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HARPERS LANGUAGE -SERIES. 
 
 .PROGRESSIVE GRAMMAR 
 
 ENGLISH TONGUE: 
 
 BASED ON THE RESULTS OF MODERN PHILOLOGY. 
 
 BY PEOF. WILLIAM SWINTON, A.M., 
 
 AUTHOR OF "WORD-ANALYSIS," "WORD-BOOK," "RAMBLES AMONG WORDS," "CONDENSED 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES," "FIRST LESSONS IN OUR COUNTRY'S 
 
 HISTORY," " CAMPAIGNS OF THE ARMY OF THE POTOMAC," 
 
 "DECISIVE BATTLES OF THE WAR," ETC. 
 
 ATED. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 ' i!j tff W 1 1 * I 
 
 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 >3T <f K. ,'J 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 HARPER &' BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 
 
 FRANKLIN SQUARE. 
 
 1872. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by 
 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 ' 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE present course of English Grammar, forming a part 
 of Harper's Language-Series, is embodied in two books : 
 
 1. The "First Lessons in English;" 
 
 2. The " Progressive English Grammar." 
 
 The two are not necessarily connected ; either may be 
 used by itself. The "First Lessons," however, is designed 
 to meet the wants of the lower classes of graded schools, 
 while this text-book will connect with the " First Lessons," 
 and, at the same time, furnish by itself a complete gram- 
 matical course for ungraded and for private schools. 
 
 Learning our mother tongue ought to be the most inter- 
 esting of school studies ; and yet, for nearly a century, 
 countless numbers of technical grammars, all modeled aft- 
 er Lindley Murray, have been, by turns, the object of aver- 
 sion to successive generations of school children. This is 
 not to be wondered at. The traditional rules of syntax, 
 and the time -honored nomenclature of etymology, have 
 come down to us a heritage from the elder grammarians, 
 who, writing before philology became a science, put forth 
 all their strength in a too successful endeavor to subject 
 our simple and peculiar English speech to the vassalage of 
 Latin forms. 
 
 The introduction, some thirty years ago, of the method 
 
av PREFACE. 
 
 of Sentential ANALYSIS, devised by the German philologist 
 Becker, and adapted to American school use in the meri- 
 torious works of Professor Greene and others, marks the 
 only considerable innovation, in this country, on the Mur- 
 ray system. The new doctrine excited great intefest, and 
 soon ran into a wide currency. When we consider, how- 
 ever, that Analysis is the syntax of English to no greater a 
 degree than it is the syntax of any other speech ; that it is, 
 in point of fact, general or universal syntax, it is not strange 
 that it failed to realize the brilliant results claimed for it 
 by its early champions, and that of late it is falling out of 
 favor with j udicious teachers, who find that Analysis, while 
 a curious and interesting study, and not without its value 
 as a means of mental discipline, fails to accomplish the pro- 
 fessed design of English grammar, which design now is, 
 and always has been, to teach " the art of speaking and 
 writing the English language with propriety." 
 
 In the mean time, in the results of modern linguis- 
 tic study and research, materials have been rapidly accu- 
 mulating, from which methods of treatment ought to be 
 developed very different from the complications of Anglo- 
 Latin syntax on the one hand, and from the abstractions 
 of Analysis on the other. If the present work shall be 
 found to possess any merit, that merit will be due to the 
 fact that modern philology has made English grammar 
 possible by showing us what the English speech really is. 
 
 In this text-book, of the four mediaeval " branches" of 
 grammar, two have been lopped off to wit. Orthography 
 and Prosody. These do not properly belong to English 
 grammar, and, indeed, they came into the grammatical 
 horn-books at a period when the awful mysteries of "gram- 
 mairie" were ranked with the black arts. This exclusion 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 leaves for treatment the two proper departments of gram- 
 mar Etymology and Syntax ; to which have been added 
 Analysis and Construction, and English Composition. 
 
 I. 
 
 In the treatment of ETYMOLOGY three prominent points 
 will be noticed : 
 
 1. A graduated method of unfolding the parts of speech, 
 which are shown upon three successive and ascending 
 planes. The parts of speech are first taken up and defined 
 merely. Then all the parts of speech are again taken up, 
 and their subdivisions set forth. Lastly, all the parts of 
 speech are taken up for the third time, and their inflections 
 (if they possess any) are exhibited. The superiority of this 
 plan of gradual approach over the old way of crowding 
 every thing in a confused mass of bewildering. nomencla- 
 ture upon the child must be evident on even a cursory ex- 
 amination. 
 
 2. The brief, simple, and practical definitions of the parts 
 of speech and of grammatical terms in general. Gramma- 
 rians, it is true, have been in the habit of magnifying the 
 importance of abstract logical definitions, constructed with 
 all the subtlety of the schoolmen. But is it not manifest 
 that in an art like grammar the sole end of definition is to 
 teach uses ? Now it is believed that the school-boy, by the 
 aid of such simple (though, it is true, empirical) definitions 
 as NOUNS NAME THINGS, VERBS MAKE STATEMENTS, will learn 
 to detect nouns and verbs much sooner than he possibly 
 could, were he ever so cunning in the repetition of wire- 
 drawn definitions that may, indeed, be theoretically ex- 
 haustive, but that are practically unintelligible. 
 
 3. The historical treatment of English inflections. The 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 modern study of Anglo-Saxon lias thrown a flood of light 
 on the forms and idioms of the English tongue. We ob- 
 tain a satisfactory knowledge of our few fragments of 
 English inflection only by learning how those inflections 
 arose. And here, again, grammarians are chargeable with 
 having misapplied a great deal of ingenuity in trying to 
 explain d priori (by pure reasoning and logic) facts that 
 can be explained solely by the history of our speech. In 
 the present text-book the aim has been to introduce the 
 more illustrative points of English philology stripped of 
 their scientific dress. 
 
 II. 
 
 The treatment of Syntax in this text-book is probably 
 what will most challenge attention. 
 
 In this division of the subject a marked departure from 
 the old methods was found absolutely indispensable. The 
 time-honored twenty-six rules of Murray's Grammar are an 
 incongruous assemblage of mixed definitions and abstrac- 
 tions, imitated from Latin syntax, and having as their chief 
 end to teach grammatical parsing, which is simply grammar 
 run to seed. How many a thoughtful teacher has been 
 rudely disenchanted by discovering that a boy may glibly 
 parse Young's Night Thoughts, or Pollock's Course of Time, 
 strictly in accordance with the t\venty-six rules, and yet be 
 profoundly ignorant of practical English ! 
 
 The author bases his treatment of English syntax on 
 the theory that the object of the school study of grammar 
 is to furnish school-boys and school-girls with such an avail- 
 able outfit of knowledge in applied syntax-as shall give them 
 a fair mastery of the USE of English in speaking and in 
 writing. Accordingly, he found it needful to go through 
 
PREFACE. Vil 
 
 syntax, and carefully to separate the abstract maxims used 
 in disposing of words from those principles that are of prime 
 importance, because they may be violated in the actual 
 forms of words. This separation is marked by dividing 
 the syntax of each part of speech into 
 
 1. How to dispose of the part of speech. 
 
 2. Its practical syntax. 
 
 Of the latter PRACTICAL SYNTAX the treatment has 
 been made quite full, the anthor feeling that he could not 
 conscientiously avoid fairly meeting the numerous difficul- 
 ties that arise in writing modern English. At thfrsame 
 time, as the principles are developed inductively, from co- 
 pious illustrations very fully explained, it is believed that 
 they will find firm lodgment in the intelligence, and, by 
 consequence, in the memory of the pupil. 
 
 III. 
 
 A clear system of Sentential Analysis, freed from need- 
 less complications and refinements, has been reduced to its 
 appropriate place and space in the grammatical course. 
 Moreover, side by side with the principles of Analysis will 
 be found the application of those principles to Synthesis, 
 or Construction. The method of sentence - building here 
 given has stood the test of the class-room, and the exer- 
 cises will be found both to make Analysis itself intelligible 
 and to lay the foundation for Composition. 
 
 "iv. 
 
 As one of the professed objects of English Grammar is 
 to teach the art of writing good English, the last division 
 of the book comprises practical exercises in Composition- 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 writing. Here an effort has been made to bring the di- 
 rections and the exercises down to the average capacity 
 of the children in the public schools. The attention of 
 teachers is particularly called to this part of the book. 
 
 There seems to be a general desire among thinking teach- 
 ers for a clearer, simpler, and more objective method of 
 teaching English than that in common use for a book 
 more in harmony with modern English philology. It will 
 be for the great body of professional men and women, 
 whose plaint at the fruitlessness of old-time grammar has 
 filled Ae educational journals during the last decade, to 
 say whether this text-book supplies the desideratum ; but 
 the author at least ventures to bespeak for it the favorable 
 presumption that attaches to the newest treatment of a pro- 
 gressive science. 
 
 WILLIAM SWINTON. 
 
 The acknowledgments of the author are especially due 
 to the following works : 
 
 Dalgleish's English Grammar : Edinburg. [The simple method of defining 
 the Parts of Speech found in this work have been, in the main, followed in the 
 present text-book.] 
 
 Ernest Adams's Elements of the English Language : London. 
 
 Angus's Hand-book of English : London. 
 
 Morrell's Grammar and Analysis : London. 
 
 Higginson's English Grammar : London. 
 
 Collier's Grammar of the English Language : Edinburg. 
 
 Chambers's English Grammar : EdinbftYg. 
 
 Bain's English Grammar : London. 
 
 Marsh's Lectures : New York. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 EXPLANATORY 1 
 
 PAET I. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Classification 5 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech n 
 
 1. THE NOUN 11 
 
 2. THE PRONOUN 13 
 
 3. THE ADJECTIVE 17 
 
 4. THE VERB 20 
 
 5. THE ADVERB 23 
 
 G. THE PREPOSITION : 26 
 
 7. THE CONJUNCTION 27 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Inflection 30 
 
 1. THE NOUN 30 
 
 I. Number 30 
 
 II. Case 34 
 
 III. Gender 37 
 
 2. THE PRONOUN 39 
 
 I. Personal Pronouns 39 
 
 II. Eelative Pronouns 41 
 
 III. Demonstrative Pronouns 41 
 
 3. THE ADJECTIVE '. 42 
 
 4. THE ADVERB 44 
 
 5. THE VERB 45 
 
 I. Tense 45 
 
 II. Person and Number 46 
 
 III. Mood 47 
 
 IV. Voice 51 
 
 V. Conjugation. 51 
 
 VI. Forms of the Tenses 56 
 
 VII. Irregular Verbs 60 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Pago 
 
 ^.Syntax of the Verb : 74 
 
 I. How to Parse the Verb 74 
 
 II. Practical Syntax of the Verb 76 
 
 2. Syntax of the Noun 84 
 
 I. How to Dispose of Nouns 84 
 
 II. Practical Syntax of the Noun 88 
 
 3. Syntax of the Pronoun- ' 91 
 
 I. How to Dispose of Pronouns 91 
 
 II. Practical Syntax of the Pronoun 91 
 
 4. Syntax of Adjectives '. . . . 104 
 
 I. How to Parse Adjectives m 104 
 
 II. Practical Syntax of the Adjective 105 
 
 5. Syntax of the Adverb ios 
 
 I. How to Parse Adverbs 108 
 
 II. Practical Syntax of the Adverb 109 
 
 6. Syntax of Prepositions us 
 
 I. How to Parse Prepositions 115 
 
 II. Practical Syntax of the Preposition 116 
 
 7. Syntax of the Conjunction 119 
 
 I. How to Parse Conjunctions 119 
 
 II. Practical Syntax of the Conjunction 120 
 
 8. Syntax of Moods and Tenses 124 
 
 PAET III. 
 
 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Sentences 134 
 
 Elements of a Sentence 1 36 
 
 What the Subject may be 137 
 
 What the Predicate may be 1 38 
 
 How the Subject may be enlarged 1 39 
 
 Expansion of the Subject 140 
 
 How the Predicate may be enlarged 141 
 
 Expansion of the Predicate 142 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Analysis of Sentences H3 
 
 1 . The Simple Sentence analyzed 143 
 
 2. Sentence-Building the Simple Sentence 145 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 CHAPTER III. Page 
 
 The Complex Sentence HO 
 
 1 . The Complex Sentence analyzed 149 
 
 2. Sentence-Building the Complex Sentence .'*. 156 
 
 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Compound Sentence IGO 
 
 1. The Compound Sentence analyzed 160 
 
 2. Sentence-Building the Compound Sentence 165 
 
 PAET IV. 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 1. Suggestions for Teachers 179 
 
 2. Suggestions for Pupils 180 
 
 3. Review of Capitalizing and Punctuation 182 
 
 4. Exercises in Composition- Writing 184 
 
 5. Abstracts from Memory 188 
 
 6. Letter-Writing 190 
 
 7. Turning Poetry into Prose 193 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Conjugation of a Regular Verb 199 
 
 Synopsis of the Verb Love 201 
 
 Synopsis of a Verb conjugated 202 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Paradigms .- 203 
 
 Saxon Verb * 205 
 
 Comparative Table of Tenses in English, Latin, French, and German. . 206 
 
 The Infinitive or Verbal in -ing 207 
 
OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 NOTE FOR TEACHEHS. It is not intended that this grammar should 
 be uniformly got by rote. Some parts, of course, must be so learnt ; but^ 
 grammar in general is to be learnt by mind. 
 
 1. The English language is called our mother tongue be- 
 cause it is our native speech. We begin to learn it as soon 
 as we begin to talk. 
 
 2. We gain our first knowledge of our language by hear- 
 ing those around us speak it. T$iis may be called natural 
 knowledge of our language. 
 
 3. The pupils who begin to study this book already know 
 a good deal about English. They have a stock of words, 
 and know how to put these words together into sentences. 
 But they can not be sure that they are using words prop- 
 erly and framing sentences correctly unless they know the 
 rules of the English language. A knowledge based on these 
 rules may be called a grammatical knowledge of our tongue. 
 
 4. The study that teaches the correct use of the English 
 language in speaking and in writing is called English Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 5. All language is composed of sentences, and all sen- 
 tences are made up of words. Hence arise the two grand 
 divisions of English Grammar : 
 
 I. Etymology treating of words by themselves. 
 II. Syntax treating of words combined in sentences. 
 
 NOTE. The old division of English Grammar was into 1 1 orthography, 
 etymology, syntax, and prosody." But orthography, which is a matter 
 rather of rote than of rule, belongs to the speller and the dictionary, while 
 prosody is properly a part of English composition. 
 
 A 
 
2 EXPLANATORY. 
 
 6. Etymology treats of 
 
 I. The arrangement of words in classes; and 
 II. The changes that words undergo to express different 
 relations. 
 
 The first may be called classification; tie second, inflec- 
 tion. 
 
 It should be distinctly understood that etymology treats of the gram- 
 matical changes of words, and of no other kind of change. It has nothing 
 to do with the derivation of words : that belongs to historical etymology, 
 in contradistinction to grammatical etymology. Thus the change from 
 ' sweet' to ' sweeter' is a matter of grammatical etymology ; the change 
 from ' farm' to ' farmer' is a matter of historical etymology. 
 
 ... 7. Words are arranged in classes, according to the functions 
 they perform, or the work they do, in sentences. Thus 
 All words used to make statements are put in one class. 
 All words used to name things, in another. 
 All words used to describe things, in a third. 
 
 8. The several classes of words are called Parts of Speech. 
 
 9. Now, let us see what is meant by inflection. Take the 
 naming word river and the asserting word flows, and you may 
 make the sentence ' The river flows.' But suppose you wish 
 to denote more than one river, you change the form of the 
 word to rivers. The sentence now becomes ' The rivers 
 flow.' And here, again, you have changed the form of the 
 word, flows by leaving off s. 
 
 10. Suppose you wish to state, not that the river is now 
 flowing, but that it was flowing at some time in the past : you 
 say 'The river flowed' Here you have changed the form 
 of flow by adding ed. 
 
 11. Take the describing word deep and the naming word 
 river. Now suppose you wish to state that a certain other 
 river had greater depth than one just named : you will say 
 C A deeper river.' Here you have changed the form of the 
 word ' deep' by adding er. These are examples of the kind 
 of changes in words that etymology treats of, and these 
 changes are called inflections. 
 
 12. Syntax treats of the structure of sentences, with ref- 
 erence to the agreement, government, and .arrangement of 
 words. 
 
EXPLANATORY. 3 
 
 ILLUSTRATION OF AGREEMENT. 
 
 (1.) If we say 'The mountains is high,' we speak un- 
 grammatically ; that is, we violate syntax, because for a 
 reason which the pupil will learn hereafter the form of the 
 word ' is' does not agree with the word ' mountains.' 
 
 ILLUSTRATION OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 (2.) Take the two sentences, c They were led on by Mam- 
 mon ;' ' Mammon led them on.' The word them in the 
 second sentence is a change of form of the word they. Why 
 does it take this form ? Because for a reason to be learn-] 
 ed hereafter the word ' led' compels it to take that form, 
 governs it in that form. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION OF ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 (3.) The sentence, ' Wanted, a young man to take care 
 of horses of a Christian disposition,' is an absurdity, be- 
 cause the faulty placing of the words ( of a Christian dis- 
 position' makes them qualify horses instead of man, which 
 they were meant to qualify. The arrangement is wrong. 
 
 13. Whenever we express a thought we use a sentence. 
 Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate. 
 
 1 Beautiful flowers in the garden.' These words do not make a sen- 
 tence, because they do not express a thought. But when we say ' Beau- 
 tiful flowers bloom in the garden' we express a thought, and the assemblage 
 of words used to express it is a sentence. 
 
 14. The Predicate is the particular part of a sentence that 
 makes a statement. 
 
 The Subject is that about which a statement is made. 
 
 'Haste makes waste' is a sentence. 'Haste' is the subject; 'makes 
 waste' is the predicate. 
 
 15. Sometimes a great many words are used in expressing 
 the subject and the predicate, but there will always be some 
 one term that we are speaking about, and some other term that 
 makes the statement. 
 
 SUBJECT. PREDICATE. 
 
 The young and gallant Sydney died on the field of battle at Zutphen. 
 
 The person we are speaking about in this sentence is marked by the 
 term or name 'Sydney,' but several other words, the, young, gallant, are 
 used along with that term to describe it. What we say about ' Sydney' 
 is mainly expressed by the term 'died, 'but other words are connected 
 with it to show where he died. 
 
4 EXPLANATORY. 
 
 16. The particular term that forms the subject will always 
 be what is called a noun, or something having the force of a 
 noun ; the particular term forming the predicate will always 
 be what is called a verb. 
 
 17. The noun and the verb are the two principal Parts of 
 Speech. They make the frame-work of every sentence. 
 
 18. The various sorts of words used along with the subject 
 and with the predicate make up the other Parts of Speech, 
 and these are fully explained in the next chapter, on Class- 
 ification. 
 
 The English Language has been growing for more than a thousand years. 
 It is called ' English' from the word Angles, the name of a tribe of Germans 
 who, with the Saxons and other German tribes, settled in Britain about the 
 5th century A.D. The language that was spoken by this people is called 
 Anglo-Saxon. It was quite unlike our present English, but it is the basis 
 of our speech, furnishing the larger part (nearly three quarters, perhaps) 
 of our customary words, and the grammatical frame-work of the whole lan- 
 guage. Anglo-Saxon was largely influenced by the French language, spoken 
 by the Normans, who conquered England in the IHh century. In the 15th 
 and 16th centuries it received a very great number of words from Latin 
 and from Greek, and subsequently from other sources. Thus we see that 
 the English language is a combination of many tongues. By the time of 
 Shakspeare, in the 16th century, it had grown into nearly its present form. 
 English is a noble language. It is now spoken by nearly one hundred mil- 
 lions of people. It is the language of the United States and of British Amer- 
 ica, of Great Britain and Ireland, of Australia and New Zealand, and it is 
 spoken in South Africa, in India, and elsewhere. To have a free and accu- 
 rate use of it is one of the finest of accomplishments, and such a use the 
 study of Grammar should give. 
 
PART I. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 19. Etymology treats of words individually considered, 
 and consists of two parts classification and inflection. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION. 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH DEFINED. 
 
 20. Words are arranged in classes, according to the func- 
 tions they perform, or the work they do, in sentences. 
 
 The English Language is made up of a stock of words called its vocab- 
 ulary. A complete English dictionary contains upward of 100,000 words ; 
 nevertheless, it is found that the whole stock of English words can be as- 
 sorted into a very few kinds. Thus all words used to assert are put in one 
 class all words used to name things, in another ; all words used to describe 
 things, in a third, etc. 
 
 21. There are eight separate classes'of words. These class- 
 es are called The Parts of Speech. 
 
 22. The Parts of Speech are: 
 
 1. THE NOUN. 5. THE ADVERB. 
 
 2. THE PRONOUN. 6. THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 3. THE ADJECTIVE. 7. THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 4. THE VERB. 8. THE INTERJECTION. 
 
 23. DEFINITION I. Nouns name things; as, A violet 'neath 
 a mossy stone. 
 
 Noun, from the Latin nomen, a name, is the name of any thing that we 
 can perceive by means of (1) the senses or of (2) the understanding. Ev- 
 ery thing we think about or speak about person, place, object, action, or 
 thought must have a name, and every name is a NOUN. 
 
 Exercise 1. 
 Pick out the NOUNS. 
 
 1. The snow was deep on the hills last week. 2. The sun rises in the 
 morning and sets in the evening. 3. The battle of Gettysburg was fought in 
 Pennsylvania. 4. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. 5. Skating 
 on the ice is fine fun for boys. 6. Warren was noted for the sweetness of his 
 disposition. 7. Knowledge is power. 
 
6 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 24. DEFINITION II. Pronouns stand for Nouns; as, Charles 
 went to Paris with his mother, and he came back without her. 
 
 (a) The word Pronoun (Latin pro and nomen) means for or instead q/*a 
 noun. The use of pronouns is to prevent the repetition of nouns, and to 
 make speaking and writing more rapid and less encumbered with words. 
 
 (6) The principal pronouns are : /, You, He, She, It, We, They, My, Your. 
 His, Her, Its, Him, Our, Us, Their, Them, Who, Whose, Whom, Which, 
 That, What. 
 
 Exercise 2. 
 
 A. 
 
 Pick out the PRONOUNS, and say for what Nouns they stand. 
 
 1 . The Arabs are able to catch the ostrich only when they have tired it 
 
 some days by constant chase. 2. Men find plants where they least expect 
 
 them. 3. A boy who is always grumbling will lose the friends that he has. 
 
 4. I hope you will come to see us soon. 5. Who goes there ? 
 
 B. 
 
 Write PKONOUNS for the NOUNS printed in Italics. 
 
 1. The master told the two brothers to tell the two brothers' father that the 
 
 father must get the two brothers new books. 2. The king took the hand of 
 
 the king's earliest friend, and pressed the hand to the king's heart. 3. Philip's 
 
 mother said to Philip, 'Philip must keep Philip's clothes in better order.' 
 
 5. When the ostrich's pursuer approaches the ostrich, the ostrich sticks the 
 ostrich's head in the sand. 
 
 25. DEFINITION III. Adjectives describe or limit things; 
 as, The early primrose, The distant hills, The three swans, The 
 open country. 
 
 The literal meaning of Adjective (Latin ad, to, and jectus, thrown or 
 placed) is placed alongside of. Adjectives are placed alongside of nouns 
 for the purpose of describing or qualifying them, or of showing the extent 
 of their signification. 
 
 Exercise 3. 
 Pick out the ADJECTIVES, and name the things they describe 
 
 or limit. 
 
 1. Silk-worms are curious and industrious little creatures. 2. Good books 
 deserve a careful perusal. 3. They called him a true friend and a noble foe. 
 4. Many ships were lost in the storm. 5. There are seven days in a week. 
 
 6. The long, long, weary days are past. 
 
 7. The way was long, the wind was cold, 
 The minstrel was infirm and old. 
 
 26. DEFINITION IV. Verbs make statements ; as, The wild 
 cataract leaps in glory ; The revolution of the earth on its axis 
 causes the succession of day and night. 
 
THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 7 
 
 (a) The essential idea of the Verb is that of asserting or telling. The 
 term Verb (Latin verbum, a word) means word, and this part of speech is 
 so called because it is the word, the word which gives life to a sentence ; 
 in fact, no string of words can make a sentence unless one of the words is 
 a verb. 
 
 (b) The definition of Verb may be expanded thus; "A verb is a word 
 by means of which we assert (1) what any thing does; (2) what is done-to 
 it ; or (3) in what state It exists." 
 
 Exercise 4. 
 
 A. 
 
 Pick out the VEKBS, and tell their SUBJECTS. 
 My father left me a considerable estate, the best part of which I spent in 
 debauchery during my youth. But I perceived my error, and reflected that 
 riches are perishable, and are quickly consumed by such ill managers as my- 
 self. I further considered that by my irregular way of living I wretchedly 
 misspent my time, which is the most valuable thing in the world. I remem- 
 bered the saying of the great Solomon, which I had frequently heard from 
 my father, "that death is more tolerable than poverty." Being struck with 
 these reflections, I collected the remains of my furniture, and sold all my 
 patrimony by public auction to the highest bidder. Chen I entered into a 
 contract with some merchants who traded by sea ; I took the advice of such 
 as I thought most capable to give it to me, and, resolving to improve what 
 money I had, I went to Balsora, and embarked with several merchants on 
 board a ship which we jointly fitted out. Arabian Nights. 
 
 B. 
 
 The red light shone through the open door, 
 
 From the round, declining sun, 
 And fantastic shadows all about 
 
 On the dusty floor were thrown, 
 As the factory clock tolled the hour of five, 
 
 And the school was almost done. 
 
 
 The mingled hum of the busy town 
 
 Rose faint from the lower plain, 
 And we saw the steeple over the trees, 
 
 With its motionless golden vane, 
 And heard the cattle's musical low, 
 
 And the rustle of standing grain. 
 
 27. DEFINITION Y. Adverbs describe actions and qualities; 
 as, I have often climbed very steep hills. 
 
 (a) The literal meaning of Adverb is added to a verb, because the Ad- 
 verb is most frequently the adjunct of a verb. 
 
 (6) Adverbs describe actions by showing how, when, or where they are 
 done. For this purpose they are joined to verbs. 
 
 (c) Adverbs describe qualities by showing how much of them is possessed. 
 For this purpose they are joined to adjectives ; as, Very little money. 
 
 (c?) Adverbs also limit adverbial descriptions by showing how much of 
 them is applicable. For this purpose they are joined to other adverbs ; as, 
 He speaks most fluently, and writes very correctly. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Exercise 5. 
 Pick out the ADVERBS, and tell what words they describe. 
 
 Softly, peacefully lay her to rest, 
 
 Place the turf lightly on her young breast 
 
 Gently, solemnly bend o'er the bed 
 
 Where ye have pillowed thus softly her head. 
 
 When I was a little advanced into the island I saw an old man, who ap- 
 peared very weak and feeble. He sat upon the bank of a stream, and at first 
 I took him to be one who had been shipwrecked like myself. I quickly went 
 towards him, and respectfully saluted him, but he only bowed his head. I 
 asked him what he did there, but instead of answering me he made a sign 
 for me to take him up on my back and carry him over the brook. I believed 
 him really to stand in need of my help, so I took him up on my back, and, 
 having soon carried him over, I bid him get down ; but, instead of that (which 
 I laugh at heartily every time I think of it), the old man clasped his legs 
 nimbly about my neck, and held my throat so tightly that I really thought he 
 would have strangled me. Arabian Nights. 
 
 28. DEFINITION VI. Prepositions link Nouns and Pronouns 
 to other words. 
 
 She is f SLY from the land where her young hero sleeps, 
 
 And lovers are round her sighing $ 
 But coldly she turns from their gaze and weeps, 
 
 .For her heart in his grave is lying. 
 
 (a) The preposition from links the noun land to the adverb far ; round 
 links the pronoun her to sighing ; from links the noun gaze to turns ; in 
 links the noun grave to is lying. 
 
 (6) The word Preposition means a placing before (Latin pre andpositio), 
 and is so called because it is placed before a noun or a pronoun. 
 
 (c) Prepositions may be known by observing that they are closely at- 
 tached to their nouns, and can not be removed from one part of the sen- 
 tence to another except in connection with their nouns. 
 
 Exercise 6. 
 Pick out the PREPOSITIONS* and tell what words they link. 
 
 1. Indian corn, when ripe in October, is gathered in the field by men who 
 go from hill to hill with baskets into which they put the corn. 2. The creak- 
 ing of the masts was frightful. 3. We gazed with inexpressible pleasure on 
 those happy islands. 4. It happened one day, when going towards my boat, 
 I was exceedingly surprised with the print of a man's naked foot on the 
 shore. 5. Who is she that comes clothed in a robe of green ? 6. Heaven 
 from all creatures hides the book of fate. 
 
 29. DEFINITION VII. Conjunctions connect statements; 
 as, Cheerful he seemed, and gentleness he loved ; He chid 
 their wanderings, but relieved their pain. 
 
 (a) Conjunctions often seem to join only two words, but the connection 
 is really between statements. Thus, in the sentence Charles and Mary 
 
THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 9. 
 
 survived William, two statements are implied Charles survived William, 
 and, Mary survived William. In such a sentence as ' three and two is 
 five, ' the and has not the function of a conjunction , it is here used as a 
 preposition, and is equivalent to with. 
 
 (b) Conjunction means a joining together (Latin con and junctio). 
 
 Exercise 7. 
 
 Pick out the CONJUNCTIONS, and say what statements they 
 
 connect. 
 
 I. Hamilton and Jefferson were distinguished statesmen. 2. Greene was 
 a courageous officer, but Washington was the greater general of the two. 
 3. You will succeed if you persevere. 4. We read the newspapers because 
 they give us the news. 5. I have not received the letter, though I expect it 
 every hour. 
 
 30. DEFINITION VIII. Interjections express sudden feeling; 
 as, Alas ! how changed ! 
 
 The literal meaning of Interjection (Latin inter andjeciio) is a throwing 
 between. This part of speech is so called because it has no grammatical 
 connection with the other words in the sentence, but is thrown in to express 
 sudden emotion. 
 
 Exercise 8. 
 Pick out the INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 1. Alas! poor Yorick. 2. Hurrah! the work is done. 3. Lo, the poor 
 Indian ! 4. Hush ! he sleeps forever. 5. Ah ! where is he now ? 6. Pshaw ! 
 it is nothing. 
 
 REVIEW OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 1. NOUNS name things. 
 
 2. PRONOUNS stand for nouns. 
 
 3. ADJECTIVES describe or limit things. 
 
 4. VERBS make statements. 
 
 5. ADVERBS describe actions and qualities. 
 
 6. PREPOSITIONS link words. 
 
 7. CONJUNCTIONS connect statements. 
 
 8. INTERJECTIONS express sudden feeling. 
 
 HOW TO TELL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 31. As words are arranged in classes, according to their 
 use in sentences, they are assigned to their proper part of 
 speech by inspection ; that is, by carefully noting what is 
 their use in the sentence. 
 
 32. THE NOUN. Nouns name things. Hence any word 
 or expression that has the use of a noun is a noun. 
 
 A 2 
 
.10 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Without one if or but. 
 
 'If and 'but,' in their ordinary use as parts of speech, are conjunc- 
 tions, but in this sentence they have the use of nouns, and hence are nouns. 
 
 Walking is agreeable exercise. 
 
 'Walking' is properly part of a verb, but being her3 used as a noun, it is 
 a noun. 
 
 33. THE ADJECTIVE. Adjectives describe things. Hence 
 any word that has the use of an adjective is an adjective. 
 
 People who live in glass houses should not throw stones. 
 
 The word ' glass' is usually a noun, because it names a thing ; but in 
 this sentence ' glass' has a descriptive power, and, being used as an adjec- 
 tive, is an adjective. 
 
 THE VEEB. Verbs make statements. Hence any word 
 that has the use of a verb is a verb. 
 
 Sometimes we see a ship ; sometimes we ship a sea. 
 
 In its first use ' ship' is a noun, because it names a thing ; in its second, 
 a verb, because it makes a statement. 
 
 34. PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, AND ADVEEBS. Certain 
 words, such as after, before, for, since, etc., are used sometimes 
 as prepositions, sometimes as adverbs, sometimes as conjunc- 
 tions. 
 
 They are prepositions when they are followed by a noun or 
 a pronoun only ; adverbs when they are followed by a verb ; 
 conjunctions when they connect statements. EXAMPLE : 'He 
 came before [prep.] me, but left before [adv.] I was done.' ' I 
 will not go, for [conj.] I do not want to do so. 5 'I have a 
 
 ' [conj.] 
 .] him.' 
 
 dollar for [prep.] him. 
 
 35. The word that may be adjective, pronoun, or conjunc- 
 tion. 
 
 Give me that [adjective] book. 
 
 What is that? [pronoun.] 
 
 We believe that [conjunction] the earth is round. 
 
 Parsing. Model First. 
 
 36. Parsing (Latin pars, a part) is telling the part of speech 
 of each word in a sentence. By Model First we simply name 
 the part of speech. 
 
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 11 
 
 Model First. 
 The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 
 
 The an adjective, because it describes * plowman.' 
 
 Plowman a noun, because it names a thing. 
 
 Homeward an adverb, because it describes the action ' plods.' 
 
 Plods a verb, because it makes a statement. 
 
 His a pronoun, because it stands for a noun namely, 
 
 the noun ' plowman. ' 
 Weary an adjective, because it describes a thing namely, 
 
 4 way.' 
 Way a noun,*because it names a thing. 
 
 Exercise 9. 
 PAUSE the following Sentences according to Model First: 
 
 1. The liberty of the press is the highest safeguard to all free government. 
 2. Ours could not exist without It. 3. It is like a great, exulting, and abound- 
 ing river. 4. It is fed by the dews of heaven, which distill their sweetest 
 drops to form it. 5. It gushes from the rill, as it breaks from the deep cav- 
 erns of the earth. 6. It is augmented by a thousand affluents, that dash 
 from the mountain top to separate again into ^thousand bounteous and irri- 
 gating streams around. 7. On its broad bosom it bears a thousand barks. 
 8. There genius spreads its purpling sail. 9. There poetry dips its silver oar. 
 10. There art, invention, discovery, science, morality, religion, may safely and 
 securely float. 11. It wanders through every land. 12. It is a genial, cor- 
 dial source of thought and inspiration wherever it touches, whatever it sur- 
 rounds. 13. Upon its borders there grows every flower of grace and every 
 fruit of truth. 14. Sir, I am not here to deny that that river sometimes over- 
 steps its bounds. 15. I am not here to deny that that stream sometimes be- 
 comes a dangerous torrent, and destroys towns and cities upon its bank. 
 16. But I am here to say that without it, civilization, humanity, government, 
 all that makes society itself, would disappear, and the world would return to 
 its ancient barbarism. E. D. Baker. 
 
 &* For additional pieces to be used in Parsing, the teacher is referred to 
 any School Reader. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 1. The Noun. 
 
 37. Nouns are of two kinds 
 
 I. Common. II. Proper. 
 
 38. Common Nouns are names of class-objects ; as boy, 
 king, man, city. 
 
 39. Proper Nouns are such as denote individual objects; 
 as John, Charlemagne, Thompson, San Francisco. 
 
12 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 (a) Proper (Noun) is derived from the Latin proprius, peculiar ; that is, 
 a name peculiar to an individual. To be sure, many persons have the name 
 4 James,' and there is a 'Boston' in England as well as in the United States ; 
 but James and Boston are nevertheless Proper Nouns, for the reason that 
 the former is not common to the c/ass-name man, nor the latter to the 
 c/ass-name city. Man and city are Common Nouns, because they name 
 all the individuals belonging to the class. 
 
 (6) Proper Nouns are always written with initial capital letters. 
 
 40. A Proper Noun becomes a Common Noun when it 
 represents a class; that is, when it has the use of a Common 
 Noun. Thus Swift, Nero, are Proper Nouns ; but when W T C 
 speak of the c wit of a Swift? ' the cruelty of a Nero? ' Swift' 
 and ' Nero' are Common Nouns, because they are used to 
 represent classes of men. 
 
 41. In like manner, a Common Noun becomes a Proper 
 Noun when it is used to represent an individual object. Thus 
 park is a Common Noun, but The Park is a Proper Noun. 
 
 Nouns are sometimes further subdivided into Abstract nouns, Participial 
 nouns, and Collective nouriB. The subdivision is not a sound one. Ab- 
 stract nouns are simply common nouns, and no more required to be specially 
 distinguished than do Concrete nouns. Certain nouns that appear to be 
 participial nouns that is, that end in ing are not necessarily participles 
 at all ; many of them come from Saxon nouns in ung, as rising, morning, 
 etc. ; and, for the rest, any participle that has the use of a noun is a noun. 
 The proper treatment of Collective nouns is under the inflection of number 
 (see Syntax of the Noun). 
 
 Exercise 10. 
 
 Assign each NOUN to its CLASS. 
 
 MODEL. The Cotter's Saturday Night, composed by Robert 
 Burns, is a charming poem. 
 
 Cotter's Saturday Night is a proper noun, because it denotes an indi- 
 vidual object. 
 
 Robert Burns is a proper noun, because it denotes an indi- 
 vidual object. 
 
 Poem is a common noun, because it is the name of 
 
 a class-object. 
 
 1 . France has not seen such another king as Henry the Fourth. 
 
 2. Hope is as strong an incentive to action as fear. 
 
 3. David and Jonathan loved each other tenderly. 
 
 4. The ' Tempest' was the last tragedy written by Shakspeare. 
 
 5. Men and women used to make pilgrimages to Canterbury. 
 
 6. Chaucer wrote the Canterbury Tales. 
 
 7. The Channel is noted for its rough weather. 
 
 8. Milton is the Homer of English literature. 
 
 9. Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death. 
 
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 13 
 
 10. Many a frozen, many a fiery Alp appeared. 
 
 1 1. The Times gave an account of Palmerston's death. 
 
 12. O Justice, thou art fled to brutish beasts ! 
 
 Exercise 11. 
 Give a COMMON Noun for each group of PROPER Nouns. 
 
 1 . Shakspeare, Milton, Homer were poets. 
 
 2. Hudson, Mississippi, Rhine are ? 
 
 3. London, New York, San Francisco are ? 
 
 4. Washington, Adams, Jefferson were ? 
 
 5. The United States, Switzerland, Mexico are ? 
 
 6. Webster, Clay, Calhoun were ? 
 
 2. The Pronoun. 
 
 42. Pronouns are of three kinds 
 
 I. Personal. II. Demonstrative. III. ^Relative. 
 
 I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 48. The Personal Pronouns are: I, you, he, she, it; we, 
 you, they. 
 
 44. I and ice denote the person speaking, and are said to 
 be of the First Person. 
 
 45. You denotes the person spoken to, and is said to be of 
 the Second Person. 
 
 Thou was anciently used instead of you : it is found in the English trans- 
 lation of the Bible ; but it is now used only in prayer or on other solemn 
 occasions, and in poetry. 
 
 46. He, she, it, and they denote the person or the thing 
 spoken of, and are said to be of the Third Person. 
 
 (a) Note that the personal pronoun of the third person is the only one 
 having distinctive words to denote the sexes he for the male, she for the 
 female, and it for sexless objects. The personal pronouns of the first and 
 of the second person have no gender, because, there being an actual speak- 
 er and an actual hearer, the one is supposed to know the other's gender as 
 a matter of course. 
 
 (b) There is an important difference between the personal pronouns of 
 the first and of the second person, and the personal pronoun of the third 
 person. 'He,' 'she,' and 'it' come fully up to the definition of the pro- 
 noun that is, they stand for Nouns. But for what nouns do 'I,' 'we,' 
 and 'you' stand? Properly speaking, they do not stand for nouns at all, 
 but are remarkable little words used to express what there is no other 
 term to express, namely, the personality of the speaker and of the person 
 spoken to. The radical difference between the pronouns of the first and of 
 the second person, and the pronoun of the third person, has led the most 
 
14 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 advanced modern grammarians to confine the name Personal Pronouns to 
 the former, and to class he, she, it with Demonstratives ; but the old no- 
 menclature does not lead to any mistakes of practice, and hence it has not 
 been changed in this text-book. 
 
 II. DEMONSTRATIVE PEONOUNS. 
 
 47. The term Demonstratives is applied to a small class of 
 peculiar representative words that can stand by themselves, 
 and hence that deserve to be called Pronouns. 
 
 48. The principal Demonstrative Pronouns are : 
 
 This and that In this 'tis God designs ; in that 'tis man. 
 
 These and those Some place their bliss in action, some in ease; those 
 
 call it pleasure, and contentment these. 
 
 Each Each seemed the centre of his own fair world. 
 
 Either and Neither. .1 will take either, but you shall have neither. 
 
 One and Other The one puts his sickle into the other's harvest. 
 
 Some. Some fell by the wayside. 
 
 All All consented to the plan. 
 
 Both Here is an apple and an orange : you may have both. 
 
 Many and few Many are called, but few are chosen. 
 
 None None knew him but to love him ; none named him 
 
 but to praise. 
 
 Such If you are a man, show yourself such. 
 
 So We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow ; our 
 
 wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so. 
 
 Each Other and One) Little children, love one another. Richard andThom- 
 another ) as esteem each other. 
 
 Another But never either found another to free the hollow 
 
 heart from pain. 
 Any Who's here so base that he would be a bondman ? 
 
 If any, speak. 
 
 Ones My wife and little ones. 
 
 Others Some said it was true, others denied it. 
 
 Much Though much is taken, much remains. 
 
 Former and Latter.. Adams and Jefferson were distinguished statesmen : 
 the former was born in Massachusetts ; the latter, 
 in Virginia. 
 
 One One is seldom at a loss what to do with one's money. 
 
 They They say that the emperor is ill. 
 
 It It was impossible to recognize him. 
 
 There There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin. 
 
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 15 
 
 NOTES ON THE DEMONSTRATIVES. 
 
 NOTE I. The above Demonstratives are all Pronouns, for the reason 
 that they have the power of representing NOUNS. They are named Demon- 
 strative Pronouns because their use is to point out. The following deserve 
 particular notice : 
 
 It The Pronoun It is classed as one of the Personal Pronouns, and right- 
 ly so in its ordinary use. Thus, if we say, ' This is a large house ; 
 it is built of brick,' it is a Personal Pronoun. But there is a pe- 
 culiar idiomatic use of it, as in the sentence, i lt was impossible 
 to recognize him.' When thus employed, the word it is a Demon- 
 strative, and serves to introduce the real subject, which in this con- 
 struction comes after the verb. l lt was impossible to recognize 
 him' = ' to recognize him was impossible.' This may be called the 
 idiomatic It. 
 
 There. The word there has sometimes the function of a Pronoun, as in the 
 example, There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin A poor 
 exile came, etc. There, thus employed, has the same power as it ; 
 that is, it serves to introduce a sentence. 
 
 One. ..There is a peculiar use of the word one, as in the sentence, One 
 can not but think that all the planets are inhabited. In this use, 
 its force is to make indefinite reference. Note that the Pronoun 
 'one' is etymologically a different word from the adjective 'one.' 
 The latter is from the Anglo-Saxon ane, meaning a or one. The 
 former is from the French on, as in on dit literally one says, that is, 
 they say. The French on is a contraction of homme, man. Com- 
 pare the German, Man sagt=man says, that is, one says. 
 
 They. The plural Personal Pronoun They has an idiomatic use, as in the 
 sentence, ' They say [that is, people say, or it is said~\ that the Em- 
 peror is ill.' When so employed, it is to be ranked as a Demonstra- 
 tive. Its use is the same as ' one' above ; that is, it makes indefi- 
 nite reference. 
 
 NOTE II. The class Demonstratives is sometimes subdivided as follows : 
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS Any, Many, Few, One, They, Some, Other, All, 
 
 None, Another, and Much. 
 
 DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS Each, Both, Either, Neither. 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS This, That, Such, So, Former, Latter. 
 RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS Each Other, One Another. 
 IDIOMATIC OR INTRODUCTORY PRONOUNS It, There. 
 
 HiT The derivation of most of these Demonstratives is given in the list of 
 Demonstrative Adjectives [^[ GO], where most of them recur. 
 
 III. RELATIVE PEONOUNS. 
 
 49. The Relative Pronouns are who, which, that, and what. 
 They are called relatives because they relate, or carry back 
 (from re, back, and latus, carried) our thoughts to some other 
 
16 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 word that goes before them in the sentence. The word that 
 the pronoun represents is called the Antecedent. 
 
 50. Who relates to persons. Which relates to the lower 
 animals and to lifeless things. That may take the place of 
 either who 'or which. [For the special rules governing the 
 use of that, see Syntax of the Pronoun.] 
 
 51. The peculiarity of the relative is, that it makes one 
 sentence of what would otherwise be two sentences, serving 
 the purpose of a connective as well as of a pronoun, and mak- 
 ing one of the sentences more prominent, while the other is 
 subordinate. 
 
 'The mountain which I climbed is very high.' The thing principally 
 asserted is that the mountain is very high ; that I climbed it is a subordi- 
 nate fact in the sentence, and it is connected with the main statement by 
 the relative which. The sentence = The mountain is very high, and I 
 climbed it. 
 
 52. The pronoun what is equivalent to which thing, or that 
 which. 
 
 What appears to include in itself both the antecedent and the relative, 
 and hence is usually called a compound pronoun. It is, however, simply the 
 neuter of who with its antecedent omitted. The antecedent of who may 
 also be omitted. There is really no . difference of function between who 
 and what in the sentences, 'Who steals my purse steals trash-,' and 'What 
 is done can not be undone.' 
 
 53. The word as has the force of a relative when its ante- 
 cedent is qualified by the adjective such ; as, 
 
 We are such stuff as dreams are made of. 
 
 54. But is sometimes a negative relative, and its anteced- 
 ent is always a negative ; as, 
 
 There is 720 fireside, howsoe'er defended, 
 But has [=that has not] one vacant chair. 
 
 55. The Pronouns who, which, and what, when used in ask- 
 ing a question, are called Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 For who to dumb forgetfulness a prey 
 This pleasing, anxious being e'er resigned ? 
 
 Exercise 12. 
 
 A. 
 Assign each P&ONOUN to its proper Class. 
 
 1. I hope you will give me the book that I lent you. 2. The prince left 
 his own carriage, and entered that of the general. 3. One can not always be 
 
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PAKTS OP SPEECH. 17 
 
 sure of one's friends. 4. As he entered the field, there sprang up, about three 
 yards from him, a large hare. 5. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. 
 ({. What did the prisoner say ? 7. Tell me what the prisoner said. 8. Blessed 
 be the Lord, who hath not given us as a prey to their teeth. 9. The men 
 whom I spoke to made no answer. 10. The king, who is the head of the 
 state, may withhold his consent from a measure which has passed both houses 
 of Parliament. 11. Ours are as good as yours. 12. They say that the Secre- 
 tary will resign, which will break up the cabinet. 
 
 B. 
 
 1. Who was the thane lives yet. Shakspeare. 
 
 2. There is no flock, however watched and tended, 
 But one dead lamb is there. Longfellow, 
 
 3. There's a divinity that shapes our ends, 
 Rough-hew them how we will. Shakspeare. 
 
 4. What in me is dark, 
 Illumine- what is low, raise and support. Milton. 
 I dare do all that may become a man ; 
 
 Who dares do more is none. Shakspeare. 
 
 6. The old man told him that he worshiped the fire only, and acknowl- 
 
 edged no other God. At which answer Abraham grew so zealously 
 angry that he thrust the old man out of his tent. Jeremy Taylor. 
 
 7. 'Tis the mind that makes the body rich. Shakspeare. 
 
 8. I have seen him buy such bargains as would amaze one. Goldsmith. 
 
 9. Breathes there a man with soul so dead, 
 Who never to himself hath said, 
 
 This is my own, my native land ? Scott. 
 
 We have fished up very little gold that I can learn , nor do we furnish 
 
 the world with herrings, as was expected. Qoldsmith. 
 11. Whenever Antonio met Shylock on the Rialto, he used to reproach 
 him with his usuries and hard dealings ; which the Jew would hear 
 with seeming patience, while he secretly meditated revenge. Lamb. 
 
 3. The Adjective. 
 
 56. Adjectives are subdivided into three classes 
 
 1. COMMON ADJECTIVES; 
 
 2. ARTICLES; 
 
 3. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 57. Common Adjectives describe things by name or quality. 
 
 (a) Under Common Adjectives is included the Participle whenever it 
 has the office of an adjective, as, The running water. Under the same 
 head are also included what are sometimes called proper adjectives name- 
 ly, those derived from proper names as, 'English,' 'American.' 
 
 (6) Such compounds as silver-robed, rose-colored, are sometimes called 
 compound adjectives ; but the simple term, Adjective, sufficiently desig- 
 nates them. 
 
1 8 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 58. The Articles are The, called the definite article, and 
 An or A, called the indefinite article. 
 
 () The points out a particular individual, or a group of individuals, of 
 a certain class ; as, the apple a particular apple already referred to or to 
 be referred to. 
 
 (b) An or a points out a class to which a thing belongs ; as an apple 
 any one of the class called apple. An is from the same Saxon root as the 
 word any. Different languages are variously supplied with Articles. The 
 Greek and the Hebrew have only the definite article, the Latin has no ar- 
 ticle at all , most of the modern languages, as Italian, French, German, and 
 Spanish, have both articles. The name Article literally means a small 
 joint. It seems merely to express that they are small words. They are 
 really adjectives in their use, and hence are classed as such in this book. 
 
 59. A is used before words beginning with a consonant 
 sound ; as, a man, a house, a wonder, a year, a use, a unit, a 
 European. An is used before words beginning with a vowel 
 sound ; as, an art, an end, an heir, an hour, an urn. 
 
 (a) The learner must particularly note that the use of a or an depends, 
 not on whether the initial letter of the succeeding word is a vowel or a con- 
 sonant^ but a vowel sound or a consonant sound. Thus ' use' and ' urn' 
 both begin with the vowel u ; but in the first instance u has a consonant 
 sound, in the second a vowel sound. W and y, beginning words, are con- 
 sonants, and words commencing with these letters, or the sounds of these 
 letters, take a. Words beginning with the sounded h take ; as, a history ; 
 those beginning with h silent take an; as, an honor. The people of En- 
 gland ' drop their h's,' in many instances, where we sound them, and hence 
 use an where we use a : thus they say an historian. American usage 
 sounds the A, and consequently joins a ; thus, a historian. 
 
 (6) The n in an is a part of the root (as in Latin units, French un). 
 Hence it is not a that becomes an before a vowel or a silent A, according to 
 the common rule, but an which loses its final letter before a consonant. 
 
 60. Demonstrative Adjectives point out specific objects. 
 The following are the principal demonstrative adjectives : 
 
 This and these used to point out objects near the speaker. 
 
 This pencil take, she said, whose colors clear 
 Eichly paint the vernal year. Gray. 
 
 That and those used to indicate objects distant from the speaker 
 
 And first review that long, extended plain, 
 
 And those wide groves, already passed with pain. Collins. 
 
 NOTE. When two objects are named, this represents the latter, that 
 the former. 
 
 Such means like this. Such harmony is in immortal souls. Shalcspeare. 
 
 Such is derived from the Anglo-Saxon swi-lc, and is made up of the 
 words swi, meaning this, and lie, like ; hence this like = such. 
 
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 19 
 
 game is frequently used as a demonstrative adjective. Republican spir- 
 it can only be combated by a spirit of the same nature. Burke. 
 
 Each denotes every individual of a certain class viewed separately : 
 
 Each ivied arch and pillar lone 
 
 Pleads haughtily for glories gone. Byron. 
 
 Each is derived from the Anglo-Saxon ce-lc, which is made up of ae, 
 meaning 'one,' and lie, like; hence one Me each. 
 
 Every refers to individuals taken collect! vely= each and all. A storm 
 
 of universal fire blasted every field, consumed every house, de- 
 stroyed every temple. Burke. 
 
 Either.. ..means literally whichever of the two you please. 
 
 Sometimes either has the sense of both. On either side is level fen = on 
 both sides. 
 
 Neither, .is either with the negative prefix ne, not. 
 
 Both means two taken together. 
 
 Both is derived from two Saxon words meaning two-two, that is, two 
 taken together. 
 
 Many implies number, but does not specify a number. Many men of 
 
 many minds. Many may be joined with a singular noun pre- 
 ceded by an or a; as many a flower is born to blush unseen. 
 The explanation of this may be that a is here a corruption of of: the 
 noun was originally plural, many of flowers. 
 
 Any. , .. .means one of a certain number, without stating which among the 
 number. 
 
 No a contraction of none; as no man liveth for himself. There is an 
 
 idiomatic use of not with the indefinite article a ; as in the sen- 
 tence, Not a drum was heard, etc. This is the same as no 
 drum was Heard. 
 
 Some means certain, and denotes number or quantity indefinitely. Some 
 
 pious drops the closing eye requires. Gray. 
 
 Pew means not many. Few persons can bear prosperity. 
 
 All includes universally. All men are mortal. 
 
 No excludes universally. No men are satisfied. 
 
 NOTE. In the above list are included various pronouns that are some- 
 times classed in distinct groups. It seems needless to make the fine dis- 
 tinctions that are drawn, as the term Demonstrative sufficiently denotes 
 these adjectives. The following is a common classification of this group 
 of Adjectives : 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES : This, That, These, Those, Same. 
 DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES : Each, Every, Either, Neither. 
 INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES: Many, Much, Several, Few, All, No, Other, 
 
 Such, Whole. 
 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES . One, Two, Three ; First, Second, Third, etc. 
 
20 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Exercise 13. 
 A. 
 
 Assign each ADJECTIVE to Us proper Class. 
 1. A terrible war had been waged for many years. 2. The British coal- 
 fields, it is said, will be exhausted in three generations. 3. The murder was 
 no deed of a few moments. 4. The false glare of military glory shows mas- 
 sacre and rapine decked in the colors of good deeds. 5. The heavy brigade 
 was drawn up in two lines. 6. Each soldier knew his duty, and every man 
 was prepared to do it. 7. The captain lost both his sons, the one in battle, 
 tbe other at sea. 8. The sisters embraced each other, and took their last 
 farewell. 9. There is much wisdom in the words of the old man, but little 
 grace in his speech. 10. Nothing is more remarkable than the rapid prog- 
 ress of this country in material wealth during the present generation. 11. 
 The bloom of that fair face is wasted ; the hair is gray with care. 12. I 
 passed some time in the contemplation of this wonderful structure, and the 
 great variety of objects which it presented. 
 
 B. 
 
 1. A wise man will make haste to forgive, because he knows the true val- 
 
 ue of time, and will not suffer it to pass away in unnecessary Dain 
 Johnson'. 
 
 2. Of these, the false Achitophel was first ; 
 
 A name to all succeeding ages curst. Dry den. 
 
 3. Like other dull men, the king was all his life suspicious of superior 
 
 people. Thackeray. 
 
 4. These wave their town flag in the arched gateway ; and stand, rolling 
 
 their drum ; but to no purpose. Carlyle. 
 
 5. And of this remnant will I leave a part, 
 True men, who love me still, for whom I live, 
 To guard thee in the wild hour coming on, 
 
 Lest but a hair of this low head be harmed. Tennyson. 
 
 6. There never was, on the whole, a ouieter time than the reigns of the 
 
 two first Georges. Jeffrey. 
 
 7. O Caledonia ! stern and wild, 
 Meet nurse for a poetic child ! 
 
 Land of brown heath and shaggy wood, 
 Land of the mountain and the flood. Scott. 
 
 8. It is a common observation, that objects which in the reality would 
 
 shock, are in tragical and such like representations the source of a 
 very high species of pleasure. Burke. 
 
 9. The Malay has been a fearful enemy for months : every night, through 
 
 his means, I have been transported into Asiatic scenery. J}e Quincey. 
 10. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean roll ! 
 
 Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain. Byron. 
 
 4. The Verb. 
 
 61. Verbs are divided, according to the function they per- 
 form, into, 
 
 I. Complete Verbs. II. Incomplete Verbs. 
 
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 21 
 
 62. A Verb is Complete when by itself it makes a complete 
 statement. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Fishes swim. 
 
 2. Water freezes. 
 
 3. Truth exists. 
 
 4. God is [ exists : here is is used in its absolute sense, 
 
 and is a Complete Verb ; in its ordinary use it is 
 an Incomplete Verb. See T 66]. 
 
 63. A Verb is incomplete when it does not by itself make 
 a complete statement. Such Verbs require, in order to make 
 sense, the addition of a word called their Complement. 
 
 64. Incomplete Verbs that require as Complement an OB- 
 JECT (Noun or Pronoun), to which the action expressed by 
 the Verb 2^sses over, are called Tranbitive 'trans, over, and 
 ire, to go). 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Solomon built the Temple. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Built is an Incomplete Verb, because it does not make 
 full sense by itself. We ask, ' Built what ?' The answer is, the temple. 
 The word 'temple' is the Complement of the Incomplete Verb built. As 
 ' built 1 has an object (the noun ' temple') for its Complement, it is a Transi- 
 tive Verb. 
 
 2. Music pleases me. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Pleases is an Incomplete Verb, and it is Transitive, 
 because it requires an object in this case, the word me. The pronoun me 
 is in the objective case, and all objects of transitive verbs are said to be in 
 the objective case. 
 
 65. Incomplete Verbs that require as Complement a word 
 (Adjective, Noun, or Pronoun) relating to their subject are 
 called Neuter or Copula Verbs. 
 
 66. The principal Copula Verb is the verb To Be. Other 
 verbs belonging to this class are Become, Seem, Appear, 
 Grow, Feel, Look, Smell, Taste. 
 
 The peculiarity of these Copula Verbs is that each implies in its mean- 
 ing the verb To Be. Thus Become' is really to come to be; 'Appear' is 
 to be in appearance ; ' Feel' is to be to the touch, etc. 
 
22 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Mary was beautiful [adjective-complement of the neuter 
 
 verb was]. 
 
 2. Elizabeth was queen [noun-complement of was]. 
 
 3. It is 7", be not afraid [pronoun-complement of is]. 
 
 4. A boy becomes a man [noun-complement of neuter verb 
 
 becomes]. 
 
 5. Cheerful he seemed, and gentleness he loved [cheerful, 
 
 adjective-complement of the neuter verb seemed]. 
 
 6. Macbeth looked pale [pale, adjective-complement of the 
 
 neuter verb looked]. 
 
 7. Henry VIII. appeared every inch a king \king, noun- 
 
 complement of the neuter verb appeared]. 
 
