravings, statuary, antique vessels of use and ornament, there is material for the inspiration of the artist and mechanic. The managers of the Metropolitan Museum seem to understand their op- portunities of usefulness. Besides the few days in every week, when all may enjoy without cost the privileges of the Museum, they give to the art students of the Cooper Institute, the National Academy of Design, and similar institutions, the benefit of free entrance at all times. The uses for art instruction of the Metropolitan Museum in New York, the art gallery at Yale College, the proposed museum connected with the School of Technology at Boston, are of high value ; but they are an assistance mainly to the advanced student who is learning the technical methods of applying art knowledge to painting and sculpture. The generous patrons of the Metropolitan Museum are providing a splendid means of instruction. Let these, with others of equal generosity, provide for the primary steps in the knowledge of design, by which such museums can be made yet more useful. Let them co-operate in every way for this great benefaction of art education. A Museum of Fine Arts has recently been organized in Boston upon a broad and generous plan. It promises great usefulness in artistic and industrial education. MEANING OF ART APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. 29 CHAPTER III. APPLICATION OF ART TO INDUSTRY. Application of Art to Industry. What is meant by the Terms Art and Industry. How Art may be applied to Industry. Architecture and Architects. Steamboat Archi- tecture. Building Architecture. Household and Other Furniture. Architecture of Musical Instruments. Pottery. Household Decoration. The Laws of Mohammed. AT one of the important expositions of art and industry not long ago, a gentleman of character and intelligence was standing in the picture-gal- lery which formed a valuable part of the exposition. " I can understand," he said, pointing to Miiller's " Roll-call of the Last Victims of the Reign of Terror in the French Revolution of '93," " that it requires a great deal of skill, dramatic power of expression, and all of that, to paint that picture. I comprehend what is meant by art when looking at it, and works of Breton, Decamps, Heissonier, Knaus, and the rest ; but it is not clear to me what is meant by the ' application of art to industry,' which you talk about, and which I read about now and then. What does it mean ? How are you going to apply this sort of thing " (the speaker included the whole collection of good and indifferent pictures in the sweep of his arm) " to the corn-shellers, bedsteads, pianos, steam-engines, china ware, and so on, over in the other buildings ?" Such questions are often asked, and seldom answered. What is art ? What is industry ? What is meant by the " application of art to industry ?" The terms art and industry, in their relation to each other, are now in frequent use all over the civilized world, and among most of the leading nations there is at the present time, more than ever before, an effort to unite art and industry. In, a general way, the public know that the re- sult of this is to make the common utensils of life beautiful, instead of ugly ; but just what art and industry are by themselves, and the process by which they become associated, is not so well understood. In the beginning of a work which aims to show something of the his- tory of art education throughout the world, and why and how it should be undertaken in the United States, it may be well to attempt a definition 30 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. of art and industry, and to explain how the one may be applied to the other. Industry is work. It is the action of the muscular and moral forces of man applied to production. Art is also a production, but within cer- tain conditions and with a certain definite object in view, which we call grace, beauty, and such other terms as express something attractive. It is the province of art to invest production with an ideal of perfection. While industry sometimes seeks this assistance from art, it must be re- membered that art, even in its highest expression, demands the aid of industry, but only within arbitrary and restricted limits. An object con- structed for its beauty and as a decoration consults only the law of beauty. But in the application of art to industry, the uses of the object must never be forgotten. The products of industry in the United States into which art enters are few, as may be seen in the table of exports and imports in the Appendix. Architecture and the furniture of dwelling- houses, offices, etc., are industries which employ more labor than most others. What has been the influence of art upon these ? ARCHITECTURE. Climatic changes influence, if they do not dictate, the principal forms of architecture. In a country like the United States, whose territory touches upon arctic cold and tropic heat, whose limits embrace every con- dition of atmosphere, it would be too much to expect a distinctive style of architecture. In Florida and Louisiana, the long summer seasons, the hot sun, with its glaring light, call for wide porticoes, broad piazzas, open passage-ways, so as to moderate the heat and let in the air. In Maine and Minnesota, the brief stay of the sun, the short summer, the fierce blasts of winter, the heavy fall of snow, demand dwellings compactly built, with steep and peaked roofs, which retain heat, keep out the winds, and shed the snow. While we may not, therefore, look for an American style of architecture, we must strive to secure obedience to the laws of substantial construction, harmony, and grace. It is only recently that any opportunity has been offered in this country for education in the art and science of architecture, and even now, at its best, the means of instruction are in many ways in- complete. It is a great misfortune that concert-halls, churches, and theatres should so often be built by those who know nothing of the laws of ventilation, sound, light, and heat. It is wrong that these edifices, with warehouses, hotels, and dwellings, should be carried high up into the air, regardless of the conditions which govern the solidity of bodies, and the effect of the Copper Lamp. From a Mosque. STEAMBOAT ARCHITECTURE. 33 mechanical powers in the combinations of wood, stone, and metallic sub- stances. Society has the right to insist upon the requirements of the science of architecture, by which use and security shall be obtained. It would be of general benefit, could we have men like those of the archi- tectural school of Chemnitz, in Prussia, who are graduated when they can pass a rigid examination in drawing, ornamentation, arithmetic, geom- etry, physics, perspective, languages, and mechanics. The art of architecture is a rare accomplishment, and is only attainable by exercise of the faculties of judgment and taste, and by study of the splendid examples of classic art. The criticism has been made of buildings in the United States, that they are oftentimes constructed by architects who are not builders, or by builders who are not architects. If this remark in some measure be true, there are noble exceptions in all parts of the land, where the union of science and art has presented some of the most beautiful buildings known in modern architecture. The architect ought to be the master of many sciences. He should not only know things by their outward appearance he should know their physical properties as well. We have two classes of architects among us. The first are men who have more or less knowl- edge of the science and art of architecture ; the second are men who have been carpenters or masons, and have risen in their trade, but know little or nothing of either the art or science of architecture. Artists and workmen like Phidias and his associates, Ictinus and Cal- licrates, w r ho built the Parthenon, are not numerous in our days ; nor has modern civilization produced master-masons and builders like Sens and his namesake William, who built the cathedral of Canterbury ; neither do we erect Parthenons, nor such cathedrals as that of Canterbury, in this age. STEAMBOAT ARCHITECTURE. In this country, the architecture which has had a distinctive character and originality is that of the steamboat, and especially that of the steam- boat on our Western rivers. Those large passenger and freight boats, which carry a great many passengers, with thousands of tons of freight, thousands of miles, are among the wonderful creations of modern times. Yery stately, graceful, and picturesque are they, as they move rapidly along over the turbid waters of the beautiful Ohio and broad Mississippi rivers. Yery often they possess real beauty of form, as one story or deck surmounts the other, rising from the water's edge in harmonious propor- tions. First, there is the lower deck, with its huge wheel-house and its broad open space forward ; then there is the second story, with its long ranges of cabins ; above these the " hurricane," with the officers' cabins 3 31 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. and the airy and picturesque pilot-house looking over many miles of wa- ter, forest, and meadow-land. Most impressive of all are the tall black stacks and pipes, whence rush masses of brown and black smoke and white steam, which mingle in up- per air in exquisite tints and strange forms. In architectural details these boats might be yet finer. In color they could be improved ; but the dangers of night service have compelled the use of white : yet here and there good taste often adds touches of red, gold, or green which relieve the general effect. Take it all in all, the "Western steamboat is a superb spectacle. It is a result of the necessities of commerce, guided by natural good taste. HOUSEHOLD AND OTHER FURNITURE. The abundance, cheapness, and beauty of our native woods have given rise to the extensive manufacture of furniture. In the "West especially, where these woods are procurable at small cost, the commonest furniture is made solid of such woods as walnut, beech, and maple. Very often, while the forms are ungraceful, the object it- self is inconvenient, and badly put together. It is shipped to the extreme South or the "Western border, or to foreign countries less civilized than our own. Cincinnati is a city where a great deal of cheap furniture is manufactured and sold, and here has arisen a school of wood -carving whose work compares with the best results of the Renaissance. Even to-day this school of wood-carving has few superiors in Europe. Henry Fry, and his son, "William Fry, introduced the art into Cincinnati. Henry Fry is an Englishman by birth, and served his apprenticeship un- der Paxton. His later years have been devoted to architectural construc- tion, to designs for armoires, sideboards, book-cases, and similar articles, which have been carved chiefly by his son. William Fry was born in the West. From boyhood he hungered for adventures and the sea. This desire he gratified to the most hazardous and romantic extent. For many years he was a sailor before the mast, and visited all the countries and all the great sea-ports of the world. Sev- eral times shipwrecked, he saved his life by pluck, and by the exercise of rare physical power. Perhaps this is not exactly the experience out of w r hich to make an artist. The artistic faculty may have been fostered by the romance of adventure ; but whether it was or not, it is certain that William Fry is a man of a fine order of genius. His artistic power ex- hibits itself not so much in the drawing of the human figure as in the adaptation of natural forms to ornamentation. And here the skilled fin- gers obey with precision, grace, and symmetry the poetic impulse of his WOOD CARVING IN CINCINNATI. 35 fertile mind. With marvelous rapidity, from under the touch of his chisel grow drooping ferns, pendent wreaths of leaves and flowers, full-plum- aged birds, climbing vines of jessamine and ivy, feathery grasses, grace- ful and elaborate arabesques. His representations of natural objects arc not the language of mere imitation, but charming translations. They are not seen with a cold, unsympathizing eye, but rather with that of love and sentiment. His sculptures from the tough and twisted grain of oak, ebony, walnut, and cherry are full of motion. The caress of his hand brings fortli the tenderness of bud, the softness of leaf, the perfume of flower, and an ever-present suggestion of that sense of beauty whose expression is the best attribute of genius. Robert Rogers is another artisan of Cincinnati who shows excellent faculty. Mr. Rogers is a cabinet- maker, rather than wood -carver. A few years ago he was a house-carpen- ter and joiner. The School of De- sign gave him the opportunity of ac- quiring a knowledge of drawing and the art of design, which has developed artistic faculty. This has shown itself in composition, as well as in carving. The book -cases, escritoires, hanging- cabinets, and sideboards produced by Mr. Rogers are worthy of record in the history of industrial art in this country. These examples (and oth- ers could be mentioned) in Cincinnati are given to show how admirable and effective are any means of education in art. The School of Design in that city is exercising a genuine influence in all directions of art culture. In many of the Eastern cities, tasteful, well-constructed furniture is pro- duced ; and within a year or two past, the influence of Eastlake's book on Household Architecture has been manifested by the rapid sale of articles of household use which are models of simplicity and grace. At the great industrial centres also, where articles of decoration are made, it is begin- ning to be understood that sale depends upon a knowledge of applying the rules of art to physical labor. To the manufacturer as well as the laborer, the necessity will soon pre- Snrahe. Persian Faience. 36 AET EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. sent itself of acquiring some knowledge of drawing, modeling, perspective, composition, and color, in order to gain reputation and success in tlieir calling. ARCHITECTURE OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. It might have been presumed that music, that purest and most divine of arts, would have lent a graceful hand in fashioning its instruments of expression. And, indeed, where the instrument has distinct individuality, like the violin, horn, lute, flageolet, viola di gamba, clarionet, and harp, its shape is graceful, and expresses the idea of its sound. The larger in- struments which attempt to combine many others have lost this harmony of form and expression. The shape which is required by the mechanism of a piano, especially the " grand," is in some respects graceful ; but in other points the ingenu- ity of man is exercised to make it the opposite. What can be more un- pleasant than the piano-case, with its large expanse of polished varnish, re- flecting all surrounding objects? Tarnished woods in the adornment of the interior of houses are always objectionable. The oiled woods show more clearly their grain and color, and the tone improves with time. The polished piano in the drawing-room is worse, if possible, than a glass mir- ror. Another offense is the leg of the modern piano. Formerly the large, heavy body of the instrument rested upon straight, strong supports, of not ungraceful form. Now, however, one must pay more for a piano- leg, which makes a curve nearly equal in extent to its height, expressing weakness and ugliness rather than strength and comeliness. While decided changes in the outer finish of pianos may be sought, there is a yet greater opportunity for architectural and ornamental design in the screen of the church-organ, which is the only part of that noble instrument in view. The old-fashioned screen of golden pipes was pleas- ing to the eye. It was not incongruous with any style of architecture, while it had the distinguishing merit of indicating the office of the instru- ment. Of late years, however, the organ-builders fashion screens meant to be architectural, but which only illustrate bad taste. The large organ- builders sometimes have fixed patterns for each instrument of a certain size and price ; and the order of architecture, if the design has the dignity of approaching an order, may or may not bear relation to that of the hall or church in which it is placed. The organ being the most prominent ob- ject in the interior of a church, the architecture of its screen should as surely be placed in the hands of the architect of the building as its faQade or pulpit. If not in the hands of the architect, it should be placed in those of an artist. Yet how often is the eye offended by an organ-screen utterly inharmonious with the place and its belongings. How suggestive POTTERY AN ARTICLE OF USE AND BEAUTY. 37 and beautiful might it be made not only graceful in its harmonious re- lation to the architecture of the building in which it is placed, but in its relation to music and the arts of painting and sculpture ! An illustration of how art may thus be allied with a product of industry may be seen in the screen of the organ in the Music-hall in Boston. POTTERY. No industry is more charmingly allied to art than that of pottery. Either in articles of beauty or of use, it benefits all classes of society. In its uses, potter}^ is the necessity of the poorest laboring-man, while the plastic substance of which it is composed yields to the hand of genius the Celtic Pottery. Found iu Staffordshire. finest and highest artistic possibilities. During the history of mankind, many of the industries have had periods of rise and fall, and for a time the most important of these have disappeared ; but pottery has, in one or another condition, been continuously produced. Some of the most interesting passages in the history of the human race have been written in vessels of clay and porcelain. What material is there more fragile than the potter's clay ? Yet to-day the finger-marks of the kings of Babylon, whose names even we do not know, remain on the clay tablets where they impressed their seals. From the tombs of the Tlieban hills, where the mummies of Egyptian priests and conquerors have fallen to dust, come forth vessels of sacred and common use, as perfect in form as when borne in the hands of their first owners three thousand 38 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. years ago ; while Pompeii, buried in volcanic ashes, presents thousands of pitchers, vases, and other objects for the pleasure and inspiration of subse- quent centuries. These objects, which seem so fragile, are less perishable than temples, and statuary, and the more ambitious works of man. They not seldom outlive the fame of warriors and statesmen. Upon that mas- terpiece of Greek art known as the "Frangois vase," in the Campagna MANUFACTURE OF POTTERY IN THE UNITED STATES. 39 collection of the Musee Napoleon, there is the proud inscription : ".>- (jotinus made me, Clitias painted me" In the same collection is the vase by Timogras, which finely declares : "Audocide appears beautiful to Timogras" Certainly no modern production of ceramic art can be compared with these wonderful vases. Yet at the present period, Europe, and more especially Asia, has revealed new and beautiful resources in pottery. Greek Vase, by Timograe. Cnmpagna Collection, Muse'e Napoleon. These more recent works are infinite in variety, and have enlisted the genius of the architect, sculptor, and painter. Of all the industries, none, perhaps, offer a larger field for the art of design than that of pottery. It is not surprising, when we see the United States so far behind all other countries, even in the mechanical devices of this industry, to find that she does not exhibit the slightest evidence of a knowledge of its exquisite art. The manufacture of pottery in the United States is as yet in its in- fancy. In that extensive commerce, which in England, France, Germany, and Italy employs so much artistic labor, we have but little part. Our potteries are few, and they produce only the cheaper and simpler undeco- 40 AKT EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTEY. rated stone and earthen ware. But it is hard for the potter's wheel to turn out ungraceful shapes. Even in this country, the commonest pot- tery, where it is not white, has pleasing tints of yellow and gray. Tiles, jugs, jars, pitchers, and various dishes, even if the material be coarse and unadorned, are fashioned in shapes of comeliness and sometimes of grace. THE PRINCIPLES WHICH CONTROL THE ART OF DESIGN. In the art of decoration and design there are certain rules which gov- ern and define what is best and most appropriate. It is seldom that the human figure can be used in decoration. Even the servile imitation of any natural object is injurious to the best design. Among the highest examples of rich and beautiful design are Japanese decoration ; the ara- besques and decorations of Moorish architecture ; and especially Persian, Indian, and Turkey carpets, shawls, and vases, where there is a hint of some natural object, animal or vegetable, but not often an imitation of them. It is said that the followers of Mohammed never imitated the human figure or that of animals. Although many of the Mohammedans have consulted their own pleasures and tastes in construing the laws of the Prophet, in the main they have obeyed them. " O Believers," says the Koran, " wine, games of chance, and statues are an abomination invented by Satan. Abstain from these, and you will be happy." Again the Prophet proclaims to his disciples : " Woe to him who has painted a living thing. At the last judgment-day the persons who have been represented will come out from their pictures and demand from him a soul." At another time Mohammed said: " God has sent me against three classes of men, to annihilate and con- found them : these are the proud, the polytheists, and the painters. Be- ware, then, of representing God or man, and paint only trees, flowers, and inanimate objects." As a rule, the Mussulmans have obeyed the stern commands of Mo- hammed ; and the arbitrary creed of a religious sect has brought into existence the most perfect and beautiful forms of art. Nothing can be more curious or attractive than the examination and study of the forms in many of the shawls, carpets, rugs, vases, shields, and cups of the East. Their general appearance presents a mass of wonder- fully rich and harmonious colors, a depth and brilliancy of tone which is produced by a multitude of pure tints placed in harmonious juxtaposition. At first sight there does not appear to be any symmetrical arrangement of forms, but a closer examination reveals a regular design which governs the entire work. The objects in this design are frequently repeated in a general way, but no two are ever exactly alike. There is always that THE HUMAN FIGURE SHOULD NOT BE USED IN DECORATION. 41 slight diversity which is so charming in hand-made work, and which is never attained in the imitations attempted in Western Europe by ma- chinery. In the various objects represented, there are the most perfect examples of natural objects conventionalized. The artists have just indi- cated, while they do not imitate, the individual characteristics of a thou- sand things of animal and vegetable life, such as butterflies, birds, trees, fruits, and flowers. Corean Jar of Persian Decoration. In modern decoration the human figure is often pressed into service in a manner which is degrading. Its frequent use would divert sculpture and painting from their true mission, which is to educate us to a high conception of the beautiful by separating beauty of form and idea, as embodied in the human figure, from vulgar and material uses. We daily see the human figure, in one or another costume, supporting lamp-shades 42 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. or carrying candlesticks ; it serves as handles to water - pitchers, arms to chairs, and many other purposes foreign to its proper dignity. Diderot very happily criticised this tendency in his time, when gazing upon the celebrated historical clock made by Falconnet. It represented the Three Graces supporting a globe, which was also the clock -dial. " These figures," said he, " show every thing except the hour." Those principles which recognize the importance of geometrical and arbitrary forms in design have become established. In all the important schools of industrial design in England, France and Belgium, the student from the beginning is taught geometrical forms. It is in the practice of these well-considered methods of instruction in the United States that w r e are to get the best results of the application of art to industry. This sub- ject has been most admirably stated by the distinguished author Daviond. He says : " The union of art and industry is an object of industry, which is transfigured and elevated into the beautiful, by its taste and delicacy of adjustment. The limit which separates industry from art is the obli- gation of industry to respect organic nature, and principally man, whose spiritualistic beauty and character can not accommodate themselves to the common objects of life except in a restrained measure, and always in obedience to the principles whose employment is permitted by archi- tecture." INFLUENCE OF INDUSTRY UPON ART. 43 CHAPTER IV. INFLUENCE OF INDUSTRY UPON ART. The Priiiciples which control the Art of Design. A WORK of art is a law to itself. The sculptor makes use of clay and marble, the painter of pigments and canvas, as the means to express his idea of beauty. The purely artistic idea may be removed from the thought of use, yet the influence of industry upon art is varied and essential. Of the arts of sculpture, painting, and architecture, those of sculpture and painting are not seriously modified or changed, either in principles or practice, by the intervention of industry. The same simple tools and the same material have been in use since the birth of these arts. A mass of clay, stone, mar- ble, or wood, with a handful of tools, are the essentials of one ; a piece of canvas, or panel, or porcelain, with colors, brushes, and pencils, serves for the other. Industry has a greater influence on painting than upon sculp- ture, for the quality of the pigments, brushes, and canvas has a great deal to do with the expression of the artistic conception. Architecture, which is the art of construction in accordance with the principles of the beautiful, as has been said in a previous chapter, makes use of human industry in very many ways. So great is the influence of industry upon architecture, that the architect, in making his plan for a building, is obliged to take into consideration many industrial elements. The association of industry and art is seen in what may be denomi- nated ornamentation of buildings, such as wood-carving, fresco-painting, sculpture which enters into the actual construction, painted or stained glass windows, tiles, as well as bronzes and porcelain-ware, not in house- hold use. These illustrate the fact that mechanical industry enters largely into the production of what belongs peculiarly to the domain of art. But the modern discoveries of science add infinitely to the obligations of art to industry. By means of printing, industry reproduces in various ways, from steel, copper, and stone, the most beautiful works of art, and by new processes 44 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. most curious, ingenious, and effective, like those of the autotype, photo- graph, heliotype, and photolithograph, presents the thought of the artist and Nature herself in very complete form. It is frequently remarked that the general reproduction of works of art makes them commonplace, and their influence injurious rather than bene- ficial. One gets very tired of chromo-lithographs and poorly executed prints of the works of great masters ; but it is well to consider if it is not better to try to have these copies made in the best way, rather than reject them altogether. We can not possess the grand statue of the Venus of Milo, but a mechanical reproduction in plaster is a most satisfactory sub- stitute. It certainly is no injury to art, or the masterpieces of Raphael and Rembrandt, if we repeat numberless good engravings and etchings of these. There are certain industrial efforts which seek to imitate the texture and color of works of industry and of art by methods and with materials essentially different from those of the originals. This attempt to deceive, like all shams, is extremely harmful, and can not be too severely reprehended. But repetitions of works of art which are ani- mated by artistic motives, even though they are articles of commerce, can not become too general. They place the most beautiful thoughts of the best men within the reach of a great many people, and help to purify and enlighten the social atmosphere. The artist, however, in his creations, must take heed that the indus- trial elements shall occupy a subordinate place ; that while he may avail himself of scientific and industrial methods, his conception of the beauti- ful must preserve all its independence and liberty. A CURIOUS DAMASKEEN CASKET. 