 8. The rose smells sweet [smells, adjective-complement of 
 
 smells =ihe scent of the rose is sweet]. 
 
 NOTES ON THE VERB. 
 
 NOTE I. It is important to note carefully the class to which a verb 
 belongs to observe if it is transitive, neuter, or Complete. We tell to 
 which class a verb belongs by inspection ; that is, by studying its sense. 
 Such inspection is necessary because 
 
 (1) The same word is sometimes used as an Incomplete and some- 
 times as a Complete verb : Heat melts ice ; Ice melts the first Incom- 
 plete and transitive, the second Complete. 'She reads a book;' 'She 
 reads well' the first transitive, the second Complete. (2) A verb usu- 
 ally Complete may become Incomplete. Thus march is a Complete verb ; 
 yet we can say he marched his armies ; that is, he caused them to march. 
 Water freezes ; cold freezes water. 
 
 NOTE II. There are some verbs of this kind : ' To take care of,' ' to lay 
 hold of. ' Take care of is one verb, and lay hold of is one verb. These, and 
 others like them, are idiomatic forms ; and in speaking of the verb, the 
 words are not to be separated. 
 
 NOTE III. Some Complete verbs are followed by an object of similar 
 meaning to themselves, as I dreamed a sad dream. He sleeps the sleep 
 of death. Some Complete verbs are, properly speaking, reflexive, that is, 
 the agent acts upon himself; but we have almost ceased to repeat the pro- 
 noun, and so the verb seems complete without an object. I wash [my- 
 self], the cow feeds [herself], he awakes [himself], are used intransitively; 
 but I wash the floor, yon feed the cattle, he awoke me, are used transitively. 
 NOTE IV. Certain Complete verbs, when followed by particular prepo- 
 sitions, become transitive, and require an object. Thus, The baby laughs 
 [Complete] ; We laughed at the clown [transitive, with clown as object]. 
 The ragged rascal ran ; Ifarragut ran-down the Atlanta. 
 
 Exercise 14. 
 
 Assign each VEEB to its proper Class. 
 1. Lives of great men all remind us, 
 We can make our lives sublime. 
 
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PAETS Oj 
 
 2. Chill penury repressed their noble i 
 And froze the genial current of the j 
 
 3. Some murmur when their sky is clear? 
 
 4. Sir Christopher Wren built St. Paul's. 
 
 5. Virtue is its own reward. 
 
 G. He was a man, take him for all in all, 
 I shall not look upon his like again. 
 
 7. Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap. 
 
 8. And there upon the ground I sit, 
 I sit and sing to them. 
 
 9. The gas burns brightly this evening. 
 10. 4 Whatever is is right 
 
 11. Mohammedans wash three times a day. 
 
 12. Full well they laughed with counterfeited glee 
 At all his jokes, for many a joke had he. 
 
 5. The Adverb. 
 
 67. Adverbs are divided into those of 
 
 1. Time. 2. Place. 3. Manner. 4. Cause. 
 
 68. I. Adverbs of Time express f wken, how often, or how 
 long an action is done ; now, seldom, always, to-morrow. 
 
 69. II. Adverbs of Place express where, whither, or whence 
 an action proceeds ; here, whence, aloft, below. 
 
 70. III. Adverbs of Manner express how an action is done, 
 or how a quality is possessed ; well, softly, so. This class 
 includes the numerous adverbs derived from adjectives of 
 quality by adding ly. 
 
 (a.) Gate must be taken to distinguish adverbs of manner in -ly from ad- 
 jectives in ly, like kindly, daily. The latter are made generally from 
 nouns. 
 
 (6.) The suffix ly, which forms so many hundreds of adverbs, is the An- 
 glo-Saxon word lie like: thus boldly =bold-/i/ce; only one-like. 
 
 71. IV. Adverbs of Cause express why a thing is done; 
 therefore, whence, thence, why. 
 
 72. There are certain adverbs belonging to each of the four 
 classes which are used only as connectives. These are called 
 RELATIVE ADVEKBS. They are 
 
 1. Relative Adverbs of Time ; when, whenever, and while. 
 
 2. Relative Adverbs of Place ; where, whither, and whence. 
 
 3. Relative Adverbs of Manner ; how and as. 
 
 4. Relative Adverbs of Cause ; why and wherefore. 
 
 t 
 
24 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Shall I be frighted wlien a madman stares ? ShaTcspeare. 
 The world was all before them where to .choose 
 Their place of rest, and Providence their guide. Milton. 
 
 73. These adverbs, unlike all other adverbs, have no mean- 
 ing in themselves. 'He came while* does not mean any 
 thing ; the sense is suspended till some other words are sup- 
 plied, as ' he came while I was speaking? Here while con- 
 nects 'I Was speaking' with c he came.' 
 
 NOTES ON THE ADVERB. 
 
 NOTE I. The relative adverbs are derived from the same Anglo-Saxon 
 root as the relative pronouns who and which. Hence they may generally 
 be resolved into an antecedent and a relative phrase. Thus, ' He arrived 
 when we left' may be resolved into, * He arrived at the time [antecedent] 
 at which we left' [relative clause]. 
 
 NOTE II. Adverbial phrases are expressions made up of two or more 
 adverbs connected by conjunctions, or they are expressions consisting of a 
 preposition with a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. EXAMPLES : By and 
 by, up and down, in and out ; one by one, from below, at length, at all, by 
 far, as yet, to-day, to-morrow. 
 
 NOTE III. The word the in such expressions as ' the sooner the better' 
 is not to be parsed by itself; l the sooner' and 'the better' should be parsed 
 as adverbial phrases. 
 
 NOTE IV. Yes and No, which are usually called adverbs of certainty, 
 being incapable of standing beside a verb, must be considered as peculiar 
 words, rather adverbs than, any thing else, and yet not adverbs in the strict 
 sense of the term. These words come from verb-roots. Yes means liter- 
 ally let it indeed be. No, the term of denial, comes down to us from thou- 
 sands of years ago. In parsing, call them Independent Adverbs. 
 
 NOTE V. A number of compound adverbs, such as herein, whereby, 
 withal, hereto, etc., are now, except in legal documents, solemn language, 
 or poetry, out of date. To these we may add 
 Needs ; as I must needs go : needs is really the possessive case of need=I 
 
 must of need go. 
 Fain ; as I would fain tell you. 
 JErst= superlative of ere, formerly. 
 Whilom formerly, 
 
 Belike ) 1. It is likely. 
 
 Peradventure > = perhaps 2. By chance. 
 Mayhap ) 3. It may happen. 
 
 Anon = presently. 
 
 
 Exercise 15. 
 
 A. 
 Pick out the ADVERBS. 
 
 1 . And now a bubble bursts and now. a world. 2. Night's already gone. 
 3. She weeps not, but often and deeply she sighs. 4. Again thy fires began 
 
 4 
 
SUBDIVISIONS OP THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 25 
 
 to burn. 5. Oft she rejects, but never once offends. 6. HI fared it then with 
 Koderick Dhu. 7. I am not at all surprised. 8. This mine is by no means 
 so good as the other. 8. And ever and anon he beat the doubling drum. 10. 
 When once we drink, our name is heard no more. 11. Every one ran hither 
 and thither. 12. The lad went away directly after dinner. 
 
 B. 
 Pick out the ADVEKBS. Tell which are RELATIVE ADVEEBS? 
 
 and what they CONNECT. 
 
 1. Where'er she turns the Graces homage pay. 2. I was much alarmed 
 when I saw him in so wretched a condition. 3. The buffaloes go southward 
 as soon as winter approaches. 4. The battle was soon ended. 
 5. And when above the surges 
 
 They saw his crest appear, 
 All Rome sent forth a rapturous cry, 
 
 And even the ranks of Tuscany 
 Could scarce forbear to cheer. 
 
 C. 
 
 [Some expressions o^ an adverbial nature can be turned 
 into single-word Adverbs ; ^h^^^with fragrance fragrantly. 
 In the following, change the expressions in italics into Ad- 
 verbs :] 
 
 1. Every thing was done with prudence and wisdom. 2. The bird builds its 
 nest with great skill. 3. John did his task in a great hurry. 4. With slow- 
 ness and sadness we laid him down. 5. Lift her up with tenderness. 
 
 6. The Preposition. 
 
 74. The English language contains about fifty PREPOSI- 
 TIONS. They are all used to show the relation of a Noun or 
 of a Pronoun to some other word. 
 
 75. The following are among the most important Preposi- 
 tions : 
 
 Of. . . . The most common use of of is to denote possession ; as, the book of 
 
 the scholar = the scholars book. 
 
 Of expresses many relations, all connected with the original meaning of 
 the word, which is proceeding from. 
 
 (1) Of is used to relate the part of any thing to the whole; as ' the walls 
 of a town. ' This may be called the partitive meaning. 
 
 (2) 0/is used to connect an abstract property with the concrete ; as, the 
 lightness of air. This may be called the attributive meaning. 
 
 (3) O/'may serve to specify a subject or to make a reference; as, the Book 
 of Proverbs. 
 
 (4) The Preposition of, with its noun, has often the force of an adjective ; 
 as a crown o/*gold=a golden crown. This may be called the adjective 
 
 f meaning. 
 
 (f>) Nouns in apposition are sometimes connected by of, as ' the city of 
 Amsterdam. ' 
 
 B 
 
26 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 To The primary idea of to is motion towards ; as, he went to the house. 
 
 To is pointedly contrasted with /rora, as in the phrase ' to and fro.' 
 Among the more remote applications of to are to be found such phrases as 
 'pleasant to the taste,' ' to one's hand,' * ten to one,' ' they marched to the 
 tune. ' Even in these examples, when motion in the direction of is not di- 
 rectly stated, nearness, which is the natural result, is indicated. 
 
 From means beginning from, proceeding from. Any thing that indicates 
 
 source, origin, or commencement, may be preceded by from. It 
 is also applied to time ; as, ''from morn to dewy eve.' 
 'It is inferior*/r<wn what I expected' should be to what I expected. 'Dif- 
 ferent to that' should be different from that. 
 
 By the primary meaning of by seems to be alongside of; that is. proxim- 
 ity. He sat by the river. Hard by the oracles of God. The other 
 meanings grow naturally out of this. Thus, defense of ' stand by 
 me;' instrumentality 'eaten by wolves.' 
 
 Words of measuring take by after them, from the circumstance that the 
 things measured have to be put side by side, as 'greater by half,' 'sold by 
 the ounce.' So also of time. By this time they are far away= along side 
 of, or at this time. 
 
 With the radical notion involved in with is joining or uniting. It comes 
 
 from the same root as the noun withe, meaning a twig used to 
 bind or unite a bundle of hay. 
 
 From the radical idea comes that of company or companionship ; as, he 
 traveled with me for some days. Possession is readily implied in the idea 
 of union, as in ' with the hope of. ' From union comes the idea of instru- 
 mentality, as ' fed with the same food. ' Finally, the use of ' with' to de- 
 note opposition (as ' to differ with a person') comes from the fact that an- 
 tagonists must join in a struggle. 
 
 76. A Prepositional Phrase is a group of words that, taken 
 together, have the power of a Preposition ; as, for the sake of, 
 apart from, etc. 
 
 77. The Preposition and the Adverb are closely allied, and 
 most of the Simple Prepositions may be used as Adverbs ; 
 thus 
 
 Prepositions. Adverbs. 
 
 He fell down stairs. He moved down. 
 
 I have a pain in the head. Go in, and see him. 
 
 He passed through the town. He passed through. 
 
 78. The Relations expressed by Prepositions are 
 
 I. Adjective. II. Adverbial. 
 
 79. A preposition expresses the Adjective relation when it 
 relates its object to a noun or to a pronoun ; as, a man oftaste^ 
 she with the black eyes. 
 
 60. A preposition expresses the Adverbial relation when it 
 
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 2? 
 
 relates its object to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; 
 as, he came in haste ; go with rapidity. 
 
 Exercise 16. 
 Say what RELATION each PREPOSITION expresses. 
 
 1. The man with the gray coat fell from the top of the wall. 2. We rise 
 at seven o'clock in the winter, and in summer at six. 3. James VI., of Scot- 
 land, was the great-grand-nephew of Henry VII. of England, the first of the 
 Tudor line. 4. There are many proofs of the roundness of the earth. 5. 
 The head of the gang listened in silence to the remonstrances of his subordi- 
 nates. 6. His head had not been five seconds under water, when he rose to 
 the surface, and swam towards the bank. 7. He of the rueful countenance 
 answered without delay. 8. As we walked across the bridge, we saw a num- 
 ber of fish in the pool beneath us. 9. With patience, you may succeed. 10. 
 I have not seen him since Monday, but I expect him within an hour. 11. 
 A brilliant meteor shot athwart the sky, and was lost behind the hill. 12. 
 The poor bird took refuge in a hole in the oak, and died of fright. 
 
 7. The Conjunction. 
 
 81. Conjunctions are of two great kinds : 
 
 I. Co-ordinate Conjunctions. II. Subordinate Conjunctions. 
 
 82. Co-ordinate Conjunctions serve to join statements of 
 equal importance, keeping the connected members on a level 
 with each other ; as, 
 
 The snow was deep, and the wind was cold. 
 He has either forgotten his appointment or he has missed 
 the train. 
 
 83. Co-ordinate Conjunctions may be subdivided thus : 
 
 1. Copulative that is, connecting both the statements 
 
 and their meaning ; as, and, also, therefore. 
 
 2. Disjunctive connecting the statement, but express- 
 
 ing separation as to their meaning ; as, or, nor, but, 
 yet. 
 
 3. Comparative used after Adjectives, to join the two 
 
 sides of a comparison ; than, as. 
 
 Than (derived from then) is a Conjunction after which the verb is gen- 
 erally left out ; as, My brother works harder than you [work]. Some au- 
 thors of eminence, however, use such expressions as, Mary, than whom a 
 more beautiful woman never wore a crown. In this case than is used as a* 
 preposition, and governs the objective. 
 
 84. Subordinate Conjunctions serve as steps leading from a 
 higher to a lower statement ; as, The barons met in armor, 
 because they were resolved to assert their rights. 
 
28 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 To this class belong Relative Pronouns used as connectives, Relative 
 Adverbs, and such Conjunctions as 
 
 Doubting..... \V, father 
 
 ( unless =^f not. 
 
 Granting Though, although. 
 
 Reason Because, or, for, since. 
 
 Time Before, after, until. 
 
 tOT It will be seen afterward that a knowledge of the structure of sen- 
 tences depends greatly upon the clear understanding of the Con- 
 junction and its uses. 
 
 85. Some Conjunctions are attended by others which go 
 before, and assist either to join or to disjoin in meaning. 
 These may be called Correlative Conjunctions. 
 
 And has both Both Louis and Charley came. 
 
 Or 
 
 Nor 
 
 As 
 
 As 
 
 That 
 
 Or 
 
 Though 
 
 either Either Ella or Willie did it. 
 
 neither Neither the horse nor the carriage was injured. 
 
 as Her eyes are as bright as diamonds. 
 
 . He is not so bad as he seems. 
 
 so She was so tired that she fell asleep. 
 
 whether. . . Whether I go or stay. 
 
 ' yet Though his heart bled, yet he kept a cheerful 
 
 countenance. 
 
 NOTES ON THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 AND, the principal Copulative Conjunction, is derived from an Anglo-Saxon 
 verb andan, to add. It means add; as, Bread and butter = bread 
 add butter. 
 
 OR, the principal Disjunctive Conjunction, marks an alternative ; as, Will you 
 have an apple or an orange ? 
 
 Or is also used to join two nouns, of which the second is explan- 
 atory of the first ; as, the bed, or channel, of the river = the bed, that 
 is to say, the channel. In this use the first noun is followed by a 
 comma. 
 
 IF is a shortened form of gif, from the Anglo-Saxon verb gifian, to give. It 
 means give or grant ; as, I shall go z/ you let it\Q=grant that you 
 let me. 
 
 BECAUSE is compounded of by and cause. 
 
 A number of words that, taken together, have the power of join- 
 ing, form a Conjunctional Phrase ; as, inasmuch as, as well as, as if, 
 etc. 
 
 Under the general term Connectives are included not only Con- 
 junctions, but Relative Pronouns, Relative Adverbs, and Preposi- 
 tions. 
 
 Exercise 17. 
 Tell if the CONJUNCTIONS are CO-ORDINATE, SUBORDINATE, or 
 
 CORRELATIVE. 
 
 1. Take heed lest ye fall. 2. I have cut my finger, therefore I can not 
 write. 3. I fear I shall fail, but I shall make the attempt. 4. I shall make 
 
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 29 
 
 the attempt, though I fear that I shall fail. 5. He speaks so low that he can 
 not be heard. 6. Kemain where you are till I return. 7. He will neither 
 come, nor send an apology. 8. It is as cold as Iceland. 9. I know not 
 whether to go or to remain. 10. Ask James if he is ready; and if he is 
 ready, tell him to follow as quickly as he can. 11. He did not deserve to 
 succeed ; for he made no effort, and showed no interest. 12.1 shall not go 
 unless you call me, nor will I remain if I can avoid it. 
 
 13. Whether he was combined 
 With those of Norway ; or did line the rebel 
 With hidden help and vantage ; or that with both 
 
 He labor 'd in his country's wrack, I know not. Shakspeare. 
 
 14. I can wonder at nothing more than how a man can be idle ; but of all 
 
 others a scholar. Hall. 
 
 1 5. Some murmur when their sky is clear, 
 
 And wholly bright to view, 
 If one small speck of dark appear 
 
 In their great heaven of blue. Trench. 
 
 16. The precise era of the invention and application of gunpowder is in- 
 
 volved in doubtful traditions and equivocal language ; yet we may 
 clearly discern that it was known before the middle of the fourteenth 
 century p and that, before the end of the same, the use of artillery 
 in battles and sieges, by sea and land, was familiar to the states of 
 Germany, Italy, Spain, France, and England. Gibbon. 
 
 Parsing. Second Model. 
 
 86. In Model II. of Etymological Parsing, the pupil is re- 
 quired to give not only the part of speech, but the subdivis- 
 ion (if any) to which it belongs. 
 
 The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 
 
 The The definite article, limiting p a ths. 
 
 paths. ..A common noun. 
 
 of A preposition, linking glory to paths: adjective relation. 
 
 glory. . . A common noun. 
 
 lead An incomplete verb transitive, the object us being understood. 
 
 but An adverb of manner (=only), modifying the adverbial expression 
 
 4 to the grave. ' 
 
 to A preposition, linking grave to lead: adverbial relation. 
 
 the The definite article, limiting grave. 
 
 grave . . A common noun. 
 
 
 Exercise 18. 
 
 A. 
 PARSE the following Sentences : 
 
 1. Then shrieked the timid. Byron. 
 
 2. The grave is the ordeal of true affection. W. Irving. 
 
 3. So hard a winter had not been known for years. Milman. 
 
 4. When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept. Shakspeare. 
 
 5. Each thought on the woman who loved him best. Kingsley. 
 
30 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 G. The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 
 And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 
 Await alike the inevitable hour. Gray. 
 
 7. We can show you where he lies. Scott. 
 
 8. Surely, said I, man is but a shadow, and life a dream. Addison. 
 
 9. What did he achieve and suffer in the world? Carlyle. 
 
 10. When my time was expired, I worked my passage home ; and glad I was 
 to see Old England again, because I loved my country. Goldsmith. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 INFLECTION. 
 
 87. Inflection treats of the changes made in words to ex- 
 press various relations and meanings. 
 
 
 
 88. We can say boy, and boy's, and boys. 
 We can say man, and man's, and men. 
 
 We can say sweet, and sweeter, and sweetest 
 We can say walk, and wallam/, and wgjkec?. 
 We can say he, and we can say his, and him. 
 These are some illustrations of changes in the forms 
 of words. 
 
 Inflection enumerates and explains all the possible forms of each part of 
 speech ; Syntax directs which form it is proper to use in each particular 
 case. 
 
 89. Inflections generally consist of an addition at the end ; 
 as boy-s, lion-ess, swim-s. Sometimes, -however, the change is 
 made within the word itself; as man, men ; rise, rose. 
 
 90. There are three of the eight classes of words that do 
 not change their forms at all. These can therefore give us 
 no trouble. They are the Conjunction, the Preposition, and 
 the Interjection. This leaves five classes subject to change. 
 They are the Noun, the Pronoun, the Adjective, the Verb, and 
 the Adverb. 
 
 I. The Noun. 
 
 91. Nouns are inflected to express differences of Number, 
 of Case, and of Gender. 
 
 I. NUMBER. 
 
 92. There are two Numbers, the Singular Number and the 
 Plural Number. A noun is Singular when it names one 
 thing, as book ; Plural when it names more than one, as 
 books. 
 
INFLECTION. 31 
 
 93. RULE I. The Plural is generally formed by adding s 
 to the Singular ; as book, book-s. 
 
 There were various modes of forming the plural of Anglo-Saxon Nouns; 
 as in an (steor, a star, steorran) and in a (gifa, gifts, plural of gifu}. An- 
 other class of Anglo-Saxon Nouns formed their plural in -as, which in later 
 English became -es, and ultimately -s. This form of the plural-ending be- 
 came the main one probably on account of its similarity to the Norman- 
 French plural ending s. 
 
 94. RULE II. Nouns ending in sounds that do not easily 
 combine with s form their plural by adding es ; as loss-es, 
 fish-es, church-es. 
 
 (a) The sounds that do not easily combine with s are ch soft, sh, ss, s, 
 and x. 
 
 "(6) Nouns ending in o or i after a consonant form the plural by adding 
 es ; as, hero, heroes ; alkali, alkalies. The reason of this is that the regu- 
 lar plural would give the short sound of o and i=heros, alkalis. 
 
 95. RULE III. Nouns ending in y, following a consonant, 
 change the y into i, and add es for the plural ; as duty, duties; 
 glory, glories. 
 
 A reason for this irregularity may be found in the fact that, formerly, 
 such words as ' duty,' ' glory,' were written dutie, glorie, and the plural was 
 regularly formed by adding s. 
 
 96. RULE IV. Nouns ending in/or/6 make the plural by 
 changing / or fe into v, and adding es sounded like z ; as 
 wolf, wolves ; wife, wives. 
 
 (a) The reason of this irregularity is that, in Anglo-Saxon, the singular 
 of these nouns ended in ve. 
 
 (b) Some few nouns ending in^, oof, rf, and/e, follow the general rule, 
 and add merely s; as hoof, turf, stuff 1 , Jife, strife, reef. 
 
 (c) Wharf makes the double plural, wharfs and wharves. 
 
 97. SAXON NOUNS. A few nouns of Saxon origin form 
 their plural by changing the vowel sound of the singular. 
 They are man, men; woman, women; foot, feet; goo$e,geese; 
 tooth, teeth ; mouse, mice ; louse, lice. 
 
 A few old Saxon nouns form their plurals in en ; as, ox, oxen ; brother, 
 brethren. Children, the plural of child, has a peculiar double termination. 
 It is thus accounted for : The Scandinavian plural ending er would make 
 the word childer (still to be heard in Ireland) ; the English plural would be 
 childen. Our plural is a compound of both. 
 
 ^ 98. FOREIGN NOUNS. Most foreign nouns retain their for- 
 eign plurals. 
 
 1. Pure Latin nouns adopted into our language generally retain their 
 Latin endings : 
 
32 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Nouns in us form the plural in i; as, focus, foci. 
 " um ' " " a; as, datum, data, 
 
 "a " " " " <E ; as, nebula, nebula 
 "ex " " " " ices ; as, vortex, vortices. 
 " ws (neuter gender) " era; as, genus, genera. 
 
 2. Pure Greek nouns adopted into our language retain the Greek end- 
 ings in the plural ; thus 
 
 Nouns in is form the plural in es ; as, cris/s, crises. 
 
 "on " a; as, phenomenon, phenomena. 
 
 3. Some words adopted from other sources retain their original plurals. 
 Thus 
 
 Hebrew. Cherub becomes cherubim. 
 French. Beau " beaux. 
 
 Italian. Virtuoso " virtuosi. 
 
 99. DOUBLE PLURALS. Certain nouns have two forms of 
 the plural, one regular, the other irregular. These distinc- 
 tive forms have usually different meanings. Thus 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 Brother brothers (by birth) brethren (of a community). 
 
 Cloth cloth (kinds of cloth) clothes (garments). 
 
 Die dies (stamps for coining). . dice (for play). 
 
 Genius geniuses (men of talent). . .genii (spirits). 
 
 Index indexes (contents) indices (algebraic signs). 
 
 Pea peas (regular) pease (collective). 
 
 Penny pennies (regular) pence (collective). 
 
 Staff . . . staves (common use) staffs (military term). 
 
 Shot shot (balls) shots (number of rounds). 
 
 Fish fish (collective) fishes (individuals). 
 
 100. Nouns with two meanings in the plural : 
 
 Sing. 1st Plural. 2d Plural. 
 
 Pain pains (sufferings) pains (troubles). 
 
 Custom customs (habits) customs (revenue duties). 
 
 Letter letters (of the alphabet). . .letters (literature). 
 
 101. Compound nouns generally form their plural by in- 
 flecting the principal noun ; as, sons-in-law ; courts-martial ; 
 maid-servants. 
 
 (a) When the words are so closely joined in sense that the meaning is 
 not complete till the whole is known, the s is added at the end ; as, pail- 
 fuls, cup-fuls, forget-me nots. 
 
 (b) We may say either 'the Misses Brown,' or 'the Miss Browns,' or 
 even ' the Misses Browns. ' 
 
 (c) A firm of Browns is named in England 'the Messrs. Brown,' but 
 we say ' Brown Brothers. ' 
 
 102. The following peculiarities are to be noted : 
 
INFLECTION. 33 
 
 1. Nouns used only in the Plural : 
 
 Aborigines. Entrails. Scissors. 
 
 Annals. Hustings. Shears. 
 
 Antipodes. Lees. Summons. 
 
 Archives. Matins. Thanks. 
 
 Banns. Measles. Tidings. 
 
 Bellows. News. Tongs. 
 
 Billiards. Nuptials. Trowsers. 
 
 Breeches. Oats. Vespers. 
 
 Calends. Obsequies. Victuals. 
 
 Credentials. Odds. Vitals. 
 
 Dregs. Pincers. Pantaloons. 
 
 Riches seems to be plural, but it is really singular, being de- 
 rived from the French richesse. Riches profit not 
 should be riches profits not. 
 
 NeWS in old English was plural. It is now uniformly singu- 
 lar ; as, ill news runs apace. 
 
 Means is to be used in the singular when the signification is 
 
 singular, and in the plural when the signification is 
 plural. We may say, this means or those means. 
 
 Summons has a regular, derived plural, summonses. 
 
 Alms is plural in form, but is really singular, being derived 
 
 from the Anglo-Saxon celmesse. 
 
 Politics > 
 
 JiitJllCS / represent Greek plurals, but are now treated as singu- 
 
 PhysiCS \ lar. Mathematics is an improving study. Optics is 
 
 Optics the science of light. 
 
 Mathematics.... J 
 
 2. Nouns the same in both Numbers : 
 
 Deer. Salmon. Cannon. 
 
 Grouse. Sheep. Perch. 
 
 Fish. Swine. Pike. 
 
 Trout. Heathen. Fowl. 
 
 Some of these words have also regular plurals, with a distributive mean- 
 ing ; as, fishes, cannons, pikes. 
 
 3.*N"ouns with a different meaning in the Plural : 
 
 Compass compasses. 
 
 Corn corns. 
 
 Iron irons. 
 
 Salt salts. 
 
 Domino dominoes. 
 
 Good goods. 
 
 Exercise 19. 
 
 A. 
 Give the PLUKAL of the following Nouns: 
 
 1 . Pen ; desk ; book ; knife ; fox ; ox ; foot ; foot-man. 
 
 2. Candle; map; cage; calf; class; hat; sky; toy. 
 
 B 2 
 
34 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 3. Cargo; church; monarch; muff; tyro; focus; basis. 
 
 4. Story; dictum; beau; potato; cherub; log; nebula. 
 
 5. Chimey; automatum; genus; proof; axis. 
 
 6. Criterion; child; woman; wife; kiss; staff. 
 
 B. 
 
 Answer the following Questions: 
 
 1. Give the two plurals of die, with the meaning of each ; also of brother, 
 cloth, and penny. 
 
 2. Mention three other nouns that have two plurals differing in meaning. 
 
 3. Give three nouns used only in the plural, one signifying a pair of things. 
 
 4. What is peculiar in alms, politics, salts, and pains ? 
 
 5. How many meanings has the word letter in the singular ? How many 
 in the plural ? 
 
 6. Mention six nouns that have the same form in both numbers. 
 
 II. CASE. 
 
 103. A suffix is frequently added to a Noun to mark the 
 relation in which that noun stands to other words. Thus, 
 in the sun's rays, the 's shows the relation existing between 
 the sim and its rays namely, that the rays proceed from 
 the sun. 
 
 104. The simple word and the suffix are together called 
 a Case. 
 
 (a) The old grammarians illustrated the changes of Case by the follow- 
 ing diagram : 
 
 Ac 
 
 The perpendicular line represented the Nominative (rectus). If this 
 line, moving on a hinge at X, were to fall or be bent downward, it would 
 assume the various oblique positions marked G, D, etc., to express the six 
 Latin cases, the Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, and 
 Ablative. 
 
 The diagram gives origin to the following grammatical terms : 
 Case, derived from the Latin cado, I fall, each change being denoted by 
 a falling of the perpendicular line. 
 
INFLECTION". 
 
 35 
 
 Oblique case, meaning any case except the Nominative ; the other cases 
 being denoted by the slanting lines. 
 
 Decline, declension, derived from de, down, and clino, I bend ; the up- 
 * right line being bent downward. 
 
 Inflect, inflection, derived from in, into, audjlecto, I bend. 
 
 (6) In certain languages, many inflections are used to mark the several 
 relations of Nouns, and each inflection makes a distinct Case. Thus the 
 Latin language had a change of form to express the relation of proceeding 
 from a thing our 'possessive:' this was called the genitive; as, man^ 
 homo; man's, or of a man = homines. But ''to a man' was also marked by 
 an inflection homing ; the object of a transitive verb was marked by a 
 peculiar inflection homin-ew ; and by or with a man had its own inflec- 
 tion homin-e. 
 
 105. Our language, in its original form of Anglo-Saxon, had 
 various inflections of Case which English has now lost. 
 
 TEACHER'S NOTE. The following Comparative Table will show the in- 
 flections of the Noun ' man' in Latin, Saxon, and English : 
 
 Latin. 
 Singular. 
 Nominative Case . . Homo, 
 
 Genitive Homin-zs, 
 
 Dative Homin-e, 
 
 Accusative Homin-em, 
 
 Ablative Homin-e, 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Plural 
 
 Nominative Homin-es, 
 
 Genitive. Homin-wm, 
 
 Dative Homin-z'6ws, 
 
 Accusative Homin-es, 
 
 Ablative . . . .^ Homin-ibus, 
 
 Saxon. 
 Singular. 
 Man, 
 Mann-es, 
 Men, 
 Man, 
 Men, 
 
 Saxon. 
 
 Plural. 
 Men, 
 Mann-a, 
 Mann-w?w, 
 Men, 
 Mann-wwz, (with 
 
 (with 
 
 English. 
 
 Man. 
 Man's, 
 (to a) Man. 
 
 Man (object). 
 or by) Man. 
 English. 
 Plural. 
 Men. 
 Men's, 
 (to) Men. 
 
 Me*n (object), 
 or by) Men. 
 
 
 EXPLANATION. It will be seen from this table that, while the Anglo- 
 Saxon had a much less elaborate apparatus of Case-endings than the 
 Latin, modern English has still fewer inflections than the Saxon had. 
 In fact, we have lost all the Case forms except the Genitive (Possessive), 
 formed by adding 's. 
 
 106. There is now but one inflection of case in English 
 nouns. This is the addition of an apostrophe with the letter 
 s ('s) to the regular form of the noun. Thus, river, river's. 
 This is called the Possessive Case. 
 
 If the pupil will look at the Saxon word man in the table, he will see 
 that the possessive (or genitive) case was mannes: so the possessive of 
 bird was birdes. It is in this Saxon inflection of the genitive that our pos- 
 sessive originates. The apostrophe marks merely the omission of the e. 
 The scholar will understand from this how absurd is the notion of some 
 grammarians and others, who think that 's is a contraction of his; as, 
 John's book John his book. 
 
36 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 107. The unchanged noun, standing as the chief word in 
 the subject of a sentence, is called the Nominative or naming 
 case ; as, The President of the United States is elected every 
 four years. 
 
 108. The noun used as object of a verb or of a preposition 
 is usually called the Objective case; but as its form is the 
 same as that of the nominative, it can not be regarded as a 
 real case. 
 
 (a) Except for the pronouns, the distinction of nominative and objective 
 would not be kept up, as the form of the noun can never show whether it 
 is nominative or objective. These names have a meaning only in construc- 
 tion with verbs, the one (the nominative) corresponding to the subject of 
 the sentence, the other (the objective) to the object of the sentence. 
 
 (6) Some consider our poverty of case-forms one of the disadvantages 
 of English, as it prevents us from changing about in the position of our 
 nouns. In Latin, if we say Brutus killed Ccesar, it does not signify in what 
 order we place these three words, as the endings of the nouns tell us which 
 is he and which is him. We can say either Brutus Ccesarem occidit or 
 Ccesarern Brutus occidit, because the form ' Ca3sarem' always denotes Cae- 
 sar-Am, and the form 'Brutus,' Brutus-Ae. 
 
 109. A noun is said to be 'declined' when we name its 
 three cases. 
 
 Declension of a Noun. 
 
 Singular Number. Plural Number. 
 
 Nominative Case : Man Men. 
 
 Possessive Case : Man's Men's. 
 
 Objective Case : Man Men. 
 
 GENERAL RULE FOR THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 
 
 110. Possessive Singular. The Possessive Case singular is 
 formed by writing apostrophe s ('s) after the singular noun ; 
 as, neighbor, neighbor's. ^ 
 
 111. Possessive Plural. The Possessive Case plural is formed 
 by writing the apostrophe after the s of plural nouns ; as, 
 neighbors, neighbors'. But when the plural does not end in 
 s, the 's is added ; as, men, men's. 
 
 (a) When the nominative singular ends in a sound hard to pronounce, it 
 has been usual to mark the possessive singular by writing merely the apos- 
 trophe ; as, Socrates' wife ; conscience' sake. But it is better in all cases to 
 form the possessive singular by writing the apostrophe s ('s). It is better 
 to write Moses's law than Moses' law ; Charles's book than Charles' book. 
 Whether it shall be pronounced or not is a matter of euphony. Men, wom- 
 en, boys, girls, and sign-painters make many mistakes in the management 
 
 
INFLECTION. 37 
 
 of the possessive. Master the foregoing rules, and the matter need not 
 puzzle you any longer. 
 
 (6) The apostrophe placed after the nominative plural of nouns to form 
 their possessive marks a contraction of es, the old English inflection of the 
 possessive plural. In irregular plurals, such as men's, we retain the s, and 
 mark the omission of the e by the apostrophe. 
 
 112. In Compound Nouns, the possessive suffix is attached 
 to the last word ; as, heir-at-law's ; the Queen of England's. 
 
 Exercise 20. 
 A. 
 
 Give the POSSESSIVE, singular and plural ', of the following 
 Nouns : 
 
 1. Child; prince; woman; king; cable; tutor. 
 
 2. Peril ; mercy ; father ; Henry ; aunt ; cat. 
 
 3. Charles ; gardener ; brother ; poetess ; author ; painter. 
 
 4. Sculptor; engraver; sister; Socrates; princess; bridge. 
 
 5. House; Peter; righteousness; ox; thief; sheep. 
 
 B. 
 
 Write the following changing the nouns with prepositions 
 into POSSESSIVE nouns : 
 
 1. A cap of a, boy. 2. The mother of Moses. 3. The dresses of the ladies. 
 4. The son of the princess. 5. The pain-killer of Davis. 6. The wrath of 
 Achilles. 7. The work of the men. 8. The wool of the sheep. 9. The hat 
 of Mr. Jacob. 10. The house of Mr. Jacobs. 11. The store of the Messrs. 
 Woods. 12. The banking-house of Brown Brothers. 13. The houses of my 
 sons-in-law. 
 
 III. GENDER. 
 
 113. The English speech is the simplest of all languages in 
 its rules for gender. We know the gender of any noun by 
 its sense. If it denotes a living being, it is Masculine or it is 
 Feminine, according to the sex of the being. If not the name 
 of a living being, the noun is said to be Neuter; that is, nei- 
 ther Masculine nor Feminine. 
 
 * (a) In many languages, as Latin, Greek, etc., a poetical or figurative 
 process of personifying things without life was in extensive operation ; 
 by this the distinction of gender was extended to nouns generally, and this 
 without distinction of sex the termination of the noun deciding its gen- 
 der. This may be called grammatical gender ; but we have in English no 
 such thing. On this account our language is free from one of the main 
 difficulties of French gender, namely, the difficulty of determining the 
 gender of any noun, which determination must be made before an article 
 or an adjective can be used with it. Thus the good sugar is 'le bon sucre' 
 (' sucre,' masculine), but the good pen is l la bonne plume' ('plume,' femi- 
 nine). 
 
 (b) The term Common gender is applied to Nouns that may be either 
 masculine or feminine ; as, parent ? child. 
 
38 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 114. In English, Sex is usually denoted by the use of dis- 
 tinctive words to name the Male and the Female; 2^, father, 
 mother / brother ', sister ; gander, goose; boy, girl. 
 
 115. There are certain suffixes used to turn Masculine 
 Nouns into Feminines. 
 
 (1.) The most common Feminine suffix is ESS ; as, actor, 
 
 actress / giant, giantess; heir, heiress; lion, lioness / 
 
 poet, poetess. 
 (2.) The suffix ix is a feminine inflection used in a few 
 
 Latin derivatives, as, administrator, administrate;/ 
 
 executor, executes. 
 (3.) The suffix ine is a feminine inflection in a few words, 
 
 as, hero, heroine/ Joseph, Joseph^/ Paul, Pauline. 
 
 NOTES ON PECULIARITIES OF GENDER. 
 
 (a) The suffix ster was the most common Old English feminine inflec- 
 tion ; thus webere meant a male weaver, and webster meant a female 
 weaver. But ster is now a masculine termination. This suffix is now 
 used as a feminine only in the word spinster; seamstress- seam +str+ ess 
 is redundant, containing both the Saxon inflection ster and the French ess. 
 So with songstress. 
 
 (6) The word vixen contains the suffix ine. It is really fox- ine = a she- 
 fox, and hence is applied to a cross, snarling woman. 
 
 (c) WIDOWER. Widow was in Old English both masculine and femi- 
 nine. Afterwards it came to be used as feminine only ; then the suffix er 
 was added to denote the masculine. 
 
 (o?) BRIDEGROOM. The masculine of bride is bridegroom. The word 
 groom is a corruption of Anglo-Saxon guma, man. 
 
 (e) WOMAN, the feminine of man, is composed of ivi(from the same 
 root as * weave') and man (which meant a human being of either sex). The 
 literal meaning, therefore, is she that weaves, that is, the weaver. The pro- 
 nunciation of the plural of woman preserves the old root wif. 
 
 (jf) LADY. The word lord comes from the Anglo-Saxon hlaf-ord=t\\Q 
 loaf-giver. The y in lady is a feminine suffix, and the word means literal- 
 ly the female loaf-giver. 
 
 (<;) BEAU and BELLE (masculine and feminine of the French adjective 
 meaning beautiful) are not correlatives. Beau means either a male sweet- 
 heart or a dandy, while belle means, not a female sweetheart, but a pre- 
 eminently beautiful woman. 
 
 (A) In our English poverty of inflection, we sometimes resort to the plan 
 of prefixing certain sex-words, as sAe-bear, /waic^-servant, Aew-sparrow, etc. 
 
 116. When an inanimate object is represented as a living 
 person, it is said to be personified. Thus words of the neuter 
 gender become masculine or feminine : 
 
 For Winter came : the wind was his whip. 
 One choppy finger was on his lip : 
 He had torn the cataracts from the hills, 
 And they clanked at his girdle like manacles. 
 
INFLECTION. 39 
 
 In the same way the sailor speaks of his ship, and the hunter of his gun, 
 as she. We speak of the sun as he, and of the moon as she; but our An- 
 glo-Saxon forefathers spoke of the moon as he and the sun as she. 
 
 Exercise 21. 
 Tell the GENDER of the following Words : 
 
 1. Cow. Lass. Mistress. Poet. Gander. 
 
 2. Widower. Aunt. Uncle. Priestess. Goddess. 
 
 3. Lamb. Horse. Cattle. Hogs. Pigs. Chickens. 
 
 4. Pauline. Bridegroom. Ship. Sun. Moon. 
 
 5. Husband. Wife. Steer. Heifer. Gentleman. Lady. 
 
 Answer the following Questions : 
 
 1 . Gender in English is a matter of what ? 
 
 2. How many sexes are there? How many Genders in English Gram- 
 mar? 
 
 3. How many ways are there of distinguishing sex ? 
 
 4. What is peculiar in seamstress and songstress ? 
 
 5. What is the most common termination for the feminine ? 
 
 G. Mention two nouns which have formed the masculine from the femi- 
 nine. 
 
 2. The Pronoun. 
 I. PEESONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 117. The English Personal Pronouns are jTfor the first per- 
 son ; You for the second person ; He, she, and it for the third 
 person. 
 
 118. The Pronouns of the First and of the Second Person 
 are inflected to express Number and Case ; the Pronoun of 
 the Third Person is inflected to denote Number^ Case, and 
 Gender. 
 
 119. The First Personal Pronoun is I, in the nominative 
 case. Its possessive case is my or mine. Its objective is me. 
 
 The nominative plural of I is We ; the possessive plural is 
 our or ours ; the objective plural is us. 
 
 120. The Second Personal Pronoun is You, in the nomina- 
 tive case. Its possessive case is your or yours. Its object- 
 ive case is You, the same" as the nominative case. 
 
 The old English Personal Pronoun of the Second person singular was 
 thou (Anglo-Saxon thu, Latin fa), but this form is now obsolete except in 
 the solemn style. 
 
 The plural of You is you ; the possessive, your or yours ; 
 and the objective, you, the same as the singular. 
 
40 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 The old English second person plural was ye (Anglo-Saxon ge), but you 
 has taken its place in common use, just as you has succeeded thou in the 
 singular. 
 
 121. The Third Personal Pronoun is he for the masculine 
 gender, nominative case. Its possessive case is his. Its ob- 
 jective case is him. 
 
 The Third Personal Pronoun, in the nominative case, is she 
 for the feminine gender. Its possessive case is her or hers. 
 Its objective case is her. 
 
 The Third Personal Pronoun is it for the neuter gender, 
 nominative case. Its possessive case is its. Its objective 
 case is it. 
 
 They is the nominative plural of he, of she, and of it. 
 
 The possessive plural of these pronouns is their or theirs; 
 their objective plural is them. 
 
 INFLECTIONS OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 O&J? 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Olj. 
 
 First Person, 
 
 I, 
 
 my 
 
 or mine, 
 
 me. 
 
 
 We, 
 
 our or ours, 
 
 us. 
 
 Second, 
 
 
 You, 
 
 your 
 
 or yours, 
 
 you. 
 
 
 You, 
 
 your or yours, 
 
 you. 
 
 
 (Mas. 
 
 He, 
 
 his, 
 
 
 him, 
 
 ,^ 
 
 
 
 
 Third, 
 
 \Feni. 
 (Neut. 
 
 She, 
 It, 
 
 her 
 
 its, 
 
 or hers, 
 
 her. 
 it. 
 
 j 
 
 They, 
 
 their or theirs, 
 
 them. 
 
 Solemn style. Thou, thy or thine, thee. | Ye, your or yours, you. 
 
 NOTES ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 (a) The Teacher will find in the Appendix a table of the declension of 
 the Anglo-Saxon Personal Pronouns. It throws much light on the present 
 forms of our English Pronoun. 
 
 (ft) The Pronouns of the First and of the Second Person have two forms 
 of the Possessive Case : my, mine ; your, yours ; our, ours ; also the Third 
 feminine has her, hers. The former of each pair is used attributively, that 
 is, when the Noun qualified follows it ; the latter is used predicatively, that 
 is, when the Noun is omitted. Thus 
 
 f my } f mine. 
 
 | her I j hers. 
 
 This is < our > house. But, This house is < ours. 
 
 j your 1 1 yours. I 
 
 ( their J ( theirs. J 
 
 The former set may be called Adjective Possessives ; the latter Independent 
 Possessives. Be careful never to write the Independent Possessives with 
 an apostrophe before the s ; that is, never write our's, their's, etc. 
 
 (c) In such sentences as ' Give me [him, her, you, us] a book' the Pro- 
 nouns are really Anglo-Saxon datives, and hence equivalent to to me, to 
 him, etc. 
 
 (d) It is a remarkable fact that the word its did not exist in English un- 
 til about 250 years ago. It is not found in our English Bible (translated 
 
INFLECTION. 41 
 
 1611). The place of its was filled by his, which was the possessive case of 
 hit (it) just as much as of he. The use of its arose from a feeling of clum- 
 siness in employing the same word (his) for the possessive of both the mas- 
 culine and the neuter pronouns. N. B. Never write its with the apostrophe 
 (it's) when you mean the possessive pronoun. 
 
 (e) A reflexive form is obtained for the personal pronouns, in the nomi- 
 native and in the objective case, by adding self or selves to the possessives of 
 the first and of the second person, and to the objectives of the third person. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 1 . Myself, Ourselves. 
 
 (Herself, ) 
 
 3. J Himself, [ Themselves. 
 
 (itself. ) 
 
 The word self is originally an adjective, or attribute of emphasis. Its use 
 is twofold: ls, To express emphasis ; as, Himself must strike the blow. 
 The compound pronoun is in like manner added to the simple ; as, I my- 
 self wrote the letter. 2e?, To form Reflexive Pronouns, by means of which 
 we express that the object and the doer of an action are the same person 
 or thing ; as, He killed himself. 
 
 (f) The word own joined to the Adjective Possessives both adds empha- 
 sis and has a reflexive meaning ; as, This is my own, my native land. 
 
 II. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 122. Of the Relative Pronouns, who, which, what, and that, 
 ' who' is the only one that has inflections. Who is thus de- 
 clined : 
 
 Nom. Poss. Obj. 
 
 Sing, and Plur ....... Who, whose, whom. 
 
 123. * Whose' is sometimes employed as the possessive of 
 * which.' 
 
 124. Compound Relative Pronouns are formed by adding 
 to the simple pronouns the affixes so, ever, and soever; as, 
 loho-so, which-ever, what-soever. 
 
 The general force of these affixes is to imply a universal correlative ; 
 as, ' Who-so-ever hateth his brother is a murderer' Every man without ex- 
 ception that hateth, etc. 
 
 IIL DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 125. The only Demonstrative Pronouns that have any in- 
 flections are 'this' and 'that.' The former has these for the 
 plural ; the latter, those. 
 
42 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Exercise 22. 
 Tell the KIND, NUMBER, GENDER, and CASE of each PRONOUN. 
 
 1. She; whose; them: its; our; me. 2. Their; us; he; hers; they; I. 
 3. Me ; whom ; mine ; yours ; who. 4. They ; thee ; my ; him ; ye ; which. 
 5. Ours ; yours ; that ; her ; theirs. 6. We ; you ; his ; it ; what ; her. 
 7. Her father gave her a book. 8. The flower that you brought me is dead. 
 9. Whom call we gay? 10. He shall not touch us. 11. These are our horses; 
 those are theirs. 12. My brother gave me that book a year ago. 
 
 3. The Adjective. 
 
 126. Common Adjectives have but one inflection, the change 
 to express differences of degree. The inflection of adjectives 
 is called Comparison. 
 
 In many languages, adjectives are inflected to mark gender, number, 
 and case, and in these respects they are made to agree with their nouns. 
 A Latin adjective like bonus, good, followed through all its inflections, as- 
 sumes nearly forty different shapes. In Anglo-Saxon there were several 
 such inflections. Thus, in Anglo-Saxon, the adjective 'good,' used with a 
 masculine noun, was goda, with a feminine noun gode, and with a neuter 
 noun gode ; and the nominative plural was godaw. Our language gains in 
 simplicity by discarding these adjective inflections, and loses only a cer- 
 tain power of varying the order of words. 
 
 127. The degrees of comparison are the Positive, the Com- 
 parative, and the Superlative. 
 
 128. I. The Positive is the adjective in its simple form ; as, 
 a tall man. 
 
 129. II. The Comparative is formed by suffixing er to the 
 positive ; as, taller, shorter. It is used when two objects are 
 compared, and indicates that the one possesses the quality in 
 a greater degree than the other. 
 
 130. The Superlative is formed by adding est to the posi- 
 tive ; as, tallest, shorted. It is used when more than two ob- 
 jects are compared, and shows that one possesses the quality 
 in a greater degree than all the rest. 
 
 131. When the positive has more than two syllables, the 
 adjective is not compared by inflection, but the Comparative 
 is formed by the auxiliary more and the Superlative by the 
 auxiliary most. This is to prevent forming many-syllabled 
 adjectives. Thus more beautiful sounds better than ~beauti- 
 fuller. 
 
 (a) If euphony allows, long adjectives may be compared with er and est. 
 And, on the other hand, even a monosyllabic adjective may be compared 
 by more or most, if the ear be satisfied. 
 
INFLECTION. 43 
 
 (>) A comparative and a superlative of diminution are formed by means 
 of less and least ; as, less grateful, least grateful. 
 
 (c) The Teacher will call the pupil's attention to the rules of spelling 
 that come into play on the addition of the suffixes er and est. 
 
 (d} The auxiliary mode of comparison is derived from the Norman- 
 French ; the inflected mode is old Saxon. 
 
 132. The following are Irregular Comparisons: 
 
 POSITIVE. COMPAEATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 
 
 Good, Better, Best. 
 
 Well, Better, Best. 
 
 Evil, Worse, Worst. 
 
 Bad, Worse, Worst. 
 
 Little, Less, Least. 
 
 Many, More, Most. 
 
 Much, More, Most. 
 
 Far, forth, Farther, further, Farthest, furthest. 
 
 Near, Nearer, Nearest or next. 
 
 Late, Later or latter, Latest or last. 
 
 Old, Older or elder, Oldest or eldest. 
 
 Hind, Hinder, Hindmost. 
 
 Up, Upper, Upmost. 
 
 Out, Utter or outer, Utmost. 
 
 NOTES ON THE IRREGULAR COMPARISONS. 
 
 (!) Good: Better and best [bet-est] are the comparative and the superla- 
 tive of the obsolete Anglo-Saxon bet, a synonym of good. 
 
 (2.) Bad J Worse and worst are the comparative and superlative of the ob- 
 solete Anglo-Saxon weor, a synonym of bad. 
 
 (3.) Oldl The regular comparative and superlative are used when old is 
 contrasted with new ; the irregular forms when it is contrasted 
 'with young; as, the older house belongs to the elder brother. But 
 older and oldest are often applied to animate beings ; elder and 
 eldest never to inanimate. 
 
 (4.) Late: The regular forms later and latest are opposed to ' earlier' and 
 4 earliest ;' the irregular forms latter and last are opposed to ' for- 
 mer' and ' first.' Last is a compression of late-est. 
 
 (5.) Farther, further I Farther, from far, means more distant, and is op- 
 posed to nearer ; as, I prefer the farther house to the nearer one. 
 Further, from forth, means more advanced or additional; as, I 
 shall mention a further reason. 
 
 (6.) Inner, inmost, have no positive: down, downmost, and top, topmost, 
 have no comparative ; nether, nethermost, are the comparative 
 and superlative of neath. &T The suffix most, in these superla- 
 tives, is not the adverb 'most.' It is really a double superlative 
 ending, compounded of the two Anglo-Saxon endings ma and ost, 
 \>oth=est. Hence foremost fore -t- ma + ost. 
 
 (7.) Certain comparatives in ior, derived from the Latin, as 'interior,' 'ex- 
 terior,' 'superior,' 'inferior,' 'anterior,' 'posterior,' 'prior,' 'ulte- 
 rior,' 'senior,' 'junior,' 'major,' 'minor,' are not proper English 
 comparatives. They have not the English ending ; nor are they 
 
44 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 followed by than' in composition, but by ' to ; ' thus we do not 
 say 'senior than his brother, 'but 'senior to his brother.' They 
 share this peculiarity with a few adjectives of Anglo-Saxon or- 
 igin ; SiB, former, elder, latter, hinder, under, inner, etc. 
 (8.) Adjectives expressing qualities that do not admit of change of degree 
 are not compared. EXAMPLES: 'Certain,' 'dead,' 'empty,', 
 'extreme,' 'false,' 'full,' 'infinite,' 'perfect,' 'complete,' 'su- 
 preme,' 'universal,' 'round,' 'straight,' 'square,' 'lend,' 'cor- 
 rect.' 
 
 Many of these Adjectives are compared in colloquial use and even by 
 good writers, and such comparison is allowable on the theory that these 
 adjectives are not used in their strict sense. However, we can generally 
 avoid such comparisons. In place of saying 'more perfect,' say 'more 
 nearly perfect;' in place of saying 'more complete,' say 'more copious j' 
 in place of saying ' rounder, ' say ' more nearly round. ' 
 
 Exercise 23. 
 
 Give the COMPAEATIYE and the SUPERLATIVE forms of the 
 following ADJECTIYES : 
 
 1. Great; good; wise; ill; little; short; bad; late. 
 
 2. Near ; fore ; much ; old ; frugal ; few ; valuable ; many. 
 
 3. Patient ; amiable ; high ; low ; pretty ; black ; rich ; heavy. 
 
 4. Hot ; dangerous ; fair ; far ; gentle ; bright ; bitter ; green. 
 
 5. Calm ; gay ; hard ; useful ; red ; light ; truthful ; swift. 
 
 6. Large ; soft ; gentle ; tall ; modest ; merry ; rough ; dark. 
 
 4. The Adverb. 
 
 133. Some ADVERBS are inflected to express degrees of 
 comparison ; as, He calls oftener than he writes. 
 
 134. The comparison of Adverbs follows the same rules as 
 that of Adjectives ; as, soon, sooner, soonest y pleasantly, more 
 pleasantly, most pleasantly. 
 
 Many Adverbs, from the nature of their meaning, can not be compared ; 
 as, then, now, yesterday. 
 
 135. The following Adverbs, like the Adjectives with 
 which they correspond, are irregularly compared : well, ill, 
 badly, much, little, far, forth. 
 
 The Adverb rather is the comparative of an Old English Adjective 
 rathe, meaning early ; thus 
 
 The rathe primrose which forsaken dies. Milton. 
 
 'Rather' means earlier or sooner : I should rather read than write that 
 is, sooner read than write. 
 
 Exercise 24. 
 
 A. 
 
 Give the COMPAEATIYE and the SUPERLATIVE forms of the 
 following ADVERBS : 
 
 1. Largely ; plainly ; badly ; wholly ; brightly. 
 
 2. Completely ; little ; possibly ; sweetly ; far ; well. 
 
INFLECTION. 45 
 
 B. 
 
 Distinguish beticeen ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS, remembering 
 that Adjectives belong to Nouns, and Adverbs to Verbs, 
 Adjectives, and other Adverbs. 
 
 1. I have seen better faces. 
 
 2. He likes this better. 
 
 3. The more mildly I spoke, the more insolently he answered, and there- 
 fore the more punishment he deserves. 
 
 4. I have long wished to see her. 
 
 5. I have a long letter from her. 
 G. Much fruit. I love him much. 
 
 5. The Verb. 
 
 136. The VERB is the most highly inflected of all the Parts 
 of Speech. This comes from the fact that the Verb makes 
 statements; and that the action stated may be done by dif- 
 ferent persons, at various times, and under several conditions. 
 "We may say he strikes or they strike; I strike or I struck; 
 strike, but hear ; We shall strike, etc. 
 
 137. The Inflections of the Verb are to express Time, Per- 
 son, Number, and Manner. Verbs are said to have also Voice, 
 and this is explained farther on (see 1" 172-176). 
 
 I. TENSE. 
 
 138. TENSE (from the Latin tempus, c time') is a change in 
 the form of the Verb to express the time of an action. 
 
 139. There are three natural divisions of time the present, 
 the past, and the future. There are, therefore, three primary 
 Tenses the Present Tense, the Past Tense, and the Future 
 
 "Tense. 
 
 140. The Present Tense is the simple form of the Verb, and 
 expresses what is or is doing when the statement is made ; 
 as, I walk, I write. 
 
 141. The Past Tense is formed from the present; it ex- 
 presses what was or was done before the statement is made ; 
 as, I walked, I wrote. 
 
 142. Verbs generally form their Past Tense from the Pres- 
 ent Tense by suffixing ed ; as, walk, walked. Some old En- 
 glish verbs form the Past Tense by a change of the root-vow- 
 el ; as, write, wrote. 
 
46 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 143. The first class are called Regular Verbs, the second 
 class Irregular, old, or strong Verbs. 
 
 (a) Of the four thousand verbs in the English language, all but about 
 one hundred and fifty form their past tense according to the general rule, 
 that is, by suffixing -ed, and hence are regular. 
 
 (&) The suffix -ed, which is the inflection of the East Tense, is a con- 
 traction of the word did. Thus, loved is 'I love-did,' or, as we still say, 
 'IdidlovQ.' 
 
 144. The Future Tense expresses what is to be or is to be 
 done after the statement is made; as, I shall walk, You wiU 
 write. 
 
 145. The Future Tense in English is formed, not by inflec- 
 tion, or a change of the word, but by the use of a helping 
 word called an auxiliary. This word is shall or will. 
 
 (a) Many languages form their future by inflections : thus the Latin for 
 1 1 shall love' is ama&o (from amo, I love). We get our way of marking 
 future time from the Anglo-Saxon, which used sceal and wille, * shall' and 
 4 will,' thus : i ic sceal niman,' or ' ic wille niman,' which literally means I 
 owe to take, I will to take. 
 
 (6) Shall implies obligation or duty its original signification being to 
 owe. Will implies wish or pleasure the exercise of will. There are 
 many nice points about the use of shall and will with pronouns of the dif- 
 ferent persons. These points are explained under Syntax. 
 
 146. There are three Secondary Tenses the Present Per- 
 fect, the Past Perfect, and the Future Perfect. These tenses 
 are formed, not by inflections, but by the use of auxiliaries. 
 The auxiliary have is used to form the Present Perfect, I have 
 walked ; the auxiliary had to form the Past Perfect, I had 
 walked ; and the auxiliary shall have to form the Future 
 Perfect, I shall have walked. 
 