47 CHAPTER V. INDUSTRY AND ART IN THE MIDDLE AGES AND RENAIS- SANCE. Industry and Art in the Middle Ages. Sphyrelaton, or Wrought-iron. Works in En- amel. Faience. Objects of the Toilet. Bronzes. Cabinet-work. Wood-carving. Cabinet carved by tbe Monks of Clairvaux. Art of Design in the Middle Ages and tbe Nineteenth Century. The Treasures of Hildesheim. THE art products of the Middle Ages serve as admirable models in art education. It would require a great many volumes to attempt to describe the objects characteristic of the principal industrial arts of that period. Public museums, like those of South Kensington and the Hotel de Cluny, as well as many private collections in England and on the Continent, are full of these exquisite works of art. In variety and style they represent all classes of society and every condition of life. They are very often the products of men who, in their own day, were known as artists of genius and skill. The beautiful carvings, illuminations, coffers, mosaics, and pot- tery found among these have a definite art value, kindred to that of the paintings arid sculpture of the old masters. It is embarrassing among so many things, curious and beautiful, to select those which best represent any phase of industrial art. One of the rarest of works in damaskeen has a romantic and somewhat mysterious history. At the close of the last century a merchant of curios- ities, who kept a shop on the bridge of the Rialto, possessed a superb steel casket, covered with arabesques of gold and silver of the most exquisite workmanship. The sculptor Canova pronounced it one of the most re- markable of the works in damaskeen in all Italy. It was bought at a high price by the Marquis de Trivulci. The arabesques, which interlace each other and cover the exterior of the casket, are of gold. In the bottom of the box upon a thin surface of gold, incrusted with steel, is a planisphere in the form of a heart ; upon the exterior of the cover there is a chart of Italy, Albania, Dalmatia, and the adjacent islands ; upon its interior face is drawn in gold damaskeen a map of France and Spain. From the latter extend names of cities in 48 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. threads of gold and silver. Upon the cornice of the box may be read this inscription : "Pavlvs Ayeminivs Faciebat" This marvelous casket, it is generally conceded, belongs to the early part of the sixteenth century. The inscription on the rim has given rise to a great deal of discussion among the savants of Italy. It was various- ly claimed that it signified a name, place of birth, or a profession. Al- though, in 1832, this casket was known to be in the possession of the Mar- quis de Trivulci, it has since disappeared, and has eluded the most ear- nest search. SPHYRELATON, OR WROUGHT-IRON. REPOUSSE\ The ancient art of working in iron and other metals with the hammer had ceased to be exercised until very recently. The facility with which form can be produced by modeling in clay, and subsequent casting, had put aside the ancient and laborious, but yet thoroughly artistic, method of shaping metals with the hammer. Some of the most effective and durable of antique - art work in wrought iron is to be found in coffers, plaques, and hinges ; in swords, bucklers, and other arms. This is an art which dates from the most classic age. The Phosnicians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans used it upon their colossal figures, as well as in smaller works re- quiring nicer execution. The recent discoveries of Di Cesnola at Cyprus are a striking evidence of the extreme antiquity of this art. During the Renaissance iron -work reached a high degree of perfec- tion. The Italians, Germans, and French were artistic workmen. Ben- venuto Cellini, who had successfully learned the art of casting from plas- tic models, could only criticise the works wrought in iron during his time with the remark that, although the modeling was excellent, the different parts which made up those objects of art were not compactly nailed and riveted together. Among the objects which, from the nature of their use, were made of iron, were the bucklers, which from the earliest ages were used as weapons of defense. In the days when war was not conducted at bullet or can- non-shot range, and when men fought foot to foot and hand to hand, the shield or buckler was of vital importance. In the course of time it had different shapes ; but in the sixteenth century it became round, with an in- clination toward an oval. In the time of Francis I., these pieces of ar- mor were the chosen objects upon which artists exercised their best gen- ius. The most exquisite designs were worked in repousse, raised upon the surface of the buckler, with a delicacy and grace of form which in- vested it with great value. Among rare examples of this art is a shield, now in the Hotel de THE ANCIENT ART OF REPOUSSfi. 49 Cluny, repousse and chiseled in the Italian style of the sixteenth century. It is decorated with strange and fanciful figures, representing the combats of Centaurs and animals. The centre of this shield is ornamented with figures of children, and it has a sharp projecting pike. This design is full of strength, and each object is drawn with grace and symmetry. Buckler of the Period of Henri IL Perhaps the most remarkable and well-known specimens of armor which have come to us from the artists of the sixteenth century are several now in the Cabinet des Antiques de la Bibliotheque Royale, and which are said to have belonged to Francis I. This armor is attributed to Benvenuto Cellini ; but it is said that if Cellini had executed so beau- tiful a work for the great French king, he would have made mention of the fact in his memoirs. There is not to be found upon these pieces of armor any device or other evidence that they belonged to the King of France, and it is proba- 4 50 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. ble they were trophies of war. The casque is surmounted by a grotesque dragon, the wings outspread, and the beak or mouth open. In the midst of the florid ornamentation appear two crabs, placed, with intention, as emblems, but to which there has been found no interpretation. The same emblem is found on the shield, the central part of which has two, while two others are placed upon the rim. The ornamentation of these two beautiful pieces is in black iron, chiseled and enriched with incrustations of gold upon a ground of gold. It is composed of trophies, satyrs, fig- ures of Cupid, and exquisite arabesques wrought with all the taste and prodigality of the Italians of the sixteenth century. Another tine example of work in wrought-iron repousse is an oblong plaque, which formed a part of the decoration of a piece of furniture. It belongs to the sixteenth century, and represents the death of Cleopatra. This work is a large medallion of oval form, within which is represented the above-named subject. The border contains the following verse : "Cum subiit mortis Leges Antouius atrae Serpentis morsu sese Cleopatra uecavit." The outside frame is enriched with arabesques, masks, fruits, flowers, leaves, and garlands. This work is in the wonderful Du Sommerard col- lection. A boldly executed piece of armor in gold damaskeen is a helmet now in the Artillery Museum in Paris. The origin of this helmet is perfect- ly authentic. It came from the armory of Henri II., whose device and arms it bears. The figures and ornaments in repousse upon this helmet are in the finest style of its period. ENAMEL. The history of the origin of enameling is full of fascination. It carries us back into the Byzantine period. Philostrate, a writer of the fourth century, quotes the Emperor Constantino Porphyrogenitus as declaring, in his life of his ancestor, Basil the Macedonian, that people of that epoch, in different parts of Byzantium, painted the image of Christ in enamel upon metals. There can be no doubt that this art flourished in great brill- iancy in the East in the tenth century, for it is known that in 976, when the Venetian, Osseolo, visited Constantinople, he was filled with delight and astonishment at sight of the grand altar at St. Sophia. This altar was a magnificent example of enameled work ; and Osseolo gave an order for a similar one for Venice, where in the same year he founded the Church of St. Mark upon the model of the basilica of Justinian. This work was accomplished with the assistance of Greek artists. Subsequently Osseolo Enameling. THE WORKS OF LIMOGES. 53 went to France, where he lived nineteen years, and, in the opinion of Du Sommerard, brought with him these Greek artists, and introduced at Li- moges the art of enameling. " How, otherwise," writes this distinguished savant, " can be explained the frequent commercial relations between Venice and Limoges, and the appearance of enameled work during the ninth century, of which we find no anterior trace either in our chronicles or monuments ?" In tliis brief sketch it will be necessary to omit any description of this art as it appeared in Spain and Germany. In Italy and France it seems to have found enthusiastic admirers both for church and secular uses ; so that for a long while it took the place of bronze and other metals. THE WORKS OF LIMOGES. Of all the industrial art works of the Renaissance, those known as the " works of Limoges " are among the most beautiful. The history of this famous city, so rich in architectural remains, is, as we have seen, associated with the earliest attempts in the art of enamel in France ; and there is no doubt but that this rare art became established in the workshops of Li- moges during the twelfth century. The Abbe Texier, in his essays on the silversmiths and enamelers of Limoges, says: "The grand abbeys of Limousin were pillaged from top to bottom during the twelfth century by the English, who, according to Geoffroi, took every thing, including the altar-pieces, most of which were enameled. Notable among these were the gigantic altar of Grandmont and the coffer of Bourganeuf w r ith its treasure." Notwithstanding these depredations, which did not cease until the sixteenth century notwith- standing all this destruction in 1779 there were in the diocese of Limoges alone more than two thousand five hundred chiseled and enameled reli- quaries, not counting the cups, plates, censers, diptychs, chalices, covers of books, crosses, and objects of a similar character. Until the sixteenth century the manufacture of enamels at Limoges had been nearly destroyed, or, at least, forgotten, in the midst of the wars which took place during the preceding periods. Francis I. re-established these works, and by his patronage^of this art brought forward a number of men of rare genius. Among these was Leonard, a painter, to whom was given by his master the surname of " Limousin," in order to distin- guish him from Leonardo da Vinci. In describing the relation between Leonard and King Francis, the term "master" is not used in an artistic sense, for the artist received from the king the title of his "painter and valet de chambre." Among the enamelers of the sixteenth century whose work is most AET EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. sought after, because of its rare perfection, is that of Pierre Raymond. The state collections and private cabinets possess a large number of his productions. Of the painters enainelers, who were either scholars or rivals of Leon- ard J. Courtois was one who gives us the best evidence of the admirable art of the Limoges manufac- tory, of which he was at one time in charge. Among the most exquisite of the works of enamel in color by this artist are those in the collec- tion of M. Carraud, at Paris. They are a water-pitcher, ba- sin, and vases. The basin is hollow, and longer than it is wide. The subject of the decoration represents the sac- rifice of Iphigenia, after the composition of Polidore of Caravaggio. The rim is com- posed of arabesques, intermin- gled with fanciful figures of busts of men and women, in- closed by outlines of color. It is an exquisite composi- tion. The pitcher is fully equal to the basin. The sub- jects are also drawn from the Iphigenia of Caravaggio. The form of the vase is open. The interior is white enamel. In the collection of Messrs. Lebarte and Debruge there is a piece of enameling which belongs to the twelfth century. The decoration repre- sents the legend of St. John. This art of enameling had for one of its discoverers Bernard Palissy, whose life was remarkable for its unselfish devotion. His productions are marvelous as works of art. They are distinguished for close adherence to natural forms ; which, however striking in some ways, are not recognized in these days of conventionalized objects and arbitrary forms as character- izing the best art. One of the finest examples of the work of Palissy is in the Du Sommerard collection. It is a large plate executed in enamel. It is covered with fishes, reptiles, Crustacea, and mollusks in the midst of Leonard Limousin. OIRON FAIENCE. 55 the water, together with herbs and marine plants. This plate is remark- able for the minute execution of its details, and also for the richness of the enamel, which gives life to these studies from nature itself. FAIENCE. The faience known as that of Henri Deux, or Oiron, is among the most beautiful and symmetrical of ceramic art. The piece so long in the collection of the Count de Portales, sold in 1865 for six thousand dollars, and now in the South Kensington Museum, is the most celebrated. There is also in existence a flagon, or vase, of peculiar form. The handle is placed under the rim, and the mouth projects from the body of the vase. Above this part of the flagon appears an escutcheon of three cross-bars. The de- signs in arabesque are of various colors upon a white ground. The lower part of this flagon is richly decorated with open-work and a mask which rests beneath the escutcheon. In the collection of the South Kensington Museum there are two com- panion pieces to the above. One is a candlestick of monumental form, which has the letter H interlaced. This piece is ornamented with three figures of nude children, who are seated upon the round boss which forms the principal part of the candlestick. Below these figures there are three grotesque masks united by garlands, which hang from one to the other ; the garlands are repeated upon the upper part. The whole work is filled in with delicate architectural forms of singular originality and most harmo- nious and symmetrical designs. This is probably one of the most com- plete specimens of the ceramic art belonging to the sixteenth century. There are only about seventy specimens of this faience in existence, con- sisting of salt-cellars, vases, pitchers, and other articles. In his description of these works, Dti Sommerard attributes their manufacture to the Italians of that day ; and until as late as 1867 the effort to discover the origin of this ware was the despair of collectors. But it is now known that its manufacture was begun in the Chateau Oiron, by Cherpentier, a ceramist under the patronage of Madame de Hangest, mother of the grand ecuyer, and former governess of Henri II. The work was continued by the son of this lady. From the name of the chateau, the ware is now called " Oiron." Its old and familiar title is " Henri Deux " ware. OBJECTS OF THE TOILET. Of objects for the toilet, and for ornament, either in secular or re- ligious uses, the Middle Ages furnished countless numbers, in every stylo of art. They originated in the prolific invention of this most suggestive age, or were copied from the beautiful examples of classic art. 56 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. An extremely rich and curious article of toilet is in the cabinet of M. Soulages. It is a metallic mirror, which is inclosed by a broad frame of wood, covered with carved figures, strange and fanciful creations, and oth- er ornamentation. It has the device of the Dukes of Ferrara (a grenade on fire), the legend of which was "Ardet ceternum" The subjects of the design on the frame are symbols of good and evil. This mirror is said to have belonged to the notorious Lucretia Borgia, wife of Alphonse d'Este, Duke of Ferrara in 1501. Salt-cellar. Oiron Faience. In the collection at the Hotel de Cluny are to be seen many of these charming objects for the toilet among others, boxes, chatelains, pow- der-cases, and hand-mirrors, marvelously beautiful in form and delicate in execution. Although the art of design of the present day has given to articles of similar purpose exceeding tastefulness and ingenious fitness for their uses, yet often the reproduction of one of the antique forms proves, by its great sale, to have pleased the popular taste of the nineteenth centu- ry, as it did that of the sixteenth. MEDIAEVAL WORKS IN BRONZE. 57 BRONZES. Among the most remarkable works ever executed in bronze are those which come to us from the Renaissance, which also gave birth to such artists as Ghiberti, Andre de Pisa, Jacopo Sansovino, and Donatello. Al- though at this period bronze was in general use in the manufacture of smaller articles for the household and purposes of ornament, the finest examples of its application are found in the doors and panels for doors, and monuments belonging to the earliest part of the Middle Ages. We read of the bronze doors of St. Sophia at Constantinople, in the eleventh century, which were executed by Michael Rangabe. Examples of artistic genius and mechanical skill in the use of bronze during the following centuries are to be found in Italy, Germany, France, and Russia. The Tea-pot. Ellers Ware. James Wedgwood's First Ten-pot Cathedral at Mayence, built about the year 1000, still retains its gates of bronze. In Russia, the basilica of the twelfth century at Novgorod pre- sents choice specimens of work in bronze. In Italy, such works in bronze adorn many of the cathedrals and public buildings. Among those which have been most celebrated are the doors of St. John of Lateran, executed in 1193 by the brothers Uberti. The interior door of Santa Maria de Fiore at Florence is covered with bass-reliefs by Lucca della Robbia, whose pottery has given him such splendid reputation. Loretta and Ve- rona have their chef-cFceuvres of this art ; and at Pisa remain some of the h'nest examples of bronze from the hands of John de Douai, better known as John of Bologna. Among the rare examples of Italian bronzes of the sixteenth century is the door of the sacristy of St. Mark at Venice, which is the work of San- sovino. This door is divided into two parts, which are also separated into other compartments, ornamented with recumbent figures. The decoration on the outside frame is composed of figures of the evangelists in differ- 58 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. ent postures, and of children, with portraits of celebrated persons. The pictures in the two large panels represent the Entombment and Resurrec- tion. The whole of this design is executed with artistic skill and taste. In one of the chapels of St. Mark's there are two candelabra, also the work of Sansovino, which are models of monumental grace and symmetry. They are composed of figures of children, men, and women, with garlands and other rich decorations. Other examples from the same period could be given of artistic work in bronze ; for the workers of the Middle Ages knew as well as did those of ancient times its durable qualities. The Norman Ware. Norman Jar. modern nations have reserved this metal almost exclusively for artistic purposes. In large sculpture of the human figure which is to be exposed to the open air, it has almost entirely taken the place of marble, stone, or other materials. CABINET-WORK AND WOOD-CARVING. In no department of industrial art have the Middle Ages left us so rich a variety as in that of furniture for the house ; such as cabinets, ar- moires, sideboards, chairs, tables, coffers, doors, panels, chimney-pieces, etc. These are of every style, from the ornate, elaborate Florentine mosaic, with its nice architectural lines, to the heavy carved oak, with rough forms, of the North of France. Every material possible for the purpose seems to have been employed for those articles which were of common use in the sleeping-chamber as well as in the grand saloons, including oak, walnut, ebony, and other woods ; various mosaics ; ivory ; iron, bronze, and FLORENTINE WORK OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 59 other metals, with marbles and various other stones. From the fifteenth to the seventeenth century numberless articles of cabinet-work were pro- duced, which filled the houses of all classes, as well as the convents, churches, and monasteries. This industrial production continued in West- ern Europe through succeeding centuries down to the present period. During the many wars which from time to time devastated these coun- tries, this combustible material was especially liable to destruction, and a vast amount of the rarest carved work must have furnished fuel for the soldiers' camp-fires. Notwithstanding the loss thus occasioned, a great deal has been preserved to fill the museums of art, and to add to the col- lections of amateurs. Although it is a well-established fact that there are to-day large manufactories in many of the European cities and, for that matter, in the United States which turn out all kinds of genuine antique furniture, yet it is not so difficult to obtain curious and beautiful exam- ples which certainly date from the sixteenth century. FLORENTINE CABINET. The most extraordinary example of Florentine work belonging to the seventeenth century is a cabinet which forms a part of the splendid col- lection of Du Sommerard, and is now in the Hotel de Cluny. We learn from Du Sommerard that this cabinet was taken to Holland in 1800 by an imperial commissioner, who came from Poland, whither, it is believed, he had followed Maria Louise de Gonzague, wife of the King of Poland. This cabinet is covered with mosaics, in " pietra dura," representing birds and landscapes, with precious stones, pilasters in lapis lazuli, cornelian, feldspar, and labrador ; it has also bass-reliefs of ivory, enamel, silver in repousse, gold, marquetry of shells, and paintings. It is divided into three parts with as many subdivisions. The first is formed of shells in- crusted with mother-of-pearl, and decorated with marbles and stones of various colors. The second part, which includes nearly all the wealth of decoration of this sumptuous cabinet, is formed of an armoire with two doors. Upon the interior and exterior faces of these two doors, as well as upon the ten drawers which compose the interior, are distributed va- rious precious materials, such as enamels, ivories, stones, and pictures. The upper part of this cabinet, crowning the whole, is garnished with stones and incrustations, upon a surface of shells, as is the rest of the work. It is surmounted by three figures in silver and by two in " rouge antique." Notwithstanding this celebrated cabinet, which forms a luxury of or- nament passing description, underwent restoration during the reign of Louis XV., it remains the most remarkable example of Florentine work of 60 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. the seventeenth century. It is an illustration of what may be accomplished by the enthusiasm of the collector. Du Sommerard discovered it in an incomplete state, many of its rarest parts having been scattered apparently beyond reach. With an eagerness, patience, and knowledge unequaled, after six years of labor, he reunited the lost parts, and presented to the world one of the most curious and valuable specimens of this branch of industrial art. CABINET CARVED BY THE MONKS OF CLAIRVAUX. One of the most exquisite examples of wood-carving, and of architect- ural grace as well, is a cabinet carved by the monks of Clairvaux for their abbe, toward the close of the sixteenth century. This fortunately fell into the hands of Du Sommerard. He obtained it from a priest, to whom it was given by the purchasers of the ancient abbey of Clairvaux. The priest, with a holy appreciation of the value of such historical relics, fearing that it might be destroyed if left to his own people, placed it in the safe hands of Du Sommerard. The great collector says of this cabinet that he was assured by the last abbe of Clairvaux, who died not many years ago, that this piece of furniture had always been in the prin- cipal abbatical apartment, and that it was the result of the collaboration of a great number of monks. It will be remembered that Clair- vaux was the first establishment found- ed by the illustrious St. Bernard, who received the aid of Ilugues I., Count of Champagne, in this pious work. At first it contained an humble colony of twelve monks, which increased to seven hundred before the death of its founder. Of all the abbeys, that of Clairvaux was most celebrated for the perfection of its illuminated missals. We are told by a Benedictine who visited it in 1708 : " In the cloister of the abbey there are twelve or fifteen small cells, all alike, where the monks were accustomed to write, and work upon their books. This is why those places are to-day called 'escritoires.' Above these cells was a library- room, large, vaulted, well lighted, and filled with a great number of man- uscripts chained to the wall." While we have this curious passage from Decorated Valencia Vase. WOOD-CARVING IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 61 the lives of the monks of Clairvaux, we have only the evidence of this cabinet that they were equally artistic and industrious in the fascinating occupation of wood-carving. The stalls in the cathedrals on the continent of Europe and in England will be more familiar to the general reader than many of the objects which have been described. The architect and the carver have exhibited in these sacred places the results of training and skill. The stalls of the choir in the Cathedral at Amiens are justly celebrated for their elegance and richness of design and their admirable execution. They are among the best works of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The architecture is of the open character, terminating in pointed columns of elegant work- manship. The author of these stalls was Arnould Boullin. A quaint piece of sculpture in wood, to be seen at the present time in the Hotel de Cluny, represents the beheading of John the Baptist. This Romano-British Ware. is an example of the German school of the fifteenth century, and is said to be in the style of Albert Diirer. There are four figures in the piece. The knight, in the armor of the period, having taken off the head of St. John, obligingly passes it to an attendant female, who gives it to the queen. The headsman strikes a dramatic attitude, and has a self-satisfied smirk upon his countenance, as if he had done a good thing, while Herodias does not appear to be altogether satisfied with the gory gift. Like many very re- alistic works of art of a dreadful nature, this is intensely ludicrous. Be- hind the figures stand the towers of a castle. The exterior doors of St. Maclou at Rouen, belonging to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, have been the admiration of every art-lover who has had the happiness of visiting that city, so rich in architectural glories. These doors are of incomparable beauty, and are attributed to Jean Gou- jon, that distinguished artist who was at the same time sculptor, architect, wood-engraver, carver, as well as a writer of great erudition. 62 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. THE ART OF DESIGN IN THE MIDDLE AGES AND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. There is a great temptation yet further to describe the arts and indus- tries of the Middle Ages. Most of the objects that have been preserved, and are in the public museums and private collections, possess historical associations of an interesting character. From these, indeed, we often- times gain a knowledge of the tastes and dispositions of men, which other- wise might not be accurately obtained. No written history, for example, could so fully have done justice to the culture and enthusiasm for art of Francis I. as do the monuments which mark his reign. The objects which have been described are characteristic of the indus- trial arts of the Middle Ages, and clearly show that in some respects the art of design has not since been excelled. But the nineteenth century has progressed in a knowledge of the fitness of things for their uses. As civilization has advanced, a multitude of inventions have made every step of human life more comfortable. Not only have the discoveries of science helped to keep away sickness and pain, and removed them more easily when they came, but the utensils by the aid of which food is prepared for consumption, the furniture of the drawing-room and the sleeping-chamber, the machinery used in manufactures, the tools of commerce, have become more practical and useful. The tasks of life are more safely, easily, and rapidly performed in the nineteenth century than they were four or five hundred years ago ; and there can be no doubt but the art of design has at the same time made great advancement. THE TREASURES OF HILDESHEIM. To attempt to give even a brief description of the characteristic feat- ures of the art industries prior to the Middle Ages would be a task far beyond the purpose of this book. A few examples of the art of the period of the Roman Republic are presented by engravings. These objects of art are interesting, both for their intrinsic excellence and because of the circumstance of their discovery. The treasures of Hildesheim, now in the Museum of Berlin, take their title from the fact that they were found near the gates of the city of Hil- desheim, in Hanover, Germany. A party of Prussian soldiers were occu- pied in laying out the ground for a fortification. The place was full of historical interest. Batteries were planted here when the city was be- sieged during the Thirty Years' War, and here the city had erected its gibbets of justice. There was an ancient tradition that rare treasures had been buried at the feet of these instruments of death. It was in the year RARE TREASURES FOUND. 63 1868 that the soldiers, while digging, came upon a heap of objects which seemed to have been buried without covering or other protection. There were tifty-two pieces vases and utensils all made of silver, most of them of great interest, and several of inestimable value. Frangois Lenorrnant, in the Gazette des Beaux Arts, attributes the hid- ing of these treasures to some of the barbarous chiefs who had pillaged the cities on the borders of the Rhine, or in Northern Gaul ; for the Roman occupation had not extended so far into the German country as Hildes- Roman Drinking-cup. From Hildesheim. 64: ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. heim. Besides, these objects are not all of Roman origin, some of them bearing evidence of barbarous construction. The largest of them is known as the " Roman drinking-cup." With its base, it weighed forty- four pounds, as is learned from an inscription engraved upon the interior of the vessel. The most artistic piece of this collection is an elegant dish, the princi- pal decoration of which is a figure of Minerva, seated upon a rock. The goddess is represented, full of grace and dignity, in a graceful aspect, as the protector of humanity and the useful arts. The ornamentation of the border which surrounds the medallion of Minerva is of palmettos, and has all the fine execution of the best Greek art. HOW ENGLAND BEGAN ART EDUCATION. 05 CHAPTER VI. ART EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. English Plan of Art Education. Committee of the Council for Education seek Informa- tion. Lord Stanley's Letter in 1867, asking Foreign Ministers for Facts with Regard to Technical and Art Education. The South Kensington Museum. Its Programme of Instruction. Tahle showing Number of Persons receiving Instruction in Draw- ing in 1873. OF all the efforts at art education in Europe, that of Great Britain has been most deliberately planned, and most energetically and persistently put in practice in the instruction of a large number of people. In En- gland there is a separate bureau of the Government devoted to Art and Science Education. This bureau has an organization which reaches out in every direction where it is desirable to have art instruction. This thorough organization for art education originated in the desire of the merchants and statesmen of England to advance the commerce of the na- tion, in the production of objects of art, from its condition of inferiority to that of France and Germany. The English people did not seem to realize the superiority of the nations on the Continent, and especially of France, until the great exposition of 1851. They were quick enough to perceive it then, and profit by the examples of their neighbors. The English-speaking people are often praised for their energy and executive capacity. None of the great achievements of England have been more surprising than the work she has done within twenty years past in the ap- plication of art to her industries. As soon as she found out her short- comings she went to work with great earnestness ; Parliament set its powerful machinery in operation ; the Committee of Council for Educa- tion addressed the Chamber of Commerce of Great Britain the following questions : What trades are now being injured by the want of technical educa- tion? How, and in what particular, are they injured ? How .do other countries, from their greater attention to technical in- struction, absorb our trade ? Give instances, and, if possible, statistics. 5 66 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. What plan of technical education would remedy the evil ? The replies to these questions may be found in the Parliamentary re- ports ordered to be printed by the House of Commons, March 25th, 1868. They came from the associations of the Chamber of Commerce for the United Kingdom, which reported the replies from the separate chambers of Nottingham, Kendal, the Staffordshire potteries, and Birmingham. They showed that there was little if any technical education. Of that great industry of the potteries which had been distinguished by the gen- ius of Wedgwood and Flaxman, we read : " It is only necessary to point out the numerous cases in which foreign workmen are employed, and for- eign designs copied, in most, if not all, the principal manufactories of the country. * * * In the pottery districts several manufacturers employ for- eign workmen as painters and designers, and in one manufactory a sum of ten thousand pounds a year is paid to foreign workmen." Such was the character of the evidence which came from the Staffordshire, Sheffield, Macclesfield, and other chambers of com- merce; and the associated chambers of commerce for Josiah Wedgwood's Cream Ware, painted with Autumu Leaves. , -,-,-. Tr . the United Kingdom pass- ed a resolution : " That while the details of a comprehensive plan of tech- nical education must be the subject of minute examination, the Govern- ment be urged to direct its attention at once to the systematic training of professors of theoretical and applied science, and to give increased assist- ance beyond that confirmed by the late minister on science schools (De- cember 21st, 1867), to all serious local efforts to establish and extend the teaching of science and art." Another step was taken on behalf of technical education, in a circular letter which Lord Stanley, in 1867, addressed to Her Majesty's ministers abroad, requesting answer to certain questions concerning industrial educa- tion among other nations. The replies to this circular all went to show that in technical education France, Belgium, Switzerland, Prussia, and Austria were far in advance of Great Britain. It is needless to say that the United States was in no condition to be offered as an example of what had been accomplished by the application of art to the industries of the land. Here and there she was able to compete with Great Britain ENGLISH PLAN OF ORGANIZATION. 67 and the Continent in certain articles of coarse manufacture, such as spades and shovels, axes, nails, sewing-machines, some fire-arms, and many articles for common use of wood -work and hardware, but never in articles to which taste and beauty give increased value. The United States at that time had not given the subject of technical education the least considera- tion. In order to gain an advanced position in the commerce of art, pow- erful associations were formed in Great Britain for the development of the arts. Schools of design, libraries, and museums were multiplied in every direction. The most effective means of instruction, however, were those connected with the Kensington Museum. These were the "Nation- al School for the Training of Art Masters and Art Mistresses," and thou- sands of schools of design which were established throughout the kingdom. Saxou Jug. Saxon Jar. This work of teaching was done with energy and completeness, so that the course of instruction, hereafter briefly described, reached every class in all the important towns of the kingdom. The machinery by which the English have accomplished such excel- lent results may be found in the following plan of organization. In the official directory, which contains the " Regulations for pro- moting Instruction in Art," four separate schools of instruction are de- scribed, and they are recorded as follows : Aid to elementary day-schools. Aid to training-colleges for teachers. Aid to art niffht-classes. o Aid to schools of art. The details of the method of proceeding in each of these schools are given at some length in the appendix, where it is seen how liberal is the English Government in the use of money for rewards and in defraying 08 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. the expenses of the schools. The use of the word "aid" has real signifi- cance. The Government not only invites the student to come and be ed- ucated, but it really pays him for coming. In all the history of persons who have been generous patrons of art, or of beneficent governments pro- viding for the welfare of their people, certainly no system equals this ef- fort of Great Britain to encourage and stimulate art education. The elab- orate and thoughtful plan which is detailed in the appendix is the result of the experience of twenty years in endeavoring to find out the best way to advance the industrial interests of that country. The system is a very complete one for Great Britain. One of its means of efficiency is its centralized power. Yet what is easy and in order for the " Koyal Committee of Council on Education " in London is impracticable, well-nigh impossible, and most undesirable, for any commissioner of education at Washington. Nor is the system of money rewards for efficiency possible in this country. The public-school fund is not likely to do more than furnish the teachers, school-room, and material. But while there are features of the English system which are not of the best method, and others not applicable to the United States, the course of actual instruction is nevertheless admirable and efficient. Let us see what amount of instruction has been given from 'year to year. At the distribution of prizes at the South Kensington school for work executed during the year 1874, the Lord President of the Council (the Duke of Richmond) gave a statement of the growth of art study in the country since 1871, from which it appears that the schools in which art is taught have increased from 2100 (1871) to 2811 (1874). In the same three years the students of art have increased in number from 203,638 to 281,400 ; and the works of art produced by the schools have in the same time increased from 102,467 to 157,636. This statement was probably made up to a later date than that of the annual report for 1873. In order to present the industrial art growth of Great Britain in a yet clearer light, the following table is given on the next page, in which the great progress made in the eighteen years between 1855 and 1873 is seen. What wonder is it that the English " have excelled the French in their favorite field of art-industrial develop- ment. These are the statistics of school instruction under the South Kensing- ton scheme ; but who shall describe that other powerful influence which proceeds from its magnificent museum and library the collections of pot- tery, bronzes, and other objects of art whose variety and costliness have never before been excelled? Not only the art industries, but the social life, of England have been improved by these agencies. CO CC 3 S II re Sg. . c a ? c _ c o w H & g a s - * H O II I! 3 X H SS H ~T a os H s; 2 H 70 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. CHAPTER VII. ART EDUCATION IN FRANCE. Art Education in France. Schools of Design in Paris. No General Programme of In- struction directed by the Government as in Belgium and Euglaud. The ficole des Beaux Arts. Statistics showing the Increase of Art Productions in Eugland over those of France from 1847 to 1868. The Uuiou Ceutrale of Fine Arts applied to In- dustry at Paris. History and Plan of its Organization. Prosper Me'rime'e on the Universal Exposition of 1862. Expositions of the Union Centrale. Novelty ami Beauty of those Expositions. Expositions of Art and Industry in the United States. Tue Sevres Manufactory. FOE many years past there has been in France no lack of means for art inspiration and art education. In other cities of that country, as well as in Paris, there are magnificent collections of pictures and statuary, and museums filled with rare and beautiful works of art, while in every direc- tion may be found schools of art. Some of these schools are under the direct management of the Government, like those of the ficole des Beaux Arts, and the School of Design in the Hue 1'Ecole de Medecine. Besides these, there are numerous day and night schools subsidized by the Government, where both sexes are taught the art of design. Not- withstanding this pecuniary assistance given to the last-named schools, the authorities do not attempt to direct the course of study in them, as does the Government of Belgium in the art schools of that country. The re- ports of Government commissioners and other officials have strongly con- demned the use of badly drawn or unartistic models, but there has been no official programme creating uniformity of instruction. At the same time, other influences have been at work which have raised the standards of in- struction to the highest point. Notable among these has been the report of the jury of the "Exposition of Schools," held in Paris, which decided that the study of linear drawing, based upon geometry, ought to be the foundation of the programme of all academies and industrial schools. In 1869 a Congress of Art was held in Paris, which expressed in yet more emphatic terms the same opinion. It insisted upon " suppressing the print, and founding the first studies in drawing upon the elements of SYSTEM BASED UPON GEOMETRY. 71 geometry." From 1865 up to the present time this principle has been constantly discussed. It has found among its most earnest advocates the powerful organization known as the Union Centrale. Thus, while the art schools of Paris have no uniform standard of study, they have generally Oiron Faience. adopted this method, which is based upon the elements of geometry, and which is sometimes called the " Hendricks system." Within the last few years the Paris schools have become something more than drawing- schools. They are now achieving great results by adding the scientific branch of the art of design to the artistic. One of the prizes offered at the recent exposition of the Union Centrale was for the industrial art school having the best method of instruction. This prize was accorded to the school of M. Levasseur, of Paris, a description of which is kindly furnished by an American gentleman resident in Paris. While it does not give a detailed programme of the course of instruction, it presents a charming, life-like picture, which is more interesting and intelligible : " I went to see Mr. Levasseur on Friday, by appointment. While I understood all he said, and am sure he has a method, though he de- clares he has not, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to explain what that method is. It is the man himself. Perhaps the best thing I can do is to briefly describe the school. A shabby-looking building on a corner (to get light), fitted up plainly, but with every convenience for work, is crowded day and evening (females in the day-time, males in the evening) 72 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. with young people from all the industrial classes. Not a calling, how- ever remotely connected with art, but has its neophyte there. I have no room to enumerate, but from the coiffeur of actual heads up to the paint- er of ideal ones, there they are and, directing them, a man who lives, I think, in the building, existing apparently only for his art ; and this brings me back to the point I started from to the man himself. He is the text-book and the method. Surrounded by models in plaster, on pa- per, with living ones at his command (I saw a class of thirty girls, from fourteen years to twenty, drawing from life), and, with assistant teachers, he counts over four hundred pupils ; he has more applicants than room. Originally his own, the city subsidized the school, and made it municipal. It is now on the broadest basis. The architect, the engineer, the carpen- ter, the furniture-maker, the decorator of china, tapestry, fans, what not, the jeweler all find appropriate models and generous instruction. Mr. Levasseur says it was proposed to establish separate and distinct schools of art in Paris for each and every industry over thirty different schools would have resulted. But he, with many others, fought the idea, and it was abandoned. He declares that the principles of true art are the same whether applied by this or that workman, and ought to be taught in all their widest scope : special schools would cramp the scholar ; the general school expands him. I said that Mr. Levasseur seemed to exist only for his art ; besides his personal he has a national pride in his position, and a ribbon, or a medal, or perhaps the cross of the Legion of Honor, is more in his estimation than individual comfort or emolument. " Mr. Levasseur says that he puts every beginner, who is not pressed for time, to draw the human face ; but often his pupils have a business in- terest in flower-drawing, or ornamental design of some sort which he is obliged to foster. Very young children begin with drawing simple geo- metrical lines, with which he combines the elements of perspective." * * * Undoubtedly the secret of the success of M. Levasseur's school is in his devotion and his rare personal capacity as a teacher. A good method of instruction is better than an indifferent or bad one ; but the best of pro- grammes is nearly useless unless the teacher is competent and enthusiastic in his work. In nearly all the public schools of France, especially in the secondary, and higher institutions of learning, drawing forms one of the branches of instruction. In the methods prescribed for the special schools there is a full course of drawing for each term ; but it is only of late years that it has been thought necessary to teach drawing to children under ten years of age. The action of Belgium and England upon art instruction has aroused the attention of the French. At a recent distribution of prizes THE ECOLE DES BEAUX ARTS. 73 at the National School of Design and Mathematics, the Marquis De Cheunevrieres, who is the present Minister of Fine Arts, declared himself strongly upon this point. He not only urged the introduction of draw- ing in all the communal schools, but he announced extensive reforms in the higher schools, which are more directly under the authority of the Government. It has been only within a short time that M. Gerard, the director of public schools in Paris, has made the teaching of drawing ob- ligatory in these schools. For the highest branches of art instruction, France possesses one of the most important art schools in Europe. THE fiCOLE DES BEAUX ARTS. This is the well-known " ficole des Beaux Arts." With few excep- tions, for many generations past, the great artists of France have passed J. F. Millet. through the extensive course of study prescribed at this school. Names like Ingres, Delaroche, Robert Fleury, Rousseau, Millet, Gleyre, Delacroix, Decamps, Troyon, and others, are associated with its government. Its pro- fessors of painting and sculpture are not taken from the ranks of incom- 74 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. petent or indifferent artists. Only those who have attained fame by their works are permitted to conduct these important trusts, which at present are in charge of Gerome, Meissonier, Cabanel, Jules Breton, and Bonnat. The Ecole des Beaux Arts is divided into three sections. These are : Painting, sculpture, and architecture. To each of these there are special ateliers. Three of painting, three of sculpture, and three of architecture, besides one of engraving on copper, and an additional atelier for engrav- ing of medals and precious stones. The instructors of the school are : A professor of painting, whose duties include the giving-out of programmes Troyon. for examination for painting ; and professors for sculpture and architect- ure with similar duties. The following branches of instruction each have a professor: Orna- mental design, anatomy, general history, mathematics, descriptive geom- etry, stereotorny, physics and chemistry, construction, legislation, history of architecture, decorative art, theory of architecture, history of archae- ology, history of the art of aesthetics. There is a system of rewards for excellence of workmanship, consisting of medals, diplomas, etc. The highest of these is the " Prize of Borne," ENGLAND EXCEEDS FRANCE IN ART PRODUCTS. 