 II. PERSON AND NUMBER. 
 
 147. As there is a Personal Pronoun for each of the three 
 persons 
 
 1st Person, I ; 2d Persow,You; 3d Person, He (She, It); 
 and as each Pronoun has a Plural number 
 
 1st Pers. PZ.,We ; 2d Pers. PL, You ; 3d Pers. PL, They 
 
 so any Verb is said to be of the First Person, Second Person, 
 or Third Person^ and of the Singular or of the Plural Num- 
 ber , according to which one of these Pronouns it is used with. 
 
INFLECTION. 47 
 
 148. Thus: 
 
 The Verb walk in 
 
 I walk is said to be in the 1st Person Singular. 
 
 Yon walk " " " 2d " 
 
 He (she, it) walks. " " " 3d " " 
 
 We walk " " " 1st Person Plural. 
 
 You walk " 2d 
 
 They walk " " " 3d 
 
 (a) Take notice that the only inflection or change in the- Verbs as thus 
 given (present tense, indicative mood) is in the Third Person, singular, 
 which takes s. 
 
 (b) In many languages the Verb itself is inflected, that is, it changes its 
 termination in every person and in both numbers. Thus in Latin : 
 
 I love . was Ego amo. 
 
 Thou lovest 
 He loves 
 We love 
 You love 
 They love 
 
 Tu amas. 
 Ille amat. 
 Nos amamus. 
 Vos amatis. 
 Illi amant. 
 
 Six inflections in Latin ; two inflections in English. 
 The old Saxon verb had more inflections than our English verb now has. 
 Thus in Saxon : 
 
 I love was Ic 1 
 
 Thou lovest 
 
 He loves 
 
 We love 
 
 You love 
 
 They love 
 
 Thu Mast. 
 He lufath. 
 We hifiath. 
 Ge Miath. 
 Hi Infiath. 
 
 Four inflections in Saxon ; two in English. 
 
 (c) The common form of our second person singular is You love, and of 
 our third person singular, He loves ; but we retain from Old English the 
 forms thou lovest, he loveth. These are used in poetry and prayer, and 
 are called the solemn or ancient style. The inflections est and eth are re- 
 mains of the Saxon inflections ast [2d pers. sing.] and ath [3d pers. sing.]. 
 
 III. MOOD. 
 149. When we say 
 
 He writes, . 
 
 we make a statement in a very different manner from when 
 we say, 
 
 If he write, I will answer ; 
 
 and very different also from saying 
 
 We may write to-morrow ; 
 and very different also from 
 
 Write me a letter ; 
 and different from 
 
 Scholars learn to write verbs by practice. 
 
48 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 150. These different ways of making a statement are called 
 Moods. Hence Mood (from the Latin modus, manner) is a 
 grammatical term meaning the manner of making a state- 
 ment. We count five Moods in English. 
 
 151. INDICATIVE MOOD. The statement of & fact, or of a 
 matter taken as a fact, is called the Indicative Mood ; as, You 
 write. This mood is also used in asking questions. 
 
 152. "When this Mood is introduced by the conditional con- 
 junctions if, though, unless, etc., it may be called the condi- 
 tional form of the Indicative ; as, If he wrote, I did not re- 
 ceive his letter ; Though old age comes upon us, we need not 
 be unhappy. 
 
 NOTE. Do not fall into the mistake of thinking that the little words if, 
 though, etc., necessarily make a verb some other mood than the Indica- 
 tive (namely, the Subjunctive). A verb is Indicative when it states a fact 
 real or conditional, and this whether used alone or with some conditional 
 conjunction. Sometimes, indeed, a verb with if or though before it is not 
 in the indicative, but in the so-called subjunctive ; and this is explained in 
 f 157-161. 
 
 153. The Indicative Mood is used in all the six tenses. 
 
 154. POTENTIAL MOOD. The Potential Mood is a way of 
 making a statement by means of the auxiliary verbs may, 
 can, must, might, could, would, and should ; as, 'You must 
 study this lesson ;' ' We may be happy yet.' It expresses 
 power, contingency, duty, and some other relations that will 
 be better understood when we take up the full verb. 
 
 Some languages express the potential mood by inflection. Thus, Latin, 
 Amo, I love ; Amarera, I may love. We form it with the auxiliaries may, 
 can, etc. These were complete verbs in Anglo-Saxon, but they have now 
 lost all their forms except as auxiliaries. The literal meaning of the form 
 'I may love' is I may to love, i. e., I am able to love. Can io from the 
 Anglo-Saxon cunnan, to be able. I can walk = I am able to walk. 
 
 155. A conditional form of the Potential Mood is obtained 
 by the use of one of the conditional conjunctions (if, though, 
 etc.) with the verb; thus, If I may love; if you may write. 
 
 156. The Potential Mood is used in four tenses present, 
 past, present perfect, past perfect. 
 
 157. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. There is a little fragment of the 
 verb, called the Subjunctive Mood, that has puzzled people a 
 great deal. The matter is really very simple. 
 
 158. The only difference between the Subjunctive Mood and 
 
INFLECTION. 49 
 
 the Indicative Mood is in the third person singular of two of 
 the tenses, the present and the present perfect. Thus 
 
 Indicative, Present. Subjunctive Present. 
 
 (If, though, etc.), he loves. (If, though, etc.), he love. 
 
 Indicative Pres. Perfect. Subjunctive Pres. Perfect. 
 
 (If or though) he has loved. (If or though) he have loved. 
 
 159. The explanation of these differences is, that in what 
 is called the Subjunctive Mood there is a little word left out 
 either the word will, or the words may, can, should. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. If he see the signal, he will come, is the same as, If he 
 
 shall see the signal, etc. 
 
 2. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him, is the same 
 
 as, Though he may slay me. 
 
 160. Hence you see that the Subjunctive Mood is really an 
 abbreviated form, either of the Indicative Mood (if SH^LL is 
 the word omitted) or of the Potential Mood (if MAY, CAN, 
 SHOULD, is understood). 
 
 161. People nowadays do not pay much attention to the 
 nice distinctions formerly made between ' if he loves' and ' if 
 he love.' In fact, the little fragment of the Subjunctive Mood 
 is rapidly disappearing from our language. 
 
 (a) It is hoped that the foregoing explanation may serve to make -plain 
 a matter which has been darkened by many words. There is really no 
 such thing, in modern English, as a 4 subjunctive mood' the so-called sub- 
 junctives being mere elliptical expressions. A sensible way of parsing the 
 (Subjunctive Mood when it occurs would be to call it either the ' Conditional 
 form of the indicative' (if will be understood), or the conditional form of 
 the potential (if may, can, might, could be understood). 
 
 (/>) Were it not for the verb to be (which has something like a subjunctive 
 form, owing to its being made up of two different Saxon verbs), even the 
 name ' subjunctive' would not be worth keeping up. 
 
 162. IMPERATIVE MOOD. The Imperative Mood of a verb 
 is its use in commanding ; as, Go to bed ; Else early ; Charge, 
 Chester, charge ! 
 
 163. The Imperative Mood has but one tense, the Present. 
 
 164. The Infinitive Mood is the name of the action, un- 
 limited (from Latin in, not, and finis, a limit) by Number or 
 Person. It is generally preceded by the sign to, but not al- 
 ways ; as, I like to sing ; we saw him run. The Infinitive is 
 really a Noun. 
 
 C 
 
50 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 165. The Infinitive is said to have two tenses the Present 
 and the Perfect. 
 
 (a) Strictly speaking, the infinitive is not a Mood at all. This form of 
 the verb has no subject, and no limitations of number, person, or time. It 
 can not make a statement. Its chief use is as the subject or as the object in 
 a sentence and whatever is subject or object must be essentially a noun. 
 
 (6) The Anglo-Saxon Infinitive had two terminations, an and anne. Be- 
 fore the latter form to was used ; as, baernaw ; (to) baern-awwe, about to 
 burn. 
 
 (c) The ROOT, or simplest form of a verb, is the infinitive without to. 
 
 166. PARTICIPLES. There is a peculiar form of the verb 
 which is called the Participle, because it shares or participates 
 in the functions of the noun, the adjective, and the verb. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Noun use. The crossing of the Potomac was made in the month of May. 
 
 2. Adjective use. The crossing army was flushed with victory. 
 
 3. Verb use. The army was crossing the Potomac and marching on Fred- 
 
 erick City. 
 
 SiT When you meet a participial form, call it a noun if it has the use of 
 a noun (' Walking is good exercise'), an adjective if it has the use of an 
 adjective ('Running water is sweet'), and a verb if it has the use of, or 
 forms part of a verb ('John is walking ,' 'is running'). 
 
 167. There are three Participles, the Present ; , or Progressive, 
 the Pasty or Complete, and the Perfect Participle. 
 
 168. The Present Participle in all verbs is made by suffix- 
 ing -ing to the root ; as, walk-ing. 
 
 169. The Past Participle of all Regular Verbs (see 1 143) is 
 formed by suffixing ed to the root ; as, walk-ed. The Past 
 Participle of Irregular Verbs is formed in some other way ; 
 as, struck, taken, cut. (See list of Irregular Verbs, ^ 183.) 
 
 170. The Perfect Participle is formed by joining the auxil- 
 iary having with the Past Participle of the verb; ^having 
 loved. 
 
 171. VEEBAL IN -ING. There is a verbal form in -ing that 
 is not, strictly speaking, a Participle at all, but that is really 
 an Infinitive. Thus, Erring is human = To err is human ; 
 We saw the ship, sinking in the waves =:Wfc saw the ship 
 (to) sink in the waves. 
 
 For an explanation of this important form, the Infinitive in -ing, the 
 Teacher is referred to the Appendix. 
 
INFLECTION. 51 
 
 IV. VOICE. 
 
 172. Voice expresses the relation of the subject of the verb 
 to the action of the verb, as done or received; as, John strikes; 
 John is struck. 
 
 173. All Transitive verbs may be put in two forms. In 
 the first form the doer of the act is made the subject ; in the 
 second form, what was before the object of the verb becomes 
 its subject. EXAMPLE : 
 
 First form. Watt [subject] invented the steam-engine 
 [object]. 
 
 Second form. The steam-engine [previous object ; , now 
 subject] was invented by Watt. 
 
 174. The first form is usually called the Active Voice ; the 
 second form, the Passive Voice. The Active Voice represents 
 the subject as doing something ; the Passive Voice represents 
 something done-to the subject. 
 
 175. The Present Participle of the Passive Voice is the 
 same in form as the Past Participle of the Active Voice. 
 Thus, loved, Past Participle Active, and Present Participle 
 Passive. 
 
 176. The Passive Voice is formed by means of the helping 
 verb Be and the Present Participle Passive (see Conjugation 
 of a Passive Verb, page 59). 
 
 (a) No Complete verb can be thrown into the Passive Voice for the rea- 
 son that such a verb can have no object, and only the object of an incom- 
 plete verb can become the subject of the Passive Voice. 
 The sun shines 
 is shone by the sun. 
 
 What ' is shone ?' You see there is nothing to become the subject. Com- 
 pare this with ' Watt invented the steam-engine, ' ' The steam-engine was 
 invented by Watt,' and you will see that, shines being a Complete verb, there 
 is nothing to become its subject in the Passive. 
 
 (6) With the exception of a small class, all verbs in the Passive Voice 
 are Complete verbs. Thus, Howard was loved; Nero was hated. The 
 small exceptional class embraces such verbs as call, think, choose, elect, 
 name, consider, and the like. Thus, Newton was called \ a philosopher 
 [complement] ; Columbus was thought \ a madman [complement]. 
 
 V. CONJUGATION. 
 
 177. Conjugating a Verb is bringing together all its forms, 
 so as to show its tenses, persons, numbers, moods, and voice. 
 
 The Conjugation of English Verbs is exceedingly simple as compared 
 with the conjugation of the verbs in many other languages. 
 
52 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 178. The Principal Parts of a Verb Active are, 
 
 I. Present Indicative ; II. Past Indicative ; III. Past Par- 
 ticiple. 
 
 MODEL OP CONJUGATION OF ALL REGULAR VERBS IN THE 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 To Love. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 Love; Loved; Loved. 
 
 > love. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 You ( 
 We ( 
 They] 
 
 He loves. 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 I ^ 
 You 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 You 
 
 You 
 
 i i i 
 have loved. 
 
 He > loved. 
 
 He > shall [or will] love. 
 
 We 
 
 We 
 
 They) 
 
 They J 
 
 Past Perfect. 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 You ( 
 He > had loved. 
 We 
 
 i ) 
 
 TT U ( shall [or will] 
 ,y [ have loved. 
 
 They) 
 
 They J 
 
 They j 
 
 He has loved. 
 
 CONDITIONAL FORM. The Conjugation of this Mood in the 
 conditional form is made by preceding the above by a Con- 
 ditional Conjunction, such as if or though : thus, 'If I love,' 
 4 If I loved,' <If I shall love,' etc. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 You 
 
 He > may love. 
 
 We 
 
 They J 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Past Tense. Pres. Perf. Tense. 
 
 I j I 
 
 You / You 
 
 He > might love. He 
 
 We We 
 
 They J They 
 
 may have 
 loved. 
 
 Past Perf. Tense. 
 
 I } 
 
 You I might 
 He > have 
 We I loved. 
 They j 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 The Subjunctive Mood is usually conjugated in four tenses 
 the Present, the Past, the Present Perfect, and the Past 
 Perfect. In these tenses the Subjunctive has the same forms 
 as the Indicative Mood, except in the third person singular 
 of the Present and of the Past Perfect Tense. 
 
 Present (If) he love. 
 
 Present Perfect (If) he have loved. 
 
INFLECTION. 
 
 53 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Second Person, Singular and Plural Love. 
 
 NOTE. Love thou and love ye are the ancient forms of the second per- 
 son, sing, and plural. Let him love, let us love, etc., are sometimes used 
 to mark the Imperative Mood in the third and in the first person respect- 
 ively. 
 
 INFINITIVES. 
 
 . Present: To love. Perfect: To have loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present: loving. Past: loved. Perfect: having loved. 
 
 MODEL OF A GENERAL SYNOPSIS OF ALL REGULAR VERBS 
 IN THE ACTIVE VOICE, 
 
 SHOWING INFLECTIONS AND FORMATION OF TENSES. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Present Tense : love, or loves. 
 Past Tense: loved. 
 Future Tense : shall love, or will love. 
 Present Perfect : have loved, or has loved. 
 Past Perfect : had loved. 
 Future Perfect : shall have loved, or will have loved. 
 
 Potential Mood. 
 
 Present Tense: may, can, or must love. 
 Past Tense: might, could, would, or should love. 
 Present Perfect : may have, can have, or must have loved. 
 Past Perfect : might have, could have, would have, or 
 
 should have loved. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 Present Tense : love. 
 Present Perfect : have loved. 
 
 Present Tense: 
 Infinitives : 
 Participles : 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 love. 
 
 to love, to have loved, 
 loving, loved, having loved. 
 
 NOTES ON THE TENSES. 
 
 I. PRESENT INDICATIVE. 
 
 (I.) The present tense has sometimes a future meaning; as, 
 Duncan comes here to-night. Shakspeare. 
 I go to my Father. Bible. 
 
54 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 (2.) The present tense must always be used when expressing a fact univer- 
 sally true ; as, the Greeks did not know that the earth is round. 
 
 (3.) The historic present is used when we wish to describe vividly a past 
 event as taking place in present time. 
 
 (4.) The progressive present is formed by joining the present tense of the 
 verb be with the present participle of any verb ; as, / am writing ; 
 he is talking. This means that the person is fully occupied, and 
 is not available for any other purpose. 
 
 (5.) The emphatic present is formed by joining the verb do, as an auxiliary, 
 to the stem ; as, I do write ; he does sing. Do is employed to 
 remove any possibility of doubt. 
 
 II. PAST INDICATIVE. 
 (1.) The past tense states something which stands as an isolated fact in 
 
 the past. At Athens, the poets sang and the sages talked. 
 (2.) The past progressive states a continuous past active; as, I was musing; 
 
 he was speaking. 
 (3.) The emphatic past is formed by joining the auxiliary did with the 
 
 stem of any verb ; as, I did say that Ca3sar crossed the Kubicon. 
 
 III. FUTURE INDICATIVE. 
 
 (1.) Shall is used in the first person to express intention ; thus, I shall 
 write a letter, means I intend to write a letter. To express in- 
 tention in the second and third persons, will is used ; as, you or 
 he will write a letter, i. e., intend to write a letter. Will, in the 
 first person, denotes determination ; as, I will go to New York, 
 means I am determined to go to New York. Determination, in 
 the second and third persons, is expressed by shall ; as, you shall 
 go home. 
 
 [For a fuller explanation of ' shall' and c will,' see Syntax.] 
 
 IV. PRESENT PERFECT INDICATIVE. 
 
 (1.) The present perfect tense represents a past action with reference *o 
 present time. I have eaten my dinner means that I, at the 
 present moment, am in the condition of having eaten my dinner. 
 Hence, when there is any reference of a past action to past time, 
 the past tense, and not the present perfect, should be used. This 
 tense implies double time, that is, the auxiliary expresses present 
 time, and the participle perfect or past time. 
 
 V. PAST PERFECT INDICATIVE. 
 
 The past perfect tense represents a past event with reference to past time ; 
 as, I had eaten my dinner before he arrived. This tense may be 
 called a correlative, because it is used only in connection with a 
 modifying statement. 
 
INFLECTION. 55 
 
 VI. FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE. 
 
 The future perfect tense denotes an action that will happen before some 
 other future action ; as, Dear brother, I shall have gone to Eu- 
 rope before you reach home. This tense, also, is correlative. 
 Of these six Tenses of the Indicative, three express simple time, and 
 three denote two kinds or points of time. 
 
 SIMPLE TIME. 
 
 Names. Forms. 
 
 Present; as I write. 
 
 Past; " I wrote. 
 
 Future; " I shall write. 
 
 TWO KINDS OR POINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Names. Forms. 
 
 Present Perfect I have written. 
 
 Past Perfect I had written. 
 
 Future Perfect I shall have written. 
 
 The three Compound Tenses all involve a double notion of time, and 
 re therefore correlative tenses. The Present Perfect means than an ac- 
 tion begun in Past time is finished at the Present time. The Past Per- 
 fect is used when we are thinking of two points of Past time. The Future 
 Perfect is used when we are thinking of two points of Future time. 
 
 VII. POTENTIAL PRESENT 
 
 (1.) The present potential asserts chiefly power or leave to do something. 
 It also implies a notion of futurity; as, I may go to town. This 
 comes from the literal meaning of the old verb from which may 
 is derived, and which means to have the power. I may go to 
 town literally signifies that I have the power of going to town 
 (and, impliedly, the inference is that I shall go). 
 
 (2.) The auxiliary must (from the same root as may') also conveys the no- 
 tion of force or power, but it is force outside of me. I must go 
 to town= here is force that compels me to go ; hence the idea of 
 duty. 
 
 VIII. POTENTIAL PAST. 
 
 Might is originally the past tense of may ; could of can; would of will; 
 
 and should of shall. 
 (1.) Observe that when a sentence contains a verb in the past potential, it 
 
 will always have a conditional clause introduced by a conditional 
 
 conjunction, and the conditional clause will always be in the past 
 
 tense. 
 (2.) In the conditional form of the past potential, it often happens that the 
 
 conjunction (/*, etc., is omitted ; thus, Should I go to town if I 
 
 should go to town. Note that in this construction the subject 
 
 (pronoun or noun) comes after the verb. 
 
56 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 (3.) The past potential sometimes implies futurity ; thus, I should return 
 next week if I were to leave to-day. 
 
 IX. POTENTIAL PAST PERFECT. 
 
 There is a peculiar construction by which the past perfect of the indica- 
 tive serves to convey the sense of the past perfect potential; thus, If thou 
 hadst been here my brother had not died (that is, should not have died). 
 
 VI. VARIOUS FOEMS OF A TENSE. 
 
 Besides the simple forms just given, many of the Tenses 
 assume other forms Progressive, Emphatic or Expletive, In- 
 terrogative, Negative. 
 
 1. The Progressive Forms, which express the action as go- 
 ing on, are made by putting the Present Participle Active 
 after the parts of the Yerb Be ; as, I am striking ; he has 
 been striking, etc. 
 
 2. The Emphatic Form, which is confined to the Tenses 
 without auxiliaries, is made by putting do or did before the 
 Infinitive; as, I do strike ; He did go. 
 
 We make the other Tenses emphatic by laying stress on 
 the auxiliary ; as, We may see him ; He might have come. 
 
 3. The Interrogative Form is twofold : 
 
 (a) The older and more formal question in the Present 
 
 and Past Indicative simply places the Verb before 
 the Nominative; &$,Lovest thou me? Ask we for 
 flocks these shingles dry ? 
 
 (b) The common way of asking a question, if there be no 
 
 auxiliary, places do or did before the Nominative; 
 as, Do Hook pale ? Did you see him ? 
 If there be an auxiliary, it is simply placed first ; as, 
 Am I looking pale ? Will you take, this ? 
 
 4. The Negative Form, is also twofold : 
 
 (a) The older and more formal way, when there is no 
 
 auxiliary, places not after the Verb ; as, I saw not; 
 He opened not his eyes. 
 
 (b) The common way of denying, if there be no auxiliary, 
 
 uses do or did, with not after it, between the Nomi- 
 native and the Verb ; as, I do not know him. 
 If there be an auxiliary already in the Tense, not is in- 
 serted -after it ; as, I shall not see him. 
 &T For the conjugation in all these forms, see Appendix. 
 
INFLECTION. 5 7 
 
 VII. NEW AND SIMPLE WAY OF CONJUGATING. 
 
 NOTE FOR THE TEACHER. The author has preferred not to depart from 
 what is in the United States the most commonly received mode of conjugating 
 the English verb ; however, for the sake of young and progressive teachers, 
 he here adds a very simple mode of treating the verb. This method of con- 
 jugation rests on the principle that 
 
 The real moods and tenses are such only as are formed by inflection ; 
 and, consequently, that compound forms made up of a verb (so-called aux- 
 iliary) and an infinitive, or of a verb (so-called auxiliary) and a participle, 
 are better treated as separate verbs. 
 
 Now it is well known that, for example, in our so-called future tense, as, 
 I shall love, he will love, l l shall' is by itself a verb, equivalent to I owe; that 
 4 love' is a real infinitive, and that the compound form is neither more nor less 
 than I owe to love; so he will love is he wills to love. In like manner, the 
 so-called subjunctive, as, If he slay, is really If he shall slay. And, finally, 
 tenses compounded of the auxiliary and the participle may readily be resolved 
 into their component parts. Thus / have written a letter is just I have or 
 possess a letter written. 
 
 By this method all the verbs in the English language can be parsed by the 
 aid of Two TENSES and THREE MOODS, with the exception of the verb To 
 Be, which has a real subjunctive mood. Now for the paradigm 
 
 To Learn. 
 
 Learn; Learned; Learned. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. 
 
 I -) I 
 
 You ( , You 
 
 We f learn ' He > learned. 
 
 They I We 
 
 He... '.learns. TheyJ 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD : Learn. INFINITIVE MOOD : To learn. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present: learning. Past: learned. 
 
 MODEL OF PARSING ON THE ABRIDGED PLAN. 
 
 They may have been there. 
 
 May Auxiliary verb, third plural, present indicative. 
 
 Have A verb in the infinitive, the sign to being understood after may. 
 
 Been The past participle of the verb to be. 
 
 He shall be called John. 
 
 Shall Auxiliary verb, third singular, present tense. 
 
 Be A vrb in the infinitive, the sign to being omitted. 
 
 Called The past participle of the verb to call. 
 
 C 2 
 
58 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB To BE. 
 
 NOTE. The conjugation of the verb ' To Be' is given at this point, because 
 Be is the auxiliary by means of which the passive voice of all transitive verbs 
 is formed. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 Pres. 2nd. : Am. Past Ind. : Was. Past Part. : Been. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Fu 
 
 I am. 
 He is. 
 
 He } was ' 
 
 You 
 
 We ) 
 
 We ) 
 
 He y 
 
 You > are. 
 
 You > were. 
 
 We 
 
 They) 
 
 They) 
 
 They] 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 
 Past Perfect. 
 
 
 i | 
 
 vy* 11 > have been. 
 
 You 
 He > had been. 
 
 You 
 He y 
 
 They ) 
 
 We 
 
 We 
 
 He has been. 
 
 They] 
 
 They] 
 
 Future Tense. 
 shall or will be. 
 Future Perfect. 
 shall or will have been. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 I 
 
 You 
 He 
 We 
 They; 
 
 can be. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Past Tense. Present Perfect. 
 I 
 
 You 
 He 
 We 
 
 Past Perfect. 
 
 They 
 
 might, 
 
 > could, 
 
 > would, or 
 should be. 
 
 You / may or 
 He > can have 
 We 1 been. 
 They J 
 
 I 
 
 You 
 
 He 
 
 We 
 
 They 
 
 might, 
 could, 
 would, or 
 should 
 have been. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 >be. 
 
 resent 
 Ifl ) 
 If you 
 If he > 
 If we 
 If they] 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Ifl ) 
 T fyou ( 
 If he > were. 
 If we 
 If they J 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Be. 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 Ifl j 
 If you 
 
 If he > have been. 
 If we 
 If they) 
 
 Presmt : To be. 
 
 Present: being. 
 
 INFINITIVES. 
 
 Past : To have been. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Past : been. Perfect : having been. 
 
 NOTES ON THE VERB TO BE. 
 
 1. In the solemn style, Thou art is used in the second person ; and in the 
 past tense, Thou wast. 
 
 2. The Old English conjugation of the Present Tense was as follows : I, 
 he, we, you, they be ; Thou beest; and in the Past Tenses, Thou wert. 
 
 There be many wide counties in Ireland. Spenser. 
 If thou beest he. Milton. 
 Thou, Stella, wert no longer young. Swift. 
 Before the heavens Thou wert. Milton. 
 
INFLECTION. 59 
 
 3. The forms of the Verb to be are derived from at least two sources : am, 
 was, were, etc., are from Anglo-Saxon wesan, to be. Be, been, etc., are from 
 Anglo-Saxon beon, to be. The Plural are is of Danish origin, replacing the 
 Saxon Plural form in synd. 
 
 4. The conjugation of the Verb to be, in the solemn style, differs from the 
 common only in the second person singular, as follows : Ind. Mood : Thou 
 art, wast, hast been, hadst been, shalt or wilt be, shalt or wilt have been. 
 Potential : Thou mayest be, mightst be, mayst have been, mightst have been. 
 Subjunctive : If thou be. 
 
 MODEL FOR THE CONJUGATION OF ALL VEKBS IN THE PAS- 
 SIVE VOICE. 
 
 179. The Passive Voice is that form of the Verb which ex- 
 presses something done-to the subject. 
 
 180. The Passive Voice of a Transitive Verb is formed by 
 joining its Present Participle Passive with the verb to be, 
 fully conjugated. 
 
 NOTE. As the subject of a Passive was once the object of an Active Verb, 
 Passives can be formed only from Transitive Verbs. 
 
 To be Loved. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Future Tense. 
 
 I am ) I was } I 
 
 He is / He was / You 
 
 We are > loved. We were > loved. He > shall be loved. 
 
 You are f You were ( We 
 
 They are ) They were J They J 
 
 Present Perfect. Past Perfect. Future Perfect. 
 
 i ) i } i ) 
 
 You I have been You / had You / ,,, ... 
 
 We loved. He V been He ' 
 
 . 
 
 They) We I loved. We I 
 
 He .... has been loved. They J They j 
 
 NOTE. The conditional form of the Indicative is conjugated by putting 
 one of the conditional conjunctions, such as if, though, unless, before the sev- 
 eral parts given above ; as, If I am loved ; unless he had been loved, etc. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 I ) 
 You I may or 
 He > can be 
 We 1 loved. 
 They] 
 
 Ifl ) 
 If you / 
 If he > be loved 
 If we ( 
 If they; 
 
 Past Tense. Present Perfect. Past Perfect. 
 
 1 ) mi ht I } I ] mi S nt > 
 You I m1 ^, , ' You f mav or You 1 could, 
 
 He >{*}{* He V can have He > would, or 
 We f We. been loved. We I should have 
 They j Io They j They J been loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 Ifl- \ Ifl -) 
 
 If you / If you / 
 If he V were loved. If he > have been loved. 
 If we t If we C 
 If they; If they; 
 
60 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Be loved. 
 
 INFINITIVES. 
 
 Present : To be loved. Perfect : To have been loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present : being loved. Perfect : having been loved. 
 
 VII. IRREGULAR, or Strong Verbs. 
 
 181. All Verbs that do not form their principal parts ac- 
 cording to the Regular Model (see *([ 178) are called Irregu- 
 lar Verbs. 
 
 Modern grammarians style this class of Verbs Strong Verbs, as they 
 make their parts by a powerful internal change, and thus stand contrasted 
 with the verbs in the -e d inflection, which are styled Weak Verbs. Strong 
 verbs are all a heritage from the early Saxon. 
 
 182. Irregular Verbs number less than 200, but they belong 
 to the very groundwork of our modern tongue. 
 
 MODEL FOR THE CONJUGATION OF IRREGULAR OR STRONG 
 VERBS. 
 
 To Write. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
 
 Write; Wrote; Written. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Past 
 
 Tense. 
 
 
 
 Future 
 
 Tense. 
 
 
 
 
 I 1 
 
 i 
 
 I > 
 
 | 
 
 
 I 
 
 } 
 
 
 
 
 
 You ( 
 
 
 You 1 
 
 ! 
 
 
 You 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 We | 
 
 > write. 
 
 He 
 
 > wrote. 
 
 
 He 
 
 > shall 
 
 (will) write. 
 
 They] 
 
 1 
 
 We 
 
 
 
 We 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 He... 
 
 . writes. 
 
 TheyJ 
 
 1 
 
 
 They 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 
 Past Perfect. 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 I I 
 
 | 
 
 I ^ 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 You I 
 We 1 
 
 > have written 
 
 You | 
 He 
 
 had written. 
 
 You 
 He 
 
 > shall 
 
 (will) have 
 
 written. 
 
 They! 
 
 1 . 
 
 We | 
 
 
 
 We 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 He... 
 
 . has written. 
 
 They \ 
 
 
 
 They 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present Perfect 
 
 Past 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Past 
 
 Tense. 
 
 
 Tense. 
 
 
 Tense. 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 ) 
 
 
 I 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 You 
 He 
 We 
 
 > may write. 
 
 
 might 
 write. 
 
 You 
 He 
 We 
 
 I may have 
 1 written. 
 
 You 
 He 
 We 
 
 ( might have 
 ( written. 
 
 They 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 They 
 
 ) 
 
 
 They 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
INFLECTION. 61 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 The subjunctive mood has the same form as the indicative, except ill 
 the third person singular of the present, and of the present perfect tense. 
 
 Present: (If) he write. Present Perfect: (If) he have written. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Write. 
 
 INFINITIVES. 
 
 Present : To write. Perfect : To have written. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present : writing. Past : written. Perfect : having written. 
 
 LIST OF IRREGULAR, OR STRONG VERBS. 
 183. The following list contains most of the Strong Verbs 
 in English, grouped according to the nature of their internal 
 changes : 
 
 Root-vowel modified for Past, and -en or -n added for PARTI- 
 CIPLE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Past Part. 
 
 Bid 
 
 bade (bad) 
 
 bidden (bid) 
 
 Forbid* 
 
 
 
 Bite 
 
 bit 
 
 bitten (bit) 
 
 Break 
 
 broke 
 
 broken (broke) 
 
 Speak 
 
 
 
 Bear (cany) 
 
 bore 
 
 borne 
 
 Forbear 
 
 
 
 Bear (give birth) 
 
 bore (bare) 
 
 born 
 
 Wear, swear, tear 
 
 
 
 Blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown 
 
 Fly, grow, throw, 
 
 know 
 
 
 Chide 
 
 chid 
 
 chidden (chid) 
 
 Hide 
 
 
 
 Choose 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen 
 
 Drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven 
 
 Strive, thrive 
 
 
 
 Draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 Eat 
 
 ate 
 
 eaten 
 
 Fall 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen 
 
 Freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 Get 
 
 got 
 
 gotten (got) 
 
 Forget, beget 
 
 
 
 Give 
 
 gave 
 
 given 
 
 Forgive 
 
 
 
 
 Hold 
 
 held 
 
 holden (held) 
 
 Lie 
 
 lay 
 
 lain 
 
 * The Verbs indented are conjugated like those which they immediately follow. 
 
62 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Ride 
 
 Stride 
 Rise 
 
 Arise 
 Shake 
 
 Take, forsake 
 Shrink 
 Smite 
 
 Write 
 Steal 
 Strike 
 Slay 
 Tread 
 Weave 
 
 Past Tense. 
 rode 
 
 shook 
 
 shrank (shrunk) 
 smote 
 
 stole 
 
 struck 
 
 slew- 
 
 trod 
 
 wove 
 
 II. 
 
 Pas* Part. 
 ridden 
 
 risen 
 shaken 
 
 shrunken (shrunk) 
 smitten (smit) 
 
 stolen 
 
 stricken (struck) 
 
 slain 
 
 trodden 
 
 woven (wove) 
 
 Hoot-vowel modified for Past Tense, and no suffix in Participle. 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Part. 
 
 Abide abode abode 
 
 Awake awoke awoke 
 
 Wake 
 
 Begin began (begun) begun 
 
 Spin (no a) 
 
 Behold beheld beheld 
 
 Bind bound bound 
 
 Wind, grind, find 
 
 Bleed bled bled 
 
 Lead, feed, breed 
 
 Cling clung clung 
 
 Wring, swing, string, sting, sling, fling 
 
 Come came come 
 
 Dig dug dug 
 
 Drink drank (drunk) drunk 
 
 Slink (no a), stink, sink 
 
 Fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought 
 
 Meet 
 
 met 
 
 met 
 
 Read 
 
 r6ad 
 
 read 
 
 Ring 
 
 rang (rung) 
 
 rung 
 
 Spring, sing 
 
 
 
 Shine 
 
 shone 
 
 shone 
 
 Shoot 
 
 shot 
 
 shot 
 
 Sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sat 
 
 Spit 
 
 
 
 Slide 
 
 slid 
 
 slid 
 
 Stand 
 
 stood 
 
 stood 
 
 Stick 
 
 stuck 
 
 stuck 
 
 Win 
 
 won 
 
 won 
 
 Hang* 
 
 hung 
 
 hung 
 
 Light* 
 
 lit 
 
 lit 
 
 * Those marked with au asterisk are also weak. 
 
INFLECTION. 63 
 
 III. 
 
 Root-vowel modified, and -t or -d added for Fast Tense and 
 Past Participle. 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Part. 
 
 Bereave* bereft bereft 
 
 Reave, leave, cleave (split) 
 Beseech besought besought 
 
 Work,* think, seek, buy, bring 
 Catch caught caught 
 
 Teach 
 Creep crept crept 
 
 Weep, sweep, sleep, keep 
 Deal dealt dealt 
 
 Mean, leap,* dream* 
 Feel felt felt 
 
 Kneel* 
 
 Flee fled fled 
 
 Hear heard h&ird 
 
 Lose lost lost 
 
 Say said said 
 
 Sell sold sold 
 
 Tell 
 Shoe shod shod 
 
 IV. 
 
 Weak in Past Tense; strong in Past Participle. 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Part. 
 
 Heave (to throw) heaved hoven (heaved) 
 
 Lade laded laden 
 
 Mow mowed mown 
 
 Sew, show, sow, strew, strow 
 
 Saw sawed sawn 
 
 Straw 
 
 Rive rived riven 
 
 Wax waxed waxen (waxed) 
 
 Grave * graved graven (graved) 
 
 Swell swelled swollen (swelled) 
 
 Seethe seethed sodden (seethed) 
 
 V. 
 
 No Inflections. 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Part. 
 
 Bid (offer to buy). bid. bid. 
 
 Bet,* burst, cast, cut, durst, hit, hurt, knit,* let, put, rid, set, shed, shred, 
 shut, slit, spread, thrust, wed,* beat (past part, also beaten). 
 
 * Those marked with an asterisk are also weak. 
 
64 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 
 
 VI. 
 
 . SOME PECULIAR IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 Present Indicative. Past. Past. Part. 
 
 1. Go, went, gone. 
 
 The past indicative went is not formed from the root go : it is really a 
 contraction of wended, the past tense of the Saxon verb wendan, to wend 
 or go ; thus, he went his way he wended his way. 
 
 2. Have, had, had. 
 The past tense had is a contraction of haved (Anglo-Saxon haefde). 
 
 3. Do, did, done. 
 With other verbs, do is used (1) to express emphasis as, I do believe. 
 
 (2) In negation ; as, I do not think so. (3) In interrogation ; as, Do you 
 travel by rail ? 
 
 Do, as used in the expression, How do you do ? is a totally different 
 verb : this 'do' comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb dugan,to profit or pros- 
 per. HenSe, How do you do ? means How do you prosper f 
 
 4. Make, made, made. 
 
 The past tense ' made' is a contraction of the Anglo-Saxon macode, that 
 is, maked. In other respects, the verb l make' is regularly inflected. 
 
 184. All Verbs of recent introduction into the language are 
 of the weak Conjugation ; indeed, the present tendency of 
 the language is to convert strong verbs into weak. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Defective Verbs. 
 
 185. Verbs that are deficient in any of their simple forms 
 are called Defective Verbs; as, 
 
 Infinitive. Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Part. 
 
 1. shall should 
 
 2. will would 
 
 3. may might 
 
 4. must 
 
 5. can could 
 
 6. Wit wot wist 
 
 7. Owe owe * ought 
 
 8. (me)-thinks (me)-thought 
 
 9. List list 
 
 10. Weather-verbs, such as it freezes, snows, hails, rains, thunders, etc. , 
 may be called 'unipersonal verbs,' because they are used in only the third 
 person singular. The subject, it, is very indefinite^ being merely a mode of 
 making the statement. 
 
INFLECTION. 65 
 
 NOTES ON THE DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 1. Shall: This verb is found only in the present and in the past tense. Its 
 original meaning was to owe ; thus we use should in the sense of ought : he 
 should do so=he ought to do so. Hence shall, as an auxiliary, implies obliga- 
 tion or necessity, as opposed to free-will or determination expressed by will. 
 Should, in the conditional, expresses contingent futurity; in the Subjunctive, 
 a future condition. 
 
 2. Will: This verb has two separate meanings and uses : (1) As an auxili- 
 ary, it expresses future determination ; (2) As a principal verb, it denotes the 
 exercise of will; as, I will, be thou clean. 
 
 (1) As an auxiliary, it is found only in the present and past; as, will, 
 ivould. 
 
 (2) As a principal verb, it is regular and weak : I will, I willed, willed^ 
 to will, willing. 
 
 Would, in the conditional, expresses contingent determination. 
 
 3. May : This verb is found only in the present and past ; 2d pers. , mayst, 
 and mightest or mightst ; 3d pers., sing., present, may. In conjunction with 
 another verb, may expresses (1) permission; as, 'you may go ;' (2) concession; 
 as, he may slay me, but I will trust in him ; (3) with the subject transposed, 
 desire ; as, may they be happy. 
 
 4. Must : Only one form of this verb is used ; it is the past tense ; but it is 
 also used with a present and a future signification ; as, I must yield now ; I 
 must go to-morrow. Under various modifications, must expresses the general 
 idea of necessity; as, he must go. With the first person this often implies de- 
 termination ; I must advance (I am so situated that I am determined to ad- 
 vance). When it relates to a fact, it implies certainty ; as, it must be so : 
 Plato, thou reasonest well. Addison. 
 
 5. Can : Like shall and may, is found only in the present and in the past 
 tense. The I is inserted in could in imitation of would and should, but it is 
 a false analogy. The old form is coude. Can, with another verb, expresses 
 ability ; I can draw = I am able to draw. 
 
 6. Wit, means to know (A.S. wit-ari). It is used in the infinitive, to wit = 
 namely. The present, wot, is found repeatedly in the English Bible, in both 
 numbers and in all persons : I wot that he whom thou blessest is bletsed. 
 My master wotteth not what is with me in the house. And in Shakspeare, 
 More water glideth by the mill than wots the miller of. The past, wist, is 
 also found in the English Bible ; as, Moses wist not that his face shone. And 
 in Shakspeare, And if I ivist, he did ; but let it rest. 
 
 7. Owe : The earlier meaning of this word is to own, to have ; as, 
 
 To throw away the dearest thing he owed. Shakspeare. 
 Like have, it is also used in the sense of get ; as, 
 
 Say from whence 
 You owe this strange intelligence. Shakspeare. 
 
 But what we have got from another we are indebted for ; hence arises the 
 modern sense of the word to be indebted; as, 
 
 What we shall say we have, and what we owe. Shakspeare. 
 Ought is the proper past tense of owe ; but 'I ought' has come to be used 
 
66 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 as an independent verb (like must, without distinctions of person, number, 
 or tense) with the meaning, it is my duty (what is due by me). The ordi- 
 nary past of owe is owed. 
 
 8. Methinks : The prefix me is the dative of the pronoun. The subject of 
 thinks is the clause following it. This word thinks means seems (A. S. thine- 
 an, to seem). 
 
 9. List means. to please ; The wind bloweth where it listeth. It is found 
 only in the present tense. 
 
 Exercise 25. 
 
 A. 
 
 Write a SYNOPSIS of the following Verbs in the 3d Person, 
 Singular Number, Active Voice, Indicative Mood: 
 Speak ; think ; eat ; laugh ; sit ; sleep ; cry. 
 Dress ; rise ; sit. 
 
 B. 
 Write the PRINCIPAL PAKTS of the following Verbs : 
 
 Fall; loose; sing; work; shine; tell. 
 Ride ; put ; steal ; catch ; mean ; wear. 
 Hurt ; come ; go ; play ; tear ; set ; fly ; hear. 
 
 C. 
 
 Put the following Sentences first into PAST, and secondly into 
 FUTURE Tenses: 
 
 1 . The sun gradually sinks below the horizon. 
 
 2. The grain is ready to be harvested. 
 
 3. The steam-ship is sailing across the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 4. I have come to say good-by to my friends. 
 
 i>. It thunders and lightens terribly in the valley of the Platte River. 
 
 D. 
 
 Write a SYNOPSIS of the following Verbs in the Indicative 
 
 $food, 3d Person, Singular Number, Passive Voice: 
 
 Strike ; eat ; laugh at ; speak to ; stand up. 
 
 Laid down ; pet ; let off ; get up ; think of. 
 
 E. 
 
 In the following Sentences, turn all the INDICATIVE Moods 
 into POTENTIAL Moods : 
 
 1. No one becomes a scholar without hard study. 
 
 2. Worth makes the man, and want of it the fellow. 
 
 3. We are going to Yokohama in the great steam-ship Colorado. 
 
 4. I shall go to school to-morrow. 
 
 5. Right whale are not able to cross the line of the equator. 
 
 6. It was impossible for me to go. 
 
 7. By the death of his father, it was made impossible for him to remain 
 
 at school. 
 
INFLECTION". 67 
 
 F. 
 
 
 
 Change the following Verbs from the ACTIVE to the PASSIVE 
 voice, making the object of the active voice the subject of the 
 passive, and preserving the full sense: 
 
 1 . Dr. Livingstone has explored a large part of Africa. 
 
 2. Paul Revere carried to Lexington the news of the intended attack by 
 
 the British. 
 
 3. The first fresh dawn awoke us. 
 
 4. The people of Lynn manufacture great quantities of shoes. 
 
 5. No one has yet reached the North Pole. 
 
 G. 
 Tell the MOOD of each Verb* 
 
 1. I hear thee speak of the better land. Hemans. 
 
 2. I hear a knocking at the south entry. Shakspeare. 
 
 3. Get on your nightgown, lest occasion call us 
 And show us to be watchers. Shakspeare. 
 
 4. If my standard-bearer fall .... 
 
 Press where ye see my white plume shine. Macaulay. 
 
 5. Where shall poverty reside, 
 
 To 'scape the pressure of contiguous pride? Goldsmith. 
 
 6. Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done. English Bible. 
 
 7. They that be whole need not a physician, but they that are sick. En- 
 
 glish Bible. 
 
 8. He made his final sally forth upon the world, hoping all things, believ- 
 
 ing all things, little anticipating the checkered ills in store for him. 
 Irving. 
 
 9. Would I describe a preacher, such as Paul 
 Were he on earth would hear, approve, and own, 
 Paul should himself direct me. Cowper. 
 
 10. Part we in friendship from your land, 
 And, noble earl, receive my hand. Scott. 
 
 H. 
 
 Tell the MOODS and the TENSES in the following /Sentences: 
 
 1 . The general had taken his departure before the mail arrived. 
 
 2. If nothing unforeseen occur, I shall leave home to-morrow. 
 
 3. I have heard you say that we shall see and know our friends in heaven. 
 
 4. Had any thing unforeseen occurred, he would have written. 
 
 5. Let all the ends thoti aimest at be thy God's, thy country's. 
 
 6. To be or not to be, that is the question. 
 
 VIII. UNINFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 186. The Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Interjection 
 
 have no inflections. 
 
 
 
 (a) The Preposition and the Conjunction themselves express relations 
 which do not admit of being modified. 
 
68 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 (ft) The Interjection, from its nature as a mere outcry, is free from all 
 grammatical restraints. 
 
 REVIEW OP THE INFLECTIONS. 
 
 187. The review of this part of the subject shows that 
 words may undergo seven kinds of inflection the inflection 
 of Gender, Number, Case, Person, Comparison, Tense, and 
 Mood. 
 
 (I.) THE NOUN has changes to express Gender, Number, and Case. 
 
 THE PRONOUN " " " Gender, Number, Case, and Person. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE " " " Comparison. 
 
 THE ADVERB " " " Comparison. 
 
 THE VERB " " '" Number, Person, Tense, Mo<3d. 
 
 (2.) GENDER applies to the Noun and Pronoun. 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 PERSON 
 
 CASE 
 
 COMPARISON 
 
 TENSE 
 
 MOOD 
 
 Noun, Pronoun, and Verb. 
 Pronoun and Verb. 
 Noun and Pronoun. 
 Adjective and Adverb. 
 Verb. 
 Verb. 
 
 Parsing. Third Model. 
 
 NOTE. In the Third Model of Parsing the pupil is required to state 
 the full etymology of each part of speech ; that is, to name the part of 
 speech ; to give its subdivisions, and to name its inflections (if any). The 
 following table will guide the pupil as to the order of statement in each 
 part of speech. 
 
 1. THE NOUN. 
 
 1. KIND Common or Proper. 
 
 2. NUMBER. .Singular or Plural. 
 
 3. OFFICE . . .Subject, Possessive, or Object. 
 
 (1) If subject, say to what. 
 
 (2) If possessive, limiting one. 
 
 (3) If object, complement of what, or linked by what 
 
 preposition. 
 
 2. THE PRONOUN. 
 
 KIND. . . .Personal, Relative, or Demonstrative. 
 Then, if personal, its 
 
 Person (1st, 2d, or 3d). 
 
 Case (nominative, possessive, or objective). 
 
 Gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter, if a 3d per- 
 sonal pronoun). 
 (4) The represented noun. 
 
INFLECTION. 69 
 
 If relative, its 
 
 (1) Number (which will be the same as that of its an- 
 
 tecedent). 
 
 (2) Case (nominative, possessive, or objective, accord- 
 
 ing to its function in the sentence). 
 
 (3) Antecedent. 
 
 If demonstrative, tell what it limits. 
 
 3. THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 1. KIND. . . . Common, Demonstrative, or an Article. 
 
 2. DEGREE . . (If comparative or if superlative, say so ; no 
 
 occasion to mention degree if positive). 
 
 3. OFFICE. . .Describes or limits what. 
 
 4. THE ADVERB. 
 
 1. KIND Simple or Relative. 
 
 2. DEGREE.'. . . . (If comparative or superlative). 
 
 3. OFFICE Describes what. 
 
 5. THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 OFFICE , . . . Links what noun or pronoun to what other 
 word. . 
 
 6. THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 KIND. . . .Co-ordinate, subordinate, or correlative. 
 OFFICE . . Connects what statements. 
 
 7. THE INTERJECTION. 
 Simply name it as an Interjection. 
 
 8. THE VERB. 
 
 1. KIND Complete, or Incomplete. 
 
 If incomplete, whether Transitive or Neuter. 
 
 2. PERSON 1st, 2d, or 3d. 
 
 3. NUMBER Singular or Plural. 
 
 4. TENSE Present, Past, Future ; Present Per- 
 
 fect, Past Perfect, Future Perfect. 
 
 5. MOOD Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, or 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 6. VOICE If Passive, say so. 
 
 7. PRINCIPAL PARTS.. Present Indicative, Past Indicative, 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
70 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 8. CONJUGATION Regular or Irregular (or else Weak 
 
 or Strong). 
 
 9. SUBJECT A Noun or its equivalent. 
 
 If an Infinitive, give 
 
 Its principal parts. 
 Its conjugation. 
 Its tense present, past. 
 If a Participle, say if 
 Present, past, or perfect. 
 
 188. Syntactical parsing takes up the word where Etymo- 
 logical parsing leaves it, and gives the function of the word 
 in the sentence. 
 
 The syntactical parsing of each part of speech, in all its relations, will be 
 found in Part II., SYNTAX. 
 
 189. The pupil has already been told that the icay in which 
 a word is used fixes the class to which it ought to belong. 
 As the same word may be used in different ways, it must get 
 a different name according to each separate use. This sub- 
 ject is so important in parsing that a few additional exam- 
 ples are here added. 
 
 190. Take the word calm. It may be used, 1. As a Noun 
 a great calm fell on the sea. 2. An Adjective it was a 
 calm, bright day. 3. As a Verb I did it to calm his fears. 
 
 191. There is considerable interchange of words among the 
 three kinds Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction. 
 
 But is originally a Preposition, derived from the Impera- 
 tive phrase be-out that is, take out, or except. It is also used 
 as an Adverb and a Conjunction ; as, 
 
 Prep. All but him had fled= except. 
 
 Adverb. I have but three \Q^ only. 
 
 Conj. He heard it, but he heeded not. 
 
 For and Since are also Prepositions, Conjunctions, or Ad- 
 verbs, according to their use. 
 
 Adv. I was called for. I told him long since. 
 
 Prep. Is that/br me? Since his arrival. 
 
 Conj. He went, for he was ready. Since you are here, stay. 
 Above. Adverb. He lay above. 
 
 Prep. He was ranked above me. 
 
 NOTE. A vulgar use of above as an Adjective, as the above remarks, is to 
 be avoided. 
 
INFLECTION. 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 In. Prep. I shall call in an hour. 
 
 Adv. He could not hold in his 
 Off. u4c7v. or P/-6p. He fell off (his horse)> 
 
 Adj. The ojf leader strained his leg. 
 
 No. Adj. I have no silver. 
 
 Adv. In the answer no not ; He is no better. 
 
 As. Conj. You may stay, as it is raining. 
 
 Adv. My book is as clean as yours. 
 Only. Adj. An only son. 
 
 Adv. I have owy two. 
 Very. Adj. The very thing. 
 
 Adv. You are very late. 
 Then. Adv. I saw him then. 
 
 Conj. Am I Ae?i to stay ? 
 Yet. (7on/. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 
 
 Adv. Are you sleeping yet ? 
 With. Prep. Charles came with John. 
 
 Conj. The side -4, with two others, make a triangle. 
 
 N th*" V Strictly adjectives of dual meaning, these 
 B^h * i W01 'ds are used as Assistant Conjunctions. 
 
 However. } These Adverbs are frequently used as Con- 
 Meanwhile. [ junctions to introduce a new sentence or 
 Moreover. ) paragraph. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF PAKSING BY MODEL HI. 
 
 I chanced to rise very early one particular morning this summer, and took a 
 walk into the country to divert myself among the fields and meadows, 
 while the green was new and the flowers in their bloom. 
 
 I Personal pronoun, first person singular ; nominative, subject to 
 
 verb chanced. 
 
 chanced An incomplete verb, first person singular, past indicative ; prin- 
 cipal parts chance, chanced, chanced; regular conjugation ; its 
 subject is /. 
 
 to rise An infinitive; principal parts rise, rose, risen ; irregular conju- 
 gation; present tense; complement of the incomplete verb 
 chanced. 
 
 very Adverb, describing early. 
 
 early Adverb, describing rise. 
 
 one Demonstrative adjective, limiting morning. 
 
 particular. .Adjective, describing morning. 
 
 morning.. . .Common noun, singular number, linked by preposition on (under- 
 stood) to rise. 
 
72 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 this Demonstrative adjective, singular number, limits summer. 
 
 summer Common noun, singular number, linked by preposition during (un- 
 derstood) to morning. 
 
 and Co-ordinate conjunction ; connects the statements ' I chanced to 
 
 rise very early,' (I) 'took a walk,' etc., by joining the verbs 
 chanced and took. 
 
 took Incomplete verb, transitive ; first person, singular, past tense, in- 
 dicative; principal parts take, took, taken; irregular conjuga- 
 tion ; its subject is / (understood). 
 
 a The indefinite article, limiting walk. 
 
 walk Common noun, objective case, complement of took. 
 
 into Preposition ; links country to walk. 
 
 the The definite article, limiting country. 
 
 country Common noun, linked by into to walk. 
 
 to divert. . .An infinitive ; principal parts divert, diverted, diverted; irregular 
 conjugation. 
 
 myself Compound personal pronoun, first person singular, objective case, 
 
 complement of divert. 
 
 among Preposition ; links fields to divert. 
 
 the The definite article, limiting fields. 
 
 fields Common noun, plural number, linked by among to divert. 
 
 and Co-ordinate conjunction ; connects the statements ' I took a walk 
 
 among the fields' and 'I took, etc., among the meadows' by 
 joining the words Jields and meadows. 
 
 meadows .. .Common noun, plural number, linked by among (understood) to 
 divert. 
 
 while Relative adverb ; joins the statements * the green was new' and ' I 
 
 took a walk into the country,' etc. 
 
 the The definite article, limiting green. 
 
 green Common noun (used for greenness), singular number, subject of 
 
 was. 
 
 was Incomplete verb, third person singular, past indicative ; principal 
 
 parts am, was, been ; irregular ; its subject is green. 
 
 new Common adjective ; complement of was ; describes green. 
 
 and Co-ordinate conjunction ; joins statements before and after. 
 
 the Definite article, limiting flowers. 
 
 flowers Common noun, plural number, subject of were (understood). 
 
 in Preposition ; links bloom to were (understood). 
 
 their. Personal pronoun, third person plural; neuter ; possessive case, 
 
 describing bloom and representing flowers. 
 
 bloom Common noun, singular ; linked by in to were (understood). 
 
 Exercise 26. 
 
 /Sentences for PARSING. 
 
 A. 
 
 1. Holy and heavenly thoughts shall counsel her. Shakspeare. 
 
 2. Then rose from sea to sky the wild farewell. Byron. 
 
 3. The better part of valor is discretion. Shakspeare. 
 
 4. The boy stood on the burning deck, 
 Whence all but him had fled. Hemans. 
 
INFLECTION. 73 
 
 5. The steed along the drawbridge flies. Scott. 
 
 C. I could hear my friend chide him for not finding out some work, but 
 
 at the same time saw him put his hand in his pocket and give him 
 
 sixpence. Spectator. 
 
 7. I long for a repose which ever is the same. Wordsworth. 
 
 8. Thou knowest my praise of nature most sincere, 
 And that my raptures are not conjured up 
 
 To serve occasions of poetic pomp, 
 
 But genuine, and art partner of them all. Cowper. 
 
 9. There were two fathers in this ghastly crew. Byron. 
 
 10. When he read the note from the two ladies, he shook his head, and 
 
 observed that an affair of this sort demanded the utmost circumspec- 
 tion. Goldsmith. 
 
 11. What matter where, if I be still the same, 
 And what I should be, all but less than he 
 Whom thunder hath made greater. Milton. 
 
 12. Whilst I was thus musing, I cast my eyes towards the summit of a 
 
 rock that was not far from me, where I discovered one in the habit 
 of a shepherd, with a little musical instrument in his hand. Ad- 
 
 B. 
 
 1. The gushing flood the tartans dyed. Scott. 
 
 2. None but the brave deserves the fair. Dry den. 
 
 3. The nurse sleeps sweetly, hired to watch the sick 
 Whom snoring she disturbs. Cowper. 
 
 4. Forth in the pleasing spring thy beauty walks. Thomson. 
 
 5. Not to know me argues yourself unknown. Milton. 
 
 6. The night had closed in before the conflict on the boom began. - 
 
 Macaulay. 
 
 7. When kindness had his wants supplied, 
 And the old man was gratified, 
 
 Began to rise his minstrel pride. Scott. 
 
 8. At every draught more large and large they grow, 
 A bloated mass of rank, unwieldy woe ; 
 
 Till sapp'd their strength, and every part unsound, 
 
 Down, down they sink, and spread a ruin round. Macaulay. 
 
 9. The friends thou hast and their adoption tried, 
 Grapple them to thy soul with hooks of steel ; 
 But do not dull thy palm with entertainment 
 
 Of each new-hatch'd unfledged comrade. Shaksptare. 
 10. His spear, to equal which the tallest pine 
 Hewn on Norwegian hills to be the mast 
 Of some great ammiral were but a wand, 
 He walked with, to support uneasy steps 
 Over the burning marie. Milton. 
 
 D 
 
PART II. 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 192. Syntax (from Greek sun, together, and taxis, a putting 
 in order) treats of the Agreement, Government, and Arrange- 
 ment of words in sentences. 
 
 NOTE. In this text-book, PARSING, or how to dispose of words, which 
 is the theoretical part of Syntax, is carefully separated from PRACTICAL 
 SYNTAX, or those rules and principles that are of real application, since 
 they may be violated in the actual forms of words. The syntax of each 
 part of speech is taken up under two heads : 1st. How to Parse the Part 
 of Speech ; 2d. The Practical Syntax of the Part of Speech. It is believed 
 that this separation of what is purely formal from those rules that admit of 
 being violated in the inflections of words will, by concentrating the attention 
 of the learner on the practical part, be a powerful aid in learning to "speak 
 and write English correctly" the professed design of English Grammar. 
 
 1. Syntax of the Verb. 
 I. How TO PAUSE VERBS. 
 
 193. A verb in a sentence is parsed, or disposed of, by 
 saying 
 
 It makes a statement about its subject [naming it], and 
 agrees with that subject in number and person. 
 
 194. The subject of a verb may be 
 
 (1.) A noun: England [noun-subject] was conquered by 
 the Normans; Water consists of oxygen and hy- 
 drogen. 
 
 (2.) A pronoun: They [pronoun-subject] study gram- 
 mar; The emperor Napoleon [noun -subject of 
 verb died\ who [pronoun-subject] was banished 
 to St. Helena, died in 1820. 
 
 (3.) An expression: To reach the Indies [phrase-subject] 
 was the object of Columbus; Where De Soto was 
 buried [clause -subject] can not be determined; 
 That you have wronged me [clause-subject] doth 
 appear in this. 
 
 Expressions like ' to reach the Indies' are called phrases. l Where De 
 Soto was buried,' ' that you have wronged me,' are called clauses [for a full 
 explanation of phrases and clauses, see f 357 and 364]. Such expressions 
 are parsed as in the third person, singular number. 
 
HOW TO PAKSE VERBS. 75 
 
 195. An Infinitive is parsed by saying 
 It depends on the word [naming it]. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Alexander tried to conquer [dependent on ' tried'] the 
 
 whole world. 
 Here the infinitive depends on another VERB. 
 
 2. Washington was too truthful to lie [dependent on ' truth- 
 
 ful']. 
 Here the infinitive depends on an ADJECTIVE. 
 
 3. Howard sought opportunities to benefit [dependent on 
 
 opportunities] prisoners. 
 Here the infinitive depends on a NOUN. 
 
 4. I was not such a coward as to run [dependent on the 
 
 expression ' such a coward as']. 
 Here the infinitive depends on an expression as a whole ; and this is 
 
 often the case. 
 
 NOTE. Observe that when an infinitive is used as the subject ef a verb, 
 it performs the office of a NOUN, and is to be parsed as such. EXAMPLE : 
 To delay is dangerous=/)e/ay is dangerous. 
 
 196. A Participle is parsed by saying- 
 It belongs to the Noun or the Pronoun [naming it]. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. A Peri, standing at heaven's gate, was sad. 
 The participle 'standing' belongs to the noun 'Perf.' 
 
 2. Charles, having seen me, ran into the house. 
 The participle 'having seen' belongs to the noun 'Charles.' 
 
 196. A Participle is frequently used purely as a noun or as 
 an adjective. In such cases it is to be parsed as NOUN or 
 ADJECTIVE. 
 
 [For how nouns are parsed, see ^[ 217-223 ; adjectives, see 1 285-287.] 
 
 1. Talking is easier than acting =talk is easier than action 
 
 =to talk is easier than to act. 
 The Tiown-use of the* participle is here evident. 
 
 2. The running water was cold and clear. 
 The adjective-use of the participle is here evident. 
 
 Exercise 27. 
 
 Dispose of the VERBS in the following Sentences : 
 ^iP Previously to the syntactical parsing, the Teacher may have the 
 scholar go through the forms of etymological parsing according to Model 
 III., p. 68. 
 
76 SYNTAX. 
 
 1 . Pleasantly rose next morning the sun on the village of Grand-Pre. 
 
 2. Shell-fish cast their shell once a year. 
 
 3. English style begins, at the earliest, only about the middle of the four- 
 
 teenth century. 
 
 4. The eagle and the stork on cliffs and cedar-tops their eyries build. 
 
 5. The air gets slowly changed in inhabited rooms. 
 
 6. In the present day, the binding of a book illustrates the power of ma- 
 
 chinery. 
 
 7. One morn a Peri at the gate of heaven stood disconsolate. 
 
 8. The preparations for the trial proceeded rapidly. 
 
 9. On either side the river lie long fields of barley and rye. 
 
 1 0. Over the joyous feast the sudden darkness descended. 
 
 11. The green trees whispered low and mild. 
 
 12. In the market-place of Bruges stands the belfry, old and brown 
 Thrice consumed, and thrice rebuilded, still it watches o'er the town. 
 
 II. PKACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE VEKB. 
 197. GENERAL RULE. A Verb must be in the proper form 
 required by its subject; and, in particular, it must be put in the 
 Singular Number when its subject is Singular, in the Plural 
 Number when its subject is Plural. 
 
 NOTE. The rule given above has usually been stated thus : " A verb 
 must agree with its subject nominative in number and person. " The prin- 
 ciple in either form is a frame-work much too large for what it is designed 
 to fit. From the paucity of inflections in the English verb, it is not easy 
 to make a verb disagree with its subject. Leaving out the second person 
 singular (never used in ordinary communication), it is hardly possible for a 
 verb to disagree with its subject in person. And even in regard to num- 
 ber, it is in but a few instances (named in the next paragraph) that a verb 
 can be wrong. It is probable that the rule was made in order to cover the 
 verb To Be^ which has numerous changes, or inflections, to denote number 
 and person. In this text-book the verb To Be is treated by itself. (See 
 ^[ 207.) The rule is thus greatly simplified, and it is believed that the pu- 
 pil w r ill in this way gain a much more practical knowledge of the syntax of 
 the verb than he is likely to gain when mystified by the abstractions of the- 
 oretical "number and person." 
 
 Inflections of the English Verb. 
 
 ^ Note this table carefully ; it shows you the few and sole instances in 
 which you can make mistakes in the Number of a Verb. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present Tense has one change of form s in the third person 
 
 singular : thus, ' he loves;' but [I, you, we, 
 
 they] love. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense- -being formed by means of the verb ( have, 'pre- 
 sents one peculiarity namely, has for the third 
 person singular ; thus, 4 he has loved ;' but [I, 
 you, we, they] have loved. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE VEKB. 77 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense Has one peculiarity of form the s (the sign of 
 
 the third singular present indicative) is absent 
 in the subjunctive , thus, ' if he love,' not ' if he 
 loves.' 
 
 Present Perfect - being formed by the auxiliary ' have,' takes the 
 
 subjunctive form of the third singular; thus, 
 'if he have loved,' not 'if he has loved.' 
 
 Illustrations of the General Rule. 
 
 1. John likes good books. 
 
 EXPLANATION. 'Likes' is in the proper form to accompany 'John.' 
 Noun-subjects are considered as being in the third person, and ' likes' is 
 the form of the verb peculiar to the third person singular, in the present 
 tensa. It would be wrong to say John like good books, because ' like' is 
 not the form peculiar to the third person singular. 
 
 2. Hike good books. 
 
 EXPLANATION. ' Like' is in the proper form required by its subject 'I :' 
 it agrees with ' I' in number and person. I likes good books would be in- 
 correct, because ' likes' is the form peculiar to the third person, singular 
 number. 
 
 3. Peter saw the play of Hamlet. I saw it also. We liked 
 
 the performance. 
 
 EXPLANATION. We say that ' saw' agrees with Peter ; that ' saw' agrees 
 with ' I,' and that ' liked' agrees with ' we.' These verbs, being in the past 
 tense, could not, however, disagree with their subjects, for the past tense 
 has no peculiarities of form for the several numbers and persons. 
 
 4. I walked to town. He walked to town. We walked to 
 
 town. You walked to town. . They walked to town. 
 EXPLANATION. These Verbs are parsed each as " agreeing with its sub- 
 ject in number and person." But how could they disagree ? 
 
 5. Columbus has earned immortal renown. They have de- 
 
 served well of their country. 
 
 EXPLANATION. ' Has earned' is in the proper form required by the sin- 
 gular noun-subject ' Columbus ;' that is, the auxiliary ' has 1 is in the third 
 person, singular number. They has deserved well would not be correct, be- 
 cause ' has' is the auxiliary of the singular ; but ' they' is plural, hence the 
 auxiliary should be 'have.' 
 
 6. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
 
 EXPLANATION. ' Slay' agrees with ' he ;' that is, it is in the form prop- 
 er to accompany the third person, singular number. It is not slays, because 
 the verb is in the subjunctive mood, and recollect the third singular 
 present subjunctive takes no s. 
 
 The Principle how Violated. 
 
 198. The principle that a verb agrees with its subject is 
 seldom violated in short sentences, except by very careless 
 
78 SYNTAX. 
 
 people. We sees ; The shops is not open, are mistakes of 
 very ignorant persons only. But in long sentences the verb 
 may not be referred to its real subject, and then violations of 
 the Rule occur. Hence the following application of the Rule : 
 The adjuncts of a subject have nothing to do with the num- 
 ber of the subject; hence the verb must agree with its subject 
 without reference to the adjuncts of the subject. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. The union of two great rivers produces the Mississippi. 
 EXPLANATION. Here the verb produces' is rightly in the singular 
 
 number, because the subject of the verb is 'union,' which is singular. It 
 matters not that the subject is followed by the phrase ' of two great rivers,' 
 for that is a mere adjunct. 
 
 2. His reputation was great, and somewhat more durable 
 
 than that of similar poets have generally been. 
 EXPLANATION. Here the verb have is in the wrong number. Its sub- 
 ject is the pronoun ' that,' which is singular, whereas ' have' is plural. The 
 cause of the mistake is that the verb ' have' is attracted into the same num- 
 ber as 'poets ;' but as the phrase 'of similar poets' is a mere adjunct of 
 ' that,' it can have no influence on the number of the verb. 
 
 199. Correct the following, so as to make the Verbs agree 
 with their real subjects : 1. The condition of the crops show 
 that the country has suffered from drouth. 2. The trend of 
 the Rocky Mountains are toward the South. 
 
 The Subject a Collective Noun, 
 
 200. When the subject is a collective noun, the verb is singu- 
 lar or plural according as the sense conveyed is of one collective 
 mass or of many individuals. 
 
 NOTE. A collective noun will always be singular in form ; but the num- 
 ber to be attributed to, and, consequently, the number in which the verb is 
 to be put, will depend on the notion whether of unity or plurality of the 
 collective noun in a particular sentence. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. The jury have brought in their verdict. 
 EXPLANATION. The verb 'have' is incorrect, because the subject, the 
 
 collective noun 'jury,' suggests the idea of the body as a whole. Hence 
 it should be ' has brought in.' In like manner, the pronoun should be ' its,' 
 not their, seeing that it represents a noun that is construed as singular. 
 
 2. The jury has disagreed. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The verb 'has' is incorrect, because the noun 'jury' as 
 used here signifies the individuals of the body separately regarded. Hence 
 it should be ''have disagreed. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE VEKB. 79 
 
 201. Is there any violation of this rule in the following? 
 
 1. The Church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. 
 
 2. A detachment of two hundred men were immediately sent. 
 
 3. The public is often, deceived by false appearances. 
 
 The Subject a Relative Pronoun. 
 
 202. When the immediate subject is a Relative Pronoun, the 
 antecedent of the Pronoun determines the Number of the Verb. 
 
 NOTE. As the relative pronouns have no peculiar form for the plural, 
 these pronouns have an attributed number in accordance with the number 
 of the antecedent. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Ye stars, which are the poetry of heaven. 
 EXPLANATION. Here the immediate subject is the relative pronoun 
 
 ' which. ' This pronoun is construed as plural, because its antecedent 'stars' 
 is plural ; therefore the verb takes the plural form. 
 
 2. This is one of the most valuable^ books that has ap- 
 
 peared in any language. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here the verb 'has' is in the wrong number. Its im- 
 mediate antecedent is the relative pronoun ; that;' but this pronoun is con- 
 sidered as plural, since its antecedent ' books' is plural ; therefore ' has ap- 
 peared' should be ' have appeared. ' 
 
 When the antecedent consists of a noun and a pronoun in apposition, the 
 relative takes the number and the person of the pronoun, and the verb 
 agrees with the relative in that number and person ; as, 
 
 It is I, your friend, who [1st person singular] tell you to go. 
 But if the relative clause belongs to the noun rather than to the pronoun, 
 the relative is considered to be in the third person, and the verb agrees with 
 it in that person ; as, 
 
 It is I, the friend that loves you, who tell you to go. 
 The first sentence I (your friend) tell you to go. 
 The second =1 (the friend that loves you) tell you to go. 
 
 203. Are the following sentences correct? Bless them that 
 curses you. 2. It is an ill wind that blow nobody good. 3. 
 The strata that contains coal belong to the tertiary era. 
 
 Singular Subjects united by ' and.' 
 
 204. When the subject consists of two or more singular Nouns 
 united by 'and,' the Verb must be Plural. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. John and James are in the field. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here the subject is 'John' and 'James,' two singular 
 nouns united by and. Hence the verb * are' is plural. 
 
80 SYNTAX. 
 
 2. Mars and Jupiter has been visible this week. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here the subject is two singular nouns connected by 
 'and;' so the verb should be plural. Hence ''has been' should be ''have 
 been.' 
 
 SPECIAL APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLE. 
 
 (a) The principle applies equally if the conjunction ' and' be understood. 
 Thus, 'Art, empire, earth itself to change are doomed. ' But, 
 
 (&) If the two nouns are names for the same object, they are not united 
 copulatively , but merely in an explanatory way ; hence there is no real plu- 
 rality of subject, and the verb must be singular. The spectator and his- 
 torian of his exploit has observed ; that is, a single person who was at once 
 ' spectator' and ' historian' of his exploit. (If two persons, the one specta- 
 tor, the other historian, were intended, the article would be repeated, and 
 then the verb would need to be plural. Thus the spectator and the histo- 
 rian of his exploit have observed.) 
 
 (c) Note that where two or more singular subjects almost synonymous in 
 meaning are employed for the sake of emphasis, there is still a kind of 
 unity in the subject ; hence the singular verb is used ; as, the head and 
 front of his offending w\is this ; to read and write was once an honorary 
 distinction. 
 
 (G?) Sometimes 'and' is not a real conjoiner, but has the sense of the prep- 
 osition with. In such cases there is no plurality of subject, and the verb 
 must be singular. EXAMPLE : Two and three is five. This does not mean 
 'two is five,' 'three is five,' but two with three is five. The wheel and 
 axle was out of repair; that is, the 'wheel together with the axle.' We 
 may say A needle and a thread were given to her, but she could not thread 
 the needle meaning the needle and thread were given separately ; A nee- 
 dle and thread was given to her, but she could not sew on the button 
 meaning that a threaded needle was given her. 
 
 (e) Here is a peculiar case : ' The captain and his men were taken pris- 
 oners.' Grammatically, the subject 'captain' is singular; hence the verb 
 should be was taken [prisoner] ; but the sense requires the plural. The 
 better way in such a case is, if we mean to bring to notice both captain and 
 men, to say, The captain and his men were taken prisoners ; or, if we de- 
 sire to make the captain alone prominent, The captain was taken prisoner 
 with his men. 
 
 (f) When two singular nouns are coupled by as well as, the verb is sin- 
 gular, as there are in reality two propositions. 'As well as' makes merely 
 an illustrative comparison, so that there is essential unity of subject, and 
 hence the verb must be singular ; as, Africa as well as Gaul [after the man- 
 ner of Gaul] was gradually fashioned by imitation of the capital. 
 
 (g) When two subjects are connected by ' and,' one affirmative, the oth- 
 er negative, the verb agrees with the affirmative ; as, our own heart, and 
 not other men's opinion s, forms our true honor. The reason of this is that 
 there are really two propositions our own heart forms our true honor, and 
 other men's opinions do not form our true honor. 
 
 (A) When two or more singular subjects connected by and are preceded 
 by each, every, or no, the verb is singular ; as, Every limb and feature ap- 
 pears with its appropriate grace. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 81 
 
 Two Singular Subjects joined by 4 or' or ' nor.' 
 
 205. Two or more Singular Nouns distributed by 'or' or 'nor' 
 must have a Singular Verb. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. He or his brother has the book. 
 
 2. Neither this nor that is the thing wanted. 
 
 206. When one of two subjects separated by or or nor is 
 in the plural, the verb should be plural. He or his servants 
 were to blame. It is proper in such cases to place the plural 
 nominative next to the verb. 
 
 Exercise 28. 
 Correct the false SYNTAX in the following Sentences : 
 
 1. Ships and steamers goes to sea. 2. An eminent scholar and judicious 
 critic have said [1 204 6]. 3. Wherein do sit the dread and fear of kings 
 [f 204 c]. 4. This wine-and-water are hot [^ 204 d~\. 5. Sir Richard, with 
 several others, were cited to the Star Chamber [^f 204 e]. 7. Franklin as 
 well as Otis were born in Massachusetts [1 204 /J. 7. Our will and not 
 our stars make us what we are [1 204 g]. 8. Every house-top and every 
 steeple show the flag of the republic [^[ 204 A], 9. A word or an epithet 
 paint a whole scene [^ 205]. 10. Neither the captain nor the sailors was 
 saved [f 206]. 
 
 THE VEKB ' To BE.' 
 
 207. The general rule for the agreement of Verbs with 
 their subjects in number, and all the application of that rule, 
 apply to the verb to be. But this verb has an additional 
 point of agreement with its subject, namely, person. 
 
 NOTE. It has been shown that the English verb is so deficient in inflec- 
 tions as to make its agreement in person of no practical importance. It is 
 otherwise with the verb to be. A review of its conjugation will show that 
 it has numerous changes, making it truly an inflected verb, and thus re- 
 quiring that fuller rule, applicable to most other languages, that the verb 
 "agrees with its subject in number and in person."" 
 
 ILLUSTKATIONS OP AGREEMENT IN NUMBER AND PERSON. 
 
 1. Tarn studying; he is studying; we are studying; schol- 
 
 ars are studying illustrations of the general rule of 
 agreement in number and person. 
 
 2. The condition of the roads is bad illustration of the 
 
 principle of the subject with adjuncts [see ^ 198]. 
 D2 
 
82 SYNTAX. 
 
 3. I, who am an American, am proud of my country; He, 
 
 whom the truth makes free, is a freeman ; Ye stars, 
 which are the poetry of heaven, shine above us il- 
 lustrations of the principle when the subject is a rel- 
 ative pronoun [see If 202]. 
 
 4. The council is about to present its chairman with a 
 
 portrait; Tl*e council are to subscribe for the por- 
 trait illustrations of agreement with a collective 
 noun as subject [If 200]. 
 
 5. John and he were students illustration of the rule as 
 
 applied to singular subjects joined by and [see If 204]. 
 
 6. The spectator and historian of his exploits is said to 
 
 have observed; The head and front of his offending 
 icas this ; Two and three is five ; The captain with 
 his men icas taken prisoner; Jefferson, as well as 
 Franklin, was a great statesman ; Our own con- 
 science, and not other men's opinions, is to be our 
 guide ; Every limb and every feature is clearly seen 
 illustrations of double subjects with unity of idea 
 [see T 204, SPECIAL APPLICATIONS]. 
 
 7. Charles or Richard is to blame ; Neither Charles nor 
 
 Richard was to blame illustrations of singular sub- 
 jects joined by or [see Tf 205]. 
 
 The Verb 'to be' used with Subjects of different Number and Person. 
 
 208. When the Verb 'To Be' has for its subjects two or more 
 Pronouns of different Persons and of the Singular Number, con- 
 nected by ' or' or ' nor/ it agrees in number and person with the 
 first Pronoun. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. jTor he am in the wrong. 
 
 2. He or I is in the wrong. 
 
 3. You or he are in the wrong. 
 
 4. He or you is in the wrong. 
 
 209. When the Pronouns are preceded by either or neither, 
 the Verb ' To Be' takes the third Person Singular. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Either he or Us in the wrong. 
 
 2. Neither he nor I is right. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE VEKB. 83 
 
 210. The same rule applies when, instead of two Pronouns, 
 a Noun and a Pronoun are used ; as, 
 
 1 . Either Mary or I is in the wrong. 
 
 2. I or Mary am to go. 
 
 3. You or Thomas are unfortunate. 
 
 4. Either Jane orZis right. 
 
 5. Neither Hattie nor I is wrong. 
 
 6. Neither /nor Hattie is to blame. 
 
 The type of sentences exemplified in the preceding cases is not to be 
 commended as illustrating the best usage. Such sentences are common in 
 colloquial use. It is better to write, Either / am in the wrong, or he is. 
 Neither John is right, nor am I. Is James or I to go ? Better thus, Is 
 James to go, or am I ? 
 
 Two Subjects one Affirmative, the other Negative. 
 
 211. When the Verb ' To Be' has two subjects, one affirmative 
 and the other negative, it agrees in Number and in Person 
 with the affirmative subject. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. He, and not I, is chosen. , 
 
 2. I, and not they, am to go. 
 
 3. Not you, but Mary, is the best scholar. 
 
 c 
 
 A Peculiar Case. 
 
 212. When a noun follows the verb to be, it is not always 
 apparent what is the real subject, since the order of the sen- 
 tence is sometimes inverted. The rule is to determine by the 
 sense what is the real subject, and make the verb agree with it. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 His pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds of the sky. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here the real subject follows the verb. In the sen- 
 tence ' The wages of sin is death,' the verb is may agree with ' death ;' but 
 it also agrees with * wages,' which is singular, though plural in form. 
 
 Ellipsis of the Verb. 
 
 213. Sometimes, in poetry, the verb to be is omitted. 
 
 Sweet the hum 
 
 Of bees, the voice of girls, the song of birds, 
 The lisp of children and their earliest words. Byron. 
 
 Improper Ellipsis. 
 
 214. Be very careful not to make any ellipsis of the auxiliary 
 verb Be when the auxiliary, if supplied, would not agree with 
 its subject. 
 
84 SYNTAX. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 A bundle of papers was produced, and such particulars as 
 the following detailed. 
 
 EXPLANATION. There is an ellipsis of the auxiliary before the participle 
 ' detailed. ' But this ellipsis is improper, because, when we come to supply 
 was (expressed before ' produced'), we have ' such particulars was pro- 
 duced,' which is ungrammatical. The auxiliary were should be supplied. 
 
 A Common Error in Participles. 
 Sailing up the river, the whole town may be seen. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This sentence illustrates a common error in the use of 
 the participle introducing a phrase. Sailing (a participle construed as an 
 adjective) must belong to some noun ; it here belongs to the noun river. 
 But it is certainly not intended to say l the river sailing ;' the idea is we 
 sailing. The sentence should be, * Sailing up the river, we may see the 
 whole own. ' The rule is, that when a participle introduces a phrase, that 
 participle must describe the subject of the next verb, and the subject of the 
 next verb must be what is intended to be described. 
 
 215. Correct the following : Hoping that I shall soon hear 
 from you, believe me yours truly. 
 
 2. Syntax of the Noun. 
 I. How TO DISPOSE OF NOUNS. 
 
 216. There are seven functions that a Noun may perform 
 in a sentence. 
 
 It may be 
 
 1. Subject of a Verb ; 
 
 2. Nominative after a Neuter Verb ; 
 
 3. Object of a Transitive Verb ; 
 
 4. Linked by a Preposition ; 
 
 5. In the Possessive Case ; 
 
 6. In Apposition ; 
 
 7. Independent. 
 
 These are all the possible uses of the noun in a sentence. It must have 
 one of these uses. The following models will show how to dispose of it 
 when in any of these relations. 
 
 Noun, Subject of a Verb, 
 
 217. A Noun as subject of a Verb is disposed of by saying 
 that 
 
 It is in the Nominative Case, because it is the subject of the 
 Verb [naming the verb]. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN". 85 
 
 MODEL. As soon as morning dawned all fears were dis- 
 pelled. 
 
 Morning a noun, is the nominative to ' dawned,' since it is that of which 
 
 the statement is made. 
 
 Fears a noun, is the nominative to l were dispelled,' since it is that of 
 
 which the statement is made. 
 
 NOTE. A noun, the subject of an infinitive, is construed in the objective 
 case. EXAMPLE : The queen perceived Columbus to be an enthusiast. 
 Here c Columbus' is parsed as in the objective case, though the form, of 
 course, is the same as the nominative. If a pronoun were used as the 
 subject of an infinitive, the form of the pronoun would mark it as in the 
 objective case. Thus, The queen perceived him to be an enthusiast. This 
 construction is not, strictly speaking, English ; it is an imitation of a Latin 
 idiom. Our English idiom would turn such sentences thus : ' The queen 
 perceived that Columbus was, i that he wasj etc. 
 
 Exercise 29. 
 Dispose of the SUBJECTS in the following Sentences: 
 
 1. Water consists of two gases. 
 
 2. Napoleon went to Egypt with forty sail of the line. 
 
 3. Life's but a walking shadow. 
 
 4. The bugle's note and cannon's roar the deathlike silence broke. 
 
 5. Seasons return, but not to me returns 
 
 Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, 
 
 Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
 
 Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. Milton. 
 
 Noun, Predicate-Nominative. 
 
 218. A noun after a neuter or a passive verb, meaning the 
 same thing as the subject, is disposed of by saying that 
 It is in the Nominative Case after the Verb [naming it]. 
 
 This nominative is often called the predicate-nominative. 
 MODEL. 1. Tennyson is a poet. 
 
 Poet a noun, is in the nominative case (or predicate-nominative) after the 
 verb 'is.' 
 
 2. Washington was elected President in 1789. 
 
 * President' is predicate-nominative after the passive verb * was elected.' 
 
 Exercise 30. 
 Dispose of the PREDICATE-NOMINATIVES. 
 
 1. He was a man ; take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like 
 
 again. 
 
 2. Our world is a planet. 
 
 3. General Grant was made general-in-chief in 1864. 
 
 4. Though a prisoner, Mary seemed still a queen. 
 
 5. King William of Prussia became Emperor of Germany in 1871. 
 
86 SYNTAX. 
 
 Noun, Object of a Transitive Verb. 
 
 NOTE. Remember that transitive verbs are incomplete, and require a 
 noun or the equivalent of a noun in order to make full sense. The noun 
 that is used as the complement of a transitive verb is called its object. 
 
 219. A noun, the object of a transitive verb, is disposed of 
 by saying that 
 
 It is the object of the verb [naming if], and completes the 
 statement. 
 
 MODEL. The muses haunt clear spring, or shady grove, or 
 
 sunny hill. 
 
 Spring a noun, is the object of the verb ' haunt,' and completes the state- 
 ment made by that verb. 
 
 Grove a noun, is the object of the verb ' haunt,' and completes the state- 
 ment made by that verb. 
 Hill a noun, is the object of the verb ' haunt,' since, etc. 
 
 Exercise 31. 
 
 Dispose of the NOUN SUBJECTS AND NOUN OBJECTS in the 
 following Sentences: 
 
 1. Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. Gray. 
 
 2. Beaux banish beaux, and coaches coaches drive. Pope. 
 
 3. The gushing flood the tartans dyed. Scott. 
 
 4. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. Gray. 
 
 Noun with a Preposition. 
 
 220. A Noun governed by a Preposition is disposed of by 
 saying that 
 
 It is linked by the Preposition [naming if] to such and such a 
 word [naming if]. 
 
 MODEL. The man with the gray coat fell from the top of 
 the wall. 
 
 Coat a noun, is linked by the preposition with to the noun man. 
 
 Top a noun, is linked by the preposition from to the verb fell. 
 
 Wall a noun, is linked by the preposition of to the noun top. 
 
 Exercise 32. 
 
 Dispose of the NOUNS linked by PREPOSITIONS, and of the 
 NOUN SUBJECTS and NOUN OBJECTS in the following Sen- 
 tences : 
 
 1. The smiling daisies blow beneath the sun. 
 
 2. The army crossed the river by a bridge made of pontoons. 
 
 3. Forth in the pleasing spring thy beauty walks. Thomson. 
 
 4. He went to California on account of his health. 
 
 5. Across his brow his hand he drew. 
 
 6. Advance the front athwart my way. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 87 
 
 Noun in the Possessive Case. 
 
 221. A Noun in the Possessive Case is disposed of by say- 
 ing that 
 
 It describes or limits the Noun [naming it]. 
 
 NOTE. This is the^rinciple that disposes of Adjectives also. The Pos- 
 sessive Case has, in fact, always the use of an adjunct. 
 
 MODEL. Seeking the bubble reputation at the cannon's 
 
 mouth. 
 Cannon's a noun possessive, limiting ' mouth. ' . 
 
 Exercise 33. 
 Dispose of the POSSESSIVES. 
 
 1. Let all the ends thou aims't at be thy country's [ends], thy God's, and 
 
 truth's. 
 
 2. My father and mother's command was obeyed. 
 
 3. Quench the timber's falling embers, 
 Quench the red leaves in December's 
 
 Hoary rime and chilling spray. Whittier. 
 
 4. So shall the Northern pioneer go joyful on his way, 
 
 To wed Penobscot's waters to San Francisco's Bay. Ib. 
 
 5. Progress, Liberty's proud teacher, 
 Progress, Labor's sure reward. 
 
 Noun in Apposition. 
 
 EXPLANATION. A noun is said to be "in apposition" when it denotes 
 the same person or thing as another noun or pronoun, and when both are 
 in the subject or in the predicate. It is then said to be in the same case as 
 the noun or pronoun which it explains. EXAMPLE : Thomson, the poet, 
 was a contemporary of Hume, the historian. Here 'poet' explains 'Thom- 
 son,' and is said to be in apposition with it. So with 'historian' and 
 'Hume.' 
 
 222. A N"oun in apposition is disposed of by saying that 
 It is in apposition with the Noun or the Pronoun [naming /], 
 
 since it denotes the same person (or thing). 
 
 MODEL. All reclined, a man of war and woes. Byron. 
 
 Man a noun, is in apposition with the noun 'Ali,' since it denotes the 
 
 same person. 
 
 Exercise 34. 
 Dispose of the Nouns in APPOSITION. 
 
 1. 'Tis I, Hamlet the Dane. 
 
 2. Washington, the Father of his Country, was the first President of the 
 
 United States. 
 
88 SYNTAX. 
 
 3. Crown her queen of all the year. 
 
 4. Wisdom and truth, the offspring of the sky, are immortal. 
 
 5. Tarquinius Priscus, a son of a citizen of Corinth, was elected to the va- 
 
 cant throne. 
 
 Noun Independent. 
 
 EXPLANATION. A noun is said to be independent when it has no gram- 
 matical relations with the other words in the sentence. EXAMPLE : Hora- 
 tius, saith the consul, as thou sayest, so let it be. Here ' Horatius' has no 
 grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence, and hence is 
 said to be independent. 
 
 223. A Noun Independent is disposed of by saying that 
 It is Independent, since it has no grammatical relation to any 
 other word in the sentence. 
 
 MODEL. The storm having ceased, we departed. 
 
 Storm.... a noun, is independent, since it has no grammatical relation with 
 any other word in the sentence. 
 
 Exercise 34. 
 Dispose of the NOUNS INDEPENDENT. 
 
 1. Mary, your lilies are in bloom. 
 
 2. False wizard, avaunt ! 
 
 3. The river not being fordable, we had to make a great detour. 
 
 4. Out, out, brief candle. 
 
 5. God willing, I shall persevere in my attempt. 
 
 II. PEACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE 
 
 224. The almost total absence of inflections in the English 
 Noun leaves the practical Syntax of this part of speech ex- 
 ceedingly simple. 
 
 NOTE. The Grammars usually admonish us that "a noun used as the 
 subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case ;" but it would be 
 quite impossible to violate this rule. So "a noun, the object of a verb, 
 must be in the objective case." However, as there is no peculiar form for 
 the objective case, no error can be committed. It is very different in in- 
 flected languages. We say, The man loves me, and I love the man. In 
 the first case ' man' is subject, in the second, object of the verb ; but the 
 form is identical. In Latin these sentences would read Amo hominem and 
 Homo me amat different forms for the different functions of the noun. 
 The simplicity in the syntax of our English noun is one of the fine points 
 in our mother tongue. 
 
 THE NOUN-SUBJECT MUST HAVE A VERB. 
 
 225. When you start out with a noun designed to be the sub- 
 ject of a verb, see that that noun has a verb of which it is the 
 subject. 
 
PEACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 89 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 Two substantives, when they come together, and do not 
 signify the same thing, the former must be in the geni- 
 tive case. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The writer starts out with the noun 'substantives,' 
 which is so placed that it can be only the subject of a verb ; but, before he 
 gets through, the word another comes in as the subject of his verb must be. 
 The word of at the beginning of the sentence ' Of two substantives, ' etc. 
 would rectify the blunder. 
 
 The Possessive Case. 
 
 226. The only points of difficulty in the Syntax of Nouns 
 occur in the use of the Possessive Case. Note the following 
 illustrative sentences : 
 
 1. I have read a play of ShaJcspeare* s, the great English 
 
 dramatist. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The rule in such cases is, that when nouns stand in ap- 
 position (as ' dramatist' and ' Shakspeare'), the possessive 's is used with 
 only one. 
 
 2. John, William, and Mary's share was five thousand 
 
 dollars. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The rule in such cases is, that when, in a string of nouns, 
 joint possession is meant, the possessive 's is used only with the last. 
 
 3. A portrait of my father. 
 A portrait of my father's. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Observe the distinction between these two expressions. 
 A portrait of my father means a likeness of himself. A portrait of my fa- 
 ther's means one portrait of my father's collection of portraits. This lat- 
 ter employment of the possessive case is called its partitive use. 
 
 The thing spoken of in the singular number is always understood in 
 the plural number after the possessive. i A house of my uncle's' a house 
 out of my uncle's houses. 
 
 4. Day and night are a consequence of the earth's revolv- 
 
 ing on its axis. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This sentence illustrates a striking peculiarity of En- ^ 
 glish syntax, and one that has greatly puzzled grammarians, namely, the 
 possessive case associated with a participial form. The explanation is that 
 in all such cases the verbal in -ing is a real Infinitive (see ^[ 171). As an 
 infinitife, it has the function of a noun, and, as such, may be preceded by a 
 possessive case describing it. Thus the ' earth's revolving' is equivalent to 
 the 'earth's revolution.' The test of the noun character of a participle is 
 to see if we can substitute a possessive pronoun for the possessive noun. 
 Thus we can substitute its revolving for ' the earth's revolving.' 
 
 *** The verbal in -ing, which, as an infinitive, has thus the use of a noun, 
 retains at the same time its governing power as a verb, and hence it may 
 take an object after it ; as, ' disease or death were consequences of the man's 
 [possessive] neglecting treatment' [object]. 
 
90 SYNTAX. 
 
 Wrong Placing of Possessive Phrases. 
 
 227. The following illustrates a common error in the plac- 
 ing of possessive phrases : 
 
 The death was announced lately of the great statesman. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The possessive phrase ' of the great statesman' belongs 
 to death: the phrase should be near the noun it describes ; thus, 'The death 
 of the great statesman was,' etc. Never put a possessive phrase in the 
 predicate when the noun to which it belongs is in the subject. 
 
 Possessive Inflection when used. 
 
 228. The Possessive Inflection is used only when some idea 
 of ownership is present, and hence is limited mainly to per- 
 sons and to personified objects. When we wish to denote 
 merely an adjunct or accompaniment of a noun, we use the 
 phrase-form with the preposition of. Thus we may say ' The 
 man's occupation,' ' Time's hoary locks,' ' the President's mes- 
 sage,' ' death's fatal arrow,' but not ' the house's roof (the 
 roof of the house), ' the street's width' (the width of the 
 street). 
 
 Possessive Phraseology how varied. 
 
 229. Whenever the possessive phraseology is felt to be 
 awkward, we may avoid it by using the preposition of or by. 
 Thus, instead of saying Alexander the Great's conquest of 
 Babylon, we may say The conquest of Babylon by Alexander 
 the Great. 
 
 230. Vary the expression of this sentence: This opinion is 
 Newton the astronomer's. 
 
 Ellipsis of the described Noun. 
 
 231. Sometimes there is an ellipsis of the noun described 
 by the possessive. EXAMPLE: Whose is this image and 
 superscription ? They say unto him, Caesar's [image and su- 
 perscription]. 
 
 The Verbal in -ing. 
 
 232. When a verbal in -ing is preceded by the definite arti- 
 cle, or by the Demonstrative this or that, it must be followed 
 by the preposition of. But if there is no the, there must be 
 no of. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. The rising o/*the sun was splendid. 
 
 2. Receiving this news gave us much pleasure. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. . 91 
 
 EXPLANATION. In the former case the verbal in -ing is a true noun; 
 in the latter it is an infinitive. Such phrases as the following are needless 
 and ungraceful, and truly un-English : ' The betraying of a trust ;' ' The 
 receiving of a letter. ' These verbals are not wanted, because we have the 
 true nouns betrayal, receipt, etc. 
 
 3. Prompted by the most extreme vanity, he persisted in 
 the writing bad verses. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The use of the, if correct, would require writing to be 
 followed by 0/7-' the writing o/bad verses.' But the is not correctly used. 
 Writing is here a real infinitive, and an infinitive, being an abstract noun, 
 can take no article ; hence the sentence should be ' in writing bad verses.' 
 
 233. Correct the following: 1. Much depends on this rule 
 being observed. 2. The building the house is going on. 
 
 3. Syntax of the Pronoun. 
 I. How TO DISPOSE OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 234. The Pronoun has the same functions as the Noun; 
 that is, it may be 
 
 1. Subject of a Verb. 
 
 2. Nominative after a Neuter or Passive Verb. 
 
 3. Object of a Transitive Verb. 
 
 4. Governed by a Preposition. 
 
 5. In the Possessive Case. 
 
 6. In Apposition. 
 
 7. Independent. 
 
 235. The Pronoun, having the same use as the Noun, is 
 parsed in the same way as the Noun. 
 
 &T Review How to Dispose of a Noun, ^f 215. 
 
 II. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 
 
 236. GENERAL RULE. Pronouns should agree in Gender 
 and in Number with their antecedents, or with the Nouns or 
 the Pronouns "that they represent. 
 
 NOTE. This is the most important practical principle in the Syntax of 
 Pronouns. It is also the one that is most frequently violated. "The 
 greatest care ought always to be taken in using Pronouns, because, being 
 small words, and in frequent use, the proper weight of them is very often 
 unattended to." Cobbett's English Grammar. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Had the opinion of my censurers been unanimous, it 
 might have overset my resolutions ; but since I find 
 them at variance with each other, I can, without 
 scruple, neglect them \it\, and follow my own imagi- 
 nation. Dr. Johnson. 
 
92 SYNTAX. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Notice the pronoun them, and see if you can tell what 
 noun it is meant to represent. A careful reading of the sentence will show 
 that the pronoun them was designed to stand for the word ' opinion. ' It is 
 the opinion that was not unanimous : hence the writer correctly says ' it 
 fi. e., the opinion] might have overset my resolutions.' It was this 'opin- 
 ion' that he could neglect, not his 'censurers,' which he carelessly makes 
 the represented noun, and hence uses ' them' instead of ' it.' 
 
 2. When a verb governs a relative pronoun, it is placed 
 
 after it. Chambers^ Grammar. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This sentence illustrates a careless use of the pronoun. 
 It is not easy to tell which it represents ' verb' and which ' pronoun. ' 
 
 3. Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in 
 
 others, and think that their reputation obscures 
 them, and that their commendable qualities do stand 
 in their light ; and therefore they do what they can 
 to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of 
 their virtues may not obscure them. Bishop Tillot- 
 son. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The above sentence has two subjects, and we can not 
 tell from the construction to which of the two the pronouns refer. In fact, 
 the sentence is a complete muddle of pronouns. 
 
 The Rule as applied to Nouns connected by ' and.' 
 
 237. When two or more Nouns are connected by 'and/ the 
 Personal Pronoun used to represent them must be in the Plural 
 Number. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 He was fonder of nothing than of wit and raillery, but he 
 was far from being happy in it. Dr. Blair. 
 
 EXPLANATION. As in this sentence the pronoun it was designed to 
 represent the two nouns 'wit' and 'raillery,' them should have been used 
 instead of it. 
 
 238. Correct the following : Both Cato and Cicero loved his 
 
 country. 
 
 Nouns connected by ' or.' 
 
 239. When two or more Singular Nouns or Pronouns are con- 
 nected by * or/ the pronoun used to represent them must be in 
 the singular number. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 When he shoots a partridge, a woodcock, or a pheasant, he 
 gives them away. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PKONOUN. 93 
 
 EXPLANATION. As the represented nouns are singular and connected 
 by or, it should be used in place of them. 
 
 240. C orrect' the following : Man is not such a machine as a 
 
 watch or a clock, which move merely as they are 
 moved. 
 
 Collective Nouns. 
 
 241. Collective Nouns require singular or plural Pronouns ac- 
 cording to whether they convey the idea of unity or of plurality. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. The clergy began to withdraw themselves. Black- 
 
 stone. 
 
 2. The populace, unfortunately for their own comfort, etc. 
 
 242. Correct the following : 1. The multitude, with all its 
 means of instruction. 2. The army dragged themselves along 
 through the mud. 
 
 Each, Every, Either, One, None, Etc. 
 
 243. Very frequent violations of the general rule occur 
 when Pronouns are used to represent the words each, every, 
 either, one, or nouns preceded by one of these words. RULE : 
 These words have all a singular meaning, and must be repre- 
 sented by singular Pronouns. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS.- 
 
 1. Franklin and Lawrence were distinguished patriots: 
 
 each served their country well. 
 
 EXPLANATION. In this sentence the pronoun ' their' is used to repre- 
 sent the pronoun 'each;' but 'each' has a singular meaning, and hence 
 should be represented by a singular pronoun ' each served his country 
 well.' 
 
 2. Every person is the architect of their own fortune. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here the pronoun ' their' is used to represent the sin- 
 gular noun 'person,' and hence should be singular 'the architect of his 
 own fortune. ' What causes the mistake is the notion of plurality in the 
 word ' every ; ' but recollect that ' every' is grammatically singular. 
 
 3. John and James have been late for a week : if either 
 
 are absent from their seat at nine to-morrow they will 
 be kept in. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here the pronouns ' their' and ' they' are used to repre- 
 sent 'either,' which is singular; hence singular pronouns and the singular 
 verb should be used. 'If either is absent from his seat, he will,' etc. 
 
 o 
 
94 SYNTAX. 
 
 4. One is seldom at a loss what to do with their money. 
 EXPLANATION. As * one' is the represented word and singular, 'his,' 
 
 instead of ' their,' should be used. 
 
 5. Every boy and girl must learn their lesson. 
 EXPLANATION. This sentence presents a peculiarity. Under the verb 
 
 (see Tf 204, h) we saw that two singular nouns coupled by * and' do not take 
 the plural verb when preceded by ' every.' Hence the pronoun represent- 
 ing them should be singular also, and the sentence should read, ' Every boy 
 and girl has learnt his lesson. ' But the sentence presents a further pecul- 
 iarity ; there are two genders to be represented. Now in English we have 
 no pronouns of the common gender. In such cases it is customary to 
 make the masculine pronoun stand for both genders. 
 
 6. Every teacher is required to make his or her report. 
 EXPLANATION. When we wish specially to distinguish the sexes we 
 
 use the above form ; but all difficulty may be avoided by employing the 
 plural form of the noun and the pronoun thus, 'All teasers are required 
 to make their reports.' 
 
 244. Correct the false syntax of the Pronouns: 1. Every 
 one must judge of their own feelings. Byron. 2. Had the 
 doctor been contented to take my dining-t ables, as any body 
 in their senses would have done. Miss Austin. 3. Not on 
 outward charms should man or woman build their preten- 
 sions to please. Opie. 
 
 Pronouns the Subjects of Verbs. 
 
 245. A pronoun used as the subject of a verb must be in the 
 nominative case. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 This is a man whom I think deserves encouragement. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Transposing the parenthetical expression, / think, we 
 have the sentence, ' I think this is a man whom deserves encouragement. ' 
 You see, of course, that this is wrong : whom is designed to be subject of 
 the verb deserves, and hence it should be who deserves. 
 
 246. Violations of this rule most frequently occur in ellip- 
 tical sentences when the verb is omitted. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Is she as tall as me? ShaJcspeare. 
 
 2. She suffers hourly more than me. Swift. 
 
 3. The nations not so blessed as thee. Thomson. 
 
 4. It is not for such as us to sit with the rulers of the 
 
 land. Walter Scott. 
 
 5. She was neither better nor wiser than you or me. 
 
 Thackeray. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 95 
 
 EXPLANATION. The above sentences, each by a famous author, all vio- 
 late the rule. The blunder becomes very plain when we supply the el- 
 lipsis thus, (1) 'as tall as me am,' (2) 'more than me doj (3) 'not so 
 blessed as thee art,' (4) ' such as us are,' (5) ' than you or me are.' 
 
 247. Correct the following : Is James as old as me ? 2. Such 
 a man as him could never be President. 
 
 Improper Ellipsis of the Pronoun Subject. 
 
 248. The following sentences illustrate an improper ellipsis 
 of the Pronoun Subject : 
 
 1. It is thinking makes what we read ours. 
 EXPLANATION. The relative that should be supplied after 'thinking;' 
 
 makes has otherwise no subject. 
 
 2. There is and must be a Supreme Being who created 
 
 and supports us. Beattie. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This should be ' There is and there, must be a Supreme 
 Being who created and who supports us.' 
 
 3. Roots are either native or foreign, and sometimes much 
 
 disguised. KerVs Grammar. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Better thus, Roots are either native or they are foreign, 
 in which latter case they are sometimes much disguised. 
 
 249. The rule in such cases is that 
 
 When Verbs are used in different Voices, Moods, or Tenses, 
 or when they are emphatically distinguished, the Subject or 
 an equivalent Pronoun must be repeated. 
 
 The Pronoun used Redundantly. 
 
 250. In poetry the subject is sometimes repeated in the 
 form of a pronoun used along with the noun ; as, The count 
 he was left to the vulture and hound ; To be or not to be 
 [phrase- t subject], that [pronoun-subject] is the question. But 
 this is not allowable in prose except where special emphasis 
 is designed. 
 
 ' My father he said that I must go' is incorrect. We might, however, 
 say, 'A man that wears the livery of heaven to serve the devil in, he is not 
 to be trusted,' because here special emphasis is desired. 
 
 Pronoun after the Verb To Be. 
 
 251. A Pronoun used as the complement of the Verb ' To Be' 
 must be in the same case as the subject of that Verb. 
 
 In violation of this rule, we often hear, in the ordinary conversation of 
 all classes of society, such expressions as, 'Who is it? mef 'It was her; 1 
 4 It is them;' ' It is us.' Indeed, some grammarians (as Dean Alford and 
 
96 SYNTAX. 
 
 Mr. Bain) defend these forms as allowable, but there seems to be no suffi- 
 cient justification for these wide departures from the regular syntax of our 
 language. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. It was he that secured our liberty. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here he is in the nominative case, because it, the sub- 
 ject of is, is in the nominative. 
 
 2. We knew it to be him. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here him is properly in the objective case, for the rea- 
 son that it, being the subject of the infinitive to be, is in the objective case. 
 
 3. Let him be who he might be. 
 
 EXPLANATION. In a sentence like this it is very common to hear people 
 say whom instead of who, as if they thought the relative was in apposition 
 to him. This is not the case. The sentence is very elliptical. Fully ex- 
 pressed, it would stand thus : Let him be (the man) who he might be. 
 Him is objective, because the subject of the infinitive (to) be. Who is nom- 
 inative, because the verb might be (of which it is the complement) has for 
 its subject he, in the nominative case. 
 
 252. Point out the violations of this rule in the following : 
 1. It is not me whom you are in love with. Addison. 2. If 
 there is one character more base than another, it is him who, 
 etc. Sydney Smith. 3. It could not have been her. 4. Whom 
 say ye that I am ? 
 
 Pronoun as Object. 
 
 253. A Pronoun used as the object of a Transitive verb must 
 be in the objective case. 
 
 NOTE. This rule is seldom violated when the pronoun immediately fol- 
 lows the verb. It is only when the object is at some distance from the 
 verb, or when the sentence is elliptical, that the nominative form of the 
 pronoun is liable to be used, 'He that flatters too much, do not believe,' for 
 'him that flatters,' etc. Here him is the object of the verb ' believe.' 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Who do you take me to be ? 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here 'who' should be whom, because the relative is 
 used after ' to be,' and is in apposition with 'me,' the object of the transi- 
 tive verb take. 
 
 2. Who should I meet the other day but him. 
 EXPLANATION. The relative is here the object of the verb 'should 
 
 meet,' and must take the objective form. 
 
 254. Point out the violations of this rule in the following : 
 
 1. My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 
 
 2. Let you and she advance. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 97 
 
 The Pronoun Used in Apposition. 
 
 255. When a Pronoun is put in apposition with a noun used 
 as the object of a verb or of a preposition, the pronoun must be 
 in the objective case. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1.. Peter's sister married John Brown him that I told 
 
 you about. 
 2. Mary bought, a bonnet from the milliner her that 
 
 keeps a shop in Montgomery Street. 
 
 NOTE. Sentences like the preceding are used colloquially. The better 
 form is to use the relative pronoun instead of the personal ; as, John Brown 
 whom I told you about ; The milliner who keeps, etc. 
 
 Pronouns. Object of Prepositions. 
 
 256. A pronoun linked by a preposition must be in the ob- 
 jective case. 
 
 NOTE. This rule is seldom violated when the pronoun immediately fol- 
 lows the preposition. Nobody would say I gave it to he ; but people read- 
 ily commit such errors as Who did you get that book from ? In the latter 
 sentence, the distance of the pronoun from the governing preposition is the 
 occasion of the blunder. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Who did you speak to? 
 
 This should be i Whom did you speak to?' 
 
 2. No one but he [him] should be about the king. Shah- 
 
 speare. 
 
 257. Correct the following : 1. Between you and I, all is not 
 gold that glitters. 2. Who servest thou under ? Shakspeare. 
 
 The Pronoun 'It.' 
 
 258. The double use of the pronoun it- its ordinary use 
 and its idiomatic use in introducing a sentence [see ^ 48] is 
 a frequent cause of ambiguity. 
 
 NOTE. Cobbett, in his Grammar, says " the word it is the greatest 
 troubler that I know of in language. It is so small, and so convenient, 
 that few are careful enough in using it. Never put an it on paper without 
 thinking well what you are about." 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. I am going to mention the matter. It is right that it 
 should be mentioned. 
 E 
 
98 SYNTAX. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The first it here introduces the sentence (idiomatic 
 use) ; the second refers to ' the matter, ' and some confusion results from 
 the double reference. 
 
 2. It is a sign of great prudence to be willing to receive 
 instruction ; the most intelligent persons sometimes 
 stand in need of it. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This sentence would be better thus using a noun in 
 place of the first 'it:' 'Willingness to receive instruction is a sign of great 
 prudence ; the most intelligent persons sometimes stand in need of it. ' 
 
 Each Other and One Another. 
 
 259. Of these reciprocal pronouns, the former is used when 
 we are speaking of two persons ; the latter when we speak of 
 more than two. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Righteousness and peace have kissed each other. 
 
 2. If God so loved us, we ought to love one another. 
 
 260. Correct the following: 1. As Time devours his children, 
 so they endeavor to devour each other. Bacon. 2. Did we 
 (mankind) but love each other, it would be something. Gold- 
 smith. 
 
 Politeness in Pronouns. 
 
 261. When you use singular pronouns of different persons, 
 put he or she before I, and you before I, or he, or she ; as, 
 He and I will go. You and he will go. My cousin and I 
 will go. You or James will go. 
 
 262. With the plural pronouns, we has the first place, you 
 the second, and they the third ; as, we and they start to-mor- 
 row. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The reason of the difference in the position of the sin- 
 gular and of the plural pronouns is this : In the singular number, the speak- 
 er (/) puts himself after the person spoken to and the person spoken of, as 
 a matter of politeness. But in the plural number, for the same reason, he 
 puts those who are most intimately associated with him in the first place 
 (unavoidably including himself and making ' we'), then the persons spoken 
 to, and then those spoken of. 
 
 General Rule for Relatives. 
 
 263. The Relative Pronouns are who, which, and that. They 
 should be placed as near as possible to their antecedents, and 
 there should be no ambiguity as to what their antecedents are. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PKONOUN. 99 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 The soldier who disobeyed his officer was punished for 
 the offense. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The antecedent of 'who' is l soldier/ and the pronoun 
 is correctly placed next to that antecedent ; but the sentence would be in- 
 elegant if we should say, ' The soldier was punished for the offense, who 
 disobeyed his officer.' 
 
 Position of Relatives. 
 
 264. In ordinary cases, the first noun that precedes the rel- 
 ative should be its antecedent. But there are two kinds of 
 sentences that do not admit of this construction. 
 
 265. The first type is represented by the following: 
 Solomon, the son of David, who built^the Temple. 
 EXPLANATION. The noun immediately preceding the relative ' who' is 
 
 David; but the real antecedent is Solomon, not David. The principle in 
 such cases is, that when a noun has another noun in apposition with it, the 
 relatives * who' and ' which' refer to the principal noun and not to the ex- 
 planatory noun. 
 
 Now, if we wish to make a reference to the explanatory word, the pro- 
 noun 'that,' and not 'who' or 'which,' should be used; as, Solomon, the 
 son of David that slew Goliath, built the Temple. In such instances the 
 noun before ' that' takes no comma. 
 
 266. The second type of sentence is represented by the fol- 
 lowing: 
 
 The Indians constructed huts covered with the skins of 
 wild animals, which formed their rude habitations. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The noun immediately preceding the relative which is 
 'animals;' but the real antecedent is huts, not 'animals.' The principle 
 in such cases is, that when a noun is followed by adjunct nouns, the relative 
 who or which relates to the principal noun and not to the adjunct nouns. 
 In such cases, do not separate ' that' from its antecedent by a comma. 
 
 If we wish to make the relative refer to the adjunct nouns, we must use 
 that instead of who or which. Thus we might say, ' The Indians construct- 
 ed huts covered with the skins of wild animals that they killed in the 
 chase. ' 
 
 Use of Relatives. 
 
 267. Who relates to persons only; which relates to the 
 lower animals and to things without life. The relative that 
 may be substituted for either who or which in certain con- 
 structions explained in the following paragraphs. 
 
 268. The relative that must be used to introduce clauses in- 
 tended to restrict the meaning of the noun immediately preced- 
 ing the relative. 
 
100 SYNTAX. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. All words which are the signs of complex ideas furnish 
 
 matter of mistake. Murray's Grammar. 
 
 EXPLANATION. It is not intended in this sentence to say all words 
 1 furnish matter of mistake,' but only such words as are ' signs of complex 
 ideas.' The clause, 4 which are signs of complex ideas,' restricts or limits 
 the meaning of ' all words,' and hence the relative that should be used. 
 
 2. Words, which are signs of ideas, may be divided into 
 
 nine Parts of Speech. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Compare this with the first sentence. You will see 
 that in the second sentence the relative is not restrictive, but explanatory. 
 The sentence means ' all words (and these are signs of ideas) may be divi- 
 ded,' etc. The sentence is therefore correct. 
 
 269. Hence the rule : Introduce restrictive clauses by ' that/ 
 explanatory clauses by 'who' or 'which/ 
 
 1. 'A spirit more amiable, but less vigorous than Luther's, 
 
 would have shrunk back .frgrn the dangers that he 
 braved and surmounted.' 
 
 EXPLANATION. The relative 'that' is correctly used to introduce the 
 clause 'he braved and surmounted,' because it is not dangers in general 
 that are spoken of, but the particular dangers ' that he braved and sur- 
 mounted.' 
 
 2. Age, that lessens the enjoyment of life, increases our 
 
 desire of living. Goldsmith. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here that is incorrectly used instead of which: the 
 clause ' which lessens the enjoyment of life' is not restrictive, but is explan- 
 atory; hence ' age, which lessens,' etc. 
 
 Particular Applications of the Rule. 
 
 270. The following sentences are particular exemplifica- 
 tions of the general principle stated above : 
 
 (1.) This is the best book that I know of clause restrictive of superlative 
 
 degree. 
 (2.) This is the same book that I bought restrictive clause following the 
 
 adjective same. 
 (3.) All that he has ; Any man that says so ; Some people that were there 
 
 clauses restrictive of the demonstratives a//, any, some. 
 
 ' That' having mixed antecedents. 
 
 271. The relative that is used when the Pronoun has two 
 antecedents, one denoting persons, the other animals or things; 
 as, The man and the dog that we saw. The reason of this is 
 that neither who nor which could properly be used. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 101 
 
 4 Which' having a Collective Noun for its antecedents. 
 
 272. Which, and not who, is used when the antecedent is a 
 collective noun expressing unity of idea ; as, The party which 
 he entertained yesterday was very numerous. 
 
 1 Whose.' 
 
 273. Whose, properly the Possessive of icho, is often used, 
 especially in poetry, as the possessive of which, the latter 
 having no possessive of its own. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 That undiscovered country 
 
 From whose bourne no traveler returns. Shakspeare. 
 The poor banished insects whose intent, 
 Though they did ill, was innocent. Shelley. 
 
 Mixing Relatives. 
 
 274. When you have used which to introduce one relative 
 clause, be careful not to use that to introduce another clause 
 of the same kind in the same sentence. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 It is remarkable that Holland, against which the war was 
 undertaken, and that, in the very beginning, was re- 
 duced to the brink of destruction, lost nothing. 
 EXPLANATION. Here the relative which in the first clause should not 
 have been changed into that in the second clause. 
 
 Which and That. 
 
 275. On account of euphony, that, whenever it can be used, 
 is preferable to which. 
 
 That with Prepositions. 
 
 276. The relative that can not be preceded by its govern- 
 ing preposition ; that preposition must be thrown to the end 
 of the clause ; as, The steam-boat that I went up the river in 
 was sunk. 
 
 Whom and Which with Prepositions. 
 
 277. The Prepositions governing whom and which may 
 also be thrown to the end of the clause, but modern usage 
 prefers placing them immediately before the relatives. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. Thus it is deemed more elegant to say ' The steamer in 
 which I went up the river' than ' The steamer which I went up the river in. 1 
 
102 SYNTAX. 
 
 An Idiomatic Construction, 
 
 278. In many cases a much more vigorous and effective 
 statement is made by introducing a clause by that and fol- 
 lowing it by its governing preposition, than by introducing 
 it by which or whom, preceded by its governing preposition. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. He is the stranger of whom you told me^He is the 
 
 stranger that you told me of. 
 
 2. The musquito is good for nothing that I know of, is 
 
 much less pompous than The musquito is good for 
 nothing of which I know. 
 
 3. There are many words which are adjectives which 
 
 have nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns 
 to which they are put. Cobbettfs Grammar. 
 
 This sentence would read better thus : There are many words that are 
 adjectives which have nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns that 
 they are put to. 
 
 279. Change the turn of expression in the following : 1. The 
 subject, of which I had occasion to speak, is a most important 
 one. 2. He sold me the house of which you have heard. 3. 
 It is the strangest story of which I ever heard. 4. There was 
 nothing upon which a beetle could have lunched. 
 
 4 As' a Kelative. 
 
 280. The word as is used as a relative when the anteced- 
 ent is such, some, and so much. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. I wish all men in the world did heartily believe so much 
 
 of this as is true. Jeremy Taylor. 
 