75 given in several grades, for painting, sculpture, architecture, and engrav- ing. This prize permits the successful competitor to attend the French Academy at Rome, where he follows the study of his profession from one to three years at the expense (a fixed sum of money) of the French Gov- ernment. The ficole des Beaux Arts is a costly institution to the French Gov- ernment. The subvention for the year 1875 was 450,000 francs. Upon the special authorization of the director, strangers are permitted to enter the school, and are not subject to the conditions with respect to age, ap- plied to native candidates, who are not admitted under fifteen nor over thirty years of age. Until within a few years, the superiority of France in its art produc- tions was not doubted or contested. With those articles of industry into which art entered, she filled the markets of the world. With a self-con- fidence peculiar to her people, she became careless, and it was not until half her trade had escaped her that France was conscious of the loss. Let us see the situation to which this grand nation was brought, through its lack of energy and enterprise. The statistics given below show the relations which France and England have from time to time held in their commerce in the industries of art. STATISTICS SHOWING THE INCREASE OF ART PRODUCTIONS IN ENGLAND OVER THOSE OF FRANCE, FROM 1847 TO 1868. France, which had hitherto taken a leading position in artistic indus- tries, began to fall behind, and to see a decrease in the exportation of arti- cles which require art in their manufacture. We find that from 1847 to 1856 French exportations reached the sum of 1 billion 174 million francs. Of this sum 418 million francs were for art industries about 35 per cent. On the other hand, from 1856 to 1868, there was an increase of ex- portations which amounted to 2 billion 70 million francs. Of this sum only 350 millions were for art industries scarcely 16 per cent. This shows in twelve years a decrease of more than one-half. Now in England, from 1856 to 1868, with an increase in exportations of 3 billion francs (one billion more than in France), the English products in which art is required occupied more than 855 millions (505 million more than in France), i. e., 28 per cent. (12 per cent, more than in France). Thus we see that in France, from the first period (1847 to 1856) to the second (1856 to 1868), there was a decrease in the exportation of artistic industrial productions from 35 to 16 per cent., from 418 to 350 million francs, while in England it was always 28 per cent., increasing from 413 to 855 million francs. 76 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. To maintain this proportion, in the presence of the increase of its other exportations, the sum of the products exported which require art in their manufacture must have increased in England 442 million francs, while in France it decreased 68 millions (from 418 to 350 millions). As has been significantly said of the above facts by an eminent French writer, " These figures have an eloquence which is beyond comment. We leave them to those who consider art as a fantasy without consequence, as a sort of pastime, a recreation of the l)on ton, which interests only the peo- ple of fashion and the amateurs who make collections." THE UNION CENTRALE AT PARIS. This is an organization of extended operation and influence, direct and practical in its effort, most discreet in its management, animated by the highest purpose, and already rewarded with the greatest success. The Union Centrale should be the model for similar efforts in the United States. Its early history, its purposes, and a sketch of what it has ac- complished, are given in these pages, in the hope and expectation that the establishment of like organizations in this country will exert a dom- inant influence in technical education, and in the application of art to industry. This Union Centrale of fine arts applied to the industries, was founded in 1864. It was not the first of its kind in France. As long ago as 1796, Emeric David had the design of founding an industrial museum, which, in the following year, was renewed by Dannon and Mayeure. In 1806, 1814, 1829, and 1834 other efforts were made for its establishment; some- times at Lyons and sometimes at Paris. In 1845 a society of industrial art was founded. It failed, as did the other attempts ; but it was not en- tirely useless, for it gave to M. Guichard, who had been its secretary, and also to some of his friends, that practical experience which afterward, in a new attempt, enabled them to succeed. They understood that it was necessary first to prepare the minds of the public, and then wait for fa- vorable circumstances. The proper occasion was furnished by the movement which produced the grand expositions of 1851, 1855, and 1862. In truth, the rapid strides of the English in art production had made such action a necessity, and the society, in 1864, was completely organized. For twenty years France had tranquilly rested in the conceit of its artistic superiority over other nations, having the conviction, as comfortable as it was dangerous, that no power existed able to wrest it from her. French self-confidence went so far as to advance the assuring theory that taste for art was a gift of nature, a matter of climate or territory, and therefore France had noth- PROGRAMME OF THE UNION CENTRALE. 77 ing better to do than to remain quiet. That there were clear-sighted men in France as early as 1862, may be seen by the report of M. Prosper Meri- mee on the Universal Exposition of that year. He said : " Since the Uni- versal Expositions of 1851 and 1855, immense progress has been manifested through- out Europe, and while we do not remain stationary, we can not dissimulate that the ad- vance we had made is dimin- ished, and that it may be ef- faced. In the midst of the successes obtained by our manufacturers, it is a duty which we owe to ourselves to notify them that defeat is possible, and that it may be foreseen in a not far-distant future, if they do not at once make every effort to retain a superiority which can be pre- served only upon condition of perfecting themselves un- ceasingly. The English in- dustry in particular, much behind from the art point of view at the time of the ex- hibition of 1851, has in ten years made prodigious prog- ress ; and if it continues to march at the same step, we shall very soon be left in the rear." After a while the mer- chants and manufacturers of France became aware of the English superiority, and, thoroughly alarmed at the possible loss of their business, they joined together in self-defense. Two fundamental principles composed the programme of the Union Centrale : a principle of doctrine, the unity of art ; a principle of action, an. appeal to private enterprise; the end, to labor for the development of Chasuble, Sixteenth Century. 78 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. art in all its applications to industry. The Union Centrale held success- ful expositions in 1861 and 1863. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE EXPOSITION OF THE UNION CENTRALE AND THE USUAL INDUSTRIAL EXPOSITIONS. The Exposition of 1863 gave to M. Guichard, its president, the op- portunity to explain more clearly the character and purpose of this enter- prise, which was the work of himself and friends : " The Exposition of Fine Arts applied to Industry ought not to be confounded with other in dustrial expositions. What is the office of the juries of these other grand undertakings ? They are obliged to consider a multitude of things equal- ly serious, but far removed from the point of art. They would fail in their first duties if they did not inquire into the importance of the manu- facture, the number of workmen employed, the amount of business done, the prizes previously gained, the age of the firm, and so on; and it is upon the results of all these facts that judgment is based. "With us nothing, absolutely nothing, is the same. The beauty of form, the happy employment of color, masterly execution art, in a word, art only. Such is the unique evidence invoked by us, the sole element upon which is founded our verdict. A solitary chef -d'muvre, the work of a new artist, an unknown workman, is of more value to us than the largest and most important of productions, the artistic perfection of which does not equal its commercial value. This is what we wish to have un- derstood by the words ' the fine arts applied to industry.' " The programme of this Union Centrale, and the words of M. Gui- chard, admirably express the mission of those who aim to advance the in- terests of industry in this country. It is a programme that can be closely and safely imitated in the great work yet to be begun in America. Some details of the rules of the society will give a clearer idea of its spirit and intentions. It was organized : " To encourage in France the culture of the arts which lead to the union of the beautiful and the useful. " To aid the efforts of professional men who are occupied in the work of national art education. " To excite emulation among artists whose works, while popularizing the sentiment of the beautiful, and raising the public taste, tend to pre- serve our art industries, now menaced by other countries. " The institution comprises : first, a museum, retrospective and contem- porary ; second, a library of ancient and modern art, where workmen can find aid in all their researches ; third, special courses of lectitres and pub- lic conferences, having relation to applied art, to teach the knowledge PROGRAMME OF THE UNION CENTRALE. 79 most essential to the workman and the artist who wish to unite the beau- tiful and the useful ; fourth, concurrence between the artists and the dif- ferent schools of design in Paris and the departments ; fifth, expositions winch shall more particularly present the means of studying the best ap- plication of art to industry. "The committee will continue, periodically, at Paris, under its own Dalmatian of the Fifteenth Century. responsibility, general or partial expositions of the fine arts applied to in- dustry. " Warmly convinced of the advantages of the universal application of art to industry, the committee will put itself in communication with all those who in France sympathize with this movement. It asks upon all occasions the concurrence of such persons, the use of their knowledge and influence. In return, it invites them to make use of all the resources at its command. The committee will sustain, by all the means in its power, the foundation, at industrial centres of the provinces, of institutions similar 80 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. to that of the Union Centrale, and as soon as the condition of the museum and library will permit, it will aid those institutions by the loan of models and objects of art." Membership in the society is obtained by the annual payment of thir- ty-six francs, or three francs per month. The product of this income is applied to the augmentation of the museum and library. The head-quar- ters of the society are fixed at No. 15 Place Vosges. Thanks to dona- tions, the sums received from memberships, and other sources, a large li- brary and museum have been collected at the rooms of the society. The library has been open to workmen, and all such as have had need to use it, since 1864. The president of the society at the present time is M. Edouard Andre, ancien depute. Its other officers belong to all the de- partments of art and manufacture. They are architects, manufacturers of art bronzes, house furniture, house papers, pianos, jewelry, laces, all kinds of textile fabrics, carpets, and similar articles of commerce. Prizes for competition are offered by the society. This competition is open to all aspirants from any of the schools in France, to females as well as to males. There are two classes of competition for women, and three for men. In each class there are a first and a second prize and four " men- tions." The first prize is a medal of " vermeil" and 100 francs in money. The second is a medal in silver and 50 francs in money. The " mentions " receive a bronze medal. Besides these, a grand prize is given, the subject being a composition of art applied to industry, which may be executed as a drawing or modeled in clay. This prize is 800 francs, which is to be expended in traveling. During his journey the successful candidate is to make studies and send them home, with full reports of his observations, to the president of the Union Centrale. The competition referred to above is a part of the plan of operations of the society outside of their occasional expositions. At these expositions the eifort to excel is provoked by the offering of prizes in every department of industrial art. This list is of value, as it shows the industries in which the French are most earnestly engaged. The juries which decide upon the relative merit of articles are chosen, one half by the administration, one half by the exhibitors. Among the jurors for the exposition of 1874 may be found the most dis- tinguished men in the arts and commerce in France. The following are the classes for competition : FIRST SECTION. Art applied to the Decoration of Habitations. Architecture ; decoration of cities, public edifices, and private dwell- ings ; ornamental sculpture in stone or wood ; carpenter's art work ; mar- quetry ; marble-cutting ; painting for fixed places ; window-curtains. CLASSES FOR COMPETITION. 81 SECOND SECTION. Art applied to House Tapestry. Designs ; models ; carpets of all kinds ; furnishing stuffs in silk, wool, damask, etc. ; printed paper ; leather; figured cartoons; decorative art of the carpet manufacturers. THIRD SECTION. Art applied to House Furniture. Designs; models; furniture finished in various woods, carved, gilt, lacquered, ornamented with bronze; marquetry, faience, or enameled chairs; music-boxes; frames. FOURTH SECTION. Art applied to Common Metals. Designs ; models ; art bronzes ; objects for the ornamentation of dwell- ings, engraved, gilt, enameled, glass, etc.; forged iron, cast-iron, artistic iron-mongery, and copper. FIFTH SECTION. Art applied to Precious Metals. Designs ; models ; work in gold and silver for the table and for relig- ious purposes ; jewelry, cameos. SIXTH SECTION. Art applied to Pottery and Glass-ware. Designs ; models ; decoration in terra cotta ; art potteries ; terra cotta enameled ; porcelain enameled ; painted porcelain ; enamels ; glass-ware ; crystals ; mirrors ; stained glass ; large windows for churches. SEVENTH SECTION. Art applied to Stuffs for Dresses and Clothing for Domestic Use. Designs; models; shawls; cashmeres; trimming; laces; embroideries; woolen and silk stuffs ; cloths printed and worked, etc. EIGHTH SECTION. Art applied to Various Articles. Designs ; models ; carriages ; fire-arms ; side-arms ; cutlery ; table-ware ; small furniture ; articles de Paris ; book-binding ; artificial flowers ; fans. NINTH SECTION. Art applied to Instruction. Methods of popularizing art ; designs ; models ; engraving upon metals and wood ; lithography ; chromo-lithography ; autography ; heliography ; photography ; printing ; new ways of engraving ; books and illustrated publications. The good results which have developed from the organization of the 6 82 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. Union Centrale are felt all over France. Among the most important lias been the formation of a council of manufacturers of art industries, chosen Indian Leather Shoe. Woman's Shoe, India. Sandal, India. among the presidents and vice-presidents of the syndical chambers of art industries, whose business it is to examine into all questions relative to fabrication. In the organization of the Union Centrale there were difficulties which do not exist in this country, nor could they well be understood by our self-acting people. In France it has, until recently, been the policy of the Government that superior edu- cation, with other great works of a public character, should be under the authority and patronage of the national Government. The Union Centrale renounced the subsidies of the Government, and called upon the public spirit of the people to support its efforts. In 1865 and 1869 successful expositions were held. Soon after came the war with Germany, when the association, in common with other institutions of art, was silent. With the close of the war came renewed activity on the part of those who had already done so much for the society. It was reorganized; M.Andre was made president ; and M. Guichard became the organizing director of the Exposition of 1874, which closed after a great success. This brief history of the or- ganization of the Union Centrale would not be complete without mentioning some of the most characteristic features of the Exposition of 1874. Indian Shoe with Pointed Toe. It has been said that EXPOSITION OF THE UNION CENTRALE. this society is conducted under independent direction. It has received important aid, however, from the French Government in its use of the Chinese Shoe for Natural Foot Chinese Shoe for Deformed Foot superb Palais d'Industrie. In the spacious and commodious halls of this Patten. building, devoted to art and industry, the society had ample opportunity to display its collection of wonderful and curious things. Pointed Shoe of the Fifteenth Century. Persian Slipper worked with Seed-pearls. The artists and manufacturers of objects of art were all represented at Shoe embroidered with Silver. Sandal. From Poudicherry. ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. this exposition. There was exhibited the most perfect work in bronze, pottery, glass, and jewelry; dec- oration of walls and ceilings; book-making. There were works in iron and other metals ; of en- graving and lithography ; sculpt- ure and painting; manufactures of shawls, laces, cloths, carpets, linens, silks, and every other fab- ric ; cabinet-work ; inlaying ; mo- saics; photography; clocks and watches; artificial flowers; pict- ure-frames these and several other objects representing the many sub- divisions which go to make up the simplest articles in art manufacture. A most valuable and interesting feature of this exposition was the de- partment devoted to competition for prizes for superiority in art instruc- tion. All the principal art and industrial schools of France, including the Ecole des Beaux Arts, exhibited their methods of instruction, with examples of the work of their pupils. M. Levasseur, as has been already noted, drew the first prize in this competition. Shoe of Catherine de Medicis. Shoe of the Fifteenth Century. A department of exceeding brilliancy was the Historical Museum of Costumes. Here were gathered some six thousand examples of costumes of all nations and ages. These costumes were classified and divided ac- cording to their nationalities and the period in which they were worn. Among these were the Tiraz, made in the eleventh century, in Palermo, by the skilled Arab prison- ers of war, for Koger II., the Norman King of Sicily ; rich- ly decorated chasubles, worn by high dignitaries of the Church ; stuffs of velvet and gold, worn in 1385 by the ladies and gentlemen of the court of Isabel of Bavaria; COStly robes which graced the Shoe of De Montmorency. EXPOSITION OF 1874. 85 forms of the men and women of the courts of Francis I., Henry II. of England, and Henri II. of France. Among the costumes of religious orders of special interest were six- teen manikins which represented the " Penitents of Limoges," whose dresses of black, white, blue, and Slashed Venetian Patten. High Venetian Patten. gray; whose chaplets, crosses of prayer, and gonfalon, dated from the fif- teenth century. At this exhibition all classes of society seem to have offered their most sacred treasures in behalf of art. The State, the Church, the theatre, and the private citizen exhibited a gen- erosity which it would be hard to find outside of France. Nor were the costumes which have been noted confined to gar- ments alone, for the rare and curious collection of shoes and slippers belonging to M. Jules Jacque- German Woman's Shoe, Seventeenth Century. Wooden Sandal with Button, India. Painted Open Sandal. From India. 6 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. mart came before the eyes of the public. By the side of the high-heeled shoe, richly embroidered with silver, which once contained the haughty foot 'of Catherine de Medicis, was the black-satin slipper of the Empress Indian Shoe. Patten of Corduan, Sixteenth Century. Josephine. Here were the German shoe " camus " of the sixteenth cent- ury, and the shoes of Henri de Montmorency, decapitated in 1632 by order of Richelieu. The pattens of the fifteenth century, with their rough forms, were united with those of Venice in the sixteenth, richly embroid- ered, and erected upon a pedestal of lofty proportions. The form and color of these last-named pattens are interesting, as marking the manners of the day. From time to time the law-makers of Venice were obliged to define the limit of luxury which might be permitted between ladies of rank and those who made improper use of their charms. The latter could wear only white shoes, while modest women had the monopoly of black. Several sandals and slippers from In- dia bore witness that the laws of caste extended even to the foot-covering of the followers of Buddha. In some in- stances they appear to have had no other covering or means of fastening than a sort of button, which was pass- ed between the big toe and its next neighbor. A sandal from Pondicherry had antique shape ; it was made of dam- ask and leather, covering the upper part of the foot and exposing the toes. When we come forward to the time of the Regency in France, the shoes of women were built up at the heel to preposterous heights. Fashion and history repeat themselves, for we find the custom of wearing shoes with high heels placed under the hollow of German Shoes, Sixteenth Century. EXPOSITIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 87 the foot is nearly as extravagant in our day as it was even among the idle people of the time of Louis XVIII. The department of costumes was attractive from its novelty, as well as from the costly nature of the articles exhibited. Almost equally interest- ing was the historical collection of gloves. The ecclesiastical red glove, with gold - embroidered monogram, worn by a cardinal of the fifteenth century, was placed side by side with the rough gauntlets of some warrior of Flanders ; while there were many pairs of delicately made gloves orna- mented with lace and gold, all of them representing the history of many nations and centuries. At the present writing August, 1876 the fifth exposition of the Union Centrale has been opened at Paris, with imposing ceremonies, by the President of the French Republic. The brilliancy of the display of industrial arts of France is said to surpass any which have preceded it. More than thirty halls and galleries are filled with ornamental sculpture, carpets, pottery, and all those objects of ancient and modern industrial art whose exhibition fulfills the high aims of this organization. EXPOSITION OF ART AND INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES. The discussion of the projects and performances of the Union Centrale suggests the desirability of radical changes and improvements in the plans of the expositions so generally held in this country. Our so-called " expo- sitions " are most often the old-time county or State fairs, without their show of horses, oxen, and other cattle. There are exceptions, however, like those which for several years past have been held in Cincinnati and Chicago. Those at Cincinnati are worthy of consideration, because they introduced certain important features ; because they have been regularly^ held, have represented most of the great industries in the East and West ; and because the service rendered by their commissioners and officers is gratuitous. The Cincinnati Exposition has also pre-eminence, because its so-called art department has presented altogether the finest annual collections of paintings and engravings exhibited in the United States. These collec- tions have always been of an international character. The artists of Eu- rope and the United States have appeared upon the walls in harmonious proximity. Although the number of paintings exhibited has never been large not over four hundred at a time yet these have been of the high- est character. The exhibition of 1872 brought together an extraordinary representation of the works of the German painters, especially those of Lessing, Andreas and Oswald Achenbach, Gude, Knaus, Herzog, Yautier, Zimmermann, Hiibner, Heilrath, and others. The exhibition of 1874 was ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. yet more remarkable. Contributions were made from the celebrated col- lections of J. Taylor Johnstone, William T. Blodgett, Marshall O. Rob- erts, Charles O'Hara, J. L. Wolf, Parke Godwin, and others, of New York ; from those of J. L. Claghorn, H. E. Gibson, and Fairman Rogers, of Phil- adelphia ; and from those of several gentlemen in Cincinnati and else- where. In the exhibition of that year there were scores of pictures, any one of which would have made a sensation at the Paris salon. The collec- tion included the finest examples from the pencils of Miiller, Couture, Jules Breton, Meissonier, Yillegas, Decamps, Knaus, Brion, Cabanel, Es- cosura, Carl Hoff, Carl Becker, Lessing, Achenbach, Hugues Merle, Tro- yon, Yautier, Ziem, August Bonheur, and many others. Besides these paintings, there was a splendid collection of en- gravings, consisting chief- ly of an historical series lent by J. L. Claghorn, of Philadelphia. There is no question of the value, both from a commercial and art point of view, of these expositions. Their in- fluence is distinctly per- ceptible, and especially is that of the exhibition of pictures ; yet none of these expositions are con- ducted upon the admira- ble plan of the Union Centrale. We might not be able at the present time to say, with M. Guichard, that " The beauty of form, the happy employment of color, masterly execution ; art, in a word, and only art, is the unique evidence to be invoked," etc. Such an exposition, framed upon such a basis, would certainly be attractive, and of the highest educational value. Unfortunately, we have neither the manufactures, nor, excepting in a few large cities, the rare private collections of antique and other historical gems upon which to draw for the desired material ; and yet we can borrow wisdom from the example of the Union Centrale. While premiums for merit are lavishly given at our expositions, the true spirit of art is. rarely called upon, nor is it understood. The highest expressions of art are on the walls of the Tile. From Chertsey Abbey. THE SEVRES MANUFACTORY. 89 picture-gallery; but they are gathered rather as an attraction to bring money at the entrance gate than as an educational influence. The space between these paintings and the industrial part of the enterprise is vast, and no effort is made to fill it up. In the rewards of merit for superior- ity in industrial products there is no standard of art. No steps are pro- vided by which the exhibitor or the visitor can ascend to the higher plane of taste and culture. The juries which are selected to decide upon the premiums to be awarded for objects of industry are not, as they should be, required to give reasons for their choice, or to make critical reports upon the objects to which aw r ards are given.