 2. Avoid such companions as those are. 
 
 3. We are such stuff as dreams are made of. ShaJcspeare. 
 Here as is a relative governed by the preposition of at the end of the 
 
 clause. 
 
 4. He is, as I have said, a great lover of books. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here as is the object of 'said;' it represents the state- 
 ment, * He is a great lover of books.' The sentence is equivalent to this : 
 He is a great lover of books, and I have said this before. 
 
 Ellipsis of the Relative. 
 
 281. In conversational style the relatives are often omitted. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 103 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. The family I lived with has removed. Here the relative that is under- 
 
 stood. 
 
 2. I have sent you every thing [that] you ordered. 
 
 3. He can not tell all [that] he knows. 
 
 4. I have no money [that is] worth talking about. 
 
 5. Men must reap the things [that] they sow. Shelley. 
 
 6. There is a willow [that] grows askant the bank. Shakspeare. 
 
 7. I may do that which I shall be sorry for. Shakspeare. 
 
 8. I am monarch of all [that] I survey. Cowper. 
 
 9. In this 'tis God [who] directs, in that 'tis man. Pope. 
 10. [He] who steals my purse, steals trash. Shakspeare. 
 
 Misused Relatives. 
 
 282. The following sentences illustrate two incorrect uses 
 of the relatives. 
 
 1. Be diligent; without which you can never succeed. 
 EXPLANATION. In this sentence the only antecedent that the relative 
 
 which can refer to is the adjective ' diligent ;' but from its very nature a 
 relative can represent only a noun, or some expression equivalent to a noun. 
 The way of dealing with this kind of sentence is to use, in place of the 
 relative, an abstract noun expressing the quality implied in the adjective. 
 Thus the adjective ' diligent' implies the noun ' diligence. ' The sentence 
 corrected stands thus : Be diligent ; for without diligence you can not suc- 
 ceed. 
 
 2. And do you now strew flowers in his way, 
 That conies in triumph over Pompey's blood ? 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here 'that' has for its antecedent the possessive pro- 
 noun his ; but 'his' is in reality an adjective, and is a mere adjunct of the 
 noun 'way.' Hence it can not be made the antecedent of the relative that. 
 
 The mode of dealing with this case is to change the adjective (or posses- 
 sive) pronoun into a real pronoun ; thus,' flowers in the way of him, etc. 
 
 Important General Caution. 
 
 283. When in a sentence there is the slightest ambiguity or 
 obscurity in the reference of a pronoun to its noun (whether of 
 the relative to its antecedent, or of the personal pronoun to its 
 represented noun), do not hesitate to repeat the noun itself in 
 place of using a pronoun. 
 
 NOTE. The best modern writers pay no attention to the old maxim 
 against repeating a word. Every thing must give way to perspicuity. 
 
 284. The following sentence exemplifies the principle stated 
 in the general caution : 
 
 He [Philip] wrote to that distinguished philosopher [Aris- 
 totle] in terms the most polite and flattering, begging 
 
104 SYNTAX. 
 
 of him [Aristotle] to undertake his [Alexander's] edu- 
 cation, and to bestow upon him [Alexander] those use- 
 ful lessons which his [Philip's] numerous avocations 
 would not allow him [Philip] to bestow. Goldsmith. 
 EXPLANATION. This sentence may be corrected thus : ' Philip wrote 
 to Aristotle in terms the most polite and flattering, begging of that distin- 
 guished philosopher to undertake A lexander's education, and to bestow upon 
 his son those useful lessons that his own numerous avocations would not 
 allow him to bestow.' 
 
 4. Syntax of Adjectives. 
 I. How TO PARSE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 285. There are but two uses of the Adjective: 
 
 1. It may describe or limit a noun to which it belongs. 
 
 2. It may be predicate adjective after a neuter verb, and 
 
 in this case it describes or limits the subject of the 
 verb. 
 
 Adjective with a Noun. 
 
 286. An Adjective belonging to a noun is parsed by say- 
 ing 
 
 .It describes (or limits) the Noun [naming if]. 
 
 MODEL. O tenderly the haughty day 
 Fills his blue urn with fire. 
 
 Haughty an adjective, describes the noun day. 
 
 Blue an adjective, describes the noun urn. 
 
 Predicate Adjectives. 
 
 287. A Predicate Adjective is disposed of by saying 
 
 It is Predicate Adjective after the Verb [naming if], and 
 describes the Subject [naming if]. 
 MODEL. Oak is tough. 
 
 'Tough' is predicate adjective after the neuter verb 'is,' and describes 
 'oak.' 
 
 The rose smells sweet. 
 
 1 Sweet' is predicate adjective after the neuter verb ' smells, ' and de- 
 scribes 'rose.' 
 
 Exercise 35. 
 Dispose of the ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. Around the fire one wintry night 
 The farmer's rosy children sat. 
 
 2. The stately homes of England, 
 . How beautiful they stand. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE A>JCTIMK 'T 105 
 
 3. These forms are very elegant. l( U ] 
 
 4. Were never folks so glad. 
 
 5. Now the bright morning star, day's harbing 
 
 East. 
 
 6. Cloves smell aromatic. 
 
 II. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OP THE ADJECTIVE. 
 The Degrees. 
 
 288. The Comparative Degree is to be used in reference only 
 to two objects. The Superlative Degree is to be used only 
 when comparing more than two objects. 
 
 EXAMPLES. He is the stronger of the two not the strong- 
 est. He is the strongest of the three not the stronger of the 
 three. 
 
 289. When a person or a thing is compared with others be- 
 longing to the same class, the Adjective in the Comparative 
 Degree must be followed by some phrase that will exclude the 
 thing compared; such as/ than any other/ 'than all others/ 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 Bismarck is greater than any German statesman. 
 
 EXAMPLE. This would be incorrect, because, as Bismarck is himself a 
 German statesman, the sentence would affirm that he is greater than him- 
 self. It should read, 
 
 1 Bismarck is greater than any other [or than all other] German 
 
 statesmen.' 
 
 The phrase than any other excludes Bismarck from the class with which 
 he is compared. We can properly say, Bismarck is greater than any 
 Chinese statesman, because Bismarck, being a German, does not belong to 
 the class of Chinese statesmen. 
 
 290. When one person or thing is compared with all others 
 of the same class, the adjecrtive in the superlative degree must 
 be used. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 'Bismarck is the greatest of German statesmen,' or 'Bis- 
 marck is the greatest German statesman.' 
 
 291. Why is it incorrect to speak of Paul Pry as' the most 
 inquisitive of his contemporaries T Why islVliltou correct in 
 calling J&VQ fairest of her daughters? 
 
 292. In speaking of two sets of objects, ' the two first' 
 means the first of each series. In speaking of one set of ob- 
 
 E 3 
 
106 SYNTAX. 
 
 jects, 'the first two' denotes the first and second of the same. 
 Hence such errors as the following should be avoided : ' The 
 clergyman read the two first stanzas of the hymn. ? 
 
 Special Adjectives. 
 
 This and That. The demonstrative adjectives 'this' and 
 'that' must be used only with singular nouns; 'these' and 
 'those' with plural nouns. 
 
 ' NOTE. Never use the personal pronoun them for the adjective those ; 
 that is, never say 'them books' for ''those books.' 
 
 Either and Neither. ' Either' and ' neither' properly apply 
 to one of two objects not more than two. Would it be cor- 
 rect to say ' John, James, and Henry are faithful boys ; either 
 lad will carry the message?' 
 
 Such. The adjective ' such' is often improperly used for the 
 adverb ' so.' ' She is such an extravagant woman' should be 
 ' she was so extravagant a woman.' 
 
 Like. The adjective like is sometimes improperly used for 
 as. Victory must end in possession 'like toil in sleep. Glad- 
 stone. This should be, ' Victory must end in possession, as 
 (does) toil in sleep.' 
 
 Special Prepositions. 
 
 293. Many adjectives require to be followed by a certain 
 preposition ; as, ' different from? ' agreeable to? ' illustrative 
 o/,' ' preferable to? 
 
 Use of the Articles. 
 
 294. In the use of the articles there are several important 
 points illustrated by the following examples : 
 
 1. We saw a red, white, and blue flag. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This means, we saw one flag having the three colors 
 red, white, and blue. In such cases the rule is, when several adjectives 
 are used to limit a noun representing only one object, the article is used 
 before only the first adjective. 
 
 2. We saw a red, a white, and a blue flag. 
 EXPLANATION. This means that we saw three different flags. In such 
 
 cases the rule is, when the adjectives apply to different objects, repeat the 
 article before every adjective. 
 
 3. It is difficult, in some cases, to distinguish between an 
 
 interrogative and exclamatory sentence. Murray's 
 Grammar. 
 
PEACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 107 
 
 EXPLANATION. The great grammarian should have written 'an inter- 
 rogative and an exclamatory sentence, ' because two kinds of sentences are 
 meant. 
 
 4. There is about the whole book a vehement, contentious, 
 
 replying manner. Macaulay. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This sentence is correct. It is here not necessary to 
 repeat the a, because it is one manner that is spoken of a manner vehe- 
 ment, contentious, and replying. 
 
 5. Both a noun and pronoun may be the subject of a verb. 
 Either a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb. 
 
 EXPLANATION. These sentences are incorrect. The article should be 
 inserted in each instance before the second of the two nouns joined in con- 
 struction : both a noun and a pronoun ; either a noun or a pronoun. The 
 principle in such cases is, that when there is a close connection between 
 two nouns, indicated by the correlatives either or, neither nor, both 
 and, the article must be repeated. The same principle applies when the 
 introducing correlative both, either, neither, is understood. 
 
 6. A man, woman, and infant were riding in the cars. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This sentence is incorrect. The article a may be un- 
 derstood before the second noun, woman, but when we come to supply it 
 before the third ( infant) it is not in the proper form. The principle is, 
 that in a string of nouns, the article a need not be repeated after the 
 first ; but if, in a succession of nouns, one noun requires a and another an, 
 no ellipsis is allowed. 
 
 7. An adjective or participle must belong to some noun 
 
 or pronoun. Browrfs Grammar. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This comes under the condemnation of the principle in 
 6. Supplying the ellipsis, we have 'an adjective and an participle.' It 
 should be ' an adjective or a participle. ' A simple way of turning such 
 sentences is to use the plural form of the nouns, and to employ and in place 
 of or. Thus, 'Adjectives and participles must belong to some noun or to 
 some pronoun.' 
 
 8. The variation or deviation of the compass was first ob- 
 
 served by Columbus. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This sentence seems to violate the principle stated in 6, 
 but it is strictly correct. ' Deviation' is used to explain ' variation,-' and is 
 synonymous with it, and hence it is not necessary to repeat the article. 
 When the conjunction or connects two nouns, the second of which is only 
 explanatory of the first, the article must not be repeated. 
 
 NOTE. Mr. Moon (Bad English, p. 31) takes Lindley Murray to task 
 for using the expression ' an oration or discourse. ' Moon's objection is 
 that if the ellipsis were supplied the expression would read ' An oration or 
 [an] discourse.' But there is really no ellipsis to be supplied, since, in ac- 
 cordance with the above principle, the article is not to be repeated, the sec- 
 ond noun being explanatory of the first. 
 
 ^ When two nouns are thus connected in an explanatory way, be care- 
 ful 40 put a comma after the first. 
 
108 SYNTAX. 
 
 9. He is a better statesman than soldier. 
 
 EXPLANATION. In sentences like this sentences in which the two 
 nouns denote the same person, the article is not repeated before the noun 
 following than or as. Repeating the article before soldier will entirety 
 change the meaning of the sentence. 4 A lawyer may be as good a man 
 as a clergyman.' Here the article is repeated because the comparison is 
 made between two different persons. 
 
 Exercise 36. 
 Correct the Mistakes in the use of the ARTICLE. 
 
 1. The importance of obtaining in early life a clear, distinct, and ( ) ac- 
 
 curate knowledge. Murray's Grammar. 
 
 2. The oral or ( ) written forms of a language. Marsh. 
 
 3. An adjective in the comparative or ( ) superlative degree must pre- 
 
 cede an adjective modified by more or most. Quackenbos's Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 4. The dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or ( ) emphatic 
 
 pause of variable length. Browns Institutes. 
 
 5. No figures will render a cold or ( ) empty composition interesting. 
 
 Blair. 
 
 6. When an adverb qualifies an adjective (aw?) participle, or infinitive, it 
 
 is generally placed before it. 
 
 7. The object of a transitive verb is a noun or a pronoun which denotes 
 
 the person or thing that the agent or doer acts upon or controls. 
 Weld's Grammar. 
 
 8. A noun or ( ) pronoun, used as the predicate of a proposition, is in 
 
 the nominative case. Harvey's Grammar. 
 
 9. Specifying adjectives should be so used as clearly to signify the real in- 
 
 tention of the speaker or ( ) writer. Clark's Grammar. 
 
 10. An adjective or [an ?~\ participle qualifies the substantive to which it 
 
 belongs. Bullion's Grammar. 
 
 1 1 . And since it is not always easy to make a new and [a f] acceptable 
 
 proper name, etc. Kerl's Grammar. 
 
 12. The liberty of capitalizing is carried to a great and [a ?~\ almost indefi- 
 
 nite extent. Kerfs Grammar. 
 
 5. Syntax of the Adverb. 
 I. How TO PARSE ADVERBS. 
 
 295. The Adverb has but one function in a sentence it de- 
 scribes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 
 
 296. Hence an adverb is disposed of by saying 
 
 It describes the Verb, Adjective, or Adverb [naming it]. 
 
 MODEL. The very fairest flowers usually wither most 
 
 quickly. 
 Very an adverb, describes the adjective fairest. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 109 
 
 Usually. . . .an adverb, describes the verb wither. 
 
 Most an adverb, describes the adverb quickly. 
 
 NOTE. Sometimes an adverb seems to be independent, but there is gen- 
 erally an ellipsis, which, if supplied, will show some word that the adverb 
 may modify. EXAMPLE : 4 There is none that is righteous. No, [there is] 
 not one. ' ' Do you like poetry ?' [I like it] Very much. 
 
 Exercise 37. 
 Dispose of the following ADVERBS : 
 
 1. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 
 
 2. And now a bubble bursts, and now a world. 
 
 3. For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn. 
 
 4. The enemy was completely in my power. 
 
 5. Nothing is too gross or too refined, too cruel or too trifling, to be prac- 
 
 ticed. 
 
 II. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 297. Adverbs and adverbial phrases should be so placed 
 with reference to the words they are intended to modify as 
 to bring out the meaning clearly and to round the sentence 
 agreeably. Hence the following 
 
 298. GENERAL RULE OF POSITION. An Adverb should be 
 placed in close proximity to the word or the words that it mod- 
 ifies. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 iT The proper placing of adverbs is a matter of nice taste and of keen 
 judgment. The art will best be learnt, not by studying rules that are sub- 
 ject to numberless exceptions, but by dealing with actual examples. 
 
 1 . We can not deprive them of merit wholly. 
 EXPLANATION. The adverb i wholly' is inelegantly placed. It is meant 
 
 to relate to the verb ' deprive,' and the intervention of the words ' them of 
 merit' between the adverb and the verb is very clumsy. It should be, We 
 can not wholly deprive them of merit. 
 
 2. I hope not much to tire those I shall not happen to 
 
 please. Doctor Johnson. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Doctor Johnson did not mean to say that he did not 
 .. much hope to tire, but that he hoped not to tire much. The sentence should 
 be turned in this manner : ' I hope I shall not much tire those whom I 
 shall [or may] not happen to please. ' 
 
 3. This mode of expression rather suits familiar than grave 
 
 style. Murray's Grammar. 
 
 EXPLANATION. As the comparison is not intended to be between suiting 
 and not suiting, but between suiting one kind of style (namely, * a familiar') 
 in preference to another, the adverb of comparison should be placed, not 
 
110 SYNTAX. 
 
 before the verb l suit,' which it is not meant to qualify, but before the ad- 
 jective * familiar, ' to which it is intended to relate. Making this altera- 
 tion, the sentence becomes, 'This mode of expression suits rather familiar 
 than grave style.' But the sentence is still faulty. A particular kind of 
 style, and not style in general, is spoken of ; hence the indefinite article 
 should be used. Fully corrected, the sentence reads, ' This mode of ex- 
 pression suits rather a familiar than a grave style.' 
 
 4. The colon may be properly applied in the following 
 
 cases. Murray's Grammar. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The writer did not mean that the colon may be ap- 
 plied in a proper manner, but that it is proper to apply the colon ; hence it 
 should be, i may properly be applied,' etc. 
 
 5. It is a frequent and capital error in the writings even 
 
 of some distinguished authors. Murray } s Grammar. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The position of ' even' confuses the sense by suggesting 
 
 a qualification of ' writings. ' 'Even' should be carried to the other side 
 
 of the preposition ; the sentence will then read thus : ' in the writings of 
 
 even some distinguished authors.' 
 
 6. A master-mind was equally wanting in the cabinet and 
 
 in the field. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This should be, 'Was wanting equally in the cabinet,' 
 etc. Take notice that in this example, as in Illustration 3, the adverb has 
 a mixed reference. l Equally' modifies wanting, but it has reference also 
 to the phrase ' in the cabinet and in the field.' The principle in such cases 
 is, that the adverb should be placed between the two words or expres- 
 sions to which it has reference. 
 
 7. I have been disappointed greatly at your conduct. 
 EXPLANATION. You see that the adverb greatly is very clumsily placed. 
 
 The sentence should run thus : ' I have been greatly disappointed, ' etc. The 
 principle in such cases is, that in compound tenses adverhs should be in- 
 serted between the auxiliary and the participle. 
 
 8. He used to often come. 
 I wished to really know. 
 
 EXPLANATION. With the infinitive simple tense, the adverb must never 
 separate the sign to from the verb ; it must either precede or it must fol- 
 low the whole infinitive form. Thus, ' He used often to come,' or ' to come 
 often. 9 ' I wished really to know,' or ' to know really. ' With the infinitive 
 compound tenses, of course, the same rule prevails as in other compound 
 tenses. We say, ' It is believed to have often happened ;' 'He is thought 
 to be well informed on that subject.' In these examples the preposition to 
 is not severed From its infinitive. 
 
 299. The varieties of position and of reference in the ad- 
 verb are seen in the following examples : 
 
 1. Sometimes she sings. ... (at other times she reads). 
 
 2. She sometimes sings. . . . (at other times he sings). 
 
 3. She sings sometimes. . . . (but not frequently). 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. Ill 
 
 That Troublesome 'Only.* 
 
 300. The most troublesome of all our English adverbs is 
 the word ' only.' 
 
 " A blunder of which the instances are innumerable is the misplacing 
 of the word 'only.' Indeed, this is so common, so absolutely universal, 
 one may almost say, that ' only' can not be found in its proper place in any 
 book within the whole range of English literature. " Gould's Good En- 
 glish, p. 100. 
 
 301. According to the position of ' only? the very same 
 word may be made to express several very different mean- 
 ings. The following examples will illustrate this : 
 
 1. ''Only he mourned for his brother.' Only here expresses an antithet- 
 
 ical relation equivalent to 'but.' He was generally a cold-hearted 
 man, only (but, as an exception to his general character) he mourned 
 for his brother. 
 
 2. 'He-ow/y (alone) mourned for his brother.' No one else mourned for 
 
 him. 
 
 3. ' He on/y-mourned for his brother. ' He did nothing else. 
 
 4. ' He mourned only for his brother.' And for no other reason. 
 
 5. ' He mourned for his only brother. ' His single brother ; only, an adjec- 
 
 tive. 
 
 6. 'He mourned for his brother only' (alone) and for no one else. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. A term which only implies the idea of persons. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The force of exclusion possessed by the 'only' is not 
 meant to apply to the word ' implies,' but to the word ' persons.' It should 
 be ' which implies the idea of persons only. ' 
 
 2. I can only regard them as Scotticisms. Dean Alford. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The force of exclusion in the 'only' is not meant to 
 apply to the verb 'regard,' but to the noun 'Scotticisms.' The sentence 
 should be, 'I can regard them only as Scotticisms.' 
 
 3. When the article stands only before the first of two or 
 
 more connected nouns. JerVs Grammar. 
 EXPLANATION. This should be, ' When the article stands before only 
 the first, 'etc. 
 
 4. The negroes are to appear at church only in boots. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This means that when the negroes go to church they 
 are to have no clothing but boots. 
 
 The negroes are to appear only at church in boots. 
 
 This might mean that they are not to appear any where but at church, 
 whether in boots or out of them. The proper arrangement would be to 
 connect 'in boots' with its verb 'appear,' and make 'only' qualify 'at 
 church, ' and no more. Thus, ' The negroes are to appear in boots only at 
 church. ' 
 
112 SYNTAX. 
 
 'Not Only.' 
 
 302. The same difficulty is met with in the use of c not 
 only.' The following sentences will serve as illustrations : 
 
 1. By greatness I not only mean the bulk of any single 
 
 object, but the largeness of the whole view. 
 This should read, ' By greatness I mean not only the bulk,' etc. 
 
 2. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of na- 
 
 ture, but for his moral wisdom. Enfield. 
 
 This sentence should read, ' Thales was famous not only for his knowl- 
 edge of nature, but also for his moral wisdom.' 
 
 Alone. 
 
 303. Alone, when used adverbially, should be placed imme- 
 diately after the verb that it modifies. As, The teacher was 
 sitting alone in the school-room. 
 
 EXPLANATION. In this sentence the meaning is, 'The teacher was sit- 
 ting by himself in the school-room.' If we said * the teacher alone was sit- 
 ting in the school-room,' we should convey the idea that nobody else was 
 sitting in the school-room. Here 'alone' is an adjective limiting ' teacher.' 
 It would be better to say 'only the teachtr,' etc. 
 
 Some misused Adverbs. 
 
 304. Where. . . .This Relative Adverb must not be used in 
 introducing clauses unless the reference is to literal place. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Franklin lived in Philadelphia, where the Declaration 
 
 of Independence was signed. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This is correct ; but we can not properly say, ' The 
 Americans addressed the king in a petition where they asked for the lib- 
 erties of British subjects.' Here 'in a petition' does not denote literal 
 place, but merely place figuratively, and in all such cases the relative phrase 
 ' in which' must be used. 
 
 2. The only sentence which I can call to mind where the 
 
 words ' so as' are proper when speaking affirmative- 
 ly, are those in which the last of the said words pre- 
 cedes a verb in the Infinitive Mood. Moon's Bad 
 English, p. 139. 
 
 Mr. Moon, though a discriminating critic, is guilty of ' bad English' in 
 this sentence. Any scholar can see that the reference made by the relative 
 adverb where is to the noun ' sentence,' and, therefore, that the clause should 
 be introduced by in which. Thus 'The only sentences which [better that} 
 I can call to mind in which the words, ' etc. 
 
 305. How. . . . .This Relative Adverb must not be used in 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADVEKB. 113 
 
 introducing clauses unless the reference is to literal manner. 
 Hence it can relate only to a verb, and can not relate to a 
 noun. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 I do not know how it may be done. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This is correct ; but we can not properly say, I know 
 of no rule how it may be done. In all such cases, which, with its appro- 
 priate preposition, must be used, thus : I know of no rule by which it may 
 be done. 
 
 There is another misuse of how illustrated by the following sentence : He 
 said how he intended to buy a horse. Here it is plain that the proper con- 
 nective is the conjunction that. i How that' and ' as how' are often wrong- 
 ly used instead of that. 
 
 306. When This Adverb can not refer to a specific 
 
 noun; it relates only to phrases, to clauses, or to statements. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 The time is approaching [statement] when we shall be free. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This is correct; but we can not properly say 'The hour 
 when we shall be free is approaching,' because in the latter form the refer- 
 ence is to the specific noun 'hour.' In all such cases, which, with its ap- 
 propriate preposition, must be used. 
 
 307. Whence hence thence. The preposition 'from' is fre- 
 quently used before these adverbs, but this use is redundant, 
 as direction from is implied in the adverbs themselves: 
 whence being equal to from where; hence = from here ; thence 
 =from there. 
 
 308. So A common misuse of this adverb is illus- 
 trated by the following sentence: I will answer his letter so 
 soon as I receive it. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The proper use of so is to introduce a comparison of 
 inequality. We say 'John is not so brave as James.' To introduce a 
 comparison of equality, we use as. Thus, John is as strong as James. 
 The sentence above should read, I will answer his letter as soon as I re- 
 ceive it. 
 
 'The Rose smells sweet.' 
 
 309. In sentences like the above, it is sometimes difficult to 
 tell whether to use an adjective or an adverb. The principle 
 is this : Neuter verbs can not be limitecLby adverbs; any qual- 
 ifier immediately following the verb must belong to the sub- 
 ject, and consequently must be an adjective. In the sentence 
 'The rose smells sweet,' sweet denotes the quality of the rose. 
 The sentence is equal to ' the rose is sweet.' 
 
114 SYNTAX. 
 
 EXPLANATION. We say/ Mary looks cold' [she is cold], because what 
 we wish is, not to mark the manner of looking, but to denote a quality of 
 Mary. If we change the neuter verb into a transitive verb by the addition 
 of a preposition, and say, 'Mary looks on John coldly,' the expression is 
 correct, because in this instance we wish to denote the manner of her look- 
 ing-on, and not a quality of Mary. 
 
 310. Would you say c the velvet feels smooth ?' or feels 
 smoothly ? 
 
 Would you say 'gutturals sound harshly T or sound 
 harsh f 
 
 Would you say < the dog smells disagreeably ?' or ' smells 
 disagreeable ?' 
 
 Would you say c she looks finely f or 'looks; fine?' 
 
 Double Negatives. 
 
 311. In English, two negatives are equal to an affirmative. 
 Hence you should be careful, when you mean negation, not to 
 introduce two negative adverbs. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. I have not done nothing. 
 
 This means 'I have done something.' If you mean a negative, say ; I 
 have done nothing,' or 'I have not done any thing.' 
 
 2. He has eaten no bread nor drunk no water these two 
 
 days. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The negative in nor (=not or), together with the word 
 no before water, makes a double negative. Correct thus : He has eaten no 
 bread and he has drunk no water ; or, He has neither eaten any bread nor 
 has he drunk any water, etc. 
 
 312. What does c I have not had no dinner' mean ? 
 
 313. But double negatives are elegantly used to express 
 an affirmative in an indirect way. In place of saying, I am 
 somewhat acquainted with his virtues, the sentence might 
 be turned thus : I am not imacquainted with his virtues. 
 
 The principal negative prefixes are un, dis, and in (with its variant forms 
 il, ig, im, ir, etc). 
 
 Distribution of Adverbs. 
 
 314. When a sentence contains a number of adverbs and 
 of adverbial phrases, they should be appropriately distributed 
 in the sentence. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 Cromwell called a council of his chief officers secretly, at 
 
SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 115 
 
 Windsor, at the suggestion oflreton, to deliberate con- 
 cerning the settlement of the nation. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here the adverbs and adverbial phrases are huddled to- 
 gether in the centre. They should be distributed thus : A t the suggestion 
 of Ireton, Cromwell secretly called a council of his chief officers at Wind- 
 sor to deliberate concerning the settlement of the nation. 
 
 Exercise 37. 
 
 In the following sentences, see in how many different posi- 
 tions you can place the ADVEKBS, and tell what difference the 
 change of position will make in the meaning of each sentence. 
 
 1. We use to see them very frequently. 
 
 2. Sometimes he returns home very late. 
 
 3. I really am not at all sorry. 
 
 4. We may probably go there to-morrow. 
 
 5. When I called at your house yesterday I left my stick behind me. 
 
 6. They set off early this morning for London. 
 
 7. We all dine out to-day. 
 
 8. He acted throughout with great discretion. 
 
 9. The winter is past ; already the trees and herbs begin to unfold their 
 
 tender green. 
 
 10. At last he opened his mouth and spoke. 
 
 11. He resolved immediately to make an apology. 
 
 12. I went immediately to his assistance, and never shall I forget the scene. 
 
 6. Syntax of Prepositions. 
 I. How TO PARSE THE PREPOSITION. 
 315. The Preposition is very easily parsed. All you have 
 to do is to say 
 
 It links such and such a noun or pronoun [naming it] to 
 such and such another word [naming it]. 
 
 MODEL. Around the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran. 
 Around. ... .a preposition, linking the noun rocks to the verb ran. 
 
 Exercise 38. 
 Dispose of the PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1 . The smiling daisies blow beneath the sun. 
 
 2. We crossed the river by a bridge made of ropes. 
 
 3. They sat them down upon the yellow sand. 
 
 4. We visited the ruins of the great Thebes. 
 
 5. How fresh the meadows look above the river. 
 
 6. The mocking-bird loses little of its energy by confinement. 
 
 7. The deer across their greensward bound. 
 
 8. I saw a wearied man dismount from his hot steed. 
 
 9. She waited underneath the dawning hills. 
 
 1 0. The noise of battle rolled among the mountains by the winter sea. 
 
 11. The light white cloud swam over us. 
 
 12. Her tears fell with the dews at even. 
 
116 SYNTAX. 
 
 II. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 
 Position of Prepositions. 
 
 316. The usual position of prepositions (pre^ before, and 
 positio, a placing) is before the words they govern. 
 
 317. But in poetry the preposition frequently follows the 
 word it governs ; as, The rattling crags among. Byron. 
 
 318. The Preposition should not be separated by an interme- 
 diate clause from the word it governs. ' Appears Lausanne, 
 with at its feet the little village of Ouchy/ should be ' with 
 the little village,' etc. 
 
 Repetition of Prepositions. 
 
 319. When the introductory correlative/ both/ ' either/ or 
 ' neither/ is followed by a preposition, that preposition must be 
 repeated after the conjunctions ' and/ ' or/ and ' nor' in the suc- 
 ceeding part of the sentence. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. This, in philosophical writing, has a disagreeable effect, 
 
 both upon the memory and upon the understanding 
 of the reader. 
 
 2. Mary is neither in the house nor in the garden. 
 
 3. We shall consider each of these three objects in versi- 
 
 fication both with respect to the feet and the pauses. 
 Murray's Grammar. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This should be 'with respect both to the feet and to 
 the pauses. ' 
 
 4. Performing at the same time the offices both of the 
 
 nominative and objective cases. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This should be, 'performing at the same time the of- 
 fices both of the nominative and of the objective case.' The article 'the' 
 is repeated before the word objective in accordance with ^ 294 (2). 
 
 5. The choice of prefixes or suffixes is determined not 
 
 merely by their meaning, but, etc. IZerFs Grammar. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Better, The choice of prefixes or of suffixes, etc.; be- 
 cause, when the correlative both, either, or neither, is plainly implied, the 
 principle given above holds good. 
 
 6. That is applied to persons as well as [to] things. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The preposition used before the first of two nouns 
 joined by the connection as well as, should be used before the second also. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 117 
 
 'Between' and 'Among.' 
 
 320. Between literally signifies by twain, that is, by two's. 
 Hence it can not apply to more than two. We may say 
 mother divided the apple between sister and me, but not be- 
 tween John, James, and Martha. The preposition among or 
 amongst is used to denote distribution applied to more than 
 two. The booty was divided among the forty thieves. 
 
 Rhetoric of Prepositions. 
 
 321. A statement is sometimes made effective by repeating 
 the preposition before each one of a string of words. Thus, 
 I will buy with you, sell with you, talk with you, walk with 
 you ; but I will not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray 
 with you. Shakspeare. 
 
 Appropriate Prepositions. 
 
 322. There are many words that can be followed by but 
 one preposition ; there are other words that admit different 
 prepositions, the sense greatly varying with each. Care should 
 be taken to select the preposition exactly adapted to express the 
 relation intended. 
 
 1. Making sense of itself. Murray's Grammar. Should 
 
 be by itself. 
 
 2. In respect of time. Murray. Should be With respect 
 
 to time. 
 
 3. When I was deliberating to what new qualifications I 
 
 should aspire, should be, When I was deliberating 
 with regard to what new, etc. 
 
 Ask for. If he ask for bread r will he give him a stone? Bible. 
 Ask from. We ask not such from thee. Hemans. 
 Ask of. But of the never-dying soul ask things that can not die. 
 Averse/row. Because my nature was averse from life. Byron. 
 Averse to. Averse to all innovation. 
 
 Call at (a house). He ordered him to call at his house. Temple. 
 Call back (retract). Will not call bofk his words. Bible. 
 Call for (demand, claim). His majesty doth call for you. Shakspeare. 
 Call in (invite). Call in the powers, good cousin. Shakspeare. 
 Call upon (pray). Call upon me in the day of trouble. Bible. 
 Compare to (as illustration). He compared reason to the sun, and fancy 
 
 to a meteor. Johnson. 
 
 Compare with (in quality). Compare their condition with his own. 
 Concur in (opinion). As if all my executors had concurred in the same. 
 
 Swift. 
 Concur with (a person). It is not evil simply to concur with the*heathens. 
 
 Hooker. 
 
118 SYNTAX. 
 
 Consist in (contain). Wit consists in such a resemblance and congruity, 
 
 etc. Addison. 
 Consist o/(made of). The land would consist of plains and valleys. 
 
 Burnett. 
 
 Consist with (agree). Health consists with temperance alone. Pope. 
 Contend against (an obstacle). Contend against thy valor. Shakspeare. 
 Contend with (a person). Neither contend with them. Bible. 
 Copy after (an example). Several seemed to have copied after it. 
 Copy from (as a painter). A painter copies from the life. Dry den. 
 Defend (others) from. He defends them /row danger. 
 Defend (ourselves) against. The queen is able to defend herself against 
 
 all her enemies. Swift. 
 Die of (disease). She died of scarlet fever. 
 
 Differ /ro?w (in quality). Nor how the hero differs from the brute. 
 Differ with (in opinion). Those who differ with you in their sentiments. 
 
 Addison. 
 
 Disappointed in (what is had). He was disappointed in his friend. 
 Disappointed o/(what is not had). Than to be disappointed of what' we 
 
 have only the expectation. Adam Smith. 
 
 Divide amongst or among (three or more). Divide it amongst the men. 
 Divide between (two). It was divided between her heart and lips. 
 Exception from (a rule or law). 
 Exception to (rule or law). That proud exception to all nature's laws. 
 
 Pope. 
 Indulge in (habitual). We indulge ourselves in the gratifications, etc. 
 
 A tterbury. 
 
 Indulge with (occasional). 
 
 Lean against (a wall). Leaning against a pillar. Peacham. 
 Lean on (a staff). I lean no more on superhuman aid. Byron. 
 Lean to (an opinion). Leaning to either side. Watts. 
 Lean to (bias). Leaned to virtue's side. Goldsmith. 
 Listen for {expected sound). He listened for the traveler's tread. 
 Listen to {present sound). Listen to the noise. Dennis. 
 Live at a small town ; live in London ; live in France. My father lived 
 
 at Blenheim then. Southey. 
 Live at. Who live at home at ease. Dorset. 
 Live in (state). He lived and died in poverty. 
 Live upon (food). They live upon other animals. Arbuthnot. 
 Live up to (rules). Live up to the dictates of reason. Addison. 
 Live with (a person). Then live with me. Shakspeare. 
 Look at (to regard). As if it looked at something. Sterne. 
 Look for (what is lost or expected). Looked for death with the same ex- 
 pectation as for victory. Southel/. 
 
 Look on (see). I'll be candle-holder, and look on. Shakspeare. 
 Look to (guard). Look well to thy herds. Bible. 
 Look upon. Look not upon me thus reproachfully. Byron. 
 i Look up to (heaven). Let us look up to God. Bacon. 
 Prevail on } 
 
 Prevail upon > (persuade). Prevail upon some judicious friend. Swift. 
 Prevail with ) 
 
 Sink beneath (a sword). Worlds must sink beneath the stroke. 
 Sink down (penetrate, faint). 
 
SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 119 
 
 Sink into (into the sea or earth). He sinks into thy depths. Byron. 
 
 Sink under (a burden). A nation sinking under its debts. Junius. 
 
 Sink upon (ground, bosom). He sank upon my breast. Hemans. 
 
 Start at (dreadful sight). He starts at sin. Dryden. 
 
 Start from (a place). Shall start from every wave. Campbell. 
 
 Start with (a companion). 
 
 Start up (spring). Start up from the dead. Pope. 
 
 Strive against ( a person or ) Private pity strove with public hate. Den- 
 
 Strive with \ obstacle ) ham. 
 
 Strive for (an object). Pretenders oft for empire strive. Dryden. 
 
 Struggle for (an object). 
 
 Struggle with (a person). 
 
 Taste /or (inclination). A taste for wit and sense. Swift. 
 
 Taste of (morsel, flavor). The taste of it was like wafers. 
 
 Weary in. Weary in well-doing. 
 
 Weary of (task, duty). Society grown weary o/the load. Cowper. 
 
 Weary with. Not to be weary with you. Shakspeare. 
 
 Wait at (table). Made him wait at table. Swift. 
 
 Wait/or (an expectation). And waited for his prey. Southey. 
 
 Wait on (a person). I will wait on him. Shakspeare. 
 
 7. Syntax of the Conjunction. 
 I. How TO PAKSE THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 323. Parse the Conjunction by saying that 
 
 It joins the statements [naming them} hy joining such and 
 such words (verbs, nouns), etc. {naming them}. 
 
 MODEL. The day is fine and the sun shines. 
 
 And *...a copulative conjunction, connects the two statements 'the day 
 
 is fine,' ' the sun shines.' 
 
 Wisdom is better than gold. 
 
 Than a conjunction, connects the statement 'Wisdom is better' with 
 
 the elliptical statement 'gold [is].' 
 
 324. In disposing of the correlative conjunctions 'both 
 and,' ' neither nor,' ' though yet,' * as as,' ' so that,' say 
 that the former of the pair serves to introduce the connection 
 made by the other. 
 
 Exercise 39. 
 Dispose of the CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 1. He has some money, but you have non 
 
 2. 'Twas noon, 
 And Helon knelt beside a stagnant pool 
 In the lone wilderness. 
 
 3. The trees have lost their foliage because autumn has come. 
 
 4. Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull. 
 
120 SYNTAX. 
 
 5. The boy breathes so very hard that we find it impossible to sit. 
 
 6. Neither the horse nor the carriage was injured. 
 
 II. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 NOTE. The Syntax of Conjunctions has been treated incidentally in 
 connection with other parts of speech. Conjunctions have very little syn- 
 tax of their own. They indeed exercise an important influence over words 
 associated with the words that they conjoin ; but this influence has already 
 been considered under the Verb, the Adjective, etc. The following are 
 the principal points relating to conjunctions themselves : 
 
 'And/ or 'Or/ 
 
 325. The Copulative and is sometimes wrongly used in 
 place of the Disjunctive or. Also, or is often misused for 
 and. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. It is obvious that a language like the Greek and Latin, 
 
 etc. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here the fit conjunction is.' or.' Moreover, in accord- 
 ance with the principle stated in 1 294 (2), the definite article should be re- 
 peated with the second noun. The expression correctly written stands 
 thus : It is obvious that a language like the Greek or the Latin, etc. 
 
 2. A perfect alphabet of the English language, and, in- 
 
 deed, of every other language, would contain a num- 
 ber of letters precisely equal to the number of single 
 articulate words belonging to the language. Mur- 
 ray's Grammar. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The same error is found here. The author should 
 have written, A perfect alphabet of the English language, or, indeed, of any 
 other language, would, etc. 
 
 3. Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. Brown's 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 EXPLANATION. The conjunction 'and' would here better serve to make 
 the connection intended : ' Relate to nouns and to pronouns.' 
 
 'Or* its double use. 
 
 326. Remember the double function of the conjunction or 
 its use in joining two p^arts of an alternative, and its use in 
 uniting synonyms. Christ or John the Baptist = Christ, or 
 (what is another person) John the Baptist ; Christ, or the 
 Messiah^ Christ, or (what is the same person) the Messiah. 
 
 In the language of law, the latter use of or is expressed by alias; as, 
 Heenan, alias the Benicia Boy. 
 
PKACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 121 
 
 1 Not or' and ' Not nor. 7 
 
 327. When, of two members that are disjoined, the first is 
 a negative, the contrast may be mad^ either by or or by nor. 
 Thus, The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigor- 
 ous, nor [or or] decisive, assented to the measure. Hume. 
 The nor is more emphatic, as it repeats the negative of the 
 first term. 
 
 'So that,' 
 
 328. In constructions requiring that as the correlative of 
 so, be careful not to use the relative pronoun who in place of 
 the conjunctions ' that' or as.' 
 
 ILLUSTKATION. 
 
 At Bunker Hill there was no one so sanguine but who 
 feared defeat. 
 
 EXPLANATION. 'Who' can not play the part of a correlative to 'so.' 
 Either ' that' or ' as' should be employed. Thus, ' There was no one so 
 sanguine that he did not fear defeat,' or, 'no one so sanguine as not to 
 fear defeat.' 
 
 ' Doubt,' but,' or ' that/ 
 
 329. The verb doubt is followed by either that or but. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. I can not doubt that I have contributed something to 
 
 the general literature of my country. Hallam. 
 
 2. It is not doubted but the bishops were constituent 
 
 members of this council. Hume. 
 CAUTION. Be careful not to follow ' doubt' by ' but that' or 'but what.' 
 
 'As as,' 'so as.' 
 
 330. 'As as' is used in affirmative comparison; so as' in 
 negative comparison. EXAMPLE : Mine is as good as yours ; 
 but his is not so good as either. 
 
 'And and,' 'nor nor.' 
 
 331. In poetry, c and and' is often used for 'both and;' 
 4 nor nor' for ' neither nor.' EXAMPLE : And trump and 
 timbrel answered keen. Scott. I, whom nor avarice nor 
 pleasure moves. 
 
 1 Neither nor ;' 'Either or;' ' Whether or.' 
 
 332. These may be called alternative conjunctions. An al- 
 ternative is a choice between two, and only two : hence these 
 
 F 
 
122 SYNTAX. 
 
 conjunctions must not be used to couple more than two terms. 
 'Either or' denotes one thing with a choice of another; 
 ' neither' means simply not either ; ' whether or' means lit- 
 erally which of the two or. This principle is constantly lost 
 sight of. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. These rules should be kept in mind as aids either for 
 
 speaking, composing, or parsing correctly. MorrelVs 
 Grammar. 
 EXPLANATION. Incorrect. Rectify it by omitting the ' either.' 
 
 2. Neither in France, in Spain, in Italy, nor in Germany, 
 
 is this false and absurd appellation in use. Cobbett's 
 Grammar. 
 
 Correct thus : 'This false and absurd appellation is not in use in France, 
 Spain, Italy, or Germany.' 
 
 'Now.' 
 
 333. There is a peculiar use of the adverb c now,' that ren- 
 ders it in certain cases a conjunction. EXAMPLE : He was 
 promised a holiday if he executed his task ; noio, he has done 
 the task ; hence he is entitled to the holiday. 
 
 Connection of Terms. 
 
 334. Any two terms that we connect by a conjunction 
 should be the same in kind or quality, not different or hete- 
 rogeneous. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Macaulay wrote the history of England with the two- 
 
 fold purpose of clearing the name of the Whigs from 
 the charges made by Hume, and to set forth the real 
 life of the English people. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Notice the two expressions joined by the conjunction 
 'and.' 'The purpose of clearing the name,' etc., and 'the purpose [un- 
 derstood] to set forth,' etc. The two terms are different or heterogeneous 
 the one being a participial construction, the other an infinitive construc- 
 tion, and accordingly the sentence violates the rule. Correct it thus : The 
 purpose of clearing the name, etc., and of setting forth the real life, etc. 
 
 2. There are many persons who have the means of doing 
 
 good, but have not the desire to do good. 
 EXPLANATION. The fault lies in joining, by means of the conjunction 
 'but,' two terms that are not of the same kind or quality, namely, ' of do- 
 ing good,' and ''to do good.' The sentence may be correctly turned thus : 
 Many persons have the means of doing good, but have not the desire of do- 
 ing good ; or, better still, Many persons have the means, without the de- 
 sire, of doing good. 
 
PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 123 
 
 3. I would do as much or more work than John. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This is a somewhat complicated blunder; let us see if 
 we can detect exactly where the fault lies. The sentence makes, in point 
 of fact, two statements : 
 
 (1.) 'I would do as much work than John' (we must supply the ' than,' 
 because it is expressed in the second member). 
 
 (2.) 'I would do more work than John.' 
 
 But ' as much than' is nonsense, since the compound conjunction is ' as 
 much as. ' The way to turn such a sentence is to say, ' I would do as much 
 work as John, or more. 1 
 
 4. The happy historian has no other labor than \ of gath- 
 
 ering what tradition pours down before him. 
 
 EXPLANATION. In this sentence the conjunction than connects what 
 terms ? The terms ' other labor' and ' of gathering. ' But these are of 
 wholly different kinds or qualities. The sentence is corrected by supplying 
 the pronoun 4 that' to correspond with the term ' other labor.' Thus The 
 happy historian has no other labor than that of gathering what tradition 
 pours down before him. 
 
 Ellipsis of Conjunctions. 
 
 335. Some conjunctions are often properly suppressed. 
 Such are : 
 
 1. And and or before all but the last of several words, 
 
 phrases, or clauses of the same kind in a series, and 
 in the elevated style of writing, even before the last. 
 EXAMPLE : Science has now left her retreats, [and] 
 her shades, [and] her selected company of votaries. 
 
 2. Hither before or, and neither before nor. EXAMPLE : 
 
 None of them [either] returned his gaze, or seemed 
 to notice it. Dickens. 
 
 3. That when the connecting word between the principal 
 
 member and the dependent proposition of a sentence. 
 EXAMPLE : But Brutus says [that] he was ambitious. 
 Shakspeare. " You're sure [that] you did not, sir," 
 said Mr. Winkle. Dickens. 
 
 4. Yet after though. EXAMPLE. Though he fall, [yet] he 
 
 shall not be utterly cast down. 
 
 t 
 The Rhetoric of Conjunctions. 
 
 336. A rhetorical effect may be produced by omitting con- 
 junctions. In like manner, a rhetorical effect is produced by 
 supplying conjunctions where they would ordinarily be omit- 
 ted. In each case it is departure from the commonplace prac- 
 tice that produces the effect. 
 
124 SYNTAX. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION Conjunction omitted. 
 
 Through many a dark and dreary vale 
 They passed, and many a region dolorous ; 
 O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp, 
 Rocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades of death, 
 A universe of death. Milton* 
 
 ILLUSTRATION Conjunctions in full. 
 
 Seasons return, but not to me returns 
 Bay, or the sweet approach of even or morn, 
 Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
 Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. Milton. 
 
 8. Syntax of Moods and Tenses. 
 '!F HE is' and C !F HE BE.' 
 
 337. It is sometimes difficult to tell whether to use the In- 
 dicative or the Subjunctive Mood when the verb is preceded 
 by a conditional conjunction; that is, to know whether to 
 say if he be or if he is, if he love or if he loves. 
 
 338. The rule is that, whenever one of the potential auxil- 
 iaries, 'may/ 'can,' 'would/ 'should/ is understood, or the future 
 auxiliary ' shall/ the subjunctive form is to be used. 
 
 NOTE. () The potential auxiliary is understood when doubt or contin- 
 gency is implied. - Review what is said on the real nature of the Subjunc- 
 tive Mood, 1 157-160. 
 
 (b} The choice between the Indicative and the so-called Subjunctive 
 Mood has long been a matter of great practical difficulty. It is believed 
 that the above treatment of the subjunctive as an elliptical form of the Po- 
 tential will serve to make the matter at least a little more intelligible. The 
 tendency of modern usage is wholly to disregard the niceties of the Sub- 
 junctive Mood, and it seems probable that this form will in time wholly 
 disappear from our language. The irregular verb to be is the only verb 
 retaining any thing like full inflection of the Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 ILLTJSTKATIONS. 
 
 1. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
 EXPLANATION. In this sentence 'slay 1 is rightly in the Subjunctive 
 
 Mood, and the indicative slays would be wrong. Putting the sentence in 
 the regular or common order, it will stand, 
 
 I will trust in him, though he [may] slay me. 
 
 Since ' may' is understood, we must use slay [the Subjunctive Mood], 
 since to say may slays would be absurd. 
 
 2. If he believes in the law of charity, he does not prac- 
 
 tice it. 
 
 EXPLANATION. In this sentence, it is plain that there is no contingency 
 implied, for we can not supply a potential auxiliary, and say * if he [may] 
 

 SYNTAX OF MOODS AND TENSES. 125 
 
 believe.' The statement is assumed as a fact, and is equivalent to 'If he 
 does believe in the law of charity, he does not practice it. ' Hence the con- 
 ditional form of the Indicative Mood is correctly used after the conjunc- 
 tion if. Whenever the Indicative auxiliary does or do can be supplied, the 
 Indicative Mood is required after the Conditional Conjunctions. 
 
 Remember that the Conjunctions ''of,' 1 i though,' 'but,' l unless,' etc., are 
 not signs of the Subjunctive Mood. They may be used with either the In- 
 dicative or the Subjunctive Mood, the sense determining which should be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 3. If he thinks as he speaks, he may safely be trusted. 
 EXPLANATION. If he speaks =if he does speak, not If he may speak. 
 
 Hence the Indicative is correctly used. 
 
 4. Pie acts uprightly unless he deceives me. 
 EXPLANATION. This does not mean unless he may deceive me, but un- 
 less he does deceive me. Hence the Indicative is used. 
 
 5. If he 'see the signal he will answer. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This means if he shall see, or if he should see; hence 
 the subjunctive is the proper form. If the sentence meant if he does see, 
 the indicative form, if he sees, would be used. 
 
 6. If it we*e [it should be] done, when 'tis done, 
 
 Then 'twere [it would be] well it were [it should be~] 
 done quickly. Shakspeare. 
 
 THE USE OF TENSES. 
 
 339. In constructing a sentence, be careful to use the tense 
 of the verb fitted to express the exact meaning. The appli- 
 cation of this principle will be seen by the following illustra- 
 tions : 
 
 Present Infinitive. 
 
 1. Last week I intended to have written him a letter. 
 EXPLANATION. This is a very common form of expression, but it is in- 
 
 . correct. No matter how long it now is since I thought of writing, to write 
 was present to me when I intended, and must still be considered present 
 when I recall the intention. The sentence should be, Last week I intended 
 to write a letter. 
 
 2. I expected last year to have gone to Europe on busi- 
 
 ness. 
 
 EXPLANATION. For the same reason as before given, this sentence 
 should read, I expected last year to go to Europe on business. 
 
 3. When I went to Europe I hoped to have visitecl Italy. 
 - EXPLANATION. For the same reason as before given, this sentence 
 
 should be, I hoped to visit, etc. 
 
 4. It is a long time since I commanded him to have done 
 
 it. 
 EXPLANATION. This sentence is formed on the model of the three fore- 
 
126 SYNTAX. 
 
 going sentences. It will readily be seen that it is absurd, but it is no worse 
 than the others are. 
 
 340. The following rule applies to sentences like the above : 
 All verbs expressing hope, desire, intention, or command, must 
 be followed by the Present Infinitive, and not by the Perfect In- 
 finitive. 
 
 Perfect Infinitive. 
 
 1. Bishop Usher believed the earth to have been created 
 
 4004 B.C. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here it is evident that the Perfect Infinitive is correct- 
 ly used, the sentence being equivalent to ' Bishop Usher believed that the 
 earth was created 4004 B.C. the created being a past event at the time 
 Bishop Usher formed his opinion. 
 
 2. Alexander considered the battle of the Granicus to have 
 
 been won by the charge of the Macedonian phalanx. 
 Here the act spoken of is regarded as having been completed before the 
 time when he considered. 
 
 341. These illustrations show that the Perfect Infinitive is 
 used if the act spoken of is regarded as completed before the 
 time expressed by the following verb. 
 
 iHP It is evident from these examples that whether the Present Infini- 
 tive is to be used or the Perfect Infinitive depends on the idea to be con- 
 veyed. 
 
 HAKMONY OF TENSES. 
 
 342. A proper harmony and correspondence of Tenses must be 
 observed. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. I shall be much gratified if you icoidd favor us with 
 
 your company. 
 
 EXPLANATION. A proper harmony requires the future indicative, ' will 
 favor,' not the past potential, ' would favor.' 
 
 2. I feared that I should have missed the train before I 
 
 reached the depot. 
 
 EXPLANATION. This is equivalent to ' at that time [past] I feared that I 
 should miss [future] the train before I reached the depot. Hence the sen- 
 tence should read, I feared that I should miss the train before I reached the 
 de'pot.- 
 
 3. I can not excuse the carelessness of the officer whose 
 
 duty it was to have watched the enemy's approach. 
 
 It should be to watch. 
 
 4. Columbus believed that the earth icas spherical. 
 EXPLANATION. Here was should be is, because it is not the intention 
 
SYNTAX OF MOODS AND TENSES. 127 
 
 to state that the roundness of the earth was a fact of the past ; it is an im- 
 mutable truth, and the rule is that such statements must always be made 
 in the present tense. 
 
 5. If you are not careful, you might fall overboard. 
 The proper tense is ' may fall. ' 
 
 6. I know him for more than ten years. 
 
 Say have known. 
 
 7. Nor has it ever been seriously undertaken, until it was 
 
 commenced, within the last ten years, by the Lon- 
 don Philological Society. Marsh. 
 
 The present perfect tense is here wrongly used. It should be, Nor was 
 it ever seriously undertaken, etc., or else, Nor had it ever been, etc. 
 
 Correct the following : 1. By letters dated May 3d, we learn 
 that the West India fleet arrived safely. 2. I have lost the 
 game, though I thought I should have won it. 3. The next 
 New-Year's day I shall be at school three years. 
 
 ELLIPSIS OF VEEBS. 
 
 343. The following sentences illustrate a common blunder 
 in the ellipsis of parts of compound verbs : 
 
 1. This elucidation may serve for almost any book that 
 
 has, is, or shall be published. Bolingbroke. 
 EXPLANATION. 'Published,' the past participle of the verb publish, is 
 correctly used with ' shall be ;' its ellipsis with ' is' is proper ; but the ellip- 
 sis with ' has' is not correct, because the writer intended to say has been 
 published, using the present perfect tense, passive voice. 
 
 344. Hence the rule : When two or more Compound Tenses 
 of the same Verb are connected, such parts of the Tenses as are 
 not common to all must be inserted in full. 
 
 2. Did he not tell you his fault, and entreated you to for- 
 
 give him ? 
 
 EXPLANATION. The two verbs here connected are 'did tell' and 'en- 
 treated;' but, supplying the ellipsis before the second verb, we have l did 
 he not entreated,' which is incorrect, as ' did' is never used with a past par- 
 ticiple. The sentence fully corrected is, 'Did he not tell you his fault, and 
 did he not entreat you to forgive him?' It is allowable to drop the aux- 
 iliary before the second verb if the verb is put into a form to harmonize 
 with the auxiliary ; hence we may say, ' Did he not tell you his fault, and 
 entreat,' etc. 
 
 Hence the rule : When Verbs are connected by a Conjunc- 
 tion, never make an ellipsis of an auxiliary used before the first 
 Verb if the after forms of the Verb will not harmonize with the 
 auxiliary when supplied. 
 
128 SYNTAX. 
 
 SHALL AND WILL. 
 ' I will drown ; nobody shall help me.' 
 
 The unfortunate foreigner that fell into a river, not understanding En- 
 glish idioms, exactly reversed the places of shall and will when he made 
 use of this exclamation. He meant to say, I shall drown [i. e. , I expect 
 to drown], because nobody will help me.' 
 
 345. The correct and elegant use of shall and will is one 
 of the most difficult things in the English language for a for- 
 eigner to learn. Correct usage,' indeed, is often violated by 
 those that speak and write English as their mother tongue. 
 
 346. Shall and will are the two auxiliaries by which we ex- 
 press our future tense, the English language having no dis- 
 tinct and separate forms of the verb to express mere future 
 time ; but each of these auxiliaries has its own specific shade 
 of meaning besides that of futurity, and hence arise many 
 nice distinctions in their peculiar and appropriate uses. 
 
 Shall etymologically means to owe, or to be morally bound. It is traced 
 back in its origin to the Gothic skal, which meant I have killed, and thence 
 
 I owe the penalty. Chaucer writes, ' By the faith I shall to God,' meaning 
 
 I 1 owe to God. ' WILL means to wish, or to be willing. Etymologically, 
 then, SHALL implies obligation or necessity, and WILL implies wish, con- 
 sent, or volition. 
 
 Case I. Futurity. 
 
 I ) You ) 
 
 - > shall write. He > will write. 
 
 They j 
 
 347. The reason of the preceding use of shall in the first 
 person, and will in the second and third persons, seems to be 
 this : When a person says, ' I shall write a letter,' he express- 
 es his own obligation to write ; but he expresses the obliga- 
 tion of another person more deferentially and delicately by 
 referring to that person's wish rather than to obligation. It 
 is a form of grammatical politeness. 
 
 348. The misuse of Witt instead of shall in the first person, 
 denoting mere futurity, is common in many parts of our 
 country; thus: 
 
 ' In a century hence we will [shall] be a great and power- 
 ful people.' Newspaper. 
 'We will [shall] undoubtedly elect our candidate by a 
 
 large majority.' Newspaper. 
 
 The same rule of courtesy is the reason why shall is not always used in 
 the first person plural. When we means he and I, it is followed by shall; 
 
SYNTAX OP MOODS AND TENSES. 129 
 
 but when it means you and 7, the courteous and deferential will takes the 
 place of shall. If the speaker puts himself in the third person he will not 
 use shall,- as, ' Mr. Brown will be glad of Mr. Smith's company at dinner 
 to-day,' or, 'Dear Smith, I shall be glad of your company to-day at dinner.' 
 
 Case II Determination, Command, 
 ii You ) 
 
 A1 r 7 > will write. He > shall write. 
 
 They) 
 
 349. 'We will write' may mean 'We promise to write,' or 
 it may express our determination to write. In either case 
 will retains its proper force, to wish, to resolve, to consent. 
 ' You shall write' means ' I have power over you, and I am 
 determined to force you to write ;' i. e. 9 I will you to write. 
 
 In the two common forms of polite speech, ' I shall be obliged to you' 
 and ' I will thank you,' the auxiliaries are rightly placed, and ought not to 
 be reversed. ' I shall be greatly obliged to you' foretells an obligation in 
 the future for which I ought to thank you, and ' I will thank you.' expresses 
 my intention or my promise to thank you. ' I will be greatly obliged to 
 you' and 'I shall thank you' are inelegant and ungrammatical. 
 
 Case III Asking Questions. 
 
 Shall I write ? Will you write ? 
 
 Shall we write ? Will he or they write ? 
 
 350. The usual form in interrogative sentences is shall in 
 the first person, and will in the others, but it can not be laid 
 down as an invariable rule to reverse the declarative forms. 
 Thus we say, 'Will you go?' or 'Shall you go?' The first 
 form implies a request; the second form, intention. 
 
 351. In asking a question ice generally use the form of ex- 
 pression in which we expect the answer to be given. 
 
 If I say ' Shall you go to school to-morrow ?' [Do you intend to go to 
 school to-morrow ?], I expect the answer from you 1 1 shall' [I intend to 
 go]. If I expect a promise, I say, 'Will you write a composition ?' and ex- 
 pect the promise 'I will.' It is a piece'of good manners, a part of gram- 
 matical courtesy. 
 
 4 You will go to school to-morrow' may be said affirmatively even, with 
 the rising inflection, and then the answer expected is 'I will,' or 4 1 will not.' 
 The expression 'You will go to school to-morrow, shall you not?' may 
 seem to be redundant, but it is quite correct. 
 
 BLUNDERS IN VERBS. 
 
 352. The following are some of the most common vulgar- 
 isms in the use of verbs. 
 
 1. I done [did] my example in arithmetic correctly. 
 
 Why is this a stupid blunder ? Correct it, and be careful not to use so 
 gross a vulgarism either in talking or in writing. 
 
 F2 
 
130 SYNTAX. 
 
 2. I seen him when he done it. 
 What are the two vulgarisms here used ? 
 
 3. Where is Alice ? She has went [gone] to school. 
 Why does this jar on the ear of every cultivated person ? 
 
 4. Hadn't [had not] I ought to do it ? 
 
 Had is never used as an auxiliary of ought. You should say ' ought not 
 I to do it ?' 
 
 5. I had rather not do it. 
 
 EXPLANATION. Say 'I would rather not do it.' The written form, 
 sometimes seen, probably originated in a mistake as to the composition of 
 the oral expression, ''I'd rather not,' etc. It is an abbreviation of I would 
 rather, and not of I had rather. l I'd [=1 would] rather be a dog and bay 
 the moon.' Shakspeare. 
 
 6. 'Tisrft a wasp. IPs John that goes to school. 
 EXPLANATION. 'Tis and it's are not commendable forms for it is. 
 
 Though allowable in conversation, they should not be used in written com- 
 position. ' 'Tis' is a poetic license, as, 
 
 'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands. -Shakspeare. 
 
 7. I have not done it yet, but I mean to. 
 EXPLANATION. It is very clumsy to omit the infinitive after to ; and 
 
 though in ordinary conversation this ellipsis often occurs, it is not allowa- 
 ble in accurate writing. Either repeat the verb, or supply its place by do 
 or do so. i I have not done it yet, but I mean to do it.' ' You may take 
 a walk, if you like.' Better thus: 'You may take a walk, if you like to 
 do so.' 
 
 C IS BEING DONE.' 
 
 353. Forms like the above are felt to be very awkward. 
 The house is being built, It has been being built many months, 
 are such disagreeable phrases, through the repetition of the 
 verb be, that we avoid them when possible. It is common 
 even to say the house is building, or has been building, as if 
 build were an intransitive verb. But this is not strictly cor- 
 rect. The old English expression, It is a-building (at build- 
 ing,' m the process of building'), is preferable, though seldom 
 used. We must choose among the following forms of ex- 
 pression : 
 
 The house has been many months a building (which is 
 good, old Saxon English) ; 
 
 The house has been many months building (perhaps el- 
 liptical for the above, but in itself incorrect) ; 
 
 The house has been many months being built (which is 
 correct, but intolerably awkward). 
 
SYNTAX OF MOODS AND TENSES. 131 
 
 Or we must vary the expression by saying, 
 
 They have been many months building the house ; 
 Or, The house has been many months in course (or pro- 
 cess) of building. 
 
 Exercise 39. 
 
 The following sentences illustrate a great variety of FAULTS 
 OF SYNTAX. The pupil, in correcting these sentences , is to ap- 
 ply the principles heretofore learned: 
 
 1. This is very easy done. 
 
 2. The great historian and the essayist is no more. 
 
 3. It could not have been her. 
 
 4. Did you see the man and the dog which passed this way ? 
 
 5. I intend to immediately retire from business. 
 
 6. I think I will return home next week. 
 
 7. He seldom or ever visits us. 
 
 8. It is thinking makes what we read ours. 
 
 9. The death was announced lately of the great statesman. 
 
 10. Who are you looking for ? 
 
 11. The collection of books that have come down to us from that period 
 
 are very valuable. 
 
 1 2. I expected to have been at home when you called. 
 
 13. It was him and me that were chosen to go. 
 
 14. When will we three meet again? 
 
 15. He not only ought, but must succeed. 
 .16. I never saw it rain so heavy before. 
 
 17. His work is one of the best that have ever appeared. 
 
 18. It has been said that politics are but little more than common sense. 
 
 19. Metal types were now introduced, which before this time had been made 
 
 of wood. 
 
 20. No man ever bestowed such a gift to his kind. 
 
 21. The book is fitted either for school or private use. 
 
 22. This is one of the most memorable battles that ever have or will be 
 
 fought. 
 
 23. All thinking men believe that the soul was immortal. 
 
 24. He found he had lost his sight, and was led from the battle-field by a 
 
 soldier. 
 
 25. It is now five days since you have arrived. 
 
 26. I trust you shall overlook the circumstance of me having come to school 
 
 late. 
 
 27. The regiment had no less than a hundred men fell in the engagement. 
 
 28. What is the difference between an adjective and participle ? 
 '29. These flowers smell very sweetly and look beautifully. 
 
 30. Have you no other book but this ? 
 
 31. He is only fitted to govern others who can govern himself. 
 
 32. The spirit, and not the letter, of the law are what we ought to follow. 
 
 33. This one seems more preferable than the other. 
 
 34. The inscription gave the name and age of the deceased merely. 
 
 35. Once upon a time there lived a poor man who had two sons, near a 
 
 wood. 
 
132 SYNTAX. 
 
 36. I found the knight under the butler's hands who always shaved him. 
 
 37. Flour will not do to make our bread alone. 
 
 38. No one in England knew what tea was two hundred years ago. 
 
 39. The man could neither read or write. 
 
 40. The gook of Psalms were written by David. 
 
 41. That building must be either a church or school. 
 
 42. Here come my old friend and teacher. 
 
 43. The minute finger and the hour hand has each its particular use. 
 
 44. Which of that group of men is the taller ? 
 
 45. What boy amongst us can foretell their future career ? 
 
 46. She walked with the lamp across the room still burning. 
 
 47. An account of the great events in all parts of the world are given in 
 
 the daily papers. 
 
 48. I shall not trouble any reader, being studious of brevity, with all the 
 
 curiosities I observed. 
 
 49. If were in his position, I would not have gone. 
 
 50. They would neither eat themselves nor suffer nobody else to eat. 
 
 51. Wild horses are caught with a lasso, or a noose. 
 
 52. Did you expect to have heard so poor a speech ? 
 
 53. I can not give you no more money. 
 
 54. Am I the scholar who am to be punished. 
 
 55. There were a large number of soldiers killed and wounded. 
 
 56. We did no. more but what we ought to. 
 
 57. We have done no more than it was our duty to hare done. 
 
 58. He is a man of remarkable clear intellect. 
 
 59. He showed me two kinds, but I did not buy any of them. 
 
 60. I never have nor never will forgive him. 
 
 61. Every one is the best judge of their own conscience. 
 
 62. They told me'of him having failed. 
 
 63. I understand why the water never rises high quite well. 
 
 64. He has already, and will continue to receive many honors. 
 
 65. A dervise was met by two merchants traveling alone in a desert. 
 
 66. One species of bread of coarse quality was only allowed to be baked. 
 
 67. The party whom he invited was very numerous. 
 
 68. It is now about four hundred years since the art of multiplying books 
 
 has been discovered. 
 
 69. An officer on European and on Indian service are in very different sit- 
 
 uations. 
 
 70. The doctor said in his lecture that fever always produced thirst. 
 
 71. Alarmed by so unusual an occurrence, it was resolved to postpone their 
 
 departure. 
 
 72. The Annals of Florence are a most imposing work. 
 
 73. Such expressions sound harshly. 
 
 74. What can be the cause of the Parliament neglecting so important a 
 
 business ? 
 
 75. Either you or I are in the way. 
 
 76. He would not be persuaded but what I was greatly in fault. 
 
 77. I do not think that leisure of life and tranquillity of mind, which for- 
 
 tune and your own wisdom has given you, could be better employed. 
 
 78. That is seldom or ever the case. 
 
 79. The fact of me being a stranger to him does not justify his conduct. 
 
 80. Let me awake the King of Morven, he that is like the sun of heaven 
 
 rising in a storm. 
 
SYNTAX OF MOODS AND TENSES. 133 
 
 81. Either the young man or his guardian have acted improperly. 
 
 82. I had several men died in my ship of yellow fever. 
 
 83. The following treatise, together with those that accompany it, were 
 
 written many years ago. 
 
 84. A talent of this kind would perhaps prove the likeliest of any other to 
 
 succeed. 
 
 85. The ends of a divine and human legislation are very different. 
 
 86. On your conduct at this moment depends the color and complexion of 
 
 their destiny. 
 
 87. I have never seen Major Cartwright, much less enjoy the honor of his 
 
 acquaintance. 
 
 88. I am afraid of the man dying before a doctor can come. 
 
 89. That is either a man or a woman's voice. 
 
 90. Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, yet they are all within 
 
 his own breast. 
 
 91. The ebb and flow of the tides were explained by Newton. 
 
 92. And indeed in some cases we derive as much or more pleasure from 
 
 that source than from any thing else. 
 
 93. The number of inhabitants were not more than four millions. 
 
 94. The logical and historical analysis of a language generally in some de- 
 
 gree coincides. 
 
 95. But she fell a laughing like one out of their right mind. 
 
 96. Verse and prose run into one another like light and shade. 
 
 97. Homer had the greatest invention of any writer whatever. 
 
 98. Of all the other qualities of style, clearness is the most important. 
 
 99. That is applied to persons as well as things. 
 
 100. The maps are clear, attractive in appearance, and not encumbered 
 with minute details calculated "only to embarrass the learner, ex- 
 cept the reference maps, which are very full and complete. 
 
PAET III. . 
 ANALYSIS AND CONSTKUCTIOK ' 
 
 DEFINITION. 
 
 354. Analysis is resolving sentences into their component 
 parts. The principles of Analysis applied to the building up 
 of sentences may be called Synthesis or Construction. 
 
 NOTE. Analysis is a sort of general syntax (being equally applicable to 
 all languages), and in this text-book is made to follow the Special Syntax 
 of our own tongue. To analyze well-written sentences into their constitu- 
 ent parts is the best means of understanding how to write correctly our- 
 selves. As in Chemistry, so in Grammar, there are two processes, Analysis 
 and Synthesis. The former resolves a compound into its elements ; the 
 latter puts elementary substances together to form a compound. And as 
 the chemist takes a substance to pieces, and thus learns what elements go 
 to its formation, so the grammarian analyzes a sentence into its element- 
 ary parts. Then, too, as the chemist combines substances, so the gram- 
 marian puts words together synthetically. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 1. Sentences. 
 
 355. A Sentence is a complete thought expressed by means 
 either of one proposition or of several propositions. 
 
 Practically a sentence embraces all the words between two full stops. 
 
 356. A Proposition is the statement of a single fact by 
 means of one subject and of one predicate. 
 
 357. Propositions are of two kinds: 
 
 1. Principal containing the leading statement or state- 
 
 ments of the sentence. 
 
 2. Dependent containing the subordinate statement or 
 
 statements of the sentence. 
 
 NOTE. The term CLAUSE, whenever used in this book, is synonymous 
 with dependent proposition. 
 
 358. Sentences are divided into Simple, Complex^ and Com- 
 pound. 
 
 1. A Simple sentence consists of a single proposition. 
 
 2. A Complex sentence consists of one principal proposi- 
 
 tion, together with one or more dependent proposi- 
 tions. 
 
SENTENCES. 135 
 
 3. A Compound sentence consists of two or more prin- 
 cipal propositions. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 1. Simple Sentence. C I hear thee speak of the better 
 
 land.' c At daybreak, all fears were dispelled.' 
 
 2. Complex Sentence. 'When morning dawned [depend- 
 
 ent proposition], all fears were dispelled' [principal 
 proposition], 
 
 3. Compound Sentence. { -Morning having dawned^ ALL 
 
 FEAKS WEKE DISPELLED ; and WE SAW THE LAND 
 WITHIN A FEW LEAGUES OF US.' 
 
 Each principal proposition of a Compound Sentence may have one de- 
 pendent proposition or several dependent propositions attached to it. Such 
 a sentence is a sort of composite compound sentence. EXAMPLE : * When 
 morning dawned all fears were dispelled ; and we saw the land for which 
 we had so eagerly watched within a few leagues of us.' 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 NOTE I. The number of propositions in a sentence will be determined 
 by .the number of verbs it contains. 
 
 NOTE II. The kind of any proposition will be determined by the word 
 which stands at its head, that is, which introduces it. All propositions in- 
 troduced by Relative Pronouns, or Relative Adverbs, or Subordinate Con- 
 junctions, are Dependent. 
 
 NOTE III. Every sentence must contain one principal proposition at 
 least, but may contain any number of principal propositions. 
 
 NOTE IV. It must not be supposed that a Simple sentence necessarily 
 consists of only a few words. No matter how many qualifying or explan- 
 atory terms a sentence may contain, if it has but one subject and one pred- 
 icate, it is a Simple sentence. ' Jesus wept' is a Simple sentence contain- 
 ing two words -, the following is also a Simple sentence, though containing 
 sixty-two words : 
 
 4 About fourscore years ago there USED TO BE SEEN sauntering on the 
 pleasant terraces of Sans Souci, for a short time in the afternoon, or driv- 
 ing in a rapid, business manner on the open roads, or through the scraggy 
 woods and avenues of that intricate, amphibious Potsdam region, a highly 
 interesting lean, little old MAN, of alert, though slightly stooping figure. ' 
 Carlyles Frederick the Great. 
 
 NOTE V. It may aid the scholar in discriminating between Compound 
 and Complex sentences if he remembers that in Compound sentences the 
 parts are joined by co-ordinate conjunctions [see 1 83] ; in Complex by 
 subordinate conjunctions. In Compound sentences the numbers are mere- 
 ly put together (cum and pono), while in Complex sentences they are woven 
 together (cum and plecto). 
 
136 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Kinds of Sentences. 
 
 359. Sentences may be thus classified as to the form, they 
 take 
 
 1. The Sentence Assertive or Declarative ; as, Gold is yel- 
 
 low (affirmative). The man has not come (negative). 
 
 2. The Sentence Interrogative; ^Have you any bread? 
 
 3. The Sentence Imperative; as, Go back to your place. 
 
 4. The Sentence Exclamatory ; &,How softly the moon 
 
 shines ! 
 
 NOTE. The Assertive or Declarative form being the main type of all 
 sentences, this form will be used throughout in analysis. The same prin- 
 ciples* that apply to the Declarative form apply also to all the other forms. 
 
 The Order of a Sentence. 
 
 360. The order of a sentence may be direct or inverted / 
 and in resolving a sentence that is, in showing the elements 
 that enter into its construction it is necessary to reduce it 
 from the inverted to the direct form ; thus : 
 
 Inverted. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 
 
 ^ . ( The glimmering landscape fades on the sight now ; or, 
 
 tree . -j rpj ie gij mm ering landscape now fades on the sight. 
 Inverted. Thee the voice, the dance obey. 
 Direct. The voice, the dance obey thee. 
 Inverted. Slow melting strains their queen's approach declare. 
 Direct. Slow melting strains declare their queen's approach. 
 
 2. Elements of a Sentence. 
 
 361. Every sentence must contain an independent subject 
 and an independent predicate. These are the essential ele- 
 ments of a sentence. 
 
 362. The Predicate is that part of the sentence that makes 
 a statement. 
 
 363. The Subject is that about which the statement is made. 
 NOTE. By this definition we may always test whether or not an assem- 
 blage of words is a sentence. EXAMPLES : ' Sailing in a steamer to Eu- 
 rope;' 'A design which has never been completed.' The first example 
 contains neither subject nor predicate. The second has both subject and 
 predicate, but they are not independent, as the relative ' which' converts 
 what would otherwise be a principal sentence into a dependent proposi- 
 tion. 
 
 364. A Phrase is an element of a sentence not having a 
 subject or a predicate, but introduced by a preposition, a par- 
 ticiple, or an infinitive. 
 
SENTENCES. 137 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. 'Washington retreated into New Jersey. ,' (Phrase in- 
 
 troduced by & preposition.) 
 
 2. * Having crossed the Delaware, Washington's army was 
 
 safe.' (Phrase introduced by & participle.) 
 
 3. ' To attack the British was Washington's next object.' 
 
 (Phrase introduced by an infinitive) 
 
 365. In addition to the essential elements of a sentence, 
 there are two subordinate elements the adjective element, 
 and the adverbial element. 
 
 366. An Adjective element may be 
 
 1. A single word (adjective or noun) ; as, ' Wise men think 
 
 rightly.' 'Milton, the poet, wrote Paradise Lost.' 
 
 2. A phrase; as, 'Men of wisdom think rightly.' 'The 
 
 Secretary of Oliver Cromwell wrote Paradise Lost.' 
 
 3. A clause; as, 'Men who possess wisdom think rightly.' 
 
 367. An Adverbial element may be 
 
 1. A single word (adverb) ; as, 'He acts wisely? 
 
 2. A phrase ; as, ' He acts with wisdom? 
 
 3. A clause ; as, 'He acts as a wise man should act? 
 
 368. All sentences, however elaborate and lengthy, may be 
 resolved into these four elements : 
 
 I. Subject. II. Predicate. 
 
 III. Adjective Element. IV. Adverbial Element. 
 
 3. What the Subject may be. 
 
 369. The Subject of a sentence may be 
 
 1. A Noun or a Pronoun; as, 
 
 'Buckle wrote a History of Civilization.' 
 'He was an Englishman.' 
 
 2. A Phrase ; as, 
 
 'Not to know me argues yourselves unknown.' Mil- 
 ton. 
 'Hiding on horseback is good exercise.' 
 
 3. A Noun- Clause ; &$,'That the earth is spherical was 
 
 not known by the ancient Greeks;' 'That you have 
 wronged me doth appear in this.' Shakspeare. 
 
 
138 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 4. What the Predicate may be. 
 
 370. 'The Predicate may be either a Complete verb, or an 
 Incomplete verb and its complement. 
 
 371. A complete verb makes sense in itself; as, 'Time flies ;' 
 'Time will have fled? 'Bread is eaten.' 
 
 In Complete verbs the predicate and the verb coincide ; that is, they are 
 one and the same thing. A Complete verb does not necessarily consist of 
 a single word. It may be any of the forms of the verb found in its conju- 
 gation. Thus will have fled is the future perfect of ; fly.' 
 
 372. An Incomplete verb becomes a predicate by means of 
 various kinds of complements. 
 
 For the definition of Complement, review ^f 63. 
 
 373. The complement may be 
 
 I. The direct object of a transitive verb. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. 'Greene defeated Cornwallis? 
 
 In this sentence it is evident that * Cornwallis' is an essential part of the 
 predicate, as no thought is expressed until we specify whom Greene defeat- 
 ed. The same fact holds true of all transitive verbs. 
 
 The complement of a transitive verb is what is usually termed the object. 
 Some text-books make it a subordinate element of a sentence. 
 
 2. 'He expected to go to school? 'He stopped reciting 
 
 his lesson? 
 
 The first is a phrase introduced by an infinitive ; the second, a phrase 
 introduced by the verbal in -ing, equivalent to an infinitive. 
 
 3. 'Talleyrand said that the purpose of language is to con- 
 
 ceal thought? 
 
 Here the complement is a clause. 
 II. There are certain classes of verbs which, in order to 
 
 express their full sense, require an indirect as well as 
 
 a direct object. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. 'Murray taught me [indirect object] grammar'* [direct 
 
 object}. 
 
 2. 'The people elected Andrew JacJcson [direct object] 
 
 President [indirect object]. 
 
 3. 'Columbus told the Council [indirect object] that he 
 
 could sail to the Indies' 1 [direct object, clause']. 
 When a verb of this class is put in the passive voice, the direct object 
 becomes the subject, and the indirect the complement. ' The people elect- 
 ed Jackson President ;' 'Jackson was elected President by the people.' 
 
SENTENCES. 139 
 
 4. ' We expected him to go to school.' 
 
 He was expected to go to school. 
 
 Here ' to go to school,' a part of the object, in the active voice, becomes 
 the indirect complement of the verb ' was expected,' in the passive. 
 
 5. 'We told him to icaitf [infinitive, indirect object of 
 
 4 told']. 
 'He was told to waif [indirect object of was told']. 
 
 III. Various predicate attributes of a subject used with 
 the verb ' to be.' 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. 'Man is mortal 1 [complement a predicate adjective]. 
 
 2. 'And the earth was all rest, and the air was all love? 
 
 Keats. . [Here the complements are nouns, termed 
 predicate nominatives]. 
 
 3. 'It is she? [Here the complement is a personal pro- 
 
 noun as predicate nominative]. 
 
 4. ' His intention was to go. [Here the complement is a 
 
 phrase]. 
 
 5. 'It is probable that he has stolen the money? [Here the 
 
 complement is a clause.] 
 
 TV. Various predicate attributes used with neuter verbs, 
 other than the verb to be. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. Napoleon became First Consul? [Complement a noun, 
 
 predicate nominative.'] 
 
 2. ' The rose smells sweet? [Complement a predicate adjec- 
 
 tive^ 
 
 3. ' He died a natural death? [Complement a noun, death, 
 
 of cognate signification with died.] 
 
 5. How the Subject may be enlarged. 
 374. The Subject is enlarged by adjective elements. 
 
 1. By an adjective; as, ''The little bird sings.' 
 
 2. By a noun in apposition ; as, ' Newton, the philosopher 
 
 [adjective element], discovered the law of gravita- 
 tion.' 
 
 3. By a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case ; as, 'The 
 
 ladies' [adjective element] dresses were elegant.' 
 
 4. By ^ phrase; as, 'The battle of Marathon [adjective 
 
 element] secured the liberty of Greece.' ' The oxy- 
 
140 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 gen in the air [adjective element] preserves animal 
 life.' ' The sea, having spent its fury [participial ad- 
 jective element], became calm.' 
 
 5. By a clause; as, 'Carbon, ichich is the life of plants 
 [adjective element], is destructive to animals.' 
 
 An adjective clause is always connected with the subject by a relative 
 pronoun or a relative adverb. 
 
 Exercise 40. 
 
 State by what kind of an ADJECTIVE ELEMENT the Subject is 
 enlarged [ADJECTIVE word or words, ADJECTIVE phrase, or 
 ADJECTIVE clause]. 
 
 1. Good old red wine is the best. 
 
 2. Cagsar, having conquered Gaul, sailed over to Britain. 
 
 3. Chaucer, the father of English poetry, wrote the Canterbury Tales. 
 
 4. The invention of the steam-engine has made ocean navigation swift 
 
 and safe. 
 
 5. So ended Hannibal's first campaign in Italy. Arnold. 
 
 6. The drum's deep roll was heard afar. 
 
 7. Under her torn hat glowed the wealth 
 
 Of simple beauty and rustic health. Whittier. 
 
 8. The railroad that connects New York and San Francisco is the longest 
 
 in the world. 
 
 9. The government founded by our fathers will not be broken up by us. 
 
 10. A little old man, dressed in tattered clothes, passed by our door. 
 
 11. Born to inherit the most illustrious monarchy in the world, and early 
 
 united to the object of her choice, the amiable princess, happy in her- 
 self, and joyful in her future prospects, little anticipated the fate that 
 was so soon to overtake her. 
 
 6. Expansion of the Subject. 
 
 375. Expansion of a subject is the enlargement of its ad- 
 jective element from a word to & phrase or from a phrase to 
 a clause, without introducing any new idea ; as, 
 
 1. C A prudent man is respected.' [Adjective element 
 
 WORD.] 
 
 2. 'A man of prudence is respected.' [Adjective element 
 
 PHRASE.] 
 
 3. C A man who is prudent is respected.' [Adjective ele- 
 
 ment CLAUSE.] 
 
 4. ' Shrewd persons are to be found in all nations. ' Shrewd 
 
 persons = persons of shrewdness vr gifted with shrewd- 
 ness persons who are shrewd, or persons icho possess 
 shrewdness.' 
 
SENTENCES. 141 
 
 Exercise 41. 
 Expand the WOKDS printed in italics into PHRASES and 
 
 CLAUSES. 
 
 1 . Brave soldiers fell at Thermopylae. 
 
 2. The grateful mind loves to consider the bounties of Providence. 
 
 3. Four-legged animals are called quadrupeds. 
 
 4. Great generals [of great ability] were common in the time of Napoleon. 
 
 5. Virtuous men are honored. 
 
 7. How the Predicate may be Enlarged. 
 
 376. The Predicate may be enlarged 
 
 1. By an adverb ; as, 'Leonidas died bravely? 
 
 2. By a phrase ; as, ' The sun rises in the morning? 
 
 3. By an adverbial clause ; ' The lawyers smiled that aft- 
 
 ernoon when he hummed in court an old love-tune? 
 Whittier. 
 
 377. The adverbial elements used in enlarging the predi- 
 cate may be classified under the following four heads : 
 
 (1.) Those relating to time, or the when word, phrase, or clause. 
 
 (2.) place, or the where word, phrase, or clause. 
 
 (3.) manner, or the how word, phrase, or clause. 
 
 (4.) cause, or the why word, phrase, or clause. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS WOKDS. 
 
 1. 'He came up yesterday* time. 
 
 2. ' He went there* place. 
 
 3. ' He walks fast'* manner. 
 
 4. ' Why did he go ?' cause. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS PHRASES. 
 
 \. ( 'In Spain [place] Columbus waited for seven years' 
 [time]. 
 
 2. 'Many travelers in Africa have perished, with terrible 
 
 suffering [manner], from thirst* [cause]. 
 
 3. c Him the Almighty power 
 
 Hurled headlong [manner] flaming from the ethereal sky, 
 With hideous ruin and combustion [manner], down 
 To bottomless perdition* [place]. Milton. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS CLAUSES. 
 
 1. ' Cromwell matured little events before he ventured to 
 
 govern great ones'* [time]. 
 
 2. c The gardener is planting the shrubs where they will 
 
 have the most shade* [place]. 
 
142 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 3. 'Fishes have no voice because they have no lungs 1 
 [cause]. 
 
 Exercise 42. 
 
 Enlarge the Predicate by an Adverbial Element WORD, 
 PHKASE, or CLAUSE. 
 
 'Violets bloom' [time]. 'I get up' [time]. 'Liverpool 
 
 - is situated' [place]. ' Scholars study' [manner]. 
 
 ' The balloon rises' [cause], ' Bise early' [cause]. 
 
 378. The object of an incomplete verb may be enlarged in 
 all the various ways in which the subject is enlarged (see 
 
 1374). 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. 'The Esquimaux inhabit icy Greenland' [adjective]. 
 
 2. 'The English conquered Ireland, the Emerald Isle' [noun in apposition"]. 
 
 3. * In 1864 we celebrated Shakspeards three hundredth birthday' [noun 
 
 possessive"]. 
 
 4. ' The battle of Marathon secured the liberty of Greece' [phrase~]. 
 
 5. * Jefferson proposed the decimal notation which is in use in our country' 
 
 [clause']. 
 
 8. Expansion of the Predicate. 
 
 379. Expansion of the Predicate is accomplished by en- 
 larging its Adverbial element from a word to ajphrase, or 
 from a phrase to a clause, without introducing any new idea. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. 'Jenny Lind sang sweetly 1 (adverbial element WORD). 
 
 2. 'Jenny Lind sang icith sweetness* (adverbial element 
 
 PHRASE). 
 
 3. ' Jenny Lind sang as a sweet singer does'* (adverbial 
 
 element CLAUSE). 
 
 4. ' The husbandman's treasures are renewed yearly? ' Re- 
 
 newed yearly 1 -^ renewed with every year 1 =' renewed 
 as each recurring year comes round? 
 
 Exercise 43. 
 Expand the words printed in italics into PHRASES and CLAUSES. 
 
 1. He came upon me unawares [notice]. 
 
 2. Bees build their hives ingeniously. 
 
 3. Do not speak foolishly. 
 
 4. -Leonidas acted heroically. 
 
 5. Columbus sailed confidently [sure of success]. 
 
SENTENCES, / 
 
 UHIVERSITT' 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 1. The Simple Sentence Analyzed. 
 380. In analyzing a Simple Sentence proceed as follows : 
 
 I. Name or write the subject of the sentence. 
 
 By ' subject' is meant the grammatical subject, which will be either a 
 noun-word or a noun-phrase. 
 
 " The Articles a or an and the are to be taken as a part of the subject. 
 
 II. Name or write the Predicate. 
 
 The Predicate will be (1) a verb alone, or (2) an Incomplete verb with 
 its complement. 
 
 III. Name or write the enlargement or enlargements of the 
 
 subject. 
 
 The enlargement of the subject may be an adjective, a possessive noun 
 or pronoun, a noun in apposition, or an adjective phrase. It may be any 
 one or all of these. 
 
 IV. Name or write the enlargement or enlargements of the 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 (a) The enlargements of the predicate that consists of a Complete verb 
 will be (1) an adverb or (2) an adverbial phrase. 
 
 (6) The enlargement of the predicate in which an Incomplete verb is used 
 will be (1) an adverb or an adverbial phrase, or (2) an enlargement of the 
 complement by one or more of the four forms of the adjective element. 
 
 MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 
 
 Example 1. 
 'The hardy Laplander^ clad in skins, boldly defies the se- 
 
 verity of his arctic climate.' 
 I. SUBJECT ..................... ' The Laplander.' 
 
 II. PREDICATE .................. ' defies the severity. ' 
 
 III. ENLARGEMENT OF SUBJECT. . . 'hardy' (adjective), and 'clad in skins' 
 
 (adj. phrase). 
 
 IV. ENLARGEMENT OF PREDICATE. ' boldly, ' adverbial enlargement of verb, 
 
 and 'of his arctic climate,' adjective 
 enlargement of complement. 
 
 Example 2. 
 
 4 Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throve, 
 In rayless majesty, now stretches forth 
 Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world.' Young^s 
 
 Night Thoughts. 
 I. SUBJECT .................... . . ' Night.' 
 
 II. PREDICATE ................... ' stretches her sceptre.' 
 
144 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 III. ENLARGEMENT or SUBJECT ' sable goddess,' adjective element with 
 
 noun in apposition. 
 
 IV. ENLARGEMENT or PREDICATE. ' fromher ebon throne, "in rayless maj- 
 
 esty,' 'now,' and 'o'er a prostrate 
 world,' adverbial enlargements of 
 verb; 'leaden,' adjective enlarge- 
 ment of complement * sceptre.' 
 
 Example 3. 
 
 * Him the Almighty Power 
 Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky, 
 With hideous ruin and combustion, down 
 To bottomless perdition.' Milton's Paradise Lost. 
 
 (a) Power SUBJECT or SENTENCE. 
 
 (b) Hurled him ..Predicate of sentence. 
 
 (c) The Almighty Adjective enlargement of a. 
 
 (d) Headlong Adverbial enlargement of 6. 
 
 (e) Flaming Adjective enlargement of 'him,' complement 
 
 of b. 
 
 (/) From the ethereal sky. . .Adverbial phrase, modifying e. 
 , N (With hideous ruin. ...) Enlargement of pred., Adverbial phrase (man- 
 
 ^' (And combustion ) ner). 
 
 (h) Down Enlargement of pred. Adverb (direction). 
 
 (i) To bottomless perdition. .Enlargement of pred. Adv. phrase (place). 
 
 Example 4. 
 
 To reach Cathay, famed in the writings of Marco Polo, 
 fired the imagination of the daring navigator.' 
 
 I. SUBJECT To reach Cathay (noun phrase). 
 
 II. PREDICATE fired the imagination. 
 
 III. ENLARGEMENT OF SUBJECT., .famed in the writings of Marco Polo 
 
 (adj. phrase). 
 
 IV. ENLARGEMENT OF PREDICATE, of the daring navigator (adj. phrase). 
 
 Example 5. 
 c My mother gave me a letter to read.' 
 
 I. SUBJECT Mother. 
 
 II. PREDICATE gave me (indirect comp.) a letter (di- 
 rect comp.). 
 
 III. ENLARGEMENT OF SUBJECT., .adj. element 'my.' 
 
 IV. ENLARGEMENT OF PREDICATE. to read (adverbial phrase). 
 
 Example 6. 
 
 ' Houses (subject) are built (predicate) to live in' (adverbial enlarge- 
 ment of predicate). 
 
 Example 7. 
 ' How are you ?' 
 
 4 You' (subject) l are' (predicate) ' how' (adverbial enlargement of pred- 
 icate). 
 
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 145 
 
 Exercise 44. 
 Analyze the following simple Sentences. 
 
 1. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 
 
 2. The squirrel eyes askance the chestnuts browning. 
 
 3. The moon threw its silvery light upon the rippling waters of the lake. 
 
 4. The swift-winged swallows twittered in their nests built under the eaves 
 
 f"the old barn. 
 
 5. Clad in a robe of everlasting snow, Mt. Everest towers above all other 
 
 mountain peaks of the globe. 
 
 6. Reaching the summit of the mountains was a feat hazardous to under- 
 
 take. 
 
 7. In the hereafter angels may 
 
 Roll the stones from its grave away. Whittier. 
 
 8. Gayly chattering to the clattering 
 
 Of the brown nuts downward pattering 
 
 Leap the squirrels red and gray. Whittier. 
 
 9. The great work laid upon his twoscore years is done. Whittier. 
 
 10. There is a rapture on the lonely shore. Byron. 
 
 11. We while the evening hours away 
 Around our camp-fires burning. 
 
 12. Stretched round the fading, flickering light, 
 We watch the stars above us. 
 
 13. The master gave his scholars a lesson to learn. 
 
 14. Where are you ? 
 
 15. Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. 
 
 2. Sentence-Building The Simple Sentence. 
 
 381. In the following exercises in sentence building, each 
 element to be included in the sentence is stated as a separate 
 proposition. 
 
 382. The various propositions are to be built up into one 
 Simple sentence, introducing into it only such words as are 
 necessary fully and clearly to express all the ideas. 
 
 iir Remember that your sentence must contain only one Subject and one 
 Predicate. 
 
 383. In working the exercises, use the following method: 
 
 I. Write the Subject on a line by itself. 
 II. Write the Verb on a line by itself. 
 
 III. If the Verb is Incomplete, write the Complement, or Complements, on 
 
 a line by themselves. 
 
 IV. Write the Adjective Elements belonging to the Subject on the same 
 
 line as the Subject ; and the Adjective Elements which modify the 
 Noun-object of an incomplete Verb on the same line as its Predicate. 
 V. Write each Adverb or Adverbial Phrase on a line by itself. 
 
 G 
 
146 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 384. The natural order of the elements in a simple English 
 sentence is so plain that it requires no explanation. The only 
 difficulty is in the right placing of the adverbial elements. 
 
 385. RULE. When you have a number of Adverbs, or of ad- 
 verbial phrases, do not string them together at the tail end of 
 a sentence, but distribute them in such a way that they will be 
 grouped around the principal words. 
 
 NOTE. The symboK stands for enlargement ; P. stands for Predicate; 
 S. stands for subject; Comp. for complement. 
 
 Punctuating the Simple Sentence. 
 
 386. Punctuation is indicating by means of points what 
 parts -of a sentence are to be conjoined, and what parts sepa- 
 rated in meaning. 
 
 RULE I. When the elements stand in their natural order Subject, Pred- 
 icate, and Object no point is required except a period at the close of the 
 sentence ; as, ' TJie morning air is laden with the perfume of the flowers. ' 
 
 RULE II. An adverbial phrase at the beginning of a sentence is gener- 
 ally followed by a comma ; as, ' By night, an atheist half believes there is a 
 God.' 
 
 RULE III. Appositional words and phrases following their nouns are 
 generally inclosed by commas ; as, ' Thackeray, the author of Vanity Fair, 
 died in 1863.' 
 
 RULE IV. Words and phrases of the same order in a series, taken indi- 
 vidually or in pairs, require to be separated by commas. 'A blending of 
 all beauties ; streams and dells, fruit, foliage, crag, wood, corn-field, vine.' 
 ' From grave to gay, from lively to severe. ' 
 
 RULE V. Independent nouns are fenced off by the comma. i Sweet Au- 
 burn, loveliest village of the plain.' 
 
 MODELS OF SYNTHESIS. 
 Example 1. 
 
 1. The Propositions. 
 
 (a) Washington gained a victory. 
 
 (b) Washington was the commander-in-chief of the American army (adj. 
 
 <pfS.). 
 
 (c) The victory was a decisive one (adj. < of object). 
 
 (d) It was gained over the British (adverbial phrase <of P.). 
 
 (e) The battle was fought at Trenton (adverbial phrase). 
 
 (/) Trenton is in the State of New Jersey (adverbial phrase <of e). 
 (#) This took place in 1776 (adverb, phrase < of P.). 
 
 2. The Elements. 
 
 Subject Washington, the commander-in-chief of the American 
 
 army. 
 Verb Gained. 
 
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 147 
 
 Complement A victory. . .decisive (adj.). 
 
 Adv. Phrase.. 1. Over the British. 
 
 2. At Trenton, in the State of New Jersey. 
 
 3. In 1776. 
 
 387. As there are three adverbial phrases here, we must 
 follow the direction for their arrangement. We therefore 
 begin with the adverbial phrase of time ; and get 
 
 3. The Sentence. 'In 1776, Washington, the commander- 
 in-chief of the American army, gained a decisive vic- 
 tory over the British, at Trenton, in the State of New 
 Jersey.' 
 
 Example 2. 
 
 1. The Propositions. 
 
 (a) Sir William Herschel is another example. 
 
 (6) Sir William Herschel was an astronomer (adj. < of S.). 
 
 (c) He is an eminent example (adj. < of S.). 
 
 (d) He is an eminent example of a man raising himself from humble life 
 
 by perseverance (adv.< of comp.). 
 
 2. The Sentence. ' Sir William Herschel, the astronomer, is 
 
 another eminent example of a man raising himself 
 from humble life.' 
 
 Example 3. 
 
 1. The Propositions. 
 
 (a) A priest made his appearance. 
 (6) The priest was fat (adj. < of S.). 
 
 (c) He was an Italian (adj. < of S.). 
 
 (d) He appeared on deck (adv. phrase <of P.). 
 
 (e) It was soon after breakfast (adv. < of P.). 
 
 2. The /Sentence. ' Soon after breakfast, a fat Italian priest 
 
 made his appearance on deck.' 
 
 Example 4. 
 
 1. The Propositions. 
 
 (a) The caterpillar seeks out some place. 
 (6) This is a place of concealment (adj. < of object), 
 (c) It does so after a short period (ad v.< of P.). 
 (c?) It has several times changed its skin (adj. phrase < of S.). 
 (e) It has at length grown to its full size (adj. phrase < of S.). 
 (y) It secretes itself in some hole in the wall (< of S.). 
 (#) Or it buries itself under the surface of the ground (< of S.). 
 (A) Or sometimes only attaches itself by a silken web to the under side of 
 a leaf of S.). 
 
 2. The Sentence. ' Having several times changed its sl^in, 
 
 and having at length grown to its full size, the cater- 
 
148 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 pillar, after a short period, seeks out some place of 
 concealment, secreting itself in some hole in the wall, 
 burying itself under the surface of the ground, or 
 sometimes only attaching itself by a silken web to 
 the under side of a leaf.' 
 
 Exercise 45. 
 Condense the following Propositions into SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
 
 1. (a) Steel is made. 
 
 (6) It is made by heating small bars of iron with charcoal, 
 (c) Or by heating them with bone and iron shavings, 
 (c/) Or with other inflammable substances. 
 
 2. (a) The Russians burned Moscow. 
 
 (b) The French were compelled to leave the city. 
 
 3. (a) I saw the Queen of France. 
 
 (b) It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw her. 
 
 (c) She was then the Dauphiness. 
 (c?) I saw her at Versailles. 
 
 4. (a) Leonidas sent away all but three hundred men. 
 
 (6) He resolved to defend the pass with this devoted band. 
 
 5. (a) The Highlanders were composed of a number of tribes. 
 (6) These tribes were called clans. 
 
 (c) Each clan bore a different name. 
 
 (o?) Each clan lived upon the lands of a different chieftain. 
 
 6. (a) Alfred disguised himself as a page. 
 
 (6) He obtained access to the Danish camp. 
 
 7. (a) The organ is the most wonderful. 
 
 (6) It is the organ of touch that is spoken of. 
 
 (c) It is the most wonderful of the senses. 
 
 (d) It is so in many respects. 
 
 8. (a) A frog one day saw an ox graze in a meadow. 
 
 (b) It imagined it could make itself as large as that animal. 
 
 9. (a) A balloon is a bag. 
 
 (b) It is a thin bag. 
 
 (c) It is a tight bag. 
 
 (c?) It is made of varnished silk. 
 
 (e) It is generally shaped like a globe. 
 
 (/) It is filled with a fluid lighter than common air. 
 
 10. (a) Peter III. reigned but a few months. 
 
 (6) Peter was deposed by a conspiracy of Russian nobles. 
 
 (c) This conspiracy was headed by his own wife, Catharine. 
 
 (d) Catharine was a German by birth. 
 
 (e) Catharine was a woman of bold and unscrupulous character. 
 
 11. (a) The Federalists secured the election of John Adams. 
 (6) Washington refused to be elected President. 
 
 (c) Adams was a leading member of the Federalist party, 
 (c?) He was already distinguished by his political services during the 
 Revolution. 
 
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 149 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 
 
 1. The Complex Sentence Analyzed. 
 
 388. The Complex Sentence consists of a Principal Propo- 
 sition and one or more Dependent Propositions. 
 
 389. A simple sentence may be made complex by expand- 
 ing one of its elements into a clause. 
 
 390. The Simple Sentence and the Complex Sentence agree 
 in one respect, that each contains one, and only one, leading 
 assertion ; they differ in this respect, that the complex sen- 
 tence contains, in addition to this leading assertion, a subordi- 
 nate one made by means of a clause. 
 
 The complete thought expressed by means of a Complex sentence does 
 not necessarily differ from that expressed by a Simple sentence ; as, 
 SIMPLE SENTENCE 'At the close of the war (phrase), Washington retired 
 
 to Mount Vernon.' 
 COMPLEX SENTENCE.. l When the war closed (clause), Washington retired 
 
 to Mount Vernon. ' 
 
 391. Clauses are of three kinds, and are named according 
 to the functions they perform in the sentence. 
 
 (1.) Noun clauses, so called because they stand as nouns. 
 The noun-clause may be 
 
 1. The subject of a verb; as, 1 That you can not perform the task is evident.' 
 
 2. The object of a verb ; as, 4 1 see that you are exhausted. 1 
 
 NOTE. The noun-clause is generally introduced by the conjunction that. 
 (2.) Adjective clauses, so called because they perform the 
 functions of an adjective; as, 'You will never see the fruit 
 of the trees which you are planting -.' 
 
 The adjective clause may qualify the subject or the object, and it is gen- 
 erally connected with the principal proposition by a relative pronoun or a 
 relative adverb, equivalent to the relative pronoun and the preposition gov- 
 erning it. The relative may sometimes, however, be understood. 
 
 (3.) Adverbial clauses, so called because they perform the 
 functions of an adverb. They qualify verbs, adjectives, or 
 adverbs. 
 
 The several kinds of adverbial clauses are 
 
 1. Time as, ; I shall see you before you depart. ,' 
 
 2. Place as, 'I found him where I had left him. 1 ' 
 
 3. Manner as, ' The gardener works as he pleases.' 
 
150 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 4. Comparison or degree as, 4 Gold is more precious than silver. 1 
 
 5. Cause as, 'I was scolded because I had committed a mistake. 
 
 6. Effect as,' The cold was so intense that the mercury froze.' 
 
 7. Condition as, 4 1 will not let thee go unless thou bless me.' 
 
 8. Concession as,' Though I entreated him with tears, he would not grant 
 
 my request.' 
 
 9. Purpose as, * The gardener prunes the tree that it may yield better fruit.'' 
 
 392. Some of these conjunctions may introduce a noun 
 clause or an adjective clause as well as an adverbial clause; 
 the nature and relationship of the various clauses must there- 
 fore be carefully examined in order to determine whether 
 the clause has the function of a noun, of an adjective, or of an 
 adverb. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. c I will tell you where to find it? 
 
 Here the clause ' where to find it' is an objective complement of tell; it 
 must therefore be a noun. 
 
 2. c I will show you the spot where he was standing? 
 Here the clause ' where he was standing' is a complement of the noun 
 
 spot ; it must therefore be an adjective. 
 
 3. ' They were still lying where they fell? 
 
 Here the clause ' where they fell' is a complement of the verb were lying; 
 it must therefore be an adverb. 
 
 393. The different kinds of clauses in Complex sentences 
 can be distinguished by the connectives that introduce them. 
 The following classified table of connectives is given to aid 
 the pupil in distinguishing a clause from the principal mem- 
 bers of a sentence. 
 
 Introducing, ( 1. Fact that what, why. 
 
 I. NOUN Clauses, < 2. Alternative whether. . .or. 
 
 Used as subject or object. ( 
 
 11. Person who, that. 
 2. Thing which, that. 
 3. PlacJUvhere, wherein. 
 4. Time when, whereat. 
 
 I. PLACE. Where, whether, whence. 
 II. TIME. When, while, whenever, till, until. 
 ' 1. Likeness as, as if. 
 
 TTT Tl/r. i 
 
 III. Adverbial 
 Clause of 
 
 III. MANNER. < 2. Comparison as (much) as, than. 
 3. Effect (so) that. 
 1. Reason because, since, for. 
 
 2. Purpose (in order) that, lest. 
 Condition if, unless. 
 Concession though. 
 
 TV n ) z - r urpose (iu uruer; i 
 
 I\ . CAUSE. < 3 co^o^if un i ess . 
 
 u 
 
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 151 
 
 394. In analyzing a complex sentence, pick out first the 
 subject and the predicate of the leading or most important 
 statements: these make the backbone of the sentence. Next 
 select the subordinate statement or statements, introduced 
 in all cases by some one of the connectives given in the table 
 above. 
 
 395. Or, reverse the above process by first picking out the 
 clauses. This can be readily done, since they always imme- 
 diately follow some one of the connectives given above. All 
 that is left in a simple sentence, or in any single member of a 
 compound sentence, will belong to the principal proposition. 
 
 Directions for the Analysis of Complex Sentences. 
 
 I. Name or write the subject of the leading member. 
 II. Name or write the leading predicate. 
 
 III. Name or write the enlargement of the subject. 
 
 IV. Name or write the enlargement of the predicate. 
 
 V. Name or write the subject of the dependent proposition. 
 VI. Name or write the predicate of the dependent proposition. 
 VII. Name or write the enlargement of its subject. 
 
 VIII. Name or write the enlargements of its predicate (verb and comple- 
 plement). 
 
 MODEL OF ANALYSIS. 
 
 Example 1. 
 
 < Washington, who beheld all day, with unspeakable an- 
 guish, the useless slaughter of his brave troops, skill- 
 fully withdrew his army, which was dispirited by de- 
 feat, from Long Island to New York, at night, under 
 cover of a dense fog.' 
 
 1 . Washington SUBJECT. 
 
 2. Withdrew his army PREDICATE. 
 
 3. Who beheld all day, with unspeakable anguish, the useless slaughter of 
 
 his brave troops (adj. clause <of S.). 
 
 4. (a) Which was dispirited by defeat (adj. clause <of comp. of P.). 
 4. (6) From Long Island to New York (adv. phrase <of P.). 
 
 4. (c) At night (adv. phrase <of P.). 
 
 4. (c?) Under cover of a dense fog (adv. phrase <of P.). 
 
 First Clause. 
 
 1. Who, connective and S. 
 
 2. Beheld the slaughter, predicate. 
 
 3. (a) All day (adv. phrase <of P.). 
 
 3. (b} With unspeakable anguish (adv. phrase <of P.). 
 
 3. (c) Useless (adj. <of object). 
 
 3. (d) Of his troops (adj. < of Comp. of P.). 
 
152 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Second Clause. 
 
 1. Which Subject and connective. 
 
 2. Was dispirited Predicate. 
 
 3. By defeat (adv. phrase <of P.). 
 
 Example 2. 
 * The ocean is as deep as the mountains are high.' 
 
 1. The ocean (S.). 
 
 2. Is deep (P.). 
 
 3. As (adverbial <of comp. of P.). 
 
 4. As the mountains are high (dependent proposition, adverbial <of P.). 
 
 Analysis of Dependent Proposition. 
 
 1. Mountains (S.). 
 
 2. Are high (P.). 
 
 3. As, connective of clause. 
 
 Example 3. 
 
 396. The following is an example of a peculiar type of the 
 Complex Sentence: 
 
 ' That you have wronged me [clause-subject] doth appear 
 [P.] in this' [adverbial <of P.]. 
 
 NOTE. In this sentence the sense shows that the subject of the princi- 
 pal member, or the main statement, is the entire clause * That you have 
 wronged me.' As the clause is usually a subordinate part of either the 
 subject or the predicate of a complex sentence, there seems to be an ap- 
 parent contradiction in making it the subject of the main statement ; but 
 the construction is similar to that by which a phrase, usually subordinate, 
 sometimes becomes itself the subject of a sentence, or the complement of 
 the predicate. 
 
 Example 4. 
 
 397. Another example of the same type is the following: 
 
 * We must not think that the life of a man begins when 
 
 he can feed himself.' 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here the complement of the transitive verb 'must 
 think' is ' that the life of man begins when he can feed himself.' 
 
 Example 5. 
 
 * It is believed that the moon is not inhabited.' 
 EXPLANATION. Here the real subject is the clause ' that the moon is 
 
 not inhabited ;' but it is represented by the pronoun ' it' in its peculiar idi- 
 omatic use (see Tf 48). 
 
 Example 6. 
 ' I wish to know where you live.' 
 
 1. 1 (S.). 
 
 2. Wish to know (P.). 
 
 3. Where you live (noun-clause, object of ' know'). 
 
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 153 
 
 Analysis of 3. 
 (l)'You'(S.). 
 
 (2) live (P.). 
 
 (3) where (adv. < of P.). 
 
 Example 7. 
 
 ' He is proud that he is a soldier.' 
 
 EXPLANATION. Here the clause 'that he is a soldier' expresses the 
 reason, the why of his being proud, and is therefore an adverbial clause 
 modifying the predicate 'is proud.' 
 
 Example 8. 
 'Tell me how you are.' 
 
 1 . Subject ' You' (understood). 
 
 2. Predicate 'tell how you are' ('how you are,' noun-clause, comple- 
 
 ment of transitive verb tell). 
 
 3. (to) me (indirect comp. of tell). 
 
 Example 9. 
 
 ; A reader unacquainted with the real nature of a classical 
 education will probably undervalue it when he sees 
 that so large a portion of time is devoted to the 
 study of a few ancient authors, whose works seem to 
 have no direct bearing on the studies and duties of 
 our own generation.' 
 
 . A reader unacquainted with the real 1 
 
 nature of a classical education > PRINCIPAL PROPOSITION. 
 will probably undervalue it ) 
 
 2. A reader PRINCIPAL SUBJECT. 
 
 3. Unacquainted with the real nature ) Adjective phrase, enlargement of 
 
 of a classical education j subject. 
 
 4. Will undervalue it PRINCIPAL PREDICATE. 
 
 5. Probably Adverbial enlargement of pred. 
 
 n , TT , , x . ( Dependent proposition, an adverb- 
 
 6. When he sees that generat.on | . cIause P qu ^ f v ing ' pl . ed . 
 
 Analysis of Dependent Proposition. 
 
 1. He SUBJECT. 
 
 2. Sees PREDICATE. 
 
 3. That so large a portion of time is ' 
 
 devoted to the study of a few 
 
 ancient authors [clause a], whose 
 works seem to have no direct bear- 
 
 Complement of incomplete verb 
 
 4 sees. 
 
 ing on the studies and duties of 
 our own generation [clause b] . . . , 
 
 1. Portion Subject of clause a. 
 
 2 Of time I adjective phrase qualifying f por- 
 
 ( tion.' 
 
 3. Is devoted to authors, .predicate of clause a. 
 
 G2 
 
154 
 
 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 4. To the study of a few ancient au- ) indirect complement of i is de- 
 
 " 
 
 thors 
 
 voted. ' 
 
 of our own generation .......... ) 
 
 6. Works .............................. subject of clause b. 
 
 7. Seem to have no bearing ............. predicate of b. 
 
 8. On the studies and duties of our ) adverbial phrase modifying predi- 
 
 own generation ................. j cate of b. 
 
 Example 10. 
 395. A convenient mode of tabular analysis is given in the 
 
 following model : 
 
 TABULAR ANALYSIS. 
 
 Propositions. 
 
 Kinds. 
 
 Subject. 
 
 PREDICATE. 
 
 Verb. 
 
 Complement. 
 
 Enlargement. 
 
 I. Before Time 
 had touched his 
 hair with silver, 
 
 Adverbial 
 Clause to 
 II. 
 
 Time 
 
 had 
 touched 
 
 his hair 
 
 with silver. 
 
 II. He had often 
 gazed with wist- 
 ful fondness to- 
 ward that friend- 
 ly shore, 
 
 Principal 
 Proposi- 
 tion. 
 
 He 
 
 had gazed 
 
 
 1. often (Time}. 
 2. with wistful 
 fondness (Man- 
 ner). 
 3. toward that 
 friendly shore 
 (Place). 
 
 III. On ivhich 
 Puritan huts 
 were already be- 
 ginning to cluster 
 under the spread- 
 ing shade of hick- 
 ory and maple. 
 
 Adjective 
 Clause to 
 II. 
 
 Puritan 
 huts 
 
 were be- 
 ginning 
 
 to cluster 
 
 1. already / 
 Verb). 
 2. under the 
 spreading shade 
 of hickory and 
 maple o/ 
 Ob).). 
 
 Exercise 49. 
 A. 
 
 Analyze the following COMPLEX Sentences : 
 
 1. Whom the gods love die young was said of you. Byron. 
 
 2. Beware when the great gods let loose a thinker on this planet. Em- 
 erson. 
 
 3. If we confine our view to the globe we inhabit, it must be allowed that 
 chemistry and geology are the two sciences which not only offer the fairest 
 promise, but already contain the largest generalizations. Buckle's History 
 of Civilization. 
 
 4. In the latter part of his life, when impressed with the sublime events 
 brought about through his agency, Columbus looked back upon his career 
 with a sublime and superstitious feeling. He attributed his early and irre- 
 sistible inclination for the sea to an impulse from the Deity preparing him for 
 the high decrees he was chosen to accomplish. Washington Irving. 
 
 5. Mrs. Squeers stood at one of the desks, presiding over an immense basin 
 
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 155 
 
 of brimstone and treacle, of which delicious compound she administered a 
 large instalment to each boy in succession, using for the purpose a common 
 wooden spoon, which might have been originally manufactured for some 
 gigantic top, and which widened every young gentleman's mouth consider- 
 ably, they being all obliged, under heavy corporal penalties^to take in the 
 whole of the bowl at a gasp. Dickens s Nicholas Nickleby. 
 
 6. When public bodies are to be addressed on momentous occasions, when 
 great interests are at stake, and strong passions excited, nothing is valuable 
 in speech further than it is connected with high intellectual and moral endow- 
 ments. Daniel Webster. 
 
 7. We know that if we could cause this structure to ascend, not only till it 
 reached the skies, but till it pierced them, its broad surfaces could still con- 
 tain but part of that which, in an age of knowledge, hath already been spread 
 over the earth, and which history charges itself with making known to all fu- 
 ture times. Daniel Webster. 
 
 8. A man who, exposed to all the influences of such a state of society as 
 that in which we live, is yet afraid of exposing himself to the influence of a 
 few Greek or Latin verses, acts, we think, much like the felon who begged the 
 sheriffs to let him have an umbrella held over his head from the door of New- 
 gate to the gallows, because it was a drizzling morning, and he was apt to 
 take cold. Macaulay. 
 
 9. If the feudal government was so little favorable to the true liberty even 
 of the military vassal, it was still more destructive of the independence and 
 security of the other members of the state, or what, in a proper sense, we call 
 the people. Hume. 
 
 10. I covered it with skins, the hair upwards, so that it cast off the rain like 
 a pent-house, and kept off the sun so effectually that I could walk out in the 
 hottest of the weather with greater advantage than I could before in the cool- 
 est, and when I had no need of it I could close it and carry it under my arm. 
 Defoe's Robinson Crusoe. 
 
 11. You have a very bad opinion indeed of the present state of literature, 
 and of literary men, if you fancy that any one of us would hesitate to stick a 
 knife into his neighbor penman if the latter's death could do the state any 
 service. Thackeray's Book of Snobs. 
 
 12. But when the sun broke from the underground, 
 Then those two brethren, slowly, with bent brows, 
 Accompanying the sad chariot-bier, 
 
 Passed like a shadow through the field that shone 
 
 Full summer, to that stream whereon the barge 
 
 Palled all its length in blackest samite lay. Tennysoris Elaine. 
 
 13. If I could stand for one moment upon one of your high mountain tops, 
 far above all the kingdoms of the civilized world, and there might see, com- 
 ing up, one after another, the bravest and wisest of the ancient warriors, and 
 statesmen, and kings, and monarchs, and priests ; and if, as they came up, I 
 might be permitted to ask from them an expression of opinion upon such a 
 case as this, with a common voice, and in thunder tones, reverberating through 
 a thousand valleys, and echoing down the ages, they would cry, ' LIBERTY, 
 FREEDOM, THE UNIVERSAL BROTHERHOOD OF MAN!' Colonel Baker. 
 
 14. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
 
156 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with anoth- 
 er, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal sta- 
 tion to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent 
 respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes 
 which impel them to the separation. Declaration of Independence. 
 
 B. 
 
 Change the following INVESTED COMPLEX Sentences into the 
 
 KEGULAK OEDER : 
 
 1. Whilst light and colors rise and fly, 
 
 Lives Newton's deathless memory. Mitford. 
 