* The programme of the Union Centrale is full of suggestions, the adop- tion of which would raise the standard of our American expositions, and, at the same time, the higher education it is their province to teach. THE NATIONAL MANUFACTURE OF SEVRES. The Sevres manufactory has been a decided influence in art education, not only for France, but for other nations. Its exquisite work has been produced at the expense of the Government, not directly with a view to money profit, but rather from the higher stand-point of art. In its pro- ductions of beautiful works of the finest artists in ceramic art on the Con- tinent, it proposes to rise above the ordinary commercial enterprises con- ducted for personal gain. It aspires to be at the head of artistic produc- tion, to give tone to public taste, and thus establish French pre-eminence. The French Government has recognized the need of reform, even in the Sevres manufactory, and a commission has very recently been appointed for the purpose of examination into the general conduct of this public work. * Since the above was written the Centennial Exposition has been held, where a plan for recommendation of awards, similar in some respects to this, was adopted. A written opinion was expected from an " individual judge," which was to meet with the approval of a majority of the judges of the group to which he belonged. While it was impossible for these judges to make exhaustive reports, yet in most cases they gave just and valua- ble criticisms, which met with the approval of their companions. The great error, how- ever, of this plan at the Centennial Exposition was, that it was expected also to apply to works of fine art purely, such as paintings and sculpture. It was found to be impossi- ble for any two persons to agree in their opinion of a work of art, while in the expres- sion of approval they could unite upon a general term like that of " artistic excellence." So the judges to whom were intrusted the classes for painting and sculpture agreed in their recommendation for award to use only the phrase " for artistic excellence." The judges upon paintings made the distinction of classifying the pictures as follows : 1. His- torical, Religious, Poetical, and Allegorical ; 2. Genre ; 3. Landscape ; 4. Portrait ; 5. Au- iuial and Still-life. 90 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. This commission, through one of its members, M.Viollet le Due, a gen- tleman highly distinguished in the world of art, has made a report which is an invaluable addition to the literature of ceramic art. This report is The Raphael aud Forunriuu Plate. too long to be reproduced in these pages. It is divided into several. chap- ters, as follows : I. Report of the examination of the products of the manufactory, with critical remarks. II. The end proposed by the manufactory. III. Science and art involved. IV. Theory of the ceramic art ; its form and decoration. V. Education of artists ; instruction in the art of decoration. VI. Price of Sevres ware. VII. Organization of a museum of Sevres ware. VIII. Management ; general questions. IX. Conclusion. Under the second article, which discusses the " end proposed," a list is given of various articles to be manufactured. It discusses the best forms and styles for all of these. After calling attention to the superior style M. VIOLLET LE DUC'S SUGGESTIONS. 91 and colors of Chinese and Japanese decorations, it makes the following resume : Suppress the pastes of color, replacing them with colored enamel made transparent by intense heat. Create for these kinds of transparent colored enamels an order of vases, where beauty of shape, engraving, sculpture, and high-relief shall form all the decoration. For the decoration of white vases, replace the glazing with tinted en- amel, and transform a part of the colors of the paint by substantial enam- el, both transparent and opaque, limiting the number of shades of color. Create a porcelain which can be reglazed with background colors at half heat. Try to obtain the flaming Chinese red. Develop, by serious appeals, personal effort. After discussing some defects in the management of the Sevres manu- facture, M. Yiollet le Due suggests the following reform : In the first place, it is necessary to systematize the education of the art- ists. It is necessary to indicate to the artists now employed in the works, and those who desire to be employed, the steps to be taken for that spe- cial education which is required of them. It is necessary that these art- ists shall pursue the general studies of art education, as well as special studies, in order to develop the following qualities : The purity, beauty, and grace of Greek art. The security and vigor of Etruscan art. The brilliancy and originality of Persian art. The infinite variety, the marvelous coloring of Chinese art. The striking effects of decoration in Japanese art. The grace and ingenious combinations of Arabian art. The abundance and richness of Italian art. The delicate grace of the arabesques of Rouen, Severs, and Delft. The noble elegance and the distinction of the old Sevres of Louis XVI. M. Yiollet le Due offers in this report not only the above learned and significant advice, but many other theories and suggestions which are of great value in the production of ceramic art ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. CHAPTER VIII. BELGIUM. Art Education in Belgium. The Congress of Art in 1868. Demand for Improved Meth- ods of Art Education based npou the Principles of Geometry. Decree of King Leo- pold appointing a Commission to investigate and report upon the Condition of Schools and Academies in Belgium. Report of Commissioners. Programme of Art Education adopted by the Government, and put in Practice in the Schools. Excel- lence of this Programme. IT has, until very recently, been supposed that the system of art edu- cation in Belgium was more complete than that of any other plan pursued by the European nations. Her academies of fine arts, schools of design, and especially her industrial schools, have been cited as models for imita- tion, because of their admirable organization and advanced method of in- struction. It appears that, excellent as all this was, the Belgians them- selves became aware of their deficiencies, and within a few years have taken vigorous and thorough means for a radical reformation in their sys- tem of instruction. The agitation of this reform began by the convo- cation in 1868 of an industrial congress at Brussels, for the discussion of the best methods to be introduced into the schools for instruction in the art of design. Among the results of the proceedings of this congress was the adop- tion of a resolution that it was necessary to introduce the study of draw- ing into the communal schools. In the language of M. de Lajolais, a member of the congress from Paris, " Instruction should be given at first to children, in knowledge of form, then they should be accustomed to the habit of following and understanding the transformation of exact form into ornamentation. The study of drawing, in the first instance, develops the intelligence of the child in teaching him how to see. To see with the eye of a designer is to create the sense of exact observation and of analy- sis ; and these results can be attained by a series of attractive exercises." Another important conclusion which came from the discussions of this congress was the "necessity for the radical reorganization of the element- ary teaching of the fine arts by the substitution, for the routine methods ART EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 93 in use, of a uniform and rational mode, based upon scientific principles, which are the essence of art itself; to suppress the common prints and engravings now used as models ; to base the study of drawing upon the elementary principles of geometry." Following up the work of this congress, in 1869, M. Pirmez, Minister of the Interior, addressed a circular to the governors of the provinces, call- Mirror-case enameled with Precious Stones. Period of Henri III. Collection of Madame la Baronne Gustave de Rothschild. ing for reports of the condition of the schools in their districts, with an inventory of the models in use. Yery many of the art and industrial schools throughout the kingdom were largely sustained by subventions from the National Government. On July 10th, 1869, a decree was issued by King Leopold which declared, among other articles, that these subven- tions should hereafter be conditional : 1st. Upon the approval of the programme of instruction, rules, etc. 94 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. 2d. Inspection. 3d. Participation in the general examination and the expositions or- ganized by the Government. The effect of this decree was by persuasion more than authority to place all the schools under a uniform system of instruction, and subjec- tion to the central authority. The Government chose as inspectors two artists, long associated with this branch of instruction, and who had spe- cially signalized themselves in the congress referred to above. These were M. Canneel, Director of the Academy Royal of Fine Arts at Ghent, who was delegated to inspect the academies and schools of design of the two Flanders, and M. Taeye, Director of the Academy of Fine Arts at Louvain, who was delegated to inspect similar establishments in the other parts of the country. These gentlemen were furnished with all au- thority, and formulas were issued covering all the information desired. These were comprised under several questions referring to the condition of the schools, the form of instruction, and the personnel of the teach- ers. After close and thorough inspection the delegates made exhaustive reports of the condition of the schools. These reports showed the neces- sity of great reform and changes, both in the methods of and models for instruction. A programme in accordance with the principles suggested by the congress, as above noted, was elaborated by the inspecting dele- gates. This programme has been adopted by nearly all the schools in the kingdom. It gave, as the foundation of instruction in the fine arts, the study of linear drawing, based upon geometry, substituting the model in relief, for the print. In 1871, M. Kervyn de Lettenhove, Minister of the Interior, addressed a circular letter to the provincial inspectors of primary instruction, in which he called attention to the fact that the Government of Great Brit- ain and the city of Paris had introduced the study of drawing in the pub- lic schools. The minister advanced cogent arguments for the adoption of a similar course in Belgium. He says: "Instruction in drawing ought then to be given in all the normal schools by professors capable of teach- ing. In order to attain this result, the Government will not hesitate to make remunerations larger than those now accorded." After asking for replies to several questions with regard to the " capa- bilities of teachers," the " methods in use," and the " material on hand," etc., he declares : " The Government, in the task it has undertaken, counts upon the concurrence and support of the communes and provinces. It is a question of national interest, since its principal object is the prog- ress of industry and the development of the artistic sentiment of the country." PROGRAMME OF ART EDUCATION. 95 In the attempt to carry out the objects of this circular, the delegates, Messrs. Canneel and Taeye, were instructed to visit and inspect these nor- mal schools. The result of this inspection was a report which urged the adoption, in the primary schools, of a system of education similar to that already recommended for the academies of art. Numerous other sugges- tions were also made looking to the more complete organization of these schools. The reports of Messrs. Canneel and Taeye are among the most valuable contributions yet made to the literature of art instruction. These gentlemen possessed rare qualifications for the duty imposed upon them, and their opportunities for observation and comparison embraced a large number of superior schools. The conclusions to which they arrived are undoubtedly important and correct, and ought to be carefully considered by those who are organizing art schools in the United States. The folio wing is the programme adopted by Messrs. Canneel and Taeye : PROGRAMME OF COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR AN ACADEMY OR SCHOOL OF DESIGN. Elementary Instruction. First Degree. Geometrical drawing, drawing at sight and by aid of instruments ; prin- ciples of projection and perspective. SECOND DIVISION. Artistic Instruction. 1. Linear drawing, one and two hours each day, of plain geometrical figures and some of their combinations. 2. Combination of polygons. 3. Application of geometrical figures to ornament. 4. Exercises of drawing from memory. 5. Exhibition of the fundamental relations of colors with extremely elemental applications in simple tints. Scientific Instruction. Two lessons of one hour each week arithmetic. FIKST DIVISION. Artistic Instruction. 1. Principles of projection. 2. Elements of perspective. 96 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. 3. Designs after nature, represented by solids. 4. Application of geometrical figures to ornamentation. 5. Exercises in drawing from memory. 6. First ideas of harmony of color, with applications of polychrome in plain tints and by juxtaposition. Scientific Instruction. Two hours each week arithmetic. Second Degree. General principles of design from objects in relief ; light and shade ; drawing from fragments of architecture, from ornamentation and busts. SECOND DIVISION. Artistic Instruction. One and a half to two hours each day. 1. Study of shaded drawing from solids. 2. Progressive studies of shaded drawing from fragments of architect- ure modeled upon the monuments of antiquity, of the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance. 3. Exercises in drawing from memory. FIRST DIVISION. One and a half to two hours each day. 1. Studies of shaded drawing of fragments of ornaments after casts from the sculpture of antiquity, of the Middle Ages, and the Renais- sance. 2. Studies of shaded drawing from fragments of heads, casts from the chef-cPceu'vres of antique sculpture. 3. Studies of shaded drawing of masks after the casts of chef-cFceuvres of antique sculpture. 4. Drawing exercises from memory. Scientific Instruction. Four lessons of one hour each week. 1. Continuation of the study of projection. 2. Study of linear perspective. 3. Elements of algebra. 4. Elementary geometry. N.B. The second degree should constitute the course of drawing for PROGRAMME OF ART EDUCATION. 97 the second year of studies for the normal schools, and form the pro- gramme for instruction in drawing for the intermediate schools. Third Degree. Study of different styles of ornament and busts. Artistic Instruction. One and a half to two hours each day. 1. Shaded drawing of ornaments of different styles, after casts from the chef-cPceuvres of antiquity, of the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance. 2. Studies of drawings of busts after the casts of the cfief-cP ceuvres of antique sculpture. 3. Drawing exercises from memory. Scientific Instruction. Six lessons of one hour each week. 1. Continuation of the study of projections. 2. Study of perspective ; direct outlines and reflected shadows. 3. Architectural nomenclature. 4. Elements of algebra. 5. Geometry. 6. Proportions of the head placed in their relation to the human body ; anatomy ; osteology and myology of the human head. At this point the programme of art instruction is enlarged, or rather separates toward those studies which concern the different occupations the pupil may wish to follow. This programme embraces painting, sculpture, and architecture. Now that we have given a brief sketch of the history and programme of art instruction in Belgium, it will be interesting to note some few facts with regard to the number of schools and pupils in this little kingdom. In 1870 there were 66 academies and schools of design, and 17 in- dustrial schools. The total cost of supporting these schools was about $100,000, which was borne by the State, the provinces, and the com- munes much the larger portion by the latter. In 1872 the number of professors was 315, the number of pupils 11,158. Of the 750,000 children in Belgium of the school age, 17,000 were members of intermediate schools, colleges, and athenaeums, of which near- ly 590,000 were in the primary schools ; only 11,158 were in the acade- mies and schools of design, notwithstanding the fact that most of the children in the primary schools were destined to pursue occupations for which a knowledge of design is absolutely indispensable. This was the 7 98 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. Tile from Chertsey Abbey. state of affairs in 1872. At the present writing, 1876, the adoption of the programme framed by Messrs. Canneel and Taeye has already brought about a marked change. The entire population of Belgium is gradually acquiring a knowledge of drawing and technology which will result in artistic and intellectual development. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. 99 CHAPTEK IX. ART EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA AND BAVARIA. Art Education in Prussia and Bavaria. General Survey of Plan of Industrial Schools in Prussia. Schools of Higher Instruction. The Trade Schools in Bavaria. Royal Industrial School in Nuremberg. Trade Schools in Nuremberg as an Example of Others in Bavaria. AN investigation of the means of education in Prussia and Bavaria re- veals a system far-reaching and complete in each of its departments. Not only in the common schools are taught all the studies customary in our own, with the addition of drawing, but technical schools are established which give instruction in the special knowledge required for all the arts and trades respectively. All important trades, like those of the weaver, dyer, mason, carpenter, potter, and so on, have schools which teach the scientific as well as the practical knowledge necessary in such occupations. The institutions for education in the higher branches of the arts and sci- ences are equally exhaustive in their programmes. In all of these, draw- ing and design are carefully taught. An idea of some of the provisions for technical instruction may be ob- tained from the general survey of the plan of industrial schools in Prussia, given in the table on the next page. All of these schools embrace art education in one or another form. In the Evening, Sunday, and Perfecting schools the following are taught : architectural, machine, free-hand, and geometrical drawing (fun- damental proportion doctrine) ; modeling in clay, wax, wood, etc. In the Building schools, architectural and free-hand drawing, and modeling in clay. For the middle grade First Course: Four lessons of about one hour each week are given in 1. Drawing; 2. Architec- tural drawing ; 3. Machine drawing, twelve lessons in all, and one hour to modeling. Second Course: Ten lessons to drawing, and two to mod- eling. The other establishments in the middle grade are similar to the above. In the higher technical schools, like the Gewerbe Academy at Berlin, 1 1 = 1 H 9 fig-B p to CJ cT*n **- !* i 1*11 1 1 -" ^ '5 s i |s^" | H QV* w K w S fe O i i pPfftli o a) 'S'S'o ra 3 " S M ^" ^ -< I 1 ' u"^~ ~% g a S in |X-|||l|J 1 C^XfaO* 5 . j g u, oo a So i * MS o g .S g o e'.HS S *^ S r-'oicfl*^ sjidnd PUB '88Dijn9.id -dB '8.I8JSUIU 'SU8|1.1B 'U81U -}(JOAiJO 8888B10 \\V JOJ 8[OOqOS " i|- b Ms> <= ..(M '-I x &5 S.2" 2 S 2-T3 Jr S * = 3" f g' "5. * /-^-N x^V-^^A^,,.^^ S oo ^ ^ fa g?> o3 J3 _S ^ ^J l| J^ 1~ !l^2 -1 "S"" 5' wsio' o5w''=3 i* * J C!' C- ^C-^^'^^ e > 1 1 1 1 1 Iff If 5J|* Is p os to A s 1 jjl | ... I O i g ? | [ i : 1 '='2 & ^"3 I llllfi 1 i I M bc a M B a _ do-So.= -ga ' g .5"S~ 2 a g S -a, 1 5 s^c B o> S S - / rH ^ P 1 rJ ai m -* 10 r liitlll !j is p fl |J| 5-S s^-S^'g g a M IS 5- M^ - 5 cs o If i CT3 = .= c a .i * 'S ~ 'S - * a 1 1 7ll jSi i 5 .S g-o H !tss 3 c c- s s | _. 5 "3 1 1 Ex] S M 1- I a" > |-3 i 5K5 i i rs 2-^r a _o ES8 d i i S OJ 5; 'C ci a p* ^ 2 JD J^ 4_> 5 . 53 s ^'S tcs S P- 1 &S ^^-S 5 TH cS -^ K aqi jo s.io]08.iip puii ' SSBp .SUBS C -illlS JO 8.I8UA\0 ijlIUIS Sui[[jpim jo aidood .ioj' S[ooqog Q O *l- o ^ : O EH |||j 00 *E* i 2|-S |_ . 11 *c s f 2 "5 11 Ill-Ill o fl ^ 1 v-. t 3 fl 2 1 1 * ^ E c2 3* s *< - *! . -i-- JS ffj rl rj. >> * OD "^ *S :oT ^ 2 a i S (3 ~ .2 "3*3 ? *2 % 8 _S ""-g 1 ^ 00 ^ & V. ^!s^ ^2 S ! e a C 5-S " 3 I ^ o "S B "^ "-- B fa ^2 " u 1 fa OB -2 B K , ^ &4 ^ 0? QQ !S PH S P^ ? r- CO-* W ._ , , , , ,. r ,_,.[, fa K ^ ~~ " S-O^^ i f S ^ *> "~ ' 'C t? n i u'SS * w.S S > - g J ^ 5" p.i ? c S5 ?: get- o> 3.5 00.2 & | i M Sc^ .2 "c~' * ' 1 .5 M j= j= J'S T3 3 i ^e3.ca,ox JJ? fc ^ ^ o i c UJ S 53 B fa ;? 'O ** J3 a "o o =- ^ 3 r- A IS ^ *? *? 1 w j= 'X 00 J '"-' i-KNCO 1 p. _ 5.^., j) B n> CS A O O 2 i TH oi J OJ8 'agp8|A\OU3l [B3Hiq081 O.IU[ JO SJ8UMO 'S.l83lllolia (IA13 's.i38ii!3u8 Sutpa-iip 'iunjBDiipa issqgjq sq; jo 'suosjad aoj s[ooqog S E 11 * t- * =o 's : ; . . o, ^ i l p Jji|^|l ""^^^^S it 1 ^ : *j o ^< o B B * ! > . . g r-. 05 ri .O ^> j 3 I llll" l|S|i : " " " " z 3 c *-. ^ A fl c "~ ^^^^.^^^ iblishments. ^ " p 1 ' * ' * "~ * 1 * ^ -^ ^ *S 2 * a S ? * I ei illi&i&ill i tei is '- M >> tt'S * " ^ fc O ^ PH S U O rH O3 ^f 1C t - ROYAL SCHOOL OF ART AT NUREMBERG. 101 Tile Decoration. From Crudeii's ChapeL there are lectures upon descriptive geometry, and the application of it to perspective, construction of shadows, drawing, and modeling. In what is known as the divisional department, there are taught : prac- tice in plans for parts of machines, in plans of power -machinery, in plans of machine and factory grounds, in plans and drawings of such ar- tistic forms as can be used for iron when wrought, drawing of vessels and parts of vessels ; art of ship-building. BAVARIA. In Bavaria, besides many schools for trade and industry, like those al- ready described in Prussia, there are several schools which have a more direct influence in the effort to unite art with industry. The Royal School of Art at Nuremberg is well known for its special aim in that di- rection, and its plan of instruction has served as a model for many others. There could not be a better example of the use of art instruction than that offered by this ancient city, which almost has the monopoly of the trade in certain articles of commerce, such as the Nuremberg toys, which 102 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. are known the world over. In Nuremberg the influence of the art schools upon the workshop is direct. Artistic grace and curious invention exist in the latter, because of the training and education given in the former. The conditions which have made Nuremberg a prosperous city may exist almost anywhere in the United States, if the attempt be systematically and patiently made. The following is the programme of instruction at the Royal Industrial School in Nuremberg, adopted in November, 1869 : 1. Ornamental drawing, preparatory class, (a) After ornamental mod- els, twelve hours weekly. (>) Exercises in the drawing of surface orna- ments, six hours weekly. 2. Drawing from the antique, twenty-four hours weekly. 3. (a) Drawing from living models, groups of figures and drapery, twelve hours weekly. (5) Drawing of heads, twelve hours weekly, (c) Execution of cartoons, paintings on glass, etc. Technical School. FIRST COURSE. first Term (of six months). Education of the eye and hand by the drawing of lines and geometrical figures ; full-size drawing of bodies with plane surfaces ; explanation of the faculty of sight, and the first principles of perspective. Linear drawing without instruments is combined with free-hand drawing. /Second Term. Continuation of free-hand drawing ; drawing of sim- ple ornaments, from pictures fastened on the walls, or from slightly re- lieved or intersected objects ; linear drawing with the aid of square, and mathematical instruments ; division, measuring, and transfer of right lines, angles, and figures ; construction, gradation, and subdivision of scales. SECOND COURSE. Drawing of figures in relief ; drawing of compound ornaments, from " plastic " (plastischeri) models ; the proportion of the human head and its parts in firm, simple outlines, from pictures fastened on the walls ; exer- cises in the construction of regular curved lines; architectural details; projections of simple surfaces and plane circumscribed contours ; relief - drawing, after simple " plastic " objects in different proportions as to size. THIRD COURSE. Continuation of the exercises in free-hand drawing, curvilinear objects, drawing of animals and plants so far as applicable in ornaments with light shading to mark the form ; explanation of the manner of represent- ing style / drawing of the human body and its proportions in outlines ; INDUSTEIAL SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA. 103 linear drawing ; continuation of exercises in the drawing of projected fig- ures, with reference to simple machines and models ; the (five) orders of architecture ; industrial ornamentations and profiles if possible, in natu- ral size after models ; sketching from nature ; exercises in India ink ; designs in intersection ; relief - drawing, after pictures of simple forms from the antique. Agricultural School. FIRST COURSE. First Term. Training of the eye and hand in the drawing of lines, geometrical figures, and simple ornamental forms, from large pictures fast- ened on the walls ; drawing from correspondingly large bodies with plane surfaces ; explanation of the act of seeing, and the first elements of per- spective. Second Term. Linear drawing, with the aid of square and instru- ments; division into spaces; measuring and transfer of straight lines, plane angles, and figures ; construction and division of scales ; exercises in the drawing of simple geometrical bodies in outlines, and in various positions ; the principles of projection. SECOND COURSE. Exercises in drawing of details of architecture, and especially arrange- ments of agricultural buildings, after models and original designs ; draw- ing of simple agricultural implements; instruction in the designing of maps, and division of land into sections, intended for various agricultural purposes (Culturplaneri). THIRD COURSE. Exercises in the drawing of whole buildings after models on a dimin- ished or enlarged scale ; sketches of buildings in elevation and in profile ; drawing of agricultural implements and machines, after original designs. Polytechnic School (Real Gymnasium). FIRST COURSE. Free-hand drawing ; exercises in the drawing of straight lines, and the formation of geometrical figures out of these lines ; drawing of bodies with plane surfaces, accompanied by explanations of the faculty of sight, and the first elements of perspective with reference to single figures and groups of figures ; exercises in the drawing of curved lines, and the for- mation of simple ornaments out of these lines; drawing of symmetrical 104: ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. ornaments and implements, from pictures fastened on the walls, and from slightly relieved plaster casts of antique forms of art. SECOND COURSE. Free-hand drawing ; division and relations of different parts of the hu- man body, from pictures on the walls ; foreshortening of single parts in different positions ; the form of the human body in different movements ; richer ornaments, round and plane, in outlines ; linear drawing ; exercises with rule, square, and compasses, by dottings or figures ; explanation of the principles of projection ; exercises in the delineation of simple bodies in projection ; measuring and reduction of models of bodies, and their projection according to various positions. THIRD COTJKSE. Free-hand drawing ; practice in the art of shading in its simplest form at first from plane-surface ornaments, afterward from round ; heads in different positions ; hands and feet, after easy models ; ornaments of dif- ferent epochs of art in connection with architectural details ; linear draw- ing ; measuring of compound models of bodies with plane surfaces, and their projection, by the application of geometrical rules, on an enlarged or reduced scale, according to position ; relief -drawing ; projection of or- namental details and of entire ornaments at first after solid, then after plane models on an enlarged or diminished scale. FOURTH COURSE. Free-hand drawing ; drawing of animals and plants, with close regard to foreshortening and oblique positions ; explanation of style and its mode of presentation ; drawing of figures after plane models ; ornamentation in conjunction with the human form, and forms of animals ; linear drawing ; projections of bodies with curvilinear surfaces and their interjections; drawing of the orders of architecture ; exercises in linear perspective and shading of outlines ; construction of models ; execution of forms of crys- tals and their transitions, in pasteboard, after original designs, in accord- ance with the rules of descriptive geometry. In the scheme of instruction of the Nuremberg school there are the combination of free-hand and instrumental drawing, and the application of geometrical forms to ornamentation. But the method at Nuremberg yet retains the practice of copying from the print. This feature has been, as we have seen, positively condemned and abolished in France and Belgium. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS IN NUREMBERG. 105 The trade-school at Nuremberg may serve as an example of the rest in Bavaria. First, there are here three different trade-schools : 1. The district (Kreis) trade-school. 2. The Sunday school for artisans. 3. The elementary drawing-school. The h'rst has the aim of affording instruction to persons who require for the intelligent pursuit of their several callings a knowledge of math- ematics, of natural philosophy, and facility in drawing and modeling, or to such as wish to devote themselves to the technical service of the State. It also serves as preparatory to the polytechnic school. The instruction embraces, in a course of three years, religion, German and French lan- guages, history, geography, element- ary mathematics, physics, theoretic- al and practical chemistry, mechan- ics, technology, free-hand and linear drawing, modeling in clay and wax. The first instruction is according to Wolff's principles of rational in- struction in drawing ; the more ad- vanced from large drawings and sol- id objects. In all the classes there are from seven to eight hours for drawing weekly. The Sunday school for artisans gives instruction to apprentices and journeymen in drawing, modeling, engraving, physics, arithmetic, geom- etry, and chemistry. The instruc- tion in drawing, in three courses, be- gins with free-hand drawing according to Wolff's system ; then follow the drawing of ornaments, vases, etc., in outline, with reference to the trade of the pupil ; geometric drawing, and drawing from bass-reliefs ; finally, in the last course, special drawing. This is divided into four sections : (a) For builders ; (&) for joiners ; (e found in the mythical world of this imaginative people. But the fantastic and grotesque form only a small part of Japanese decoration. The writer lias in view a flower-vase from the village of Ota, which is masterly and beautiful. It is some thirty inches in height, its shape is exceedingly graceful, and it has two light handles growing out from the neck near its upper rim. The body is of a warm gray tone, and is encircled by irregu- lar white lines or bands. Upon this body, raised in applied paste, and ac- curately modeled, are a flock of wild geese, which are screaming, flying, darting, and plunging into a cool bed of reeds and long grasses which rise from the curving base of the vase. On its neck are several dainty fans in red, green, and gold, and the same harmoni- ous colors, in tasteful patterns, decorate the upper and lower borders, their positive tones giving emphasis to the pre- vailing tint of gray. This is one of many beau- tiful vases of different shape, color, and decoration, and each a work of art. In all this charming array of cups, plaques, vases, and other works in pottery, there was the greatest variety, and repe- tition was rare. The designs were original, the tones fresh and pure, the workmanship skillful. In every respect, ex- cept that of architectural construction, they were superior to the pottery of other nations, while they had characteristics all their own. In their ceramics the Japanese never attempt a servile imitation of any object. In all of their decoration they work directly from nature ; but if they draw from a tree, flower, bird, or landscape, it is to suggest an impression which strikes the beholder when first seeing it, rather than to present that close imitation which leaves nothing to the imagination. Japanese Monster. 184 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. The Satsuma and Kioto ware are now widely known and warmly ad- mired for their singular originality and fresh and happy suggestions. The designs of flowers, grasses, and birds are full of wayward grace, while their delicate tints of color, by intelligent juxtaposition, are most exquisitely harmonized. Many of the provinces, cities, and villages of Japan were represented by works in pottery. Among these were the cities of Kago- shima, in the province of Satsuma, and Igano-Musa, in the province of Owari ; while both faience and porcelain came from several places in the provinces of Ise, Mino, Kaga, Owari, and Kioto ; from Ota, near Yoko- hama ; the village of Arita, in the province of Hizen ; and the great cities of Tokio and Yokohama. The potter's art has risen to a state of great perfection in Japan, be- cause nature has there brought together all the minerals and earths need- ed for the purpose of manufacture. The small town of Arita, in the prov- ince of Hizen, is one of the great centres of the manufacture of pottery in Japan. Within the limited space of half a mile in diameter, imbedded in the rock, are found all the minerals and clays needed to make the splendid bowls and vases known as " Hizen " ware. Here are the silex, kaolin, feld- spar; and here are other subtle substances, unknown to us, whose use in the cunning fingers of the Japanese artist display ef- fects which excite our wonder and delight. The poorest peas- ant of Arita finds the materials for labor at his door. Happily the tools of the potter are not costly, and all that is needed be- sides are industry, skill, and the artistic sense ; these are natural characteristics with the Japa- nese. There are other interesting circumstances attending the manufact- ure of pottery in Japan. Each shop has a kiln in the open yard, where the pottery is slightly baked while yet under the modeler's hands. The finishing kilns usually belong to the community. Those at Arita are more than two hundred in number, and are situated here and there on the boundaries of the village. They are rented to the manufacturers, and any man may bring his pottery to be baked in the common kilns. Japanese Dragon. METAL-WORK OF JAPAN. 185 One could not pass from the study of this brilliant display of porce- lain and faience, so refined, chaste, and forcible, to that of Western Europe, and not notice the painful contrast of feeble imitation and helpless expe- dients. A European dealer one day expressed his surprise at the enthu- siasm excited by the art of the Chinese and Japanese. He wondered how any one could compare it with the faience of Minton, or the cloisonne of Elkington or Barbedienne. It was not possible to explain to this gen- tleman why these mythical creatures, these suggestions of a multifarious flora, were better decorations for pottery than genre pictures of well-dressed little boys and girls; and when the discussion came to cloisonne ware, the difficulty increased ; for while Barbedienne and Elkington have done their best to copy Japanese cloisonne, there is just that difference be- tween the one and the other which separates the artistic from the me- chanical. It is the difference between the most skillful workmanship with deli- cate juxtapositions of color, in sober but decided tones, worked into the most marvelously intricate and minute designs, on the one hand, and in- experienced workmanship with coarse designs and crude color on the oth- er. Japanese cloisonne, and, indeed, their other manufactures of modern days, are not equal to those made when Japan was not subject to de- moralizing foreign influence. A new art is the application of cloisonne to porcelain instead of metal. The cup or vase used for this purpose has the glaze ground off, and presents a rough instead of smooth surface, wher- ever the vitrifiable substance is to be applied. The metallic wire which marks the outline of the figures is fixed on the porcelain, not by solder- ing, as in the other case, but by the application of a fusible glass. After- ward these lines become more firmly attached by contact with the fused enamels. This novel and charming application of cloisonne is made upon porcelain of turquois-blue, with figures of butterflies, flowers, and leaves, which are made in red, green, and gold. These cups, vases, and plates are very pretty, and are not always high-priced. The display of Japanese bronzes fairly divided one's enthusiastic ad- miration with that of pottery. They were equally original and artistic with the faience and porcelain. Novice and expert have alike examined these wonderful bronzes, amazed at the skill and patience which have pro- duced such singular objects, with their elaborate inlays of filigree, rival- ing the damaskeen of the thirteenth century. But from observation alone, none could explain the mystery of this steel-blue surface which was veined with microscopic threads of gray, red, and gold. In the native tongue it is called " moku-me," which may be translated to mean " veins of wood," although wood does not enter into its composition. From offi- 186 ART EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. cial sources we gather an explanation of this charming art. "Moku-me" is composed of several metals, chiefly of white silver, red copper, and a dark -blue alloy. These are overlaid and soldered together by hammer- ing and kneading. Any inequalities in the homogeneous plates are filled up by new metal of one or another kind, such as the artist with the ham- mer may think best for the purpose. These operations are many times repeated. Finally, the pliable mass of metal is beaten out into thin sheets, presenting a beautiful surface of infinitely small veins of red, blue, and white. Thus fashioned, it passes into the hands of other artists, to be made into objects of use and beauty. This material formed the body of many of the more costly vases, which were otherwise superbly decorated with incrustations and inlayings of silver and other metals. The larger number of bronzes, however, were of less costly manufact- ure. They were vases, flower-stands, incense-boxes, all charmingly deco- rated, including imitations of every object in nature which could have come within the ken of the artist, from a crab to a bull, and of an indefi- nite number of other creations, humorous and grotesque, but seldom re- pulsive, which exist in the lively imagination of a Japanese. The lacquer-work of these peo- ple has these many years graced the tables of every well-ordered house- hold ; but never before had it been seen in such perfection of delicate workmanship of design, richness, and variety of color. Almost every object brought to us by the Jap- anese exhibited the highest sense Japanese Ornament. f g race and P etl 7 in decoration. There were silk screens, painted with designs of infinite beauty and fine poetic feeling ; carved wood and ivory ; picturesque arms and armor ; and gorgeous stuffs of silk and wool. The visitor to all these lovely things, who returned again and again, who exhausted time and purse, might well ask himself : What is this en- chantment which has taken possession of me ? What is it in these crea- tions which, more than any thing beside in this great exposition, attracts and pleases me? Their novelty might in some degree explain the attrac- tion ; but as novelty alone soon wears off, the cause will be found in other directions. In the discussion in another part of this book of the repousse work of modern days, as compared with that of the Middle Ages, the su- periority of the latter was attributed to the fact that the artists worked SUCCESSFUL ART INDUSTRY. 187 out their own fancies, and were not subject to the orders of a master-work- man or employer. What was true, even to a limited degree, of the European artist of the Middle Ages, is the practice everywhere in Japan. The manufacture of its pottery, bronzes, lacquer-work, fans, painting on silk, and the rest, is carried on by the enterprise and genius of individual, and not by associ- ated, labor. Griffis, in his entertaining book on " The Mikado's Empire," says that the principles of centralized capital, large manufactures, and division of labor are as yet scarcely known in Japan. An official report declares that the artist in bronzes, who makes the model, generally does the casting himself, and in most cases the workshop consists only of the master's fam- ily and two or three as- sistants. After the cast- ing, the artisan goes over the work with his chis- el, while the bouquet of flowers, the bunch of leaves or grasses, or what- ever be the object he wishes to depict, is placed before him, ajid thus the engraving is sketched di- rectly from nature. And this is also the way the potter works. In this in- dependent atelier, in this constant study of nature, and of the little things and nearest, we have the cause of that endless variety of subject, simplicity of treatment, freshness, originality, grace, and poetry which are the glory of Japanese art. This, then, is the fascination which holds us ; arid here, also, in the Far East are found the true conditions of successful art industry. The head of the family is the artisan, his children are students, his cabin an atelier ; while nature, with prodigal hand, furnishes the material. The subjects for illustration are on every side. Yines clamber about his porch, flowers of every hue are in his garden, while to him, devout follower of Buddha, the beasts of the lield and fowls of the air have spiritual signifi- cance which finds pictorial expression in his decorations. While so much of unqualified admiration has been herein expressed Chnsing Floral Designs on Copper. 188 AET EDUCATION APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. for Chinese and Japanese decoration, it is necessary to say that these na- tions seriously need instruction in the science of design. The most ex- quisite decoration will often be found upon vases which are unsymmet- rical in shape. With no people would the study of the science of design accomplish finer results than with the Japanese. They appreciate the advantages of a knowledge of exact forms, and are introducing the study into their schools; and yet one can not contemplate the introduction in Japan of European methods of instruction in the art of design without some fear. Any plan of instruction which includes copying from prints, such as "flower-pieces" and "Julian's lithographs," would be demoralizing, and destructive to the freshness, originality, and beauty of Japanese art. What would lend grace and sym- metry to their productions is a knowledge of arbitrary and geometrical forms, and those laws which belong to architectural construction. Chinese Inscription. Good results in many channels are flowing from the Centennial Expo- sition ; but in no direction have there been better opportunities for infor- mation than in the art of design. The exhibition of the arts and industries of all the nations has taught us that, in order to achieve the best results in the appli- cation of art to industry, we must have a complete sys- tem of instruction, in pub- lic and special schools, in the science of design. The principles thus established are, that the method of in- struction in these schools shall include the constant study of natural objects ; that the artisan must always go to nature for his models ; and that independent rather than associated labor is the most fruitful source of freshness and originality of design. Japanese Phoenix. APPENDIX. ART EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. THE scheme for art education in Great Britain is thus set forth in the Official Catalogue : A sum of money is voted annually by Parliament for the purposes of science and art. This sum is administered by the Science and Art Department, hereinafter called the Department. The head of the Education Department, of which the Science and Art Depart- ment is a branch, is the lord president of the council, assisted by a member of the privy council, who is called the vice-president of the Committee of Council on Edu- cation, and who acts under the direction of the lord president, and for him in his absence. A portion of the sum voted is set apart for the promotion of instruction in art in th.e United Kingdom. The object of this grant is to promote instruction in drawing, painting, and modeling, and designing for architecture, manufactures, and decoration, especially among the industrial classes. To effect this object, the Department will give aid toward the teaching of ele- mentary drawing in elementary day schools ; toward the teaching of drawing in night classes for artisans ; toward instruction in art in schools of art ; and toward the training of art teachers. The Art Library and collections of decorative art at South Kensington are also made available for the purposes of instruction in schools of art. AID TO ELEMENTARY DAY SCHOOLS. An elementary school is a school, or department of a school, at which elementary education is the principal part of the education there given, and does not include any school, or department of a school, at which the ordinary payments, in respect of the instruction, from each scholar exceed ninepence a week. The Department will encourage the teaching of drawing in elementary day schools at which the children are instructed in drawing by teachers holding art cer- tificates of the second or third grade. 190 APPENDIX. The aid given by the Department consists of payments made to the managers of the school toward the cost of the maintenance and instruction of the drawing: classes O in the school ; of prizes awarded to the children, pupil-teachers, or paid monitors only of the school, whose exercises reach the standard of excellence ; and of grants toward the purchase of suitable examples. The Department will determine the number of payments to be made, and of prizes to be given, annually, by means of an examination of a very elementary char- acter, called of the first grade, in free-hand drawing from copies, free-hand drawing from models, and in practical geometry; and by a more advanced examination, called of the second grade, in free-hand, geometric, perspective, and model drawing. AID TO TRAINING COLLEGES FOR TEACHERS. Annual examinations in drawing of the second grade are held in November at each of the training colleges under inspection, in any or all of the following exer- cises, for success in which the candidate may not have been registered by the De- partment since the 24th of February, 1857 : Free-hand drawing from flat examples; practical geometry ; linear perspective ; model drawing ; delineation of large letters, numbers, diagrams, and other objects on the blackboard. The marks given for these exercises are carried to each candidate's total for the certificate granted by the Education Department, Whitehall. Candidates who pass in all the five exercises named above obtain the certificate ("D") for drawing, which qualifies them to earn the payments conditionally made to the managers of elementary day schools on account of the teaching of elementary drawing concurrently with reading and writing. A payment of two pounds is made to the authorities of training colleges on ac- count of every resident student who obtains the certificate of the second grade, sub- ject to a deduction of ten shillings on account of each of the required subjects in which the student may have passed previous to admission to the college. AID TO ART NIGHT CLASSES. An art night class is a class for instruction in elementary drawing held after 6 P.M., to which the public is admitted on payment of fees within the reach of per- sons who support themselves by manual labor. The Department will give aid to such classes* when conducted under the direc- tion of a local committee of not less than five well-known responsible persons, and meeting at least once a week under instructions by a teacher, or teachers, holding the second-grade certificate of the Department for Elementary Drawing, or an art- master's certificate of the third grade. * This aid will be extended, on the merits of each case being considered, to classes for artisans or teachers meeting after noon on Saturdays ; to classes for female artisans or female teachers meeting in the day-time ; and to science classes on account of students who are not scholars in an elementary day school. APPENDIX. 191 Art night classes may be held in mechanics' or literary institutions, elementary schools, or in other educational institutions.* The Department will pay annually to the local committee of an art night class the under-mentioned sums on account of the instruction, in the night class, of stu- dents of the industrial classes,! from ten to fifteen shillings, according to their ad- vancement. Prizes, consisting of one sum of twenty pounds, ten sums of ten pounds, for- ty sums of five pounds, will be awarded to the head masters of art night classes in which the results, as tested by the examinations of the Department, and considered with reference to the number of students under instruction, shall be most satis- factory. Teachers in charge of art night classes who hold a certificate for second-grade drawing only will be allowed a payment of ten pounds on taking the first certifi- cate of the third grade. Prizes of the second grade will be given to all students who excel in the exam- inations ; and of the second or third grade to students who execute highly meritori- ous works of the classes named in clause 2 of f note. AID TO SCHOOLS OF ART. A school of art is a room or rooms devoted wholly to instruction in art, where examples of art are always open for study and inspection, and where instruction is given by a teacher holding an art teacher's certificate or certificates of the third grade. The Department will aid the instruction given in schools of art, when under the direction of a local committee of not less than five well-known responsible persons, and instructed by teachers holding one or more art certificates of the third grade, provided that day classes be held, and that artisan night classes meet under the in- struction of the master, in rooms approved by the Department, at least three times in each week for two hours. Payments are made to the local committee on account of persons of the indus- trial classes, teachers, or children above twelve years of age, who pay fees for being taught, from ten shillings to three pounds, according to meritorious work. The rewards are not given to pupils alone, but every inducement is held out to * Drawing can not be taught during the one hour and a half required, under Article 23 of the Education Code, for general instruction in the night classes of public elementary schools, f Under " students of the industrial classes " are included only : 1. Artisans or operatives in the receipt of weekly wages. 2. Coast-guards, policemen, and others who, though in receipt of weekly wages, do not support themselves by manual labor. 3. Teachers and pupil-teachers of elementary schools in connection with the Education Depart- ment, Whitehall, or the National Board of Education, Ireland, and students in training-schools. 4. Persons in the receipt of salaries of less than two hundred pounds per annum. 5. Small shop-keepers, tradesmen, and others whose net incomes do not exceed two hundred pounds per annum. 192 APPENDIX. teachers to advance art education. Fifteen pounds are paid to an art teacher in schools in which twenty students of the industrial classes are satisfactorily taught, and thirty pounds for two art teachers in schools in which fifty or more such stu- dents are so taught. Prizes consisting of one sum of fifty pounds, three sums of forty pounds, six sums of thirty pounds, twenty sums of twenty pounds, thirty sums of ten pounds, will be awarded to the head-masters of schools of art in which the results of in- struction, considered with reference to the number of students, as tested by the ex- aminations of the Department, shall be most satisfactory. Prizes are offered to teachers who qualify themselves for higher teaching. Grants are made to pay the expenses of teachers who come to London to study from the works sent for competition. The best works sent up for examination will be selected to enter into a national competition between the works of all the schools of art in the kingdom, and medals and prizes will be awarded to those students who execute the most meritorious of the competing works. The prize list will include ten gold medals, distributed as follows : One gold medal for the best study from the antique in chalk or monochrome. This study must be from a single figure in the round, and must be executed within the dimensions of an imperial sheet. One gold medal for the best study of the figure modeled from the antique. This study must be from a single figure, and not more than thirty inches in height. One gold medal for the best example of painting a group of still-life from nat- ure, as a composition of color, in oil. The dimensions of this work should be im- perial size, i. e., twenty-one and a half by twenty-nine and a half inches. One gold medal for the best example of painting a group of still-life from nat- ure, as a composition of color, in water-color. The dimensions of this work must be twenty by sixteen inches, or, if of other proportions, of equal or nearly equal surface. Six medals for the best designs in the three classes architectural design, sur- face design, plastic design. A statement of the purpose or material for which it is prepared should be given on every competing design. Twenty-five silver medals, of which part will be given to the second-best works in the various subjects to which gold medals are assigned, and the rest to meritori- ous works in the same, or the best works in other, subjects of study. Sixty bronze medals to meritorious works in any of the various subjects of study. Any of these medals may be withheld if, in the opinion of the examiners, the works in any subject are not of sufficient merit to deserve them. Additional prizes of works of art, books, etc., will also be awarded. The works entering into the national competition will be exhibited in London, and in some one of the more important towns of the kingdom where suitable space can be provided. APPENDIX. 193 Grants of money are made to assist in the building of art schools and furnish- ing them. These schools may also borrow works of art and books from the Kensington Museum. Students who may compete, because of previous advancement for admission to the National Art Training-school, are allowed a maintenance of fifteen or twenty shillings a week. There are national scholarships of the value of one pound per week. The Princess of Wales has given two scholarships of the value of twenty-five pounds and eleven pounds to the two female students who gain the highest prizes in the yearly national competition. THE NATIONAL ART TRAINING-SCHOOL. The National Art Training-school at South Kensington is established for the purpose of training art masters and mistresses for the United Kingdom, and for the instruction of students in drawing, designing, and modeling, to be applied to the requirements of trade and manufactures. The course of instruction is as follows (it should be understood that it is not progressive in the order in which the stages are named) : Stage 1. Linear drawing by aid of instruments : Linear geometry ; mechan- ical and machine drawing ; linear perspective ; details of architecture from copies. Stage 2. Free-hand outline drawing of rigid forms from examples or copies : Objects; ornament. Stage 3. Free-hand outline drawing from the "round:" Models and ob- jects; ornament. Stage 4. Shading from flat examples or copies : Models and objects ; orna- ment. Stage 5. Shading from the "round" or solid forms: Models and objects; ornament ; time-sketching, and sketching from memory. Stage 6. Drawing the human figure and animal forms from copies : In out- line ; shaded. Stage 7. Drawing flowers, foliage, and objects of natural history, from flat examples or copies : In outline ; shaded. Stage 8. Drawing the human figure, or animal forms, from the " round " or nature : In outline from casts ; shaded (details) ; shaded (whole figures) ; stud- ies of the human figure from nude model ; studies of the human figure draped; time-sketching, and sketching from memory. Stage 9. Anatomical studies : Of the human figure ; of animal forms ; of either, modeled. Stage 10. Drawing flowers, foliage, landscape details, and objects of natural history, from nature : In outline ; shaded. 13 194 APPENDIX. Stage 11. Painting ornament from flat examples: In monochrome, in col- ors, either in water-color, tempera, or oil. Stage 12. Painting ornament from the cast, etc. : In monochrome, either in water-color, oil, or tempera. Stage 13. Painting (general) from flat examples or copies, flowei-s, still-life, etc. : Flowers or natural objects, in water-color, in oil, or in tempera ; land- scapes or views of buildings. Stage 14. Painting (general) direct from nature : Flowers, or still-life, in wa- ter-color, oil, or tempera Avithout backgrounds; landscapes, or views of buildings. Stage 15. Painting from nature groups of still-life, flowers, etc., as compo- sitions of color: In oil-color; in water-color or tempera. Stage 16. Painting the human figure or animals in monochrome from casts : In oil, water-color, or tempera. Stage 17. Painting the human figure or animals in color: From the flat or copies ; from nature, nude or draped ; time-sketches and compositions. Stage 18. Modeling ornament: Elementary, from casts; advanced, from casts ; from drawings ; time-sketches from examples and from memory. Stage 19. Modeling the human figure or animals: Elementary, from casts of hands, feet, masks, etc. ; advanced, from casts or solid examples ; from draw- ings ; from nature, nude or draped. Stage 20. Modeling fruits, flowers, foliage, and objects of natural history, from nature. Stage 21. Time -sketches in clay of the human figure, or animals, from nature. Stage 22. Elementary design: Studies treating natural objects ornament- ally; ornamental arrangements to fill given spaces in monochrome; ornamental arrangements to fill given spaces in color ; studies of historic styles of ornament drawn or modeled. Stage 23. Applied designs, technical or miscellaneous studies: Machine and mechanical drawing, plan drawing, mapping, and surveys done from measure- ment of actual machines, buildings, etc. ; architectural design ; surface design ; plastic design. The twenty-three stages of instruction are divided into six groups. Certificates of competency to teach the subjects included in each group are given to candidates who pass the necessary examinations, and are called certificates of the third grade. The following are the groups which form the subjects of certificates : Group 1. Elementary drawing and coloring: Stages 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, and 13. Group 2. Painting, with examination in styles of art, and in the elementary principles of ornament: Stages 11, 12, 14, 15, and 22. Group 3. The figure drawn and painted, with examination in the historic styles of ornament : Stages 8, 9, 16, and 17. APPENDIX. 195 Group 4. Modeling ornament, with examination in styles of art, and in the elementary principles of ornament: Stages 18, 20, 22. Group 5. Modeling the figure, with examination in the historic styles of ornament: Stages 8, 9, 19, 21. Group 6. Technical instruction. FIRST GROUP. Candidates for certificates for the First Group who have attended the National Art Training-school must obtain a recommendation from the head-master for ad- mission to the examination. Candidates from provincial or other schools must send the requisite drawings to the secretary of the Department on the first Satur- day in February. They will receive notice to come up for examination if their works be approved. All candidates will be required to execute an extra work in the presence of the examiners. Candidates must be prepared to instruct a class in the presence of the examiners in free-hand drawing, geometrical drawing, perspective, and model drawing. They must be able to sketch, in a given time, a group of models, placed by the examiners for that purpose. And to solve, in writing, questions in geometry, per- spective,* and elementary architecture.! For the First Group, the following works, nine in number, are required to be sent up : Stage la. A sheet of geometrical problems. There may be six or eight problems selected to show the power of working neatly and exactly with instru- ments. Stage Ic. A sheet of perspective diagrams. This should contain one or two problems neatly worked, showing the extent of knowledge possessed by the candidate. Staff e Id. A sheet of architectural details. These should consist of classic capitals and moldings, and Gothic openings for doors or tracery for windows. Stage 3b. An outline of ornament in low-relief from the cast. This may be from the lower portion, or any one of the scrolls, of the Madeleine pilaster, or from one of the pilasters of the tomb of Louis XII. , and must be executed with correctness and delicacy. Stage 5a. A sheet of drawings from models, shaded in chalk or pencil. * In the perspective paper credit will be given for a knowledge of the projection of shadows. The exercise in elementary architecture will require a knowledge of the five orders of classic ar- chitecture with their moldings, and a general knowledge of the principles of construction applied to ancient architecture, and also of the larger distinctive characteristics of Gothic architecture in England from the time of Edward the Confessor to that of Henry VII. f Female candidates are not examined in architectural drawing. Candidates who have passed in the advanced stage of Science Subject III. (building construction) are also exempt from the ex- amination in architecture. 196 APPENDIX. These should be carefully drawn without backgrounds, and shaded simply to explain the separate forms. Stage 5b. A sheet of ornament shaded from the cast, in chalk. The egg- plant portion of the Ghiberti frieze or other piece of ornament in high-relief. Stage 6a. An outline of the figure from the flat. Any complete figure from Morghen's outlines, or from any of the selected examples in the Department's list. Stage 10. A sheet of foliage drawn from nature. This should be drawn with delicacy on an imperial sheet from a freely growing plant. Stage 13. A sheet of flowers painted from the flat. From a good example of oil or water-color painting, or from nature. . SECOND GROUP. Candidates for the certificate of the Second Group must already have obtained a certificate of the First Group. Candidates will be required to sketch, in color, in a given time, a group placed by the examiners for that purpose using any medium or vehicle which the exam- iners may propose. To answer in writing a paper of questions on the elementary principles of orna- ment, and on the history and peculiarities of the ornamentation of the class chosen for illustration in the drawings sent up in Stage 22d. To answer in writing a paper of technical questions on art, and on the general principles and execution of the several historic schools; and a paper of questions on the nomenclature of structural botany, and its application to ornament. For the Second Group, the following works, seven in number, are required to be sent up : Stage 13 or 14. A landscape in oil from nature, or from some approved example. Should be of half-imperial size or thereabouts. Stage 12. A painting of ornament in monochrome from the cast, in oil or tempera. Should be of imperial size or thereabouts, and should be painted in a manner suitable for decorative purposes. Stage 14. A study of flowers painted from nature in water-color. Stage 15. A study of a group as a composition of color, in oil. Stage 22c. A sheet of at least two studies of ornamental arrangements in color. Stage 22a. A sheet of studies of some plant or plants botanically analyzed with a view to ornamental details. Stage 22d. A set of studies executed during the period of training, from some one class of objects in the South Kensington Museum, sufficiently exten- sive to represent the history of the class selected.* * It is intended by these studies to test the knowledge of ornament possessed by the candi- date. He should therefore send a sheet or sheets of the most characteristic details of the best periods of the various styles, and should state the source from which the examples are derived. APPENDIX. 197 THIRD GROUP. Candidates for the certificate of the Third Group must already have obtained certificates of the First and Second groups. Candidates will be required to answer, in writing, a paper of questions on the anatomy of the human figure. To answer, in writing, a paper on the history of ornament of the various periods and styles, and a paper of questions on the elementary principles of ornament, and on the history and peculiarities of the ornamentation of the class chosen for illus- tration in the drawings sent up In Stage 22d. To draw in a given time the bones or muscles, within the outline of an antique figure, from memory. And to make a time-study from the living model. [From candidates who are, or have been, students of the Royal Academy, and have been there admitted to study from the living model, this last exercise will not be required.] For the Third Group, the following works, seven in number, are required to be sent up : Stage 8b. An antique figure shaded from the cast, in chalk. Stage 8c. A study in chalk from the living model. Stage 9. The bones and muscles placed within outlines of an antique figure. Stage 16. A painting of the human figure from a picture in oil. Stage I7a. A painting of the nude or draped figure from the life, in oil. Stage 22d. Varied studies of historic styles of ornament, sufficiently exten- sive to represent the history of the classes selected, sketched from works in the museum, the authority in each case being appended. If they are from colored ornament, the sketches are to be colored also. FOURTH GROUP. Candidates for the certificate of the Fourth Group must already have obtained a certificate of the First Group. They will be required to answer, in writing, a paper of questions on the element- ary principles of ornament, and on the history and peculiarities of the ornamenta- tion of the class chosen for illustration in the drawings sent up in stage 22d. To answer a paper of technical questions on the application of ornament to, and its modes of production in, various plastic materials. To sketch from memory elementary details of ornament, and in a given time to model a piece of ornament, in low-relief, from a print or drawing. For the Fourth Group, the following works, six in number, are required to be sent up : Stage 18a. A modeled study of ornament from the cast. Stage 18b. A modeled study of ornament from a drawing. Stage 20. A modeled study of flowers or foliage from nature. 198 APPENDIX. Stage 22. A modeled study of any one of the sections of this stage. Stage 22a. A sheet of studies of some plant or plants, botanically analyzed with a view to display their ornamental details, drawn or modeled. Stage 22d. A set of studies executed during the period of training from some one class of objects in the South Kensington Museum, sufficiently exten- sive to represent the history of the class selected. FIFTH GROUP. Candidates for the certificate of the Fifth Group must already have obtained a certificate of the First Group. Candidates will be required to answer, in writing, a paper of questions on the anatomy of the human frame. To answer, in writing, a paper on the history of ornament of the various periods and styles. To make in a given time a sketch, in low-relief, from a print or drawing of an antique figure; and to give the anatomical details from memory. To make a time-study from the living model. [From candidates who are, or have been, students of the Royal Academy, and there admitted to study from the living model, this last exercise will not be re- quired.] For the Fifth Group, the following works, six in number, are required to be sent up : Stage 8. An antique figure shaded from the cast. Stage 9. An anatomical rendering of an antique figure, modeled. Stage 9a. A drawing of the skeleton placed within the outline of an an- tique figure. Stage 19. A model of an antique figure in the " round," rendered in relief. Stage 20. A model of the human figure from nature, nude or draped. Stage 22d. Varied studies of the relief ornament of historic styles sketched from the casts, carvings, metal-work, etc., in the museum of the Department, with written authorities for each, and sufficiently extensive to represent the his- tory of the various classes selected. SIXTH GROUP. Certificates of the Sixth Group are granted on proof of competency to teach, first, domestic architectural drawing ; and, second, the special application of orna- ment to plastic and surface decoration for various fabrics, manufactures, and archi- tectural purposes. Candidates for a certificate for architectural drawing must have already passed in the First Group. They must send in, together with their application for permis- sion to compete, a tinted drawing, from measurement, of some architectural subject, and a design with plans and sections. If these works are approved, they will be required to answer a paper on the details of architectural construction, and on the APPENDIX. 199 characteristics of the architectural ornament of various historic styles and periods; and to make a design from specifications of some architectural subject in the pres- ence of the examiner. Candidates for a special certificate on ornament who have been educated in the training-school must have previously taken certificates for the First, Second, and Third, or the First, Fourth, and Fifth groups. They will be required to send in, for permission to compete, two original works, painted or modeled, in order to show their technical skill as well as their power of designing; also a monograph, drawn up by themselves, of at least two historic styles, illustrated by sketches from works or drawings in the museum. They will be examined by papers on the elements, history, and application of ornament, and will be required to design some work in the presence of the examiners. An open competition for admission to the National Training-school for teachers in schools of art is offered to candidates of all classes under the age of seventeen years. Every candidate must produce 1. A certificate that he has satisfied the exam- iners of the Oxford or Cambridge Local Examinations, the Society of Arts Exami- nations, or he must hold the diploma or first-class certificate of the College of Pre- ceptors in the following subjects: English grammar; English history; arithmetic; Avriting ; Latin, or a modern foreign language. 2. The certificate of the Science and Art Department of the Second-grade Art in free-hand and model drawing. Candidates must submit works in drawing, painting, or designing, to show the nature and extent of their qualifications. Those whose works are of sufficient merit will be admitted to undergo a competitive examination in the following subjects : 1. Drawing, from the cast, of ornament or of the figure ; 2. Painting in color from still-life, or from the life (a head) ; 3. Drawing from memory, or designing ; 4. Mod- eling of ornament or the figure (this may be alternative with subject 1). Allowances for maintenance will be made to successful candidates at the rate of thirty, fifty-two, sixty-five, and seventy-eight pounds a year, according to qualification. PROSPECTUS OF THE NATIONAL ART TRAINING-SCHOOL, SOUTH KENSINGTON, FOR 1874. The following are the titles of the officers of the school : Inspector-general for Art, Head-master, Deputy Head-master. There are teachers for mechanical and architectural drawing ; geometry and per- spective ; painting ; free-hand ; drawing of ornament, etc. ; the figure and anatomy ; ornamental design ; and modeling. The female classes have a lady superintendent. 1. The courses of instruction pursued in the school have for their object the systematic training of teachers, male and female, in the practice of art, and in the knowledge of its scientific principles, with the view of qualifying them to impart to others a careful art education, and to develop its application to the common uses of life, and its relation to the requirements of trade and manufactures. Special courses 200 APPENDIX. are arranged in order to qualify school-masters of parochial and other schools to teach elementary drawing as a part of general education concurrently with writing. 2. The instruction comprehends the following subjects : free-hand, architectural, and mechanical drawing ; practical geometry and perspective ; painting in oil, tem- pera, and water-colors; modeling, molding, and casting. The classes for drawing, painting, and modeling include architectural and other ornaments, flowers, objects of still-life, etc., the figure from the antique and the life, and the study of anatomy as applicable to art. 3. The annual sessions, each lasting five months, commence on the 1st of March and the 1st of October, and end on the last day of July and the last day of Febru- ary, respectively. Students can join the school at any time, the tickets running from date to date. The months of August and September, one week at Christmas, and one week at Easter or Whitsuntide, are vacations. The classes meet every day, except Saturday. Hours of study day, 10 to 3 ; evening, 7 to 9. 4. In connection with the training-school, and open to the public, separate class- es are established for male and female students ; the studies comprising drawing, painting, and modeling, as applied to ornament, the figure, landscape, and still-life. Fees for classes studying for five whole days, including evenings, five pounds for five months ; for three whole days, including evenings, four pounds for five months ; for the half day, morning, 10 to 1, or afternoon, 1 to 3, four pounds for five months. To all these classes there is an entrance fee of ten shillings. Evening classes : male school, two pounds per session ; artisan class, ten shillings per session, three shillings per month ; female school, one pound per session, three evenings a week. 5. No students can be admitted to these classes until they have passed an exam- ination in free-hand drawing of the Second Grade. Examinations of candidates will be held weekly at the commencement of each session, and at frequent intervals throughout the year. Students can not join the school for a shorter term than five months, but those students who have already paid fees for five months may remain until the end of the scholastic year on payment of a proportional fee for each month unexpired up to the 31st of July in each year. 6. Classes for school-masters, school-mistresses, and pupil-teachers of elementary schools meet- on two evenings in each week: fee, five shillings for the session. Teachers in private schools or families may attend the day classes on payment of a fee of one pound per month. 7. The morning classes for practical geometry and perspective are open to all students, but they may be attended independently of the general course, on pay- ment of a fee of two pounds per session for those classes. 8. Students properly qualified have full access to the collections of the museum and library, either for consultation or copying, as well as to all the school lectures of the Department. The public also are admitted to the same privileges on pay- ment of small admission fees; for which see the prospectuses of the museum and library. APPENDIX. 201 9. A register of the students' attendance is kept, and may be consulted by par- ents and guardians. STATEMENT OF EXPORTS FROM, AND IMPORTS INTO, THE UNITED STATES, WITH THE RELATION OF EACH TO ARTICLES INTO THE MANUFACTURE OF WHICH ART ENTERS. In view of what has been said in the preceding chapters, it seems appropriate to present statistics of the imports and exports of articles into the manufacture of which art enters. There are persons who may not be able to see the force of reasoning presented from an artistic or aesthetic point of view. There is, however, a pene- trating and luminous power in figures which reaches the comprehension of every man. The capitalist and the laborer can alike understand the simple statement. It is much better for both one and the other that, instead of sending to Europe an an- nual sum of over 131,000,000 of dollars, we should keep the money at home. This economy can be practiced by manufacturing articles for which that amount is paid within our own borders, and the fact can not too often be stated, that in order to be able to manufacture these articles we must have general art education. The following statistics are taken from the annual report of the chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Commerce, and Navigation of the Treasury Department of the United States for the year 1874. The report includes the fiscal year ending in June, 1874: Grand total of exports $704,463,120 Grand total of imports 595,861,248 Excess of exports $108,601,872 Notwithstanding this very great difference between the total of all the exports and imports, it will be seen by the following tables that in the manufacture of those articles into which art enters our imports were $158,786,319, and our ex- ports $27,505,049 ; showing an excess of imports of the value of $131,261,270. This enormous sum of money is paid Europe because, in the main, she has bet- ter taste and more skilled mechanics than we. From the point of view of political economy, it may not matter who makes these articles so long as there is a fair ex- change of commodities. But every consideration of culture, refinement, and all of that moral power which comes from education, require us to instruct our people so that these things shall be manufactured within the United States. In the tables of exports and imports it will be observed that the list of exports includes a number of articles representing large amounts of money, which are of a rough, coarse character, and into which the art element is but slightly concerned. These articles are freight - cars, agricultural implements, coarse cotton prints, bulky machinery, sewing-machines, etc. In nearly all the imported articles mentioned in these tables, the advantage of a knowledge of art is directly and pointedly shown. Under the general titles, such as jewelry, fancy goods, china-ware, engravings, silk, 202 APPENDIX. cotton, and linen manufactures, and so on, a large number of articles are included which are not manufactured in the United States. It is an interesting fact in these tables that, while the products of art industry form 26'7 per cent, of the grand total of imports, they are only 3'91 per cent, of the grand total of exports. ARTICLES IMPORTED INTO, AND EXPORTED FROM, THE UNITED STATES DURING THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30m, 18T4. Imports. Exports. Agricultural implements. $2,089,753 Books . . . $2,853,285 584,930 Bells and bronze metal 8,433 Brass, and manufactures of 355,062 503,531 Buttons 2,122,037 Billiard-tables and apparatus . 48,799 Carriages, carts, and parts of 541,844 Cars railroad passenger and freight . . 1,151,898 Clocks, and parts of 1,007,507 Combs 7,535 Copper, manufactures of 163,656 233,301 Clothinf 3,943 628 Cotton, manufactures of 24,772,898 2,252,533 Earthen stone and china ware . . 4,882 355 59,494 Fancy articles 4,518,987 302,548 Flax manufactures . . ... 17,472,755 Gax-fixtures and chandeliers 38,817 Glass manufactures of .... 1,710,005 448,760 Hemp, manufactures of 114,184 861,746 Household goods . .... 887,874 Hair, manufactures of 1,229,400 33,257 Hats, caps, and bonnets 200,464 India-rubber, manufactures of 803,830 126,280 Iron and steel, manufactures of 10,222,116 8,753,430 Jewelry. . . . . 849,130 Lamps . 168,231 Lead manufactures of . . . 36,401 308,044 Leather, manufactures of 4,133,058 613,185 Mathematical philosophical and optical instruments 64,433 Musical instruments 870,348 550,327 Paintings, chromo-lithographs, photographs, and statuary. . Paper-hangings, papier-mache, etc 1,169,878 1,230,688 161,503 Plated ware 55,127 Printing-presses and type 163,839 Scales 139,607 Sewing-machines 1,594,296 Silk, manufactures of 23,996,782 Tin, manufactures of 71,779 62,973 Trunks 171,383 Umbrellas 503 Watches 2,374,294 9,470 Wood, manufactures of , 1,269,857 3,655,177 \Vearing apparel . ..... 427,992 Wool, manufactures of 46,732,032 124,099 Total imports $158,786,319 $27,525,049 Total exports 27,525,049 Excess of imports $131,261,270 Percentage of imports into which art enters 26 7 per cent. " exports " " 3-9 " APPENDIX. 203 LIST OF BOOKS AND ESSAYS USED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS WORK. J. C. MAXWELL, " Experiments on Color as perceived by the Eye." Transac- tions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Part II., 1854 '55. GEORGE FIELD. Several works by this author. OWEN JONES. Several works by this author. A. RACINET, "Polychromatic Ornament." London, 1873. Dr. WILHELM VON BEZOLD, " The Theory of Color in its Relation to Art and Industry." Translated by S. R. KOEHLER. Boston, 1876. Gazette des Beaux Arts. Paris. Obligations are especially acknowledged for a number of the illustrations in this work, which were furnished directly from the office of that publication. Harper's Magazine and Harper's Weekly. New York. " Art Directory," South Kensington School. London. J. A. G. DAVIOUD, "L'Art et 1'Industrie." Paris, 1874. AMABLE TRONQUOY, " Dessin Geometrique," etc. Paris. C. B. STETSON, "Technical Education." Boston, 1874. Lord STANLEY'S circular on technical and primary education to Her Majesty's representatives abroad, with their replies : "Blue-book." London, 1868. " Official Catalogue, Japanese Section, International Centennial Exposition." Philadelphia, 1876. " Enseignement des Arts du Dessin. Rapports des Delegues charges par le Gouvernement de 1'Instruction des Academies des Beaux Arts, etc., du Royaume de Belgique." Bruxelles, 1874. E. S. DALLAS, " The Gay Science." London. W. H. PATER, "Studies in the History of the Renaissance." London, 1873. WALTER SMITH, "Art Education." Boston, 1872. Chronique des Arts. Several numbers. Paris. Du SOMMERARD, " Les Arts au Moyen Age." Paris, 1838. VIOLLET LE Due, " Report on the Sevres Manufactory." Paris. WINCKELMANN, "The History of Ancient Art." Translated by G. HENRY LODGE, M.D. 1872. W. E. GRIFFIS, " The Mikado's Empire." New York, 1876. INDEX. A. Academies of Fine Arts in Italy : at Arezzo, Bas- sano, 110; at Bologna, Brescia, Carrara, Flor- ence, Lucca, Massa, Milan, Modena, Naples, Parma, Reggio d' Emilia, Rome, Turin, Venice, Bergamo, Genoa, Lovera, Messina, Palermo, Pe- rugia, Piacenza, Pisa, Ravenna, Sienna, Urbino, 115. Academy of Design, New York, 151. Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, 20. Academy of Plastic Arts, Vienna, 108. Achenbach, Andreas, 87, 88. Achenbach, Oswald, 87. Agriculture, school of, in Nuremberg, 103. Alava, Spain, art society at, 119. Albert Durer, 61. Aleppo, thirteenth century damaskeen, 172. Almeria, Spain, art society at, 119. Alphonse d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, 56. American Institute of Architects, 1 59. Amiens, Cathedrial, 61. Amigos del Pais : educational societies in Spain, 118,119. Andre de Pisa, sculptor, 57. Andre, Edouard, President of the Union Centrale, 80, 125. Apelles, Greek painter, 155. Archer, Professor, 164. Architecture, and the occupations which relate to it, 145. Architecture, laws of, 39 ; musical instruments, 36 ; steamboat, 33 ; superior instruction ap- plied to industry, 149. Arezzo, Italy, Academy of Letters, Science, and Art, 110. Arita, village in Japan: its pottery, 184. Arrevezza, Spain, art society at, 119. Arrivisa, Spain, art society at, 119. Art, application of, to industry, 29. Art of Design, in the Middle Ages, 62 ; principles which control it, 40 ; Persian, Arabian, Moor- ish, and Japanese, the best for decoration, 40. Art, unity of, 17. Art education in Austria, 107-109 ; in Bavaria, 99 ; in Belgium, 23, 24, 72, 92-98 ; in France, no official programme of, 70 ; in Great Britain, 23, 65-67 ; in Prussia, 99 ; in Spain, 117-119 ; in Sweden and Northern Europe, 117 ; in Switz- erland, 111, 112 ; in the United States, 19, 126, 127; in Massachusetts, 127; success of Pro- fessor Smith's system : report of Boston School Board for 1876, 128 ; in Cincinnati, 129 ; Wom- an's Art School, Cooper Institute Philadel- phia School of Design for Women Philadel- phia Academy of Fine Arts, 129 ; the National Academy of Design, New York Lowell Free School of Industrial Design Cooper Institute Free Night-school of Science and Art Worces- ter County Free Institute, Massachusetts School of Design, Cincinnati University, 130. Art education needful for trades, 25 ; tables show- ing the number of persons instructed in, in Great Britain in 1873, 69 ; plan of, in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, 73, 74 ; best method for, in the United States, 132, 133; general plan of, 135-141. "Art Foliage," Ceiling's, 145. Artillery Museum in Paris : antique armor, 50. Associazione Industriale Italiana, Milan, 116. Athenaeum, Boston, 151. Austria, art and industrial schools in, 107. Austria, at Centennial Exposition, 168, 169. B. Balearic Islands Art Society, 119. Barbedienne, Paris, 166-168. Barbedienne cloisonne, 185. Barbizet fils, Paris, 167. 206 INDEX. . Barcelona Art Society, school for engineers, 11 9. Basil the Macedonian: enameling executed dur- ing his period, 50. Bassano, Italy, schools of design at, 114, 115. Bavaria, art education in, 101, 102; industrial schools in, 105. Becker, Carl, 88. Belgium, its method of art education, 133 ; at the United States Centennial Exposition, 169. Benvenuto Cellini, 150. Bergamo, Italy, academy of fine arts at, 115. Bezold, Wilhelm Von, author of work on color, 18; his "Theory of Color" a text-book, 137. Blanc, Charles, 144 ; " Grammar of Painting" by, 143-146. Blodgett, W. T., 88. Bonheur, August, 88. Bonnat, M. Louis-Joseph-Florentin, 74. Borgia, Lucretia, 56. Boston Athenaeum, 20. Boullin, Arnould, 61. Bourganeuf, treasure of, 53. Brescia, Italy, schools of design at, 114, 115. Breton, M. Jules-Adolphe, 29, 74, 88. Brewster, Sir David, 18. Brion, Gustave, 88. Brisinghella, Italy, school of design, 224. Brongniart, A., 145. Bronzes, of the Middle Ages, 57 ; Japanese, 185. Bryant vase, 160. Bureau of Art and Science, part of the English Government, 65. Burgos, Spain, art society at, 119. Byzantine period, art of enameling during the, 50. C. Cabanel, M. Alexandre, 74, 88. Cabinet des Antiques de la Bibliotheque Royale, curiosities of, 49. Cadiz, Spain, art society of, 119. Calistrates built the Parthenon, 33. Canneel, M., delegated to report on art education in Belgium, 94, 95, 98. Canterbury Cathedral, 33. Carrara, Italy, academy of fine arts of, 115. Carraud, M., his collection, 54. Carved work, representing the beheading of St. John, 61. Carving in wood, at Cincinnati, 34-35 ; by monks of Clairvaux, 60 ; during the Middle Ages, 58, 59 ; school of, at Florence, 113 ; in Switzerland, 169, 170; at United States Centennial Exposi- tion, 161. Castanzaro, Italy, school of design at, 114. Castellani, Torquato, his collection, 171. Catherine de Medicis, 86. Cellini, Benvenuto, opinion of the art of repousse, 48 ; armor attributed to, 49. Centennial Exposition, United States, 118 ; its in- fluence upon art education, 155 ; reports of judges of, 89. Central School of Arts and Trades in France, 23. Ceramic art, works on, of Brongniart, Jacque- mart, and Marryat, 145. Cesnola, Di, his discoveries at Cyprus, 148. Chabert, work of, 145. Chamber of Commerce of Great Britain, certain questions as to technical education asked of the, 65. Chateau, Th., work of, 145. Chemnitz, in Prussia, schools in, 23-33. Cherpentier, maker of Oiron faience, 55. Chesman, T., official examiner, his report to Roy- al Committee, 69. Cheunevrieres, Marquis De, the address of, to Na- tional School of Design, 73 ; urges public art education, 141. Chevreul on principles of harmony, 143. Chicago, exposition at, 87. China, at the United States Centennial Exposi- tion, 176. Cincinnati, course of common - school instruction in, 121 ; drawing in public schools of, 129 ; ex- positions, 87, 88 ; school of design at, 151 ; Uni- versity of, 124, 125 ; wood-carving at, 34-35. Claghorn, James L., 26, 88. Clairvaux, monks of, 60, 61. Classes to be instructed in art education, 22. Cleopatra, death of, in plaque, 50. Codogno, Italy, school of design of, 1 14. Color, Theory of, 18. Color, experiments in, 144. Columbia College, 125. Common-school education, 121. Congress of Art at Paris in 1869,70; of indus- trial art at Brussels in 1868, 92. Constantine Porphyrogenitus writes on enamel- ing, 50. Cooper Institute, 28. Cooper, Peter, 27. Co-operation in manufactures, 26. Corcoran Art Gallery at Washington, 20. Cornell University, 124, 125. Courtois, J., enameler of the sixteenth century, 54. Couture, T., painter, 88. INDEX. 20T D. Damascus, art of damaskeen in, in the eight- eenth century, 172. Damaskeen, art of, in Spain, 172. Damaskeen, rare casket of, now lost, 47. Daniell, A. R., & Son, London, 164. Dannon, 31., one of the founders of the Union Centrale, 76. David, Emeric, " History of Antique Sculpture " by, 76, 143. Davidson & Dobson, works on architecture by, 145. Debruge, M., collector of art objects, 54. Decamps, Alexandre-Gabriel, 73, 88. Delacroix, Ferdinand- Victor-Eugene, 73. Delaroche, Paul, 73. Demarest, A., works on architecture by, 145. Denmark at the Centennial Exposition, 175. Diderot, Denis, criticism upon Falconnet's clock by, 42. Dobson, works on architecture by, 145. Donadio, Count of, 118. Donatello, sculptor, 57. Doulton & Co., England, 164. Drawing, first step in, in art education in the United States, 17; in public schools, time al- lotted for, 142 ; taught in the public schools in France, 71 ; in Great Britain, 69. Dresden pottery, 168. E. Eastlake on Household Architecture, 35. Ecole des Beaux Arts, 73, 84, 141 ; annual ex- hibits of, 75 ; managed by Government, 70 ; professors of, 74. Ecoles Industrielles, Belgium, 23. Ecole Speciale de la Suisse Fran9aise pour 1'In- dustrie, les Travaux Publics, et les Construc- tions Civiles, 112. Ecoles de Tissage at Trogen, 142. Egypt, industrial art of, at the United States Centennial Exposition, 174. Egyptians, art of repousse among, 48. Elkington & Co., 163-168; cloisonnS of, 165. Enamel, early history of, 50 ; at Limoges in ninth century, 53 ; of Bernard Palissy, 54. " Encyclopedia of Architecture," by Gwilt, 145. " Encyclopedia of Ornament," by Shaw, 144. Escosura, Ignace de Leon, L, 88. Exposition at Cincinnati, 87-88 ; at Chicago, 87 ; Centennial, at Philadelphia; at London, 1851, at Paris, 1868; of Fine Arts, Union Centrale, 1874, 82-87. F. Faenza, Italy, school of design of, 114. Faience Oiron, or Henri Deux, 55. Falconnet, design for a clock by, 42. Fasa-ma, Japan, 182. Ferrara, dukes of, 56. Fleury, Robert, 73. Florence, school of wood-carving at, 113; Acad- emy of Fine Arts at, 115; Museo Nazionale of, 116. Florentine cabinet, 57. " Forged Iron- work of the Middle Ages and Re- naissance," by Hefner Atheneck, 145. " Fragments of Architecture," by Chabert, 145. France, history of art education in, 70 ; no offi- cial programme of art instruction in, 70 ; rep- resented at the Centennial Exposition, 166- 168. France, public schools of, drawing taught in all, 72. Francis I., armor of, in repousse, 48, 49 ; costumes of, 85 ; re-established works of Limoges, 53. Fran9ois vase, in the Campagna collection of Mus6e Napoleon, 39. Fry, Henry and William, designers and wood- carvers, in Cincinnati, 34. G. Gazette des Beaux Arts, 63. Genoa, Italy, Academy of Fine Arts in, 115. Geoffroi of Limousin, 53. Geometry, the basis of art study, 133. Gerard, M., Director of Public Schools in France, 73. Gerome, Jean Leon, 74. Gewerbe Academy, in Berlin, 99 ; Museum, Ba- varia, 168. Ghiberti, sculptor, 57, 150. Gibson, H. E., 88. Glasgow Museum, 164. Gleyre, Gabriel Charles, 73. Godwin, Parke, 88. Gorham Company, the, 160. Goujon, Jean, carved work by, at Rouen, 61. " Grammar of Ornament," by Owen Jones, 144, 145. " Grammar of Painting," by Charles Blanc, 144, 145. Granada, Spain, art society in, 119. Grandmont, altar of, 53. Great Britain, plan of art education in, 65-69 ; method of art study in, 133 ; Centennial Ex- position at, 162-165. 208 INDEX. Greece, art of repousse in, 48 ; artists from, vis- ited Limoges in the ninth century, 53. Griffis, "The Mikado's Empire " by, 182, 187. Gruner, Louis, 144, 145. Gude, Hans, painter, 87. Guichard, M., President and Managing Director of the Union Centrale, 76, 78, 82. Guilmart, 145 ; " History of Ornament " by, 146. Gwilt, " Architecture " by, 145. H. Hangest, Madame de, Oiron faience made by, 55. Harvard University, 124, 125. Haviland & Co., Limoges, France, 167. Heilrath & Co., Limoges, France, 87. Helmholtz, " Theory of Color " by, 18, 19. Hendricks, "System of Drawing " by, 71. Henri II. of France, 85 ; ware, history of, 55. Henry II. of England, 85. Herzog, H., painter, 87. Hildesheim, treasures of, 62. " History of the Industrial Arts, from the Mid- dle Ages to the Epoch of the Renaissance," by Jules Labarte, 145. " History of Ornament," by Guilmart, 145. Hizen, province of, in Japan, 184. Hoang-Ti, Emperor of China, 179. Hoe, Colonel Robert M., 28. Hoff, Carl, 88. Hotel de Cluny, 47, 49, 56, 59, 61. House of Commons, England, Report of, on Tech- nical Education, March 25th, 1868, 66. Hiibner, Carl, painter, 87. Hueria, Spain, art society in, 119. Hugues I., Count of Champagne, 60. I. Ictinus, builder of the Parthenon, 33. Idar, Germany, 168. Igano-Musa, province of, in Japan, 184. Industrial art, secret of the success of, 187 ; in- feriority of, in the United States, 158, 159 ; of the nineteenth century compared to the Mid- dle Ages, 163. Industrial engineers, school for, in Barcelona, Spain, 119. Industrial schools, table of, in Germany, 100 ; in Bavaria, 105 ; in Austria, 107. Industry, influence of, on art, 43, 44. Ingres, Jean-Dominique-Augustin, 73. Isabel of Bavaria, 84. Ise, province of, in Japan, 184. Italy, art education in, 113; at Centennial Expo- sition, 170-172; industrial schools in, 113- 116. J. Jacquemart, A., 181, 182. Jacquemart, Jules, 85, 145. Japan, at Centennial Exposition, 176, 179, 180, 181 ; porcelain and faience of, 182, 183 ; bronze and cloisonne of, 185. Johnstone, J. Taylor, 88. Jones, Owen, 144, 145. Josephine, Empress, 86. K. Kaga, province of, in Japan, 184. Kagoshima, city of, in Japan, 184. Kervyn de Lettenhove, Minister of the Interior for Belgium, letter of, on art education, 94. King, H., 144. Kioto, a city in Japan, 183, 185. Knaus, L., painter, 29, 87, 88. Koehler, S. R., 144. Koran, human figure in art forbidden by the, 40. L. Labarte, Jules, 54, 145. Ladeul, maker of Helicon vase, 163. Lajolais, M. de, 92. Lausanne, industrial school at, 112. Le Cointe, Paris, 168. Lenormant, Fran9ois, 63. Leonard, enamel painter, sixteenth century, 53. Leonardo da Vinci, 53. Leopold I. of Austria, Academy of Plastic Arts founded by, 108. Leopold, King of Belgium, 93. Lerida, Spain, art society at, 119. Lessing, Carl Frederick, 87, 88. Levasseur, school of, in Paris, prize awarded to, for superior instruction, 71, 84. Lick, James, of San Francisco, 28. Limoges, enameling of, in the ninth century, 53, 65; pottery of, 167. Limousin, abbeys of, 53. Longworth, Joseph, 28. Loretta, Italy, 57. Louis XIV., the arts in the reign of, 17. Louis XV., 59. Louis XVIIL, 87. Louvre, Paris, Gallery of the, 151. Lovera, Italy, Academy of Fine Arts in, 115. Lowell, Massachusetts, industrial school of design at, 139. INDEX. 209 Lucca, Italy, Academy of Fine Arts in, 115. Lucca della Robbia, 57. M. Madrid, Spain, art schools and societies in, 119. Makart, Hans, 168. Malaga, Spain, art society in, 119. Marco Polo, adventures of, in China, 177. Marcotte, New York, 161. Maria Louise de Gonzague, Queen of Holland, 59. Marryat, 145. Massa, Italy, Academy of Fine Arts in, 115. Massachusetts, system of art education in, 1 27, 1 28. Maxwell, J. E., 18, 144. Mayence, Cathedral of, 51. Mayeure, a founder of the Union Centrale, 76. Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest, 29, 74, 88. Mercade, B., Spanish painter, 171. Merimee, Prosper, report of, upon the Universal Expositions of 1851 and 1855, 77. Merle, Hugues, 88. Metropolitan Museum, New York, 20, 28. Meurice, Froment, Paris, 166. Michigan, University of, 124. Milan, Italy, Academy of Fine Arts in, 115. Millet, Jean Fra^ois, 73. Mino, province of, in Japan, 184. Minton, Hollins, & Co., England, 164, 165, 185. Modena, Italy, Academy of Fine Arts in, 115. Mohammed, drawing the human figure prohibited by, 40. " Moku- me," Japanese metal- work called, 185, 186. Monochromatic ornament, by M. A. Racinet, 144. Montmorency, Henri de, 86. Morocco, exhibit of, in the Centennial Exposi- tion, 174. Miiller, Charles Louis, 29, 88. Murano, Italy, School of Design in, 114. Murillo, 171. Museo d'Arte applicata all' Industria, Rome, 116. Museo Nazionale, Florence, 116. Museo Industriale Italiano, Turin, 116. Museum of Berlin, 62. Museum, Boston, 28. Museum, Metropolitan, New York, 20, 28. Museum, Pennsylvania, 20. Music-hall, Boston, organ-case in, 36. N. Naples, Italy, Academy of Fine Arts at, 115. National Academy of Design in New York, 20, 28, 130. National School for Training Art Masters, South Kensington, England, 67. National School of Design and Mathematics of France, prizes awarded to, 73. New York National Academy of Design, 20, 28. New York, State of, drawing in public schools of, 129. Nicias, Greek painter, 182. Nomi no Tsukune, Japan, 182. Notre Dame College, 124. Novgorod, Russia, basilica of, 57. Nuremberg schools, 101-105 ; toys of, 169. 0. Oberstein, Germany, 168. Objects of the toilet during the Middle Ages, 55. O'Hara, Charles G., 88. Oiron faience, 55 ; Chateau of Oiron, 55 ; repro- ductions of, 164. Organ, architecture of, 36. Osseolo, Doge of Venice, 50. Owari, province of, in Japan, pottery of, 184. P. Painting, course of instruction in, 143 ; applica- tion to industrial pursuits, 147, 148. Palissy, Bernard, 54, 150 ; ware, reproductions of, 167. Palermo, Italy, College of Fine Arts at, 115. Parma, Italy, Academy of Fine Arts at, 115. Pa via, Italy, School of Design at, 114. Paxton, Sir Joseph, 35. Penitents of Limoges, 85. Pennsylvania Museum, of Philadelphia, 20. Perugia, Italy, College of Fine Arts at, 115. Piano, architecture of, 36. Piacenza, Italy, Academy of Fine Arts at, 115. Pietrasanta, Italy, School of Design at, 114. Pirmez, Minister of Interior for Belgium in 1867, 93. Pisa, Italy, Academy of Fine Arts at, 115. Poli brothers, Venice, bell-makers, 171. Polidore of Carravaggio, artist, 54. Polytechnic Institute, Nuremberg, 103. Pompeii, 38. Pondicherry, 86. Porcelain first introduced into Europe, 178. Portales, Count de, 55. Pottery, an article of use and beauty, 37; manu- facture of, in United States, 39, 164; modern English, 164; Japanese, 178-185. Potteries of England, Report of, in 1868, 66. 14 210 INDEX. " Principles of Decorative Design," by C. Dresser, 144. Prussia, art education in, 99-101. Phoenicians, art of repousse, 48. Phamphilus, Greek painter, 155. Phidias, 33, 150. Philadelphia, Museum of Fine Arts, 20, 28 ; School of Design and Academy of Fine Arts, 129. Philostrate, writer of fourth century, notices art of enameling, 50. R. Racinet, M. A., 144-146. Rangabe, Michael, 57. Raphael, 44, 150. Ravenna, Italy, Academy of Fine Arts in, 115. Raymond, Pierre, 54. Regency, shoes worn in France during the, 86. Reggio d'Emilia, Academy of Fine Arts in, 115. Rembrandt, 44. Renaissance, industrial art during the, 48, 53. Repousse, antique art in, 48. Richelieu, Cardinal, 86. Roberts, Marshall 0., 88. Rochester, University of, 124. Roger II., 84. Rogers, Fairmau, 88. Rogers, Robert, designer and wood -carver, Cin- cinnati, 35. Romans, art of repousse practiced by the, 48. Rome, Academy of Fine Arts in, 115. Rousseau, Theodore, 73. Royal Academy of Design, London, 20. Royal Industrial School, Nuremberg, 102. Royal School of Art, Nuremberg, 101. Rumbold, letter from, on technical education in Switzerland, 111, 112. Russia, exhibit of, at the Centennial Exposition, 74. S. Salamanca, Spain, art society in, 119. Sansovino, Jacopo, sculptor, 57, 58. Santa Maria de Fiore, church of, in Florence, 57. Santandar, Spain, art society in, 119. Sassikoff, Russian sculptor, 175. Satsuma, Japanese pottery of, 183-185. Schools of art applied to industry and of design in Vienna, 107, 109, 110. School of art applied to industry, Venice, 1 14. Schools of art and manufacture in Italy, 114 ; at Savona, 113; at Sesto Florentine, 114. Schools of Design: in Belgium, 97; of Cincin- nati University, 28, 35, 151, 161 ; in Italy at Bassano, Brescia, Brisinghella, Castanzaro, Co- dogno, Faenza, Murano, Pa via, Pietrasanta, 1 14 ; at Ancona, Bergamo, Bologna, Cagliari, Cata- nia, Como, Cremona, Cuneo, Forli, Genoa, Gir- genti, Jesi, Livorno, Messina, Milan, Naples, Palermo, Pesaro, Piacenza, Port Maurice, Reg- gio d' Emilia, Rome, Sassari, Serra-nezza, Son- drio, Teramo, Terni, Turin, Udine, Venice, Vi- cenzo, Viterbo, 115 ; in Paris Rue de 1'Ecole, de Medicine ; in Prussia and Bavaria, 99-101. Sculpture, 144, 148. Sens, Cathedral of, Canterbury, built by, 38. Seville, Spain, art society in, 119. Sevres, manufacturing of porcelain at, 89-91. Sienna, Italy, Royal Institute at, 115. Sin Ra, in China, 181. Shaw, Henry, 144, 145. Shoes, exhibition of, 85, 86. Smith, Professor Walter, Boston, 128, 142. Soulages, M., art collector, 56. South Kensington, England, museum and school at, 47, 55, 65, 68, 132, 165. Spain, exhibit of, in Centennial Exposition, 171, 172. Spain, societies of fine arts in, 119. Specimens of ornamental art by Louis Griiner, 144, 145. Sphyrelaton, Greek and Roman, art of, 48. Stanley, Lord, address of, 66. Statistics relating to art productions in France and England, from 1847 to 1868, 75. St. Bernard, Abbey of Clairvaux, founded by, 60. St. Imier, Switzerland, school for watch-makers at, 112. St. John, Lateran, Rome, bronze doors of, 57. St. Maclou, Rouen, Cathedral of, 61. St. Mark, Venice, Church of, 50. St. Sophia, Constantinople, Basilica of, 50, 57. Susse f re res, Paris, 166. Sweden, exhibit of, at the Centennial Exposition, 170. Switzerland, exhibit of, at the Centennial Exposi- tion, 169. Switzerland, technical education in, 111, 112. T. Tables of Statistics: general survey of plan of industrial schools in Germany, 100; of col- leges, schools of design, universities, etc., in the United States, 124; showing the number of persons receiving instruction in drawing in Great Britain, by the Science and Art Depart- INDEX. 211 ment, 69 ; of statistics, general survey of plan of industrial schools in Germany, 100. Taeye, delegate, to report on art education in Bel- gium, 94, 95, 98, 135. Tarragona, Spain, art society at, 119. Teacher, office of, 151. Technical education in Great Britain, 66 ; in Ger- many, 100; in United States, 122, 123. "Technology of Buildings," by Ph. Chateau, 145. Technology, school of, at Boston, 28. Texier, Abbe, 53. The Middle Ages, its art industries, 4*7 ; art of design in, 62. " Theory of Color," by Von Bezold, 144. Tiffany & Co., 159, 160. Timogras, a Greek sculptor, 39. Tokio, a city in Japan, pottery of, 184. Toledo, Spain, art society at, 119. Trade schools in Bavaria, 105. Trivulci, Marquis de, 47. Troyon, Constant, 73, 88. Turin, Italy, 174. Turkey, 174. U. Uberti, the brothers, sculptors, 57. Union of art and industry, 42. Union Centrale, at Paris, favors plan of art edu- cation based upon study of geometry, 71 ; pro- gramme of, 78-82 ; exposition of, for 1874, 84, 85 ; for 1876, 87, 88. United States, lack of technical education in, com- pared with other countries, 67 ; general educa- tion, 121 ; technical education, 122, 123. Universal expositions of 1851-1855, 77. University of Cincinnati, 28 ; of Michigan, 131. Urbino, Italy, Academy of Fine Arts at, 115. V. Valencia, Spain, art society at, 119. Valladolid, Spain, art society at, 119. Vassar College, 124. Vautier, painter, 87, 88. Velasquez, 171. Venice, enameling in the ninth century, 53 ; Poli brothers, 171; school of arts applied to indus- try, 114; academy of fine arts, 116; shoes worn in the sixteenth century, 86 ; its arts and industrial schools, 107-110. Venus of Milo, 44. Vera, A., painter, 171. Verona, Italy, 57. Vienna, special schools of, 27. Villegas, painter, 88. Viollet le Due, M. E., report on Sevres manufac- tory, 90, 91 ; works upon architecture, 146. W. Washington, city of, Corcoran Gallery in, 20. Wedgwood pottery, 150. Winckelmann, "History of Art" by, 143, 154. Wolf, J. L., 88. Wolfs system of drawing, 105. Woman's Art School, Cooper Institute, New York, 129. Worcester County Free Institute, Massachusetts, 130. " Works in Gold, Silver, and Other Metals during the Middle Ages," by H. King, 145. Y. Yale College, 28, 124, 125. Yokahama, a city in Japan, its pottery, 184. Young, author of a "Theory of Color," 18, 19. Z. Zamora, art society at, 119. Zeuxis, a Greek painter, 155. Ziem, Felix, 88. Zimmerrnann, C., 87. THE END. University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return this material to the library from which It was borrowed. Series 9482