 2. In man or woman, but far most in man, 
 And most of all in man that ministers 
 And serves the altar, in my soul I loathe 
 All affectation. Cowper. 
 
 3. If Hannibal had not wintered at Capua, by which circumstance his troops 
 
 were enervated, but, on the contrary, after the battle of Cannae, had 
 proceeded to Rome, it is not improbable that the great city would have 
 fallen. Gibbon. 
 
 4. Time but this impression deeper makes, 
 
 As streams their channels deeper wear. Burns. 
 
 2. Sentence-Building The Complex Sentence. 
 
 398. In combining Propositions into a Complex Sentence, 
 observe the following directions : 
 
 1. You must take care to make clauses stand as close as 
 
 possible to the words they qualify. 
 
 2. An adjective clause must follow the noun which it 
 
 qualifies. 
 
 3. An adverbial clause generally follows the word it mod- 
 
 ifies; but it is often more elegant to make certain 
 adverbial clauses especially those of time, place, 
 concession, condition precede the word they qual- 
 
 ify- 
 
 4. A noun-clause used as subject must generally stand be- 
 
 fore the verb ; used as the complement of a transi- 
 tive verb, after it. 
 
 399. GENERAL RULE. Arrange the clauses so as to bring 
 ont most clearly and unmistakably the complete sense of the 
 sentence. 
 
 Punctuation of Complex Sentences. 
 
 400. RULE I. In complex sentences, the clauses are gen- 
 erally separated from the principal member and from one 
 another by commas. 
 
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 
 
 157 
 
 RULE II. If, however, one clause stands in very close con- 
 nection with another, no comma is necessary. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 4 When he was a boy, Fj-anklin, who afterward became a 
 distinguished statesman and philosopher, learnt his 
 trade in the printing-office of his brother, who pub- 
 lished a paper in Boston.' 
 
 EXPLANATION. The clause/ When he was a boy,' is separated from the 
 principal proposition, 'Franklin learnt his trade,' by a COMMA. In like 
 manner, the comma is used to separate the clause ' who afterward became 
 a distinguished philosopher' from the subject ' Franklin, ' for the reason that 
 this clause intervenes between the principal subject, 'Franklin,' and the 
 principal predicate, ' learnt his trade. ' So the clause ' who published a pa- 
 per,' etc., is separated by a comma from the antecedent of who, namely, 
 4 brother. ' 
 
 MODEL OF SYNTHESIS. 
 
 Example 1. 
 I. Propositions to be combined into a Complex Sentence. 
 
 1. Benjamin Franklin learnt his trade (principal proposition). 
 
 2. He did this when he was a boy (adv. clause <of P.). 
 
 3. He afterwards became a distinguished statesman and philosopher (adj. 
 
 clause <of S.) 
 
 4. He learnt his trade in his brother's printing-office (adv. clause <of P.). 
 
 5. His brother published a paper in Boston (adj. clause <of brother}. 
 
 II. These Propositions may be conveniently expressed on 
 the blackboard by means of the following diagram: 
 
 SUBORDNATE 
 PROPOSITIONS. 
 He did this when 
 he was a boy. 
 
 He afterwards be- 
 came a distinguished 
 statesman and phi- 
 losopher. 
 
 He learned his 
 trade in the printing- 
 office of his brother. 
 
 His brother pub- 
 lished a paper in 
 Boston. 
 
 III. Propositions Combined. 
 
 4 When he was a boy, Franklin, who afterward became a 
 distinguished statesman and philosopher, learnt his 
 
 PRINCIPAL 
 PROPOSITION. 
 
 Franklin 
 learnt his 
 trade. 
 
158 
 
 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 trade in the printing-office of his brother, who pub- 
 lished a paper in Boston.' 
 NOTE. The method of punctuating this sentence is explained p. 157. 
 
 401. In framing the diagram, write the principal proposi- 
 tion on the left; the subordinate propositions on the right. 
 When a clause qualifies some word in the principal member, 
 it is to be jpined to the principal member by a straight line, 
 on which the nature of the clause is indicated. If a word in 
 one of the dependent propositions is enlarged by another 
 clause, draw a line (on which you will indicate the nature of 
 the clause) from the latter to the former, and not to the line 
 running from the principal member. 
 
 The sign -f- may be used to signify and. The sign is used to signify 
 or. The sign -f- may be used to signify but. 
 
 PRINCIPAL 
 PROPOSITION. 
 
 Example 2. 
 
 SUBORDINATE 
 PROPOSITIONS. 
 They admire him 
 very much. 
 
 They imitate him 
 in every thing. 
 
 Young lads 
 often fix on 
 some older 
 boy. 
 
 Sentence Constructed. 
 
 'Young lads often fix on some older boy whom they ad- 
 mire very much, and whom they imitate in every thing.' 
 
 NOTE. The first clause is too closely connected with the principal mem- 
 ber to take the comma. 
 
 PRINCIPAL 
 PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 Water ex- 
 pands into 
 steam. 
 
 Example 3. 
 
 SUBORDINATE 
 PROPOSITIONS. 
 Water is heated. 
 
 Steam endeavors 
 to force its way out 
 of the vessel. 
 
 It is confined in 
 the vessel. 
 
 Sentence Constructed. 
 
 ' Water that is heated expands into steam, which endeav- 
 ors to force its way out of the vessel in which it is con- 
 fined. 
 
 NOTE. In this sentence, the clause 'that is heated' is too closely joined 
 to 'water' to be separated from it by a comma. The relative clause i which 
 endeavors,' etc., is, however, separated by a comma. The last clause, 'in 
 which it is confined, ' is too closely united with the word vessel, in the pre- 
 vious-phrase, to admit of separation. 
 
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 
 
 159 
 
 (a) The 
 vast ma- 
 chines 
 struck the 
 Indians 
 with such 
 terror. 
 
 PRINCIPAL Example 4. SUBORDINATE 
 
 PROPOSITION. PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 The Spaniards had 
 traversed the ocean in 
 these machines (6). 
 
 The machines seem- 
 ed to move upon the 
 waters with wings (c). 
 
 The machines utter- 
 ed a dreadful sound re- 
 sembling thunder (J). 
 
 The' Indians began 
 to suspect their new 
 guests to be a superior 
 order of beings (e). 
 
 They concluded 
 something (/). 
 
 The Spaniards were 
 the children of the 
 sun (#). 
 
 The children had 
 descended to visit the 
 earth (K). 
 
 Sentence Constructed. 
 
 'The vast machines in which the Spaniards had traversed 
 the ocean, and which seemed to move upon the waters 
 with wings, and uttered a dreadful sound resembling 
 thunder, struck the Indians with such terror that they 
 began to suspect their new guests to be a superior or- 
 der of beings, and concluded that the Spaniards were 
 children of the sun, who had descended to visit the 
 earth.' 
 NOTE. Take notice of the manner in which this sentence is punctuated. 
 
 Exercise 50. 
 
 Condense the following PROPOSITIONS into COMPLEX SEN- 
 TENCES : 
 
 1. (a) The merino sheep is a native of Spain. 
 (6) Fine cloth is made from its wool. 
 
 2. (a) Tea was unknown in this country a few centuries ago. 
 (b) We could now scarcely dispense with it. 
 
 3. (a) The city of Rome is situated on the River Tiber. 
 (6) The city is about sixteen miles distant from the sea. 
 
 4. (a) The sea-dikes in Holland are generally about thirty feet in height. 
 (6) They are erected all along the coast. 
 
160 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 5. (a) Charles V. was the most renowned of all the emperors of Germany. 
 
 (b) He abdicated the throne. 
 
 (c) He retired to a convent. 
 
 6. (a) The Spaniards were beginning to despair. 
 
 (b) The eagle eye of Cortez had been keenly surveying the whole field 
 
 of battle. 
 
 (c) He saw where the sacred banner of Mexico was borne aloft in tri- 
 
 umph. 
 
 7. (a) Caesar might not have been murdered. 
 
 (6) Suppose Ceesar had taken the advice of the friend, 
 (c) The friend warned him not to go to the senate-house on the Ides 
 of March. 
 
 8. (a) The world is of this opinion. 
 (6) The end of fencing is to hit. 
 
 (c) The end of medicine is to cure. 
 
 (d) The end of war is to conquer. 
 
 9. (a) The heat was so great. 
 (/;) We were living in Italy. 
 
 (c) We were obliged to remain in darkened rooms during several hours 
 
 of the day. 
 10. (a) The lion was magnificent to behold. 
 
 (b) He was standing with his cheek against the grating of his cage. 
 
 (c) He was attempting to break down the obstacle. 
 
 (d) This obstacle separated us. 
 
 (e) He shook the wall of his cage with roars of rage. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 
 
 1. The Compound Sentence Analyzed. 
 
 402. A Compound Sentence contains two or more Principal 
 Propositions ; as, ' Napoleon Bonaparte crossed the Alps and 
 descended into the plains of Italy ;' 'Man proposes, but God 
 disposes.' 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 NOTE 1. A Compound Sentence may consist of two or more principal 
 propositions, or it may be made up of two or more complex members. In 
 the latter case, the sentence may be termed composite compound, but it is 
 definite enough for our purpose to consider such a sentence compound. 
 
 1. All that I have, and all that I am, and all that I hope, in this life, I am 
 
 now ready here to stake upon it ; and I leave off as I began, that, live 
 or die, survive or perish,! am for the Declaration. Webster. 
 
 2. The evil that men do lives after them ; 
 
 The good is oft interred with their bones. Shakspeare. 
 NOTE II. Table of Conjunctions, Adverbs, and Adverbial Phrases used 
 to connect the Propositions of Compound Sentences. 
 fAnd, also, likewise, again, besides. 
 
 Copulative < Moreover, further, furthermore, both and also. 
 
 (Not only. . . .but, then, too (following another word). 
 
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 161 
 
 (Either or. 
 
 Disjunctive -^Neither nor, nor (in the sense of and not). 
 
 {Otherwise, else. 
 
 {' But, on the other hand, but then. 
 Only, nevertheless, at the same time. 
 However, notwithstanding. 
 On the one hand, on the other hand, conversely. 
 Yet, still, for all that. 
 ( Therefore, thereupon, wherefore. 
 Illative I Accordingly, consequently. 
 
 " ) Hence, whence, so then, so then, and so. 
 ( For, thus. 
 
 NOTE III. The adverbial connectives are frequently joined with a con- 
 junction proper to form a connection between propositions ; as, 'The town 
 was badly defended, and therefore became a prey to the enemy. 
 
 NOTE IV. The connectives of the propositions of compound sentences 
 are frequently omitted for rhetorical effect. 
 
 MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 
 
 Example 1. 
 
 c Read this declaration at the head of the army : every 
 sword will be drawn from its scabbard, and the sol- 
 emn vow uttered to maintain it, or to perish on the 
 bed of honor.' 
 
 This is a compound sentence consisting of three principal 
 propositions, of which the subjects and the predicates are as 
 follow : 
 
 1. Subject 'You' [understood] ; 'read this declaration [predicate]. 
 
 2. sword [subject] ; will be drawn [predicate]. 
 
 3. vow [subject] ; (will be) uttered [predicate]. 
 
 *** The sub-analysis of the principal propositions may be given accord- 
 ing to the previous models for simple sentences. 
 
 Example 2. 
 
 'The theory of the Mohammedan government rests upon 
 the maintenance of a clear separation from the un- 
 believers ; and to propose to a Mussulman of any 
 piety that the Commarider of the Faithful should 
 obliterate the distinction between Mohammedans 
 and Christians would be proposing to obliterate the 
 distinction between virtue and vice; the notion 
 would seem to be not merely wrong and wicked, but 
 a contradiction in terms.' 
 
 This is a compound sentence consisting of four principal 
 propositions : 
 
162 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 1. The theory [S.] * rests [P.]. 
 
 2. To propose that the Commander of the Faithful should obliterate the 
 
 distinction [S.]. .would be proposing to obliterate the distinction [P.]. 
 
 3. The notion [S.]. .would seem to be wrong and wicked [P.]. 
 
 4. [ ; The notion' understood S.] [' would seem to be' understood] a contra- 
 
 diction [P.]. 
 
 5. 'That the Commander of the Faithful should obliterate,' etc., is a de- 
 
 pendent proposition, complement of ' to propose. ' 
 
 CONTRACTED OB ELLIPTICAL COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
 403. It often happens that different portions of a compound 
 sentence have the same subject, or the same predicate, or the 
 same enlargements of either, or of both. If these common 
 elements are not repeated, the sentence is contracted or ellip- 
 tical. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 1. 'God sustains and (God) governs the world.' 
 
 2. 'Either a knave (must have done this) or a fool must 
 
 have done this.' 
 
 3. 'The trade winds (are permanent) and the monsoons 
 
 are permanent.' 
 
 4. ' The air expands (by heat) and (the air) becomes light 
 
 by heat.' 
 
 5. 'Frogs and seals live on land and on water' =to four 
 
 simple sentences : 1. Frogs live on land. 2. Frogs 
 live in water. 3. Seals live on land. 4. Seals live 
 in water. 
 
 6. ' Men should not talk to please themselves, but (men 
 
 should talk to please) those that hear them.' Steele. 
 
 7. ' Stone walls do not a prison make, 
 
 Nor (do) iron bars (make) a cage.' Lovelace. 
 
 8. ' Some books are to be tasted, others (are) to be swal- 
 
 lowed, and some few (are) to be chewed and (some 
 few are to be) digested.' Bacon. 
 
 9. ' That loss is common would not make 
 
 My own less bitter, rather (it would make my loss) 
 more (bitter).' Tennyson. 
 
 10. 'Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just; 
 
 And he (is) but naked, though (he be) locked up in steel, 
 Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted.' Shak- 
 speare. 
 
 11. 'But the monarchy did not come, nor (did) the aristoc- 
 
 racy (come), nor (did) the Church, as an estate of the 
 realm' (come). Webster. 
 
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 163 
 
 12. "Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 
 
 And ('tis distance that) robes the mountains with its 
 azure hue.' 
 
 13. A variety of contractions may be combined in one sen- 
 tence, as follows : 
 
 ' With every effort, with every breath, and with every 
 motion voluntary or involuntary a part of the 
 muscular substance becomes dead, separates from 
 the living part, combines with the remaining por- 
 tions of inhaled oxygen, and is removed.' 
 Here there are four predicates, having but one subject, and three en- 
 largements of these predicates distinct from one another. To express the 
 entire meaning of the sentence in separate propositions, we should have 
 first to repeat the subject with each predicate, making four simple sentences, 
 and then repeat each of those sentences with each of the enlargements, 
 making twelve propositions in all. 
 
 Exercise 51. 
 A. 
 
 Analyze the following COMPOUND SENTENCES: m 
 
 1. Men's evil manners live in brass : their virtues we write in water. 
 
 2. I love Freedom : I will speak her words ; I will listen to her music ; 
 
 I will acknowledge her impulses ; 1 will stand beneath her flag ; I 
 will fight in her ranks ; and, when I do so, I shall find myself sur- 
 rounded by the great, the wise, the good, the brave, the noble of 
 every land. E. D. Baker. 
 
 3. I have seen Freedom in history again and again ; with mine own eyes 
 
 I have watched her again and again struck down on a hundred 
 chosen fields of battle. 
 
 4. I have seen her friends fly from her; I have seen her foes gather around 
 
 her ; I have seen them bind her to the stake ; I have seen them 
 give her ashes to the winds regathering them again that they 
 might scatter them yet more widely ; but when her foes turned to 
 exult, I have seen her again meet them face to face, resplendent in 
 complete steel, and brandishing in her strong right hand a flaming 
 sword, red with insufferable light. E. D. Baker. 
 
 5. Nature has, indeed, given us a soil which yields bounteously to the 
 
 hands of industry ; the mighty and fruitful ocean is before us, and 
 the skies over our heads shed health and vigor. Daniel Webster. 
 
 6. We do not, indeed, expect all men to be philosophers or statesmen, but 
 
 we confidently trust, and our expectation of the duration of our 
 system of government rests on that trust, that by the diffusion of 
 general knowledge, and good and virtuous sentiments, the political 
 fabric may be secure, as well against open violence and overthrow 
 as against that slow but sure undermining of licentiousness. 
 Webster. 
 
 7. No man can suffer too much, and no man can fall too soon, if he suf- 
 
164 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 fer or if he fall in defense of the liberties and constitution of his 
 country. 
 
 8. The arts, sciences, and literature of England came over with the set- 
 
 tlers ; the jury came ; the habeas corpus came ; the testamentary 
 power came ; and the law of inheritance and descent came also, 
 except that part of it which recognizes the rights of primogeniture, 
 which either did not come at all, or soon gave way to the rule of 
 equal partition of estates among children. Webster. 
 
 9. On a sudden, open fly 
 With impetuous recoil and jarring sounds 
 The infernal doors ; and on their hinges grate 
 Harsh thunder. Milton. 
 
 10. It (Bacon's Philosophy) has lengthened* life ; it has mitigated pain; 
 it has extinguished diseases ; it has increased the fertility of the 
 soil ; it has given new securities to the mariner ; it has furnished 
 new arms to the warrior ; it has spanned great rivers and estuaries 
 with bridges of form unknown to our fathers ; it has guided the 
 thunderbolt innocuously from heaven to earth ; it has lighted up 
 the night with the splendor of the day ; it has extended the range 
 of the human vision ; it has multiplied the power of the human 
 muscles ; it has accelerated motion ; it has annihilated distance ; 
 it has facilitated intercourse, correspondence, all friendly offices, 
 all dispatch of business ; it has enabled men to descend to the 
 depths of the sea, to soar into the air, to penetrate securely into the 
 noxious recesses of the earth, to traverse the land in cars which 
 whirl along without horses, and the ocean in ships which run ten 
 knots an hour against the wind. Macaulay' s Essay on Lord Bacon. 
 
 [Compound Sentence of 19 propositions and 163 words, ,] 
 
 B. 
 
 Change the following inverted Compound Sentences into their 
 common order: 
 
 1 . Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
 Had in her sober livery all things clad. Milton. 
 
 2. 'Twas in autumn, and stormy and dark was the night, 
 And fast were the windows and doors. Southey. 
 
 C. 
 
 Supply the Ellipsis in the following Sentences: 
 
 1. But what are lands, and seas, and skies to civilized man, without so- 
 
 ciety, without knowledge, without morals, without religious culture ? 
 and how can these be enjoyed, in all their extent, and all their excel- 
 lence, but under the protection of wise institutions and a free govern- 
 ment ? Webster. 
 
 2. Some place their bliss in action, some in ease ; 
 These call it pleasure, and contentment these. 
 
 3. All nature is but art unknown to thee ; 
 
 All chance, direction which thou canst not see ; 
 All discord, harmony not understood ; 
 All partial evil, universal good. Pope. 
 
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 165 
 
 4. Man never is, but always to be bless'd. Pope. 
 
 5. Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note. 
 
 6. Reading makes a full man ; speaking a ready man ; writing a correct 
 
 man. 
 
 2. Sentence-BuildingCompound Sentences. 
 404. In working the following exercises in compound sen- 
 tence building, the pupil is to proceed in the same manner as 
 in the construction of simple and of complex sentences. The 
 only additional fact is the connection of the principal propo- 
 sitions. The proper connectives to be used will be indicated 
 in each exercise. 
 
 Punctuation of Compound Sentences. 
 
 RULE I. The rules of Punctuation for Simple Sentences 
 and for Complex Sentences apply to Simple and to Complex 
 Clauses in Compound Sentences. 
 
 RULE II. Principal propositions are generally separated 
 by a semicolon ; as, ' The genius making me no answer, I 
 turned about to address myself to him a second time ; but I 
 found that he had left me.' 
 
 RULE III. When the propositions are simple, and neither 
 of them contains a comma within itself, a comma may be used 
 to separate them ; as, ' Every man desireth to live long, but 
 no man would be old.' But if the connective is omitted the 
 semicolon must be used. 
 
 RULE IV. In contracted sentences, the omissions within 
 the propositions are indicated by commas ; as, 'To err is hu- 
 man ; to forgive, divine.' 
 
 RULE Y. The semicolon is the peculiar mark of the com- 
 pound sentence. It is never used in any other kind of sen- 
 tence. 
 
 MODELS OF SYNTHESIS. 
 
 Example 1. 
 PRINCIPAL PROPOSITIONS. ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 {The distance was about a mile and 
 a half [adv. < of P.]. 
 He was on horseback [adv. <of P.]. 
 He returned to the camp [adv. <of P.]. 
 (cop. and} He was faint with the loss of blood [adj. 
 
 phrase < of S.]. 
 
 He called for a drink. +He was probably parched with thirst, 
 
 owing to the heat of the weather 
 [adj. phrase < of S.]. 
 
166 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Sentence Constructed. ' Sydney returned about a mile and 
 a half on horseback to the camp, and, faint with the 
 loss of blood, and probably parched with thirst, owing 
 to the heat of the weather, he called for a drink.' 
 
 Example 2. 
 PRINCIPAL PROPOSITIONS. ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 He set off on my approach [adv. <of P.]. 
 He set off full tilt [adv. <of P.]. 
 
 The buffalo again set 
 off. 
 
 (cop. while} 
 
 He heaved himself forward with a heavy rolling 
 
 gallop [adj. phrase <of S.]. 
 -f He dashed with precipitation through brakes 
 
 and ravines [adj. phrase <of S.]. 
 
 ( They were startled from their coverts by his thun- 
 Several deer and 1 dering career [adj. phrase <of S.]. 
 
 wolves ran. < They ran helter skelter [adv. <of P.]. 
 
 1 They ran to right and left [adv. <of P.]. 
 (They ran across the prairie [adv. <of P.]. 
 
 Sentence Constructed. - { On my approach, the buffalo, heav- 
 ing himself forward with a heavy rolling gallop, and 
 dashing with precipitation through brakes and ra- 
 vines, again set oif full tilt, while several deer and 
 wolves, startled from their coverts by his thunder- 
 ing career, ran helter skelter, right and left, across 
 the prairie.' 
 
 NOTE. Observe the peculiar use of the conjunction while. Though 
 while is ordinarily a subordinate connective, it is here a co-ordinate con- 
 nective, being equivalent to and at this time. In like manner, when is a co- 
 ordinate connective when it means and at this time, and where is so also 
 when it means and at this place. 
 
 Example 3, 
 
 PRINCIPAL PROPOSITIONS. ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 ( I The meteor was little [adj . < of S.]. 
 
 \ The meteor was blazing [adj. <of S.]. 
 A meteor shot. -I It shot at this moment [adv. < of P.]. 
 
 1 It shot like a glowing coalof fire [adv. <of P.]. 
 (_ It shot across the glen [adv. <of P.]. 
 
 (cop.) rit was the first time I had seen it [adv. <of P.]. 
 
 I I saw it with admiration and astonishment [adv. < 
 
 of P.]. 
 
 I saw that gem. <( The gem was resplendent [adj. <of comp.]. 
 
 I The gem was living [adj. < of comp.]. 
 I It was the humming-bird [adj. < by apposition of 
 I P.1 
 
 Constructed Sentence. At this moment a little blazing 
 meteor shot across the glen like a glowing coal of 
 fire, and, as it was the first time that I had seen that 
 
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 167 
 
 resplendent living gem, the humming-bird, I saw it 
 with admiration and astonishment. 
 
 Example 4. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PROPOSITIONS. ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 C I did not choose to trust 
 the sea again. 
 
 (advers. but) 
 
 I I preferred a mode. jflt was another mode [adj. <of comp. of P.]. 
 
 (illat. therefore) \It was a mode of living [adj. phrase <of P.]. 
 I applied to a nurseryman 
 near me. 
 
 (cop.) 
 
 I was received. I was to be a day laborer [pred. nominative, 
 
 comp. of P.]. 
 
 Constructed Sentence. c I did not choose to trust the sea 
 again, but preferred another mode of living ; I there- 
 fore applied to a nurseryman near me, and was re- 
 ceived as a day laborer.' 
 
 NOTE. Observe the mode in which this sentence is punctuated. There 
 is so close a connection between the member, ' I did not choose,' etc., and 
 'but preferred,' etc., that 'the comma is sufficient separation. The suc- 
 ceeding member, 'I therefore applied,' etc., is, however, so dissevered in 
 sense as to require the semicolon. The last member is fenced off by the 
 comma. 
 
 Exercise 52. 
 
 Construct COMPOUND Sentences out of the following principal 
 Propositions and Enlargements: 
 
 PRINCIPAL PROPOSITIONS. ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 C A crocodile infested ( Its size was prodigious [adj. phrase <of S.]. 
 \ the banks of the \ Its fierceness was uncommon [adv. phrase < of S.]. 
 1. 1 Nile. 1 
 
 (cop.) 1 The desolation was through all the neighboring 
 
 ' It spread desolation. [ country [adv. phrase <of P.]. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PROPOSITIONS. ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 /'He finds them in his subterranean explorations 
 
 \ Th( ^ a ' re imbedded in * t<>he rocks l> d J- P hrase < of 
 
 2. 
 
 (illative, so that) ( In the bowels of the earth [adj. phrase < of ' rocks']. 
 
 !The connection is not a necessary one [adj. <of 
 comp. of P.], 
 It is a connection with the present distribution of 
 sea and land [adj. phrase < of comp. of P.]. 
 
168 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PROPOSITIONS. ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 f 1 . They were wedged in amongst the 
 The sentinels were wedged in. | crowd [adv. phrase <of P.]. 
 
 2. Who endeavored to prevent the peo- 
 
 (cop.) 
 
 An officer was compelled to 
 
 pie from trespassing on the par- 
 apet [adj. clause <of S.]. 
 
 3. He was compelled to retire rapid- 
 
 ly [adv. < of P.]. 
 
 4. Who ordered the sentinels to drive 
 
 the people down with their bay- 
 
 retire, onets [adj. clause < of S.]. 
 
 | 5. He ordered the sentinels not very 
 (illative, for.) prudently on such an occasion 
 
 i[adv. phrase < of P. of 4]. 
 6. Until the last moment [adv. phrase 
 <of P.]. 
 7. Upon the hero [adv. phrase < of 
 gaziny]. 
 
 5. PRINCIPAL PROPOSITIONS AND ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 A. We prepare to meet the blow. 
 
 (cop.) 
 
 B. We think to ward off the blow. 
 
 (dis. conj. or) 
 
 C. We think to break the force of the blow. 
 
 1. When the blow is coming [adv. <of P. of A, B, C]. 
 
 D. We arm ourselves with patience to endure. 
 
 2. What can not be avoided [noun-clause, object of 'to endure']. 
 
 E. We agitate ourselves with fifty needless alarms about it. 
 
 F. But the pang is over. 
 
 (cop.) 
 
 G. And the struggle is no longer necessary. 
 
 3. When the blow is struck [adv. clause of time, < of F, G]. 
 
 (cop.) 
 H. We cease to harass ourselves more about the blow. 
 
 4. Than we can help [adv. clause of comparison]. 
 
 Contraction and Expansion of Sentences. 
 
 405. In addition to the exercises previously given in the 
 analysis and in the construction of sentences, it will be found 
 both a pleasing and a profitable drill to contract complex sen- 
 tences into simple ones, and compound sentences into com- 
 plex sentences. 
 
 406. By a little artifice, a compound sentence may be re- 
 cast into a complex sentence, and the complex sentence again 
 may be worked down into a simple sentence, while in each 
 substantially the same idea is expressed. 
 
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 169 
 
 ILLUSTEATIONS. 
 
 c The sea spent its fury, and then it became calm.' 
 
 EXPLANATION. This is a compound sentence. It consists of two prin- 
 cipal propositions connected by ' and. ' You will notice that each proposi- 
 tion has, so to speak, the same rank. 
 
 The plan for converting this compound sentence into the complex form 
 is to reduce the rank of one of the principal propositions by turning it into 
 a clause introduced by a connective that will cause it to hang or depend on 
 the other. Doing this, we have the following complex sentence : 
 
 ' The sea became calm when it had spent its fury,' or, 
 ' When the sea had spent its fury it became calm.' 
 
 EXPLANATION. These are complex sentences. You- will notice that 
 what was originally a principal proposition, ' the sea spent its fury, ' appears 
 now in the form of a clause introduced by the connective adverb 'when,' 
 and that this adverb subordinates it to the remaining principal proposition. 
 
 The plan for reducing this complex sentence to the form of a simple sen- 
 tence is to boil down the clause into a phrase. [Ke-read the definition of 
 a phrase, 1[ 364, and remember that a phrase can have neither subject nor 
 predicate.] Condensing the clause into a phrase, we have the following 
 simple sentence : 
 
 'The sea, having spent its fury, became calm,' or, 
 c Having spent its fury, the sea became calm,' or, 
 c The sea became calm, having spent its fury.' 
 
 EXPLANATION. These sentences fully answer to the definition of a sim- 
 ple sentence, each having but one subject, ' sea, ' and but one predicate, ' be- 
 came calm. ' ' Having spent its fury' is a phrase introduced by the participle 
 ' having spent. ' 
 
 407. Substantially the same idea is expressed in each of 
 these sentences ; but notice the different effect of the several 
 ways of putting the idea. 
 
 408. In the compound sentences we have two principal 
 propositions on the same level and of equal importance. In 
 the complex form, one of the propositions is reduced to the 
 level of a mere attendant circumstance, ' when it had spent 
 its fury,' while the proposition/ the sea became calm,' stands 
 out in bold relief, and is the leading statement. 
 
 409. In the simple form, the attendant circumstance is still 
 further reduced in importance by ceasing to be a proposition 
 at all, and by becoming a mere adjective phrase. 
 
 The varying effect produced by these changes may be compared to the 
 foreground, middle ground, and background of a picture. 
 
 410. EXPANSION is the reverse of contraction. 
 
 H 
 
170 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 'At the conclusion of the battle, the commander began to 
 
 estimate his loss' simple sentence. 
 4 When the battle was concluded, the commander began to 
 
 estimate his loss' complex sentence. 
 ' The battle had been concluded, and then the commander 
 
 began to estimate his loss' compound sentence. 
 411. There are various minor ways of treating a series of 
 sentences so as to put them in better shape. The following 
 paragraph will illustrate some of these : 
 
 The lion is found in Africa. The lion is found in Asia, During the day 
 the lion slumbers in his retreat. Night sets in. The lion then rouses him- 
 self from his lair. The lion then begins to prowl. In general, the lion 
 waits in ambush. The lion sometimes creeps toward its victim. The lion 
 seizes its victim with its powerful claws. 
 
 Combined thus : 
 
 The lion is found in Africa and Asia. During the day he slumbers in 
 his retreat ; but when night sets in he rouses himself from his lair and be- 
 gins to prowl. In general, he waits in ambush. Sometimes, however, he 
 creeps toward his victim, and seizes it with his powerful claws. 
 
 Exercise 53. 
 A. 
 
 Contract the following COMPOUND SENTENCES into COMPLEX 
 SENTENCES, and then, if possible, into Simple Sentences: 
 
 1. The light infantry joined the main body, and the British troops retreat- 
 
 ed precipitately into Boston. 
 
 2. He was a worthless man, and he could not command the respect of his 
 
 neighbors. 
 
 3. Egypt is a wonderfully fertile country, and it is annually overflowed by 
 
 the Kiver Nile. 
 
 4. The earth is round, and no one doubts it. 
 
 5. The house was very large, and consequently there was little comfort in 
 
 it. 
 
 B. 
 
 Contract the following Complex Sentences into Simple Sen- 
 tences : 
 
 1 . Socrates proved that virtue is its own reward. 
 
 2. When morning began to dawn, our ship struck on a sunken reef near 
 
 the rock-bound coast. 
 
 3. It may be easily shown that the earth is round [the rotundity of]. 
 5. It is generally believed that the soul is immortal. 
 
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 171 
 
 C. 
 
 Expand the following Simple Sentences into Complex Sen- 
 tences : 
 
 1 . Quarrelsome persons are disagreeable. 
 
 2. The ancients believed.the earth to be the centre of the universe. 
 
 3. With patience, he might have succeeded. 
 
 4. The utility of the telegraph is evident to all. 
 
 5. The manner of his escape is a profound mystery. 
 
 D. 
 
 Contract the following Paragraphs into Complex Sentences: 
 
 NOTE. Use proper conjunctions and relatives, and do not let the word 
 and recur too often. 
 
 1. England abounds in fine pastures. 
 England, abounds in extensive downs. 
 
 These pastures and downs feed great numbers of sheep. 
 
 2. The Highlanders were composed of a number of tribes. 
 These tribes were called clans. 
 
 Each clan bore a different name. 
 
 Each clan lived upon the lands of a different chieftain. 
 
 3. The cuckoo builds no nest for herself. 
 She lays in the nests of other birds. 
 
 She does not lay indiscriminately in the nests of all birds. 
 
 4. The pitcher-plant is a native of the East Indies. 
 The pitcher-plant has mugs or tankards. 
 These are attached to its leaves. 
 
 They hold each from a pint to a quart of very pure water. 
 
 5. A young girl had fatigued herself one hot day. 
 It was with running about the garden. 
 
 She sat herself down in a pleasant arbor. 
 She soon fell asleep. 
 
 6. Steel is made. 
 
 It is made by heating small bars of iron with charcoal. 
 
 Or by heating them with bone and horn shavings. 
 
 Or with other inflammable substances. 
 
 By this heating the metal acquires a finer grain. 
 
 It acquires a more compact texture. 
 
 It becomes harder. 
 
 It becomes more elastic. 
 
 7. Augustus Caesar has been called a great prince. 
 Louis XVI., of France, has been called a great prince. 
 But, deprive both of their crown, 
 
 They will both dwindle into obscure characters. 
 They will both dwindle into trivial characters. 
 
 8. Beyond the Mississippi are vast prairies. 
 These prairies are covered with grass. 
 
 Great herds of buffalo roam over these prairies. 
 Great herds of deer roam over these prairies. 
 
 
172 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 E. 
 
 Throw each series of SIMPLE Sentences into one EXPANDED 
 
 Sentence. 
 
 NOTE. The sentences made must be Simple, i. e., they must have but 
 one finite verb. 
 
 1. The boy fell. The boy was little. It was a ditch he fell into. The 
 ditch was dry. It was this morning that he fell in. 
 
 2. The river overflowed. The river was the Thames. The banks were 
 overflowed. It was in November. It was on the 15th of that month. On 
 both sides it was overflown. 
 
 3. A boy came. The boy was pretty. He was little. He was blue-eyed. 
 He had rosy cheeks. It was his mother he came to. The boy had a rabbit. 
 It was a young one. It was white. It was lop-eared. He carried it in his 
 pinafore. 
 
 4. Leonidas died. Leonidas was a king. He was King of Sparta. Three 
 hundred of his countrymen died with him. They died like heroes. It was 
 at Thermopylae they died. They died to defend their country. They were 
 defending their country against the Persians. 
 
 5. John signed. John was a king. It was a document called Magna 
 Charta that he signed. John was afraid of his barons. He did not care 
 about liberty. He signed it at Runnymede. Runnymede is on the Thames. 
 It is not far from Windsor. 
 
 6. The boy wrote. He was a good boy. He wrote a letter. He wrote 
 to his father. He wrote from school. He wrote on his birthday. It was a 
 long letter. He wrote it early in the morning. He wrote it before breakfast. 
 
 F. 
 
 Employ the methods of Contraction and the various minor 
 ways spoken of in ^f 411, so as to reduce the Sentences of the 
 following Paragraphs into better shape : 
 
 1 . The polar bear is of a white color. It is found in the arctic regions. 
 It leads almost entirely an aquatic mode of life in these regions. Its body is 
 long. Its head is flat. Its muzzle is broad. Its mouth is peculiarly small. 
 The paws are very large. They are covered on the under side with coarse 
 hair. From the coarse hair it derives security in walking over the slippery 
 ice. The fur is long. The fur is woolly. It is of fine texture. It is of 
 considerable value. 
 
 2. A crow was ready to die with thirst. He flew with joy to a pitcher. 
 He saw the pitcher r.t a distance. He came up to it. He found the water 
 very low. With all his stooping he was unable to reach it. Upon this he 
 attempted to break the pitcher. He attempted to overturn it. His strength 
 was not sufficient to do either. At last he saw some pebbles at hand. He 
 dropped a great many of them into the pitcher. He dropped them one by 
 one. In this way he raised the water up to the brim. He quenched his 
 thirst. Learn a lesson from this. Skill succeeds. Patience succeeds. Force 
 often fails. 
 
 3. A traveler was pursuing his way along a narrow road. The road was 
 bordered on the one hand by a steep hill. It was bordered on the other by 
 
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 173 
 
 the River Ganges. All at once he saw a grim-looking tiger. It was rush- 
 ing down the hill-side toward him. In order to escape the ravenous beast, 
 he was on the point of plunging into the river. At that moment a crocodile 
 popped up his head above the water. The traveler was overcome with horror. 
 He sank to the ground. At the same instant the tiger made a great spring. 
 It fell between the jaws of the crocodile. The crocodile dispatched the for- 
 midable beast. During the struggle the man escaped. 
 
 Miscellaneous Exercises in Sentence-Building. 
 
 A. 
 Vary the expression in the following Simple Sentences : 
 
 Ex. Of all countries in the world, Arabia produces the 
 most beautiful horses. 
 
 1 . No country in the world can compete with Arabia for 
 the beauty of its horses. 
 
 2. For the production of beautiful horses Arabia carries 
 away the palm from all other countries in the world. 
 
 3. The horses reared in Arabia excel in beauty those of any 
 other country in the world. 
 
 ] . The elephant surpasses all land-animals in size and strength. 2. The 
 young of all animals receive pleasure simply from the exercise of their bodily 
 faculties. 3. A boundless and extraordinary prospect opened from the sum- 
 mit of the great Pyramid. 4. The size of the largest mountain is very trifling 
 compared to the whole earth. 5. Our woolen dress is the product of the joint 
 labor of a great many workmen. 6. The mariner's compass does not seem to 
 have been used for navigation in Europe before the year 1420. 7. Persuasion 
 has ever been deemed better than force. 8. The warm climate of Ceylon is 
 tempered by the sea-breezes. 9. The whole community of bees pays the most 
 respectful attention to the queen. 
 
 B. 
 Compose Simple Sentences out of the following Statements: 
 
 Ex. (1.) James Watt died on the 25th of August, 1819. 
 
 (2.) This event took place at Heathfield, near Birmingham. 
 (3.) Watt had a seat at Heathfield. 
 (4.) Watt was the great improver of the steam-engine. 
 (5.) He was eighty-four years of age. 
 
 James Watt, the great improver of the steam-engine, died on the 25th of Au- 
 gust, 1819, at his seat of Heathfield, near Birmingham, in the eighty-fourth 
 year of his age. 
 
 1. The Turks assaulted Constantinople. 
 The assault took place by sea and land. 
 The assault took place at daybreak. 
 
 The customary signal of the morning gun was omitted. 
 
 2. Our little habitation was situated at the foot of a sloping hill. 
 A beautiful underwood sheltered it behind. 
 
 A prattling river ran before it. 
 A meadow was on one side. 
 A green was on the other. 
 
174 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 3. The Federalists secured the election of John Adams. 
 Washington refused to be re-elected President. 
 Adams was a leading member of the Federalist party. 
 
 He was already distinguished by his political services during the Revo- 
 lution. 
 
 4. The Russians were advancing on their left to the brow of the hill. 
 Their pace was an easy gallop. 
 
 They were evidently picked soldiers. 
 
 Their light blue jackets were embroidered with silver lace. 
 
 5. We descried a herd of buffaloes. * 
 The herd was about two miles distant. 
 
 We cast our eyes about the surrounding waste. 
 The herd was quietly grazing near a small strip of bushes. 
 f>. The crew got safe to land. 
 
 The land was a desolate and barren island. 
 
 The crew had been enduring extreme suffering for three weeks. 
 
 Their suffering was unrelieved even by hope. 
 
 7. The great battle of Lutzen ended in victory to the Swedes. 
 The date of the battle was the 6th of November, 1662. 
 The leaders were Wallenstein and Gustavus. 
 
 The Swedes gained the victory at the expense of the life of their heroic 
 king. 
 
 8. William Tyndale printed the first edition of the New Testament in En- 
 
 glish. 
 
 Tyndale was an accomplished linguist. 
 
 Tyndale had conceived the design of translating the Scriptures. 
 This translation was printed at Antwerp. 
 Its date was the year 1526. 
 
 C. 
 
 Alter the following SIMPLE Sentences into COMPOUND: 
 Ex. Having crossed the Alps, I can quite corroborate your opinion. 
 I have crossed the Alps, and can quite corroborate your opinion. 
 
 1. The Rhone, flowing into the Lake of Geneva, emerges from it at the town 
 
 of that name. 
 
 2. The cadi having caused each plaintiff to repeat the story, neither varied 
 
 one jot from his original statement. 
 
 3. In consequence of his carefulness and devotion to the interest of his em- 
 
 ployers, he rapidly rose in his profession. 
 
 4. After a thousand years of fruitless effort, the source of the Nile has only 
 
 of late been discovered by Livingstone. 
 
 5. During the storm of the following night the vessel sank. 
 
 6. Overcome with fatigue, the weary traveler sank down to rest. 
 
 7. By diligent and persevering exertion, the young artist at length accom- 
 
 plished his design. 
 
 8. The coral insect, barely possessing life, is hourly creating habitations for 
 
 man. 
 
 9. Robinson Crusoe was very much surprised at seeing the print of a man's 
 
 foot in the sand. 
 
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. . 175 
 D. 
 
 Combine the following ELEMENTS, each set into a COMPOUND 
 
 Sentence : 
 
 Ex. The captain had a large piece of boiled meat by him. 
 The captain withheld his aid. 
 This selfishness was detestable. 
 
 The, captain had a large piece of boiled meat by him, but with detestable 
 selfishness he withheld his aid. 
 
 1. He possessed quick perceptions. 
 He observed accurately. 
 
 He was able to place his right hand on the right animal. 
 He did so without hesitation. 
 
 2. Pope was not content to satisfy. 
 He desired to excel. 
 
 He therefore always endeavored to do his best. 
 He did not court the candor of his reader. 
 He dared his judgment. 
 He expected no indulgence from others. 
 He showed none to himself. 
 
 3. Steam has increased indefinitely the mass of human comforts. 
 Steam has increased indefinitely the mass of human enjoyments. 
 Steam has rendered cheap the materials of wealth and prosperity. 
 Steam has rendered accessible the materials of wealth and prosperity. 
 It has done so all over the world. 
 
 4. The river passes through the populous cities. 
 The river passes through the busy haunts of men. 
 It tenders its services on every side. 
 
 It becomes the ornament of the country. 
 It becomes the support of the country. 
 
 5. Ivanhoe extricated himself from his fallen horse. 
 Ivanhoe was soon on foot. 
 
 He hastened to mend his fortune with his sword. 
 His antagonist rose not. 
 
 6. In Paris the Templars had got possession of a tract of ground. 
 This tract was equal to one third of the whole city. 
 
 They covered it with towers. 
 
 They covered it with battlements. 
 
 Within the fortress they lived a life of most luxurious self-indulgence. 
 
 The fortress was unapproachable. 
 
 7. After a few rounds the columns of the square became broken. 
 The columns wavered to and fro. 
 
 They broke. 
 
 They fled over the brow of the hill. 
 
 They left behind them six or seven distinct lines of dead. 
 
 These lines lay very close to each other. 
 
 These lines marked the passage of the fatal messengers. 
 
 8. The electric telegraph was invented by Professor Morse. 
 Professor Morse was an American. 
 
 The telegraph has greatly facilitated business. 
 
 It has done so by bringing all parts of the world into communication. 
 
176 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 E. 
 
 Alter the following SIMPLE and COMPOUND Sentences into 
 COMPLEX : 
 
 Ex. 1. I never saw so pleasing a bird. 
 
 I never saw a bird that pleased me so. 
 
 2. The Jordan rises in Lebanon and flows into the Dead Sea, 
 The Jordan, which rises in Lebanon, flows, etc. 
 
 1. I suppose the birds to be sand-pipers. 2. In getting down the bank to 
 reach one of them, I heard something plunge into the water near me. 3. A 
 body consisting of any one substance can not be decomposed. 4. In collect- 
 ing honey, bees do not confine themselves solely to flowers. 5. The moisture 
 in the upper regions being cooled down, the water falling from it solidifies. 
 6. The mode of ascent has been frequently described, and yet it does not ap- 
 pear to be generally understood. 7. The extent of their contemplated pro- 
 cedure against the monarchy can never be known, Pym and Hampden hav- 
 ing died early. 8. The amalgamation of race was carried on in the East, and 
 not less so in the West. 9. Gesler, to try the temper of the Swiss, set up the 
 ducal hat of Austria on a pole in the market-place of Altdorf. 
 
 F. 
 
 Combine the STATEMENTS in each Paragraph into a COM- 
 PLEX Sentence: 
 
 Ex. They resolved upon making a couple of lances to defend themselves 
 against the white bears. 
 
 They did not know how to procure arrows at present. 
 
 The white bears are far the most furious of their kind. 
 
 They had great reason to dread their attacks. 
 
 Not knowing how to procure arrows at present, they resolved upon making a 
 couple of lances to defend themselves against the white bears, far the most fe- 
 rocious of their kind, whose attacks they had great reason to dread. 
 
 1. Out of this clay they found means to form a utensil. 
 This utensil might serve for a lamp. 
 
 They proposed to keep it constantly burning with the fat of animals. 
 They might kill the animals. 
 
 2. Washington was sometimes engaged in labors. 
 
 The children of wealthy parents would now account these labors se- 
 vere. 
 
 He thus acquired firmness of frame. 
 He thus acquired a disregard of hardship. 
 
 3. Tin is a metal. 
 
 Ancient Britain was most famous for tin. 
 
 The Phoenicians were first induced to visit Britain for tin. 
 
 4. More than half a century ago, London began to be lighted with gas. 
 This was the first attempt to introduce it into the streets and buildings 
 
 of a city. 
 One or two inhabitants had so lighted their houses some years earlier. 
 
 5. A little fern pushed her head through the ground. 
 This was on a bright May morning. 
 
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 177 
 
 The fern was ready to begin unrolling her head. 
 
 She first looked around. 
 
 This course became a wise fern. 
 
 6. He spoke to the king like a rough man. 
 I think this myself. 
 
 He was a rough, angry man. 
 He did nothing more. 
 
 7. Coal in particular was never seen except in certain districts. 
 Coal was produced in certain districts. 
 
 Coal could be carried by sea to certain districts. 
 Coal was indeed always known in the south of England by the name 
 of sea-coal. 
 
 8. Certain species of quadrupeds are provided with soft glossy coverings. 
 These coverings bear the name of fur. 
 
 It is chiefly the smaller species of quadrupeds. 
 
 These coverings are found in the greatest perfection in the coldest 
 
 countries. 
 They are most wanted in such countries. 
 
 9. The ingenuity of man has made a lever of the wind. 
 The lever spares him an immensity of toil. 
 
 This lever is applied to machinery. 
 
 10. The Spaniards were surrounded by many of the natives. 
 The Spaniards were thus employed. 
 
 The natives gazed with silent admiration upon their actions. 
 They could not comprehend these actions. 
 They did not foresee the consequence of these actions. 
 
 G. 
 
 Construct a NAKRATIVE out of the following facts , introduc- 
 ing the several kinds of Sentences : 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Cotton is a white substance. Cotton grows in the seed-pod of a plant. It 
 is gathered from the pod. It is cleaned qnt from the seed. It is sent to the 
 manufacturer. The manufacturer makes it by the help of machinery into 
 thread or yarn. He also makes it into cloth. Cotton is used very exten- 
 sively as material for clothing. Its combination of warmth and lightness fits 
 it for a great variety of climate. Its cheapness brings it within reach of the 
 poorest. It is grown largely in India and Egypt. The finest kind is ob- 
 tained from America. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Iron may be said to be the most useful of metals. It is. employed in all the 
 more important processes of human labor. We are largely dependent on it 
 for carrying on the business of life. We are largely dependent on it for en- 
 joying the comforts of life. The plow is made of iron. We turn up the 
 ground with the plow. Boilers are made of it. We prepare our food in boil- 
 ers. Pens are made of it. We write with pens. Railways are made of it. 
 We travel on railways. Iron is employed in three states. Cast-iron is so 
 called from being cast in moulds. Cast-iron is used for railing, pots, and 
 grates. Wrought-iron is so called for being wrought by the hammer. This 
 
 H 2 
 
178 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 process gives it greater consistency. Wrought-iron is used for railways. 
 Wrought-iron is used for all articles where toughness is required. Steel is 
 iron tempered so as to become very hard and fine. Steel is used for edged 
 tools and fine instruments. The most useful metal is also the most abundant. 
 This is a happy circumstance that Britain abounds in iron. The principal 
 mines are in Staffordshire, Wales, and the west of Scotland. 
 
 The Wind and the Sun. 
 
 A dispute once arose between the wind and the sun which of them is the 
 stronger of the two. They agreed to decide it by this consideration. One of 
 them would sooner make a traveler lay aside his cloak. He was to be ac- 
 counted the more powerful. The wind blew a blast with all its might and main. 
 This blast was cold as a Thracian storm. This blast was fierce as a Thracian 
 storm. He blew stronger. The traveler wrapped his cloak closer about him. 
 He grasped it tighter with his hands. The sun then broke out. With his 
 welcome beams he dispersed the vapor. With his welcome beams he dis- 
 persed the cold. The traveler felt the genial warmth. The sun shone bright- 
 er and brighter. The traveler sat down. The traveler was overpowered with 
 the heat. The traveler cast his cloak on the ground. 
 
PART IV. 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 ' Grammar is a means ; composition, the end.' Angus. 
 
 I. Suggestions for Teachers. 
 
 There are few things that are more difficult to teach suc- 
 cessfully than is composition-writing. After the pupil has 
 acquired some knowledge of grammatical forms, and some 
 skill in analyzing sentences, the art of composing still lies 
 beyond. 
 
 The good old-fashioned way of requiring scholars " to write 
 a composition once a month," on random subjects chosen by 
 themselves, does not tend to give great skill " in the art of 
 writing the English language." It is certain that every child 
 leaving public school at thirteen years of age ought to be 
 able to write at least a business letter neatly and correctly, 
 if not elegantly ; it is equally certain that comparatively few 
 pupils can do this. 
 
 The art of teaching elementary composition- writing can 
 not well be reduced to any very definite rules. It will de- 
 pend to a very great extent on the good sense and the tact 
 of teachers in adapting simple exercises to the capacity of 
 the pupils under instruction. 
 
 The following suggestions may prove of some practical 
 value : 
 
 Direction I. Train pupils to correct one another's compo- 
 sitions. 
 
 Undoubtedly one reason why so few composition exercises are required 
 in school is the drudgery of correcting them. A teacher having a class of 
 say forty scholars can not carefully correct one set of exercises in less ttten 
 five or six hours, and of all tasks that of correcting the compositions of be- 
 ginners is the most thankless. By allowing the members of a class to in- 
 terchange their exercises, the whole work of correcting and criticising may, 
 under the direction of the teacher, be done in the school-room in half an 
 hour. To any pupil, reading, correcting, and criticising the composition 
 of a schoolmate will be quite as valuable a drill as the original labor of 
 writing one. The first attempts may be rather awkward, but after a few 
 trials the corrections will be definite enough for all practical purposes. 
 
180 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Direction II. Require pupils to rewrite every corrected 
 composition. 
 
 Direction III. After the rewritten composition is criti- 
 cised, it should be copied a third time. 
 
 But little attention will be paid to corrected errors unless the pupil is 
 made to rewrite the exercise. For the sake of avoiding this extra labor, 
 pupils will soon learn to write with care. 
 
 Direction IV. Show your pupils how to divide a composi- 
 tion into paragraphs, and require them to put every exercise 
 into paragraphs. 
 
 Direction V. Require pupils to carefully punctuate compo- 
 sitions, at least to the extent of using periods and commas. 
 
 Direction VI. If you would have pupils acquire either 
 readiness or skill in the use of written language, require 
 them to write some kind of a composition at least once a 
 week ; or, better still, a short exercise twice a week. 
 
 Direction VII. As a general rule, assign and explain some 
 subject, and require the whole class to write upon it. 
 
 Direction VIII. Do not select abstract subjects for be- 
 ginners. 
 
 Direction IX. Never assign a subject that the pupils know 
 nothing about. 
 
 Direction X. For a few months the work of any class not 
 trained to write should consist of exercises in writing from 
 memory short stories out of the Readers, in writing abstracts 
 of history or geography lessons, in writing imaginary letters, 
 in writing simple descriptions of familiar scenes or objects, 
 and in converting poetry into prose. Occasionally the pupils 
 should be allowed to select their own subjects, and to exer- 
 cise their own imagination and taste in their own untram- 
 meled manner. 
 
 * II. Suggestions for Pupils. 
 
 Direction I. When your subject is assigned, think it over 
 carefully, and map out in your mind some kind of a plan. 
 
 Direction II. Do not attempt to write on a subject that 
 you know nothing about. 
 
 Direction III. Do not run together a string of propositions 
 
/* 
 
 or THE 
 
 SUGGESTIONS//^ JJ J V R $ I ? Y J 
 
 ^V >v 
 
 connected by conjunctions and relative pronouns into long, 
 straggling sentences, but, as a general thing, write short seri- 
 tences, each expressing a complete thougntTVAniI WTOnever 
 you have written a very long and involved sentence, break it 
 up into two or three brief and clear sentences. 
 
 Direction IV. Do not use several words to convey what 
 may be expressed by one word. 
 
 Direction V. After you have written the first draft of 
 your exercise, go carefully over it, correct, cross out, inter- 
 line, condense, and then recopy it. 
 
 Direction VI. In correcting, examine in reference to the 
 following points : 
 
 1. Spelling. 
 
 2. Capital letters. 
 
 3. Correct use of words. 
 
 4. Grammatical construction. 
 
 5. Punctuation. 
 
 6. Division into paragraphs. 
 
 7. Condensation ; strike out every word, phrase, and clause that you can 
 
 without destroying the thought to be expressed. 
 
 Direction VII. Whenever you make any marked change, 
 or any new turn in the thought to be expressed, denote it by 
 a new paragraph. 
 
 Direction VIII. Acquire the habit of punctuating your sen- 
 tences as you write them, 
 
 Direction IX. Whenever you find much difficulty in com- 
 pleting a long sentence, you may be certain that you do not 
 clearly understand what you want to express. 
 
 Direction X. If you find great difficulty in writing about 
 any particular subject, you may be certain that you do not 
 clearly understand it. 
 
 Direction XL The greatest charm of all writing is natu- 
 ralness; hence do not be afraid to express your own thought, 
 so far as matter goes, just as you would speak it out to a 
 friend. 
 
 Direction XII. Never delay beginning your composition 
 until the day on which you are required to have it ; if you 
 do so, your exercise will in all probability be a failure. 
 
182 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 3. Review of Capitalizing and Punctuation. 
 
 Cardinal Rule. 
 
 tOT To the Pupil. Commit this rule to memory, and practice it till its 
 application becomes as natural to you as breathing. 
 
 Begin every declarative sentence with a capital letter, and 
 close it with a full stop. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Write every Proper JVame, and every adjective derived from 
 a Proper Noun (as English, American), with an initial capital. 
 
 Write the pronoun I in a capital. 
 
 When you introduce a direct quotation in a sentence (that 
 is, when the very words of the speaker or writer are given), 
 begin the quotation with a capital. 
 
 Commas. 
 
 Mark off co-ordinate words and phrases such as the icords 
 in a string of nouns, adjectives, or verbs by means of com- 
 mas ; as, May she reign over a free, a happy, and a religious 
 people. 
 
 The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 
 And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave. 
 
 Mark off adverbial phm&es- at the beginning of sentences by 
 commas / as, On the following morning, Napoleon attacked 
 the enemy. 
 
 Mark off participial phrases, and independent and apposi- 
 tional constructions, by commas; as, Relying on promised aid, 
 Paul Jones attacked the Serapis. Mr. President, I did not in- 
 tend to speak this evening. Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, 
 was born at Tarsus. 
 
 Mark off parenthetical clauses by commas; as, The project, 
 it is certain, will succeed. 
 
 Mark off the clauses of a loosely-connected compound sen- 
 tence by commas ; as, This rumor runs through the crowd in 
 a moment, and fills them with dismay. 
 
 As a general tiling, mark off the subordinate propositions in 
 complex sentences by commas / as, In a moment ten thousand 
 persons, who crowded the great hall, replied with a shout. 
 
 Mark off independent adverbs and conjunctions such as 
 
 HOWEVER, MOREOVER, BESIDES, INDEED, LASTLY, CERTAINLY 
 
 by commas. 
 
CAPITALIZING AND PUNCTUATION. 183 
 
 Finally, DO NOT USE THE PEPPEK-BOX OF COMMAS TOO 
 
 FREELY. 
 
 Semicolons. 
 
 Separate by semicolons the members of a loosely-connected 
 compound sentence, especially members that hinge on a 'but? 
 Straws swim on the surface ; but pearls lie on the bottom. 
 
 Separate by semicolons the different propositions that are 
 strung together -, without connectives, into a compound sentence. 
 The pride of wealth is contemptible ; the pride of learning is 
 pitiable ; the pride of dignity is ridiculous ; but the pride of 
 bigotry is insupportable. 
 
 OBSERVATION. Many authors would very properly make each of these 
 propositions an independent sentence, and put full stops after each. 
 
 The Colon. 
 
 Probably the pupil will rarely have occasion to use the co- 
 lon, so he need not puzzle his head about the niceties of its use. 
 
 The Dash. 
 
 The dash is used to denote abruptness, to show that a signifi- 
 cant pause is intended, or an unexpected change in the senti- 
 ment ; as, Here lies the great false marble, where ? 
 
 Nothing but sordid dust lies here. 
 Who sometimes counsel taks't, and sometimes tea. 
 
 i^ The less the young writer employs the dash in his early composi- 
 tions, the better. 
 
 The Parenthesis. 
 
 The parenthesis is used to inclose words that do not enter into 
 the construction of the sentence, but that are inserted for expla- 
 nation or for reference; as, " Your honor," continued Trim, 
 " might sit in your arm-chair (pointing to it) this fine weather." 
 OBSERVATION. The dash very easily takes the place of the parenthesis. 
 The young writer will do well to employ the parenthesis as little as possi- 
 ble. It is often only a lazy mode of doing what would have been done bet- 
 ter in a regular sentence, with some little alteration of the construction. 
 
 Point of Interrogation. 
 
 Use this mark at the end of a question; as, Where are you ? 
 
 This mark must not be employed when it is only said that 
 
 a question was asked ; as, ' She inquired where I lived.' The 
 
 interrogative form might be employed thus : She said to me, 
 
 " Where do you live ?" 
 
 OBSERVATION. Note in the last sentence that 'Where do you live?' is 
 introduced as a direct quotation, and hence the first word has an initial 
 capital. 
 
184 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Point of Exclamation. 
 This mark, sometimes called the note of admiration, is used 
 
 to emphasize a sentence expressing strong or sudden feeling. 
 
 Hence most interjectional words and phrases take this mark ; 
 
 as, How noble an action ! Alas ! poor Yorick ! 
 
 OBSERVATION. Silly letter- writers sometimes stand up three or four of 
 these marks after a single sentence genuine ' notes of admiration' of their 
 own conceit. Look through twenty pages of a pure and powerful writer 
 like Macaulay, and see if you can find one of these signs of the forcible- 
 feeble. 
 
 Quotation Marks. 
 
 Inverted commas, either single or double, are used to inclose 
 a word, phrase, or sentence that is quoted, or to mark that you 
 are using the very words of a speaker ; as, "What a wonder- 
 ful piece of work is man !" exclaims Shakspeare. 
 
 If the quotation is interrupted by an expression of the 
 c said he' sort, each part of the quotation is inclosed by the 
 marks of quotation, and the interrupting expression is fenced 
 off by commas ; as, " I have lived," said the old man, " a great 
 many years in poverty." 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATION. From these rules you see that 
 punctuation, leaving out its niceties, is really not a difficult 
 matter at all. There is no set way of punctuating. If one 
 has a method founded on sense, and is consistent with this 
 method, no more can be asked. However, if you begin every 
 sentence with a capital letter, end it with its appropriate ter- 
 minal mark, and separate by commas those obviously sepa- 
 rate parts that you would divide by slight pauses in speak- 
 ing, your punctuation will not be very bad. When you have 
 learned this much, all the rest will come to you by practice. 
 
 4. Outline of Exercises in Composition-Writing. 
 
 Combine the Sentences in the following Paragraphs so as to form a connected 
 Narrative : 
 
 Exercise I. 
 
 An old man was on the point of death. He called his sons to his bedside. 
 He ordered them to break a bundle of arrows. The young men were strong. 
 They could not break the bundle. He took it in his turn. He untied it. 
 He easily broke each arrow singly. He then turned toward his sons. He 
 said to them, Mark the effect of union. United like a bundle, you will be in- 
 vincible. Divided, you will be broken like reeds. 
 
 One way of combining. 
 
 An old man on the point of death called his sons to his bedside, and or- 
 
OUTLINE OF EXEKCISES IN COMPOSITION-WHITING. 185 
 
 dered them to break a bundle of arrows. The young men, though strong, 
 being unable to do so, he took the bundle in his turn, untied it, and easily 
 broke each arrow singly. Then turning toward his sons, he said to them, 
 Mark the effect of union. United like a bundle, you will be invincible ; di- 
 vided, you will be broken like reeds. 
 
 Another mode of combining. 
 
 An old man, being on the point of death, called his sons to his bedside, and 
 ordered them to break a bundle of arrows. Strong as they were, they were 
 unable to break this bundle ; so he took it in his turn, and, having untied it, 
 easily broke each arrow singly. Turning toward his sons, he said to them, 
 " United, you can not be overpowered ; divided, you will be broken as easily 
 as reeds." 
 
 NOTE. No two scholars will hit upon exactly the same form of expres- 
 sion. Pupils must try to combine in their own way. 
 
 Exercise II. 
 
 Early History of France. 
 
 France was anciently called Gaul. It was conquered by Julius Caesar. 
 After that the inhabitants adopted the manners of the Romans. Gaul was 
 next invaded by the Franks. They were of German origin. From these 
 people the country derives its present name. Pharamond was king of the 
 Franks. He was the founder of the French monarchy. Clovis was a still 
 more famous warrior. He made Paris his capital. Before his time the 
 Franks were pagans. Clovis embraced Christianity. Charlemagne was the 
 greatest of the Carlovingian kings. He lived between the eighth and ninth 
 centuries. He made conquests in Germany, Spain, and Italy. He founded 
 the temporal power of the Pope. 
 
 One way of combining. 
 
 After France, which was anciently called Gaul, was conquered by Julius 
 Ca3sar, the inhabitants adopted the manners of the Romans. The Franks, a 
 people of German origin, next invaded Gaul, and from them the country de- 
 rived its present name. Pharamond, king of the Franks, was the founder of 
 the French monarchy. Clovis, one of his successors, and a still greater war- 
 rior, embraced Christianity, and made Paris his capital. Before his time the 
 Franks were pagans. Charlemagne, the greatest of the Carlovingian kings, 
 made conquests in Germany, Spain, and Italy, and founded the temporal pow- 
 er of the Pope. He lived between the eighth and ninth centuries. 
 
 Exercise III. 
 
 The Hot Springs of Iceland. 
 
 Hot springs abound in Iceland. The most celebrated are the Geysers. 
 They lie in gently sloping ground at the foot of a hill, in a tract filled with 
 numerous hot springs. The columns of steam from these springs rise into 
 the atmosphere. They may be seen at the distance of miles. Near this tract 
 rises a large circular mound. This mound is formed by the depositions of 
 the Great Geyser, an intermitting fountain. This fountain throws out water 
 at certain intervals. The diameter of the basin is fifty-six feet in one direc- 
 tion. It is forty-six in another. There is a pipe in the centre seventy-eight 
 feet in depth, with a diameter of from eight to ten feet. From this pipe col- 
 umns of hot water are projected with amazing velocity. The columns are sur- 
 
186 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 rounded by steam. They rise as high as seventy feet. These jets are accom- 
 panied by loud reports. They resemble the discharge of a park of artillery. 
 
 Exercise IV. 
 
 The Battle of Hastings. 
 
 Harold was at York celebrating his victory over the Norwegians. A mes- 
 senger came in haste to tell him that William had landed on the southern 
 coast. He had planted his banner on English ground. Harold marched to- 
 ward the south with his victorious army. He published on his way an or- 
 der that all the nobles should arm their forces. They were to repair with 
 them to London. The men of the west came without delay. The men of 
 the north were more tardy on account of the distance. There was, neverthe- 
 less, reason to believe that the English king would in a few days be surround- 
 ed by a hundred thousand men. He could not restrain his eagerness to come 
 up with the invaders. He wished to chastise them. They were committing 
 the most cruel ravages upon the defenseless natives. He did not wait for 
 these re-enforcements. This precipitancy of Harold was his ruin. He .staked 
 all on a decisive engagement. He should have worn out the invading army 
 by delay, and a harassing system of warfare. He came up with the Normans 
 at Hastings. His force was inferior. The battle was long and desperate. 
 William was a skillful general. All his energies were thoroughly taxed. He 
 was on the very brink of ruin. His foresight and craft proved too much for 
 the headlong courage of the Anglo-Saxons. Their king fell pierced by an 
 arrow. The Normans finally remained masters of the bloody field. 
 
 Exercise V. 
 
 Anecdote of Frederick the Great. * 
 
 One day Frederick, king of Prussia, rang the bell. Nobody came. He 
 opened the door. He found his page asleep in an arm-chair. He advanced 
 toward him. He was going to awake him. A letter was in the page's pock- 
 et. The king perceived it. He was curious to know what it contained. He 
 took it. He read it. It was a letter from the mother of the young man. 
 She thanked him for sending a portion of his wages to comfort her in her dis- 
 tress. The king read the letter. He took a purse of ducats. He slipped it 
 with the letter into the page's pocket. He returned safely to his chamber. 
 A short time afterward he rang very loud. The page awakens. He comes 
 to the king. " You have slept well," says the king. The page endeavors to 
 excuse himself. In his confusion he puts his hand into his pocket. He feels 
 the purse. He draws it out. He is overwhelmed with grief and astonish- 
 ment. He turns pale. He looks at the king. He sheds a torrent of tears, 
 without being able to speak a word. "What is the matter?" inquires the 
 king. "Sire," said the young man, throwing himself on his knees, "some 
 one seeks my ruin. I know not what money this is." "My friend," says the 
 king, "God often sends us good in sleep. Send your mother the money. 
 Assure her that I will take care of you both." 
 
 Exercise VI. 
 
 In the next four Exercises are given merely the heads of a 
 composition. Write these hints out as. in the following 
 model : 
 
OUTLINE OF EXEKCISES IN COMPOSITION-WHITING. 187 
 
 The Cow. 
 
 HEADS. The most useful of horned animals ; its flesh ; articles made of 
 its skin ; uses of its horns ; the hair ; the bones ; importance of milk , the 
 calf; use of its skin. 
 
 EXPANDED. Of all horned animals the cow is the most useful. Its flesh 
 is one of the most necessary articles of food to man ; and the purposes to 
 which the various parts of its body are applied are almost innumerable. With- 
 out its skin we could scarcely obtain covering for our feet, the boots and 
 shoes that we wear being almost wholly made from the skin, which is, besides, 
 manufactured into an endless variety of necessary commodities. Mixed with 
 lime, its hair serves to make mortar ; its horns are converted into combs, knife- 
 handles, boxes, drinking vessels, spoons, and other useful articles; and its 
 bones are equally serviceable for domestic and ornamental purposes. The 
 milk of the cow is one of the most valuable of animal products, being in ev- 
 ery-day use as a wholesome and nourishing article of diet ; and it is from 
 milk that butter and cheese are made. The young of the cow is called a 
 calf; its skin is made into fine boots and shoes, parchment, and the binding 
 of books. 
 
 Exercise VII. 
 
 The Dog. 
 
 His qualities ; sagacity, vigilance ; fitted to be the companion and guardian 
 of man ; the only animal that always recognizes his master and the habitual 
 visitors of his family ; his services in assisting man to subdue and keep other 
 animals in subjection : the great variety of the dog species. The Newfound- 
 land dog his size ; his web-feet ; his usefulness in saving people who are in 
 danger of drowning. m The dogs of St. Bernard their sagacity ; their em- 
 ployment in rescuing travelers who have been lost in the snows of the Alps. 
 The shepherd's dog his docility ; his watchfulness ; his intelligence in obey- 
 ing the voice and gestures of his master. Hunting-dogs their keen sense 
 of smell ; the setter and pointer stand still when they discover the game ; 
 their natural instinct to seize it overcome by training. The Esquimaux dog 
 his use in the sledge ; his power of endurance ; his assistance to European 
 explorers of the Arctic regions. The domestic watch-dog his value as a 
 protector from the midnight robber ; sense of security arising from depend- 
 ence on his courage and watchfulness. 
 
 Exercise VIII. 
 
 The Whale. 
 
 The largest of all animals ; belongs to the class mammalia ; how the whale 
 differs from the true fish ; displays great affection for its young ; protects 
 and defends them when attacked ; the different kinds of whale ; the whale of 
 the north Polar regions ; its value ; whalers annually set out from all the mar- 
 itime countries in Europe ; American whalers numerous and enterprising ; 
 method of attacking the whale ; the boats ; the line ; its enormous length ; 
 the harpoon ; the skill and boldness necessary for its use ; the hazard of the 
 chase ; the enormous power of the animal ; the stroke of his tail ; a boat and 
 its crew sometimes sent up in the air ; the whaler itself has been foundered 
 by the charge of the infuriated animal ; uses of the whale ; blubber ; whale- 
 bone ; whence the latter is obtained ; produce and value of a single fish ; three 
 
188 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 a profitable cargo ; the spermaceti whale ; the South Seas ; what is obtained 
 from it ; what part of the animal ; its uses. 
 
 Exercise IX. 
 
 Description of Printing. 
 
 First step in the process ; the setting up of the types ; what these are ; sev- 
 eral pieces of metal forming the letters of the alphabet ; arranged in wooden 
 cases containing a box for every letter ; the words are thus set up, letter by 
 letter, in an instrument called a composing-stick ; these are made so as to suit 
 a longer or shorter line ; the lines are then made into pages ; the pages are 
 fixed into an iron frame or chase ; it is then put on to the printing-press ; the 
 surface of the pages are now covered with ink by a roller ; a sheet of paper 
 is placed over them ; they are pressed under a flat cylindrical surface ; the 
 pressure of this cylinder or plate stamps the characters on the paper ; the im- 
 pressions can thus be repeated at pleasure ; extraordinary speed of the steam 
 printing machine ; number of copies produced in an hour. 
 
 5. Abstracts from Memory. 
 
 Another excellent exercise in composition -writing is to 
 write from memory an abstract of a selection read to the class 
 by the teacher. 
 
 For illustration, two exercises are selected from the compo- 
 sitions of a first-grade class in one of our larger cities. 
 
 The following extract was read to the class, and the schol- 
 ars were lequired to write what they remembered. 
 
 A CENTURY OF PROGRESS. 
 
 1. The century has witnessed remarkable intellectual progress. The sure 
 foundation of this is the American common-school system, which is estab- 
 lished in nearly all the states, and which, with the Prussian system, is the 
 best and broadest educational organization in the world. There are now over 
 seven million children attending the public schools of the United States. Our 
 country has over four hundred colleges and universities. 
 
 2. During colonial times, Americans were almost entirely dependent on the 
 mother country for intellectual food. This state of things continued for many 
 years after the founding of the government. It used, accordingly, to be sneer- 
 ingly asked, ''Who reads an American book ?" This question would not now 
 be asked; or, if it were, it would be answered highly to the credit of the 
 United States. During the past fifty years, American authors of great merit, 
 in all branches of literature and science, have arisen, and their works are read 
 and appreciated throughout the civilized world. Among historians may be 
 named Prescott, Bancroft, and Motley. Among poets may be named Bryant, 
 Whittier, Simms, Holmes, Poe, and Longfellow. Among romance and mis- 
 cellaneous writers may be named Cooper, Hawthorne, Irving, Channing, and 
 Legare [le-gree]. Among orators may be named Webster, Clay, Calhoun, 
 Benton, Everett, Phillips, Seward, Prentice, Stephens, Douglas, Choate. In 
 the fine arts, also, the American school of painters and sculptors stands 
 very high. 
 
 3. The great civil war, though terrible in its effects, has not been without 
 
OUTLINE OF EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION-WRITING. 189 
 
 some good results. The extinction of slavery is already proving a benefit to 
 the people of the South, while it has taken away the long-standing subject of 
 political dispute between the two great sections of the Union. 
 
 4. Another benefit of the war is, that it has brought the two sections, North 
 and South, to understand each other better and respect each other more than 
 they ever did before. The war has also made Americans less puffed up and 
 sensational than formerly, and has given a more earnest and manly cast to 
 the American character. 
 
 5. The study of United States history should infuse into our minds the 
 American spirit, which is as broad as the continent. It should inspire us 
 with fraternal feelings towards all sections, with love for the Union, reverence 
 for the Constitution, and faith in our country's destiny. Swintoris Condensed 
 History of the United States. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. Done fairly. 
 
 A Century of Progress. 
 
 The century has witnessed wonderful intellectual progress. This is shown 
 by the firm basis on which our American schools are founded, which school 
 system, together with the Prussian, is the broadest and best in the world. 
 
 Our country has, at present, seven millions of children attending schools, 
 and over four hundred colleges and universities. 
 
 During colonial times our fathers received their intellectual food from the 
 mother country ; accordingly, it used sneeringly to be asked, ' Who reads an 
 American book ?' It would not be so now, for American authors and poets 
 rank as high as any in the world at the present time. 
 
 Among historians may be named Prescott, Bancroft, and Motley. Among 
 poets may be classed LongfeHow, Whittier, Biyant, Simms, Holmes, and Poe. 
 
 Among romance and miscellaneous writers are Hawthorne, Irving, Chan- 
 ning, and Cooper. The leading orators are Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Seward, 
 Prentice, Phillips, Everett, Douglass, Choate, etc. 
 
 In the fine arts, American sculptors and painters are winning for themselves 
 high laurels and fame.. 
 
 The great Civil War, though terrible in its destruction, has proved bene- 
 ficial to the country. It gave the African his liberty, and caused the North 
 and South to know each other better than before. It also removed in a great 
 respect the puffed up and sensational feeling of the Americans. 
 
 In reading the history of the United States it should infuse into our minds 
 the American spirit, which is as broad as the continent. It should cause us 
 to feel fraternally to all sections of the world, to love the Union, have rever- 
 ence for the Constitution, and to have faith in our country's destiny. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. Done badly. 
 This exercise is printed just as it was written. Correct it. 
 
 A Century of progress. 
 
 This century has noticed great intellectual advantages owing principally to 
 the common school system which with Prussia has the greatest intellectual 
 advantages on the globe. The united states has about 400 colleges and uni- 
 versities and has about 7,000,000 of children attending them. In the Collo- 
 
190 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 nial times the colonies had to depend principally on the mother country for 
 intellectual resources, and it used to be asked with scorn who reads an Amer- 
 ican book should that question be asked now it would be answered with a 
 great deal of credit to the United States. Within the last 60 years many 
 great men have been born in the united states, among historians can be placed 
 Prescott, Branchet, Mocker among the writers of adventures can be placed 
 Webster, Stevens, and many others among poets. Longfellow, Cooper, Cal- 
 houn Hathor. The civil war though terrible in destruction of life, done a 
 great deal of good for the united states it made a better feeling among the 
 north and south and put an end to slavery and the great political question It 
 also took the puff out of the united states and created a good feeling among 
 the people. Let us therefore always have a good deal of Love, Faith and Rev- 
 erence in our countries welfare. 
 
 Exercise X. 
 
 Write in your own Language what you can recollect of the following Tales 
 and Fables. 
 
 Jack and the Bean Stalk. 
 
 Little Red Riding Hood. 
 
 The Babes in the Wood. 
 
 Ali Baba. 
 
 Beauty and the Beast. 
 
 Cinderella. 
 
 John Gilpin. 
 
 Blue Beard. 
 
 Adventures of Sinbad the Sailor. 
 
 Whittington and his Cat. 
 
 Fortunes ; or the Wishing Cap. 
 
 Valentine and Orson. 
 
 The Bear and the Bees. 
 
 The Fox and the Crow. 
 
 The Wolf and the Lamb. 
 
 The Ass in the Lion's Skin. 
 The Fox and the Grapes. 
 The Frog and the Ox. 
 The Frogs who wished a King. 
 The Fox and the Stork. 
 The Wolf and the Crane. . 
 The Boy who cried "Wolf." 
 The Oak and the Willow. 
 The Dog and his Shadow. 
 The Hare and the Tortoise. 
 The 'Stag who admired his Horns. 
 The Mouse and the Lion. 
 The Ant and the Caterpillar. 
 The Ant and the Grasshopper. 
 Crusoe's Defense of his Fort. 
 
 6. Letter-Writing. 
 
 Every one that can write at all ought to learn how to write, 
 fold, and direct a letter. Exercises in letter-writing may be 
 ranked among the pleasantest and most practical forms of 
 composition writing. The language of letters should be plain 
 and simple. The construction of the sentences should be 
 easy and natural. Stiffness, formality, and the affectation of 
 preciseness are, in this kind of composition, particularly ob- 
 jectionable. In fact, we should write to our friends in their 
 absence very much as we should speak to them if they were 
 present. The mechanical arrangement of a letter is impor- 
 tant, and the following details should be attended to : 
 
 I. TJie Date and the Place where it is written. 
 The day, month, and year should be given in full. Never date a letter 
 
 merely by the day of the* week , as, ' Sunday evening. ' 
 
LETTER-WRITING. 191 
 
 II. The form of address; as, ' Sir,' c Dear Sir,' c My dear 
 
 Charles,' ' My dearest Father,' according to the terms 
 of intimacy between the writer and the person ad- 
 dressed. 
 
 III. The Narrative^ or letter proper? 
 
 IV. The Subscription ; as, 'Yours truly,' c Yours faithfully,' 
 
 'Your affectionate brother,' etc. (varying, as in No. 
 
 II., with the relations of the parties), and the Name 
 
 of the writer. 
 Y. The Name of the Recipient. 
 
 The Teacher must explain to the class all the details of the work. A 
 few illustrations are selected from school exercises, and are printed just as 
 they were written. 
 
 I. 
 
 [The requirement in this case was, 'Address a short letter 
 to John Doe, Superintendent of Public Schools, stating 
 what studies you like best, and in what you think your- 
 self deficient.'] 
 
 00 
 
 John Doe : San Francisco, April, 19, 1872. 
 
 Sir, 
 
 As you requested us to tell you about our studies, I will give 
 an account of mine. The studies which are liked, the ones disliked, the one 
 disliked very much, for there is one of that class. 
 
 Grammar is my favorite. In the beginning of the year I disliked it, but 
 now it occupies the first place among all the studies. I like History and 
 Geography very much because they are matters of memory, and I was crea- 
 ted with a fair memory. 
 
 Arithmetic I am very sorry to say is the study I dislike so very much. Mr. 
 Doe, I am not a creature of reason, and as this is the main element necessary 
 in Arithmetic, I am deficient. I am gaining on it every week, I hope soon to 
 be fine in Arithmetic. 
 
 Composition and Penmanship are my favorites also. Please look on this 
 paper with lenient eye. Do not be too criticlal. I do not think this, letter 
 or composition is very bad Agree with me. 
 
 Yours Truly, Hattie Cooper. 
 
 (2.) 
 
 Hon. John Doe, San Francisco, April, 18, 1872. 
 
 Superintendant Common Schools 
 Sir 
 
 I take the pleasure to inform you, of studdies I like 
 
 and dislike ; my special favorite is Arithmetic, next comes Grammar, al- 
 though more difficult yet it is very interesting : Phisical Geography, History 
 and Analysis, together form the van of my studies. I do not pretend to say 
 that I dislike spelling and Natural Geography, because they are generally use- 
 ful, but they do not rank among my favorites. 
 
 Very Respectfully, P. D. 
 
192 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 II. 
 
 Illustrations from the exercises of a second-grade class. 
 There are many faults of spelling, capitalizing, and punctua- 
 ting in these exercises. See if you can correct them. 
 
 [The requirement was, 'Address a short letter of thanks to 
 your father, mother, or guardian for an imaginary birth- 
 day present.'] 
 
 (10 
 
 San Francisco, April, 19th, 1872. 
 Dear Father, 
 
 I thank you very much for that dress you made me a 
 
 present of on my last birth-day. It is such a pretty plaid, I guess I will 
 have mamma to make me an overskirt and a basque. It will be so be- 
 becoming. And I must not forget that beautiful velvet hat which mamma 
 also gave me. Hoping you will thank her for it I still remain. 
 
 Your loving daughter, Alice. 
 
 San Francisco, April 19th, 1872. 
 Dear Parents. 
 
 How can I begin to thank you, for that beautiful present ? 
 How is it you always know what I want? That book case is just beautiful. 
 Dear parents, that is all I can say about it, and I will try i o show you by my 
 good behavior, how much I thank you for it, Dear parents I will not attempt 
 to tell you how much I love you, for, all you have done for me, but let my ac- 
 tions speak for me. 
 
 Good Bye Your daughter 
 
 Annette. 
 
 (3.) 
 
 Boston, April 19th, 1872. . 
 Dear Mother : 
 
 I cannot express the thanks I owe you for the beautiful 
 presents you sent me. The pair of gold bracelets are handsome, and I thank 
 you a thousand times for them, and for the dress, set, ring, and especially 
 your picture. I showed it to Mrs. B - , and she said " it was the best pic- 
 ture she has ever seen of you. " 
 
 Your ever loving daughter, Augusta. 
 
 (*) 
 
 Rose Seminary. 
 
 Apr. 19th; 1872. 
 Dear Father ; 
 
 How can I express my thanks to you in words for my beau- 
 tiful, and long wished for little watch, I can't but when I see you I will give 
 you a big kiss for it. All of the girls pronounce it the very sweetest one in 
 the school and you know most every girl has one. 
 
 The lunch bell is ringing so you will excuse my brevity and 
 believe me 
 
 Your loving daughter. Lizzie. 
 
TURNING POETKY INTO PROSE. 193 
 
 7. Turning Poetry into Prose. 
 
 The style of poetry is more impassioned, and more figura- 
 tive and flowing, than that of prose. Hence, in converting 
 poetry into prose, it is often necessary to substitute simpler 
 words and expressions, as well as to break up the rhyme and 
 metre. The following are some of the chief peculiarities of 
 poetical construction : 
 
 I. The auxiliary verb to do is dispensed with in interrogation 
 Know ye the land^here the cypress and myrtle ? Byron. 
 Ho ! come ye in peace here, or come ye in war ? Scott. 
 
 IT. The verb precedes the nominative 
 
 While stands the Coliseum, Rome shall stand. Byron. 
 
 Answered Fitz- James : 'And if I thought.' Scott. 
 
 O'er the path so well known still proceeded the maid. Southey. 
 
 III. The objective case precedes the transitive verb 
 
 Lands he could measure, terms and tides presage. Goldsmith. 
 The Stuart sceptre well she swayed,l)ut the sword she could not wield. 
 H.G.Bell. 
 
 IV. The noun precedes the adjective 
 
 Hadst thou sent warning, fair and true. Scott. 
 Now is the pleasant time, the cool, the silent. Milton. 
 
 V. The adjective precedes the verb to be 
 
 Few and short were the prayers we said. Wolfe. 
 Rich were the sable robes she wore. H.G.Bell. 
 
 VI. The pronoun is expressed in the imperative 
 Wipe thou thine eyes. Shakspeare. 
 
 But, blench not thou. Byron. 
 
 VII. Adjectives are used for adverbs 
 
 False flew the shaft, though pointed well. Moore. 
 Abrupt and loud, a summons shook the gate. Campbell. 
 
 VIII. Personal pronouns are used with their antecedents 
 The wind, it waved the willow boughs. Southey. 
 
 For the deck it was their field of fame. Campbell. 
 
 IX. The antecedent is omitted 
 
 Who steals my purse, steals trash. Shakspeare. 
 Happy, who walks with him. Cowper. 
 
 X. And and is used for both and. Or or for either or. Nor nor 
 for neither nor 
 
 And trump and timbrel answered keen. Scott. 
 - I whom nor avarice nor pleasures move. Walsh. 
 
 XI. Adverbial phrases are not placed in juxtaposition with .the words to 
 which they grammatically belong 
 
 On thy voiceless shore 
 The heroic lay is tuneless now. Byron. 
 Of the three hundred grant but three. Byron. 
 
194 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 XII. Prepositions are suppressed 
 
 Despair and anguish fled [ ] the struggling soul. Goldsmith. 
 
 And like the bird whose pinions quake 
 
 But can not fly [ ] the gazing snake. Byron. 
 
 In poetry, things are painted vividly; words are sometimes 
 used that would elsewhere not be allowable ; phrases and 
 clauses are inverted ; and the sentences are elliptical. 
 
 All these things must be considered in transposing verse 
 into prose. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 * In woods and glens I love to roam 
 When the tired hedger hies him home, 
 Or by the woodland pool to rest 
 When pale the star sleeps on its breast.' 
 
 Henry Kirke White. 
 
 This may be turned into prose so as.to read as follows : 
 I love to roam among the woods and glens when the hedger, tired with 
 
 his day's work, is going home, or to sit by the woodland pool when the star 
 
 is reflected from its waters. 
 
 SECOND ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 ' Sweet Auburn ! loveliest village of the plain, 
 Where health and plenty cheer'd the laboring swain, 
 How often have I paused on every charm, 
 The shelter'd cot, the cultivated fa*rm, 
 The never-failing brook, the busy mill, 
 The decent church, that topp'd the neighboring hill ; 
 The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade, 
 For talking age and whispering lovers made. ' Goldsmith. 
 
 This may be turned into prose thus : 
 
 Auburn, the loveliest village of the plain, whose laborers were paid for their 
 work with health and plenty. How often have I paused to see thy various 
 charms the cottages sheltered from the sun and wind by trees, the farm 
 rich in cultivation, the brook always running, and the mill always going, the 
 pretty church on the top of the neighboring hill, and the hawthorn, with 
 seats round it, on which the old could gossip, and lovers could whisper. 
 
 Exercise XL 
 
 A. 
 
 Convert the following Stanzas into Prose: 
 THE VILLAGE BLACKSMITH. Longfellow., 
 
 1. Under a spreading chestnut-tree 
 
 The village smithy stands ; 
 The smith, a mighty man is he, 
 
 With large and sinewy hands ; 
 And the muscles of his brawny arms 
 
 Are strong as iron bands. 
 
TURNING POETRY INTO PROSE. 195 
 
 2. His hair is crisp, and black, and long, 
 
 His face is like the tan ; 
 His brow is wet with honest sweat ; 
 
 He earns whate'er he can, 
 And looks the whole world in the face, 
 
 For he owes not any man. 
 
 3. Week in, week out, from morn till night, 
 
 You can hear his bellows blow ; 
 You can hear him swing his heavy sledge 
 
 With measured beat and slow, 
 Like a sexton ringing the village bell 
 
 When the evening sun is low. 
 
 4. And children coming home from school 
 
 Look in at the open door ; 
 They love to see the flaming forge, 
 
 And hear the bellows roar, 
 And catch the burning sparks that fly 
 
 Like chaff from a threshing-floor. 
 
 5. Thanks, thanks to thee, my worthy friend, 
 
 For, the lesson thou hast taught ! 
 Thus at the flaming forge of life 
 
 Our fortunes must be wrought ; 
 Thus on its sounding anvil shaped 
 
 Each burning deed and thought* ! 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 The following is an exercise just as it was written by a 
 scholar (aged 15) in one of the first-grade classes of a gram- 
 mar-school in San Francisco. You will see that it is quite 
 well done. Can you make any criticism on it ? 
 
 The Village Blacksmith. 
 
 The blacksmith shop stands in the village, under a spreading chestnut-tree. 
 The smith is a mighty man. His hands are large and sinewy ; and the mus- 
 cles of his arm are so strong, that they look like bands of iron. 
 
 You can hear his bellows blow from morning until night, week in, and 
 week out. He swings his heavy sledge so slowly and regularly, that it resem- 
 bles the ringing of the village bell, which tolls when the sun sets. 
 
 When the children are coming home from school, they stop to look in, for 
 the door is always open. They like to see the flaming forge, and hear the 
 bellows roar. They are delighted to catch the sparks, which fly about so 
 thick and fast that they think of chaff on a threshing-floor. 
 
 You have taught me a valuable lesson my worthy friend, for which I must 
 earnestly thank you. As we go through life, our fortunes must be wrought 
 by honest, steady labor, as at the flaming forge. Every deed and thought is 
 recorded, and leaves an endless impression, as the anvil does in striking. 
 
 SECOND ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 Here is another exercise written by a pupil of the same 
 grade and age. It is very badly done. Correct it. 
 
196 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 The Village blacksmith. 
 
 1. Under a spreading chestnut-tree the smith, a mighty man is he and the 
 muscles of his brawny arms are strong as iron bands with large and sinewy 
 hands the village smithy stands. 
 
 3 Week in week out from morn till night you can hear him swing his heavy 
 sledge like a sexton ringing the village bell when the evening sun is low you 
 can hear his bellows blow with measured beat and slow. 
 
 4 And children coming home from school look in at the open door and 
 catch the burning sparks that fly like chaff from a threshing floor, they love 
 to see the flaming forge and hear the bellows roar. 
 
 8 Thanks, thanks to thee, my worthy friend thus at the flaming forge of 
 life thus on its sounding anvil shaped each burning deed and thought for the 
 lessons thou hast taught our fortunes must be wrought. 
 
 Exercise XII. 
 
 The Grandfather. 
 
 1. The farmer sat in his easy-chair, 
 
 Smoking his pipe of clay, 
 While his hale old wife, with busy care, 
 
 Was clearing the dinner away ; 
 A sweet little girl, with fine blue eyes, 
 On her grandfather's knee, was catching flies. 
 
 2. The old man laid his hand on her head, 
 
 With a tear on his wrinkled face ; 
 He thought how often her mother dead 
 
 Had sat in the self-same place ; 
 As the tear stole down from his half-shut eye, 
 4 Don't smoke !' said the child ; ' how it makes you cry !' 
 
 3. Still the farmer sat in his easy-chair, 
 
 While close to his heaving breast 
 The moistened brow and the cheek so fair 
 
 Of his sweet grandchild were pressed ; 
 His head, bent down, on her soft hair lay ; 
 Fast asleep were they both on that summer day. 
 
 Sample of the exercise done pretty well : 
 
 The Grand-father. 
 
 1. 
 
 The farmer was smoking his clay pipe, as he sat in his easy-chair, and his 
 hale old wife was clearing away the dinner with busy care ; while on her 
 grand-father's knee, was a sweet little girl catching flies. 
 
 2. 
 
 And as he thought how her dead mother, used to sit in that same place he 
 placed his hand on her head with a tear on his wrinkled face ; and as the 
 child, saw the tear from his eye steal down, she said 4 don't smoke,' 'how it 
 makes you cry. ' 
 
 3. 
 Still the farmer sat in his easy-chair, and they were both fast asleep, with 
 
TUKNING POETRY INTO PKOSE. 197 
 
 his head bent down on her soft hair, while the moistened brow, and the fair 
 cheek of his grandchild was pressed against his heaving breast. 
 
 Sample as done pretty badly : 
 
 The Grandfather. 
 
 A Farmer sat smoking his pipe of clay in his easy-chair, while with busy 
 care his hale old wife the dinner was clearing away, while on her Grandfather's 
 knee a little girl with fine blue eyes, was catching flies. 
 
 On her head the old man laid his hand while on his wrinkled face a tear, 
 how often her mother he thought had in the self-same spot had sat, and from 
 his half shut eye a tear stole down ' don't smoke for it makes you cry' said 
 the child. 
 
 Still in his easy-chair the farmer sat while the moistened brow and the 
 cheek of his grandchild so fair was pressed close to his heaving breast on her 
 soft hair lay his head bent down ' for on that summer day they were both fast 
 asleep.' 
 
 Exercise XIII. 
 Turn the following Stanzas into Prose: 
 
 1. Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind 
 Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the wind ; 
 His soul proud science never taught to stray 
 Far as the solar walk or Milky Way ; 
 
 Yet simple Nature to his hope has given, 
 
 Beyond the cloud-topp'd hills, a humble heaven ; 
 
 Some safer world in depth of woods embraced, 
 
 Some happier island in the watery waste, 
 
 Where slaves once more their native land behold, 
 
 No fiends torment, no Christians thirst for gold ! 
 
 To Be, contents his natural desire ; 
 
 He asks no angel's wing, no seraph's fire ; 
 
 But thinks, admitted to that equal sky, 
 
 His faithful dog shall bear him company. Pope. 
 
 2. The busy lark, the messenger of day, 
 Saluteth in her song the morning gray, 
 And fiery Phoebus riseth up so bright, 
 That all the Orient laugheth at the sight, 
 
 And with his streams he drieth in the greves (graves) 
 The silver drops that hang upon the leaves. Chaucer. 
 
 3. Sometimes, with secure delight, 
 The upland hamlets will invite, 
 When the merry bells ring round, 
 And the jocund rebecs sound, 
 
 To many a youth and many a maid, t 
 
 Dancing in the checkered shade, 
 
 When young and old come forth to play, 
 
 On a sunshine holiday, 
 
 Till the livelong daylight fail. Shalcspeare. 
 
 4. The armaments, which thunderstrike the walls 
 
 Of rock-built cities, bidding nations quake, 
 
198 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 And monarchs tremble in their capitals 
 
 The oak leviathans, whose huge ribs make 
 
 Their clay creator the vain title take 
 Of lord of thee, and arbiter of war 
 
 These are thy toys ; and, as the snowy flake, 
 They melt into thy yeast of waves, which mar 
 Alike the Armada's pride, or spoils of Trafalgar. Byron. 
 
 5. One touch to her hand, and one word in her ear, 
 
 When they reached the hall door, and the charger stood near ; 
 
 So light to the croupe the fair lady he swung 
 
 So light to the saddle before her he sprung ! 
 
 4 She is won ! we are gone, over bank, bush, and scaur ; 
 
 They'll have fleet steeds that follow, ' quoth young Lochinvar. Scott. 
 
 6. At church, with meek and unaffected grace, 
 His looks adorned the venerable place ; 
 
 Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway, 
 
 And fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray. 
 
 The service passed, around the pious man 
 
 With ready zeal each honest rustic ran ; 
 
 Even children followed, with endearing wile, 
 
 And plucked his gown to share the good man's smile ; 
 
 His ready smile a parent's warmth expressed, 
 
 Their welfare pleased him, and their cares distressed. 
 
 To them his heart, his love, his griefs were given, 
 
 But all his serious thoughts had rest in heaven ; 
 
 As some tall cliff, that lifts its awful form, 
 
 Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm, 
 
 Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread, 
 
 Eternal sunshine settles on its head. Goldsmith. 
 
 NOTE. For additional exercises, Teachers are referred to any of the 
 School Readers. 
 
APPENDI 
 
 CONJUGATION OF A REGULAR YEKB. 
 (ANCIENT STYLE.) 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. 
 
 Love. Loved. Loved. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Active. 
 
 I love. We "> I am loved. 
 
 Thou lovest. Ye > love. Thou art loved. 
 
 He loveth. They) He is loved. 
 
 Passive. 
 We > 
 
 Ye > are loved. 
 They) 
 
 I loved. 
 Thou lovedst. 
 He loved. 
 
 We ) 
 
 Ye Y loved. 
 They) 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 I was loved. 
 Thou wast loved. 
 He was loved. 
 
 We ) 
 
 Ye > were loved. 
 
 They) 
 
 I shall or will love. 
 Thou shalt or wilt 
 
 love. 
 He shall or will love. 
 
 We shall 
 Ye > or will 
 They love. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Thou shalt or } 
 
 wilt I be 
 
 I shall o?' will ( loved. 
 He shall or will ) 
 
 We 
 Ye 
 
 They 
 
 shall 
 or will 
 >be 
 loved. 
 
 I have ) 
 Thou hast > loved. 
 He has ) 
 
 I had ) 
 Thou hadst /- loved. 
 ]He had ) 
 
 I shall or 
 
 will 
 Thou shalt I 
 
 or wilt 
 ]He shall or 
 
 will 
 
 have 
 loved. 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 We ' 
 Ye 
 
 They. 
 
 have 
 loved. 
 
 I have 
 Thou hast 
 He hath 
 
 been 
 
 Past Perfect Tense. 
 
 ^ Ve Had 
 
 The>- d ' 
 
 ThouhadstL been , 
 He had ) loved ' 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 
 
 I shall or 
 
 
 We ) shall 
 Ye > have 
 They) loved. 
 
 wilt 
 Thou shalt 
 or wilt 
 He shall or 
 
 have 
 been 
 loved. 
 
 
 will 
 
 
 We "I have 
 Ye > been 
 They) loved. 
 
 We ) had 
 Ye > been 
 They) loved. 
 
 We 
 Ye 
 
 They 
 
 shall 
 or will 
 have 
 been 
 loved. 
 
200 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Active. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I may, can, or must 
 
 Thou mayest, canst, or must > love. 
 He may, can, or must ) 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We ) 
 
 Ye V-i 
 They) 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I might, could, would, or 
 
 should 
 Thou mightest, couldst, 
 
 wouldst, or shouldst 
 He might, could, would, or 
 
 should 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Passive. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I may, can, or must 
 
 Thou mayest, canst, or must > be loved. 
 He may, can, or must ) 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We ) 
 
 Ye > may, can, or must be loved. 
 They) 
 
 be loved. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 I might, could, would, or 
 
 
 should 
 
 love. 
 
 Thou mightest, couldst, 
 wouldst, or shouldst 
 
 
 He might, could, would, 
 
 
 or should 
 
 fJUUKiAij. ri*\jxk&.ii. 
 
 v e f_ might, could, would, or should Vo e ( might, could, would, or should 
 * e r i~,,~ ie f 1,^1^,^/1 
 
 They) 
 
 love. 
 
 They) 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 be loved. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I may, can, or must 
 
 have 
 
 Thou mayest, canst, or must >- j ove( i 
 He may, can, or must ) 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We ) 
 
 Ye > may, can, or must have loved. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I may, can, or must 
 
 ") have 
 
 Thou mayest, canst, or must > been 
 He may, can, or must ) loved. 
 
 They) 
 
 We "} may, 
 Ye >- can, 
 They) must 
 
 Past Perfect Tense. 
 
 > have been loved. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 I might, could, would, or 
 
 should 
 Thou mightest, couldst, 
 
 wouldst, or shouldst 
 He might, could, would, or 
 
 should 
 
 have 
 loved. 
 
 We 
 Ye 
 
 could, 
 should 
 
 > have loved. 
 
 I might, could, would, or 
 
 
 should 
 Thou mightest, couldst, 
 wouldst, or shouldst 
 He might, could, would, or 
 
 have 
 been 
 loved. 
 
 should 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 We ) mig ^' ) 
 
 Ye > cou i 7 > have been loved. 
 
 The H should ) 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 201 
 
 Active. 
 
 If I or we } 
 If thou or ye > love. 
 If he or they ) 
 
 If I or we } 
 
 If thou or ye > loved. 
 
 If we or they ) 
 
 Active. 
 Love (thou or ye). 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 If I or we 
 If thou or ye 
 If we or they 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 | If I or we 
 If thou or ye 
 If we or they 
 
 Passive. 
 
 be loved. 
 
 were loved. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Passive. 
 
 | Be (thou or ye) loved. 
 
 INFINITIVES. 
 
 Present. To love. To be loved. 
 
 Perfect. To have loved. To have been loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present. Loving. Being loved. Past. Loved. Been loved. 
 
 Perfect. Having loved. Having been loved. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OP THE YEEB LOVE. 
 
 (ANCIENT STYLE.) 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Tense. 
 
 Simple Form. 
 
 Progressive Form. 
 
 
 Present. 
 Past. 
 Future. 
 Pres. Perf. 
 
 Past Perf. 
 Fut. Perf. 
 
 Thou lovest. 
 Thou lovedst. 
 Thou wilt love. 
 Thou hast loved. 
 
 Thou hadst loved. 
 Thou wilt have loved. 
 
 Thou art loving. 
 Thou wast loving. 
 Thou wilt be loving. 
 Thou hast been lov- 
 ing. 
 Thou hadst been lov- 
 ing. 
 Thou wilt have been 
 loving. 
 
 Thou art loved. 
 Thou wast loved. 
 Thou wilt be loved. 
 Thou hast been 
 loved. 
 Thou hadst been 
 loved. 
 Thou wilt have been 
 loved. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Present.. 
 Past. 
 
 Pres. Perf. 
 Past Perf. 
 
 Thou 
 mayest or canst love, 
 mightest or couldst 
 love, 
 mayest or canst have 
 loved, 
 mightest or couldst 
 have loved. 
 
 Thou 
 mayest be loving, 
 mightest be loving. 
 
 mayest have been 
 loving, 
 mightest have been 
 loving. 
 
 Thou 
 mayest be loved, 
 mightest be loved. 
 
 mayest have been 
 loved, 
 mightest have been 
 loved. 
 
 I 2 
 
202 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 
 Past. 
 
 If thou love. 
 If thou loved. 
 
 If thou be loving. 
 If thou were loving. 
 
 If thou be loved. 
 If thou were loved. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. \ Love (thou). | Be (thou) loving. 
 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present. 
 Perfect. 
 
 To love. 
 To have loved. 
 
 To l^e loving. 
 To have been loving. 
 
 To be loved. 
 To have been loved. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF A VERB CONJUGATED 
 
 1. NEGATIVELY ; 2. INTEEKOGATIVELY ; 3. NEGATIVE-INTEEEOGATIVELY. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Present. I do not move. 
 
 Do I move ? 
 
 
 Do I not move ?* 
 
 Present progres. I am not moving. 
 
 Am I moving ? 
 
 
 Am I not moving ? 
 
 Past emphatic. I did not move. 
 
 Did I move ? 
 
 
 Did I not move ? 
 
 Past progress I was not moving. 
 
 Was I moving ? 
 
 
 Was I not moving ? 
 
 Perfect. I have not moved. 
 
 Have I moved ? 
 
 
 Have I not moved ? 
 
 Perfect progres. I have not been 
 
 Have I been mov- 
 
 Have I not been 
 
 moving. 
 
 ing? 
 
 
 moving ? 
 
 Past perfect. I had not moved. 
 
 Had I moved ? 
 
 
 Had I not moved ? 
 
 Past perf. prog. I . had not been 
 
 Had I been mov- 
 
 Had I not been mov- 
 
 moving. 
 
 ing? 
 
 
 ing? 
 
 Future. I shall not move. 
 
 Shall I move? 
 
 
 Shall I not move ? 
 
 Future progres. I shall not be 
 
 Shall I be mov- 
 
 Shall I not be mov- 
 
 moving. 
 
 ing? 
 
 
 ing? 
 
 Future perfect. I shall not have 
 
 Shall I have 
 
 
 Shall I not have 
 
 moved. 
 
 moved ? 
 
 
 moved ? 
 
 Fut. perf. prog. I shall not have 
 
 Shall I have been 
 
 Shall I not have 
 
 been moving. 
 
 moving ? 
 
 
 been moving? 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 Present. I may, ^ 
 
 May, ) 
 
 May, ) 
 
 can, > not move. 
 
 Can, > I move ? 
 
 Can, > I not move? 
 
 must ) 
 
 Must ) 
 
 Must ) 
 
 Past. I might, j 
 
 Might, I 
 
 Might, j 
 
 should ) 
 
 Should ) 
 
 Should' ) 
 
 * There is another mode of placing the negative ; thus : 
 
 'Do not I move?' con- 
 
 tracted into 
 
 ists : If the 
 
 not I move ?' 
 
 or emphatic : ' Do I not move 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 203 
 
 Pres.Perf. I may, 
 
 not have 
 
 not have 
 moved. 
 
 ^ ) I have 
 Can j moved? 
 
 Might, ) 
 Could, 1 I have 
 Would, i moved ? 
 Should J 
 
 May, ) I not have 
 
 Can, ) moved. 
 
 Might, ^ 
 Could, 1 I not have 
 Would, [moved? 
 Should J 
 
 Past Perf. I might, 
 could, 
 would, 
 should 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON PARADIGMS. 
 
 [The Inflections and Words retained in Modern English are printed in Italics.] 
 1. THE NOUN 
 
 
 SING. 
 
 PLUR. 
 
 
 SING. 
 
 PLUR. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 fisc, 
 
 fisc-as.( 2 ) 
 
 Nom. 
 
 fot, 
 
 fet.( 3 ) 
 
 Gen. 
 
 es,^) 
 
 a. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 es, 
 
 fot-a. 
 
 D.Ab. 
 
 e, 
 
 um. 
 
 D.Ab. 
 
 fet, 
 
 um. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 ? 
 
 as.( 2 ) 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 /^( 3 ) 
 
 
 0-68= -'8. 
 
 (2) _as= -es, -s. 
 
 (3) fet 
 
 rzfeet. 
 
 
 SING. 
 
 PLUR. 
 
 SING. 
 
 PLUR. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 ox-a, 
 
 OX-GW. ( 4 ) 
 
 Nom. 
 
 aeg, 
 
 aeg-rw. ( 5 ) 
 
 Gen. 
 
 an, 
 
 ena. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 es, 
 
 ra. 
 
 D. Ab. 
 
 an, 
 
 um. 
 
 D.Ab. 
 
 e, 
 
 rum. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 an, 
 
 arc.( 4 ) 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 ru. ( 5 ) 
 
 (*) -an = -en. 
 
 ( 5 ) -ru =. -ry in eyry, rookery, etc. 
 
 Other plural- endings : -a, -e, -w, all of which are lost. 
 
 SING. 
 
 Nom. Ic = I, 
 Gen. mm = mine, 
 Dat. me = me, 
 
 Ace. me = me, 
 
 2. THE PRONOUN. 
 
 First Personal Pronoun. 
 
 DUAL. PLUR. 
 
 wit, we we. 
 
 uncer, ure = our. 
 
 unc, us = us. 
 
 unc. us = us. 
 
 Second 'Personal Pronoun. 
 
 SING. 
 
 Nom. thu = thou, 
 
 DUAL. 
 
 git , 
 
 PLUR. 
 
 ge = ye. 
 
 Dat. the = thee, 
 Ace. the = thee, 
 
 inc , 
 inc , 
 
 edw = you. 
 edw you. 
 
 Demonstrative Pronoun (3d Person). 
 
 MASO. 
 
 Nom. he = he, 
 
 Singular. 
 
 FEM. 
 
 heo , 
 
 NEUT. 
 
 hit it. 
 his (its). 
 him . 
 hit = it. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 hi 
 
 Dat. him ) , . 
 A T_* r f nim, 
 Ace. hme) r 
 
 hire( l ) = here, 
 hig ' , 
 
 him . 
 hig . 
 
 0) hire = here, adv., in this place. 
 
204 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 MASO. 
 
 Nom. se the, 
 
 6^72. thaes 
 
 I) at. tham 
 
 Ace. thone , 
 
 All. thy , thaere 
 
 Definite Article. 
 Singular. 
 
 FEM. NETJT. 
 
 seo = she, thaet = that. 
 
 thaere , thaes . 
 
 tha6re(?) = there, tham . 
 
 tha , thaet . 
 
 , %( 3 ) == the. 
 
 Plural. 
 M. F. N. 
 
 tha = they. 
 tkdra = their. 
 tham ) 
 
 tha V = them, 
 tham) 
 
 ( 2 ) thaere^^ere, adv., to that place. 
 
 (3) thy =the, adv., in " the more, the better." 
 
 Demonstrative Adjective. 
 Singular. 
 
 MASO. FEM. NEUT. 
 
 Nom. thes = this, theds , this = this. 
 
 Gen. thises , thisse , thises . 
 
 Dat. thisum , thisse ,' thisum . 
 
 Ace. thisne - , thas , this this. 
 
 Plural 
 M. F. N. 
 thds these, those. 
 
 thissa . 
 
 thisum . 
 
 thas these, those. 
 
 Interrogative and Relative Pronoun. 
 Singular. 
 
 MASO., FEM. 
 
 Plural 
 M. and N. 
 hwa. 
 hwaes. 
 hwam. 
 hwone. 
 hwy. 
 
 Hwylc = which, is declined as an indefinite adjective. 
 
 Nom. hwa 
 
 = who, 
 
 hwaet = what. 
 
 Gen. hwaes 
 
 = whose, 
 
 hwaes whose. 
 
 Dat. hwam } 
 
 
 (hwdin = . 
 
 Ace. hvvone j 
 
 - = whom, 
 
 (hwaet = what. 
 
 Abl hwi 
 
 > 
 
 hwi = why. 
 
 MASO. 
 
 Nom. god, 
 
 Gen. es, 
 
 Dat. urn, 
 
 Ace. ne, 
 
 Abl e, 
 
 MASO. 
 
 Nom. (se) god-a, 
 
 Gen. an, 
 
 Dat. an, 
 
 Ace. an, 
 
 Abl 
 
 3. THE ADJECTIVE. 
 (1.) Indefinite (Strong). 
 Singular. 
 
 FEM. NEUT. 
 
 god, god. 
 
 re, es. 
 
 re, um. 
 
 e, . 
 re, e. 
 
 (2.) Definite (Weak). 
 Singular. 
 
 FEM. NEUT. 
 
 (seo) gdd-e, (thaet) god-e. 
 
 an, an. 
 
 an, an. 
 
 an, e. 
 
 an, an. 
 
 All these endings are lost. 
 
 Plural 
 M. F. N. 
 
 god-e (-u). 
 
 - ra. 
 
 um. 
 
 e (-u). 
 
 um. 
 
 Plural 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 (tha) gdd-an. 
 
 ena. 
 
 um. 
 
 an. 
 
 um. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 205 
 
 Pos. 
 smael = small, 
 (se) smaela 
 
 Comparison. 
 Comp. 
 
 M. F. 
 
 smael-ra, -re smaller, 
 (se) smael ra. 
 
 laet^late. 
 (se) laeta. 
 
 laet-ra, -re, later, 
 (se) laet-ra. 
 
 Super. 
 (se) = st. 
 
 laet-ost= latest, 
 (se) laet-mesta^latemost. 
 
 SAXON VEKB. 
 
 WESAN, To BE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 SING. PLUB. 
 
 1. eom am } 
 
 2. eart = art ^ synd (-on) . 
 
 3. ys = is ) 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1. waes = was 
 
 2. waere = [wast] J>- waeron = were. 
 
 3. waes = was 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 SING. PLUR. 
 
 sy [seo, sig], -<syn . 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 2. > waere = were < waeron = were. 
 3.) ( 
 
 BEON, To BE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 SING. PLUR. 
 
 l.beo, } 
 
 2. byst, > beo [-th], 
 
 3. byth, ) 
 
 I bed = 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 bed [-th] = be. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 8LNG. PLUR. 
 
 2. > beo be 
 3.) 
 
 bedn = be. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Indef. beon = be. 
 
 Gerund, to beonne [for] being. 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 Imperf. beonde = being. 
 
206 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE OF TENSES IN ENGLISH, LATIN, 
 FRENCH, AND GERMAN. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 French. 
 
 German. 
 
 Clndef. 
 % J Progr. 
 
 He writes. 
 He is writing. 
 
 Scribit. 
 Scribit. 
 
 11 ecrit. 
 11 ecrit. 
 
 Er schreibt 
 Er schreibt. 
 
 1 1 Per s- 
 
 He has written. 
 
 Scripsit. 
 
 11 a ecrit. 
 
 Er hat geschrie- 
 
 fi, [ 
 
 
 
 
 ben. 
 
 Clndef. 
 
 He wrote. 
 
 Scripsit. 
 
 11 ecrivit. 
 
 Er schrieb. 
 
 \ Progr. 
 
 He was writing. 
 
 Scribebat. 
 
 11 6crivait. 
 
 Er schrieb. 
 
 \Perf. 
 
 He had written. 
 
 Scripserat. 
 
 ?I1 avait ecrit. \ 
 (11 eut ecrit. ) 
 
 Er hatte geschrie- 
 ben. 
 
 (Indef. 
 
 He will write. 
 
 Scribet. 
 
 11 ecrira. 
 
 Er wird schreiben. 
 
 g \ Progr. 
 
 He will be writ- 
 
 Scribet. 
 
 11 ecrira. 
 
 Er wird schreiben. 
 
 \ 
 
 ing. 
 
 
 
 
 | Per/. 
 
 He will hare 
 
 Scripserit. 
 
 11 aura 6crit. 
 
 Er wird geschrie- 
 
 ^ I 
 
 written. 
 
 
 
 ben haben. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 r Indef. 
 
 s \ 
 
 It is written. 
 
 Scribitur. 
 
 11 est ecrit. 
 
 Es wird geschrie- 
 ben. 
 
 8 < Pro0r. 
 
 It is being writ- 
 
 Scribitur. 
 
 
 
 Es wird geschrie- 
 
 4 
 
 ten. 
 
 
 
 ben. 
 
 ? (Perf. 
 
 It has been writ- 
 ten. 
 
 (Scriptum est. \ 
 (Scriptumfuit.t 
 
 11 a et6 6crit. 
 
 Es ist geschrieben 
 worden. 
 
 (indef. 
 
 It was written. 
 
 (Scriptum est. \ 
 (Scriptum f ait. j 
 
 11 fut ecrit. 
 
 Es wurde geschrie- 
 ben. 
 
 | J Progr. 
 
 It was being 
 
 Scribebatur. 
 
 _ 
 
 Es wnrde geschrie- 
 
 ** } 
 
 written. 
 
 
 
 ben. 
 
 (.Perf. 
 
 It had been 
 written. 
 
 {Scriptum erat.) 
 Scriptum fue-> 
 rat. j 
 
 J 11 avait 6te ecrit. I 
 111 eut ete ecrit. j 
 
 Es war geschrie- 
 ben worden. 
 
 (Indef. 
 
 It will be writ- 
 
 Scribetur. 
 
 11 sera ecrit. 
 
 Es wird geschrie- 
 
 \ 
 
 ten. 
 
 
 
 ben werden. 
 
 | J Pro^r. 
 
 It will be being 
 
 Scribetur. 
 
 
 
 Es wird geschrie- 
 
 
 written. 
 
 
 
 ben werden. 
 
 fe. {Perf. 
 
 It will have been 
 
 Scriptum erit. 
 
 11 aura ete ecrit. 
 
 Es wird geschrie- 
 
 
 written. 
 
 
 
 ben worden seyn. 
 
 THE INFINITIVE OK VERBAL IN -ING. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon, and in most inflected languages, the Infinitive is formed 
 by a suffix. Thus, A. S. gang (go) ; Infin. gang-an (Germ, geh-en). In semi- 
 Saxon and Old English -an became -en, gang-en; in later English n was lost, 
 gang-, as in Old Fris. help-a (to help), and Old Norse far-a (to fare or go) ; 
 and in modern English the suffix disappeared. 
 
 To is riot found in A. S. before the Nom. and Ace. of the Infinitive, and even 
 in modern English it is not inserted after the following verbs : may, can, shall, 
 will, dare, let, bid, make, must, see, hear, feel, do, need, and have. The cause 
 of its later appearance may be thus explained. In A. S. the Infinitive was 
 declined as follows : 
 
APPENDIX. 207 
 
 N. and Ac. writ-an, to write. 
 Dat. to writ-ann-e, for writing. 
 
 This Dative is usually called the Gerund, and the term Infinitive is limited 
 to the Nom. and Accus. When, in later times, the inflectional endings were 
 lost, the origin of the separate forms write and to write was forgotten, and the 
 preposition was inaccurately applied to all cases of the Infinitive. This con- 
 fusion is first observed in semi- Anglian writers, when the occasional omission 
 of the Dative suffix -e effaced the distinction of case. The Dat. to writ-ann-e, 
 by the omission of the case-ending, appears as to writ-an, and the Nom. and 
 Accus. writ-an, in consequence of this accidental resemblance, improperly re- 
 ceived the preposition to. 
 
 In Old English we sometimes find at instead of to before the Infinitive ; 
 " That es at say," i. e. "that is to say." This is a Norse form, and is due to 
 the Scandinavian conquerors of England. 
 
 The Nom. and Ace. writ-an afterwards assumed the forms writ-en, writ-in, 
 and finally writ-ing ;* and this form of the Infinitive is also known to mod- 
 ern grammarians as the Gerund. Hence the identity of meaning in writing 
 and to write. 
 
 Declension of the Infinitive Indefinite. 
 
 N. and Ac. (to) write, writing. 
 
 Dat. to write. 
 
 * The existence of a class of abstract nouns in -ing(A.S.ung} doubtless facilitated 
 the change from -in to -ing. 
 
 THE END. 
 

 
 OVERDUE. 
 
YB 01648 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY