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COMPENDIOUS
French Grammar
IN TWO INDEPENDENT PARTS
(INTRODUCTORY AND ADVANCED)
BY
A. HJALMAR EDGREN, Ph.D.
profe880r of modern languages and sanskrit in the university of
Nebraska; Author of English and Sanskrit Grammars, etc.
JOHM_§,^PRELL
Cioil & Mechanical Engineer.
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.
BOSTON, U.S.A.
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS
1894
Copyright, 1889,
By A. HJALMAR EDGREN.
Typography by J. 8. Cushing & Co., Boston.
PRINTED BY ROCKWELL AND CHURCHILL.
Add'l
GIFT
TCZIII
E3
/ w
EDUC
LIBRARY
PREFACE,
This grammar is prepared with special reference to the
needs of our American schools and colleges. Its limit — for
it purposely disavows all claims to completeness — is deter-
mined by the average time devoted to French in such institu-
tions ; and its method, by practical as well as critical aims.
To meet a twofold need, first, of an easy and rapid intro-
duction to reading, secondly, of a critical exposition of both
grammar and syntax, the book is divided into two parts,
each forming by itself an independent whole.
The First Part is intended to enable the learner to begin
reading with profit at the earliest practicable moment, — or in
from three to six weeks. It contains merely an elementary
outline of the essentials of French pronunciation and accidence
(some indispensable syntactical directions included), as well
as accompanying exercises. The rules are purposely few, and
as simple as has seemed compatible with accuracy of state-
ment. Details and exceptions are left to the Second Part,
where each of the subjects,, contained here, as well as others,
receives fuller and independent treatment.
Though entirely elementary, this First Part is thought to
contain sufficient material for its purpose. It may even be
all that is needed where only a minimum of time can be given
to grammar, or where scholars are too young to undertake a
more earnest study of details.
The Second Part is intended for a more critical study of the
language after reading has begun. Here a methodical presen-
738
IV PREFACE.
tation of its grammar and syntax, each by itself, has been
adopted, exercises being arranged separately at the end of the
book, where they will not obstrnct such a presentation, nor
impede reference. In the framing of rules I have purposely
tried to reconcile in each comparative fulness with conciseness,
preferring one rule, unless too unwieldy, to several. Too much
disintegration is apt to slacken the student's grasp and pre-
vent a clear comprehension of principles. On the same ground
the leading features of such difficult topics as the Irregular
Verbs and the Subjunctive are briefly outlined by themselves
before details are given, lest the student be lost in the mazes
of the latter. Moreover, I have attempted to distinguish by
a difference in type what has seemed to me more or less
necessary to commit to memory. Everything that may be left
out in a first course is printed in small type, part of this —
as especially the lists of indeclinables (164, etc.), of words or
phrases requiring the subjunctive (324-30), of verbs requir-
ing the infinitive with or without de or a (344, 347, 351) —
being even intended for reference only. The syntactical
rules are accompanied by copious examples, which the student
is recommended to learn one and all, more genuine French
being acquired in this way than by too early attempts at
composition.
A few explanatory remarks about some of the more direct
innovations of this grammar may not here be out of place.
The Irregular Verbs are first classified in a brief survey
(155-60), where they should be studied in the order they are
described. Then follow full conjugation tables in an alpha-
betical list to serve as an aid in that study, and for rapid
and immediate reference when later the student wishes to find a
form without refreshing his recollection of the rules for making
it. The index contains all the irregular verbs.
For the Subjunctive I have attempted an entirely new classi-
fication. That the use of this mode, yet involving in a large
PREFACE. V
measure a psychological distinction due to the nature of the
subjunctive clause, should be classified primarily with refer-
ence to that distinction, and only secondarily with reference
to certain preceding expressions causing the mental attitude
expressed by the subjunctive, but not at all, or only inciden-
tally, with reference to the syntactical nature of the clause
where it occurs (as being subjective, objective, etc.), seems to
me evident. I have consequently attempted such a classifica-
tion. The brief synopsis of the use of the subjunctive, page
188 (farther illustrated and explained on the following pages)
contains all, I think, the student need commit to memory in
order to have a good grasp of the nature of the French sub-
junctive. That the simple method there adopted for explain-
ing a mode so subtile and so affected by conventionalism in its
use should be more than measurably complete and satisfactory
is not expected; but it is hoped that it will be adapted to foster
in the learner that feeling for the nature of the French sub-
junctive which must be his safest guide in using it himself.
For the purpose of giving to the student a useful as well as
interesting glimpse of the historical growth of the French lan-
guage, as also to prepare him for those syntactical peculiarities
he will meet with in older authors, a brief sketch of the main
features of the historical development of actual forms and con-
structions has been included in Part II. That this extraneous
matter may not, however, encumber the learner's progress,
each historical topic is presented, in the merest outline only,
at the head of appropriate chapters (or sections), where it may
be looked over, by those interested, as a suggestive introduc-
tion to the actual laws of the language. It should be stated
here that § 1, containing in nuce the outlines of French pho-
netics according to recent theories, is intended not so much for
immediate use as for forming later a condensed synopsis of
the subject, by the aid of which the teacher, expanding it as
he may deem advisable, can explain to his class intelligently
VI PREFACE.
the derivation of French words. My own experience is that
a small fraction of each hour judiciously devoted to such
explanation, after the class is fairly started in' reading, is apt
to be both inspiring and productive of good results. 1
To the grammar proper have been added a chapter on French
Versification, and one on The Relation of Anglo-French and
French words. This, I suppose, needs no plea.
Among grammars referred to in the preparation of my own
should be mentioned those of Matzner, Brunot, C16dat, Chas-
sung, Cayer, Ploetz, Lucking, and Plattner. I am greatly in-
debted to Professor Edward S. Joynes for valuable comments
on my MS. in its inchoate state, and for kindest aid and en-
couragement during the farther progress of the work. Also
to Professors Adolphe Cohn, C. Fontaine, Alc6e Fortier, A. N.
Van Daell, L. A. Sherman, and others my thanks are due for
timely suggestions in the proofs or otherwise.
If this grammar be deemed an erfort in the right direction,
and can contribute, in its humble way, towards promoting true
educational interests, which should consider not only the how,
but also the why, and aim at developing critical discernment
rather than versatility, its ambition will be amply fulfilled.
A. H. EDGKREN.
University or Nebraska,
May, 1890.
1 To students wishing to pursue further the subject of historical French
grammar may be especially recommended the excellent works of Brunot
(Orammaire historique de la langue frangaise) and Cledat (Grammaire his-
torique du francais). The latter is the more elementary and destined no
doubt to continue (with its companion-volume Grammaire eie'mentaire de la
vieille langue francaise) the valuable services rendered the student of French
by Brachet's short grammar, now in several regards behind date.
Remark. — The following general suggestions as to how to use this hook
may not be entirely out of place. Learn well Part I. (with or without the
English exercises, according to taste and age). Then begin reading
easy French (for instance Super's Reader), referring for such verb-forms,
as may not yet be understood to the reference-list, p. lviii. ; and study in
connection with the reading, the irregular verbs, p. 79 etc., Part II., learn-
ing them well one by one as they are there classed and described. When
all the irregular verbs are mastered, learn the remainder of Part II. to
syntax (with or without the fine print, according to taste and age) ; and
then the syntax, dealing with the fine print and the exercises according to
circumstances. These grammar-studies should all be subordinated to crit-
ical and copious reading.
CONTENTS.
[all references are to pages.]
PIEST PART.
Introductory Survey of French Grammar.
PAGB
Pronunciation ' i
Article and Partitive Sign viii
Nouns xiii
Adjectives xv
Numerals xx
Pronouns . - xxiii
Verbs, Regular, xxxv ; Irregular, l xxxv
Indeclinable lxi
SECOND PAST.
Grammar and Syntax.
The French Language : History 3-5
I. Elementary Sounds and Accent.
History 1-7
Notation of Sounds 7-9
Alphabet, 7. — Subsidiary signs (accents, etc.), 8. — Syllabica-
tion, 9.
Accent and Quantity 9-10
CONTENTS.
Pronunciation 10-24
Simple vowels, 10-12. — Monophthongs, 13. — Diphthongs
and dissyllables, 14-15. — Nasal vowels, 15-16. — Conso-
nants (General rule, 16-17; Special rules, 17-23).—
Proper nouns and foreign words, 23.
Joining of Words 24-5
II. Common Changes .... 26-7
III. Article and Partitive Sign.
History 27
Definite or Generic Article 27-8
Indefinite Article 28
Partitive Sign 29-30
IV. Nouns.
History 30-1
Plural Formation 32-5
Common nouns, 32. — Proper nouns, 34. — Compound nouns,
35.
Gender 35-8
Masculines, 32. — Feminines, 36. — Formal relation between
kindred masculines and feminines, 38.
V. Adjectives.
History 38-9
Plural Formation 39
Formation of the Feminine 40-2
General rule, 40. — Etymological changes, 40-1. — Ortho-
graphical changes, 41-2. — Compound adjectives, 42.
Comparison 43-4
VI. Numerals.
History 44
Cardinals 44-6
CONTENTS. xi
PAGE
Ordinals 46
Other Numerals , 46-7
VII. Pronouns.
History 47-8
Classification 48
Personal 49-53
List, 49. — Pronominal particles, 50. — Position of conjunc-
tive pronouns, 50-1. — Reflexive expression, 52-3.
Possessives 53-4
Demonstratives 54-5
Interrogatives 55-6
Relatives 56-7
Indefinite 58-60
VIII. Verbs.
History 60-2
Classification 63-4
Regular Verbs 64-79
aimer, Jinir, rompre, 65-7. — Phonetic and other changes, 68-9.
— Minor irregularities, 69. — Principal parts, 69-70. —
Impersonal verbs, 70. — Compound verb-forms, 70. — avoir,
etre, 71-3. — Compound active tenses, 73-4. — Passive
tenses, 74. — Reflexive verbs, 76-7. — Interrogative forms,
78-9. — Negative forms, 79. — Negative - interrogative
forms, 79.
Irregular Verbs 79-104
General classification and description, 79-83. — Alphabetical
reference-list, 83.
IX. Indeclinable Words.
History 105
Adverbs 105-8
Lists, 106-7. — Comparison, 107. — Negation, 107-8.
Prepositions 108
Conjunctions . 109
Interjections 109
9
xii CONTENTS.
SYNTAX.
PAGE
X. Introductory 110-11
XI. Articles and Partitive Sign.
History Ill
Use of the Definite (or Generic) Article 111-18
Definite article [before common nouns, 112-14; before proper
nouns, 114-16]. — Generic article, 117-18.
Use of the Indefinite Article 119
Use of the Partitive Sign 119-22
Dependent partitive sign, 119-20. — Independent partitive
sign, 120-22.
Repetition of Articles and Partitive Sign 123
Omission of Articles 123-5
XII. Nouns.
History 125
Nouns without Preposition 125-7
Nouns with a Preposition 127-34
With de, 128-30. — With a, 130-1. — With dans,en, 131-2.—
With other prepositions, 133. — Repetition of prepositions,
133-4.
XIII. Adjectives.
History 134
Agreement of Adjectives 134-7
Place of Attributive Adjectives 137-40
Comparison 141-3
XIV. Numerals.
History ' . 143
Idiomatical Uses 143-4
CONTENTS. X1H
XV. Pronouns.
PAGE
History 144-5
Personals 145
Use of conjunctives and disjunctives, 145-50. — Dative rela-
tion, 147-9. — en and y, 149. — 1st and 2d persons, 151-2.
— 3d persons, 152-7 (il or ce with etre, 154). — Position,
156-7.
Possessives 157-9
Demonstratives 159-63
Interrogatives 163-5
Relatives 165-8
Indefinites 168-73
XVI. Verbs.
History 174
Agreement of Verb and Subject 174-8
Indicative 178-85
Simple present, 178-80. — Compound present, 180. — Simple
and compound imperfect and preterit, 181-3. — Simple
and compound future, 183. — Simple and compound con-
ditional, 184-5. — Certain idiomatic uses, 184-5.
Subjunctive 186-201
History, 319. — Subjunctive in subordinate clauses [General
principles, 186-7 ; Tabular statement, 188 ; Alphabetical
reference-lists of words followed 'by subjunctive, 193-5. —
Infinitive for subjunctive, 195-6. — Special cases of sub-
junctive use, 196-8. — Use of tense, 198-9]. — Subjunctive
in independent clauses, 200-1.
Infinitive 201-10
History, 201. — Inf. without preposition, 202-4. — Inf. with
de, 204-6. — Inf. with a, 206-7. — Inf. alone or with de or
a, 207-9. — Inf. with other prepositions, 209-10. — Inf. after
nouns and adjectives, 210.
Participles 210-15
History, 211. — Present participle, 211-12 (with en, 212).—
Past participle, 212-15.
r
XIV CONTENTS.
XVII. Indeclinables.
PAGE
Negations 216-25
History, 216. — non pas, pas, 216-17. — ne pas, 217-18. — ne
alone, 218-20. — ne expletive, 220-3. — Other negations,
223-5 (m, 225).
Other Indeclinables 226-30
Adverbs, 226-8. — Conjunctions, 228-30.
XVIII. Arrangement of the Sentence.
History 230
Direct Arrangement 231-2
Inverted Arrangement . . 232-5
XIX. Punctuation and Capitals . . 235-6
XX. French Verse.
General Character . 236-8
Details 238-42
Number of syllables ; caesura, 238. — Hiatus, 239. — Rhyme,
239-40. — Choice of words and constructions, 240.
XXI. Relation of Anglo-French and French Words.
French Words in English 242-3
Difference in Form between Anglo-French and French
Words 244-6
Difference in Meaning between Anglo-French and
French Words 246
Anglo-French Words lost in French 249
Exercises to the Syntax 250-72
Vocabulary . 273-86
Index 287-93
PAET I.
PRACTICAL SURVEY OF FRENCH GRAMMAR
(Calculated for Half a Term, or Less)
BRIEF INTRODUCTORY SURVEY
OF
French Grammar.
PEONUNOIATION.
[For fuller information the student is here, as elsewhere in this Survey,
referred to Part II.]
1. ALPHABET. — The French alphabet contains the same
written letters as the English.
Some of these letters, however, may have an orthographical
sign attached to them. Thus, a vowel may have an Accent
(acute ', as in de; grave v , as in d&s; or circumflex A ,
as in mdt) to denote sound or origin ; or the Diaeresis (", as in
naif) to denote separation from a preceding vowel. And c may
have the Cedilla ( 4 , as in $a) to denote that it sounds like s
before a, o, u.
Note. — Name the letters as usually pronounced (5, 10), adding e
* mute ' to the consonants (be, ce, etc.). Particulars in Part II, § 3.
2. SYLLABICATION. — The general principle of syllabication
is that a non-initial syllable should begin, if possible, with one
consonant-sound [i.e. in writing, one consonant or a conso-
nant-digraph (ch, ph, th, nasal gn)~\ ; with two only if the last
is a liquid (r, T) preceded by one that is not a liquid. — Ex.
fe-ra, par-/6, 6-pe-/e, af-fec-U, symp-td-me ; a-che-ter, ga-gne;
— trem-b/6, a-pr&s.
II FIRST PART. [2-5.
Note. — In writing, however, x (not being a simple consonant) goes
with the preceding vowel (e.g. ex-il), and in pronunciation, silent h is left
out of account (e.g. bo-nheur, written bon-heur).
3. ACCENT-STRESS. — In French a slight prominence (ac-
cent) is given to the last sonorous vowel of a single word,
while preceding sonorous vowels are uttered with equal stress.
— Ex. parte, salade,* probability.
By a sonorous vowel is meant any vowel, except e 'mute' (which, how-
ever, counts as a syllable).
4. VOWELS. — The pronunciation of the vowels is given below.
Their quantity may be long or short. The distinction, however,
is often slight, and even uncertain ; and only direct oral instruc-
tion can teach the beginner the right quantity in every case.
French vowels never have the ' vanish ' of English long vowels.
5. Simple Vowels.
a (d) : 1. as in English ' father , (not quite so deep) ; — 2.
midway between ' father' and 'at.' — Ex. (1) bas, grdce;
— (2) ma, salade.
e : 1. Closing a syllable (cf. § 2), e has a sound approaching
that of e in 'err' (being uttered rapidly, with a narrower
aperture of the lips : = Germ. 6) at the end of monosyllab-
les, and, usually, within polysyllables (e.g. le, me-waf). It
is silent, or practically so, in polysyllables, as final or before
final s ; and it may be silent medially when no harsh sound
arises (e.g. dme, dmes, ma-la-de; de-ve-nir). — 2. Not closing
a syllable, it usually sounds like e in ' ere y (i.e. = Fr. £) ;
sometimes like e in 'they' (i.e. = Fr. 6). — Ex. (= £) fer,
bel-le; (= 4) nez, parlev.
e : almost like e in ' they/ but usually short, except before e
mute : — (long) donnee ; (short) donnt, bU.
* Letters here printed in Roman type are mute (as described later),
f Hyphens here used simply to divide syllables.
5, 6.] PRONUNCIATION. Ill
d, 6 : 1. long as e in ' ere ' (or ei in ' heir ') ; or 2. short as e in
' let ' : — (1) p&re, ftte ; — (2) brtve, fttev.
1 (0? /• as l ^ n 'police/ but long or short: — (long) lie, ile,
hydre ; (short) ni, inutile.
o (6) : close as in ' no/ or more open, approaching o in ' not 9 :
— (close) 7*ose, pdle ; (open) sotte, folle.
u (it) : to produce the sound of this vowel (which is = Germ, il),
prepare to utter u as in Engl, 'rue/ and then try, instead, to
pronounce Fr. i without moving the lips. It is long or short :
— (long) rue, mur ; — (short) du, butte.
Exercise I. — a : (1) car, mdt, fable, table, bas, grdce, due,
dme ; (2) a, ma, ta, papa, salade, assez. — e : (1) le, me, ve-nir,
bre-bis, re-ce-vra; dme, dmes, base, malade, re-le-va ; (2 : = £)
es, des,fer, ver-re, bel-le, met-tre, despote, pi'omets ; (= 4) nez,
assez, parlez, parler, des-servir, ef-ficace ; — 4 (long) donn4e,
parUe ; (short) donn4, parU, de, ble, 4t4, r4v4r4, cr44. — h, e
(long) p&re, m&re, f&te, b&te, btre, fe-nitre, p&se ; (shorter) breve,
modele, nibce. — / (%), y : (long) lie, amie, dise, tie, ablme, hydre ;
(short) ni, fini, bdti, inutile, arnve. — o, 6: (as in 'no') rose,
suppose, pdle, ddme, rdder; (more open) sotte, ob4ir, procMe,
folle. — u (il): (long) rue, vue, ruse, mtir, flute, d4luge ; (short)
du, tu, butte, futur, f4rule, minute.
6. Monophthongs (combined vowels uttered as one).
at (at), ei (ei) : like £; but final ai of verbs like 4: — (long)
baise, maltre ; (short) reine ; — (= 4) parlai.
au, eau : like Fr. o: — (as in 'no') pause', (more open) Paul.
eu (eu), cbu : 1. closer than e in 'err'; or 2. open, almost
like e in ' err ' : — (close and long) creuse, veux, voeux ; —
(open and short), seid, veule ; longer, leu?', cozur (c = 7c).
ou (ou, ou) : like oo in ' fool/ but long or short : — (l° n ?) 9 0u %
roue -, (shorter) doute, ou.
IV FIRST PART. [6-9.
Exercise II. — ai, ei : (= £ long) baise, raie, maltre, naitre,
grasseie ; (= £ short) aime, aimer, fait, parfaite, pleine, peinev ;
(like 4) ai, parlai. — au, eau : (close) pause, pauvre, beau,
beaucourj, fuseau; (open) Paul, restaurs. — eu, oeu : (close)
creuse, deux, veux, neutre, voeux, boeufs ; (open) seul, jeune,
leur, boeuf. — ou : (long) goiit, 4pouse, roue, bravoure-, (short)
ou, ou, louip, couteau, foule, route.
7. Diphthongs.
In other vowel-combinations than those described above, each
element usually has its own sound, though the first is apt to be
only slightly pronounced. The chief exceptions are : —
oi : nearly like wa- in ' waft ' : — (1) poivre, joie ; — (2 shorter)
moi, roi.
u + vowel (or vowel-combination) : If preceded by g or q, u is
in most cases but a silent graphic sign to denote that g and
q sound like hard g (in 'go') and k respectively (i.e. qua,
gue = ga, gi as in ' get ' ; qua, que — ka, ke; etc.) : — Ex.
fatigua, fatigue, fatigue (fa-tig) ; pratiqua, pratique.
Exercise III. — oi : (1) boite, poivre, voir, avoir; (2) moi,
voit, voiture, tournoi. — gua, gue, etc. : fatigua, fatigue, pra-
tiqua, quatre, gu&re, que-relle, gue, que, guide, qui, langue, plaque,
bague. — Other combinations (first vowel slightly dimmed) :
pi&ce (^pt-es), lui, cruel, Dieu, b6at, lia, riez, lieu, diable.
8. /between vowels is equivalent to French i-y, of which
i combines with its preceding vowel. Hence payer = pai-yex
(ai as £), royal = roi-yal (oi as wa- in 'wag'). But pays
1 country ' = pai-i.
9. NASAL VOWELS. — A single vowel or monophthong fol-
lowed inthesamesyllablebyone nasal (n,m) is nasalized
(very nearly as a in Engl. l thank ' is nasalized by n), n, m
losing entirely their independent utterance.
9, 10.] PRONUNCIATION. V
The French nasal vowels have no exact English equivalents.
Denoting their nasality (which is one with them) by the sign
~, their sound may be represented in French as follows :
an, am = & (a as in 'far'). Ex. an, ruban, ambre.
on, om = o (close o). " on, mouton, ombre.
ain, aim j = ~ ,. ag ^ 2) u j main, poulain, /aim.
ein, eim ) I frein, peindre, Reims.
eun = etc (eu 2). " jeun.
But, besides this nasalization, e (except chiefly in final -ien),
i (y), and u, unless they are the finals of a monophthong (6),
receive the value of French a, at, and eu respectively. Hence :
en, em = U. Ex. en, empereur.
in ^ Im \ = ai. " vin, nymphe.
yn, ym )
un, urn = eu. " un, humble.
Exercise IV. — /: payer, essayei, noyev, foyev, royal, ap-
puyev, envoy ev. — nasal vowels : an, volcan, quand, banquet,
lampe, ample ; en, vent, pente, enfant, tem^s, empereur, orient,
patience-, bien, tien; vin, cousin, pincei, timbre, simple, nymphe,
point (= po-in) , joint, moins; vain, essaim, sainte, craindre;
on, lion, ombre, tombev ; un, lundi, tribun, emprwitev, humble,
par fum, jeun; — (but without nasalization) d-ne, ann£e, ve-nu,
ennemi, u-ne, cousUne, ho-norer, vai-ne, bonne, homme, etc.
10. CONSONANTS. — The French consonants are usually
pronounced as in English, except in the following cases : —
a. Initial or Medial.
c sounds like s: ca, facon.
ch sounds like sh or k (as k before r, I, and usually in such
foreign words as are also in English pronounced with a k
sound) : cher, vache ; ( = k) Christ, chaos.
VI FIRST PAKT. [10.
g (before e, i, y )
>• sounds like 2; in i azure ' : #este, joli, jambe.
j (always) )
h is virtually silent. But for grammatical reasons (12, note
etc.) a distinction is made between h i mute ' and h ' aspi-
rated ' (once slightly enounced in foreign, chiefly Germanic,
words): — ('mute') habit, heure; ('asp.') Mros, harpe.
s sounds as in ' so/ except between vowel-sounds (and in trans
+ vowel, and a few other combinations), where it sounds as
in 'rose' : son, astre ; (= z) rose, base, transitif.
-gn- sounds nearly as ny in * canyon ' : gagna (nearly = ga n ya).
-//, final and preceded by a vowel, sounds like y in 'boy':
bitail (= b6-ta'y), vie// (= vi-e'y).
-ill-, medial, usually sounds like Vy ; but after a vowel simply
like y : brillev (= bri~y€), travail lev (= tra-va-ye).
Note. /, -//- may also be sounded like Mi in ' million ' ; but this
pronunciation, though preferred by good authorities, is less common.
-# before a vowel sounds like s i [except after s (or it*), in -tie',
the verb-ending -tions, and (often) -tien]: e.g. (= s l ) nation
= nas l o, partial, proph&ie, factieux ; (=s f) question, moittt,
partions (verb-form).
b. Final.
Final consonants are usually silent. Only c, f, I, q, and r
(except in polysyllables in -er, -ier) are for the most part
sounded. Nasals, of course, nasalize a preceding vowel. — Ex.
chat, aimer, ses ; — sec (c = k), chef, il, fer, cinq, on.
Note. — Even I is often silent (as in barii, outil, fusil, etc.); and -il
preceded by a vowel sounds like y (travail = tr&-va'y : cf . -//, above) .
Exercise V. — c : ca, recu, gargon. — ch : chat, chaleur,
cher, vache, cochon, chuchoter. — g,j: gele, gilet, gypse, germe,
rouge, orageux, mangea (e only to soften g), George; jardins,
jour, juge, je, jeune, joie, jamais-, (but g as in 'go') gant,
10, 11.]
PRONUNCIATION.
VII
gotiter, grand, etc. — h: habit, heure, horame, heureux ; heros,
harpe, hasard, haut, halte. — s: sa, son, estime-, (= z) rose,
raser, raison, deshonorer, transaction. — gn : gagna, gagnev,
gagne, agneau, regna, regnev, regne, ligne, ignorant, cygne, bai-
gnev, seigneur, rognon. /'/, -///-: b&tail, vieil; briller, brillant,
brille, Jille, gentille, sillon, travaillev, travailleur, guillotine (gu
simply = hard g: gi-yo-tiri), conseillev, vieillir, feuille, feuillage,
houille, cueillir (cue = ke : ke-yir) ; (but = ill in Engl.) illustre,
illumine?, etc. — ti : nation, section, patient, partial, fyyptien,
plenipotentiaire, prophetie, minutie, inertie, d&mocratie ; (=s f)
chre'tien, question, mixtion, moitie. — Finals: plomb, pied, troxy,
les, draps, vingt, vends ; sec, avec, choc, chef, vif, il, fol, nul,
fatal; travail (= tra-va'y), conseil, vieil, seuil, oeil (= eu'y),
accueil (= a-keu'y); fer, mer,fier, hier, leur, honneur, hauteur;
par-lev, aimer, entiev, premier.
Exceptions to the rules of pronunciation given above will be noticed as
they occur hereafter.
11. LINKING OF WORDS. — In connected reading or dis-
course, words closely combined in construction are apt
to be joined in such a way that the end-consonant of the pre-
ceding word, even when otherwise silent, is pronounced with
the initial syllable of the next word, if beginning with a vowel-
sound (vowel or h ' mute '). Final c, d, g, s (x) then sound as
follows : c = k, d = t, g = k, s (x) = z. — Ex. :
les hommes
les amis
(le-z^ami)
1 the friends '
grand homme
(gra-t^omm)
' great man '
(le-z^omm)
1 the men '
rang eleve
(rdL-kTelev£)
' high rank '
nous avons
(nou-z^avo)
' we have '
six hewes
(si-z~eur)
' six hours '
vous avez
(vou-z~av£)
' you have '
mon ami
(mo-n^ami)
' my friend '
VTII FIBST PART. [12-14.
AKTIOLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN.
12. The Definite Article is: singular masc. /a, fem. la;
plural masc. or fem. les (pronounce le) : ' the.'
Note. — Before a vowel or h ' mute/ le and la both, by eli-
sion (' striking out ') of their final vowel, become /'. — E.g.
rami (m.) 'the friend/ Vdme (f.) 'the soul/ Vhomme 'the
man.'
13. French, unlike English, requires the definite article
before nouns used in an absolute or generic sense (so that
'all/ 'generally/ etc., may be understood). It may then be
called the Generic Article. Thus le fer may mean 'the iron'
or ' iron ' (generally) ; les hommes ' the men ' or ' men ' (gener-
ally).
14. The Indefinite Article is: sing. masc. un, fem.
une : ' an, a.'
Note. — French has no neuter gender.
Exercise V (a, b).
ffigr^ To facilitate the recollection of gender, masculine and feminine
nouns are in the vocabularies to the following exercises arranged in oppo-
site columns.
Of French nouns not implying a natural distinction of sex, those in - quantity
assez (de) ' enough f 4
je n'ai pas ' I have not ' ['not ' ne (bet vowel or
h 'mute' /?') . . . pas, on either side of the personal verb]
Note. — Adjectives are expressed before every noun they qualify.
a. — 1. Tai du pain et de la viande. 2. J'ai de bon pain et
de bonne viande. 3. J'ai du pain noir (adjectives frequently
follow their nouns, as explained Exc. X, note 2). 4. Je n'ai
pas de pain. 5. Avez-vous de bonnes plumes? 6. Je parle des
bons fibres et des bonnes sceurs; je parte de bons fr&res et de
bonnes soeurs. 7. Je donne de bonne eau d, la soeur du bon
homme. 8. Je n'ai pas de viande. 9. Vous n'avez pas de
livres. 10. J'ai de Peau; vous n'avez pas d'eau. 11. Vous
avez beaucoup de pain et de viande. 12. J'ai peu de livres.
13. Je n'ai pas assez de plumes. 14. Je donne trop de pain et
de viande a la sozur.
b. — 1. You have bread and soup. 2. You have good bread
and soup ('good' repeated before 'soup'). 3. I give some
black bread (cf. 3 above) to my son. 4. Have you any good
pens ? 5. I have not any pens (or I have no pens : — the same
in French). 6. I have some good bread and some water. 7. I
20-23.] NOUNS. XIII
give much bread and many apples to the good man (or I give
the good man, etc.). 8. Have you too many books ? 9. I have
2 1
not books enough. 10. I have little paper and few pens.
NOUNS.
21. PLURAL. — French nouns usually form their plural by
adding (silent) « to the singular form. — Ex. le pbre, pi. les peres.
Exceptions : —
[22.] Nouns ending in s, x, or z are unchanged in the plural.
— Ex. lejils, pi. lesfils; leprix: lesprix; lenez: les nez.
[23.] Nouns in -cm, -en, and a few in -ow, add x, instead of
s; and most of those in -al (as well as many in -ail) change
that ending to au and then add x. — Ex. chapeau 'hat,' pi.
chapeaux ; feu 'fire/ pi. feux ; cheval 'horse,' pi. chevaux;
corail ' coral,' pi. coraux.
Exercise VIII (a, b).
Masc. Fem.
le cousin (pi. -s) ' the cousin ' . la cousine (pi. -s) ' the cousin '
le chien (pi. -s) ' the dog ' . . la chienne (pi. -s) ' the bitch '
leJUs(j>\. — ) 'the son' . . la fille (pi. -s) 'the daughter,
girl'
le nez (pi. — ) ' the nose ' la voix (pi. — ) ' the voice '
le chapeau (pi. -x) ' the hat ' la peau (pi. peaux) ' the skin '
le neveu (pi. -x) ' the nephew ' la nidce (pi. -s) ' the niece '
le cheval (pi. chevaux) 'the
horse ' la jument (pi. -s) ' the mare '
le ghikral (pi. q&n&raux) 'the
general ' une armfe (pi. -s) ' an army '
le corail (pi. coraux) 'the
coral ' la mer (pi. -s) ' the sea '
XIV FIRST PART. [23-25.
il (die) a ' he (she) has ' ; a-t-il ' has he ? '
il rCa pas ' he has not '
Us out ' they have '
Us n'ont pas ' they have not '
mais i but ' ; enfant, m., ' child '
a. — 1. II a des frdres et des soeurs, des cousins et des cousines.
2. H a beaucoup de fils, mais il n'a pas defiles. 3. Beaucoup
de voix. 4. Mes cousins n'ont pas de chapeaux. 5. Les g&ne-
raux out des chiens et des chevaux. 6. Les coraux de la mer.
7. Mon general a beaucoup de neveux. A-t4l des enfants f
b. — 1. Have you brothers and sisters ? 2. Has he any sons ?
3. I give the hats to my sister. 4. He has few nephews, but
many nieces. 5. I give the corals to my sister. 6. The gen-
erals have good horses. 7. The voices of the sea. 8. The
general has many palaces.
Additional Rules for the Plural.
[24.] A few nouns in -a/ (bal 'ball/ carnaval ' carnival/
etc.), and about half of those in -ail (detail 'detail,' portail
' doorway/ etc.), simply add s in the plural.
[25.] a'i'eul (at = a-i), m., 'ancestor/ is in pi. a'feux
ciel, m., ' sky, heaven/ is in pi. cieux
03 i I (pr. eu'y), m., ' eye/ is in pi. yeux (pr. { eu)
Note. — These three words have also, in some special and less common
significations, a regular plural form (aieuls ' grandparents,' dels • artificial
skies,' ceils in some compounds).
Exercise IX (a, b).
Masc. Fem.
le bijou (pi. -x) 'the jewel ' la perle 'the pearl '
le bosuf (pi. bceufs, fs mute), 'the ox' . . la vache 'the cow '
25, 26.] ADJECTIVES. XV
Masc. Fem.
le mouton 'the sheep ' (generic term), la brebis 'the ewe, sheep '
un animal (pi. animaux) * an animal ' une b&te ' a beast '
le village (11 as in Engl.) ' the village • la ville {11 as in Engl.)
'the city'
francais (pi. — )' French' (adj.) . francaise 'French' (adj.)
le Francais ' the Frenchman ' . . la Francaise ' the French
woman '
ily a 'there is' or 'there are'; y a-t-il 'is (are) there?'
il est ' he (or it) is,' Us sont, ' they are '
utile ' useful ' ; jeune ' young '
dans ' in ' ; souvent ' often '
Note. — The partitive article (du etc.) is omitted after de.
a. — 1. II y a des bals et des carnavals daris la ville. 2. Lea
details sont bons. 3. Vous avez peu de coraux, mais beaucoup
de bijoux et de perles. 4. Le del est noir ; les cieux sont noirs.
5. Les yeux des Francaises sont souvent noirs. 6. Mon aieul;
les a'ieux des Francais. 7. Le bceuf, la vache et la brebis sont
des animaux utiles. 8. II parte de {des omitted) brebis.
b. — 1. I speak of balls 5 I speak of the balls. 2. I give
some jewels to my sister. 3. There are many Frenchmen in
the city. 4. My ancestors ; my cousin's ancestors ; the ances-
tors of the French. 5. My nephew's eyes are dark ( = black) .
6. The sky ; the skies ; to the heavens. 7. There is a jewel
(there are jewels) in my house. 8. Are there corals in the sea?
ADJECTIVES.
26. FEMININE. — All adjectives not terminating in -e have
a special feminine form, made by adding e to the masculine
form. — Ex. grand 'great,' f. grande ; joli 'pretty,' f. jolie ;
but sage ' wise,' f . sage ; jeune ' young,' f . jeune.
XVI FIRST PART. [27-34.
27. In adding e some changes may occur. Thus : —
[28.] Final / becomes v. — Ex. vif ( lively,' f. vive.
[29.] When the penultimate letter of the masculine form is
e, the openness of this vowel-sound is in the feminine form
denoted either by its change to e, or (often) by the doubling
of a final /, n, or t. — Ex. cher 'dear' : chore; cruel ' cruel ' :
cruelle ; net ' neat ' : net te.
[30.] Final /, #?, f of adjectives in eil, on, ot, and final s of
monosyllables, and a few polysyllables (as epais ' thick/ etc.),
are also doubled. — Ex. bon * good ' : bonne; par eil ' similar ' :
pareille; gros'big': grosse.
[31.] Beau 'beautiful,' nouveau 'new,' fou 'foolish, mou
'soft,' vieux 'old,' are before a vowel-sound bel, nouvel, fol,
mol, vieil (the last optionally) ; and their feminines are invari-
ably made from the latter form by doubling I before e (belle,
nouvel le, folle, molle, vieille), both in singular and plural.
[32.] 'Final c, g, and x are before e usually written qu,
gu. s. — Ex. public: publique; long 'long': longue; jaloux:
jalouse.
[33.] Among exceptions to the above rules may be noticed
here: /rat's 'fresh, f. fralche; blanc 'white,' f. blanche; sec
'dry,' f. seche; grec 'Grecian,' f. grecque; faux 'false,' f.
fausse; doux 'sweet,' f. douce; roux 'red/ f. rousse.
34. PLURAL. — Adjectives usually form their plural (for
the masculine and feminine forms respectively) like nouns
with corresponding finals (cf . 21, etc.). — Ex. bon (f . bonne)
' good/ pi. bons (bonnes) ; beau (f . belle) ' beautiful/ pi. beaux
(belles) ; nouveau, pi. -x, fou, pi. -s, mou, pi. -s, vieux, pi. same.
^
34.] ADJECTIVES. XVII
Exercise X (a, b). rfine'
grand (f. -e) i great, tall ' ( beau (f . belle) ' beautiful,
petit (f . -e) ' little, small ' ( vieux (f . vieille) ' old, aged '
joli (f. -e) ' pretty ' ( public (f . publique) ' public '
utile (f. — ) 'useful ' ( heureux (f.heureuse) ' happy '
aimable (f . — ) ' lovely, agree-
able >
actif (f . active) ' active *
cher (ch&re) ' dear '
secret (secre'te) ' secret '
cruel (f . cruelle) ' cruel ' trds ' very
muet (f . muette) ' mute ' le gar con ' the boy '
ancien (f . ancienne) ' ancient, le voisin * the neighbor '
old ' le monde ' the world '
k bon (f . bonne) ' good ' Za Zame ' the wool '
r grec (f . grecque) ' Grecian '
frais (f . fraiche) l fresh '
6Zcmc (f. blanche) ' white '
faux (f . fausse) ' false '
dowa^ (f . douce) ' sweet '
Note 1. — Adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun they
qualify, whether as attributes or predicate complements. — Ex. le bon pere ;
la bonne mere; les bons peres ; ma mere est bonne.
Note 2. — An adjective may precede or follow its noun. Only
some fifteen common adjectives (beau, joli ; bon, mauvais ; grand, petit,
jeune, vieux, etc.) usually precede the noun in their ordinary sense.
Others usually follow when they denote a distinguishing quality (such
as nationality, color, form, etc.), serving to separate the object spoken
of from other objects of the same kind (e.g. la rose blanche 'the white
rose '), and always when they are past participles. Often, however,
euphony decides the place of the adjective.
a. — 1. Le grand gar con et la grande jille. 2. Je parte aux
jeunes filles. 3. Mon frere est aciif et ma sozur est aussi tres
active. 4. Les filles de ma bonne cousine sont tr&s aimables.
5. La brebis a la laine ire's douce. 6. Mon cher p&re et ma
chere mere. 7. II y a beaucoup de belles maisons dans V an-
cienne ville de N. 8. II a un beau chien et une belle brebis, de
beaux chevaux et de belles vaches. 9. Ma mh'e est tr&s bonne
et elle est aussi tr$s heureuse. 10. Avez-vous du lait frais, ou
K
XVIII FIRST PART. [34-36.
de Veaufralche? 11. J'ai de Veau fralche, et fax aussi du lait
frais. 12. i7 est faux, et elle est fausse. 13. La maison de
mon ami est blanche. 14. Son voisin est un homme du monde.
b. — 1. My little son and my little daughters. 2. I give
some good bread to my' sisters good daughter. 3. An active
man and a very~active woman. 4. My dear friend's pretty
little sister is mute. 5. A beautiful man and a beautiful
woman ; beautiful men and beautiful women (partitive). 6.
There are many good men and (good, adj. repeated) women
in the old village of N. 7. He is a very cruel father, and she
(elle) is a cruel mother. 8. My niece has a very sweet voice.
9. I give fresh milk and fresh water to my little girl. 10. The
happy man and the happy woman. 11. I have not any white
horses. 12. Have you any white pearls ? 13. I have a beau-
tiful new house.
35. COMPARISON. — Plus means 'more/ or, if preceded by
the definite article or a possessive pronoun, ' most ' ; and moins
means, in the same way, ' less ' or l least.' — Ex. grand ' great ' :
plus grand ('more great' =) 'greater,' le plus grand 'the great-
est ' ; mon plus grand, ' my greatest.'
36. Only three adjectives form their comparative and super-
lative without plus (or moins). They are : —
Pos. Comp. Sup.
bon ' good ' : meilleur l better,' le meilleur ' the best '
mauvais i bad ' : pire ' worse,' le pire ' the worst '
petit 'little': moindre 'less,' le moindre 'the least •"
Note. — If petit means 'small ' (in size), its comp. and superl. are plus
petit, le plus petit. Even mauvais may be regularly compared.
e
36.] ADJECTIVES. XIX
Exercise XI (a, b).
Masc. Fem.
un arbre ' a tree ' la Jleur l the flower ?
le tronc (c mute) ' the trunk ' . . . lafeuille 'the leaf '
le cMne < the oak ' ■ . . Vaubepine' the hawthorn'
Ze fo's (s heard) * the lily ' . ... la rose i the rose '
le sapin ' the fir ' l'6pine ' the thorn '
le lierre ' the ivy 9 la vigne ' the vine '
un orme ' an elm ' la France ' France '
le me'tal ' (the) metal ' VAngleterre ' England '
Vor < (the) gold ' VAmtrique ' America '
V argent ' the silver, money ' VAllemagne ' Germany '
le fer l (the) iron ' la SuMe ' Sweden '
le Bhin ' the Ehine ' la Seine ' the Seine '
aussi . . . que 'as (or so) ... as'; si (aft. negat.) . . . que 'so ... as'
plus . . . que i more . . . than '
ce (or, before vowel or h ' mute,' cet) ' this ' : f . cette
ces (pron'ce ce) ' these ' (m. or f . ) ; prtcieux ' precious '
Us sont ' they are ' ; Us ne sont pas ' they are not '
il demeure ' he dwells or lives ' ; en ' in ' (a country)
Note 1. — Most names of trees or shrubs (some in -e excepted) and
metals are masc. Most names of countries and rivers in -e are fem.
Note 2. — Before names of countries and rivers the definite article
is used, except always after en * in/ and often after de * of, from.'
a. — 1. Mon frhre est plus grand que ma soeur. 2. Le cMne
est le plus bel arbre, et la rose est la plus belle Jleur. 3. Cette
fille est ma plus jeune sozur ; elle est plus jeune que mon frb'e.
4. Cet liomme est mon meilleur ami. 5. La France est aussi
belle que /' 'Angleterre. 6. VAllemagne n'est pas si grande que
I Amirique. 7. Uor et V argent sont les m&aux les plus pr£-
cieux. 8. La Seine est mo/'ns longue que le Bhin. 9. Mon
eheval est tres bon; votre cheval est meilleur; le cheval de mon
voisin est le meilleur. 10. Je n'ai pas le moindre souvenir
XX
FIRST "PART.
[36, 3'
(remembrance) de cet Jiomme. 11.
vin de France; le roi de Suede.
II demeure en France. Du
b. — 1. The rose is more beautiful than the lily. 2. Charles
(Charles) is the youngest of my brothers. 3. Iron (Le fer, as
generic) is more useful than gold. 4. This young man is my
dearest friend. 5. This man is my best friend. 6. The ivy is
as beautiful as the vine. 7. France is more beautiful than
Germany. 8. England is older than America. 9. This man's
voice is good, but this woman's voice is better. 10. My cousin
is the best man in (de) the world. 11. My best friend (/.)
lives in America. 12. I have not the least remembrance of
my brother. 13. He is smaller than his little sister.
NUMEEALS.
37. Below are given the cardinal and ordinal numbers to 20
(higher numbers to be learned as they occur).
Cardinals.
Ordinals.
1 un
1st premie?
2 deux
2d second (c = g) or
deuxQme (x = z)
3 trois
3d troisi&me
4 quatre
4th quatrieme
5 cinq (q — k)
5th cinqui&me
6 six (x as ss)
Finals usually silent
6th sixieme (x = z)
7 sept (set)
8 huit ( ou it)
9 neuf(f=ff)
before
> sounds
vowels
X — 7.
consonant-
Before
/= v, and
7th septieme
8th huitidme
9th neuvieme
10 dix (x = ss)
10th dixieme (x = z)
11 onze
11th onzieme
12 douze
12th douzibme
13 treize (ei = e long)
13th treizieme
14 quatorze
14th quatorzidme
37-40.] NUMERALS. XXI
Cardinals. Ordinals.
15 quinze 15th quinzi&me
16 seize (ei = £ long) 16th seizieme
17 dix-sept (diss-set, Fr. i) 17th dioc-septieme
18 dix-huit (diz- ou it) 18th dix-huitidme
19 dix-neuf (diz-neuff) 19th dix-neuvidme
20 -vmgt (<# silent) 20th vingtieme
etc. etc.
Inflection.
38. CARDINALS up to a million are invariable, except that
un is in the feminine une, and that quatre-vingts ' 80 ' (literally
' four twenty's, fourscore '), and multiples of cent ' 100 ' have
the plural sign s when not followed by an added nu-
meral. — Ex. deux cents '200/ but deux cent trois '203/ quatre-
vingt-neuf ' 89.'
Note 1. — In dates, cent and quatre-vingt are invariable.
Note 2. — Cent and mille do not require the indefinite article: cent
(mille) personnes • a hundred (a thousand) persons.'
39. ORDINALS are treated precisely like adjectives.
40. Anomalous Usage. — In dates and before names of
sovereigns, cardinals are used instead of ordinals, except for
" the first " (and, optionally, also " the second " before names
of sovereigns). — Ex. Le cinq octobre ' the 5th of October ' ;
Henri quatre ' Henry Fourth.'
Exercise XII (a, b).
Masc. Fem.
habitant 'inhabitant' . . . habitante 'inhabitant'
le theme 'the theme' . . . . la lecon 'lesson'
le mot ' the (common) word ' . la parole ' the (notable) word '
un an ' a year ' une ann4e ' a year '
un quart ' a quarter '..... une heure ' an hour '
XXII FIRST PART. [40.
Masc. Fem.
le soldat ( the soldier ' une armee i an army '
octobre l October ' la date ' the date '
cent < 100 '
mille (or mil in dates after 1000 a.d.) ' 1000 '
quatre-vingts ' 80 ' : in ' 81/ etc., without final s
en ' in, in the year ' (also Van ' the year ')
pendant ' during ? ; par * per, a ' ; avec ' with '
une heure ' an hour ' or ' one o'clock ? ; (deux heures, etc.)
a. — 1. J'ai un fr&re, une soeur et trois cousins. 2. Vous
avez cinq chevaux. 3. II a quatre-vingts ans ( = ' He is 80 years
old ') ; elle a quatre-vingt-deux ans. 4. Cette mile a trois mille
habitants; ce village a trois cents habitants. 5. J'ai la seconde
lecon et le troisi&me th&me. 6. En mil huit (or dix-huit) cent
vingt; en mil huit cent quatre-vingt ; en mil huit cent quatre-
vingt-huit. 7. Le premier octobre ( l of ' usually left out in
French); le deux (trois, etc.) octobre; Henri premier ('the'
omitted) ; Charles deux (or second), Henri trois (quatre, etc.).
8. II y a cent mille soldats dans cette armee (obs. French ' hun-
dred,' not ' a hundred '). 9. Pendant les premieres amines.
10. II est trois heures, cinq heures et un quart.
b. — 1. He has one cow and two oxen. 2. My mother has
four white horses. 3. This man is 85 years old (transl. ' has
85 years '), and this woman is 80 years old. 4. There are 200
-"^words in the first lesson. 5. Charles I ; Charles II ; Henry V.
6. The first of May (mai) and the second of October. 7. In
the year 1888 (cf. sentence 6, under a). 8. It is one o'clock ;
it is eight o'clock. 9. He is rich (riche) with fifty dollars
(dollars) a year.
41-44.]
PRONOUNS, ETC.
XXIII
PKONOUNS AND PKONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
Personal Pronouns.
41 . The personal, pronouns are either conjunctive or dis-
junctive. 2jH i ir^ :
a. Conjunctive
[placed directly before (or after) the verb as unemphatic
subject or object]:
je ' I ' . . . me ' me, to me '
t u ' thou ' . . te l thee, to thee '
// * he, it ' . . le ' him, it ' ) lui ' to him
elle ' she, it ' . la 'her, it ' ) (it, her)'
nous ' we ' . . nous ' us, to us '
vous ' you ' . . vous ' you, to you '
b. Disjunctive
[separated fr. the verb, save
aspredic; emphatic]:
mot 'I, me'
tot ' thou, thee
lui ' he, him '
elle i she, her '
nous ' we, us '
vous ' you, you '
eux m. | ' they,
e/les f. ) them '
' ' , ^ . y les ' them,' leur ' to them '
e/les, f. 'they'j
Note 1. — Je, me, te, le, la are before vowel-sounds /', m\ f,
I*, l\ — Ex. j'ai 'I have,' il niaime 'he loves me.'
Note 2. — To the disjunctive pronoun is often appended the
emphatic memo 'self : e.g. moi-m&me 'I myself,' etc.
42. Position of the Conjunctive Pronouns. — The
conjunctive personal pronouns, whether construed as subject
or object (direct or indirect), precede the personal verb : e.g.
je le vois C I see him,' ye vous le donne C I give it to you.'
Exception. — In two common cases they follow, as in Eng-
lish, the verb (being then attached to it by a hyphen), viz. : —
[43.] The subject-pronoun (je, tu, etc.) in interrogative
clauses : e.g. ai-je * have I,' Vavez-vous? ' have you it? '
[44.] The object-pronoun (me, te, etc.) in affirmative im-
perative clauses, — me, te being then, however, replaced by mot,
XXIV FIRST PART. [44-46.
toi, except before en (46). — Ex. donnez-le ' give it/ donnez-le-
lui 'give it to him/ aimez-moi 'love me/ donnez-moi 'give me/
donnez-m'en ' give me some.'
45. Of two object-pronouns, that of the 3d person comes
nearest the verb, le (la, les) preceding lui (leur). — Ex. Je vous
le donne ' I give it to you.' Donnez-le -moi ' Give it to me.'
Je le lui donne ' I give it to him.'
Note. — Two conjunctives of which the first is a direct object 1st
or 2d person, cannot occur. Hence (not II me vous donne, but) II me
donne a vous ' He gives me to you.' II vous envoie a lui * He sends you to
him ' : but // vous V envoie ' He sends him to you.'
46. Pronominal Particles; — En 'therefrom, thereof
and/ 'thereto' are ordinarily used with reference to things, en
instead of de lui (elle, eux, elles), and y instead of It lui (elle,
eux, elles). They are then placed after other pronouns. — Ex.
II lui en parle ' He speaks to him of it.'
Exercise XIII (a, b).
Indicative present of aimer ' love ' :
Sing. 1. faime ' I love ' (etc., cf. n.) pi. 1. nous aimons ' we love '
2. tu aimes ' thou lovest ' 2. vous aimez ' you love '
3. il aime ' he loves ' 3. Us aiment ' they love '
Note. — The French present {faime etc.) corresponds not only to the
indefinite present in English ('I love '), but also to the progressive (' I
am loving'), and the emphatic present (' I do love').
aimez ! ' love ! ' (Imperative 2d pi.)
donner 'give ' (Pres. je donne etc., like faime)
penser ' think ' (Pres. je pense etc.)
je crois ' I believe '
il est a ' it belongs to '
fai besoin de ' I need ' (lit. ' have need of ')
void ' behold, here is, here are '
46, 47.] PRONOUNS, EtfC. XXV
Note 1. — Vous 'you' may, as in English, refer to one person or sev-
eral. Tu ' thou ' is used between intimate friends and near relatives.
Note 2. — The only way to render a conjunctive personal pronoun em-
phatic is to place the disjunctive form before it, or after the predicate :
e.g. Moi, je Vaime, or Je I' aime, moi 'I love him.' For the 3d person the
disjunctive form alone is sometimes used : Lui le pense * He thinks so.'
a. — 1. Je Paime (give in each, instance all possible render-
ings of the 3d persons : here * him/ i her/ or ' it ') ; je vous
aime; moi, je les aime. 2. II me le donne; il vous le donne; je
le lui donne; nous le lui donnons; je le leur donne. 3. Vous
me Pavez dit (' said '). 4. // parle de moi (toi, lui, etc.). 5. //
pense a (' of ') moi {toi, lui, etc.) ; moi, je pense & eux ; nous
pensons a el les. 6. Aimez-moi ; aimez-le. 7. Donnez-moi une
plume; donnez-lui une plume; donnez-fa-moi. 8. Vous avez la
rose, donnez-la-moi . 9. Pensez ct moi et c\ lui. 10. Ce livre est
clelle. 11. Donnez-moi du papier, j 'en aibesoin. 12. Donnez-
nous des plumes, nous en avons besoin. 13. Void du beurre :
donnez-m'en. 14. J'ai sa parole, et j J y crois. 15. Je le donne
moi-meme;, je le donne a lui-mime. ' (^^^
b. — 1. He loves me, and I love him. 2. We love him, and
he loves us. 3. I give him some pens. , 4. Here is a hat : I
give it to him ; I give it to her ; I give it to them ; I give it
to you. 5. They speak of me and of him. 6. You think ol
him and of her. 7. Love me, and love her also. 8. G-ive me
a book ; give him a book. 9. Here is a book, give it to her ;
here are the books, give them to him. 10. Think of (a) me,
and of her. 11. This horse belongs to him. 12. I have a fine
house, and I speak of it. 13. They have fine houses, and they
speak of them. 14. Here is the paper, give me some. 15. He
has a fine book, and I am thinking (= think) of it.
47. The Reflexive Expression. — English reflexive ex-
pressions like ' I praise myself/ etc., are in French rendered
either by je me loue, lit. * I praise me' (= ' myself ' unem-
phatic) or by je me loue moi-meme ' I praise me myself '
XXVI
FIRST PART.
[47, 46.
('myself emphatic), etc. — Expressions like 'I think of my-
self/ etc., if also in French the reflexive is preceded by a
preposition, are rendered byje pense a moi-meme (meme, how-
ever, being often omitted, especially with the 3d person), etc.
Tt is to be noted only that for the 3d person French has a
special reflexive, viz., the conjunctive se (sing, or pi. : ' him-
self, herself, themselves ' : ace. or dat.), and the disjunctive
so/'. For soi, however, the regular personal pronoun (/*//,
elle, eux, elles) is preferred in the plural, or with reference to
an individual person. — E.g. II (die) se loue ' He (she) praises
himself (herself)' or II (elle) se loue lui-meme (elle-meme).
Chacun pense a so/ 'Every one thinks of himself (subject
indefinite). II ne songe qu^a lui (-meme) i He thinks only of
himself (subj. an individual). On doit rarement parier de so/
' One should seldom speak of himself (one's self).'
Note. — Se precedes other object-pronouns : il se I'est promis ' he prom-
ised it to himself.'
POSSESSIVES.
48. The possessives are either adjectives or pronouns.
Adjectives
(combined with a noun) :
M. F.
Sing, mon
PI. n
ma (or mon, cf.
note 1)
}•
my.
Sing, ton
PI.
tes ta (or ton) y thy>
Sing, son
PL
sa (or son) \* his, her,
ses J its.'
Sing.
PI.
notre \'ouv:
nos )
Sing.
PI.
votre \ , Mnm ,
vos } y° ur -
Sing.
PL
leur
leurs
Y
their.'
Pronouns
(the noun understood) :
M. F.
le mien la mienne ~\
mine.
les
les
le tien
les tiens
la tienne
les tiennes
y
thine.'
le sien
les siens
la sienne ('his, hers,
les siennes S its.'
le nbtre la notre
les notres
le votre la votre
| 'yours.
le leur la leur
les leurs
theirs.
48,49.] PRONOUNS, ETC. XXVii
Note 1. — The feminine forms mon, ton, son are used before
words beginning with a vowel or h ' mute.'
Note 2. — When the pronoun-forms are preceded by de or d,
these prepositions are contracted, as usual, with the definite
article (i.e. de le mien to du mien, d le mien to au mien, etc.).
49. The possessor determines, as in English, which pos-
sessive form to use, but this form is then, farther, made to
agree in gender and number with the noun possessed. — Ex.
fai mon lime; ma plume; mes limes 'I have my book (pen,
books) ; son lime ' his (her) book ' ; sa plume i his (her) pen.
Exercise XIV (a, b).
Masc. Fem.
le caractere ' (the) character ' la disposition ' (the) disposition '
le courage ' (the) courage ' . la hardiesse ' (the) boldness '
le merite l (the) merit ' . . la vertu ' (the) virtue '
le souvenir '(the) remem-
brance ' la m4moire ' (the) memory '
le savoir-vivre '(the) good
behavior, breeding ' . . la conduite ' (the) conduct '
aimable ' amiable, kind '
courageux ' courageous '
vertueux ' virtuous '
memorable ' memorable '
a. — 1. Mon frere et le tien ; ma sozur et la tienne ; mes
frh'es et les Hens ; mes sozur s et les tiennes. 2. Votre m&rite
et le not re ; vos merites et les not res. 3. Son (give all possible
renderings of son) caract&re ; le caract&re de mon frh'e et le mien ;
leur disposition et la votre (et la leur). 4. Ses vertus et les
leurs. 5. Ces hommes parlent de ton ami et du mien, de ta
sozur et de la mienne, de tes frdres (or sozur s) et des miens (or
miennes). 6. Je donne du pain a ton petit fr&re et au mien.
7. Je pense d mon ami et au leur; d mes amis et aux leurs.
8. Je pense d V aimable enfant de cette vertueuse mere et au votre.
XXVIII FIRST PART. [49-5i.
b. — 1. My book and his; my pen and his; my books and
his ; my pens and his. 2. Our memory and yours ; our mem-
ories and yours. 3. His character and theirs ; her character
and theirs ; his (her) merits and theirs. 4. We speak of his
kind brother and of yours ; of his kind sister and of yours.
5. I am thinking of my virtuous friend's great courage and of
yours. 6. The remembrance of his good disposition and of
hers is very dear to me (me).
Demonstratives.
50. The demonstratives are either adjectives or pronouns.
Pronouns
(noun or phrase understood) :
,m. p.
celui . . . celle
' this (one) or that (one).'
ceux . . . celles
'these (ones) or those (ones).'
ce ' that ' (or c', in c'est [ence.
'it is, that is'), indef. refer-
Note. — Cet is used before words beginning with a vowel or h 'mute.'
51. To emphasize the difference between 'this' and 'that,'
-c/ ' here ' and -la ' there ' are frequently suffixed to the noun
determined by ce, or to celui. With the pure pronoun ce they
form ceci ' this ' and cela (which may be contracted to ca)
'that.' — Ex. Ce cheval-ct et celui-la 'this horse and that one.'
Cette femme-ci et celle-la ' this woman and that one.' Cela (or,
i n familiar phrase, ca) est bon ' that is good. 9
Exercise XV (a, b).
Masc. Fem.
le jour ' the day ' la nuit ' the night '
le mois ' the month '..,.. la semaine ' the week '
Adjectives
(combined with the noun) :
M. F.
Sing, ce (cet, cf.^note) cette
'this, that.'
PL ces
'these, those.'
51,52.] PRONOUNS, ETC. XXIX
Masc. Fem.
le langage ' the language, talk ' . . la langue ' (the)language '
le gargon ' the boy ' la file ' the girl '
un enfant ' child ' (generally) . . . une enfant ' a little girl '
monsieuv (pron. me-s^u) pi. messieurs madame (pi. mesdames)
' gentleman, sir, Mr.' ' madam, Mrs.'; dame
m&me (pi. -s) 'same, -self ['lady'
sage ' wise, prudent, good ; ; vrai * true '
dit 'says;' 'said' (pret.) ; 'said' (past pple)
je dis ' I say,' tu dis ' thou sayest,' il dit ' he says *
a. — 1. Je pense d ce gargon et d cette file ; d cet enfant et d
ces hommes. 2. J'aime cet enfant et celui de votre frere ; ces
enfants et ceux de votre fr&re. 3. Ce monsieur-cf et celui -la ;
ces dames-ci et celles-ld. 4. Ce langage rfest pas si sage que
celui de son ami. 5. Ce quHl (ce que ' that which, what ') dit
est vrai. 6. C'est vrai, ce jour-ci est tr&s beau. 7. Ceci est bon,
cela n'est pas bon. 8. C'est le m&me mois.
b. — 1. This day and this night; these days and these nights.
2. This girl and my cousin's (= that of my cousin). 3. These
books and my brother's. 4. This gentleman and that lady.
5. This language is very beautiful, more beautiful than that
one. 6. These boys are very prudent, more prudent than those.
7. Here are some pens : do you prefer (prefirez-vous) these or
those ? 8. He loves this little girl, it is true. 9. This is true,
but that is not true. 10. It is the same month, the same week,
and the same day.
Interrogatives.
Adjectives
(combined with a noun)
52. The interrogatives are either adjectives or pronouns.
Pronouns
(noun understood) :
qui ' who ? whom ? '
que (or, after preposition, quo/') ' what ? '
lequel ' which (one) ? '
quel ' which, what ? '
V
XXX FIRST PART. [53-58.
53. Quel is inflected like an ordinary adjective, doubling I
in the fern. — In lequel, compounded of the def . article le and
quel, each element has its independent inflection ; and a pre-
ceding a or de combines with le as usual. — Thus : m. lequel,
f. laquelle; pi. m. lesquels, f. lesquelles; — (de lequel =) duquel,
(a lequel =) auquel, etc.
54. Qui, que, quoi are invariable.
Eelative Pronouns.
56. The relatives qui, lequel, quoi are also pronouns. They
are described below : —
[56.] Qui ' who, which, that 7 has the direct object-form que.
But after a preposition qui (not que) is used, and can then refer
only to persons ('whom'). ' Whose' is expressed by dont (59).
[57.] Lequel ' which,' less often 'who,' is rarely used except
after prepositions. It inflects like the interrog. lequel (53).
[58.] Quoi ' which, what ' is used chiefly after prepositions in a general or
indefinite sense : e.g. II n'y a rien de quoi parler * There is nothing to speak
of ' (lit. ' of which to speak ').
Exercise XVI (a, 6).
Masc. Fem.
le grand-p&re ' the grandfather ' la grand' m&re 'the grandmother '
Vepoux ' the husband ' . . . Ve'pouse ' the wife, spouse '
le maltre ' the master, teacher ' la maltresse ' mistress, teacher '
le roi ' the king ' la reine ( the queen '
Vempereur ' the emperor ' . . IHmpfratrice i the empress '
malade ' sick ' ; mortel ' mortal '
rouge ' red '
arrive' 'arrived,' with aux. 'be,' not 'have'
recu 'received'
tomb4 ' fallen ' ; achet6 ' bought '
ce qui (nom.), ce que (ace.) 'that which, what'
58, 59.] PRONOUNS, ETC. XXXI
a. — 1. Quel roi? Quelle reine? Quels livres? Quell es per-
sonnes? 2. Qui aimez-vous? 3. Laquelle de ces files aimez-
vous? 4. Que nous dit notre grand-pere? 5. A quo/ pensez-
vous? Lequel de ces maitres est le meilleur? 6. Lesquelles de
ces Jilles sont bonnes? 7. J'aideux freres (deux sazurs); duquel
(de laquelle) parlez-vous? 8. Auquel de vos jils pensez-vous?
Auxquelles de vos Jilles pensez-vous? 9. C'est ma grand'mere
qui est arrivee. 10. C'est la reine que faime. 11. L'6poux
(Vepouse) a qui elle pense est malade. 12. Les maitres (Les
dames) a qui vous pensez sont arrives. 13. L'empereur (La
reine) de qui (or dont: cf. 59) je parte. 14. Le cheval qui est
arrive et que fax achete". 15. Le cheval auquel (not a qui) je
donne de Veau. 16. Ce qui ('that which' = ' what ') est vrai
est bon; ce que je dis est vrai; ce quHl dit est vrai. •
b. — 1. Which king? which queen? which teachers (m.)?
which teachers (f.)? 2. Which (one) of these horses? which
(one) of these grandmothers? which (one) of these books? which
(ones) of these houses ? 3. Who is sick ? whom do you love
(transl. , -re — altogether about 70 primary
verbs ; and of all verbs in -oir (16 primary).
83. Principal Parts. — Five forms, the infinitive, present
participle, past participle, present indicative, and preterit in-
dicative, are called the principal parts of a French verb,
because all other verb-forms can be derived from them accord-
ing to certain rules, which for the regular verbs are without
exception. For the irregular verbs they are much less so.
But usually it is sufficient to know the principal parts of an
irregular verb in order to make, or at least recognize, any
other form.
[84.] The principal and derivable forms of aimer (which may
serve as a model for all other verbs) are those described below :
^ T n ( fut. faimer-ai (i.e. add -ai after r).
1. Inf. aimer < ; \ • *
( cond. j aimer-ais (i.e. add -ais after ?*).
2. Pr. part, aim-ant f pr * ***>!- f aim + ( le - substitute e- for -ant).
( impf. ind. faim-ais (i.e. sub. -ais for -ant).
3. Past part, aime: compound tenses, fax aime", etc.
4. Pr. ind. fa/me : imp've aime.
5. Pret. ind. faimai : impf. subj. faima-sse (i.e. add -sse to the
stem : cf . note below).
84, 85.]
VERBS.
LI
Note. — The plural of the pres. ind. is always from the pres. part.
(aim-ons, jin-iss-ons, romp-ons). The -sse of the impf. subj. is added to the
pret. stems aima-, Jini-, rompi- (always found in 2d sing.).
Compare with the above the principal parts of the irregular
verb partir i depart ' : —
. T o . ■ ( fut. partir-ai.
1. Inf. partir < f . ,
( cond. partir-ais.
2. Pr. part, part-ant* \^ f>ifP"«+-
(impf. ma. je part-a/s.
3. Past part, parti : compound tenses, fai (or je suis) parti.
4. Pr. ind. je pars t : pr. ind. je pars, tu pars, ilpart; (pi. from
pr. part.) nous part-ons, vous partez, its partent. — Imp've
pars, partons, partez.
5. Pret. ind. je partis : impf. subj. je parti-sse.
85. Learn
the principal parts
of the following
• ten verbs
(irregular parts in heavy type) : —
Inf.
Pr. Part.
Past Part. Pres. Ind.
Pret. Ind.
Partir
depart
Sentir
feel
parfant
sentant
parti
senti
je pars
je sens
je partis
je sentis
Souffrir
suffer
souffrant
souffert
je souffre
je souffris
Offrir
offer
off rant
offert
j'offre
j'offris
1 r £tir
clothe
vet ant
vetu
je v£ts
je vetis
Mettre
put
Ecrire
write
mettant
ecrivant
mis
ecrit
je mets
j'ecris
je mis
j'ecrms
Lire
read
lisant
lu
je lis
je lus
Vivre
live
vivant
vecu
je vis
je vecus
Craindre
fear
craignant
craint
je crains
je craignis
Instead of partissant (cf .jini ssant). t Instead of partis (cf.jinis).
LII FIRST PART. [85.
Each tense of these verbs is conjugated regularly, observing
that the plural of the present indicative is formed from the
present participle (by substituting, as usual, the personal end-
ings -ons, -ez, -ent for -ant). Hence: Pr. je pars, tu pars, il
part, nous partons, vous partez, Us partent ; je souffre,tu souf-
fres, il souffre, nous souffrons, etc. — je crains, tu crains, il
craint, nous craignons, vous craignez, Us craignent; — and so on.
Exercise XXIV (a, 6).
demain 'to-morrow ? ; lorsque (lorsqu') 'when'; sur 'upon'
Note. — Craindre 'fear' requires the subjunctive after que. When
used itself without ne, it generally requires an expletive ne before the
subjunctive. — Ex. Je crains qu'il ne parle 'I fear he may speak.'
a. — Conjugate throughout all the verbs given under 85.
b. — Translate: 1. II part; il partit Mer; je ne pensais
pas quHl part%t. 2. Nous partons aujouroVhui ; il desire que
7ious partions demain ; nous partions lorsqu'il arriva ; partons I
3. II sent que vous Vaimez, et je desire quHl le sente ; vous le
(it) sentez; vous le sentltes; je n'espSrais point que vous le
sentissiez. 4. SHI part, je souffrirai beaucoup; je lui offrirais
de V argent sij'en avals. 5. II met son livre sur la table; il le
mit sur la table ; je defends quHl Vy mette; je de"fendis quHl Vy
mlt. 6. lis ecrivent; je souhaite quHls ecrivent; Us Scriront de-
main; Us e'crivaient lorsque j' arrival; Us dcriraient s'ils avaient
des plumes; il or donna quHls 6crivissent. 7. II vit encore;
il vecut; je priais Dieu qu'il vecut; nous vivons encore; nous
vivions a ce temps; j'apprShende que nous ne vivions pas.
8. Je crains quHl ne parte; je ne crains pas quHl parte; ne crai-
gnez pas quHl parte; craignez-vous quHl ne parte ? vous craigniez
quHl n'tcrivlt; je desire que vous ne le craigniez point ; vous ne
craindrez pas; sHl souffrait, vous craindriez. 9. Mon frbre a
beaucoup souffert, et il est encore souffrant. 10. Uhe bonne
position lui (m.) est offerte. 11. La lettre est 6crite, je Vai
e"crite moi-m&me. 12. II craint que vous ne lisiez sa lettre.
13. Craignant que vous n'arriviez point, nous sommes partis.
86.]
VERBS.
LIII
86. A Her ' go/ venir ' come,' tenir ' hold/ dire i say/ fa/re
' make, do.' — The conjugation of these five very common
verbs is as follows (irregular parts in heavy type) : —
Inf.
Pr. Part.
Past Part.
Pr. Ind.
Pret. Ind.
Alter
allant
alle
je vat's
j'allai
F.
Pr. s.
tu vas
Ipf. s.
j'irai
j'aille
je suis alle
il va
j'allasse
c.
• tu ailles
etc.
nous allons
firais
il aille
nous allions
vous alliez
Us aillent
Ipf. I.
j'allais
vous allez
Us vont
Ip've
va
allons
allez
Venir
venant
venu
je viens *
je vins
F.
Pr. s.
tu viens
tu vins
je viendrai
je vienne
je suis venu
il vient
il vint
C.
tu viennes
etc.
nous venons
nous vinmes
je viendrais
il vienne
vous venez
vous vintes
nous venions
Us viennent
Us vinrent
vous veniez
Ip've
Ipf. S.
Us viennent
viens
je vinsse
Ipf. I.
venons
je venais
venez
Tenir precis
ely like venir
; so also devenir.
Dire
disant
d/t
je dis
je dis
F.
Pr. s.
tu dis
Ipf. s.
je dirai
je dise
il dit
je disse
C.
Ipf. I.
nous disons
je dirais
je disais
vous dites
Us disent
Ip've
dis
disons
dites
Pronounce vien (like bien).
FIRST PART.
[86, 8^
Inf.
Pr. Part.
Past Part.
Pr. Ind.
Pret. Ind.
'aire
faisant *
fait
jefais
je fis
F.
Pr. 8.
tu fais
lpf. s.
ferai
fasse
ilfait
je fisse
C.
lpf. I.
nous faisons
ferais
faisais *
vous faites
Us font
Ip've
fais
faisons
faites
Exercise XXV (a, b).
s'en alter ' go away ' (obs. the use of se and en ( away ') ; de ' to/
a. — Conjugate throughout all the tenses of aller, venir, tenir,
dire, and faire.
b. — Translate : 1. Je vais chez M. Adam. 2. Mes freres n'iront
pas chez leur cousin ; Us iraient s'ils avaient le temps. 3. J'espere
quHl ira chez son cousin; je n'espere point quHl y aille. 4. lis
all&rent a Paris. 5. II exige que vous veniez ; si vous veniez il
viendrait aussi ; il vient ; il viendra ; elle est venue; ordonnez
qu'elle vienne. 6. Elle tient la rose a la main; ma nidce
tiendra la rose. 7. Vous dites quHl viendra ; dites-lui de venir ;
elle desire que je le dise; mon p&re me dit quHl viendra (vien-
drait); disant cela il s'en alia. 8. II s'en va; il s'en ira; je sou-
haite quHl s'en aille. 9. II demande que nous nous en allions ;
pensez-vous que ma sozur s'en aille? 10. Va-t'en ('get thee
hence, go away ') ; allez-vous-en. 11. Elle s'en est alUe. 12.
Que fait le garcon? je le ferai venir; j'ordonne quHl le fasse;
faites-le venir.
87. Verbs IN -oir. — Verbs in -oir, though not conjugated
precisely alike, have some principles in common. As model
* Pronounce fai- like/e- here and in derivations.
87-89.]
VERBS.
LV
for them all may serve recevoir ' receive/ which has been de-
scribed already under 67.
here repeated :
Its principal and derived parts are
Inf.
Pr. Part.
Past Part.
Pr. Ind.
Pret. Ind.
Recevoir
recevant
recu
je reqois
je recus
F.
Pr. s.
tu recois
Ipf. s.
je recevr-ai
je recoive
j'ai recu
il recoit
je recusse
C.
tu recoives
etc.
nous recevons
je recevr-ais
il recoive
vous recevez
nous recevions
Us recoivent
vous receviez
Ip've
•
Us recoivent
Ipf.
je recevais
recois
recevons
recevez
Note. — Like recevoir are conjugated, as already noticed,
other verbs in -cevoir (concevoir ' conceive/ decevoir i deceive/
etc.). — Also devoir t owe, ought/ except that its past parti-
ciple (masc. sing.) is du (i.e. it has the circumflex, to distin-
guish it from du = de le). Hence : devoir, devant, dft (f. due),
je dois, je dus.
[88.] All verbs in -oir (savoir 'know' excepted) form, like
recevoir, their 1st and 2d pi. present indicative from the pres-
ent participle ; and they all (save pourvoir ' provide ') drop,
like recevoir, their oi in the future and conditional, some slight
change of the root attending this loss (e.g. voir ' see ' : fut.
verr-ai; pouvoir 'be able' : pourr-ai; savoir 'know': saur-ai;
valoir ' be worth ' : vaudr-ai; vouloir ' wish ' : voudr-ai).
Other irregularities cannot be conveniently classified.
89. Below are given six of the most common verbs in -oir,
viz. : devoir ' owe, ought/ voir ' see/ pouvoir ' be able, can, may/
savoir ' know/ vouloir ' wish, will/ falloir ' be necessary ' (im-
personal). — Tenses left unconjugated are regular.
LV1
FIRST PART.
[89.
Inf.
Devoir
F.
je devrai
C.
je devrals
Voir
p.
verrai
c.
vermis
Pouvoir
F.
je pourrai
C.
je pourrai s
Savoir
f.
je saurai
C.
je saurais
Pr. Part.
devant
Pr. s.
je cftnVe
Ipf. I.
je devais
voyant
Pr. 8.
je vo/e
tu voies
it vole
nous voyions
vous voyiez
Us voient
Ipf. I.
je voyais
pouvant
Pr. S.
je puisse
tu puisses
etc.
Ipf. I.
je pouvais
sachant
Pr. S.
sacAe
etc.
Ipf. I.
je savais
Past Part. Pr. Ind.
etc.
(like recois)
vu
pu
su
Pret. Ind.
je dus
Ipf. s.
je dusse
je vois
je vis
tu vois
Ipf. s.
il voit
je visse
nous voyons
vous voyez
Us voient
Ip've
vois
voyons
voyez
je peux (puis)
je pus
tu peux
Ipf. s.
il peut
je pusse
nous pouvons
vous pouvez
Us peuvent
je sais
je sus
tu sais
Ipf. 8.
il sa/'t
susse
nous savons
vous savez
Us savent
Ip've
sache
VERBS.
LVII
Inf.
Pr. Part.
Past Part.
Pr. Ind.
Pret. Ind.
Vouloir
voulant
voulu
je veux
je voulus
F.
Pr. S.
tu veux
Ipf. s.
je voudrai
je veuille
il veut
je voulusse
c.
tu veuilles
nous voulons
je voudrais
il veuille
nous voulions
vous vouliez
vous voulez
Us veu/ent
Ip've
Us veuillent
veuillez 'please
Ipf. I.
je voulais
Falloir *
wanting
fallu
il faut
il fallut
F.
Pr. S.
Ipf. S.
il faudra
• il faille
ilfallut
c.
Ipf. I.
il faudrait
il fallait
Exercise XXVI (a, b).
Note 1. — Vouloir ' wish ' and falloir 'be necessary ' require the subjunc-
tive after que. Also savoir requires the subjunctive after que, but only
when doubt or uncertainty is implied (i.e. frequently when it is used
negatively, interrogatively, or with si) .
Note 2. — We say II faut qu'il vienne (' It is necessary that he come ')
or II ltd faut venir ('It is necessary for him to come'), both expressions
as ' He must come.' But only // faut que mon frere vienne * My brother
must come.' That is, two constructions are allowed when the subject is
a pronoun, but only one when it is a noun.
a. — Conjugate throughout recevoir, devoir, pouvolr, savoir,
and vouloir.
b. — Translate : 1. Mon oncle recoit une lettre; j'espere qu'il
recevra une lettre; esp4rez-vous qu'il regoive une lettre? 2. Nous
recevons trois dollars; nous recevions dix dollars par semaine;
il veut que nous recevions deux dollars par jour; nous recumes
cet argent hier. 3. Je sais que vous devez venir; je ne pense
pas que vous deviez venir ; Us devraient (^ they ought') venir;
* Impersonal verb (used only in 3d person sing.).
LVIH FIRST PART. [89,90.
je ne pensais pas qu'ils dussent venir. 4. II voit la maison ;
il voyait bruler la maison; il vit s'arreter quelqu'un; je voulais
quHl vtt ma nQce ; il me verra demain ; il me verrait sHl venait.
5. Je peux voir cet arbre-la ; je ne puis (or je ne peux pas) le
voir ; je ne savais pas que vous pussiez le voir ; je pourrai
vous voir demain ; Us peuvent venir sHls veulent. 6. Je d&sire
qu'il le (it) sache ; je sais qu'il le saura ; je savais quHl le sait ;
savez-vous votre leconf sache (sachez) quHl faut venir. 7. II
veut que vous parliez ; il voulait que vous parlassiez ; je neveux
pas quHl me vote, Us voulurent vous voir; Us voudront vousparler;
Us voudraient quHl le vlt; on ne sait pas quHl le veuille (or veut,
if que = 'the fact that'); veuillez venir demain. 8. II faut que
vous parliez, or il vous faut parler ; il faut que mon fr&re vous
parle ; il fallait venir ; il faudrait venir, sHl le desirait ; il a
fallu qu'il vtnt, or il lui a fallu venir ; il leur fallait venir,
or il fallait quHls vinssent ; il faut nous en alter, or il faut que
nous nous en allions.
90. Alphabetical List of Other Irregular Forms. — Below is given,
for reference only, an alphabetical list of such common forms of other
(simple) irregular verbs as may cause the learner some difficulty in read-
ing, until he has become familiar with the irregular verbs, as described
under § 161, Part II. Forms easily inferred from those given are omitted
(thus, especially, it must be remembered that the 1st and 2d pi. of the
pres. ind. are usually made from the pres. part., and that irregular verbs
in -t> never have a stem in -iss, like finir).
acquerrai Fut. ^ • . bois Pr. I. \ m
acquiers Pr. I. I of aC ^ nr , boive Pr. S. I of **"*
acquis Past P. or Pret. J ' ac
assis Past P. or Pret. J ceignis Pret. \ of ceindre ' gird
atteignant Pr. P. ^ , . , ceint Past P
„ : . -o . of attewdre
atteiqnis Pret. >- . ,
u • .. -n * -n I ' attain.
atteint Past P. J
>•]
VERBS.
LIX
connais Pr. I. ~j
connaissant Pr. P. I of connaitre
connu Past P. ' know.'
connus Pret. ^
construisant-Yr. P. ) of construire
construisis Pret. ) ' construe/
contraignant Pr. P. i
contraignis Pret. [ of contraindre
contraint Past P. ' constrain.'
(or 3 s. Pr. I.) J
courais (reg.) Ipf . I. ^
courrai Fut. I of cownr
couru Past P. ' run.'
courus Pret. J
cousant Pr. S. -i
cousis Pret. >■ of coudre ' sew.'
comsm Past P. J
craignant Pr. P. -|
cratyms Pret. I of crmWre < fear/
cralnt Past P.
(or 3 s. Pr. 1.) J
crois Pr. I. of croire ' believe.'
crois Pr. I. ") e «. , ,
\ of crottre ' grow.
croissant Pr. P. )
cro ^ aniPr - R \ of cro/re' believe.'
cru Past P.
cr« Past P.
crus Pret.
CMe ^ e Pr - L 0r S "
cueillerai Fut.
cuis Pr. I. -i
cuisant Pr. P. I of cmVe
cuisis Pret. ' boil.'
cui* Past P. or 3 s. Pr. I. J
dors Pr. I. or dormir ' sleep.'
-c?Mts Pr. I. ^|
-duisant Pr. P. i of verbs in -rfuz're
-duisis Pret. ' lead/
-e/u# Past P. J
> of croitre * grow/
}-
ecrivant Pr. P. 1 »
ecrivis Pret. J
enverrai Fut. of envoy er
eteignant Pr. P. ^
eteignis Pret.
dfein* Past P.
(or 3 s. Pr. I.)
feignant Pr. P.
feignis Pret.
/einf Past P.
(or3s.Pr.I.) J
Ams Pr. I. of hair * hate.
joignant Pr. P. -j
ioiqnis Pret. i <• . . ,
*■ of joindre 4 30m.
read/
ecrire * write.'
send.
of e'teindre
1 extinguish.
of feindre ' feign.'
yo?n* Past P.
(or3s.Pr.S.)
Us Pr. I
/j*san£ Pr. P. >■ of /;
lu Past P.
lui Past P
luis Pr. I.
luisant Pr.
/utsis Pret.
mens Pr. I. of mentit
meurs Pr. I.
of luire ' shine.
meure P. S.
meus Pr. I.
} of
lie/
mourir * die.'
mouvoir ' move. 5
of
meuve Pr. S
wiorf Past P. of mourir
moulant Pr. P. a
moulu Past P. V of moudre
moulus Pret. J
mourrai Fut.
mourus Pret.
wm Past P
7hms Pret.
nais Pr. I.
naissant Pr. P
naquis Pret.
ne Past P.
die/
grind.
die.
H
mouvoir ' move.
of naftre 'be born.
hx
FIRST PART.
[90.
of nuire ' hurt.'
of paraitre
' appear.'
nui Past P.
nuis Pr. I.
nuisant Pr. P.
nuisis Pret. J
parais Pr. I.
paraissant Pr. P.
paru Past P.
parus Pret. ^
peignant Pr. P. ~i
p^msPret. of peiWre < paint/
pemi Past P.
(or 3 s. Pr. S.) J
plaignant Pr. P. ^
pldignis Pret. | of plaindre * pity,
p/owt Past P. (*0 ' complain,
(or 3 s. Pr.I.) - 1
^ a * OB ' Pr ' P ' } of plane 'please.'
pZat* 3 s. Pr. I. /
»/ew£ 3 s. P. 1. 1 * / . . . ,
r V of pleuvoir * ram.
Lplti Past P. J
2. »Zw Past P. 1 - , . . .
r V of plaire ' please.
plus Pret. )
plut 3 s. Pret. of pleuvoir * rain '
or plaire ' please.'
prenant Pr. P. -\
/>rerme Pr.S. l° f /
prfc Past P. or Pret. J
repens Pr. I. of repentir ' repent.'
ri Past P. ) f . ,, . ,
V of nre 'laugh.
ris Pr. I. or Pret. )
prendre
take.'
verbs in
solve.'
■soudre
sens Pr. I. of sentir ' feel.'
sers Pr. I. of servir ' serve.'
sors Pr. I. of sortir ' go out.'
-solvant Pr. P.
-so/w Past P.
-so/w5 Pret.
si# Past P.
suffis Pret. }- of suffire ' s
suffisant Pr. P.
1. sui's Pr. I. of etre 'be.'
2. sm's Pr. I. ^
of suivre * follow.
}of (se) tatre
' be silent.'
suivant Pr. P.
smW Past P.
suivis Pret.
taisant Pr. P.
to (or «m) Past P
Jus Pret.
vaille Pr. S.
valant Pr. P.
ya/w Past P.
uaks Pret.
vaudrai Fut.
vawar (3. vaut) Pr. I. .
t>£cu Past P. 1 * • . |.
vol wvre ' live
v^cus Pret. i
uefs Pr. I. of vetir ' clothe.'
1. vis Pr. I. of vlvre ' live.'
2. vis Pret. of yofr ' see.'
of valoir
' be worth.
Note. — Verbs in -aitre retain the circumflex only where i is followed
by t (parait, hut parais).
91-93.]
INDECLINABLES.
LXI
INDECLINABLES.
As all indeclinables (i.e. adverbs, etc.) are found directly in
the dictionaries, little need here be said about them.
Adverbs.
91. Adverbs are either: a. single, as id 'here,' oil ' where,'
en ' in,' quand ' when,' deja ' already,' Men ' well,' etc. ; or, b.
adverb -phrases like a present ' at present,! d, peu pres i nearly,'
& peine ' hardly,' tout a fait ' entirely,' tout a coup ' suddenly,' etc.
Note. — Most adjectives can be converted into adverbs by adding the
suffix -ment to the feminine form, or to the masculine if terminating in a
vowel. — Ex. :
fort ' strong ' : fortement ' strongly '
grand ' great ' : grandement ' greatly '
franc 'frank ' : franchement ' frankly '
long * long ' : longuement * lengthily '
facile ' easy ' : facilement ' easily '
vrai * true ' : vraiment ' truly '
joli * pretty ' : joliment ' prettily '
92. COMPARISON. — Adverbs capable of comparison (espe-
cially those derived from adjectives) are compared, like adjec-
tives, by the aid of plus or moins. Only the following four
are in this respect irregular, viz. : —
blen ' well '
ma/ ' bad(ly) '
beaucoup 'much
peu i little '
mieux ' better
pis ' worse '
plus ' more '
moins i less '
le mieux ' best '
le pis ' worst '
le plus ' most '
le moins ' least '
Prepositions.
93. Prepositions, like adverbs, are either : a. single, as
a l to,' de ' from,' par ' through,' contre ( against,' etc. ; or,
LXII FIRST PART. [93-95.
b. prepositional phrases like a travers ' across/ afin de ' in order
to/ jusqu'a { as far as/ etc.
Note 1. — The use of prepositions is often different in French and
English : cf . penser a ' think of ' ; acheter a ' buy from ' ; de toutes parts ' on
all sides ' ; de bonne heure ' in good time, early ' ; agir en honnete homme
1 act like an honest man ' ; and so on. Often, also, French requires a prep-
osition where English does not, and vice versa : cf. plaire a ' please,' obeir a
' obey ' ; ecouter * listen to/ sonner quelqu'un ' ring for some-one/ etc.
Note 2. — As in English, an infinitive is used with or without a prepo-
sition. To the English infinitive-sign ' to ' correspond in French a or de.
De is used especially before a subject-infinitive placed after its verb, and
before an object-infinitive when an idea of separation or source is implied.
Ex. II est imprudent de parler (but Parler est imprudent : subject-infinitive
without preposition when heading a clause). II s'abstient de parler ' He
abstains from talking.' II lui defend de parler ' He forbids him to speak.'
Conjunctions.
94. The conjunctions are likewise either: a. single, as et
' and/ mats i but/ que ' that/ si i if/ etc. ; or, b. conjunctional
phrases like avant que i before/ pendant que i while/ parce que
'because/ etc.
Interjections.
95. Simple interjections are ah ' ah/ 6 or oh i oh/ Mlas ' alas/
bon 'good/ etc. A few inter jectional phrases, like en avant
' forward/ a la bonne heure ' very well/ etc., also occur.
Exercise XXVII.
ADVERBS :
Men ' well ' toujour s ' always 9
ailleurs * elsewhere ' surtout ' especially '
partout ' everywhere ' franchement i frankly '
bas ' in a low tone ' doucement i gently '
haut ' aloud ' longuement ' lengthily '
tdt, bientdt ' soon ' a present ' at present '
quelquefois l sometimes ' a peine ' hardly J
95.] INDECLINABLES. LXIII
d peu prds ' nearly ' sur-le-champ ' on the spot,
d bon marche ' cheaply ' immediately '
en bas ' below ' tout d coup ' suddenly '
en liaut ' above ' tout d fait ' entirely '
du tout ' at all ' tout de suite ' immediately '
peut-Ure ' perhaps ' aussi, si ' as, so '
prepositions :
apres s after ' a travel's ' across, through''
avant * before ' (in time) d'aprds ' according to '
devant ' before ' (in position) jusqu'd ' even to '
derriere ' behind ' autour de ' around '
sous ' under ' hors de ' out of '
sur ' upon ' pr&s de ' near '
chez ' at or to the house of, with, among '
CONJUNCTIONS
(those spaced requiring the subjunctive):
car 'for ' a fin que 'in order that '
comme 'as* avant que ' before'
lorsque ' when ' bien que ' although '
quoique 'although ' sans que ' without that '
puisque ' since ' pour que 'in order that '
Note. — Adverbs usually follow the personal verb-form; but adverbs
of specialized time (as aujourd'hui, hier, demain) follow a participle. Ex.
II parle toujours de vous. II rri'a toujours aim€. II est venu hier.
1. Monfr&re ecrit bien, mais ma sozur ecrit beaucoup mieux.
2. II lui a parte tres franchement. 3. Nous sommes tout a fait
contents a present. 4. Ne voulez-vous pas venir tout de suite chez
mon p&re 9 5. De quoi cet homme vous a-t-il parU si longuement ?
6. Nous parlerons plus doucement si vous le voulez. 7. II me
rSpondit tout a coup. 8. A peine y a-t-il cent personnes dans
Veglise. 9. J'ai peu de livres, mais il en a moins. 10. Je sais
LXIV FIRST PART. [95.
que mon ami lui a donne a peu pr&s deux cents dollars. 11. Le
livre etait derriere la table. 12. II viendra avant quatre heures.
13. II allait devant moi, et elle venait apr&s. 14. II est hors
de la mile. 15. JHrai jusqu'a Veglise. 16. J'y etais lorsquHl
arriva. 17. Quoiqu'elle soit bonne elle n'est pas aimee. 18. Je
viendrai puisque vous le voulez. 19. Je lui ai ecrit a fin qu'il
(pour quHT) vienne. 20. Bien que je le (it) sacheje ne le dirai
point. 21. II vint avant quelle fut venue.
INDEX TO PART I.
a, with le 15
inf. sign 93.2
accent-signs 1
accent-stress 3
acute accent 1
adjectives 26 etc.
agreement (X. 1).
place : Ex. X. 2.
adverbs 91
place (Ex. XXVI).
aieul 25
-al = au 23-4
alter 86
alphabet 1
avoir 73
aucun 82
bon, comp 36
cardinals 37
inflect'n 39
for ordinals 40
cedilla 1
cent, no art 38.1
circumflex 1
del, pi 25
comparison :
adject 35
adv 92
compound tenses ... 74
conjugation 65-8
conjunctions 94
consonants : pron. . . 16
contraction 15
de with le 15
partitive 18-20
inf. sign 93.2
def. article, see le.
demonstratives . . . 50-1
devoir 89
diaeresis 1
diphthongs 7
dont 59
e, e* t change in verbs, 69
elision 12. n.
en, pron. part 46
etre, conj 73
with neut. v 76
/aire, conj 86
feminine :
nouns, Ex. V.
adject's 26-33
gender :
nouns : Ex. V, XI.
adject's 26-38
generic article 13
grave acc't . . . . 1
indef. article 14
indefinites 60
interrogatives 52
interrog. constr'n. 77-9
interjections 95
irregular verbs. 82 etc.
le 12
with de,a 15
gener. art 16
in part, constr 18
spec'l use Ex. XI. 2.
lequel, inter 52
relat 57
linking 11
mauvais, comp 36
mille, no art 38.1
monophthongs 6
nasal vowels 9
ne 78
(Ex. XVIII. 1.)
neg. constr'n 78
nouns 21 etc.
nul 63
numerals 37
ceil, pi 25
oir- verbs 87
on .... 61
LXVI
INDEX TO PART I.
ordinals 37
infl'n 39
part, article 18-9
preposition 20
past participle, 75, 80.3
pers. pronouns. . . .41-5
personne 62
petit, comp 36
plural :
nouns 21-5
adject's 34
possessives 48-9
pouvoir 89
prepositions 97
present, Ex. XIII. 1.
principal parts 83
pron. particles 46
quantity 4
qui : interr 52
relat 56
quoi : interr 52-4
relat 56
reflexives 47
reflexive verbs . . . 80-1
savoir 89
subjunctive :
Ex. XIX, XXI-XXV.
syllabication 2
tout 60, 64
venir 86
verbs 65
vouloir 89
vowels : pronunc'n,
4 etc.
y, pron. part 46
PART II.
METHODICAL PRESENTATION OF FRENCH
GRAMMAR
HISTORICAL INTRODUCTIONS, VERSIFICATION, AND
SKETCH OF THE RELATION OF FRENCH AND
ANGLO-FRENCH WORDS
(Calculated for Two Terms, or Less)
THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.
French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Rhseto - Romanic
(spoken in southern Switzerland), and Rumanian (or Walla-
chian, spoken in northern Turkey) constitute a group of lan-
guages that have sprung from popular Latin, and which are
therefore called Romance or Romanic (i.e. ' Roman '), or Neo-
Latin ('New-Latin').
The development of the French language from Latin under
the accessory influence of various other tongues may be briefly
sketched as follows.
From the time that Gaul began to be conquered by the
Romans during the last two centuries before our era, Roman
soldiers and colonists brought vulgar Latin (lingua romance
rustica), and government officials literary Latin (sermo urba-
nus), into the subdued country. Aided in its spread by the
superior culture of its speakers and the iron system of Roman
colonization, perhaps also by the resemblance between the old
Celtic and the Latin, the latter tongue in a few centuries
almost wholly obliterated the native idioms of the conquered
barbarians, the Celtic in middle or northern Gaul, and the
Basque, which seems to have been the language of southern
Gaul (Aquitania) ; and these idioms have left but slight traces
in French.
The inroads and conquests of Germanic tribes — Franks,
Goths, Burgundians, — in the 5th century, brought the Teu-
tonic form of speech into Gaul and in contact with the
4 SECOND PART.
Romanic. The Teutonic dialects (called by a common name
lingua theodisca) succeeded in holding their own for a long
time alongside of the Romanic (lingua romana), until, finally,
they were merged into it, bequeathing it, however, a consider-
able number of Germanic words romanized, many of which
have survived in modern French.
The struggle between literary and vulgar Latin was also
gradually, with the decline of Rome and her influence in
Gaul, decided in favor of the latter, which meanwhile was
suffering more or less important dialectical changes.
This Gallo-Romanic idiom early branched into two leading,
though nowise homogeneous, families of dialects : the southern,
called the langue d'oc (as expressing ' yes ' by oc *) or Pro-
vencal (as spoken in the Roman 'provincia/i.e. Provence), and
the northern, called the langue d'oil (as expressing ' yes ' by
oil 2 = French oui), or now usually Old French.
The southern idiom gave rise to an early literature, which
shone with extraordinary splendor during the 11th and 12th
centuries — the age of the troubadours, — and then perished
with the political independence of southern France.
The northern idiom consisted of several sub-dialects, of
which that one spoken in the province of Ile-de-France, favored
by political circumstances and the fostering influence of the
University of Paris or the Sorbonne, gradually took precedence
of all the others, until, in the 14th century, it became the
national language of united France, or Modern French. And
by a series of later modifications, especially lexical and syntac-
tical, the language of the 14th century has developed into the
French of the present day.
1 Oc from Lat. hoc.
2 Oil of disputed origin, probably for o (Lat. hoc) + il, the personal
pronoun being repeated in answers (o je, o il, etc.) , and il gradually sup-
planting the others. [Cf. Kuhns Zeitschr. III. 423, 1877.]
THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 5
To the above sketch should be added that French, like
English, has borrowed a considerable part of its present vocab-
ulary from outside languages, especially from Latin, Greek,
Italian, Spanish, and English. Indeed, the influx of Classical
Latin words, ever since the 11th century, but especially after
the time of the Renaissance, has been so large that they
actually vie in number with the words derived from popular
Latin. From these, however, they are, for the most part,
clearly distinguished by not adhering to the laws of phonetic
change, as briefly sketched under 1 (next page).
There will follow hereafter, under appropriate heads, a
general survey of those sweeping changes of form, inflection,
and syntax which the French language has suffered during its
long course of development from Latin — changes consisting
chiefly in the mutation of words and the variation of sounds,
in an almost absolute suppression of case-forms, synthetical
forms of comparison, and passive-forms, in the evolution of
new words and verb-forms, and in the adoption of a rigid
system of syntactical arrangement.
SECOND PART. [1.
ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS.
[I. HISTORY. — In their gradual transition to modern French, Latin
words have suffered many modifications, as briefly outlined below.
I. Vowels. — A. The accent-vowel of Latin words has (with few ex-
ceptions) survived as such in French, though often modified in form : e.g.
L. partem (usually the Lat. accusative has given the French noun-form,
cf. 47) : F. part ; vincere : vaincre; bonitatem : bonte. It received a different
form according as it was a. free (libre, ending a syllable) or b. tied
(entravee, followed by two consonants, one belonging to it). Thus :
a. When free, 7, u, and also 6 + nasal, were, as a rule, unaltered in
writing : e.g. ami-cus : ami ; lu-na : lu-ne; bo-na : bonne. Other vowels changed
(often into diphthongs, now prevailingly uttered as a monophthong). This
change was either (1) direct, or (2) caused by neighboring sounds. —
(1) Direct change:
Lat. Fr.
a = e, e, e ; (exceptionally a, before I) ; e.g. L. sanita-tem : F. sante ; pa-
trem: pere; ama-re : aimer; ma-lum: mal.
§, 1 = oi (or, by later change, ai) : e.g. cre-dit: cro/'t ; vi-det : voit; habe-bat .•
old avoit, now avait (so all imperfects, by analogy). .
§ = ie : e.g. pe-dem : pied.
8,u = eu (also written, to denote origin or otherwise, oeu, ueu, ce, we) ; e.g.
Jlorem ; fleur ; no-vem : neuf; gu-Jam ; gueule; bo-vem : basuf.
au ; eu=o; ieu ; e.g.aurum: or; deum : dieu.
(2) Palatal, labial, or nasal influence: — Palatals (c, g, J ; or
/, e + vowel) changed a preceding or following vowel, or both, into a diph-
thong containing the parasitic palatal / [viz. d + pal. = ai; c, ?-f pal. with
/ or n = ei; 6, u + pal. = oi ; S + pal. = ui ; pal. -f a = jV] ; or directly to /
[viz. e + pal.= i; pal. + e, 1= f] : e.g. pdcem : paix ; habeo : ai ; solic(u)lum
(of sol): soleil; vocem: voix; noceat: nuise ; pacare : payer (=pai-ier);
decern : dix ; cera : cire. — The labial u sometimes gave a labial shading to
a preceding vowel : e.g. clavum : clou ; habunt (popular form) : out. — Nasals I
before nasals 6 = ai; e, T=ei (pi); u = o: e.g. amas : aimes; lana:
laine; sinum : sein ; stiinus : so/nmes. They also produced nasal vowels.
b. When tied, the accent-vowel was usually unchanged. Exceptions ;
1-3.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. * 7
7—e (mit-tit : met); o, ti = ou (cor-tem : cour ; du-b'tare : douter) ; e, 7-f
palatal—oi {tec-turn; to it), or ei, as when free (fingam : feigne) ; 6+ pal.
= ui (noc-tem; nuit). Here belongs also the frequent change of / after
a vowel to u : e.g. al-ter : au-tre ; cabal-los : chevaux ; fol-lem : fou.
B. Accentless vowels usually survived in the initial syllable or when
tied, being then treated, on the whole, like accent-vowels, except for a
tendency, in the former case, of retaining a (Jia-bere : avoir) , and of chang-
ing especially e, 7, o,u into e 'mute/ cf. 14 (le-vare : lever; ml-nare :
mener). Otherwise they were usually — after the tone-syllable always —
lost or, in case of a, and of other vowels to avoid harsh combinations,
dimmed to e 'mute ' : e.g. partem: part; lana : laine ; vincere: vaincre.
II. Consonants were often lost or changed. Thus :
A. Loss : — a. Initial scQi)-, st-, sp-, early changed to esc-, est-, esp-, were
farther often reduced to ec-, et-, ep- (e.g. schola, older escole, now ecole ;
stabat : etait). So also Latin ex- (es-) was often reduced to h (exclusam :
ecluse). — b. Medials were often lost after vowel (patrem : pere). The loss
of s was then usually indicated by a circumflex (costam : cote). — Finals
were less often lost in writing than utterance (22) ; m disappeared in both.
B. Change. Here may be noted the frequent change of Mo d (or s) ;
of p, b to b or v ; of c (+ Lat. a) to ch ; of t, e, g, or c to / (g) ; of s to z ;
and of n + palatal to gn — the last four sounds peculiar to French (26). —
After s, n, m, r, I a mute was usually inserted before r, I (jnoVre: moudre).
III. Classical Latin "Words borrowed into French received, somewhat
arbitrarily, French endings, and also, irrelative of the Latin accentuation,
final accent; but they yielded only slowly or in part to the transforming
tendencies of French. Hence, contrary to popular words, they are more
faithful to the form than to the accent of the Latin word: cf. L. fragilem,
mobilem: F. (borr.) fragile, mobile; (pop.)/?e/e (older fraile), meuble.~\
2. NOTATION OF SOUNDS. — The elementary sounds of
the French language are denoted by the letters constituting
its alphabet, and by the use of various subsidiary signs or
devices. These letters and signs are described below, before
the subject of pronunciation proper.
3. ALPHABET. — The French alphabet contains exactly the
same written letters as the English.
Note 1. — The older and more common names of the French letters
are in French denoted as follows : a, be', c€, de, e, effe, ge', ache (h), t, ji,
lea, elle, emme, enne, o, pe~, leu, erre, esse, te', u, ve~, double v&, ics, i grec, zede.
8 * SECOND PART. [3-7.
A more modern practice, especially in spelling out words, is to pro-
nounce e as e 'mute' (cf. 14), the other vowels as above, and each con-
sonant with an e ' mute ' added to its proper sound in any given case [be,
ke or ce, de,fe, ghe or je (23), he, etc.].
Note 2. — k and w occur only in foreign words ; and y is rarely a real
vowel, except in words borrowed from the Greek.
4. Subsidiary Signs or Devices. — These are:
[5.] Accent-marks. — French has three accent-marks, none
of them, however, serving to denote the accent-stress of the
word (abont which cf. 10). Their rather mixed functions are
as follows :
a. The acute (') and the grave ( v ) are almost entirely
phonetic signs, used, the former to denote a close sound, as
in e*pee * (cf. 14 : 4), and the latter an open, as in mh*e (14).
Note. — In a few cases the grave accent serves to distinguish homo-
nyms : e.g. a ' to ' : a ' has ' ; ou ' where ' : ou ' or ' ; la ' there,' la * the ' ; des
' since ' : des ' of the, some.'
b. The circumflex ( A ) most often denotes some etymological
contraction, or loss of a letter (especially s), and is liable to
occur over any vowel. The vowel on which it rests is usually
long. — Ex. dge (formerly aage), tie ' isle ' ; cdte ' coast ? ; brUler
(older brusler) 'burn.'
Note. — Even the circumflex sometimes serves to distinguish homo-
nyms : e.g. du 'due': du 'of the, some'; crois 'grow(est): crois ' be-
lieve (st) ' ; cru ' grown ' : cru ' believed.'
[6.] Diaeresis. — Two dots ('*), called diaeresis, i separation-
mark/ is used over e, i, u to denote that these vowels are in
pronunciation held apart from a preceding vowel. — Ex. Noel
(= no-el), hair (= ha-ir), aigu'e (= aigu-e).
[7.] Cedilla ("small z," formerly z, now 6 ) is a sign placed
under c, when that letter has before a, o, u the sound oi s. —
Ex. ga (formerly written cza).
* Silent letters will in this chapter be printed with roman type.
8-11.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 9
[8.] By a combination of letters, various simple sounds (monoph-
thongs, nasal vowels, etc.) are also denoted. These sounds and their signs
are all described hereafter.
9. SYLLABICATION. — A single medial consonant (save x
and y) or consonant digraph (ch, ph, th, nasal gn) belongs
to the following vowel : e.g. fe-ra, e-pe-le, a-che-te, al-pha-bet ;
bnt ex-il. — Of two or more medial consonants only the last
or, if that be a liquid (r, I) preceded by one that is not a
liquid, the last two, belong to the following vowel : e.g. trom-
pev, af-fec-te, symp-tdme, par-lei, al-/ez; a-prds, sa-bre, trem-
b/e-ment.
Note 1. — In pronunciation, silent h is left out of account: e.g. bo-nheur
(written bon-heur).
Note 2. — Compound words are for the most part divided according to
their elements : e.g. in-spirer.
Accent and Quantity.
10. ACCENT-STRESS. — In French a slight prominence (ac-
cent) is given to the last sonorous vowel of a single word:
e.g. parlS, salade, opinion, probabilite.
This prominence, consisting in a raised pitch or increased
emphasis, or in both, is too weak to dim, like the strong
English accent, surrounding syllables. Hence all syllables of
a French word, save those in e ' mute/ are uttered with equal
distinctness.
Note 1. — Authorities are not all agreed as to the nature of the French
accent; and occasional deviations from the rule, as stated above, may be
heard.
Note 2. — Sentence-accent. Usually the last word of each statement
receives alone the accent, when the speaker does not intentionally em-
phasize, instead, some other word. — Ex. J'ai achet€ la salade 'I have
bought the salad ' ; L'honneur le demande * Honor demands it/
1 1 . QUANTITY. — The distinction between long and short
vowels is in French not very marked, and, in part, uncertain
10 SECOND PART. [11-14.
or arbitrary, the usage of every-day speech often deviating
from theoretical laws. As a general rule, the distinction of
quantity is more marked in accented than in unaccented syl-
lables, and the vowel long chiefly when it has the circumflex
(e.g. ame), and when it is followed by e ' mute ' (hue), or sepa-
rated from it by some protractable sonant consonant (page,
base, pere, table).
While the learner must here rely mainly on oral instruction,
a few details are given below.
[12.] The vowel is usually long :
a. When it has the circumflex : e.g. ame, fete, eveque, mat. (Rarely it is
short, as in aumone, hotel.)
b. Directly before e * mute ' : e.g. lue,jolie,joue.
c. When separated from a following vowel, especially e 'mute,' by a
sonant g, s, or z (e.g. page, tige, base, eglise, gaze), or by r or rr (e.g. pere,
guerre), or by two dissimilar consonants of which the first is a nasal or the
second r, I (e.g. jambe, crainte; sabre, table, cadavre).
d. In final syllables before (silent) s, x, z, or before an audible r;
e.g. expres, as, assez, prix, augur, Jier ' proud ' (hutji-e'r ' rely '), air, perd.
[13.] In connected discourse the quantity suffers various changes, ac-
cording to the emphasis employed by the speaker.
Pronunciation.
14. SIMPLE VOWELS (not combined with other vowels). —
Their pronunciation is as described below. •
S^ 3 In the pronunciation of vowels both quantity (about which cf. 11)
and quality are to be considered. In describing the quality below, the
quantity is not left out of sight. The relation between the two is not
always fixed, and nothing but a long practice can teach the student to
observe that relation. — In comparing English and French vowel-sounds,
it must be borne in mind that the French never have the • vanish/ which
often accompanies the English when long.
a (d, d) has two slightly different sounds : 1. nearly that of a
in English ' father ' (not quite so deep) ; 2. more open, ap-
proaching that of a in ' at/ a in Webster's ask representing
14.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 11
the sound quite well. The former occurs when a is long,
except before two consonants. — Ex. (1) dme, base, bdt, dge;
— (2) carnaval,patte, table, tdcher, la.
e has a different value according as it ends a syllable (as in
le, fe-ra) or not (les, fer-ma). Thus (cf. 9) :
1. -e closing a syllable (or constituting one) is some-
what inconsistently called " e mute " (French " e muet ")
As a general rule (cf. note 1, 2) it is silent, or practically so
only at the end of words of two or more syllables : e.g. cape
dme, salade, tasse ; and when it constitutes a syllable by it
self : aboi-e-ment. Otherwise it approaches in sound e in l erj,
being uttered rapidly and with a closer, rounded aperture of
the lips (= Germ, o): e.g. le, me, se, fe-ra, pe-sant, a-pre-te".
Note 1. — At the end of polysyllables -e is not entirely silent when pre-
ceded by two consonant-sounds belonging to the same syllable (i.e. by br,
bl, etc.: cf. 9). It has then a slight tinge of the e-sound in le : e.g. sa-bre,
sa-ble, ora-cle, ca-dre. By emphasis this sound is heard also in other cases.
Note 2. — • Within a word, except in the initial syllables, -e is often
slipped over or dimmed, unless a harsh sound should be the result : e.g.
re-te-nir, de-ve-nir, re-ve-nu ; but h-pre-te.
Note 3. — In connected discourse, euphony and emphasis may cause
some deviation from above rules. Thus, especially, e is suppressed or
slighted in one or more of successive monosyllables in e (e.g. je ne le puis,
e'est ce que je dis). Final e of polysyllables in -ble, etc., is entirely silent
before a vowel (e.g. oracle ancien). On the treatment of e mute in verse,
cf . 423.
2. e- not closing a syllable sounds like e in 'ere ' (French
$) before an audible consonant, and also before silent soit; but
nearly like e in ' they ' (Fr. 4) before silent consonants, except
s and t. — Ex. (= e) bref, fer-ma, des-pote, ver-re; es, les, est,
promets ; — (= €) pied, parler, nez, clef.
Note 1. — Et ' and ' is pronounced e.
Note 2. — Final -es of polysyllables, and -ent of 3d plural of verbs are
treated as if simply -e ' mute.' E.g. awes, tables, donnent, parlent. (Cf.,
however, 28.)
12 SECOND PART. [14.
Note 3. — Before a double consonant (usually pronounced as simple)
e often sounds like e. Cf. essayer = e-sayer; but dresser = dre-sev; ennemi =
e-ne-mi.
Note 4. — Followed by a double nasal, e sounds like French short a in
femme (pron. Jam) 'woman/ nenni 'no indeed/ hennir 'neigh/ solennel
'solemn/ and in ail adverbs terminating in -emment (e.g. violemment, etc.).
Note 5. — Followed by ss, e sounds like e 'mute' in dessous (= de-sou)
'under/ dessus 'above/ and in most words beginning with ress- (ressemblev,
etc.). In these words the first s is only an inorganic insertion serving to
denote that the following s has a hissing sound (dessous for de sous and so on).
Note 6. — Concerning the orthographic use of e to make g a spirant,
cf. 23 g.
©•sounds almost like e in ' they ' (= e in Germ, mehr), but it
is usually short and sharp, except before e mute. — Ex. (long)
donnee, crees ; — (short and sharp) donne", crter, de, v6rit&,
ctiUbrite.
e, e when long have almost the sound of e in 'ere' or of ei in
'heir' (= a in Germ, mdhre), and when short of e in 'let.'
— Ex. (long) mere, these, trapeze, fete, 6tre ; — (short) achate,
bre~ve, proc&de.
i (%) y have the sound of i in i police,' though long or short
according to quality. — Ex. (long) mise, Ue, ablme, hydre,
amie ; — (short) cri, Jil, limite ; style, type, ami.
o, (6) has a rather closer sound than o ' no,' chiefly when long ;
or a more open, approaching that of o in ' not ' (= o in Germ.
soil), chiefly when short. — Ex. (close) rose, trdne, ndtre, gros ;
— (open) sol, sotte, porter.
u (H) : The sound of this vowel (= Germ, u) has no equivalent
in English. It is a changed Latin w-sound in the direction
of i, and is produced by trying to utter u as in ' true ' with
the tongue in the ee-position, as in 'tree.' — Ex. (long) rue,
ruse, flute, pur; — (short) butte, minute, bu.
About the use of u as an orthographical sign, cf . 23, under g.
15.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 13
15. MONOPHTHONGS. — A simple vowel-sound is in French
often written with two, or even three, vowel-signs (relics of
once independent vowels). Such monophthongs — never be-
ginning with i, u or y — are those described below.
ai (ai), et (ei), are pronounced like £, long or short ; but final
-ai in verbs like L — Ex. (long) baise, mattre, ferais, aie,
vraie; seigle, reltre, reine; — (short) aimer, faites, fait, vrai,
peinev; — ( — 4) ferai, ai, allai (all verb-forms).
Note 1. — In derivative forms of /aire 'do/ the radical vowel (ai) of
this verb, if followed by a fully pronounced syllable, is pronounced (as it
was once written) like e ' mute.' Ex./a/sait (=fe-sait), bienfaisance, etc.
ay, ey are monophthongs only when not followed by a vowel, a case which
rarely occurs except in a few proper names and foreign words. They
then sound like ai, ei. — Ex. Corday, Ney.
Note. — In pays 'country,' and its derivatives paysan (f. paysanne)
* peasant/ pay sage * landscape/ ay is pronounced as if ai-i.
au, eau have the sound of the closer French o ; exceptionally
of open o (chiefly before I, r, or re). — Ex. (long) pause,
pauvre, maux, faut, eau, beau, beaucouip', — (open) Paul,
restaure, centaure.
eu (eu), ceu usually have when long a closer sound than e in
'err' (= Germ, o); but when short the open sound of e in
'err.' — Ex. (close and usually long) creuse, jeudi, deux,
veux, monsieuT ; vozux, bceufs ; — (open and usually short)
seul, jeune (but jeune with close eH, on account of the
• lengthening circumflex), peuple, veulent, leur,jleur, bozuf.
Note. — In forms of avoir ' have/ eu sounds like French it. — Ex. eu
' had/J'eus ' I had/ etc.
ou (ou, ou) has the sound of oo in ' fool/ though long or short.
— Ex. (long) Spouse, voilte, roue, loue ; — (slightly shorter)
rouler, doute, ou, louev.
ob, ue sound before il(l) like eu. —Ex. ceil (-eu'y), cueille (=keu'y).
14 SECOND PART. [16,17.
16. Diphthongs and Dissyllabics. — Combined vowels
not coalescing into one sound form either a diphthong, when
the first vowel-sound (i, o, u, ou) glides over into the second
before it is fully formed : e.g. fier = f&r ' proud,' nuit = n ou i
' night' ; or a dissyllabic, when it is barely distinct enough to
be counted as forming a syllable by itself : e.g. fier = /'-«
i rely ' ; nuit — n u -i ' hurts ' ; construit.
Note. — Neither theory nor usage has definitely settled the limits
between diphthongs and dissyllabics. The tendency is for the former to
encroach upon the latter. It will be useful to remember, as covering a
majority of cases, that i and u terminating a French verb-root or root-
derivative, or being preceded by a compound consonant, rarely form a
diphthong with a following vowel (cf. examples above).
[17.] The pronunciation of diphthongs and dissyllabics offers
no difficulty, each constituent simple vowel or monophthong
having its own sound (more or less fully enounced), except in
the following cases : —
ao = a in faon ' fawn/ paon ' peacock ' ; and = o in aoriste, #adne, t&on
(also faon) ' gadfly.'
aoO = ou in aowt 'August (the month).'
oe — French oi (below) in poele ' stove ' and poele ' frying-pan.'
oi {o%). This diphthong has a sound that may be represented
in French by ""a, ™a (nearly like wa- in English 'waft'). —
Ex. ( = ou a) poivrz, joie, voir ; — (°"d) voiture, tournoi, roi.
Note 1. — Concerning oi when nasalized by a following gn, cf. 23,
under gn.
Note 2. — In many forms, an older oi was in the last century altered
to ai (e.g. foible : faible ; lisoit : lisai t ; connottre : connaftre) . Where in
such cases classical texts retain oi, it is now customary to pronounce it
as ai. — For roide (or raide) 'stiff, rigid' and its derivatives the older
spelling with the modern pronunciation is the prevailing, though not
exclusive, practice.
u + vowel or vowel combination (i.e. ua, ue, ui, etc.) :
17-10. J ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 15
a. Not preceded by g or g, u forms with a following vowel
(or vowel-combination) a diphthong or a dissyllabic (16),
being pronounced in the former case almost like French ou,
but in the latter more like French u. — Ex. (diphthong) suace
= s ou ave, Suede, suite, huile, lui. — (dissyllabic) lu-a, tu-ez, lu-eur.
b. Preceded by g or g, u in common French words of old
stock (cf . note), serves as a mere graphic sign to denote that
g and q sound like hard g (in ' go ') and k respectively. — Ex.
fatigua (= fatiga), guerre (= g&r : g hard as in ' go '), fatiguer,
aiiguille (= agiy : g hard), vigueur ; quatre (= katr e ), que, quel,
qui, liquide, vainqueur.
Note. — In several, mostly modern, words borrowed from the Latin,
u forms a diphthong with the following vowel, as it does also in English.
This occurs forgu- chiefly in lingual (— lin-g ou aw ^ r ^
en, em i I en, enfant, tempUe
in, im ~\ r Jin, mince, simple
i
yn, ym \ ~ u J syntaxe, nymphe
a/n. uim I I mow, poulain, fatm
ein, eim J ^ frein, peindre, Reim*
on, om = o (close o). " om, moutoit, ombre
un, urn I = eT/ ^ close . " ^> par/urn, humble
eun, J ,/eAn
/-a/7 (y-a)t) ) _ • - " etudiant, eft 'ray ant
i-en (cf. note) ) " client, orient, audience
o-in . =s o-ai. " coin, soins, poindre
etc.
Note 1. — In -/e/7 (-yen) final or belonging to a verb-form, and in e-en
final, -e» sounds like -//< (i.e. = ui). — Ex. bien (= bi-di), mien, vient (verb-
form) ; moijen (= moi-i/dt) ; — europeen (= europe'-ai).
Xotk 2. — Minor irregularities are as follows: —
am-/;, om-n are pronounced as a-;;, o-n (without nasalization) in damner
'damn/ automne ' autumn,' and their derivatives.
em-m,en-n are pronounced as a-m, a-n when ?»<-, en- represent the prefix
en (Lat. in), i.e. nearly always in the beginning of a word (e.g. em-mener,
en-mii/er, etc.) ; but like a-m, a-n (no nasalization of the vowel) in femme
(=Jam), etc., see under 14 : e 2, note 4.
e/7f of the 3d person plural of verbs, cf. 14 : e 2, note 2.
in- beginning a word is not nasalized before a vowel-sound, though
treated as a syllable by itself (9, note 2). — Ex. inactif, inhumain.
on is reduced to o, or more commonly e, in monsieur (usually = me-cieu)
'sir,' and it is not nasalized in bonheur ' happiness ' (cf. 9, note 1).
About nasals in proper names, etc., see 24-5.
Consonants.
20. GENERAL REMARK. — The French consonants are usu-
ally pronounced like the English. But there are various exce]>
tions, however, as described below under 23. — The following
preparatory remarks may be made here : —
21-23.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 17
[21.] Initial or medial consonants. — C is the only consonant-
sign peculiar to French ; g, j, h, ch, and medial gn, ill, ti rep-
resent, often or always, other sounds than in English.
[22.] Final consonants are for the most part silent, except
when in connected discourse they are sounded before a
following initial vowel (for particulars cf. 23). Only c, f, I.
q, and r (except in -er, -ier of polysyllables) are regularly
pronounced even in disconnected words.
23. SPECIAL RULES for the pronunciation of consonants
are given below.
g^ 3 Compound final consonants are below given under the head of
their last consonant. — Double consonants are sounded as one, unless a
special exception is made (cf. cc, gg, below).
6 = English b. As final it is heard in radoub, rumb.
c has the sound of k, except before e, i, y, where it is pro-
nounced as s. Changed to c (cf. 6), it has the sound of s even
before a, o, u. — Ex. cas, acte, lac, accablev; — ce, ceder, del; —
ca, gar con.
c has the sound of g in second (= se-go) and its derivatives.
-c final is usually heard. It is silent after a nasal (blanc, etc.) ; after
r in some words (clerc, marc, pore) ; and in estomac * stomach/ tabac
'tobacco,' croc 'hook,' coutchouc 'india-rubber,' and a few other less com-
mon words. — In done 'then,' it may be heard, especially when that word
heads a sentence.
cc before e, i, y = c-c. — Ex. acces (j= alc-se).
ch sounds 1. like ch (—sh) in 'machine'; or 2. like ch (= k)
in ' chaos.' — The latter sound, by far the less common, is
heard, on the whole (except, usually, before i), in words whose
English cognates have that sound (cf. chaos 'chaos,' Christ
'Christ/ etc.). — Ex. (= sh) charms, chasse, chose, chaise,
chuchoter, choux, chez, chien; chimie (' chemistry '), monarchic,
architecte ; — (= k) chaos, e"cho, orchestre j Christ, chrHien
(' Christian '), technologie.
18 SECOND PART.
[23.
Before a consonant, ch is always = k. Before a vowel, it has the sh-
sound in words of Latin or Germanic origin, and also, by late change, in
several words of Greek origin; while in most words of Greek origin it has
the &-sound.
Note. — In archange 'arch-angel,' ch is =k; in almanach it is mute;
and in drachme it is like g.
d = Engl. d. As final it is heard in sud * south.'
f=Engl.f. As final it is heard, except only in clef 'key,' and in neuf
' nine,' as adjective before a word beginning with a consonant (e.g. neuf
jours ' nine days ') .
Note. — Irregularly, /of boeuf ox,' oeuf egg,' nerf (or nerf) ' nerve/ be-
comes silent when the plural-sign is added (boeuf s, ceufs, 7ierfs). F is also
silent in chef-d'oeuvre, and in nerf de boeuf.
g has the hard sound of g in English 'go/ except before e
(eu), i, y, where it sounds as Fr. j ( = z in ' azure/ forcibly-
enunciated). As final it is usually silent. — Ex. ( = g) gant,
gorge, gouter, gloire, chagrin; — (=Fr. j) gerrne, gilet, gym-
nasts, legem, nageur; — (silent) bourg, long.
ge gu -f- vowel. — To give to g the fricative (=j) sound even
before a, o, u a silent e is inserted after it (e.g. nagea =
na-zha) ; and vice versa, to give it a hard sound before e (eu), i,
a silent u is inserted after it (e.g. guerre, as if g$r, g as
in 'go'). — Ex. (=j) nagea, pigeon, gageure, mangea ; —
(= hard g) guerre, guere, gueule, gmtarre, Jigue.
With regard to the combinations ge and gu before a vowel, it should be
noticed: — a) in -geur eu is a monophthong (cf. nageur under g), while
in -geure it consists of the silent (orthographical) e + u of a suffix -urc
(cf . gageure, above) ; — b) u of gu may in some words form a diphthong
with the following vowel (cf. p. 15, b. note) ; — c) u is silent even before
a, o, u, if it belongs to a verb in -guer (e.g. fatigxxons from fatiguer).
gg before e, i, u =g-g. — Ex. suggerev (= sug-gere").
-g final is heard in joug * yoke,' zigzag, grog, pouding.
gn between vowels (or r and a vowel) is softened to a pecu-
liar sound resembling that of Engl, gn in c cognac ' (= con-yac).
But the w-sound is palatal (made with the back of the
23.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 19
tongue), and it blends with the following ^-sound almost into
one, the two coming near being a nasal y(y). — Ex. gagnev
( = ga-ye), agneau; craignit, saigne; indigne; cigogne; soi-
gneux (= soi-yeu) ; repugnev, epargner.
Note 1. — The exact French sound of gn can be learned only by hear
ing it. In Switzerland, gn sounds just like Engl. ny.
Note 2. — In oign on 'onion,' and more optionally in words beginning
with poign- (poh/nard ' dagger,' etc.) i is silent.
Note 8. — In certain modern words borrowed from Greek or Latin, gn
is pronounced like g-n : agnat (= ag-na), cognition, stagnant, stagnation, etc. ;
and g is silent in signet * signet.'
h is now silent in French. Yet in many words of foreign,
especially Germanic, origin, an initial h is still treated as
when once pronounced (aspirated), in so far as it prevents
the elision or linking (26) of a preceding word. Hence the
necessity of distinguishing between h ' mute ' and h ' aspirate.'
— Ex. (< mute ') habit (Vhabit, les habits), huile, exhortev ; —
(' aspirate ') h^ros (le he'ros, les heVos), harpe.
Note. — Generally h is ' mute ' in words of Latin or Greek origin (e.g.
homme, habit, heroine), but 'aspirate' in words of a different, chiefly
Teutonic, origin (e.g. halle, harpe, haie, etc.). — Among exceptions
should be noted especially : A, is * aspirate ' in he'ros (but not in its deriva-
tives), and in some words with inorganic h, as hant (L. altus) and deriva-
tives, hurlev (L. ululare), haletex (L. haiitare), as well as in hois (L. foras) ;
in huit and derivatives it prevents elision but not linking (cf. 27, note 1).
In dictionaries, words beginning with an h 'aspirate' (about 340 against
500 beginning with h ' mute ') are usually marked with some conventional
sign, such as ', or *, or the like.
j always sounds like z in English ' azure,' if enunciated with
strong sonancy. — Ex. je, jetev, jour, jouir, juste.
k = English k. It occurs only in foreign words.
/ regularly sounds like English I (e.g. il, filer, docile, aile = M,
illustre). — The combinations il and ill, however, are subject
to the following rules : —
20 SECOND PART. [23.
-//final is usually (cf. note 2) regular, as in ' until' (Fr. i),
except after a vowel, where it simply denotes an ?/-sound (= y
in arti-ons). — c. When i belongs to one of the endings iV (participles
excepted), tier (infinitives excepted), tiere, tiers, tieme, in all of which ie
is a diphthong of French origin (e.g. moitie', entiev, entiere, volontiers).']
-t final is silent, except in brut 'rough,' chut 'hush!' dot 'portion/
fat ' fop (pish) ///«// (cf. 88) 'eight,' net 'neat'; and cf. below (-ct, -gt, etc.).
-ct, -gt, -It, -pt, -st final are treated as follows: — ct, differently
described by different authors, is mostly silent after a nasal (e.g. instinct),
after i (except in strict) and in the termination -.sy^ct (e.g. aspect), but
sounded like kt elsewhere, i.e. generally after a and e (e.g. tact, exact,
correct, direct), — gt is silent in doigt 'finger ' and in vingt ' twenty/ in some
of its uses (cf. 88). — It is silent. — -pt is silent after a nasal and sounded
after a vowel, except in seryt ' seven/ pronounced set (cf. 76 : also sepieme).
23-25.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 23
st is silent in est 'is,' but sounded in Christ (not in Jesus Christ), est
' east,' and ouest ' west.'
th has the sound of simple t. — Ex. athee.
v sounds" like English v; w, which is used only in foreign words, sounda
like v, except after a vowel, where it generally has the value of u (New-
york = Neu-york).
x is pronounced like gz when initial, and in the prefix ex- fol
lowed by a vowel-sound ; but like ks in other cases. — Ex
Xenophon, exil, exhume? ; — excuse, jixe, Alexandre.
-x final is silent. Only in six ' six ' and dix * ten,' when not used a*
adjectives, it has the sound of ss. JTalso has the same sound in soixante
'sixty ' (and in some proper names, as Bruxelles, etc.). — Final -Ix is silent.
y. Concerning this letter, see 18.
z sounds as in English ' gaze ' (e.g. azur). When final it is silent (e.g. nez),
except in gaz,fez. m
24. Pronunciation of Proper Nouns. — The pronunciation of proper
nouns is very irregular, and usage is not in all cases fixed. Only a few
rules for the more common irregularities are here given.
Proper names are pronounced according to the preceding rules, ob-
serving :
A. As regards foreign names : — a. that any final consonant is likely to
be sounded : e.g. Job, David, Esther, Jupiter, Gil Bias, Brutus, Suez (z = s),
etc. ; — b. that final m and n, retaining their own sounds, do not nasalize a
preceding vowel, and that a medial em and en sometimes sound like French
i"a (i.e. = ai) : e.g. Abraham (= A-bra-d-me) , Jerusalem, Elohim, Eden, (but
am = a" in Adam) ; Benjamin, Memphis, etc. ; — c. that ch usually sounds
like k : e.g. Jericho, Michel-Ange, etc. (but like Engl, sh in Michel, Achille,
Archimede, Eschyle = e'shil, and some others) .
B. As regards French names : — a. that final s and st are heard in
some words : e.g. Arras, Beims ; Vaugelas, Agnes, Clovis, Me'dicis ; Brest,
Ernest, etc. ; — b. that medial s before a consonant (especially /, m, n, t),
and also final -It, -Ix are silent : e.g. Basle (now usually Bale), Maistre (also
Maistre), Duguesclin ; Larochefoucault (but heard in Soult).
25. Foreign words with unchanged orthography are usually pro-
nounced as in the language from which they are borrowed. — Ex. album,
triumvir, amen ; Cromwell, whig (ou-ig) , etc.
24 SECOND PART. [26-28.
Joining of Words.
26. In the sentence, closely connected words are apt to be
pronounced as one,
a. by elision (" cutting off " : both, in utterance and writing)
of a vowel that would occasion hiatus : e.g. le a = Va ; and
b. by linking (in utterance, not in writing) the end-conson-
ant of one word, whether otherwise pronounced or not, with
the initial vowel of another : e.g. les amis = le-z^ami.
27. ELISION. — Finale of monosyllabics in -e and a few
compounds in -que, and final a of la, are usually (cf. notes)
elided before a vowel or h ' mute ', their loss being indicated
in writing by the use of an apostrophe. — Ex. Varbre (for le
arbre), fax (for je ai), qvUil (for que il), Vdme (for la dme) ;
jusqu'a (for j usque a).
Note 1. — The articles le and la are not elided before numerals, except
un and its derivatives. — Ex. le onze, le huit; run.
Note 2. — The personal object-pronouns (me, te, le, la) when appended
to their verb by a hyphen are elided only before the particles en, y, if per-
taining to the same verb. — Ex. dunne-m'en, inenez-l'y ; but menez-le awe
vous, envoyez-le en^chercher.
Note 3. — The demonstrative adjective ct is crt before a vowel or h
'mute' (cf. 107, note 1).
Note 4. — Jusque always elides its e before a vowel-sound; quoique
lorsque, puisque, puree que, tandis que, only before un and personal pronouns
(il, elle, on) ; quelque, presque only in the compounds quelqu'un, presqu'Ue.
Note 5. — In other combinations than those described above, a hiatus
remains (at least in writing), except in the following sporadic cases :
a. / of si ' if ' is elided before il, ils, (e.g. s'i!) ;
b. in analogy with verb-forms ending in s in the 2d sing, imperative and
in t in the 3d sing, present indicative, an s is added to a 2d imperative
ending in a vowel when followed by the appended object-particle en or y
(e.g. donnes-en, vas-y : cf. 127), and a -t- is inserted between a verb-form
ending in a vowel in the 3d sing, and an appended subject-pronoun (e.g.
aime-t-il, a-t-il, aura-t-il : cf. 151 b).
28. Linking of Words. — If one word ends with a ecu
sonant or consonant-combination, and the next begins with
28-33.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 25
a vowel or h ' mute,' the end-consonant — or exceptionally
a consonant preceding it — is apt to be pronounced with
the initial vowel-sound, thus i linking ' the two words. — Ex.
vous^avez, cet^habit, deserts^arides, respect \\iimain.
[29.] This linking is regularly observed when the syntac-
tical relation between the two words is close, as between a noun
or adjective and its determinants, the verb and its subject, etc.
In other cases, it is largely a matter of option or euphony,
though it is observed much more regularly in solemn utter-
ance or reading than otherwise.
In linking words, the following rules are to be observed, viz. : —
[30.] Final c, -Romanic speech — s naturally became the
plural sign in modern French.
By a confusion, however, x (for oo, both conventional signs in Old
French for -us) has come to be used instead of s, as the regular plural
sign of nouns with a final monophthong in -u, as well as those which change
final -/ to -u in the plural : e.g. chevau-x (for chevaco or chevax : u restored
and yet x retained in chevaux), chapeau-x. Farther, if the singular ended
already in a hissing sound (s, x, or z), it suffered no change in the plural.
Some of the actual rules for the plural formation of compound nouns
(53) and proper names have been fixed only since the 17th century.
C. Gender. — Latin had three genders. Of these the neuter was lost
in French, neuter nouns being changed, for the most part, into masculines.
Hence the following general analogy :
Lat. masc. and neut. = Fr. masc.
Lat. fern. = Fr. fern.
This general correspondence, however, has been considerably disturbed
by various influences, chiefly that of false analogy. Thus: — 1. Latin
plural neuters in -a became feminines, in analogy with feminines in -a ;
e.g. L. arma (n.) : Fr. arme (f.) ; L. folia (n.) : Fr. feuille (f.) ; L. vela
(n.): Fr. voile (f.) ; etc. — 2. Several Latin feminines in -us (especially
names of trees) became masculines in analogy with masculines in us : e.g.
L. cupressm (f.) : Fr. cypres (m.) ; L. pinus (f.) : Fr. pin (m.) ; L. cedrus
(f.) : Fr. cedre (m.) ; low L. casnus (f.) : Fr. chene (m.). — 3. Several Lat.
masculines (or neut.) changed so as to end in -e in French became femi-
nine, that being the usual gender of words in -e .• e.g. L. cometes (m.) : Fr.
comete (f.) ; L. pidverem (Fr. pulvis, m.) : Fr.poudre (f.) ; L. amyletum (n.) :
32 SECOND PART. [47-50.
Fr. amulette (f.). — 4. Abstract nouns in -eur, in analogy with abstract
nouns (as in te, etc.) generally, became feminines: e.g. L. calor (m.) : Fr.
chaleur (f.) ; L. color (ra.) : Fr. couleur (f.) ; L. pavor (m.) : Fr. peur (f.).
— 5. A few nouns are masc. in their concrete, but feminine in their
abstract sense : e.g. garde (m.) ' guard, watchman ' : garde (f.) ' guard,
care.' — 6. minuit {-nuit : L. nox, f.) is masc. in analogy with midi (-rfi .*
L. dies, m.) ; gens (pi. of genf 'race, nation': Lat. gent-em of gens, f.),
assuming the sense ' person/ became masc. in many uses, but not all (cf.
02 d) : and so on.
Nouns of German or* Greek origin also preserve the German or Greek
gender in a manner analogous, in the main, with that described above.]
48. — French nouns have as a rule a different form for the
singular and plural. But, unlike English nouns, they suffer
no other change whatever.
49. Plural Formation.
[50.] Common nouns not terminating already in a sibilant
(s, x, z) form their plural by adding 5 or x to the singular form.
X is simply a spurious (47, B) substitute for s after nearly
all monopthongs in -u. It is added to all nouns in -eau,
-(o)eu, and some in -on (note 1) ; and always to final -au, the
required conversion in plural of final -al in most cases
(note 2) and of -ail in many (note 3). — Ex.
a. 5 added :
Sing, pdre ' father' pi. p&res
" maison i house '..... " malsons
" Jleur ' flower' " fleurs
b. x added (1) directly :
Sing, chapeau 'hat' pi. chapeaux
« feu < fire ' " feux
" voeu 'wish' " vmux
(2) after the conversion of -al, -ail to -au :
Sing, ge'ne'ral i general ' .... pi. ge'ne'rau-x
" cheval ' horse ' " chevau-x
u corail 'coral' " corau-x
50.] NOUNS. 33
Nouns in a sibilant are invariable :
Sing, jils ' son ' pi. fits
" prix ' price ' " prix
" nez ' nose ' " nez
Note 1. — Seven nouns in -ou add x in the plural. They are : bijou
' jewel,' caillou ' pebble/ chou ' cabbage,' genou * knee,' hibou ' owl,' joujou
* toy/ pou ' louse.' — Others in -ou add s.
Note 2. — A few nouns in -al simply add s in the plural. The most
important are : monosyllables (except mal ' evil ' and val * vale ') ; some
polysyllabics as aval * surety/ carnaval * carnival/ re'gal * entertainment ' ;
and in general foreign names of plants and animals (nopal 'Indian fig-
tree/ chacal 'jackal/ etc.).
Note 3. — Nouns in -ail are differently treated. About one-half of
these (detail, epouvantail, e'ventail, gouverna.il, poitrail, portail, and a few less
common) add s to the singular. The remainder change -ail to -au, and
then add x (corail 'coral/ pi. corau-x ; travail 'labor/ pi. travaux, rarely
travails, cf. note 4 ; etc.). Yet ail ' garlic ' has in plural ails or aulx; and
b&ail 'cattle' has bestiaux.
Note 4. — The following nouns have a double plural form,
an irregular retaining the general meaning of the noun, and a
regular restricting in some manner that meaning :
aieul 'ancestor, grandfather' \ a%mx '*»***«»'
( aieuls ' grandfathers '
del ' sky, heaven ' i cieux ' heavens > skies '
( dels ' skies in pictures, clime, testers/ etc.
( yeux ' eyes '
mil 'eye' < ceils in ceils-de-bceuf 'oval windows' and many
( names of natural products.
j. •/ < i u j / -c 4. o\ ( travaux i labors ?
travail ' labor ' (cf . note 3m »,«,.-, .<'%■•",
( travails l official reports ? ; ' brakes '
Note 5. — Usage varies with regard to the plural form of foreign
nouns. Generally s is added to simple nouns of familiar use (albums,
ope'ra-s, piano-s, etc.), while others, especially compounds, and some pure
Latin words, remain unchanged (les post-scriptum, les Te Deum, les credo
or -credos, les requiem or requiems, etc.), or have their foreign plural form
(les maxima, les minima, les lazzaroni, les ladies, les tories, etc.).
34 SECOND PART. [51-53.
[51.] Proper Nouns are for the most part unchanged in the plural
when not used figuratively. Names of persons, however, take the plural
sign : a) When denoting illustrious families or dynasties : e.g. les Scipions,
les Bourbons. — b) When applied, by way of comparison, to other persons
than those to whom they properly belong ; or when used as titles of books
or works of art : e.g. La France a ses Ce'sar-s ; des Raphaels ' pictures of
Raphael.'
Note. — Several geographical names (les Indes, les Vosges, etc.) are used
chiefly or alone in the plural.
[52.] As in English, so also in French various nouns, especially abstracts
or names of material, are used chiefly or alone in the singular [e.g. 'ver-
dure' ' verdure,' argent 'silver, money,' I ait 'milk,' etc.], while others are
used chiefly or alone in the plural [e.g. ancetres (rarely sing. m. or f.) 'an-
cestors,' annales ' annals/ environs ' surroundings,' Jrais ' expenses,' fune'rail les
'funeral,' moeurs 'customs,' te'nebres ' shadows,' etc.].
Note. — Several nouns have in the plural a specialized meaning, differ-
ing more or less from that of the singular: e.g. fer 'iron,' pi. fers, generally
'fetters,' but also 'implements of iron/ 'kinds of iron'; grace 'charm,
mercy/ graces ' thanks ' ; ciseau ' chisel/ ciseaux ' scissors/ and so on.
53. Plural of Compound Nouns. — A. When the
members of a compound, having lost more or less of their
identity with regard to form or meaning, are written together
without any intervening hyphen, the compound is treated as a
single word. — Ex. gendarme (for gent d'arme) 'gendarm/ pi.
gendarmes; banlieue (for ban-lieue Hand under public ban or
jurisdiction ') 'jurisdiction or precincts of a city/ pi. banlieues ;
grand' m&re (cf. 64, B) ' grandmother/ pi. grand'mdres.
B. When the members of a compound are separated by a
hyphen, each of them, if a noun or adjective (demi and nu
excepted) is put in the number in which it would be construed
were the compound to be resolved according to its logical
meaning. But other words than nouns and adjectives always
remain unchanged. — Thus, ver-luisant ' glow-worm/ pi. vers-
luisants (luisant ' shining' agreeing with ver 'worm'); chef-
lieu 'chief place, head-quarters/ pi. chefs-lieux (chef 'head,
leader ' being in apposition with lieu ' place ') ; arc-en-ciel ' rain-
53-55.] NOUNS. 35
bow/ pi. arcs-en-ciel (i.e. "arches in the sky," not "in the
skies ") ; Hdtel-Dieu ' hospital/ pi. Hdtels-Dieu (i.e. " hotels of
God," not " of gods ") ; avant-coureurs ' forerunners ' ; apres-midi
' afternoon/ pi. apr&s-midi (i.e. the parts of the day coming
"after midday"); tite-d-tMe 'interview/ pi. tMe-db-tMe (because
the meetings are always " head to head," i.e. between two) ;
passe-partout ' master-key/ pi. passe-partout (because both words
are indeclinable).
[54.] From this general principle (B) are derived the following special
rules, viz. : —
a. If one member of a compound is a noun qualified by another noun
in apposition, or by an adjective, both members take the plural sign. —
Ex. chefs-lieux ' chief places/ choux-Jleurs ' cauli-llowers ' ; vers-luisants
' glow-worms,' grands-peres ' grand-fathers/
b. If the members of a compound are combined by a preposition ex-
pressed or understood, the chief member (generally the first) takes the
plural sign. — Ex. arcs-en-ciel ' rain-bows,' chefs-d'oeuvre ' master-pieces,' pots-
de-vin * bribes ' ; Hotels-Dieu ' hospitals ' ; timbres -poste ' postage stamps.'
Note 1. — If one member does not qualify the other, both are un-
changed. — Ex. tete-a-tete 'interviews.'
Note 2. — If the second member is plural in sense, it has the plural
sign, whether the compound, as such, be in the plural or not. — Ex. le
char-a-bancs * coach ' (" with benches").
c. If the first member is a verb-stem and the second a noun, both are
generally unchanged (usage varying with regard to the noun). — Ex.
perce-neige * snow-drops ' ; essuie-main or -s, in both sing, and pi., • towels.'
d. If the compound consists of a particle and a noun, the noun is un-
changed if the particle is a preposition governing it, but otherwise it is
inflected. — Ex. les apres-midi 'the afternoons'; les avant-coureurs 'the
forerunners.'
55. GENDER. — French nouns, whether names of living
beings or not, are either masculine or feminine. No rules that
are at all practical can teach the learner to determine, in every
case, the gender of a noun. But a few general rules will help
him to decide with relative certainty in a majority of cases, as
also aid him in acquiring what only constant practice can teach
him fully. These rules are given below, 56-62.
36 SECOND PART. [55-59.
The classical student is helped in determining the gender of a French
noun by the general analogy existing between the Latin and French gender,
as described in the historical introduction, 47, C. — All students should, as
an aid to memory, make it a habit to associate with a French noun the
definite or (when the noun begins with a vowel) the indefinite article.
[56.] Masculines are :
a. Nouns denoting male beings : e.g. le pere ' the father/ le
roi ' the king/ le bceuf ' the ox.'
b. Nouns not implying distinct sex, when their termination
differs from that of feminine nouns, as described below (57 b) :
e.g. le sofa 'the sofa/ le bU 'the grain/ le noyau 'the kernel/
le courage 'the courage/ le fantdme 'the phantom'; — le pain
' the bread/ le fer ' the iron/ le nom ' the name.'
[57.] Feminines are :
a. Nouns denoting female beings: e.g. la m&re 'the mother/
la soeur ' the sister/ la reine ' the queen/ la vache ' the cow.'
b. Nouns not implying distinction of sex, when they termi-
nate in :
-e (those in -ge, -&me, -6me, -de, -sme, as well as names of
trees usually excepted) : e.g. la vie ' the life/ la table ' the table/
la lumi&re ' the light ' ; — but le siege ' the seat, the siege/ le
si&cle 'the century/ le ch&ne 'the oak.'
-te, tie : e.g. la bonti ' the kindness ' ; la pitU ' the pity ' ;
-eur, -ion, -son (not -sson) : e.g. la terreur ' the terror/ la pos-
session ' the possession/ la maison ' the house.'
[58.] The gender of nouns denoting living beings whose sex is not
implied in the meaning of the word as commonly used, is for the most
part determined by their ending (e.g. la personne 'the person/ la connais-
sance 'the acquaintance'; le homard 'the lobster,' la mouche 'the fly')-
A few of these may, however, be used optionally for either gender (e.g.
un or une enfant ' a child ') ; and for names of animals that are used in
only one gender, a distinction may be made by using after them male or
femelle (la baleine male or femelle ' the whale' m. or f.).
[59.] Among numerous exceptions to the general rules 56, 57, may be
noticed the following very common nouns : — Masculines, commerce ' com-
59-62.] NOUNS. 37
merce/ doute * doubt,' Jteuve ' river,' parapluie ' umbrella ' (but pluie 'rain,'
fera.), reve ' dream,' silence ' silence,' tonnerre * thunder,' verre * glass ' ; comite'
' committee,' cote' ' side,' traite' * treaty ' ; bonheur ' happiness,' cceur ' heart,'
honneur 'honor,' malkeur ' misfortune,' poison 'poison '; and several nouns
of common natural gender, as camarade ' comrade,' esclave * slave,' el eve
'pupil,' auteur 'author.' — Feminities, villa, loi 'law,' foi 'faith,' vertu
' virtue,' apres-midi ' afternoon ' ; image ' image,' page ' page (in a book),' neige
* snow,' rage ' rage,' boucle ' buckle,' creme ' cream ' ; clef ' key,' faim ' hunger,'
fin 'end,' main 'hand,' soif thirst,' fa con 'manner.'
Note. — Nouns in -e, of which some 5000 are feminines and some
2000 masculines, are especially refractory to any sweeping classification.
E mute, though most often representing the Latin feminine ending a,
quite frequently represents some other vowel.
[60.] Several nouns are used, with differentiated meaning, both as mas-
culines and feminines. — Ex. un enfant 'a child (sa a boy),' une enfant 'a
child (=: a girl) ' ; le critique ' the critic/ la critique * the criticism ' ; le manche
'the handle,' la manche 'the sleeve'; le mode 'the manner,' la mode 'the
fashion ' ; le poste 'the post, the station/ la poste 'the post-office ' ; le voile
' the veil/ la voile * the sail ' ; un aigle ' an eagle ' (bird), une aigle ' an eagle '
(as a standard or coat of arms) : and many others.
[61.] Several nouns of different gender, though identical in form, are
of different origin, and thus naturally have a different meaning. — Ex.
le livre 'the book/ la livre ' the pound ' ; le page ' the (boy) page/ la page
' the page (of a book) ' ; le souris ' the smile/ la soaris ' the mouse ' ; le tour
' the round, the circuit, the turn/ la tour ' the tower ' ; le vase ' the vessel,'
la vase * the mud ' : and many others.
[62.] Some nouns are of different genders in singular and plural, or in
different uses. Thus :
a. Amour ' love/ delice ' delight/ orgue ' organ,' are masc. in the singular
and fern, in the plural (amour, sing., being often, however, fern, in poetry).
b. Chose 'thing/ personne ' person/ are fern, as nouns. They are masc.
in the pronominal expressions quelque chose ' something ' (not, however, in
quelque chose 'whatever') and personne 'anybody.'
c. Foudre ' lightning ' is fern, in its proper sense, but masc. when used
metaphorically of a person.
d. Gens 'people, persons' (properly a plural form of the feminine
noun gent ' race, nation ') wavers between masc. and fern. : it is masc.
when its adjective follows (e.g. les gens s€rieux ' serious people '), but fern,
when it precedes (les bonnes gens 'good people'). Yet a preceding 'all' is
38 SECOND PART. [62-64.
always masc. (tuus), save when followed by an adjective having a distinct
feminine form (e.g. tons lesgens, tons fes lionnetes gens, but toutes les bonnes yens) .
Note. — Gens followed by a noun-determinant is always masc. : e.g. de
nombreux gens de guerre ' numerous soldiers ' ; certains gens d'e'tude ' certain
men of study.'
63. Formal Relation between Kindred Masculine and Feminine Nouns
— Different genders of persons and of the more common animals are, as ;\
rule, denoted by the use of different words. The difference in form is either :
a. radical, when both words are derived from different sources : e.g.
pere ' father,' mere ' mother ' ; homme ' man,' fan me ' woman ' ; rot * king,' reine
' queen ' ; cheval ' horse ' jument ' mare ' ; bceuf ' ox,' cache 'cow,' etc. ; or
b. relative, ,vhen the feminine form is clearly derived from the mas-
culine, the derivation being for the most part made in accordance with the
principles determining the change of a masculine adjective to a feminine
(cf. 67, etc.), except, chiefly : that final -e, -eur are changed in the feminine
to -esse, -euse ; and that masculines in -teur when derived from French
verbs, change -teur to -tense, otherwise to -trice (cf. 78) : e.g. ami, m., amie,
f., ' friend ' ; cousin, m., cousine, f ., ' cousin ' ; berger ' shepherd,' bergere ' shep-
herdess,' chien 'dog,' chienne 'bitch'; baron 'baron,' baronne 'baroness';
comte 'count,' comtesse 'countess'; tigre ' tiger,' tigresse ' tigress ' ; danseur,
m., danseuse, f., 'dancer,' acteur ' actor,' actrice ' actress,' etc.
V.
ADJECTIVES.
[64. HISTORY. — A. The case-forms of Latin adjectives have been
reduced in French in precisely the same manner as those of nouns (47,
A,B).
B. The genders have also been reduced to two : the masculine and
the feminine. The latter has the distinct ending -e (mute), which corre-
sponds to the Latin -a (e.g. Lat. bona = Fr. bonne), though it is now often
added even to such feminines as had no -a in Latin (Lat. grand is, m.,
grandis, f . ; Old Fr. grand, m., grand, f. ; Fr. grand, m., grande, f.), or
sometimes to both the masculine and the feminine (triste, m. and f.). A
trace of the old feminine form grand is yet seen in a few words like grand'-
mere ' grandmother,' where the apostrophe is inserted, by a misunderstand-
ing, to denote the loss of an (imaginary) < .
64-66.] ADJECTIVES. 39
Some adjectives retain in the feminine a more primitive form than in
the masculine: cf. vif: fern, vive 'lively,' from Lat. vivus; be'nin : be'nigne
'benign' from Lat. benignus; nul : nulle 'none,' from Lat. nul/us ; beau:
belle ' beautiful,' from Lat. be/lus; gros : grosse ' large,' from Lat. grossus,
etc. In other cases, the feminine form suffers a purely orthographical
(and comparatively modern) change, serving to denote its pronunciation,
or made by analogy : e.g. cher : f . chere ' dear ' (e to avoid che-re, with e-
mute : 35) ; cruel : cruel/e (to avoid cru-e-le) ' cruel ' ; public : publique (to
avoid publice) 'public'; long : longue (to avoid longe, g — j) 'long'; bon .;
bonne (to denote the openness of the o-sound), and so on.
C. The Degrees of Comparison are expressed, as they were already
in Old French, by the aid of independent words {plus ' more,' moins 'less,'
= Lat. plus, 7ninus). Only three Lat. comparatives (melior, pejor, minor = Fr.
meilleur, pire, moindre) have been retained in French, and no superlative, if
we except a few technical terms in -issime, imported in the 16th century.]
65. French Adjectives have, as a principle, a different form
for singular and plural, and for masculine and feminine, but
suffer no other change. As attributes they are placed either
before or after their noun (cf. 221).
66. Plural Formation. — Adjectives form their plural
in a manner analogous to that of the nouns (cf. 50). — Ex.
joli ' pretty,' plural jolts (fern, jolie, pi. jolies, and so on for all
feminines, which in sing, invariably end in e) ; grand * great,'
pi. grands; — beau 'beautiful,' pi. beaux; Mbreu ' hebrew/
pi. Mbreux ; — moral 'moral,' pi. moraux ; general 'general,'
pi. generau x; — mauvais 'bad,' pi. mauvais; faux 'false/ pi.
faux.
Note 1. — Bleu 'blue,' feu 'late (= deceased),' fou 'foolish/ mou
' soft,' add s in the plural.
Note 2. — Adjectives in -al have but slowly yielded to the tendency of
changing -al to -aux, and plural forms in -als are frequently met with in the
literature (fatals, finals, glacials, etc.) ; but they are constantly being
reduced in number.
Note 3. — Polysyllables in -ant, -ent, may optionally drop t in the
plural, but the more common practice is to keep it. — Ex. puissan(t)s.
40 SECOND PART. [67-73.
Formation of the Feminine.
67. General Rule. — Masculines, not ending in e, add e in
the feminine ; those in e remain unchanged. — Ex. grand, fern.
grande ' great ' ; mauvais : mauvaise ' bad ' ; joli : jolie ' pretty ' ;
aim6 : aime'e ' beloved ' ; — jeune : jeune ' young/
68. Special Rules. — Before this e, the masculine form
is subject to certain variations. These being either A. etymo-
logical, due to the fact that the feminine has retained a more
primitive form than the masculine ; or B. orthographical, serv-
ing chiefly to denote the pronunciation of the feminine form,
are described below (cf. 64, B).
A. Chiefly Etymological Changes:
[69.] Final /"is changed to v. — Ex. vif: f. vive ' lively,
vivid'; actif: active 'active'; href: breve 'brief (e: 74).
[70.] B€nin ' benign ' and malin ' malicious ' resume in the feminine a
lost g : benigne, maligne.
[71.] Absous 'absolved' and dissous 'dissolved' are in the feminine
absoute, dissoute.
[72.] Prats (from a Germanic form, fresc) 'fresh' is in the
feminine fratche.
[73.] Beau 'beautiful,' nouveau 'new, different,' fou 'fool-
ish,' mou ( soft,' vfeux ' old,' retain in the singular, when placed
before a noun beginning with a vowel or h 'mute,' their older
masculine forms bel (also used in bel et bon) , nouvel, fol, mol,
vieil (the last optionally). Their feminine, singular or plural,
is always made from this latter form by doubling I before e.
Hence we have :
Sing. Plur.
m. beau or (+ vow. or k \ mute ') bel beaux ) beautiful
f. belle belles )
73-75.] ADJECTIVES. 41
nouveaux )
>■ new
nouvelles )
m.
nouveau or nouvel
f.
nouvelle
m.
fou or fol
f.
folk
in.
mou or mol
f.
molle
m.
vieux or vieil
f.
vieille
Ms ,
folles
mous |
7J Y soft
molles
i
!
!
vieux UM
vieilles
Ex. wi 6eZ ar&re 'a beautiful tree,' un beau palais .
40 quarante 92 quatre-vingt-douze
50 cinquante 100 cen£ -i
60 soixante (x = ss) 101 cen£ tm >■ (< mute)
70 soixante-dix (-x = -ss) 102 cen£ c/ewr J
71 soixante-onze (or soixante-et-onze) 200 rfewo: cerate
72 soixante-douze : etc. 210 deraa; ceni rf?>
80 quatre-vingts (gts silent) 1000 m&fa \
81 quatre-vingt-un \ (gt in y/ngtf 2000 c?e?/ar mt7/e > (/£ as in ' ill ')
82 quatre-vingt-deux ) silent) 1000000 un million )
89. The cardinals up to a million are all uninfected, except
that un 'one' has the feminine form une, and that multiples
of vingt i 20 ' (i.e. quatre-vingts) and cent ' 100 ' in their usual
collective sense have the plural sign -s when not followed by an
added number. — Ex. quatre-vingts ' 80 ' (lit. i four twenties '),
but quatre-vingt-deux ' 82 ' ; trois cents i 300/ but trois cent dix
<310.'
But compare Van trois cent 'the year 300' (trois cent denoting
a certain year, not a collective sum of years), page quatre-vingt
' page 80.'
Million, trillion, etc., are nouns. They take s in the plural, and are con-
strued with de : e.g. deux millions de livres ' 2,000,000 books/
Note. — Mille (m.) '1000' is mil (really the old sing, form) in dates of
the Christian era, if it is followed by another number. — Ex. mil deux
cent (also douze cent) quatorze ' 1214 ' ; but Van mille ' the year 1000/
90. Contrary to English usage, French employs cardinal
numbers from deux (inclusive) on — 1. to denote the day of
the month : e.g. le quatre mars l the fourth of March ' ; —
2. after names of sovereigns (where, however, second is also
used) : e.g. Henri quatre ' Henry IV,' Henri deux ' Henry II,'
Charles second * Charles II.'
Note 1. — In Charles- Quint 'Charles V (the emperor) and Sixte-Quini
1 Sixtus V ' (the pope), the Latin quintus survives.
46
SECOND PART.
[90-93.
Note 2. — In quoting chapter, page, etc., it is optional, as in English,
to use cardinals or ordinals, when the numeral follows its noun: e.g. chapi-
tre trois or troisieme 'chapter III ' (but only le troisieme chapitre).
91. ORDINALS. — Except for premier ' first ' and second
' second/ the ordinal numbers are made by suffixing -feme to
the cardinals, of which a final e is dropped. Cinq ' five ' forms
cinquie'me, neuf ' nine/ neuvieme ; and unidme, instead of pre-
mier, is used in ' 21st/ ' 31st/ etc.
1st
premier
16th
seizieme
2d
second (c = g), deuxieme (x =
: z) 17th
dix-septieme
3d
troisieme
18th
dix-huitieme
4th
quatrieme
19th
dix-neuvieme
5th
cinquieme
20th
vingtieme
6th
sixieme (x = ss)
21st
vingt (et) unieme
7th
septieme
22d
vingt-deuxieme : etc.
8th
huitieme
30th
trentieme
9th
neuvieme
40th
quarantieme
10th
dixieme (x = z)
50th
cinquantieme
11th
onzieme
60th
soixantieme
12th
douzieme
70th
soixante-dixieme
13th
treizieme
80th
quatre-vingtieme
14th
quaiorzieme
90th
quatre-vingt-dixieme
15th
quinzieme
100th
centieme: etc.
92. Ordinals are inflected in gender and number like com-
mon adjectives. — Ex. le premier, la premiere, les premiers
(m.) or premieres (f .) ' the first ' ; le or la sixieme, les sixi&mes
'the sixth.'
Note 1. — Deuxieme is optionally used instead of second when there are
more than two, and always in compounds (vingt-deuxieme etc.).
Note 2. — Tiers (f. tierce) '3d' and quart (f. quarts') '4th' are still at
times used as regular ordinals: e.g. une tierce personne 'a third person';
un quart voleur 'a fourth thief (La Font.).
Other Numerals (Nouns and Adjectives) :
93. Collectives. — These are usually formed by suffixing -aine to a
cardinal. — Ex. une hm'taine ' a number of eight, eight days/ une dizaine
03-96.] PRONOUNS. 47
' 10,' une douzaine ' a dozen/ etc. — Such forms often express an approxi-
mate number : une vingtaine, une centaine ' about 20, about 100.'
94. Fractionals. — Moitie, f., 'half (noun, and construed as such:
e.g. la moitie' du temps ' half of the time ') ; demi ' half ' (either invariable
and preceding its noun with a hyphen, or variable, f. demie, and following
its noun : e.g. une demi-heure 'a half -hour,' une heure et demie ' an hour and
a half); tiers (f. tierce) 'third,' quart 'quarter' (e.g. un quart d'heure
1 quarter of an hour ') ; — cinquieme ' fifth/ sixieme * sixth/ etc. , the
denominator being, as in English, an ordinal.
95. Multiplicatives. — Double ' double,' triple 4 treble/ quadruple ' four-
fold/ quintuple ' fivefold/ sextuple ' sixfold/ etc.
VII.
PK0N0UNS AND PK0N0MINAL ADJECTIVES.
[96. HISTORY. — A. General Reduction of Forms. A few pro-
nominals, retaining two or even three case-forms, have resisted better than
nouns and adjectives the analytic tendencies of the language ; but the
great majority have only one case and one or two genders. The personal
pronoun il, alone in the whole language, has retained as many as three
different case-forms (nom., ace, dat.) in singular and plural, masculine
and feminine (cf. 100). The personal pronouns je, tu, have two forms for
the same three cases, and the relative qui, two forms for two cases (nom.,
ace). All the remaining pronominals were reduced already in the 14th
century to one case-form for the singular as well as one for the plural,
that form usually representing, here as elsewhere, an original accusative.
The neuter gender is lost, and several pronominals, as mes, nos, ces, qui,
etc., have obliterated even the distinction between masculine and feminine.
B. Double Forms. A plurality of the French pronominals have two
different forms : an independent (and usually stronger) when they are used
so as to have the tone ; and a proclitic (usually weaker) when they sacri-
fice their tone in favor of the word they determine. Thus, Lat. ego gave
the proclitic form je (through eo, io, jo) and the independent form gie
(now replaced by its object-form moi) ; Lat. me, niiki (through mi-) gave
each the proclitic form me and the independent form moi (cf. 1, B) ; Lat.
meum gave the proclitic form mon and the independent mien (1, B) ; and so
on. This difference of form is the result chiefly (as in the examples quoted)
of a different treatment of accented and unaccented vowels, but also, in
part, of other causes.
48 SECOND PART. [96-98.
C. Derivation. With regard to derivation, it may be noted here that
the French pronominals for the most part come directly from Latin,
though exceptionally they arc the result of new formations, by com-
position, or by the pronominal use of a few nouns and adverbs. Thus,
to quote a few cases where the connection is not apparent at first sight :
je, moi (cf. above) ; lui is from a vulgar Latin dat. illui (proclitic accent
on -lui) ; it is a proclitic dat., and has also replaced the older independent
ace. el; leur is from illontm ; — ce, the adjective, is from eccistum (=ecce-
istum), later icest, rest, cet (the last form being yet regularly used before
vowels, and as basis of the feminine cette) ; ce, the neuter, is from eccehoc
(ico, ca, ce) ; — celui is from ecc'iUui (iceltti, eel id : but the fern, celle from
ecc'illam); — on is from homo; — Hen from rem (ace. of res) ; — / from
ibi ; — en from hide: etc.]
97. The French pronouns and pronominal adjectives, like
the English, are Personal (including Reflexive), Possessive,
Demonstrative, Interrogative, Relative, and Indefinite.
98. Most of the pronominal words have a double form
in French (as more exceptionally in English : cf. my, mine).
When they are closely combined with the word they determine,
they lose their accent-stress in favor of that word, and usually
receive a shorter or lighter form than when they are used more
independently, and as such have the tone. We then have :
a. A proclitic (usually called conjunctive, or adjective) form,
which is used when the pronominal is combined closely with a
verb or with a noun ; and
b. An independent (usually called disjunctive or pure pro-
noun) form, which is used when the pronominal is separated
from the verb or the noun it determines.
No name for the two classes of pronominal forms described above has
received sanction by uniform usage. The terminology adopted below
(conjunctive : disjunctive for the personal pronouns, and adjectives :
pronouns for the other pronominals), though in some respects open to
objection, is the terminology preferred by French grammarians.
[The author would, indeed, prefer the uniform use of proclitic : independ-
ent, but he has not ventured to adopt a terminology so much deviating
from common usage (cf., however, Lucking. Miitzner adopts conjunctive :
disjunctive throughout) .]
99, 100.]
PRONOUNS.
49
99. All monosyllabic pronominals in -e (except only the
demonstrative adjective ce: 107, a), and also la, drop their
vowel before a vowel-sound (e.g. fai for je ai, etc.), as already
described in 27, 27. 2.
Personal Proxotjns (Reflexive included).
1 00. The Personal Pronouns are either a. conjunctive or b.
disjunctive (98).
a. Conjunctive b. Disjunctive
[placed directly before (or after) the verb as [separated fr. the verb, save
unemphatic subject or object]: aspredic; emphatic]:
Nov.
' ■ "■
■
Pers.
Ace. Dat.
Kom.
Ace.
I
j e
I
me
me to me
moi
I me
PS
II
tu
thou
i
thee
e
to thee
to/
thou thee
1 *
7.
III m.
f.
m. f.
/'/
he (it)
le
him, it
lui
to him (it)
lui
he him
elle
she (it)
la
her (it)
lui
to her (it)
el
she
/a
her
se
refl. refl.
SO/' (or lui,
elle) refl.
I
we
nous
us to us
nous
we us
II
Illm.
f.
m. f.
you
VOUS
you to you
vous
you you
<
* <
Us
they (m.)
elles
they (f.)
les "
them
les
them „
leur
to them
eu
they (m.)
ell
they (f.)
tliem (m.)
es
them (f.)
se
refl. refl.
SO/ (eux,
elles) refl.
50 SECOND PART. [100-102.
Note 1. — As seen above, il, elle, ils, elles have each three different
case-forms, andje and tu two, while all the remaining pronouns have only
one. Identical forms may, however, represent different cases (e.g. nous
aimons ' w e love ' ; II nous aime ' He loves us'; II nous e'crit * He writes
to us'; — Je /ui parte ' I speak to him (or to her) '; Lui (note 3) lefera
' He will do it '; Qui aimez-vous? /.(// ' Whom do you love ? Him.' Je
parte de lui * I speak of him').
Note 2. — Vous 'you' may, precisely as in English, refer to one person
or several. Tu 'thou' is used between intimate friends and relatives (cf.
Syntax).
Note 3. — To render a conjunctive personal pronoun emphatic, the
disjunctive form is placed before it, or after the predicate : e.g. Mot, Je
Vaime or Je I'aime, moi ' I love him.' For the 3d person, the disjunctive
form alone is sometimes used: e.g. Lui te pense ' He thinks so.'
Note 4. — To a disjunctive pronoun is often appended the emphatic -meme
'self (107) : e.g. moi-meme 'myself/ vous-meme (or -memss) 'yourself (or
-selves).'
101. The Pronominal Particles en and /. — With
the conjunctive pronouns are also reckoned the particles en
(Lat. inde) i thereof = of it, of them' and / (Lat. ibi) 'to it,
to them/ which are used as a genitive and a dative case re-
spectively of the 3d person, in either gender or number, with
reference to things (exceptionally with reference to persons,
especially if understood in an indefinite sense ; or to personified
objects). — Ex.
II en park. He speaks of it.
Laissez ce livre (ces livres), Leave this book (these books),
fen ai besoin. I need it (them).
Voila du papier, prenez- There is paper, take some ( =
en. of it).
Vos raisons sont bonnes, je Your reasons are good, I yield
m'/ rends. to them.
Je my fie. I rely on it.
102. Position of the Conjunctive Pronoun.
A. Unlike English, French usually places the conjunctive
pronouns, whether construed as subjects or objects, immediately
102.]
PRONOUNS.
51
before the verb: e.g. je le vois 'I see him'; je vous le donne.
'I give it to you' ; je ne le vois pas 'I do not see him.'
In two constructions, especially, they follow the verb immedi-
ately, as in English, being then appended to it by a hyphen, viz.:
a. The subject-pronoun (je, tu, etc.) in interrogative clauses .
e.g. ai-je ? l have I ' ; Vavez-vous l have you it ? '
b. The object-pronoun (me, te, etc.) in affirmative im-
perative-clauses — me, te being then, however, changed to moi,
toi, except before en — ; e.g. donne-le ' give it ' (but ne le donne
pas 'give it not'); donnez-le-lui 'give it to him'; aimez-moi
'love me,' donnez-moi 'give me/ donnez-m'en 'give me some.'
B. Of several object-pronouns those of the 3d person come
nearest the verb (whether before or after). Of the latter, if
more than one occur, the order of sequence is 1. se, 2. le (la, les),
3. lui (leur). — Ex. il me le donne 'he gives it to me'; donnez-
le-moi; je le lui donne 'I give it to him' ; donnez-le-leur 'give
it to them' ; il se le promet 'he promises it to himself.'
The pronominal particles en, y always follow other conjunc-
tives : e.g. il m'en donne ' he gives me some ' ; donne-mJen ' give
me some ' ; il lui en donne ' he gives him some ' ; donne-leur en
'give them some.' — En follows y: envoyez-y-en 'send some there.'
Farther examples to 102 :
11 Paime.
Aimez-le (-la).
II me donne un livre.
Aimez-moi (ace).
Donnez-moi (dat.) un livre.
Ne Paimez pas.
Elle me Pa donne".
II le lui dira.
II vous en parle.
Donnez-le-moi, s'il vous
plait.
Envoyez-les-leur.
He loves him (her).
Love him (her).
He gives me a book.
Love me.
Give me a book.
Do not love him.
She has given it to me.
He will tell it to him (her).
He speaks to you of it.
Give it to me, if you please
(lit. if it pleases you).
Send them to them.
52 SECOND PART. [102-105.
II se lest promts. He has promised it to himself.
Je le lui ai donne". I have given it to him.
Je lui en parle. I am speaking to him about it.
II s'en amuse. He is amused at it.
Elle leur y en enverra. She will send them some there.
Dites-le-lui. Tell it to him.
Donnez-m'en (nous en) Give me some (us some).
Conduisez-nous-y. Take us there (or to it).
Je vousy en enverrai. I will send you some there.
For farther details, see Syntax, 254-6.
103. The Reflexive Expression. — French differs in its
reflexive expression from English, the general principle being
as follows :
[104.] Preceded by no Preposition, the unemphatic re-
flexive for the 1st and 2d person is simply the object-form of
the conjunctive personal pronoun (me ( me' = ( myself ' : ace.
or dat. ; te, nous, vous), while for the 3d person se is used for
sing, or plur. ('himself, herself, themselves ' : ace. or dat.). —
Ex. Je me loue < I praise myself (lit. me).' 77 (elle) se loue 'He
(she) praises himself (herself).'
If the reflexive is emphatic (as in 'He praises himself!'),
the pronoun is repeated after the verb in its disjunctive form,
usually (though not necessarily) strengthened by an added
-mime. — Ex. Je me loue moi-meme i I praise myself ? (lit. ' I
praise me myself). II se parle a lui -memo 'He speaks to
himself ' (a lui-m&me because se is in the dat. ; about lui for soi
cf. note, 105).
[105.] Preceded by a preposition, the reflexive is the dis-
junctive form alone, usually (though not necessarily) strength-
ened by -meme. — Ex. Je pense a moi-meme * I think of myself/
Nous parlous de nous-memes ' We speak of ourselves/
Note. — Soi (soi-m&me) is rarely used except in the singular, and in
general statements. In other eases the personal object-forms lui, elle,
eux, el/es are preferred. — Ex. Chacun pense a soi (or soi-meme) ' Every-
105, 106.]
PRONOUNS.
53
body thinks of himself.' La vertu est aimable en so/ * Virtue is lovable in
itself.' On doit rareiaent purler de so/' ' One ought seldom to speak of him-
self.' — But: Les yuerres entrainent des maux avec el les ' Wars bring evils
with them.' 1/ (elle) ne somje qua lui (e//e) -meme ' He (she) thinks only of
himself (herself).'
POSSESSIVES.
1 06. — The Possessives are either a. adjectives or b. pronouns
(ef. 98).
a. Adjectives b. Pronouns
(combined with a noun) : (construed as nouns) :
Numb.
Masc.
Fbm.
Masc.
Fbm.
3
CO
CO
Sing.
PL
mon
id
ma (or mon)
es
\*
le mien
les miens
la mienne ) =.
lesmiennes ] %
CO
O
Sing.
PL
ton ta (or ton)
tes
\ <<
le tien
les tiens
la tienne ) Er
les tiennes ) g
O
Sing.
PL
son
Si
sa (or son)
>s
If
le si en
les siens
i • I- 5
/a sienne 1 »
Zes siennes [J
X
©
CO
CO
Sing.
PL
"""•"[■our
nos )
le notre
les i
Za ft(5Zre ) o
CO
CO
O
2h -
A
<
Sing.
PL
votre )
y your
VOS ) J
le votre | la vdtre ) g
les vdtres j g
M
M
'A
Sing.
PL
' eur I their
leurs )
le leur \ la leur ) ir
les leurs I 8"
' CO
Note 1. — The adjective feminine-forms mon, ton, sow are
used before a vowel or /* ' mute ' : — Ex. mon dme (f .) ' my soul ' ;
mon Yristoire (f.) ' my history.'
[Afa, ta, sa are the regular feminine forms^and were formerly, like the
definite article la, abbreviated to m\ t', s' before a vowel-sound, a con-
54
SECOND PART.
[106, 107.
struction which has survived in the expressions m' am our, iriamie (also,
incorrectly, ma mie), and tante (for t'ante?). The anomalous feminine
forms mon, ton, son, introduced in the 12th century, became regular in
the 14th.]
Note 2. — When the pronoun-forms are preceded by de or d,,
the usual contractions, according to 41, take place. — Ex. du
mien (for de le mien), au mien (for & le mien), etc.
Note 3. — Two possessive adjectives cannot determine one noun. Thus,
instead of Mon et tonfrere, we must say mon fr ere et le tien 'my brother and
thine.'
Demonstratives.
107. The Demonstratives are either a. adjectives or b. pro-
nouns (cf. 98).
a. Adjectives b. Pronouns
(combined with a noun) : (construed as nouns) :
Num.
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
Sing.
PL
ce (cet) this, that
cette
celui this, that (one)
ceux these, those
celle
celles
these, those
(ones)
Note. — To the noun deter-
Note. — Except when fol-
mined by this pronoun may
lowed by a relative pr. or de,
be suffixed -ci 'here' or -Pa
these pronouns regularly take
' there ' to denote nearness
the suffix -ci ' here ' or -fa
or remoteness. — Ex. ce vin-ci
1 there,' denoting nearness or
'this wine/ cette fille -la 'that
remoteness. — Ex. Ceux-ci sotit
Sing.
girl.'
bons ' these are good.'
neut. ce this, that, it
Sing.
PL
(comp. ceci, cela or ca :
cf. note 2)
m \ me X same, self (cf. note 4)
§ memes ) v J
107, 108.]
PKONOUNS.
55
Note 1. — The adjective masculine form ce is used before
consonants, and cet (the more original form : cf. 96, C) before
vowels and h ' mute.' The plural (ces) comes from ce and the
feminine (cette) from cet. Cf. 73. — Ex. ce garcon 'this boy' ;
cet enfant ' this child/ cet homme ' this man ' ; ces garcons (or
Jilles) ' these boys (or girls) ' ; cet t e Jille ' this girl.'
Note 2. — The pronoun-form ce (alone; or compounded with -a ' here '
and -la 'there' to cecr, ce/a or by contraction ca), refers to an unnamed
object or to a sentence, expressed or understood. — Ex. Ce qu'il dit est vral
* What (That which) he says is true.' C'est bon ' That is good ' (viz. some-
thing already spoken of, or pointed to). Voulez-vous ceci ou ce/a? * Do you
wish this or that ? Cela (or Ca) veut dire . . . ' That means . . .'
Note 3. — Meme (rn ernes), masc. or fern., is either a pronominal adjec-
tive, being placed before its noun in the sense of ' same ' or after it in
sense of ' self-same, very ' : e.g. le meme homme * the same man ' ; ses gestes
memes 'his very gestures '; — or it is a pure pronoun, being used independ-
ently in the sense of 'same/ or suffixed to a disjunctive personal pronoun
in sense of ' -self, -selves ' : e.g. son livre est le meme ' his book is the same ' ;
il s'aime lui-meme ' he loves himself.'
In sense of ' even,' rrteme is an adverb, and invariable.
Note 4. — The definite article in its original use as a determinative is
sometimes met with. — Ex. N'agis pas de lasorte' Do not act in that manner.'
Interrogatives.
1 08. The Interrogatives are either a. pronominal adjectives
or b. pure pronouns (cf. 98).
Numb.
a. Adjectives
(combined with a noun)
b. Pronouns
(construed as nouns) :
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
Sing.
PI.
Referring to persons or
things :
quel ) who?
V iets ) what?
quelle
quelles
a. Referring to persons or
things :
lequel which one ? I laquelle
lesquels which ones ? | lesquelles
56
SECOND PART.
[108, 100.
b. Referring to persons alone :
Sg. and pi. qui wio (Ace. whom)'
c. Referring to things alone :
Conjunctive (cf. 100) que )
Disjunctive quo/ )
Note 1. — In lequel, etc., le is nothing bnt the definite arti-
cle, and it is contracted in the usual way (21) with a preceding
de or & Hence de lequel = duquel, h lequel = auquel, de lesquels
= desquels, etc.
Note 2. — The interrogative qui is singular or plural, nom-
inative (' who ') or accusative (' whom ').
Note 3. — Que and quoi supplement one another as conjunctive and
disjunctive forms (cf. 100). Que occurs in the nominative only after verbs
of condition (etre,devenir, etc.). Quoi is used after prepositions and abso-
lutely (without verb) in exclamation and interrogation. — Ex. Qu'est-ce?
'What is it?' Que dit-il? 'What does he say?' De quoi parlez-rous?
1 Of what do you speak ? ' Quoi ! e What ! '
Note 4. — About the use of oh as a pronoun, cf. 111.
Relatives.
1 09. The Relatives are all
Pronouns
(following the word or words referred to) :
Masc.
Fem.
Sing, and pi.
Sing.
PL
Sing.
Nom. qui
(Ace. que ; after preposition qui) I who, which,
lequel
lesquels
laquelle
lesquelles
that
(Neut.) quoi ' what,' disj. (i.e. after preposit'n)
Exceptionally lequel {laquelle, etc.) is used adjectively before a noun.
110, 111.] PRONOUNS. 57
110. The relatives qui, lequel differ from the interrogative
in the following respects :
Qui : a. It has the direct object-form que (except when used
absolutely without reference to any preceding word, as in Qui
faime,je Vaime bien ' Whom I love, I love well '). — b. It may
be used for both persons or things, except after prepositions,
where, like the interrogative, it can refer only to persons.
Lequel l which,' less often ' who,' is rarely used except after
prepositions, or for purposes of more specific distinction of gen-
der or number in case of doubtful reference (276. a) .
111. The Pronominal Particles dont and oil. — Dont
(Lat. de-unde) ' whence ' is often used for de with a relative in
sense of ' of (from) which, of whom, whose ' ; and ou (Lat. ubi)
is generally used for a (or dans') and a relative or interrogative
with reference to place or time, in sense of < where, when, to
which.' — Ex. TJliomme dont (= de qui) vous parlez est mort
'The man of whom you speak is dead.' La maison ou (= dans
laquelle) je loge ' The house where (in which) I live.'
Note 1. — ' Whose ' (< of which ') is rendered by dont, or,
after a preposition, by duquel (de laquelle, etc.). The con-
struction of the sentence is in both cases the same as if ■ of
whom ' (etc.) were used in English, observing that dont must
head the relative clause. — Ex. Le jils dont le pdre est malade
1 The son whose father is sick/ Uhomme avec le Jils duquel
vous 6tes arrive ' The man with whose son you have arrived.'
Note 2. — D'oh means 'whence' and par ou 'by which, where.'
58
SECOND PART.
[112.
Indefinites.
112. The Indefinites are of three kinds, viz. : —
a. Adjectives
(combined with a noun) :
b. Pronoims
(construed as nouns) :
Masc. and Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
S. chaque
S. chacun
chacune
each, every
each, every (one)
S. que/que
S. quelquun
quelqu'une
some
somebody, anybody
PI. quelques
PI. quelques-uns
quelques-unes
some, or a few
some
S. que/que chose
something
S. quelconque
S. qui, qu icon que
(after its noun)
whoever
whatever
PI. quelconques
S. on (Von) one, people
S. autrui (m.) others
S. personne (m.) anybody (indefinite);
nobody, us'ly with ne
S. Hen (m.) anything; nothing,
us'ly with ne
S. I'un P autre
Vune V autre 1 S-
PI. les uns les autres
les unes les autres \ 1
J 5
112.] PRONOUNS. 59
c. Adjectives or Pronouns.
m. nul, f. nulle (rarely pi.) no, none : us'ly with ne
m. aucun. f. aucune (rarely pi.) any one (with ref. to a
distinct noun) ; no, nobody, none, usually with ne
S. m. tout, f. toute every, all, everything
PL m. tous, f . toutes all
S. m. tel, f . telle j guch ^ guch , .
PI. m. tete, f. te», -re, or -oir.
Verbs in -er (amounting to about 6500 out of the whole number of about
7500 French verbs) included at first only Latin verbs in -are. Later,
however, many Latin verbs in -ere and -ere, and a number of Germanic,
and of new-created verbs, have been added to the -er class. All, except
aller, envoyer, follow one model of conjugation.
Verbs in -ir (amounting to more than 600) consist of Lat. verbs in -ire,
and also, by transfer, of several Latin verbs in -ere, -£re, -esce"re, (-isce*re),
as well as of Germanic, and new-created verbs. In their inflection most of
them have been greatly influenced by the verbs in -escere (-iscere). The
inchoative syllable -esc- (-isc-) of these verbs, in French changed to is(s),
has entered into the present-forms (the infinitive excepted) and the imper-
fect indicative of the great majority of the ?V- verbs (only 24 simple verbs
having resisted its intercalation): e.g. Lat. Jlorescimus: Fr. fleurissons ;
but also Lat. Jinimus : Jinissons ; Lat. dgimus : Fr. ag/'ssons, etc. The in-
choative syllable (no longer imparting an inchoative sense) is iss whenever
followed by a vowel, otherwise i(s) : hence jloresco : jieuris ; florescit :
Jieurit; ago: ag-is, etc.
Verbs in -re (amounting to about 325) come from Latin verbs in -ire or
-ere. About two-thirds of these follow one model of conjugation.
Verbs in -oir (55) come from Latin verbs in -ere or -ere. All the primary
verbs in -oir differ more or less in their mode of conjugation.]
114. With regard to their use, French verbs, like English,
are either Transitive (' going over ' to, affecting some object :
i.e.) having a direct object, or Intransitive, accompanied by
no direct object. In special uses these verbs may be either
Reflexive, having a reflexive pronoun as their (direct or indi-
rect) object, or Impersonal, having the indefinite (< non-per-
sonal ? ) il 'it* for their subject. #
115-118.] VERBS. 63
1 15. The conjugation of a verb involves, as in English, a
distinction of Voice, Mood, Tense, Number and Person.
For their form and meaning the student is referred directly
to the paradigms below.
116. Classification of French Verbs. — The classifi-
cation of verbs for practical purposes means nothing more
or less than their arrangement in such a manner as to be most
easily learned. This is accomplished by so grouping that the
greatest number possible may be conjugated by the aid of as
few type-verbs as practicable, each representing a regular con-
jugation, while the remaining verbs as irregular are treated by
themselves.
Note 1. — The same principle of classification to some extent may be
applied also to the irregular verbs. Thus, as will be seen, 30 verbs in
-indre, 4 in -oir, and so on, are all conjugated precisely alike, though
treated as irregular.
[Note 2. — Verbs that are regular or irregular according to the actual
state of the language may from an historical point of view be the very
opposite. Many regular verbs have in fact deviated from their old conjuga-
tion, while many irregular verbs have adhered to it. The actual and the
historical point of view should not be confused.
A good historical classification of the French verbs, based on their
own vitality as models, not on their adherence to old models (cf. 113, B),
and adopted in recent historical grammars (Brunot, Cledat, etc.), is that
of A. The Living Conjugation ("la conjugaison vivante"), including -er
and root-extending -ir verbs (110, a), and B. The Dead Conjugation
("la conjugaison morte"), including -re, -oir, and radical -ir verbs. — The
practical classification followed below (nearly coinciding with the above
historical) is that adopted by Matzner and some other recent authorities.]
117. The French verbs are most conveniently classified,
according to the termination of their infinitives as follows :
[118.] 1st or er-Class, comprising all verbs — about 6500
out of the 7500 in the language — whose infinitive ends in
-er : e.g. aim-er ' love.'
Irregular. Only two verbs of this class (aller 'go,' envoyer 'send ') are
irregular.
64 SECOND PART. [119-122.
[119.] lid or/>-Class, comprising all verbs — more than 600
— whose infinitive ends in -ir : e.g. fin-ir ' finish.' These verbs
are of two distinct sorts, viz. :
a. Regular or Root-extending ir-verbs, which all — about 550
- — in their present forms (the subjunctive and imperative in-
cluded, but the infinitive excepted) and in their imperfect indic-
ative extend the root by adding to it the syllable iss or is (of
inchoative origin, cf. 113, B) : e.g. Jin-is(s)- instead of simply Jin-.
b. Irregular or Radical ir-verbs, whose root-form is never extended.
Nearly 90 verbs (only 24 simple) belong to this division. Being divided,
in their turn, into several discordant groups (cf. 159, 160), they are all
classified as irregular.
[120.] Hid or re-Class, comprising all verbs — about 325 —
whose infinitive ends in -re : e.g. romp-re i break.'
Irregular. About a third of these verbs (36 simple) deviate more or less
from the model verb, and are, in their turn, subdivided into discordant
groups (cf. 159 d, 160).
[121.] IV th or o/r-Class, comprising all verbs — about 55 —
whose infinitive ends in -oir : e.g. recevoir ' receive.' As all
the primary verbs of this class have some peculiarity of their
own, the whole class is treated as irregular (cf. 160, d).
Note. — In some grammars, especially French, verbs in -oir are classified
as forming the III d regular conjugation (those in -re then forming the
IV th). Its model verb is recevoir 'receive,' a compound of re- and the
primary verb -cevoir (Lat. capere), which is not in use alone: cf. 161.
Becevoir, however, serves as a perfect model only for other compounds of
-cevoir (4), and in the main for devoir.
The regular and irregular verbs will be described separately
below.
Kegular Verbs.
122. Simple Verb-forms. — The simple verb-forms (i.e.
those made without the aid of independent auxiliaries, as in
English love, loved) are made by adding to different stems of
the verb certain endings. These endings (in the paradigms
below marked by heavy type) are with few exceptions iden-
tical for all verbs.
123.]
VERBS.
65
1 23. As model-verbs for the three regular verb-classes may
serve : I. aim-er * love 7 ; II. fin-ir ' finish ' ; III. romp-re ' break.'
Verbs of the I and III conjugation have two stems : one the
radical [aim-, romp-'], and the other the infinitive [aim-er-,
romp-r- (or romp-re-)]. Those of the II have, besides, one in
4s(s) [fin-, fin-ir-, fin-is(s)-].
INDICATIVE
Present
s.
1.
faim-e
je Jin-is l
je romp-s
I love (am loving,
I finish, etc.
I break, etc.
do love)
2.
tu aim-es
tu Jin-is
tu romp-s
3.
il aim-e
iljin-i-t
il romp-t 2
PI
.1.
nous aim-ons
nousjin-iss-ons
nous romp-ons
2.
vous aim-ez
vous Jin-iss-ez
vous romp-ez
3.
Us aim-ent
Us Jin-iss-ent
Us romp-en t
. Imperfect (Passe Descriptif)
s.
1.
faim-ais 3
je Jin-iss-ais
je romp-ais
I loved (was loving,
I finished, etc.
I broke, etc.
did love)
2.
tu aim-ais
tu Jin-iss-ais
tu romp-ais
3.
il aim-ait
il Jin-iss-ait
il romp-ait
PJ
.1.
nous aim-ions
nous Jin-iss-ions
nous romp-ions
2.
vous aim-iez
vous Jin-iss-iez
vous romp-iez
3.
Us aim-aient
Us Jin-iss-aient
Us romp-aient
Preterit (Pass4 Narratif)
8,
1.
faim-ai s
je Jin-is 1
je romp-is
I loved
I finished
I broke
1 For the different origin of the Pres. and the Pret. Jinis, cf. 113, B.
2 This t is always dropped after c, d, t (i.e. in nearly all verbs of
III conjugation), as it vend (from vend-re 'sell') etc.
3 In verbs ai not final pronounced as e, but final as € (cf. 15).
66
SECOND PART.
[123.
2.
tu aim-as
tufin-is
tu romp-is
3.
il aim-a
il Jin-it
il romp-it
PI
. 1.
nous aim-dmes
nous Jin- /me s
nous romp-'imes
2.
vous aim-dtes
vous fin-Hes
vous romp-Hes
3.
Us aim-erent
ilsfin-irent
Future
Us romp-irent
s.
1.
faim-er-ai l
jefin-ir-ai
je romp-r-ai
I shall (will) love
I shall (will) finish I shall (will) break
2.
tu aim-er-as
tu fin-ir-as
tu romp-r-as
3.
il aim-er-a
ilfin-ir-a
il romp-r-a «
Pl.l.
nous aim-er-ons
nous fin-ir-ons
nous romp-r-ons
2.
vous aim-er-ez
vous fin-ir-ez
vous romp-r-ez
3.
Us aim-er-ont
Us fin-ir-ont
Conditional
Us romp-r-ont
s.
1.
faim-er-ai s l
je fin-ir-ais
je romp-r-ais
I should (would) love I should (etc.) finish I should (etc.) break
2.
tu aim-er-ais
tufin-ir-ais
tu romp-r-ais
3.
il aim-er-ait
ilfin-ir-ait
il romp-r-ait
P1.1.
nous aim-er-ions
nous fin-ir-ions
nous romp-r-ions
2.
vous aim-er-iez
vous fin-ir-iez
vous romp-r-iez
3.
Us aim-er-a ient
Us fin-ir-aient
SUBJUNCTIVE 2
Present
Us romp-r-aient
s.
1.
falm-e
je fin-iss-e 3
je romp-e
I love (may, shall
I finished (etc.)
I break (etc.)
love, etc.)
2.
tu aim-es
tu fin-iss-es
tu romp-es
3.
il aim-e
il fin-iss-e
il romp-e
1 Cf.'foot-note 3 of page preceding.
2 The subjunctive, generally dependent on some preceding expression,
is variously rendered according to the varied sense of that expression (cf.
256, etc.).
8 For the different origin of the Pres. and Impf. jinisse (cf. 113, B).
123, 124.]
VERBS.
67
PI. 1. nous aim-ions
2. vous aim-iez
3. Us aim-ent
S. 1. faim-asse
I loved (might,
should love) J
2. tu aim-asses
3. il aim-at
PI. 1. nous aim-assions
2. vous aim-as siez
3. Us aim-assent
nous Jin~iss-fons
vous Jin-iss-iez
Us Jin-iss-ent
Imperfect
je jin-isse 2
I finished (etc.)
tu fin-isses
il fin-It
nous fin-issions
vousfin-issiez
Us jin-isse nt
Imperative {Present)
S. 2. aim-e love ! fin-is finish !
PI. 1. aim-ons let us love ! fin-iss-ons
2. aim-e z love ! fin-iss-ez
Infinitive {Present)
aim-er (to) love fin-ir finish
nous romp-ions
vous romp-iez
Us romp-ent
je romp-isse
I broke (etc.)
tu romp-isses
il romp-It
nous romp-issions
vous romp-issiez
Us romp-issent
romp-S break!
romp-ons
romp-ez
romp-re break
PARTICIPLES
Present
aim-ant loving fin-iss-ant finishing romp-ant breaking
Past
aim-4 loved fin-i finished romp-u broken
124. The circumflex which occurs in the 1st and 2d pi. preterit and 3d
sing, imperfect subj. of all French verbs denotes the loss of an Old French s.
Thus, aimdmes is for amasmes (for amames — Lat. amavimus : s intercalated
through the influence of the 2d pi.) ; aimdtes is for amastes (Lat. amavis-
tis) ; and aimdt is for amast (L. amasset).
i See foot-note 1, p. 66.
2 See foot-note 2, p. 66.
68 SECOND PART. [125-129.
125. Phonetic and Orthographic Changes. — The
following changes affecting the sound itself, or simply the
manner of denoting it in writing, are to be observed, viz. : —
[126.] £ mute and e are before a syllable containing an e
mute made open (= £, or e with a following I and t doubled),
according to 35, which see. — Ex. mener 'lead' : pr. je inene,
tu menes, il mene; nous menons, vous menez, Us menent. fat.
je mener ai, tu meneras, etc. — ceder ' yield': pr. je cede, tu
cedes, etc. ; fut. je cederai (4, 35), etc. — appeler 'call' : pr.
fappel/e, tu appelles, il appelle; nous appelons, vous appelez,
Us appellent; fut. j'appellerai. jeter ' throw': pr. je jette;
fut. je jetterai.
Note. — Of verbs in -eler and -eter some double I and t, some take e, or
both methods of expressing an open e are used for the same verb. Thus,
out of 90 simple verbs, 48 double / and t before the mute syllable, and of
the remainder, 16 (note especially celer ' hide/ geler * freeze/ peler ' peel/
harceler 'harass'; acheter 'buy,'' haleter 'pant') change e to e, while 20
others (bosseler, becqueter, etc.) do so in the present, but not in the future
and conditional.
[The doubling of / and t is originally due to the existence of a double
consonant in Latin (cf . apellare, jactare), though this etymological prin-
ciple is now disturbed in several cases.]
[127.] Imperatives in -e (as well as the irregular va ' go ! ') are extended
by an s before an appended objective particle en or?/ (cf. 27, note
5. b). — Ex. Donnes-en a Jean 'Give some to John.' Donnes-y tes soins
' Give thy attention to it.' But Envoie en^chercher ' Send to find some.'
Va en (prep.) France 'Go to France.'
[As noted, p. 113, this s, which is regular in the 2d Imperative of re-
verbs, has been added, in either case, in false analogy with the 2d sing, of
the present indicative. — The s of a'r-verbs belongs to the inchoative stem.]
[128.] In future and conditional, e of -erai(s) is sometimes, though
rarely, dropped if preceded by a vowel, which then takes the circumflex :
thus, louerai or (chiefly in poetry) lourai.
[129.] a. Verbs in -cer and -ger change c and g to c and ge
respectively wherever they would otherwise be hard (i.e. before
a, ai, o). — Ex. menacer ' threaten': menacons; menacais,
etc. j manger ' eat ' : mangeons ; mangeais, etc.
129-135.] VERBS. 69
b. Verbs in -guer and -guer retain gu and qu even before a, o, u. —
Ex. fatiguer * tire ' : fatiguais ; manquer * fail ' : manquais.
[130.] In vaincre the &-sound is written with qu before any vowel ex-
cept m. — Ex. vainquant, vainquis, but vaincu.
[131.] The semivowel y of an infinitive in -yer is usually changed to i
before e mute, this change being optional, however, after a and e. — Ex.
noyer ' drown ' : pr. no/'e; payer * pay ' : pr. pa/'e or (less commonly) paye.
132. Minor Irregularities. — The following verbs being
almost regular (two of them entirely so in their usual sense)
are conveniently described here :
[133.] Conjugation II : —
1. Benir ' bless ' is in the past participle regularly be'ni, or irregularly benit
in the sense of ' consecrated/
2. Fleurir ' blossom ' changes its root (Jleur-) to j\ 'or- in the present par-
ticiple and imperfect indicative (florissant, florissais, etc.), if used
figuratively in the sense of ' flourish.'
3. Hair 'hate' drops its diaeresis (6) in the singular of the
present indicative and imperative (pr. ind. je ha/'s, tu hais,
ilhait; nous ha'issons, etc.; — impv. hais, hctissons, etc.).
[134.] Conjugation III : —
The personal ending t of the 3d sing, present indicative is
dropped after a radical c (in vaincre), d (occurring in most
verbs of this conjugation), and t; and a radical tt is in the
singular of the present indicative and imperative reduced to t.
— Ex.
1. vaincre 'conquer': ind. pr. je vaincs, tu vaincs, il vainc, etc., observing
everywhere that c becomes qu before any vowel, except u (130) :
vainquons, vainquez, vainquent ; but vaincu: (cf. 161, list).
2. vendre 'sell' : ind. pr.je vends, tu vends, il vend, etc.
3. battre ' strike ' : je bats, tu bats, il bat ; nous battons, etc.
135. PRINCIPAL PARTS. — The Infinitive, Present Participle,
Past Participle, Present Indicative, and Preterit are called the
principal parts of a verb, because they may serve as key-
70 SECOND PART. [135-137.
forms, by the aid of which all other regular forms of a verb
can be made out.
The method of such derivation is illustrated below by giving
the principal parts of aimer and the forms made by their aid :
Princ. Parts: Derived Forms:
1 Inf aimer • i ^ ut * f a,mer ~^ (i- e - a( ^^ _cw after r).
\ cond. faimer-a,is (i.e. add -ais after r).
2. Pr. part, aim-ant : $ P r - sub J-/«""- e (i.e. substitute -e for -ant).
I impf. ind. /a/'/w-ais (i.e. sub. -ais for -ant).
3. Past part, a/ me : compound tenses , fai aime, etc.
4. Pr. ind. fa/me ) • , .-, , , , £ _. N
n J __ - imp ? ve aime throughout (ci. note 1).
(cf. note 1) : ) l h k )
5. Pret. ind. faimai: I im ^' Sub ^ f aima ^ $*• add +* to the
( stem : cf. note 2).
Note 1. — As is already seen, the pi. of present ind. of /r-verbs is itself
irregular, being virtually formed from the same stem as the present part,
(pr. part, finiss-ant : pr. ind. pi. finiss-ons, etc.). — It is, indeed, helpful
always to consider the pr. part, as the basis of the plural of the pres.
ind. and imperat. in both regular and irregular verbs.
Note 2. — The -sse of the impf. subj. is added to the pret. stems aima-,
Jim'-, rompi- (i.e. the pret. without its last letter).
136. Impersonal Verbs. — The impersonal verbs are, in French as in
English, used only in the od person singular with the impersonal subject
il ' it.' Among the more common may be noted here : .il neige ' it snows,'
il gele 'it freezes,' il pleut (irreg.) 'it rains'; il faut (irreg.) 'it is neces-
sary/ il importe ' it is of importance ' ; il semble ' it appears ' ; ilfait (irreg.)
' it is ' (lit. ' it makes ' such and such weather) ; il y a ' there is ' : etc.
137. Compound Verb-forms (= Verb -Phrases). — By-
using the auxiliary verb avoir ' have J or &tre ' be/ conjugated
as usual, before the past participle of a verb, the compound
active and all the passive forms are made. To describe these,
we must therefore anticipate here the conjugation of two aux-
iliaries, which properly belong to the irregular verbs.
lO/.J
VJii±t±i».
• i
Avoir have
£tfre be
INDICATIVE
Present
Sing.
1. fat 1
Je s?«s
I have (am
having,
I am
do have)
2. tu as
tu es
3. il a
il est
PL
1. nous avons
nous sommes
2. vous avez
vous ites
3. Us ont
Imperfect
Us sont
Sing.
1. f avals 1
fe"tais l
I had (was
having)
I was
2. £?t avais
tu kais
3. *7 aiwY
il Hait
PI.
1. nous avions
nous 4tions
2. voits avie2
vous Hiez
y>. Us avaient
Preterit
Us Uaient
Sing.
1. /ews (pr./u:
15, under eu)
jefus
I had
I was, I became
2. fat eus
tu fus
3. i7 ew£
ilfut
PL
1. nous eumes
nous fumes
2. vows efttes
vous futes
3. ilseurent
Future
Us furent
Sing.
1. faurai 1
je serai l
I shall (will) have
I shall (will) be
2. £w auras
tu seras
3. i7 a?*ra
il sera
1 In verbs -ai final pronounced as <*", but not final as e (cf. 15).
n
SECOND PART.
[137
PL
1.
nous aurons
nous serons
2.
3.
vous aurez
Us auront
vous serez
Us seront
Sing.
1.
2.
3.
Conditional
faurais l
I should (would) have
tu aurais
il aurait
je serais x
I should (would) be
tu serais
il serait
PL
1.
nous aurions
nous serious
2.
3.
vous auriez
Us auraient
SUBJUNCTIVE
vous seriez
Us seraient
Sing.
1.
2.
3.
Present
faie 1
I have (may or
shall have)
tu aies
il ait
je sois
I be (am, may or
shall be), etc.
tu sois
il soit
PL
1.
2.
3.
nous ayons
vous ayez
Us aient
nous soyons
vous soyez
Us soient
Sing.
•
1.
2.
3.
Imperfect
feusse
I had (might, should
have)
tu eusses
il eut
je fusse
I were (was, etc.)
tu fusses
ilfut
PL
1.
nous eussions
nous fissions
2.
3.
vous eussiez
Us eussent
vous fussiez
Us fussent
1 Cf. foot-note, p. 71.
137-139.]
VERBS.
73
IMPERATIVE
Present
Sing. 2. aie have !
PI. 1. ayons let us have !
2. ayez have !
sois be !
soyons let us be !
soyez be !
INFINITIVE
Present
avoir (to) have tore (to) be
PARTICIPLES
Present
ayant having 4tant being
Past
eu (pr. «) had 4t4 been
[138. HISTORY. — Avoir is from Latin habere, whose h is lost through-
out, and whose b is changed to v (in fat. and cond. vocalized to u), or
lost. The future and conditional are, as usual, made from the infinitive
(Old French aver- = av'r-, aur-), and the present or imperfect (-at, -ais).
Etre has its forms from at least three different verbs : esse (vulg. Lat.
essere = Fr. estre, etre) ' be/ stare (Old Fr. ester) ' stand,' and fui * was.'
The derivation of etre from essere, suis etc. from sum (vulg. Lat. sui in
analogy with fui) etc., and of fits, fusse from fui,fuissem is clear. As for
the other forms scholars are not quite agreed : probably e'tant, e'te from
stant-em, sta-tum ; e'tais from the radical est-; and possibly serai, as in
Spanish, from sedere ' sit ' {seder-, ser-) + ai (since essere, estre gave the
old form estr-ai),
139. The Compound Active Tenses are formed in
French, on the same principles as in English, by the aid of
an auxiliary, avoir ' have,' and the past participle (about which
cf. 141) of the main verb. — Thus, the compound tenses of
aimer are :
74 SECOND PART. [139,140.
INDICATIVE
Comp. Present Comp. Preterit
fat aime" I have loved f eus aime ' l had loved
tu as aime" thou hast loved „ ^ .
Comp. Future
etc.
J aurai aime I shall have loved
Comp. Imperfect Comp , Conditional
f avals aime 1 1 had loved faurais aime I should have loved
and so on.
140. The Passive Voice. — The passive tenses are also
formed, as in English, by the aid of an auxiliary, etre 'be,'
and the past participle (about which cf. 141) of the main verb.
Each tense is termed like the corresponding tense of Ure.
The compound passive tenses are, as also in English, made
by the compound active forms of Ure (fai 6te, etc.) and the
past participle of the main verb.
Thus, the passive of aimer is :
INDICATIVE
Present
Simple Passive Tenses: Compound Passive Tenses:
je suis aime" ' I am loved ' fai 6t6 aime" ' I have been loved '
tu es aime" ' thou art loved ' tu as He 1 aime" ' thou hast been loved '
etc. etc.
IMPERFECT
fkais aime" ' I was loved ' f avals Me" aime 1 ' I had been loved '
PRETERIT
jefus aitni ( I was loved' feus &£ aime 1 ' 1 had been loved '
etc. etc.
141, 142.] VERBS. 75
141. The past participle (aim4, etc.) is in compound verb-
forms changeable or unchangeable. The general principle is
that it agrees in gender and number with the word it qualities,
provided that word is already mentioned. Hence
we have the following definite rule :
a. In active construction, the past participle agrees with
a preceding (not a following) direct object : e.g. je /'ai (V for le
or la) aim4 or aimee ' I have loved him (or her) ' ; je /es (m.
or f.) ai aimes or aimfes ' I have loved them.'
b. In passive construction it agrees with the subject, even
when by inversion (except after the impersonal il) it follows
the participle : e.g. elle est aimfo ' she is loved ' ; Us (elles) sont
dime's or aimees ' they are loved ' ; que b4nie soit Id main qui
m'a sauv£ ! ' blessed be the hand that has saved me!'; but, il a
6te" fait une emplette (= une emplette d 6t6 faite) 'a purchase has
been made.'
Where in active construction there is no preceding object, the past
participle remains unchanged : e.g. j'ai aime cette Jille ' I have loved this
girl.'
[HISTORY. — The past participle is a verbal adjective (cf . ' I have
written the letter ' = ' I have the letter written ') and originally agreed
with the word qualified, whatever its position (cf. Lat. habeo scriptam epis-
tolam =j'ai ecrite une lettre : now ecrit). Gradually, however, the participle
came to be looked upon as an unchangeable part of the verb ; and after
much uncertainty and variation of usage, the principle now followed, being
virtually that it agrees with the word qualified if already mentioned before
the participle, began to prevail in the 15th, and was established in the 18th
century.]
142. Et re FOR avoir. — A few intransitive verbs (chiefly
of the irregular conjugation), denoting change of position or
condition, are never compounded with dvoir, but always with
etre. — Ex. II est aXU 'He is (or has) gone.' II est mort 'He
(has) died ' or ' He is dead.'
These verbs, grouped according to their meaning, are ;
76 SECOND PART. [142-146.
{ alter ' go ' tomber ' fall '
■< partir ' depart ' C naltre ' be bom '
( sortir ' go out ' ( More i hatch
/" arriver < arrive ' ( mourir ' die '
J entrer ' enter ' ( de'ce'der * decease *
( venir i come ■
[143.] About fifty other verbs of a similar kind are used (somewhat
freely) with avoir when emphasizing a progress of the action expressed
by the verb rather than its result, and with etre when the reverse is
the case. — Ex. II a grandi pendant ce temps 'He has grown during this
time.' i7 est grandi 'He has (is) grown.' La procession a passe' par ici
' The procession passed here.' La procession est passe'e ' The procession
has passed.'
144. Reflexive (or Reciprocal: 150) Verbs.— Transi-
tive and intransitive verbs used with a reflexive pronoun in
the ace. or dat. respectively are reflexive. The forms of the
pronoun, alike for ace. and dat., are : sing. 1 me, 2 te, 3 se ;
pi. 1 nous, 2 vous, 3 se.
[145.] The conjugation of the reflexive verb is as usual,
observing :
1. that the reflexive pronoun precedes the verb, except in
the imperative affirmative, according to 102. E.g. il se Jlatie
1 he flatters himself ' ; flatte-toi ' flatter thyself ' ;
2. that the compound tenses are formed by the aid of the
auxiliary etre, in English to be rendered by 'have': e.g. il
s'est flattS ' he has flattered himself ' ;
3. that their past participle — as in compound active forms
— agrees with a preceding direct object, if there be one : e.g.
elle s'estflattSe 'she has flattered herself (se dir. pbj.), but elle
s'est dit ' she (has) said to herself ' (se indir. obj. = dat.).
[146.] As an example of the reflexive conjugation may be
given here se flatter i flatter one's self.'
146,147.]
VERBS.
77
INDICATIVE
Simple Tenses
Present
je mejiatte
I flatter myself
tu teflattes
thou flatterest thyself
il sejlatte
he flatters himself
nous nous flattens
we flatter ourselves
vous vousflattez
you flatter yourselves
Us se flattent
they flatter themselves
Compound Tenses
je me. suis flatt4(e)
tu fesflatt4(e)
il (elle) s' 'est flatU(e)
nous nous sommes flatte(e)s
vous vous etesflatte" (e)s
Us (elles) se sont flatte(e)s ?
Imperfect
je meflattais
I flattered myself, etc.
je m'etais flattie)
I had flattered myself, etc.
Imperative : flatte-toi etc. flatter thyself, flattons-nous let us
flatter ourselves, flattez-vous flatter yourselves.
[147.] As in English, so also in French several verbs are exclusively
reflexive, while nearly all transitives may be used as such. Yet the re-
flexive construction is much more common and important, and verbs that
are habitually or frequently reflexive much more frequent in French
than in English. As examples may be mentioned the following verbs
(some of them irregular) : s'arreter * stop,' s'asseoir ' sit down,' se battre
1 fight,' se coucher ' go to bed,' se donter ' suspect,' s'&rier * cry out,' s'e'crouler
' crumble,' s'ecrire ' be written, write (to) one another,' s'ennuyer * be bored,
feel lonesome,' se J acker 'grow angry,' se lever 'rise, get up/ se plaindre
'complain,' se porter 'be (in respect to health),' se rejouir 'rejoice,' se taire
'be silent,' s'en aller 'go away' (cf. 150 and 161 under aller).
Note. — It should be especially noticed that when English transitives
have an identical or kindred intransitive form, the latter is regularly ren-
dered in French by a reflexive. — Ex, 'close ' (tr.) fermer, (intr.) sefermer;
' raise ' lever, ' rise ' se lever ; etc.
78 SECOND PART. [148-152.
[148.] Many reflexive verbs followed by prepositions form expressions
of special often transitive meaning in English. Examples are : s'approcher
de 'approach,' se douter de 'suspect,' s' entendre a 'be a judge of,' se passer
de * do without,' se servir de ' use.'
[149.] The reflexive pronoun is in French often a weakened dat. of
relation (dativus commodi) or it has slipped in without assignable reason.
Cf. s'en aller 'go away* (where se, however, is treated as an ace. : elle s'en
est all€e).
[150.] Reciprocal Use of Reflexives. — Reflexive forms often denote
reciprocity: Us s'aiment 'they love one another; on se bat 'they are fight-
ing'; aimons-nous 'let us love one another.'
151. Interrogative Forms. — In interrogative forms,
the subject pronoun is placed after the personal verb-form,
as in English, but it is connected with it by a hyphen (e.g.
ai-je ' have I ? '). For the rest, it is to be noticed only that :
a. A final -e of the verb is changed to e before the affixed
pronoun — the two words being really treated as one (cf. 35).
— Ex. aime-je ' do I love ? '
b. When the 3d sing, terminates in a vowel (e, a) the lost
etymological termination t is, in analogy with forms preserv-
ing it, added, though with a hyphen on either side, as if being
nothing but a phonetic insertion (cf. 27, note 5). — Ex. aime-
t-ilf 'does he love?'
Thus :
INDICATIVE
Present
Simple Forms Compound Forms
aime'-je ? ' do I love ? ' ai-je aime ' have I loved ? '
aimes-tu ? * dost thou love ? ' as-tu aime? ' hast thou loved ? '
aime-t-il ? ' does he love ? ' a-t-il aime" ? ' has he loved ? '
aimons-nous ? ' do we love ? ' avons-nous aim4 ? i have we loved '.' '
etc. etc.
[152.] Instead of this direct interrogative construction, it is
quite common to introduce a question by placing the phrase
est-ce que ? * is it that ? ' (pr. £VZc e ) — as ' do ' is placed in
152-156.] VERBS. 79
English — before the subject and the verb. — Ex. Est-ce que je
romps? 'Do I break?' Est-ce que je Vaurais rompu? 'Should
I have broken it ? '
Especially common is this circumlocution where euphony re-
quires it (as when the 1st sing, of the present ends in two con-
sonants or -ge), or in interrogations implying surprise or denial.
Note. — In the spoken language this circumlocution is more common
than in the written, and in popular style used somewhat indiscriminately
for any tense.
153. NEGATIVE FORMS. — The simple negation 'not' is
usually expressed by the aid of two words, viz. the negative
particle ne (V before vowel or h ' mute ') placed immediately
before the personal verb or an object-pronoun preceding it, and
the adverb pas (or the more emphatic point) placed immediately
after the personal verb-form. — Thus : je ne jinis pas (or point)
I I do not finish ' ; je rial pas jini ' I have not finished ' ; il n'est
point aime ' he is not loved.' — For further rules see Syntax.
[Note. — Pas and point (originally from Lat. passum * step ' and punctum
' point ') simply strengthen the real negative ne. Comp. English not =
nought = na ' not ' wiht * a whit.']
154. Negative Interrogative Forms. — These are made by placing the
negative particles, as above, before and after the interrogative form of
the verb as described under 151. — Thus: n'aime-je pas? (or est-ce que je
n'aime pas ?) ' do I not love ? ' n'aimes-tu pas ? (or est-ce que tu n'aimes pas?)
'dost thou not love ? ' — n'ai-je pas aime'? (or est-ce que je n'ai pas aime?)
' have I not loved ? ' etc.
IKREGULAK VEEBS.
1 55. Verbs deviating in their conjugation from those already
described as regular are called irregular.
156. Their irregularities, consisting mainly in a variation
of the stem, make a difficult, but important, chapter in French
accidence. Yet, by mastering a few guiding principles, and
studying the irregular verbs in groups with reference to those
principles, in the way explained below a good command of the
whole field is readily gained.
80 SECOND PART. [157-159.
157. The irregular verbs may be referred to two large
divisions :
The First Division comprises verbs that have the same stem
in their principal and derived parts, so that the latter can
always be made, in accordance with the general rules of deri
vation (135), from the former (e.g. inf. sentir: fut. sentir-ai ;
pr. part, sent-ant: pr. subj. sent-e, and so on).
The great plurality of the irregular verbs belong to this class.
The Second Division comprises verbs that change the stem
of their principal parts in some of the derived tenses, as de-
scribed in 160: e.g. inf. devoir: fut. dev'r-ai; pr. part, dev-ant :
pr. subj. doiv-e, 3 pi. pr. ind. doiv-ent).
No imperfect ind. (save savais) or subj. is ever irregularly derived, and
no imperative, except va (of tiller'), veuille (of vouloir), and sache (of savoir).
1 58. These two divisions with their sub-divisions are farther
described below in 159-160, where the student can have an easy
survey of their chief irregularities, while he should study in
detail the verbs of each group separately, by referring to the
alphabetical list of irregular verbs, § 161.
Q^p" 3 The student should notice that in each sub-division
(A, B, etc.) below, the model-verbs are printed in bold type,
others, conjugated like them, in ordinary type. For a first course
he is advised to learn only the former, looking them up for each
group in the alphabetical list § 161 (after understanding fully
the principles of their description as explained under the head-
ing of that list). — Knowing the key-verbs (altogether 47), it
is an easy task to acquire those conjugated like them.
[159.] The First Division. — To this division belong
a. all irregular ir-verbs (save those in -ro>, -nir preceded by a
vowel) ; b. all irregular ?-e-verbs (save boire, faire).
The ir-verbs all lack the stem-extending syllable -is(s) : cf.
119, b. ]No other irregularity is common to all ir- or re-verbs.
159.] VEEBS. 81
The verbs of this division may be studied in the following-
order, groups A-E :
A. — fair, entirely regular, except that the stem is fair (fay-
36) in pres. part, and forms derivatives from it.
B. — iR-verbs whose pres. ind., being the root (oftenest with-
out its end-consonant) -f s, follows the 3d conjugation, and
which are otherwise regular (observing 159), except that v&tir
has the past part. v&tu : e.g. sent-ir : pres. ind. sens. These are :
sent/'r 1 : so also mentir, repentir, partir, sortir, servir; — dormir
(really like sentir) ; — vetir (pres. vets) ; — bouillir (pr. bous).
C. — iR-verbs whose pres. ind. being the root -j- e, follows
the 1st conjugation ; and whose past part., if the inf. ends in
-rir, terminates in -ert : e.g. couvr-ir: pres. ind. couvr-e; past
part, couvert. These are: cueillir (pr. cueill-e), conveniently
counted to this division though its fut. is cueillerai (with
changed stem); — couvrir: so also ouvrir, offrir, soaffrir ; —
assaillir (pr. assaill-e).
D. — RE-verbs having in their pres. part, anew consonant-sound
(inherited from Latin) added to the root-vowel (e.g. di-re : pres.
part, dis-ant) and supplanting any root-consonant following that
vowel (e.g. nalt-re: naiss-ant ; peind-re: peign-ant). — Verbs in
-uire, -dre, and -crire also repeat the same sound in pret. ind.
These verbs may be studied in the following order :
1. s added to the root-vowel: all verbs in -ire (exc. those
in -crire and rire), viz. con-duire 2 (and other compounds in
-duire), construire (etc.), de-truire, cuire, luire, nuire; — dire;
— lire; — suffire, confire ; — plaire, taire.
2. 55 supplanting final radical t : all verbs in -altre, 3 -oitre, 2
viz. conn ait re, parattre, paltre ; — naitre ; — croitre.
1 Compounds verbs (con-sentir , etc.), when conjugated like the simple,
and also defective verbs are here omitted. (They are all described in the
alphabetical list, 161).
2 Written conduire. Hyphen here to separate prefix from radical.
3 The circumflex, denoting loss of s, used when i is followed by t (in croitre
always, exc. before ss). For archaic -oitre instead of -aitre cf. 17 (oi, n. 2).
82 SECOND PART. [159,160.
3. s supplanting final radical d: coudre.
4. /(if) supplanting final radical d: moudre ; — re-soudre.
5. gn supplanting final radical nd: all verbs in -ndre, viz.
poind re, craindre, plaindre, ceindre, feindre, en-freindre, teindre,
joindre.
6. v added to the root vowel : all verbs in -crire, viz. ecrire,
di-crire (and other compounds in -crire), in-scrire (and other
compounds in -scrire).
Observe that of above verbs of the D-group, lire and those in -aire, -aitre
(exc naitre), and croitre, form, irregularly, their pret. in -us.
E. — RE-verbs with no new radical sound in the pres. part. :
[past part, in i(s), pret. in is] rire; — mettre ; — prendre;
— suivre ; — [past part, in u, pret. in us] cro/'re; — vivre; —
con-c/ure.
[160.] The Second Division. — To this division belong
a. the only two irregular er-verbs (alter, envoyer) ; b. irregular
ir-verbs in -nV, -nir preceded by a vowel j c. 2 re-verbs (poire,
faire) ; d. all o^r-verbs.
A peculiarity common to all the verbs in -ir [save courir~]
and -oir(e) [save voir] of this division is that they strengthen
their root-vowel [e = to ie or o/, ou (old o) to eu] in the pres.
ind. and subj. and imperat. whenever it receives the tone, i.e.
in the sing, and 3 pi. (e.g. ten-ir : pres. 1 sing, tiens, but 1 pi.
tenons ; dev-oir: pres. 1 sing, do/s, 1. pi. devons; mourir : pres.
1 sing, meurs, 1 pi. mourons).
Verbs in -nir strengthen their root also in fut.-cond. (ef. below).
For the rest the verbs of this division may be studied in the
order they were enumerated above, viz. :
A. — ER-verbs : aller forms its stems from 3 different roots
(see the verb) ; — envoyer is irregular only in being changed
(by the loss of oy) to enverr- in the fut.-cond.
B. — iR-verbs : all lack the stem-extending syllable -is(s) j all
drop i of -ir in fut.-cond. (courir: fut. cour'rai), those in -nir,
besides, modifying their root (ten-ir: fut. tiendW-ai). Other
160, 161.] VERBS. 83
peculiarities are best studied under each verb. Here belong :
courir ; — mourir; — ac-qu6rir (with other compounds in
-querir) ; — tenir, venir.
C. — RE-verbs : fa/re ; — bo/re.
D. — oiR-verbs: all (save the compounds pre-, pour-voir) lack 1
oi in fut.-cond. (e.g. devoir: fut. devr-ai). They also modify the
stem as described under each verb. All, save voir, asseoir form
their past part, in -u, and pret. in -us. Other peculiarities are
best studied under each verb. Here belong : re-cevoir (and
other comp. of -cevoir); devoir; mouvoir: pouvoir, pleuvoir; —
savoir; — falloir; valoir; vouloir; — voir; asseoir.
Reference List of Irregular Verbs.
161. The irregular verbs are described below in alphabetical
order. The principles of arrangement are as follows :
1. Every simple verb — even when occurring only in compo-
sition (like -cevoir in re-cevoir, etc.) — is given in its alphabetical
order. Under it are enumerated its compounds. When it is
not in use itself, one of its compounds is pointed out as model
and described in its alphabetical place. — Exceptionally a com-
pound verb whose derivation is not evident, is given in its
alphabetical order even without reference to this method.
2. The principal parts are given first, and below them the
derived tenses. The principles of derivation are those described
in § 135. The plural of the present ind. is considered regular
whenever it contains the stem of the present partic. The
imperative is inflected like the present indie, (unless other-
wise stated).
3. Bold type denotes irregularities : in the principal parts
with reference to the regular conjugation (in oir- verbs simply
with reference to the stem) ; but in the derived tenses with
reference to the principal parts.
1 Historically it was the original Latin vowel, not oi, that disappeared
as atonic (movere hdbeo ; mov'r-ai).
84
SECOND FART.
[161.
PRINCIPAL AND
DERIVED PARTS (cf. 135).
Infinitive :
Pr. Part.:
Past Part. :
Pres. Ind. :
Preterit :
Fut. + ai
Pr. S. -e\ior
ly.I.-ais ) -ant
Comp. tens.
Imperat.
Impf . S. + sse
Cond. + ais
(to stem)
Ac-qu6rir l
acquerant
acquis
acquiers 2
acquis
(160. B)
Pr. S.
acquiers
Ipf. 8.
acquire
acquiere
acquiert
acquisse
F.
acquieres
acque'rons
acquerrai 3
acquiere
acque'rez
c.
acque'rions
acquierent
acquerrais 8
acqu€riez
acquierent
Ipf. I.
acquerais
Imp've
acquiers
\_Acquerir is from low-Lat. ac-querire for -querSre (which has given
acquiers, etc.). The rr of the fut.-cond. is owing to the loss of *'.]
So also con-qu&ir and recon-querir, both used only in inf., past part.
and pret. ; en-querir, re-qu€rir.
Aller
allant
alU
vais
allai
(160. A) go
Pr.S.
(etre: 142)
vas
Ipf. s.
F.
aille 4
va
allasse
irai
ailles
allons
C.
aille
allez
irais
allions
alliez
aillent
Ipf. I.
allais
vont
Imp've
va (vas 127)
allons
allez
[Aller forms its tenses from three different radicals, viz. : 1. all-, in
subjunct. ail-, (uncertain derivation); 2. va- (Lat. vadere 'go'); and
3. />- (Lat. ire * go ').]
Of common use is the reflexive idiom s'en aller (cf. 147, 150) 'go
away ' : Pi
.je m'en vais, tu
t'en vas, il s'en
va ; nous nous
°n allons, etc.
1 Pronounce a-ke'-rir. Hyphen in above list used to separate prefix from
verb. 2 Pron. a-kier. 8 Pron. a-ker-re (C. -re). 4 Pron. ay.
161.]
VERBS.
85
*Ap-paroir (Lat. ap-parere) 'appear' is defective, occurring only in the
infinit., and in 3d sing. pres. ind. il appert.
assaillant
As-saillir
(159.C)assail
F.
assaillirai
Pr. S.
assaille
Ipf. I.
assaitlais
assailli
assaille
Imp've
assaille
assaillis
Ipf. s.
assaillisse
C.
assaillirais
[Assaillir is from Lat. as-saHre."]
So also tres-saillir.
As-seoir 1
(160. D) seat
F.
asseyerai
or
assierai
C.
= +s
Asseoir (Lat. as-sidere ' be seated near ') is used chiefly as a reflexive
verb s'asseoir (je m'assieds, etc.) ' sit down.'
Like asseoir also rasseoir, surseoir (which, however, in the pres. ind.
is sursois and defective : cf. seoir).
A voir : for full conjugation cf. 137.
Battre : cf. 134, 3. So also compounds a-, corn-,
[Boire is from Lat. bibere, whose 6 becomes v between vowels.]
1 Pron. a-soir. 2 Pron. a-sie". Exceptionally the form assois is also found.
86
SECOND PART.
[161.
bouiltant
bouilli
bous
bouillis
l'r. 8.
bous
Ipf. 8.
bouille
bout
bouillisse
Ipf. I.
bouillais
bouillons
bouille z
bouillent
Imp've
bous
Bouillir
(159. B)
boil (intr.)
F.
bouillir ai
c.
bouillir ais
[Fr. Lat. bull/re ' boil/ with loss of // in pres. ind. sing.]
To express 'boil' transitively use /aire bouillir.
Like bouillir also e-bouillir, re-bouillir.
* Br aire (low Lat. bragire), 'bray' is defective. It has bray ant; brait,
braient ; bray ais, brayaient; il braira, brairont ; il brairait, brairaient.
*Bruire (Lat. rue/ire?) 'roar' has only bruyant (as adj.); je bruyais or
bruissant (bruisse, bruissais) ; bruit ; je bruis, tu bruis, il bruit (no pi.) ; je
bruirai^s).
Ceindre ceignant ceint ceins ceignis
(159. D. 5) girt I I
Conjugated like peindre (which see). So also en-ceindre.
[Lat. cingere ' girt ' : d intercalated ; ng = (g)n.~]
-c e v o i r (Lat. capere 'take') occurs only in compounds: aper-cevoir, con-
cevoir, de'-cevoir, per-cevoir, re-cevoir. These are all conjugated like
recevoir (which see).
* Choir 'fall': only in the pres. ind. je cftois, tu chois, il choit, infinit, and
past part, chu with etre. Compounds are de'ehoir and e'ehoir, which see.
[Old form cheoir, from Lat. cadSre (through cadere) 'fall '].
Circon-cire 'circumcise ' is conjugated like suf-Jire, except that the past
part, is circon-cis.
[Lat. circum-cidere ' cut around '] .
-cire (Lat. cidere — ccedeie 'cut') only in circon-cire, see above.
* CI ore close
F.
Pr. B.
clorai
close
C.
clorais
clos
*los
clos
clot
pi. wanting
161.]
VERBS.
8T
[This defective verb from Lat. claudere 'close']. Compounds de'-
clore (only p. p. de'clos), e'-clore (p. p. eclos and 3d sing, and pi. of some
tenses : il ecldt, etc.), en-clore (= clore) , for-clore (only p. \>.for-clos).
■dure (Lat. cludere 'close') in con-clure (which see), ex-clure, re-clure
(only inf. and past p.).
conch
Con-clure
(159. E)
conclude
F.
concluant
Pr. S.
conclue
-clurai
C.
-clurais
Ipf. I.
conclua is
Con-duire
(159. D. 1)
conduct
F.
conduisant
Pr. 8.
conduise
conduirai
C.
conduirai s
Ipf. I.
conduisais
conduit
conclus
Imp've
conclus
C07iduis
Imp've
conduis
conclus
Ipf. 8.
conclusse
conduis is
Ipf. 8.
conduisisse
[Lat. con-ducere ' conduct ' : c changed to s where not lost.]
So all verbs in -uire, viz. : compounds of -duire {de'-, en-, in-, intro-,
pro-, recon-, repro-, re'-, se'-, tra-duire) ; — compounds of -struire, con-, in-,
recon-struire) ; — de'-truire ; — cuire (de'-, re-); — luire (re-luire : both
p. p. -lui) ; nuire (p. p. nui).
Only the defective bruire (which see) deviates.
Connaltre
connaissant
connu
connais
conn us
(159. D. 2)
Pr. 8.
connais
Ipf. 8.
know
connaisse
connait
connusse
F.
connaissons
connaitrai
Ipf. I.
connaissez
C.
connaissais
connaissent
connaifrais
Imp've
connais
[Lat. co-gnoscere * know ' : Old Fr. conoistre, t intercalated ; later con-
naltre (the circumflex denoting the loss of s) ; sc = ss in connaissant
and derived forms. Cf. naitre.~\
So all verbs in -a/tre, except naitre : i.e. the compounds me-connaitre,
re-connaitre ; — and farther paraitre with compounds, paitre (defective),
r«-paitre.
88
SECOND PART.
[161.
Co n-q u€rir ' conquer ' = ac-qu€rir (which see).
Con-traindre 'constrain': conjugated = peindre (which see).
Coudre
(159. D. 3)
F.
coudrai
C.
coudrais
cousant
Pr. S.
coase
Ipf. I.
cousais
cousu
couds
cousis
couds
coud
Ipf. S.
cousisse
cousons
cousez
cousent
Imp've
couds
[Lat. con-suere, whose s appears outside of the infinit.]
So also de'-coudre, re-coudre.
C 'our ir
courant
(160. B) run
Pr. S.
F.
coure
courrai 1
Ipf. I.
C.
courais
courrai s 1
couru
cours
etc.
= 3d conj'n
Imp've.
cours
couru s
Ipf. s.
courusse
[Lat. currere (through currire) * run.' The rr of the inf. through loss
of i, as usual where -rir follows a vowel. Cf. mour'rai.~\
So also all compounds ac-, con-, dis-, en-, par-, re-, se-, s'entre-secourir
(hyphen, as here). Of these ac-courir usually has etre in conip'd tenses.
Couvrir
couvrant
convert
couvre
couvris
(159.B)cover
Pr. S.
etc
Ipf. s.
F.
couvre
=lst conj'n
cuuvrisse
couvnrai
Ipf. I.
Imp've
C.
couvrais
couvre
couvrirais
[Lat. co-operire ' cover,' p changed to r.]
So all verbs in -vrir and -frir, viz. : compounds of couvrir (de'- t re-
couvrir) ; ouvrir (with entr'ouvrir, rouvnir} ; — offrir, souffrir.
-crire : (same as -scrire, Lat. scribere 'write ') in e-crire (which see), d
r€-crire.
1 Pron. cour-rai(s), to distinguish from the Ipf. cou-rais.
161.]
VERBS.
89
Craindre
fear
craignant
cra/'nt
craigms
Conjugated like peindre (which see).
[The usual derivation from Lat. tremere seems uncertain.]
Qmire
(159. E)
believe
croyant (36)
Pr. s.
croie
cru
crois
crois
croit
F.
croirai
C.
Ipf. I.
croyais
croyons
croyez
croient
croirais
Imp've.
crois
crus
Ipf. s.
crusse
[L. credere ' believe ' : e = oi, which before a vowel is oy.]
Ac-croire used only in /aire accroire 'make believe.'
Croltre
(159. D. 2)
grow
F.
croitrai
C.
croitrais
croissant
Pr. S.
croisse
Ipf. I.
croissais
cru
crois
crois
croit.
croissons
croissez
croissent
Imp've
crois
crus
Ipf. s.
crusse
[Lat. crescere ' grow ' : old form croistre, t intercalated ; later croitre
C" denoting the loss of s). In croissant and derived forms sc = ss.
The circumflex of cru, crois, crus (crusse) to distinguish these forms
from cru, crois, crus of croire (see above).]
So also ac-croitre, de-croitre, re-croitre, sur-croitre, though the vicarious
circumflex is often omitted in -cru, -crois, -crus (crusse).
Cueillir
cueillant
(159. C) cull
Pr. s.
F.
cueille
cueillerai
Ipf. I.
C.
cueillais
cueillerais
cueilli
cueille
Imp've
cueille
cueillis
Ipf. s.
cueillisse
[Lat. col-ligere = con + legere (cf. cueillerai)."]
So also ac-cueillir, re-cueillir.
90
SECOND PART.
[161.
Cuire cuisant cuit cuis
(159.D.l)cook|
Conjugated like con-duire (which see).
[Lat. coquere ' cook ' (later cocere : c — s in conduisant, etc.]
dechu
dechois
etc. cf.
voir
dechi
Ipf. S.
dechu sse
De'-choir
fall, decline
F. C.
d€cherrai(s)
De'-crire ' describe ' : (conjugated = €crire, which see).
Dt-truire' destroy ' : con j ugated like conduire (which see) . [Lat. de-struere.~]
de'cheant or
dechoyant
Pr. S.
dechoie
Devoir
(160. D)
owe
F.
devrai
C.
devrais
devant
Pr. S.
doive
doives
doive
devious
deviez
doivent
Ipf. I.
devais
du (f. due)
dois
dot's
doit
devons
devez
doivent
Imp've
dois
dus
Ipf. s.
dusse
[Lat. debere : b changed to v ; and e, when accented, to oi. Du with
circumflex to distinguish the form from du = de le.~\
Observe that devoir is conjugated precisely like -cevoir of recevoir,
except that it has the circumflex in du. — So also re-devoir, which,
however, has re-du.
Dire
(159. D.
say
1)
disant
Pr. s
dise
F.
dirai
Ipf. I
disais
G.
dirais
dit
Ipf. 8.
disse
dis
dit
disons
dites
disent
Imp've
dis
[Lat. dicere ' say,' whose c appears as s in pr. part, and derived parts.]
So also compounds of dire (contre-, de"-, inter-, mail-, me'-, pre'-, re-dire) ,
except that maudire has ss in pr. part, (maudissant) and derived parts;
and that they all, save redire, have -disez, instead of -dites, in 2d pi.
pres. ind.
dis
dis
51.]
VERBS.
iormir
dormant
dormi
dors
dormis
(159. B)
Pr. S.
dors
Ipf. s.
sleep
dor me
dort
dormis se
F.
Ipf. I.
dormais
dormons
dormirai
dortnez
C.
dorment
dormirais
Imp've
dors
91
[Lat. dormire ' sleep.'] So also en-dormir, r-en-dormir.
-duire (Lat. ducere) in con-duire (which see), de-, in-, intro-, pro-, r€-, se'-,
tra-duire.
E-choir
fall due
e~ch ant
e'chu
il e'choit 1
Ipf. S.
il €chut
il echerm
Forms not given, lacking. [Lat. ec-cadere (through -cadere).']
Ecrire
(159. D. 6)
write
F.
ecrirai
C.
tcrirais
ecrwant
Pr. S.
e'crive
Ipf. I.
€crivais
e'cr/t
ecris
ecnvis
e'cris
Ipf. s.
e'crit
ecrivisse
ecrivons
€crivez
e'crivent
Imp've
e'cris
[Lat. scribere ' write ' : €- simply euphonic (commonly before so, sm-,
sp, st-~) ; b lost or changed to v.~\
So also de-crire, r€-crire ; and compounds in -scrire.
Envoyer
envoyant
envoyS
envoie (131)
envoyai
(160. A) send
Pr. s.
Imp've
Ipf. s.
F.
envoie
envoie
envoyasse
enverrai
Ipf. I.
C.
enverrais
envoy ais
1 Sometimes written, as it is pronounced, €chet.
92
SECOND PART.
[161.
[Probably from en voie (Lat. via) ' on the way/ For the interchange
of y and i cf. 131.]
So also ren-voyer (but con-voyer, four-voyer regular).
£tre: ef. 137.
faillis
Ipf. s.
* Failli r
faillant
failli
faux
fail, err
Pr. s.
faux
F.
faut
faillirai
ipf. i.
faillons
or faudral
faillais
faillez
C.
faillent
faillirais
Imp've
or faudrais
Not much used outside of inf., ]
jast part., and pret.
[ Lat. fallere (through fall/re). ]
So also de'-faillir.
jFcu're
faisant l
fait
fais
(160. C)
Pr. S.
fais
do, make
fasse
fait
F.
Ipf. I.
faisons
ferai
faisais 2
faites
C.
font
ferais
Imp've
fais
faisons * '
faites
fis
Ipf. 8.
fsse
[Lat./crcere 'make': c, lost in the inf., appears as s(s) in the pres.
part, and derived forms.]
So also the compounds contre-, de'-, par-, re-, rede'-, satis-, and sur-faire ;
but for-, mal- or me'-faire occur only in inf. and past. part.
fallu il faut ilfallut
il a fallu Ipf. s.
etc. ilfallut
2 Yroxi. fe-zai
* Fall oir
be necessary
Pr. 8.
F.
ilfaudra
il faille
Ipf. I.
C.
ilfaudrait
ilfallait
1 Pronounce fe-zdL (15, ai, note 1).
161.]
VERBS.
93
[Lat. failure (through fallere) : I changed to u before a cons't; oi of
-oir lacking, as usual, in fut.-cond., and d intercalated.]
Feindre feignant feint feins feignis
feign
Conjugated like peind re (which see).
[ Lat. fingere 'invent': d intercalated ; -ng = (g)n.]
*Fe'rir 'strike': only in the phrase sans coup ferir ' without striking a
blow.' [Lat./mre.]
-fire (Jj&t.ficere — facer -e ' make ') in con-fire, de-con-fire, suf-fire (which see).
Fleurir : cf. 133, 2. So also re-feurir.
-freindre (Lat. fringere = frangere 'break') in enfreindre 'infringe':
conjugated like peindre (which see).
-frir (L&t.ferre) in pffrir, souf-frir, both = offrir, which see.
* Frire 'fry' and re-frire : only past part, frit ; pres. ind. fris, fris, frit;
Ipv./m; fut. cond. frirai(s) throughout. — [Lat. frlgere 'roast.']
Fuir 1
(159. A) flee
F.
fuirai
C.
fuirais
[Lat. fugere (through fugire) 'flee.' For the interchange of y and i
cf . 36.] — So also s'en-fuir, re-fuir.
Geindre 'sigh' is inflected like peindre (which see).
[Lat. gemere, with intercalated d.~]
*Ge'sir 'lie ' : only gisant; ci-git (for ici git) ' here lies,' ci-gisent ' here lie ' :
on tomb-stones ; gisons,gisez,gisent ; ci-gisait, ci-gisent. s sharp, save in inf.
[Lat. jacere 'lie.']
H air: cf. 133, 3. [From a Germanic word, akin to hate.']
*Issir 'be born' : only past -part. issu. [Lat. ex-ire.]
Joindre joignant Joint joins joignis
join
fuyant (36)
fid
fids
fuis
Pr. 8.
fuie
fuies
fuis
fuit
Ipf. s.
fuisse
fuie
fuyons
fug ions
fuyez
fuyiez
fuient
fuient
Tpf. I.
Imp've
fugais
Juis
Conjugated like peindre (which see).
dis-joindre.
1 ui is a diphthong.
So ad-, con-, d€-, en-, dis-,
94 SECOND PART.
[Lat. jungere : d intercalated ; ng = (g)n.~\
So also compounds : ad-, con-, de'-, en-, dis-, re-joindre.
[161.
Lire
lisant
(159. D. 1)
read
Pr. 8
Use
F.
lirai
Ipf. I
lisais
C.
lirais
lu
Us
/us
Ipf. s.
lusse
lis
lit •
lisons
lisez
lisent
Imp've
lis
[Lat. legere ' pick, read ' : s of lisant, etc., in analogy with disant, etc.]
So also re-lire, e'-lire, re'-e'-lire, pre'-lire.
Luire shine | luisant lui luis luisis
Conjugated like con-duire (which see), noticing that the past part,
is lui. — So also re-luire.
[Lat. lucere ' shine ' : c = s where it is not lost.]
Mentir lie | mentant menti mens mentis
Conjugated like sentir (which see).
[Lat. mentiri * lie.'] So also de-mentir.
Mettre
(159. E)
put
F.
mettrai
C.
mettant
Pr. 8.
mette
Ipf. I.
mettais
mis
mets (cf . 134)
mets
met
mettons
mettez
mettent
mis
Ipf. s.
misse
mettrais
Imp've
mets
[Lat. rr
de*-, €-, s'e
ittere ' let go, sen
ntre-, o-, per-, pro
d.'] — So also compounds : ad-
-, re-, sou-, and trans-mettre.
com-, compro
Moudre
moulant
moulu
mouds
moitlus
(159. D. 4)
grind
Pr. s.
movie
(ayo«V) .
7noi(e« 'little/ p?"s 'worse/ plus 'more/ plutot 'rather/ pourtant 'how-
ever/ pres 'near/ presque 'almost/ puis 'then'; quand 'when/ que (for
combien) 'how/ quelquefois 'sometimes'; s/ 'yes' (used especially in reply
to a negative question), soudain(ement) 'suddenly/ souvent 'of tea/ sw
tout • especially ' ; tant ' so much/ tantot ' by and by, recently ' (tantot . . .
tantot 'now . . . now'), tard 'late/ tot 'soon/ toujours 'always/ tow* 'wholly,
quite/ toutefois ' however/ tres ' very,' £ro/> ' too, too much ' ; vite ' quickly/
volontiers * willingly '; jf ' there.'
[165.] Besides, most French adjectives may be changed to adverbs by
adding -ment to their feminine form, or to the masculine if ending in a
vowel. — Ex. hautement 'highly; haughtily; aloud' (from haut 'high'),
doucement 'softly' (Fr. doux 'soft'), follement 'foolishly' (Fr. fol, fem.
folk 'foolish': 75; so also bellement, etc.); poliment 'politely' (Fr. poli
'polite'), etc.
Note 1. — A few adjectives accent their final e before -ment. — Ex.
profondGment, pre'cisement, expressement, etc.
Note 2. — Adjectives in -nt change nt to m before -ment. — Ex. constant ;
constam-ment, patient : patiem-ment (-emm pronounced as a-m : 19, note 2).
166. As in English, some adjectives are, in a certain sense, used as
adverbs or adverbial predicates without any change of form. Thus : bus
' low/ adv. ' in a low voice/ cher ' dear/ adv. ' dear/ droit ' straight/ adv.
' straightways/ expres ' express/ adv. * purposely/ fort ' strong/ adv. ' very/
faux ' false/ adv. ' out of tune/ haut ' high/ adv. ' loudly/ juste ' just/ adv.
' correctly/ soudain 'sudden/ adv. 'suddenly,' vite 'quick/ adv. 'quick(ly),
fast.'
167. Adverb-phrases (of place, time, manner, etc.). — a bon march€
'cheap(ly)/ a jamais ' forever/ a la fois 'at once/ a Venvi 'in emulation/
a part ' aside/ a peine ' hardly/ a peu pres ' nearly, almost/ apres-demain
167-169.] INDECLINABLE WORDS. 107
'the day after to-morrow/ a present 'at present, now/ au moms 'at least/
au reste ' besides/ avant-hier ' the day before yesterday/ avant peu ' before
long/ ca et la 'here and there/ ci-apres 'hereafter/ ci-inclus 'enclosed/ ci-
joint 'annexed/ d'abord 'at first/ d'accord 'agreed/ d'ailleurs ' besides/ de
bonne heure ' in good time, early/ de la ' hence/ de mime ' likewise/ de plus
'moreover/ de suite 'in succession/ des lors 'since then/ d'ici 'from here/
d 'ordinaire ' usually/ d'oii ' whence/ du moins ' at least/ du reste ' however/
du tout 'at all/ en attendant 'in the meantime, until/ en avant 'forward/
en bas 'below, down-stairs/ en effet 'in fact/ en haut ' aloft, up-stairs/ la-bas
'yonder/ la-dessus 'upon that, thereupon/ ne . . . pas (etc., cf. 169), non
plus 'not either/ nulle part 'nowhere/ par cozur 'by heart/ peut-etre 'per-
haps/ plus tot 'sooner/ quant a 'as to/ quelque part 'somewhere/ sans doute
' undoubtedly/ a fait ' yes, indeed/ sur-le-champ ' on the spot, at once/
tant soit peu 'ever so little/ tot ou tard 'sooner or later/ tour a tour 'in
turn/ tout a coup ' suddenly/ tout a Vheure ' presently/ tout de suite ' imme-
diately/ tout d'un coup ' in one stroke/
168. Comparison of Adverbs. — Adverbs that can have
a comparative and superlative degree are compared, like adjec-
tives, by the aid of plus and moins (e.g. facilement ' easily/
plus facilement, le plus facilement). Only the following four
deviate from this rule, viz. : —
Posit.
COMPARAT.
SUPERLAT.
6/ en 'well'
mieux
le mieux
( poorly 7
pis
le pis
plus mal
leplus mal
peu ' little'
moins
le moins
beau coup ' much ' plus le plus
169. NEGATION. — With a verb, the simple negation 'not'
is usually (cf. 321-338) expressed by the aid of two words,
viz. ne, placed before the personal form of the verb or an
object-pronoun preceding it, and pas or (more emphatically)
point after it. — So also ne . . . jamais mean 'never/ ne . . .
pi us 'no longer' (but ne . . . pas plus 'not more'), no . . . que
'only,' ne . . . guere 'hardly, but little.' — Ex,
108 SECOND PART. [169-172.
Je n^ai pas. I have not.
Je n'ai pas (or point) parU. I have not spoken.
Je ne lui ai pas parU. I have not spoken to him.
Je ne le lui donnerai pas (or point). I shall not give it to him.
Je ne joue jamais. I never play.
Je ne jouerai plus. I shall not play any more
(=1 shall play no longer).
Je ne jouerai pas plus que lui. I shall not play any more
than he.
Je n'ai que trois dollars. I have only three dollars.
II n'etait guere arrive". He had hardly arrived.
For farther particulars, see Syntax.
[170.] Without a verb, * not ' is expressed by non or non pas (now point),
or, more seldom, by pas, as described in the Syntax.
Prepositions.
171. Single prepositions. — apres ' after,' avant ' before ' (in 'time or
place'), avec 'with/ chez *at (the house of)/ contre 'against/ dans 'in/
depuis 'since/ derriere 'behind/ des 'from, since/ devant 'before (a place)/
durant ' during/ en 'in/ entre 'between/ envers 'towards/ environ 'about/
hormis ' except/ jusque ' till, until/ malgr€ ' in spite of/ moyennant 'by means
of/ nonobstant ' notwithstanding/ outre ' besides, beyond/ par ' by/ parmi
'among/ pendant 'during/ pour 'for/ sans 'without/ sauf 'save/ selon
'according to/ sous 'under/ suivant 'according to/ sur 'on, upon/ vers
' towards/
172. Preposition-phrases. — a cause de * on account of/ a c6t€ de ' by,
next to/ a force de 'by dint of/ a I'tgard de 'with regard to/ a V exception
de ' excepted/ a Vinsu de ' unknown to/ a moins de ' unless/ a travers de
' through, across (without resistance)/ au-dedans de 'within/ au dehors de
' without/ au dela de ' beyond/ au-dessous de ' under/ au dessus de ' upon/
au-devant ' before/ autour de 'around/ an lieu de 'instead of/ au milieu de
' in the middle of/ au moyen de ' by means of/ aupres de ' near, by/ au
travers de ' through, across (an obstacle)/ en deca de * on this side/ en
d€pit de ' in spite of/ ensuite de ' after/ faute de ' for want of/ hors de ' out
of/ le long de 'along/ pres de 'near/ procke de 'near/ quant a 'as for/
vis-a-vis de ' opposite to/
173-175=] INDECLINABLE WORDS. 109
Conjunctions.
1 73. Single conjunctions. — car ' for,' cependant ' however/ done ' then,'
et ' and,' lorsque ' when,' rnais ' but,' ni ' neither, nor/ ou * or/ pourquoi ' why/
pourtant ' however/ puisque * since,' quand * when/ que * that;,' quoique ' al-
though/ si' * if.'
174. Conjunction-phrases. — qfin que 'in order that/ ainsi que 'as
well as,' a moins que ' unless,' avant que ' before/ fo'en que ' although/ depuis
que ' since/ des que ' since, as soon as/ jusqu'h ce que ' until/ parce que
' because/ pendant que 'while/ pour que 'in order that/ pourvu que 'pro-
vided/ sans que ' without, unless/ tant que ' as long as,' tandis que ' while/
Interjections.
175. Ah ' ah\' ate' oh \' bah 'pshaw!' chut ' hist 1'Ji 'fie!' ha 'hal'Mai
(5 pronounced sharp) ' alas ! ' hola ' hallo ! ' paix ' silence ! ' — and so on.
Note. — Many words and brief phrases are used interjectionally : bon
' good ! ' peste ' plague take it ! ' a la bonne heure ' very well I ' par exemple
' indeed ! ' etc. Frequently the imperatives of aller and venir are thus
used: allons (done) 'come! why! nonsense!' allez 'come! now!' tiens or
tenez ' hold ! there ! look ! '
SYNTAX.
INTEODUOTOEY.
176. Syntax treats of the combination of words into sen-
tences : their interdependence and agreement, as well as their
relative position.
1 77. The leading syntactical principles are in French the
following :
a. The subject determines, as in English, the number and
person of the verb : il aime ' he loves ' ; Us aiment 'they love.'
It also determines the number and gender of the complement :
e.g. il est bon 'he is good ' ; elles sont bonnes ' they are good/
b. The verb determines, as in English, the construction of
the object (an indirect case-relation being in French always,
except for conjunctive personal pronouns, expressed by the aid
of prepositions) : e.g. il aime son p&re ' he loves his father ' ;
il pense d, son p&re ' he thinks of his father ' ; il donne un livre
d, son pere ' he gives a book to his father,' or * his father a book.'
c. The adjuncts of above words modify their sense by various
constructions.
d. The direct order of arrangement requires, as in English,
the subject with its adjuncts to come first, then the verb with
its adjuncts, and finally the predicate complement or the object
with their adjuncts: e.g. Ce bon p&re — aime tendrement — ses
Julis enfants 'This good father loves dearly his pretty children,'
177-181.] ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. Ill
e. The inverted order — used especially in interrogative and
optative clauses when the subject is a pronoun, in interjected
phrases like dit-il and the like, and after certain adverbs —
requires the subject to follow the verb : e.g. Vaimez-vous f 'do
you love her ? ' puisse-t-il venir ' may he come ' ; d, peine fut-il
mort ' hardly was he dead.'
1 78. The peculiarities of syntactical constructions in French
are described in detail in the following chapters.
XI.
AETIOLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN.
[179. HISTORY. — The rules for the use of the various articles now
observed in French were not jet fixed in the 17th century, and still less
in the 16th. The definite article was then often omitted, where it is now
required; and the nice distinctions in the use of the independent partitive
sign were not observed. Hence, in the literature of those centuries, we
frequently meet with expressions like the following : II vous assure et vie
et liberie (instead of et la vie et la liberty 195): Corneille. — J'ai tendresse
(inst. of de la tendresse) pour toi : id. — Des grosses (inst. of De grosses: 45)
larmes lui tombent des yeux : Sevigne. And so on.]
180. Use of the Definite (or Generic) Article.—
As has already been pointed out (40), le, la, les are used either
— like the English l the ' — before nouns whose general mean-
ing is individualized and thus made definite, or else — where
in English, for the most part, no article occurs — before nouns
used in their generic (and so far definite) sense. Special rules
are given below.
181. The Definite Article. — The definite article is used
ill French, on the whole, as in English. Still, in some cases,
nouns are in French treated as determinate, while the English
language treats them differently (using the indefinite article, or
the possessive adjective, or no determinant at all, etc.). Thus:
112 SYNTAX. [182-184.
The Definite Article with Common Nouns:
182. FOR POSSESSIVES. — The definite article is used
instead of tlie possessive adjective with common nouns (espe-
cially denoting parts of the body), where there can be no mis-
understanding as to who is the owner of the object mentioned.
— Ex.
Elle leva les mains. She raised her hands.
Elle a perdu la m&moire. She has lost her memory.
II s'est casse le bras. He has broken his arm.
Elle avait les larmes aux ye ax. She had tears in her eyes.
Note. — Quite common is this construction after avoir mal a 'have a
pain in.' — Ex. J'ai mal a la tete (or J'ai un mal de tete) 'I have a head-
ache.' J'ai mal aux dents (or J'ai le mal de dents) 'I have the tooth-ache.'
J'ai mal au bras 'I have a sore arm.' — Obs. 'headache' etc. preceded by
an adjective is usually expressed by mal de tete (e.g. un violent mal de
tete etc.).
[183.] The definite article is used for a possessive adjec-
tive also in descriptive phrases with nouns connected by a
preposition, when they are in English preceded by ' with '
in sense of ' having,' ' holding ' (which is then omitted in
French). — Ex.
II paralt toujours le (or un) He always appears with his (or a)
livre a la main. book in his hand.
II vint, le parapluie sous le He came with his umbrella under
bras. his arm.
Le roi etait assis strr son The king was seated on his
trdne, le sceptre a la throne with his sceptre in
main. his hand.
[184.] The definite article is commonly used for a possessive
adjective also in descriptive phrases with nouns denoting some
constituent part or quality of an object, when they are governed
by avoir and determined by an adjective or participle (which
then regularly follows the noun). — Ex.
184-187.]
ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN.
113
II a la t&te grosse.
II a le bras casse.
Elle a I 'esprit pkn&trant.
Votre soeur a la bouche petite,
le teint beau et les yeux
bleus.
lis ont P esprit fatigue".
Le hetre a Ptcorce lisse.
Ce couteau a le tranchant
^mousse.
He has a large head.
His arm is broken.
She has a penetrating mind.
Your sister has a small mouth,
beautiful complexion, and blue
eyes.
Their minds are tired.
The beech has a. smooth bark.
This knife has a dull edge.
Note 1. — The noun denoting the constituent part or quality is put in
the singular even when referring to several objects, provided each of
them would require that number. — Ex. Ces betes ont la tete tongue ' These
animals have long heads ': and cf. ex. 5 above.
Note 2. — Constructions like il a une grosse tete etc. are also allowable,
especially when the thing itself rather than its quality is the object of the
thought.
185. The definite article is used before nouns considered
distributively (where in English ' each/ ' every/ or 'a' may be
used). This is especially the case before names of weight and
measure ; and also before designations of time, unless preceded
by par. — Ex.
La viande coute vingt sous la
livre.
J'ai paye cinq dollars le baril.
II perd six centimes Paune.
U vient me voir le jeudi (les
jeudis) .
[But iZ vient six fois par
jour.
The meat costs twenty sous a
pound.
I have paid five dollars a barrel.
He loses six centimes an ell.
He comes to see me each Thurs-
day or on Thursdays.
He comes six times a (every)
day.]
1 86. The definite article is used before names of fractional
parts. — Ex.
La moitie de Varmee One half of the army.
114 SYNTAX. [187-190.
1 87. The definite article is used before names of titles and
professions when followed by a proper nonn (except in direct
address), or when preceded by monsieur, madame, or made-
moiselle. — Ex.
Le mar4chal Ney a visite Vera- Marshal Ney has called on the
pereur. emperor.
Monsieur le comte n'est pas The count is not at home.
chez lui.
188. The definite article is used in various idiomatic expressions that
cannot conveniently be brought under any definite rules. — Ex.
Soyez le bienvenu! [Be] welcome!
Je vous souhaite le bonjour. I bid you good-day.
II n'a pas le sou. He has not a farthing.
On crie au secours. Some one cries for help.
II demanda I'aumone. He asked alms.
Je n'en ai pas le temps. I have no time for it.
Je Vai dit au hasard. I said it at a venture.
The Definite Article with Proper Nouns:
1 89. Except in direct address, the definite article is used
before all proper nouns that are determined by an adjunct (even,
as seen below, where in similar cases English omits the arti-
cle).— Ex.
La vie du grand Corneille. The life of the great Corneille.
Le Paris du quinzieme siecle. Paris of the fifteenth century.
Le Cinna de Corneille. Corneille's Cinna.
Note. — Proper names preceded by saint take the definite article only
when denoting saints' days, and it is then written Saint-. — Ex. C€tait saint
Jean 'it was Saint John'; La (fete de understood) Saint- Jean ' mid-summer.'
[190.] Exceptionally the definite article occurs before names of persons
not thus determined, the rules being as follows :
a. Personal names denoting plurality take the plural of the definite
article, while they are themselves usually in the plural only when refer-
ring to illustrious families or dynasties: eg. Les Duval 'The Duvals ' ;
Le$ Bourbons ■ The Bourbons/
190-192.] ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. ' 115
b. Names of illustrious individuals may be construed with the definite
article in plural : e.g. Les Montesquieu, /es Rousseau ont illustre not re litte'ra-
ture ' A Montesquieu, a Rousseau have illustrated our literature.'
c. A few names of famous Italians and of celebrated or well-known
persons, especially actresses, always take the definite article: e.g. Le Tasse
'Tasso'; le Corre'ge 'Corregio'; La Patti ; La Brinvilliers.
d. Personal names used by way of comparison for other persons than
the real owners, or, vicariously, as titles of books or works of art, take
the definite article, both article and noun being construed in singular or
plural as the case requires : e.g. Les Alexandres sont rares ' Alexanders are
rare'; J'ai lu le TeUmaque 'I have read T.' Les Raphaels ou /es Titlens
sont bien pr€cieux ' (Paintings by) Raphael or Titian are very precious.'
191. The definite article is generally (cf . 192) used with
names of extended geographical features — such as countries
(states, provinces, etc.) or large islands, mountains, rivers, seas,
and lakes — but not before names of small islands, cities and
places. French then differs from English chiefly in using
the article before names of countries and islands, and before
mountains without exception. — Ex. :
La Russie est grande. Russia is great.
La France est borne'e au midi France is bounded on the south
par les Pyrenees et la Me'di- by the Pyrenees and the Med-
terranee. iterranean.
La Navarre est une province. Navarre is a province.
La Sidle est une grande Ue. Sicily is a large island.
Le Gauge est unfleuve de VAsie. The Ganges is a river in Asia.
Le Liban est une montagne de Lebanon is a mountain in Syria.
la Syrie.
[192.] Exception 1. — In the following cases the definite
article is omitted before feminine names of countries in the
singular (save la Chine and a few less common names of
remote countries), provided they have no adjuncts:
a. Always after en 'in, to* (used for dans, a before such
feminines to denote in a general way the where) : e.g. itre en
France i be in France/ passer en France ' go to F. ?
116 SYNTAX. [192.
b. After de in sense of 'froni': e.g. venir de France 'come
from F.' ; or in sense of ' of ' when it introduces an attributive
genitive of distinction (= quality), which may be rendered
without ambiguity by an adjective: e.g. le roi de France
' the king of F.' ( = ' the French king ; ) ; du vin de France
I French wine.'
Usage is not quite settled with regard to the retention or omission of
the article after de ' o f .' It is safe, however, to follow this rule : Use de
la in a possessive, partitive, or objective genitive [e.g. le pouvoir de la France ;
le rnidi de la F. ; la devastation de la F.~\. Use de in a genitive of distinction
[as of title: le roi (V ambassadeur etc.) de F.: of origin: du vin de F.; of
description or apposition: histoire de F. ; le royaume de F.~\.
Examples to 192 : a.
II demeure en Allemagne. He lives in Germany.
[But II demeure dans PAlle- He lives in Southern Ger-
mane meridionale. many.]
II va en Ame'rique. He goes to America.
[But II va aux Indes, au He goes to India (pi. in French),
Bre'sil, aux Etats-Unis, etc. Brazil, the United States, etc.]
b.
II est venu de France. He has come from France.
[But II est venu du Mexique He has come from Mexico or
or de la France meridionale. from Southern France.]
A mon retour d' Italic On my return from Italy.
Chasse* d'Angleterre il se re"- Banished from England he fled
fugia en Ame'rique. to America.
[But Chass4 de la Chine il se Driven from China he fled to
refugia aux Indes. India.]
Le royaume d'Espagne. The kingdom of Spain.
Le roi de France. The king of France.
La reinede la Grande-Bretagne. The queen of Great Britain.
L'ambassadeur de Prusse. The ambassador of Prussia.
Le fer de SuMe est excellent. Swedish iron is excellent.
Du drap d y Angleterre. English cloth.
192-195.] ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 117
Un mille d'Allemagne. A German mile.
La paix de Westphalie. The treaty of Westphalia.
Les Unities de la France. The French confines.
Compare farther :
L' 'ambassadeur de France. Un marchand frangais. A
The French ambassador. French merchant.
Le roi de France. The king Vempereur de la Chine. The
of France. emperor of China.
Lefer de Suede. Swedish iron Le fer de la Su&de. The iron
( = iron found in S.). ( = all the iron) of Sweden.
IJMstoire de France. (The) L'histoire de la France. The
French history or The his- French history (as distin-
tory of France. guished from Fr. geography
etc.). — Rare expression.
IJarmee d'Egypte. The army Varmee de f'Egypte. The army
of Egypt (= sent into E.). of Egypt (= belonging to E.).
La republique de Venise. The La republique francaise. The
Venetian republic. French republic.
[193.] Exception 2. — a. Several names of countries derived from names
of cities (such as Naples, Bade etc.) do not take the article. Others (like
Hanovre, Brandebourg etc.) require it.
b. Certain names of places have the definite article as a part of that name
itself (often because its appellative origin is still felt). E.g. Le Havre
(' the Haven ') « Havre ' ; La Rochelle (< the Rock ') ' Rochelle ' ; La Haye
(' the Enclosure ') ' (the) Hague ' ; Le Caire ' Cairo ' ; L,a Mecque l Mecca \
[194.] Usage varies with regard to names of rivers, the principle being
generally the same as with names of countries : e.g. Je bois de Veau de
Seine ' I drink Seine water.' LJeau de la Seine est bourbeuse 'The water of
the Seine is muddy.' Les vi?is du Rhin ' (the) Rhine wines.' Le fleuve du
Mississippi ' the M. river.'
Exkrcisk I (end of the book).
195. The Generic Article (cf. 40, note). — French, un-
like English, requires the generic (= definite) article before
all nouns used in a generic sense, i.e. in such a way that ( in
general,' 'all/ 'every/ may be understood with them (e.g.
118
SYNTAX.
[195, 196.
L amour vient du cceur 'Love — i.e. love in general — comes
from the heart/ Lliomme est mortel 'Man — i.e. every man —
is mortal.' Les oiseaux ont des ailes 'Birds — i.e. as a genus
— have wings').
In the singular, abstract or collective nouns and nouns of
material are especially apt to be thus construed with the definite
article, while in the plural any noun may be so construed. — Ex.
Le vice est odieux.
Worgueil et la vanite" sont
source de Men des maux.
La society vivra toujours.
Lor est un m&al precieux.
Le bleu vous sied bien.
Aimez-vous le cafe f
Vice is odious.
la Pride and vanity are the source
of many evils.
Society will always live.
Gold is a precious metal.
Blue is becoming to you.
Do you like coffee ?
Le printemps est une belle saison. Spring is a beautiful season.
Les enfants aiment & jouer. Children like to play.
Les riches ne donnent pas ton- Rich people do not always
jours. give.
[196.] Names of languages require (a) le when treated as
nouns ; but (b) no article after ew, or when treated as adverbs
after parler (cf. ex. under b. below). — Ex.
a.
He learns French.
Do you know French ?
He speaks French well.
I speak French a little.
b.
He speaks French (i.e. 'in the
II apprend le francais.
Savez-vous le francais ?
II parte bien le francais.
Je parte un peu le francais.
Tl parte francais.
Dites cela en francais.
II faiftpenser en francais pour
parler francais.
manner of the French ' : e I '.
Lat. latine loquitur).
Say that in French.
To speak French we must think
in French.
is.: II.
197,198.] ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 119
Use of the Indefinite Article.
197. The indefinite article is nsed, on the whole, as in
English. It is to be observed, however, that before abstract
nouns determined by an adjective, un (une) is generally ex-
pressed in French even if omitted in English (e.g. Ne prenez
votre parti qu'apr&s un mUr examen ' Take your decision only
after mature consideration ').
Note. — With tout, un follows: tout un monde l a whole world.'
About the omission of the indefinite article in French, cf. 203 etc.
Use of the Partitive Sign (cf. 43).
198. The Dependent Partitive Sign de is used after
nouns and adverbs of quantity (size etc.), as described in 44.
It is followed by the article (du, de la, des) after the adverb
bien ' much, many ' (provided no adjective precedes the noun
limited) ; after superlative expressions (laplupart, le plus grand
nombre, etc.); and, as also in English, when the noun limited
is determined by other words following it. — Ex.
J'ai achel4 une quantite de I have bought a quantity of
livres. books.
Une foule de curieux le sui- A crowd of curious people fol-
vaient. lowed him.
Donnez-moi un morceau de Give me a piece of bread.
pain.
Tai acliete" beaucoup de livres. I have bought many books.
Je n'ai pas assez defleurs. I have not flowers enough.
Ce jeune homme a plus de This young man has more ac
connaissances que d'amis. quaintances than friends.
J'ai achett Men des livres. I have bought many books.
But Bien de braves gens. Many brave people.
II connalt un grand nombre He knows a great number of
des fables d'Esope. the fables of Esop.
120 SYNTAX. [198, 199.
Note 1. — The most common adverbs of quantity are: assez (never, as
in English, placed after its noun) 'enough,' autant 'as much, as many,'
beaucoup 'much, many,' bien 'much, many' (requiring def. art.), combien
'how much? ' moins 'less,' pew ' little,' plus 'more,' tant 'so much, so many,'
trop ' too much, too many,' trop peu ' too little, too few,' la plupart ' most '
(requiring def. art.).
Note 2. — De is a sort of pseudo-partitive connecting a preceding
expression of number, quantity, or measure (negatives and indefinites
inclusive) with a following predicative determinant: e.g. milk soldats de
tues ' a thousand soldiers killed ' ; pas un de debarque ' not one landed ' ;
quelque chose de bon ' something good ' ; rien de bon ' nothing good ' ; y a-t-il
personne d'assez imprudent 1 ? 'is there any one unwise enough?' pas de sitot
'not so soon.' So also in expressions like : suis-je de trop? ' am I too many ? '
qui est le plus grand de Cesar on de Napoleon? 'who is the greater C. or N.?'
199. The Independent Partitive Sign (or Partitive
Article : 45). — The independent partitive sign, unless excluded
by a preceding de (46), is used before abstract or collective
nouns and nouns of material in the singular, and before any
noun in the plural, when an undefined portion of the entire
thing designated by these nouns is contemplated.
This partitive sign, as already described (45), is de alone ;
a. when the partitive noun is determined by a preceding adjec-
tive; and b. when a preceding negation affects the partitive
noun rather than the verb or a modifier of that noun, i.e.
generally when that noun is the unmodified accusative object
of a negative verb.
Examples :
de with the article : de alone :
II a du courage. He has II n'a point de courage. He
courage. has no~ courage.
J'ai du vin. I have (some) J'ai de bon vin. I have (some)
wine. good wine.
J'ai du vin rouge et de I'eau J' ai de belles jieurs et d' excellents
fratche. I have some red fruits. I have (some) fine
wine and fresh water. flowers and excellent fruit.
Avez-vous des livresf Have Non, je n'ai pas de livres. No,
you some (or any) books ? I have no~books.
199.]
ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN.
121
Dans cette montagne il y a du
fer, du cuivre et de Vor.
There is iron, copper, and
gold in this mountain.
Je ne ferai pas des remarques
indiscretes la-dessus. I
shall not make heedless re-
marks on the subject
(though some remarks will
be made).
Je n'ai pas des sentiments si
bas. I have not such base
feelings.
Ne donnez jamais des conseils
quHl soit dangereux de suivre.
Never give advice which it
may be dangerous to follow.
L'avare n'amasse des trfoors
que pour lui. The miser
heaps up treasures for him-
self alone.
Ceci n'est pas de I'or, c'est du
cuivre. This is~not gold,
it is copper.
77 s 'expose a de graves erreurs,
a d'etranges mecomptes, en
jugeant ainsi. He is liable
to make serious mistakes,
strange errors, in judging
thus.
Je ne ferai pas de remarques
la-dessus. I shall make noT
remarks on the subject.
Cet homme n'a gudre de senti-
ments. ' This man hardly
has any feelings.
II ne m?a jamais donne" de con-
seils du tout. He has never
given me any advice at all.
Xe prodigue rfaccumule jamais
de richesses. The spendthrift
never amasses riches.
II contredit sans avoir d'opin-
ion. He contradicts without
having any~opinion.
Note 1. — If the partitive noun forms with a preceding adjective a
compound, whether in form or idea, it takes the definite article. — Ex.
II a des petits-Jils ' He has grand-sons ' (but de petits jils * little sons '). II
a montre du bon sens * He has shown good sense.' De la bonne foi 'honesty.'
Des jeunes gens 'young people.'
In popular style, du, de la, des are freely used whenever an adjective
precedes the noun (e.g. du bon vin, de la bonne biere, etc.).
Note 2. — In negative-interrogative sentences, de with the article de-
notes rather an appeal with implied affirmation than a real question, which
122 SYNTAX. [199-201.
is expressed by de alone. — Ex. N'avez vous pus de la sante, des amis? que
vousfaut-il de plus? 'Have you not health, friends? What more do you
need ? N'avez vous pas d 'argent ? ' Have you no money 1 '
Note 3. — By an extended use of the partitive sign, it sometimes serves
to denote 'the character of/ and the like; and the whole partitive expres-
sion is then often best rendered by an abstract noun or an adjective. —
Ex. Quand il afallu montrer de rhomme, ils se sont sauve's 'When it became
necessary to show manliness, they fled.' Ce latin est du Ciceron tout pur
' This is pure Ciceronian Latin/
Similar constructions sometimes verge on being pure genitives of char-
acteristic.
[200.] If in a partitive expression an adjective is used as a noun, it is
construed as such. If it is used alone, but with the noun understood,
it is construed as it would be if the noun were expressed, unless, indeed,
that noun be represented by the particle en, in which case the adjective is
always preceded by de alone. — Ex. Dans cette ville il y a des riches et des
pauvres ' There are rich and poor people in this town.' J'ai du vin blanc
et du rouge ' I have white wine and red.' // a de bon vin, et d'adultere^
' He has good wine, and adulterated.' Ces fleurs sont belles ; il y en a de
rouges, de jaunes et de blanches ' These flowers are beautiful ; some are
red, some are yellow and some white.'
[201.] It has already been noted (46) that the partitive
de and the following article are both excluded by a preceding
de ('of, from, with, by'). — Ex.
Uaraignee viCde mouches The spider lives on flies.
(not ~de
II fut fait ministre. He was made minister.
Nous lisons Athalie, tragedie We are reading Athalie, a tra-
de Racine. gedy by Racine.
c.
Espe ranee, courage, J est tout Hope, courage, that is all we
ce quHl nous faut. need.
Iln'a ni pere ni mere. He has neither father nor
mother.
Nothing short of extensive observation can make the student
familiar with the practice of omitting articles. The chief
details of the rule, as stated above, are, however, given below
[204.] Articles are omitted :
A. In many set phrases and brief or elliptical expressions, as :
1. Before certain abstract nouns governed by avoir {avoir faim etc. ' W
hungry ' etc., avoir raison ' be right,' avoir soin * take care/ avoir envie ' hare
a mind, desire/ and so on), faire {faire attention 'pay attention ,'faire peur
* scare/ fair e piti€ ' arouse pity/ etc.), prendre {prendre garde 'take care/
prendre patience * have patience/ etc.) , rendre {rendre justice • do justice/
rendre graces 'return thanks/ etc.), and some other verbs.
2. In many descriptive or qualifying phrases consisting of a preposition
(especially a, avec, de, en, sans, par) and a noun : e.g. a cheval 'on horse-
back/ a dessein ' on purpose/ a pretentions (a man) ' with pretentions/ avec
plaisir 'with pleasure/ en homme de cceur * as a courageous man/ sans peur
* without fear/ par an 'by the year, a year/ sans mot dire 'without a word.'
3. In condensed phrases generally, as in titles of books, addresses,
advertisements, proverbial expressions, etc. : e.g. chapitre second ' second
chapter' ; Contes d'un grand-pere 'Tales of a grand-father' ; Maison a louer
' House for rent ' ; 77 loge rue Richelieu ' He lives on R. street ' ; Contents
ment passe richesse * Contentment is better than riches.'
204, 205.] NOUNS. 125
B. Often before a predicate or appositional noun, viz. :
1. Before a predicate noun qualifying in a general way a personal
subject or object, designating what it is, becomes, looks like (i.e. after
etre, devenir; naitre, mourir ; paraitre, etc.), but never after c'est, ce sont, or
when the noun is determined by other words. — Ex. II est Americain ' He is
an American.' lis sont anglais * They are English (men)/ Son fr ere est
me'decin ' His brother is a physician.' David devint roi d 'Israel ' David
became king of Israel.' Je le reputais homme d'honneur ' I considered him
a man of honor.' II mourut chre'tien • He died a Christian.' II veut se
/aire soldat * He wishes to turn soldier.' — But C'est un Americain ' It is an
American.' Ce sont des Anglais 'They are Englishmen.' Ces messieurs
sont des marchands qui vont a la foire ' These gentlemen are merchants
going to the fair' (but sont marchands • are merchants.').
2. Before an appositional noun, when used simply to describe or
point out what may not be known. — Ex. Horace, poete ce'lebre * H., a
celebrated poet.' But: Horace, le ce'lebre poete 'II., (the well known) cele-
brated poet* or ' H., the poet (as distinguished from the painter).'
3. Before nouns enumerated in rapid succession, or used antithet-
ically, or preceded by sans, ni, soit, when the article is omitted also in
English, or by jamais 'never a.' — Ex. Soldats, officiers, citoyens, tous le
suivirent. — (Eil pour ceil. Jour et nuit. — II est sans argent. la nature ne
fait ni princes ni seigneurs. Soit paresse, soit faiblesse, il n'apprend rien. —
Jamais roi nefut plus aime'.
Exercise IV.
♦
XII.
NOUNS.
[205. HISTORY. — As the Latin case-forms gradually disappeared in
French, the use of prepositions to denote all individual relations of the noun
in the sentence became more and more frequent, and this use forms an
important part of the French Syntax. It may be noticed here that the
actual use of prepositions in several instances varies from that adhered to
even in the 17th century : e.g. La foi du (for au) Messie et de ses mer-
veilles (Bossuet) ; Se laisser flatter a (for par) une douce esperance (id.) ;
Je me laissais s€duire a (for par) cet aimable guide (Racine) ; Et le peuple
ine'gal a J'endroit des (for a Ve'gard des) tyrans (Corneille) . Even yet some
freedom of choice is in this respect allowed.]
126
SYNTAX.
[206-208.
206. Nouns without Preposition. — As in English,
the noun has no preposition, when it is a. subject, b. in predi-
cate, c. direct object, and d. sometimes (not then always agree-
ing with the English) when it is used adverbially. — Ex.
a. Le pere vient.
b. C'est mon pere.
c. Je vois son pere.
d. II viendra ce soir.
II m'a vendu ce cheval cinq
cents francs.
And cf . 184-5.
The father comes.
It is my father.
I see his father.
He will come this evening.
He has sold this horse to me
for 500 francs.
207. The predicate noun may refer either a. to the subject
(subject complement), or b. to the object (object complement).
The latter occurs after verbs of making, electing or declaring,
considering, and the like.
a. C'est mon pere.
II est n4 poete.
Nous nous quittdmes bons
amis,
b. On le fit general.
Le roi Va nomme' mi nisi re.
It is my father.
He is a born poet.
We parted good friends.
Le sSnat le dSclara ennemi
de la patrie.
Je Vestime mon ami.
He was made general.
The king has appointed him to
be a minister.
The senate declared him his
country's enemy.
I consider him (to be) my friend.
Note. — After verbs of making, declaring, etc., pour or comme is often
used before the predicate word. — Ex. lis le choisirent pour general 'They
chose him for general.' Je le conside'rais (comme') mon ami * I considered
him as a friend of mine.'
208. Transitive verbs admit two or more direct objects
when these are coordinated. Otherwise only one. Indirect
object-nouns are governed by a preposition, which can never
be omitted (as sometimes ' to ' in English). — Ex. II enseigne
la geographic a mon enfant ' He teaches my child geography.'
Je donne le livre a mon ami ' I give my friend the book/
208, 209.]
NOUNS.
127
Note 1. — Fairs forms with a following infinitive a causative
verb-phrase requiring a direct personal object, if there is no
other direct object ( Je le fais lire i I make him read ') ; other-
wise an indirect, i.e. a dat. (Je lui fais lire le livre; Je faiflire
le livre a I' enfant 'I make him read the book'; 'I make the
child read the book'). — Also laisser and verbs of perception
may be so construed. — Ex.
Je le fera i venir. Je ferai venir
ce g argon.
Je lui ferais prendre ce remede;
Je ferais prendre ce remMe
a I' enfant.
Faites-le repeter ; Faites repeter
sa lecon a ce g argon.
Les Francais ont fait adopter
aux autre peuples la plupart
de leurs usages.
J'ai fait (or laisse') voir mes
livres a ces enfants.
Les larmes que fai vu verser
a cette file mJon touche*.
J'ai entendu dire d (or par)
mon frdre quHl viendra.
I shall make him come. I shall
make this boy come.
I shall make him take this rem-
edy ; I shall make the child
take this remedy.
Make him repeat; Have this
boy recite his lesson.
The French have caused other-
people to adopt most of their
customs.
I have shown my books to these
children.
The tears I have seen this girl
shed have touched me.
I have heard my brother say
that he will come.
Note 2. — Observe in phrases like Je les lui ferai voir etc. the position of
both the object-pronouns before faire.
Exercise V.
209. Nouns with a Preposition. — Since all relations
of a noun not described in the preceding (206-8) must be
expressed by the aid of prepositions, the right use of these is,
of course, of much importance. A brief account of the princi-
pal laws for that use — to be supplemented by observation and
the aid of a good dictionary — is given below.
128
SYNTAX.
[210, 211.
210. De. — The original meaning of this preposition is
'from/ whence all its later uses. It forms with the noun
either: — a. an attributive phrase (denoting possession, quality,
kind, name of another noun, or portion), or — b. an adverbial
phrase (denoting place or time whence, origin, cause, means, etc.).
It generally corresponds to the English possessive ending 9 s or
the preposition ' of/ ' from/ or ' by ' (denoting condition rather
than action, which, especially when physical, is expressed by
par: cf. 215).— Ex.
Le Uvre de lafille.
La bonte 1 de ma mere.
Une table d'acajou.
La ville de Paris.
Le voyage du Rhin.
Une douzaine d'cefs.
a.
The girl's book.
My mother's kindness (The
kindness of my mother).
A table of mahogany.
The city of Paris.
The journey on the Rhine
(Ehine journey).
A dozen eggs.
b.
II vient de Paris.
Un Uvre du quinzieme siecle.
Le fer de Suede est bon.
II est mort de faim.
II est bien aise de voire
arrive'e.
II est respecte" de tous.
[But II fut trouvipar un chien.
He comes from Paris.
A book from the 15th century.
Swedish iron is good (192, b).
He has died of hunger.
He is very glad of your arrival,
He is respected by everybody.
He was found by a dog.]
[211.] De is often used where English requires some other preposition
than 'of,' 'from,' or 'by,' or no preposition at all. Thus it is used —
a. Where, in relations similar to those described above, English has ' for
(on account of)," with,' 'in,' 'about,' etc. — b. As a partitive sign (34-37).
— c. To express the ' by how much ' before names of measure of any kind,
211.]
NOUNS.
129
or age; and before the name of a musical instrument after jouer 'play.' —
d. After superlatives for English 'in.' — e. Often before terms of compar-
ison that follow an interrogative verb and are connected by ou. — f. For
'as' after servir, traiter, qualifier. — g. After abuser, proche and approcher
(or s' approcher, but also approcher without de, especially t>ef ore names of
persons), changer (when son etc. is omitted), decider, jouir, juger, redoubler
(followed by an abstract noun), user 'use' (user 'wear/ without de), and
several reflexive verbs that are rendered as transitives in English : e.g.
s'apercevoir ' perceive,' se d€fier ' distrust/ se douter ' suspect/ etc. — Ex.
Je le punis de safaute.
Je n'en puis plus de lassitude.
II €tait arme'd'un fusil.
II m'a combl€ de bienfaits.
II agit de bonne foi.
Cela depend de vous
(Lat. de-pendere 'hang from ').
J'ai du pain.
J'ai beaucoup d 'argent.
Ce clocher est haut de deux cents ■]
pieds ; or
Ce clocher a deux cents pieds de
hauteur (or de haut).
Vous etes plus grand que moi de
deux pouces.
II est age" de trois ans.
Le prix de ce livre est de cinq
dollars.
Ma montre avance (retarde) de
quatre minutes.
J'ai un dollar de trop.
Iljoue du violon (cf. au billard :
213, a).
Elle est la plus belle fille de la
ville.
Qui fut le plus grand homme,
d 'Alexandre, de C€sar ou de
Napoleon ?
I punish him for his fault.
I can do nothing more for (on account
of) weariness.
He was armed with a gun.
He has overwhelmed me with kind-
nesses.
He acts in good faith.
That depends on you.
I have some bread.
I have much money.
This steeple is two hundred feet high.
You are two inches taller than I.
He is three years old.
The price of this book is five dollars,
My watch is four minutes fast (slow).
I have one dollar too much.
He plays (on, as if 'from') the
violin.
She is the finest girl in the city.
Who was the greatest man, Alexan-
der, Caesar or Napoleon ?
130
SYNTAX.
[211-213.
f. 77 me servira de guide.
Je Vai traite de prince.
\Je Vai trait€ en prine.
g. II (s')approcha de la ville
(II approclyx la ville).
II a change' d 'opinion.
Ilfaut changer d' habits.
Je jouis de safaveur.
II redoubla d'efforts.
Je me suis apercu du piege
Von m'avait tendu.
Je me doutais de sa trahison.
que
He shall serve me as guide.
I treated him as (called him) prince.
I treated him like a prince.]
He approached the city.
He has changed his mind.
We must change clothes.
I enjoy his (her) favor.
He redoubled his efforts.
I perceived the snare they had laid
for me.
I suspected his treason.
212. >i. — The principal meaning of the preposition a is
'to/ or 'at/ whence its other uses. It forms with the noun
either : — a. the indirect (personal or personified.) object or —
b. an adverbial phrase (denoting direction, position, aim, pur-
pose, addition, etc.). Generally it corresponds to the English
'to,' 'till,' 'at,' or l in'* when equivalent to , vous. He
obeys me and yon.
Je vous la presenter ai. I shall Je me presenter ai h vous. I shall
introduce her to you. introduce myself to you.
11 le lui a recommande. He II nous a recommande' a lui. He
has recommended him to has recommended us to him.
him (her).
Je le lui presentai. I intro- II se presenta a elle. He intro-
duced him to her. duced himself to her.
Je leur ojfrirai ce livre. I Ce livre sera offert a eux {pas a
shall present them with elle). This book will be pre-
this book. sented to them and not to her.
244. The Use OF en, y, ETC. — In applying above rules
for the use of the personal pronouns, it must be remembered
that the indirect cases of the 3d persons are often, especially
when referring to things, supplanted by one of the particles
en and/ (101), or by an adverb. The rules are as follows :
a. The conjunctives lui and leur are preferably used for per-
sons (or personified things), often also for animals and plants.
In other relations they are regularly replaced by / ; e.g. J'ai
le livre, la feuille y appartient 'I have the book, the leaf
belongs to it.'
b. The disjunctives with de or a can refer only to persons
(or personified things), being replaced in other relations by
en (— de lui etc.) and y {= & lui etc.). Where no ambiguity
would arise, en and more rarely y may be used also for persons,
especially plurals of an indeterminate sense, or to avoid repe-
tition. — Ex. Voilct des plumes, prenez-en ' There are pens, take
some (lit. take of them).' J'ai votre parole, je m'/ fie 'I have
your word, I rely on it.' Combien avez-vous de frei*es? J' en
ai trois 'How many brothers have yon? I have three.'
150
SYNTAX.
[244.
c. The disjunctives with other prepositions than de and &,
though allowed to refer to any noun, are preferably used only
for persons (or personified things), being replaced in other
relations by some adverb [sous or sur lui by (la-)dessous or
(Ja-)dessus ; apres lui by derriere, and so on], or by a repeti-
tion of the noun referred to, or by some other device : e.g.
Voila la table, mets le livre la-dessus 'There is the table, put
the book on it.'
Compare :
Referring to Persons : a, Referring to Things :
II a e'crit, et je lui rtponds.
He has written, and I
answer him.
Voild, les enfants, donnez-leur
vos soins. There are the
children, give them your
care.
Lesjilles out soif, donnez-leur
de Veau. The girls are
thirsty, give them water.
Cet homme ne vaut Hen, ne
parlez pas de lui. This
man is good for nothing,
do not speak of him.
II parle de sa m&re, et il pense
toujour s a elle (rarely et il y
pense toujours). He speaks
of his mother, and he al-
ways thinks of her.
Laissez alter les garcons,fai
besoin d'eux. Let the boys
go, I need them.
J'ai regu sa lettre, etfy rtponds.
I have received his letter,
and I answer it.
Voild, les documents, donnez-y
votre attention (or examinez-
les) . There are the documents,
give them your attention.
Les plantes sont seches, donnez-
leur (or donnez-y) de Veau.
The plants are dry, give them
water (also, arrosez-les) .
b.
Ce cheval ne vaut rien, n'en
parlez pas. This horse is
worthless, do not speak of
it.
II parle de sa maison, et il y
'pense toujours. He speaks
of his house, and he is always
thinking of it.
Ijdssez les livres, j'en ai besoin.
Leave the books, I need
them.
244-247.]
PKONOUNS.
151
II aime les enfants, et il en est
aime (or il est aime d'eux).
He loves children (or the
children), and he is loved
by them.
Plus on connalt son monde,
plus on s J y entend. The
better we know people, the
better we understand how
to treat them.
II tomba, etje tombai sous lui.
He fell, and I fell under
him.
C'est mon ami, et c'est avec
lui que je suis venu. It is
my friend, and it is with
him I have come.
II aime les tableaux, et il en
. achete toujour s. He loves
pictures, and he always buys
some (lit. of them).
C'est sa parole, et je my fie.
It is his word, and I rely on
it.
c.
La table tomba, et je tombai des-
sous. The table fell, and I
fell under it.
J'ai un canif, et c'est avec ce
canif (avec lui) que je Vai
coupe". I have a penknife,
and it is with this penknife
I have cut it.
Further remarks about the use of the personal pronouns :
245. Je is used for moi in the old-style expression Je soussigne" (sous-
signee) ... 'I, the undersigned.'
246. Nous is often used for je in official documents, and by authors
speaking of themselves. The verb is then, as after vous when referring to
one person, put in the plural, but modifying words in the singular. — Ex.
Nous soussigneie) . . . , nous avons ordonne' et ordonnons . . . Nous sommes
content (e).
247. Tu (toi) and vous. — A stranger or an acquaintance is
addressed by vous in French, as by 'you' in English. Tu is
used in addressing an intimate friend or near relation ; and
also often, especially by Protestants and in poetry or exalted
prose, in addressing the Almighty.
152 SYNTAX. [248-250.
[248.] Tu is sometimes used to express superiority, contempt, or
anger. Observe the verb tutoyer equivalent to the old English ' to thou,'
i.e. to call a person thou, whether in familiarity or contempt.
[249.] Vous always requires the verb to be in the plural.
But the number as well as the gender of its modifiers depends
on its implied number and gender. — Ex. Vous Stes bon (or
bonne; — bons or bonnes) ' You are good.'
250. The 3d Persons (il, elk, etc.). — For the use of the
pronouns of the 3d person the following should be observed :
a. The declinable forms can represent only determinate
nouns (or adjectives used as nouns), with which they agree
in gender and number : e.g. Voyez-vous le gar con (la fille, les
arbres) ? Oui, je le (la, les) vols ?
Note. — A construction peculiar to French is the use of the
object-forms le, la, les as conjunctive predicates after tore to
represent definite nouns : e.g. Etes-vous sa mere ? Je la suis
'Are you his mother? I am (lit. her = his mother, that per-
son).' If, however, the noun is referred to rather as connoting
a certain quality or condition than as naming a definite person
or thing, the invariable le is used : e.g. Etes-vous mere ? Je le
suis 'Are you a mother? I am (lit. it = a mother).'
b. The invariable le, often equivalent to English 'so' or
an expletive 'it,' represents adjectives (or nouns: note above),
participles, verb-phrases (like rendre grdces etc.), and sen-
tences : e.g. Elle est bonne, il rest aussi ' She is good, he also
(is good).' II viendra, sHl me le dit 'He will come, if he tells
me so.'
c. En, y are to be rendered in various ways according to the context,
and, owing to their frequent expletive use to connect two thoughts, they
are often to be left untranslated (the reference being also at times dimmed
and unclear): e.g. en avoir 'have some'; s'y Jier 'depend on it'; s'en
aller (149) 'go off; en etre 'be at a point,' 'be reduced (to)'; en vouloir a
'have a grudge against'; / etre 'comprehend'; il y va de 'it concerns'; etc.
250.]
PRONOUNS.
153
(le, la, les) :
Connaissez-vous cette Jille ? Je
la connais. Do you know
this girl ? I know her.
Etes-vous la reine de ce
peuple ? Je la suis. Are
you the queen of this peo-
ple ? I am.
Compare :
(le invar., en) :
Est-elle bonne? Elle Pest (V for
le). Is she good? She is.
Etes-vous reine? Oui, je le
suis ? Are you a queen ?
Yes, . I am (i.e. I have the
qualities implied by the word
queen).
Sont-ils malades? Oui, Us le
sont. Are they sick? Yes,
they are (so).
Je vous donne la plume, quoique
vous ne le demandiez pas. I
give you the pen, although
you do not ask me to do so.
Sont-ce Id vos livres ? Oui, ce
les sont. Are those your
books ? Yes, they are.
Je vous donne la plume, quoi-
que vous ne me la demandiez
pas. I give you the pen,
although you do not ask
me for it.
U enfant m?a demande les (ses,
ces) livres, et je les lui ai
donne's. The child has
asked me for the (his,
these) books, and I have
given them to him.
Quand vous aurez des nouvel-
les, faites-les-moi savoir.
When you shall have news,
let me know them.
U a trouve" une femme comme
il la (referring to femme)
d4sirait. He found a wo-
man of the kind he desired.
Note. — As seen above, the objective form of the 3d
French expressed, whether the English equivalents ('it,' '
used or not.
V enfant m'a demand&des livres,
et je lui en ai donne. The
child has asked me for books,
and I have given some to
him.
II est plus fort que je ne le suis.
He is stronger than I am.
II a trouve une femme comme il
le (referring to the preceding
clause) dhirait. He has found
a woman, as he desired (to do)<
person is in
so,' etc.) are
154 SYNTAX. [251, 252.
[251.] // as impersonal subject occurs : — a. As in English,
with impersonal verbs (il tonne etc.). — b. By way of antici-
pation (as in English the expletive 'there, it'), to allow the
logical subject to follow the verb (e.g. II me vient une id&e
' There occurs to me an idea/ II se pent qu'il vienne 'It is
possible that he may come.' II y aura un bal ' There will be a
ball).' — c. With etre cf. 252.
252. // OR ce WITH Stre. — // 'it' and ce 'that, it' are
both used impersonally with itre. Both may then refer to a
following subject or subject-clause, though ce only when
separated from it by a predicate noun (modified or not),
or pronoun [e.g. // est bon d'&tudier ' It is good to study.'
C'est Vhomme qui parle 'It is the man who speaks.' C'est
lui qui parle 'It is he who speaks']. — Only ce can refer
to a preceding subject (-clause), expressed or understood
[e.g. Elle le fait, c'est bon. C'est bon 'that is good,' viz.
something already spoken of or had in mind].
Compare :
il : ce :
II est bon de savoir se taire. II salt se taire, c'est bon. He
It is good to be able to be knows how to be silent, that
silent. is good.
// sera agriable de passer C'est magnifique, mais ce n'est
les v a canes ici. It will pas la guerre. It is magnifi-
be pleasant to spend our cent, but is not war (viz. some-
holidays here. thing already referred to).
// est d' importance de bien C'est une affaire importante. It
parler. It is of importance is an important business.
( = important) to speak well.
// est d'un bon p&re de bien C'est mon bon pere qui a e'leve'
Clever ses enfants. It ces enfants. It is my good
belongs to a good father to father who has educated these
bring up his children well. children.
252, 253.]
PRONOUNS.
155
// est a desirer qu'il vienne.
It is desirable that he
should come.
// est a propos qu'elle fasse
cette commission. It is
proper that she should do
this errand.
// est huit heures, if est tar d.
It is eight o'clock, it is
late.
// etait t e mp s de partir. It
was time for departing.
C'est un pesant fardeau (que)
d' avoir un grand m&rite.
It is a heavy burden to have
a great distinction.
C'est elle qui f era cette com-
mission. It is she that will
do this errand.
II est huit heures, c'est trop
tard. It is eight o'clock;
that (=8 o'cl.) is too late.
C'est dix heures qui vienne nt
de sonner. It is ten o'clock
that has just struck.
Note 1. — Usage requires // est besoin; c'a e'te', c'eut €t€, sera-ce, fut-ce,
fut-ce, si ce n'est. Parenthetically both /'/ est vrai and c'est vrai occur (the
latter being more emphatic).
Note 2. — In popular usage c'est occurs freely before adjectives, where
il should be used ; and even in literary style c'est is used before words of
emotion (heureux, triste, e'tonnant, etc.) : e.g. C'est bien triste de ne voir que
le del et Veau. C etait a craindre que la Californie ne devint pays
253. The Reflexives se and soi. — Se is used reflexively
as accusative and dative, any gender or number. — Sot is
rarely used except in the singular and with reference to per-
sons or things spoken of in an indefinite or general way, lui
(elle) eux (elles), with or without m&me, being usually substi-
tuted for it when other objects are intended. — Ex.
II se (ace.) frappe.
II se (dat.) le promet.
On doit rarement parler de
so/.
Chacun pense a so/'.
Le vice est odieux de sot.
He strikes himself.
He promises it to himself.
One should rarely speak of
himself.
Every one thinks of himself.
Vice is odious in itself.
156 SYNTAX. [253-256.
Tin bienfait porte sa re"com- A kindness brings its own re-
pense en so/. ward with it.
Monfrere a de V argent sur lui. My brother has money.
Tes fr&res ne font point de Your brothers do not reflect
reflexions sur eux (-memes). about themselves.
Les choses ne sont en elles- Things are neither pure nor
memes ni pures ni impures. impure in themselves.
254. Position of the Conjunctive Pronouns. — The
chief rules for the position of the conjunctive pronouns, where
it is peculiar to French, have been given already under rule
102, to which the learner is referred.
Farther details are given below.
255. The position of the subject-pronoun is for the most
part the same as in English ; i.e. it precedes the verb (// parte),
except in the following cases :
a. In interrogative sentences, unless introduced by est-ce
que: e.g. Parle-t-il ? or Est-ce qu'i/ parle ?
b. In interjected phrases like dit-il, and the like, if pre-
ceded by all or part of the words quoted : e.g. " Je viendrai"
dit-il.
c. After an immediate subjunctive of desire not introduced
by que : e.g. Puisse-t-il venir.
d. More or less optionally when the sentence is introduced
by certain adverbs or adverbial phrases (cf. 416, b) : e.g.
Aussi se regardait-il sans pareil. A peine fut-il entrL En vain
Va-t-il essaye". Peut-etre pourrai-Je vous btre utile.
256. The object-pronoun must not be placed before any
other verb than the one on which it depends. Hence Je viens
la demander (not Je la v. d.). U occasion est favorable, il faut
savoir en profit er (not il en faut, nor il faut en s. p.). And
compare II lui faut parler ' He must speak ' (lit. l It is necessary
for him to speak ') ; but II faut lui parler ' It is necessary to
speak to him.'
256-258.] PRONOUNS. 157
Note 1. — Usually object-pronouns precede the first of two
successive verbs (the second an infinitive) when it is transi-
tive (esp'ly faire, laisser, entendre, ou'ir, voir, sentir) : e.g. Je
le ferai venir ' I shall make him come/ Je fas lui ai laisse voir
1 1 have allowed him (her) to see them.' If it is an affirmative
imperative, the pronoun, of course, follows : Faites-le venir
'send for him.' Only when the second verb is a reflexive,
each verb is preceded by a pronoun : Je le vois se lever ' I see
him rise.'
Note 2. — Forms like Je le viens demander (instead ofje viens le d.) are
very common in the earner language.
Exercise XI.
POSSESSIVES.
(Review carefully 106.)
257. The Possessives agree in gender and number with the
object possessed.
II aime son^fils et scTfille. He loves his son and his daughter.
Monjilsetlesien,majilleet My son and his* (hers), my
la sienne. daughter and his (hers).
Harare a perdu ses feuilles. The tree has lost its leaves.
Note. — That the possessive adjective may be replaced by the definite
article where no misunderstanding can arise (as in Elle a perdu la me'moire;
Fermez la bouche, etc.) has already been noticed : 182-4.
258. Use OF lui ETC. FOR son ETC. — The possessive ad-
jective is often replaced by an indirect object-pronoun put before
the verb, especially in speaking of parts of the body. — Ex.
Je me suis coupe" le doigt. I have cut my finger.
II s'est cass4 le bras. He has broken his arm.
UMat des grandeurs leur a The splendor of the grand things
tourne la t&te. turned their head.
158
SYNTAX.
[259-261.
259. USE OF en FOR son, leur. — En 'thereof* = 'its, their'
is ordinarily used for son, leur with a direct object (less regu-
larly also with a subject of btre) with reference to a noun of a
preceding clause denoting a thing or, rarely, a being. En is
then placed before the verb, and its noun has the definite
article (as it would in English if * thereof ' were used).
Compare :
en : son (leur) :
Quand on est dans un pays, Cetle terre est magnifique, fad-
il faut en suivre V usage.
When we are in a country,
we must follow its customs.
J'aime cettejieur (cesjleurs),
V odeur en est trds bonne.
I like this flower, its (their)
odor is very good.
Charles-Quint passa ses der-
nieres annees parmi les
moines, mais sans en em-
brasser id vie. Charles V
passed his last years among
the monks, but without em-
bracing their mode of life.
mire la fertility de son sol.
This land is magnificent, I ad-
mire the fertility o/its soil.
Vous rappelez-vous cette mile ?
Ses promenades sont admir-
ables. Do you remember that
city? Its public walks are
admirable.
Ma vie est rude, et ses aspe-
rites (not subj. of £tre) me
blessent. My life is hard, and
its bitterness wounds me.
260. After chacun referring to a word in the plural, son and leur may
be used indifferently, though leur is more common with a direct object and
son after a preposition. — Ex. lis gagnerent chacun teur place. lis parlerent
chacun de son malheur.
261. The possessive adjectives are repeated (like the defi-
nite article: 202) before each noun or adjective denoting a
different object, and always before superlatives (cf.
229).— Ex,
261-265.] PRONOUNS. 159
Xaime mon pere et ma mere. I love my father and (my)
mother.
chers et bons parents. My dear good parents.
262. Mon (ma, mes) is in French commonly used in address, espe-
cially before names of near relatives : e.g. Bonjour, men pere (mes enfants).
Oui, mon general. Hence also the words monsieur (monsieur), madame
(ma-d.), mademoiselle (ma-d.), which, unless farther defined, do not take
the definite article (e.g. Monsieur est sorti. Madame est malade).
263. Le mien, le tien, etc. are used for 'mine,' 'thine,'
etc. But in phrases like l is mine/ meaning ' belongs to me,'
a moi, a tot, etc. are commonly used instead. — Ex. Son livre et
le mien ( His book and mine.' A qui est ce livre, est-il d, vous ?
Oui, il est d, moi i Whose is this book, is it yours ? Yes, it is
mine.'
Note 1. — The English phrase 'a friend of mine' has no literal render-
ing in French; use wi de mes amis (or cf. note 2).
Note 2. — Mien etc. are exceptionally used in predicate without the
article (e.g. Ce livre est mien : but usually est a moi) or as an attribute
(e.g. in familiar or jocose style Un mien ami : usually un de mes amis, cf .
note 1).
Demonstratives.
(Review carefully 107.)
264. The adjective form ce (cette, ces) is the one generally
used before a noun, to which -ci or -Id, may be affixed, according
to 107.— Ex.
Ce garcon rtest pas diligent. This boy is not diligent.
Je neparlepas de ce garcon-ci, I do not speak of t hi s boy, but
mais de cette fille-la. of that girl.
265. The pronominal form ce, referring impersonally to
something explained by what follows or already stated, is
used: — a. With a relative pronoun or the conjunction que
160 SYNTAX. [265, 266.
(oe qui, que 'that which/ 'what/ ce dont 'that of or about
which'; ce que 'the fact that'). — b. With $tre in its various
tenses, unless il be required (252). — Ex.
a
Ce qui est vrai est. beau. ' That which (what) is true is
beautiful.
Voila ce qui m'ttonne. That is what astonishes me.
Ce que vous dites est vrai. What you say is true.
C'4tait Men la ce dont nous That was the very thing about
etions convenus. which we were agreed.
Cela vient de ce que vous That comes from your working
travaillez trop. too much.
b
C'est une affaire importante. It is an important business.
Etc., cf . ex. under 252.
Note. — About the use of ce sont, etc., for c'est, etc., cf. 300.
[266.] Ce is in French often used with itre when there is
no pronoun in English, viz. :
a. When for emphasis the logical subject (then preceded by
an expletive que) is placed after Mre (cf. 360). — Ex.
C y est une belle ville que Paris Paris is a beautiful city.
(Gallicism, for the less em-
phatic Paris est une belle ville).
C'est une charmante chose A woman is a charming thing.
qu'une femme.
b. When the predicate complement precedes and the subject
follows tore; or simply to repeat a preceding subject. — Ex.
La premiere qualite" d'un mon- The first quality of a monarch
arque c'est la fermetL is firmness.
Ce qui importe a Vhomme c'est What is of consequence to man
de remplir ses devoirs. is to fulfil his duties,
266-269.] PRONOUNS. 161
Ce qui Vafflige, c'est que vous What grieves him is your being
lui en voulez. angry with him.
Le temps, c'est de V argent. Time is money.
Etc., cf. ex. under 252.
Note. — In elliptical expressions the expletive que of a. is used even
when c'est (etc.) is omitted: e.g. Un singulier homme que ce roi 'A singular
man, this king ! '
[267.] Exceptionally, ce is used with sembler (in ce me semble), devoir or
pouvoir followed by etre, dire, venir, and after a preposition. — Ex. C'est lui,
ce me semble. Ce doit etre lui. Ce pourrait bien etre lui. Sur ce, je suis voire
serviteur.
[268.] Ceci and cela (or ca) are used with reference to some-
thing pointed to by the speaker, or to a sentence or idea. In
a question, with Mre, they are divided into -ce ci and -ce la. — Ex.
Ceci est pour vous ; cela est This is for you ; that is for
pour moi. me.
Cela ne me plait pas. That does not please me.
Cela m'est impossible. That is impossible to me.
Qui a dit cela ? Who has said that ?
Est-ce la votre opinion f Is that your opinion ?
Sont-ce ci vos livres ? Are these your books ?
269. Celui (celle, ceux, celles) 'that one' (often = 'he')
is the dependent pronoun, necessarily determined by an
immediately following (a) relative clause or (b) preposi-
tional (especially a possessive) phrase. — Ex.
a
Celui qui est content est heureux. He who is content is happy.
Ceux qui vivront verront. Those who live shall see.
Celle dont nous pleurons la She whose death we mourn.
mort.
II rty a pas de ve'rite' plus There is no truth more certain
sure que celle que tous les than that all men must die.
hommes doivent mourir.
162
SYNTAX.
[269, 270.
Monfils et celui de monfr&re,
mafille et cells de monfrere.
La robe de satin et cel/e de
velours.
Voila vos lettres et cel/es pour
votre soeur.
Je ri>ai qu'un seul d6sir, celui
d'etre heureux.
My son and my brother's, my
daughter and my brother's.
The satin dress and the velvet
one.
There are yonr letters and your
sister's.
I have only one desire, that of
being happy.
Note 1. — If the relative clause is parenthetic in value celui-ci, celui-la
are used for celui (270) : e.g. Celui-ci, qui coute peut de chose, est excellent
1 This one, which costs but a trifle, is excellent/
Note 2. — Celuiis also used, though less frequently (and not elegantly),
before adjective expressions that could be changed into a relative clause:
e.g. Ces litres sont meilleurs que ceux donnas a M. A. Cette histoire, ainsi que
celles purement morales, est bonne a lire.
Note 3. — Sometimes celui etc., may be omitted. — Ex. Ces sentiments
sont (ceux) d'un bon pere.
270. Celui-ci and celui-la, are the independent pronouns,
being used: — a. to point out distinct objects as near {celui-
ci) or more remote (celui-la)', or to refer back to two things
as 'the latter' (celui-ci), 'the former' (celui-la)-, — b. as
antecedent to a relative which does not immediately
follow (269. 1). — Ex.
a
Those are two beautiful paint-
ings ; this one is by Raphael,
that (one is) by Murillo.
Will you have these or those ?
Ce sont deux beaux tableaux;
celui-ci est par Raphael,
celui-la est par Murillo.
Voulez-vous ceux-ci ou ceux-
la?
Le sommeil est doux apr&s le
travail ; celui-ci 6puise nos
forces, celui-la les rSpare.
Celui-la est heureux qui est
content.
Sweet is sleep after labor ; the
latter exhausts our strength,
the former repairs it.
b
He is happy who is content.
270-272.] PRONOUNS. 163
[But Celui qui est content est He who is content is happy.]
heureux: cf. 269.
Exercise XII.
Interrogatives.
(Review 108.)
271 . The adjective quel (which may be separated from its
noun by tore) and the pronoun lequel are, as the English in-
terrogatives, used in both direct and indirect questions.
Lequel (like Engl. l which ? ') always limits the question to
one or certain ones of several objects referred to. — Ex.
Quel livre avez-vous ? Which (what) book do you have?
Je ne sais quels livres il a. Idonotknowwhichbookshehas.
A quelle lieure viendrez-vous? At what hour shall you come ?
Quel est votre avis ? What is your opinion ?
Lequel de ces tableaux vous Which of these paintings pleases
plait le mieux ? you most ?
Examinons lequel de vos Aleves Let us find out who of your
a fait le plus de progr&s. pupils has made the greatest
progress.
Laque/le de ces Jleurs est a Which of these flowers is
vous ? yours ?
Lesquels avez-vous choisis ? Which ones have you chosen ?
Duquel de ces gargons parlez- Which of these boys do you
vous V speak of ?
Auxquelles de ces jleurs don- Which of these flowers do you
nez vous la pr4f4rence ? prefer ?
Note. — Quel also corresponds to the exclamatory ' what (a) ' : Quel
beau tableau ! * What a beautiful picture ! ' Quelle bont€! ' What goodness ! '
272. Qui is used in both direct and indirect questions, with
reference to persons, as subject or object. Instead of qui, the
164 SYNTAX. [272-274
redundant phrase qui est-ce qui (subject) or qui est-ce que
(object) is often used, especially when no noun follows the
verb. — Ex.
Qui (or Qui est-ce qui) a fait Who has done that?
cela ?
Qui cherchez-vous ? (or Qui Whom do you seek?
est-ce que vous cherchez ?)
Qui est ce garcon ? Who is this boy ?
A qui pensez-vous ? Of whom do you think?
Je ne sais qui a dit cela. I do not know who has said that.
273. Que 'what/ a conjunctive, is used only in direct
questions. Instead of que, the redundant phrase qu'est-ce
qui (subject) or qu'est-ce que (object or predicate) is often
used, the former regularly when the interrogative (Eng. what H)
is the subject of other than impersonal verbs. — Ex.
Que dites-vous ? (or Qu'est-ce What do you say ?
que vous dites f)
Qu'est ce ? (or usually Qu'est- What is it (that) ?
ce que c'est f)
Qu ) est-ce qui vous 4tonne ? What astonishes you ?
Note 1. — In colloquial language, qu'est-ce qui (or que) is often farther
extended to qu'est-ce que c'est qui (or que with or without verb). — Ex.
Qu'est-ce que c'est qui vous e'tonne ? What astonishes you ? Qu'est-ce que c'est
qu'il veut? What does he wish? Qu'est que c'est que I'avenir? What is the
future ? Qu'est-ce que c'est que cela (or cd) ? What is that ?
Note 2. — In indirect questions 'what' is expressed by ce qui or ce que
(265). — Ex. Je ne sais pas ce qui I'afflige 'I do not know what pains
him.'
274. Quo/ 'what/ a disjunctive, is used after prepositions.
Without preposition it can occur only in exclamation or inter-
rogation, when the verb is omitted ; and after savoir. — Ex.
A quo/ pensez-vous? What are you thinking of?
De quo/ parlez-vous ? What are you speaking of ?
Quo/ de plus beau ? What more beautiful ?
274-276.] PRONOUNS. 165
II cherche quelque chose. Quo/' He is looking for something.
done ? What is it ?
77 cherche, je ne sais quoi. He is seeking, I don't know what.
275. About quel, qui, or quoi forming indefinites with que cf. 287.
Relative Pronouns.
(Review 109-11.)
276. Use of the Relative Pronouns. — The use of the
different relative pronouns is subject to the following rules :
a. Without preposition qui and que are always used when no
ambiguity can arise, i.e. generally with reference to an imme-
diately preceding noun. Lequel (laquelle, etc.) simply serves
to avoid ambiguity by distinguishing gender, or referring to
the more remote antecedent noun. — Ex.
V enfant qui est malade, et que The child who is sick, and whom
fai vu. I have seen.
Les villes qui ont et4 pillies. The cities that have been plun-
dered.
Elle a un ruban~de~soie qui She has a silk-ribbon that is
est Men beau. very pretty.
La fille du cure' laquelle de- The vicar's daughter, who is
meure ici pr&s, est malade. living near by, is ill.
Le tils du mtdecin, lequel fai The physician's son whom I
vu hier. saw yesterday.
b. After a preposition qui refers to persons, and lequel
asually to things (less often also persons). The preposi-
tional phrases de qui, duquel, and auquel (dans lequel etc.) are
often replaced by dont and od (cf. Ill, and c. below) — by
oil less often in ordinary style than in classical writers. — Ex.
C'est un ami de qui (less It is a friend of whom I speak.
often duquel) je parle.
Voild, Vami dont (or duquel There is the friend of whom I
or de qui) je parle. speak.
166
SYNTAX,
[276
La maison dans laquelle (or
ou) je demeure.
Sa mere pour qui (or pour
laquelle) il travaille, est
vieille et injirme.
Les honneurs ou (or, more
commonly, auxquels) vous
aspirez.
La douleur oil je suis plough.
La maison d'ou il sort.
But La maison dont il sort.
The house in which (or where)
I live.
His mother for whom he works
is old and infirm.
The honors to which you aspire.
The grief into which I am
plunged.
The house from which he comes.
The house ( = family) from
which he descends.
c. ' Whose (of which)' is rendered by dont; or, after a
preposition, by duquel (de laquelle etc.). The construction
is in either case what it would be in English if ' whose ' were
rendered by 'of whom (which)/ observing always that dont
heads the relative clause, and thus, unlike 'whose/ is often
separated from its governing noun. — Ex.
Jjhomme dont le frere est
mort, est id.
Je voudrais voir Vhomme dont
vous vantez tant la probit4.
Je vais trouver V agent dont
vous m'avez donne 1 Padresse.
12 ennui est un mal dont le
travail est le remMe.
Vhomme d, V enfant duquel
vous parlez.
La femme avec le Jils de
laquelle je suis venu.
Les lois a la protection des-
quelles nous conjions notre
bonheur.
The man whose brother is dead
is here.
I should like to see the man
whose honesty you praise so
much.
I am going to find the agent
whose address you gave me.
Ennui is an evil whose cure is
work.
The man to whose child you
speak.
The woman with whose son I
have come.
The laws to whose protection
we intrust our happiness.
277-280.]
PRONOUNS.
167
[277.] Elliptically qui is used as an indefinite pronoun in the sense of
• whoever, (any) one who,' or instead of ce qui, and it is then invariable.
— Ex.
Qui ne dit rien consent. He who says nothing consents.
Qui (or Celui que) j'aime, je I'aime Whom I love, I love well.
bien.
On ne pent rien exiger de qui n'a Nothing can be exacted from one who
rien. has nothing.
Voila qui (or ce qui) n'arrivera That shall never happen (lit. Behold
jamais. what shall never happen).
[278.] Lequel is exceptionally used as a pronominal adjective. — Ex.
J'ai recu cent dollars, de laquelle somme je vous paierai ma dette.
279. Quo/ is an indefinite relative referring to some such
antecedent as ce, rien, chose, voila, void, and is used only with
a preposition. — Ex.
77 n'y a rien sur quo/ Von ait
plus ecrit.
Voila de quo/ il s'agit.
Je peux deviner (ce) a quo/
il pense.
Nous avons de quo/ vivre (and
so on with an infinitive to
express means or cause).
There is nothing on which more
has been written.
That is what the question is
about.
I can guess what he is think-
ing of.
We have the means of living
(We have our means of sub-
sistence).
280. The English 'what' (= 'that which') is in French
rendered by ce and a relative pronoun (265). — Ex.
Ce qui est vrai est beau.
Ce que vous dites est vrai.
Ce dont je me plains, c'est
votre inattention.
Les Mens de la fortune sont
ce h quo/ il faut le moins
se fier*
What is true is beautiful.
What you say is true.
What I complain of is your
inattention.
The gifts of fortune are what
we must least of all rely
upon.
168 SYNTAX. [281-283.
281. The Relative pronoun should follow its antecedent as
nearly as the construction of the sentence permits, and it
cannot be omitted, as in English. — Ex.
Tai sur ma table un livre^qui I have a book on my table which
est a toi (not Tai un livre is thine.
sur ma table qui est a toi) .
Oil est le papier^que fax Where is the paper (which) I
achetS ? bought ?
Voila le livre~dont je parte. There is the book I speak of
Exercise XIII.
Indefinite Pronouns.
(Review carefully 112. Rules there given, not repeated.)
282. Que/que (quelques) * some ' is more restrictive than the
partitive sign (45), and may often be rendered ' a little, a few.'
Avez-vous quelqu 1 argent ? Avez-vous de r argent ? Have
Have you (some) a little you any money?
money ?
Avez-vous quelques plumes ? Avez-vous des plumes ? Have
Have you a few (some) you pens ?
pens?
Quelques hommeset des femmes A few men, and some women
se montrent sur le mur. show themselves on the wall.
Note. — With a word of quantity (especially a numeral) quelque * some,
about ' is invariable. — Ex. Quelque cinquante ans ' Some fifty years.' Quel-
que peu ' Some little/
283. Quelque . . . (qui or) que form pronominal phrases
meaning ' whatever' or ' however.' If the intervening word
is a noun or noun-phrase, quelque is an adjective and variable,
the meaning being then ( whatever ; ' otherwise it is an adverb
and invariable, the meaning being then ' however.' — Ex.
283-287.] PKONOUNS. 169
Quel que malheur qui m'at- Whatever misfortune may
tende. 1 await me.
Quelques richesses qu'ilposs&de. Whatever riches he may possess.
Que/ques beaux talents qu'il Whatever fine talents he may
ait. have.
Que/que riches qu'ils soient. However rich they may be.
Que/que fort qu'on se defende. However stoutly one may resist.
284. Que/que chose 'something' is masculine, but chose 'thing' is
feminine (even in quelque chose que 'whatever'). — Ex. Que/que chose de
beau * Something beautiful.' Quelque chose qu'il ait faite (f .) • Whatever
he may have done.' Une belle chose ' A beautiful thing.'
285. Quelconque ' whatever,' which is used for both persons and things,
follows the noun it qualifies. With tie it is rarely used in the plural. —
Ex. Donnez-moi un livre quelconque (des livres quelconques) ' Give me some
sort (any kind) of a book.' 77 n'y a raison quelconque qui puisse vous y
obliger * There is no reason whatever that can oblige you to it.'
286. Quiconque 'whoever' is rarely used except for persons and in the
singular. — Ex. Quiconque est riche doit etre bienfaisant 'Whoever is rich
ought to be beneficent.' Quiconque ment sera puni ' Whoever lies shall be
punished.'
287. The relatives qui, quel, quo/, oil form with a follow-
ing que indefinite pronominal phrases. Qui que ' whoever/
quel que ' whatever/ and quoi que ' whatever ' (with reference
to no definite object) are then used as predicate complements
with &tre. Oil que means 'wherever.' — Ex.
Qui que vous soyez, quelle Whoever you may be, whatever
que soit votre reputation, et may be your reputation, and
quoi que vous fassiez. whatever you do.
Quoi quHl en soit. Whatever the case may be.
Oil que vous soyez, vous Mes Wherever you be you are dead
mort pour moi. for me.
1 Quelque . . . qui or que, unlike tout . . . que, always requires the sub-
junctive (330).
170 SYNTAX. [287-290.
Note. — The same phrases are also used with ce soit in the sense of ' any
one soever/ « anything whatever/ and the like. — Ex. II n'y avait qui que ce
soit* There was not any one soever (anybody at all).' II ne s'occupe de
quoi que ce soit ' He does not busy himself with anything whatever.'
288= On (about which cf. 112. 3) may apply to a particular person or to
a distinct body of persons, and a following adjective then agrees in gender
and number with the noun referred to ; but the verb is invariably in the
singular. — On must be repeated before each verb whose subject it is. — Ex.
A votre age, ma fllle, on est curieuse At your age, my daughter, one is
(f.). inquisitive.
Ici Von est e'gaux, pi. (colloquial). Here people are equal.
On est heureux quand on est content. One is happy when he is contented.
289. Auirui, which can refer only to persons, is rarely
used except after prepositions (it being supplied, as subject
and direct object, by un autre, pi. les autres, d y autres 'others').
Ne vous moquez pas d'autrui. Do not make fun of other people.
D'autres le feront. Others will do that.
290. Personne, rien, and aucun are the negative correla-
tives to quelquJun, quelque chose, and quelque, being used when-
ever the action of the verb (expressed or understood) is in
some manner denied, forbidden, or uncertain. — Ex.
Je ne connais personne. I do not know any one (I know
no one).
Rien n'est impossible d, Dieu. Nothing is impossible for God.
Je ne d e" sire aucun de vos I do not wish any of your
livres. books.
Je doute que personne vienne. I doubt whether anybody comes.
Je lui d e" fends de rien dire. I forbid him to say anything.
Y a-t-il aucun (personne) Is there anybody who believes
qui le croie f it ?
II est parti sans payer per- He left without paying anybody
sonne (sans rien payer). (without paying anything).
Je le sais mieitx que personne I know it better than anybody.
(ne le sait understood).
290-292.]
PRONOUNS.
171
Qui le sait ? Personne.
A quoi pensez-vous ? A r/en.
Je ne veux r/en dire.
Who knows it ? Nobody.
What are you thinking of ? Of
nothing.
I will say nothing (or I do not
mean anything).
Notice that personne, like all the other uninflected pronouns, is masculine
singular, while the noun personne ' person ' is feminine.
291. Nul. — The adjective is inflected in masculine and
feminine, but it is rarely used as an indirect object or in the
plural. The pronoun nul is always masculine singular.
Although itself negative (Lat. nullus) its verb is by analogy
construed with ne. — Ex.
Nul n'est revenu. No one has returned.
Je n'en ai nulle connaissance. I have no knowledge of it.
292. Tout (toute; pi. tous, toutes). — a. The adjective tout
is distributive (sing, 'every, any/ pi. 'all = all kinds of)
when accompanied by no article or pronoun. With an article
or pronoun it is collective ('the whole, all the'). — b. The
pronoun tout means ' everything, all.' — Ex.
Conjunctive :
Directly preceding :
Tout homme doit aimer son
pays. Every man should
love his country.
Toute chose a son temps.
Everything has its time.
Toutes ve'rite's ne sont pas
bonnes d, dire. It is not
well to tell all truths.
Tout enfant aime le jeu.
Every child likes playing.
Followed by an article or pronoun :
Toute fa maisonfut bruUe. The
whole house was burnt.
J'y r ester ai toute une annee. I
shall remain there a whole
year.
Tous /es hommes sont mortels.
All men are mortal.
Tous mes (pes) enfants aiment
le jeu. All my (these) chil-
dren like playing.
172
SYNTAX.
[292, 293.
Disjunctive :
Tout ddpend de I Education. Everything depends on educa-
tion.
Je les connais to us (s = ss). I know them all.
J'ai tout dit. I have said all.
all.
Ex. Tout
Note 1. — Tout before the name of a city means
Paris en parle 'All Paris speaks of it.'
Note 2. — Tout as adverb means 'wholly, entirely, quite.' By an
anomaly (to preserve the utterance of t as before vowels) it is inflected
toute (toutes) before a feminine adjective beginning with a consonant (cf.
touC€tonn€e i f . : toute bonne, f . — Ex.
fflle en fut tout €tonnee (or toute
surprise) .
Elles sont tout inconsolables (or
toutes de'solees) .
II parlait tout Jierement.
Elle est tout a son devoir
Je suis tout a vous.
She was quite astonished at it.
They are quite disconsolate.
He spoke quite proudly.
She is wholly devoted to her duty.
I am wholly yours.
Note 3. — Tout . . . que means • however/ tout being here an adverb,
treated as above. — Ex. Tout bon qu'il est 1 (but Toute bonne qu'elle est)
'However good he (or she) is.' Toute femme (used as adj.) qu'elle est
' However much of a woman she is.'
293. Tel ' such ' takes the indefinite article before it, instead of after,
as in English, and it does not prevent the use of the partitive de. It may
mean ' so-and-so,' ' such-and-such,' being used instead of a word not speci-
fied ; or it may mean ' many a one/ and Tel . . . tel corresponds to ' one
. . . another ' or ' as . . . so.'
Tel est son devoir.
Une telle conduite me plait.
De te/s amis sont rares.
II me doit telle somme.
Monsieur un tel.
Tel rit aujourd'hui qui pleurera
demain.
Such is his duty.
Such conduct pleases me.
Such friends are rare.
He owes me such-and-such a sum.
Mr. such a one.
Many a one laughs to-day who will
cry to-morrow.
1 Tout . . . que (unlike quelque .
the subjunctive.
que: 330) does not generally require
293, 294.] PRONOUNS. 173
Tel rit } tel pleure. One laughs, another cries.
Tel maitre, tel valet. As the master, so the servant (Like
master, like man).
294. Vun P autre (requiring se before the verb) 'each
other/ refer to antecedent objects, expressed or understood,
with which they agree in gender and number. — Ex.
Ces deux filles Raiment Pune These two girls love each
/'autre. other.
Les chrkiens doivent s'aimer Christians should love one
/es uns /es autres. another.
In the same way are used also : Pun de (a etc.) /'autre ' of
(to etc.) each other,' Pun et I' autre 'both/ Pun ou P autre
'either the one or the other/ ni Pun nl P autre 'neither the one
nor the other.' After Vun et V autre the noun is in the singular,
but the verb usually in the plural ; after ni Vun ni V autre the
verb is in the singular or plural according as the predicate is
applicable to only one or both of the objects referred to. — Ex.
lis parlent Vun de P autre. They speak of one another.
On se doit des egards /es uns We should be considerate
aux autres. towards one another.
Vun et P autre gar con le Both boys followed him.
suivaient.
Uun et P autre se sont trompes. Both are mistaken.
Lucr&ce et CMopdtre se sont Lucretia and Cleopatra both
tuees Pune et P autre, mais killed themselves, but they
elles ne se sont pas tutes did not kill each other.
Pune P autre.
Lune ou P autre le fera. Either the one or the other
shall (will) do it.
Ni Pune ni /'autre n'est ma Neither is my mother.
m&re.
Ni Pun ni P autre ne viendront. Neither will come,
Exercise XIV.
174 SYNTAX. [295-297.
XVI.
YEEBS.
[295. HISTORY. — The construction of the verb has been subject to
some variation in past centuries. Thus, in the 16th and beginning of the
17th century, the verb was allowed to agree with the last only of two or
more coordinated subjects (e.g. Lews maisons et lew ville va etre deserte.
Bossuet) ; in the 17th, etre usually agrees with a preceding ce and not with
its predicate (e.g. C'est eux qui en demeurent d'accord. M nie de Sevigne') ;
in the 17th and 18th, exceptionally even yet, a verb referring to two nouns
is put in the plural, even when the second noun is subordinated to the
first (e.g. Le comte Piper avec quelques officiers eta/ent sortis du camp.
Voltaire). — In the 17th century, the conditional is found used after si,
and a dependent future after a leading future even when not logically
required (*Si d'un sang trop vil ta main serait trempe'e. Racine). (Je revien-
drai voir snr le soir en quel €tat elle sera. Moliere). The distinction of
mode has undergone many changes (cf . further under the subjunctive :
319), and the infinitive, originally supplying both the Latin infinitive and
gerund or gerundive, was once much more freely used than it is now.]
Agreement of Verb and Subject.
296. A verb agrees in number and person with its subject,
or with its subjects collectively (if thus considered). — Ex.
Monfrere viendra. My brother will come.
Mes fr&res viendront. My brothers will come.
Nous viendrons. We shall come.
Mon frere et ma sozur vien- My brother and sister will
dront. come.
Note. — After Vun et V autre the predicate may be in the
singular: e.g. Vun et V autre est bon, or sont bons.
[297.] Agreement with One Alone of Several Sub-
jects. — The verb agrees in French — in the main as also in
297.] VERBS. 175
English — with one alone of several subjects, a. when its action
really affects only one of them, or b. when it affects one of them
more emphatically than the others. Thus,
a. It agrees with one of several subjects (the nearest), when
they are connected by ou 'or' or ni 'neither,' provided the
verbal action cannot affect all the subjects alike. — Ex. Mon
frere ou ma soeur viendra ' My brother or my sister (not both)
will come.' Ni Vun ni V autre n'est mon pere 'Neither is my
father' (only one could be). — But Le vice ou la vertu font des
revolutions 'Vice or virtue (both) cause revolutions.' Ni mon
frere ni ma soeur ne viendront 'Neither my brother nor my
sister will come' (i.e. both will stay away: hence usually
plural after nouns combined by ni).
Note. — The above principle is not so strictly observed, but that occa-
sional deviations occur. As a general rule, the singular is preferred after
ou and the plural after m*. Observe the somewhat different usage in English,
when the verb is in the singular after • or,' ' either — or,' ' neither — nor,'
unless one of the subjects is a plural or a collective noun.
b. The verb agrees with one only of several subjects (the
nearest, except when that is of subordinate value) : 1. when
they are placed in gradation (ma parole, mon honneur le
demande, ' My word, my honor demands it ') ; 2. when they are
synonymous (Mori maltre et protecteur viendra 'My master
and protector will come ') ; 3. when they are connected by a
particle like comme, ainsi que, aussi bien que, etc. subordinating
the following noun or nouns under the preceding (Mon frere,
aussi bien que ma soeur, viendra 'My brother, as well as my
sister, will come').
Farther Examples to 297 :
a.
Le vice ou la vertu triomphera. Vice or virtue must triumph.
Vun ou V autre ecrira. One or the other will write.
176
SYNTAX.
[297-299.
Le bonheur on la temerite ont
pa f aire des heros.
Ni Vun ni V autre ne Vepousera.
Ni mon pere ni ma mere ne
viendront.
Une seule parole, un sourire,
un regard suffit.
Son courage, son intrepidite
nous etonne.
Le temps, le bien, la vie, tout
est a la patrie.
Cette bataille, comme tant
d'autres, ne dec/ da rien.
La vertu, ainsi que (or de
m$me que) le savoir, a son
prix.
Luck or rashness may have
made heroes.
Neither will marry her.
Neither my father nor my
mother will come.
b.
A single word, a smile, a look
is sufficient.
His courage, his intrepidity
astonishes us.
Time, property, life, everything
belongs to one's country.
This battle, like so many others,
decided nothing.
Virtue, as well as knowledge,
has its value.
[298.] Should the subjects be of different persons (1st, 2d,
3d), they are either summed up by one personal pronoun, with
which the verb then agrees ; or the verb is construed as if they
were. — Ex.
Ma sozur et moi (nous) vien- My sister and I will come to
drons vous voir. see you.
Vous et lui etes contents. You and he are satisfied.
JVt toi ni lui, vous n'e*tes venus. Neither he nor you came.
Vous ou lui viendrez. You or he will come.
[299.] Agreement with Collectives. — a. After a col-
lective noun in the singular, determined by a plural noun,
expressed or understood, the verb is treated in French, in the
main, as in English, being in the singular if the unity of the
collection is had in view, otherwise in the plural. — Ex.
299, 300.]
VERBS.
177
The verb in the singular : —
La foule d'enfants etait The crowd of children was
grande.
L'armtie des infideles fut
detruite.
La mo it i 6 des troupes per it
de miser e.
Tine nu£e de traits obscure/ 1
Vair.
great. ,
The army of infidels was de-
stroyed.
One half of the troops perished
of want.
A cloud of arrows darkened the
air.
The verb in the plural
Une foule aV enfant s y
etaient.
Un grand nombre de soldats
peri rent de mis&re, un petit
nombre (de soldats under-
stood) se sa uve rent.
Cette esp&ce de chiens ne
vivent que dix ans.
A crowd of children were there.
A great number of soldiers per-
ished of want, a small num-
ber escaped.
This species of dogs live only
ten years.
b. Adverbs of Quantity (beaucoup, la plupart, etc.) followed
by a genitive plural must, as also in English, have a plural
verb. — Ex.
Beaucoup d'hommes y sont.
La plupart des hommes sont
intiresse's.
La plupart le croient.
Le sinat etait partagS, la plu-
part etaient en faveur du
pro jet.
Many persons are there.
Most men are selfish.
Most people believe it.
The senate were (note sing, in
Fr.) divided ; a majority were
in favor of the bill.
300. After ce as impersonal subject of etre, this verb agrees
with the following predicate (expressed or understood), if it
is of the 3d person. — Ex,
178
SYNTAX.
[300-303.
Ce sont mes enfant s. It is my children.
Ce sont eux. It is they.
Sont-ce la vos pom mes ? Are those your apples ?
11 faut que ce soient les They must be mine.
miennes.
"But: —
Cost moi; c'est nous; c'est It is I; it is we; it is you.
vous.
Note. — When the predicate is followed by the relative que, c'est is
preferred to ce sont. — Ex. Est-ce les Anglais que vous aimez? >
301. After the relative qui the verb agrees with the immediate
antecedent of qui. — Ex.
C'est moi qui Vai dit.
C'est nous qui souffrons.
Vous etes le seul qui le sache.
Je crois que je suis le premier qui
ait parl€ de cela.
It is I who has said it.
It is we that suffer.
You are the only one that knows it.
I believe I am the first that spoke
of it.
302. After nous, vous, and on, the verb is construed according to the
grammatical value of these words, but the predicate noun or adjective
according to their implied sense. — Ex.
Vous etes bonne, ma mere.
On se touchait la main, et Von etait
amis pour la vie.
You are good, my mother.
They grasped each others hands and
were friends for life.
Exercise XV.
Use of Modes and Tenses.
303. INDICATIVE. — The indicative mode is not in French
of so universal use as in English, being often supplied by the
subjunctive as described farther on (320 etc.). In the use of
indicative tenses, French and English, though for the most
303, 304.] VERBS. 179
part agreeing, also not unfrequently differ. Special rules are
given below.
304. The Simple Present. — This tense is used :
a. As in English, to express purely present state or action ;
and it represents the indefinite as well as the progressive and
emphatic forms of the English present (e.g. faime ' I love, am
loving, do love '). — Ex.
La superstition cause mille Superstition causes a thousand
accidents. calamities.
II ecrit une lettre. He is writing (writes) a letter.
b. Unlike the present in English, to express present state or
action continued from the past (cf. Depuis combien de temps
etes-vous en Amerique ? ' How long have you been in America ? '
when the person asked is yet there; but Combien de temps
avez-vous ete en A. ? when he is no longer there). — Ex.
H est id depuis une semaine He has been here for a week.
(or 11 y a une semaine quHl
est id).
Depuis quand Vaimez-vous ? How long have you loved her ?
Combien de temps y a4-il How long 'has she been in
qu'elle est en France ? France ?
Depuis trente hivers il languit. He has languished these thirty
years.
c. To express future state or action after si ' if ' (not after si ' whether ' :
cf. 311), as also in English. — Ex.
S'il vientj je lui parlerai. If he comes, I shall speak to him.
d. As also often in English, rhetorically, to express past state or action
as present. — Ex.
La nuit approche, Vinslant arrive. Night draws nigh, the moment comes
Cesar se presente. Caesar presents himself (narratior
of past events).
180 SYNTAX. [304, 305.
e. Exceptionally (as also in English) for a future in main clauses to
express certainty or immediateness. — Ex.
Je pars dans une heure. I depart in an hour.
Je suis de retour dans un moment. I shall be back in a moment.
305. The Compound Present ( = Perfect).— This tense
is regularly used: — a. Where the action of the verb is com-
pleted within a division of time not yet past (as this hour,
this day, this year, this century, etc.) ; — b. Where the state
or action of the verb, though completed in a past period, is
spoken of in a general way, without reference to attending
circumstances, or with an implied reference to its consequence
in the present.
In familiar discourse the compound present is used quite
freely without any reference to a present past, especially with
the 1st and 2d persons.
a.
Mon frere a ecr/'t aujourd'hui. My brother has written to-day.
II est arrive ce matin. He came this morning.
Je lui ai parte (cette semaine), I have spoken to him (this
et il a promts de venir. week), and he promised to
come,
b.
Dieu a cree le monde. God created the world.
Colomb a decouvert V Ame'rique. Columbus discovered America.
La Grece a ete la mere des Greece was the mother of the
beaux arts. fine arts.
Je Vai vu il y a un an. I saw him a year ago.
J'ai recu Mer la lettre que I received yesterday the letter
vousm'avez4crite la semaine which you wrote me last
dernier e. week.
Note. — Exceptionally the compound present is used for the compound
future (cf. 304. e). — Ex. Attendez, J'at fmi dans un moment ' Wait, I (shall)
have finished in a moment.'
306.]
VERBS.
181
306. The Simple and Compound Imperfect and
PRETERIT. — These are both, past tenses. The imperfect
describes a past state or action as unfinished (i.e. as existing,
continuous, habitual, or going on when something else occurs)
at the time thought of. The preterit relates a past occurrence
as complete in itself, and without reference to the condition
arising from it.
Imperfect: —
II etait negotiant pendant dix He was a merchant during ten
years.
Torches lighted the hall, but
ans.
Des flambeaux eclairaient
la salle, mais Us etaient
presque tons p faces & V extre-
mity ou x'elevait Vestrade
des juges.
Lorsque fetais ct Paris, je
sou pais souvent chez M. B.
Je pensais d, elle lorsqu'elle
arriva.
J'ava/s dejeune quand vous
entrdtes.
II etait parti quand je suis
arrive.
Preterit : —
Le roi quitta son vaisseau et The
monta une fregate plus
leghre.
Louvet descendit de la tribune,
et Robespierre y monta.
they were nearly all placed
at the other end, where the
judges' bench was erected.
When I was in Paris, I often
took my supper at Mr. B's.
I was thinking of her when she
arrived.
I had breakfasted when you
entered.
He left when I arrived.
D&s quHl fut entre, on form a
la porte.
A peine me fus-je Iev6 quHl
entra.
king left his vessel and
went on board of a smaller
craft (frigate).
Louvet descended from the
tribune, and Eobespierre
mounted it.
As soon as he had entered, the
door was closed.
Scarcely had I risen when he
entered.
182
SYNTAX.
[306-308.
Both imperfect
Nous etions (assis) d table
lorsquHl arriva.
Mon ami eta/t Men jeune
quand il perdit sa mbre.
Le vaisseau qvJil monta eta/t
de cent vingt pieces de canon.
Les accuses avaient des dkfen-
seurs, Us n'en eurent plus.
On les jugeait individuelle-
ment, on les jugea en masse.
and preterit : —
We were (seated) at table when
he arrived.
My friend was very young when
he lost his mother.
The vessel which, he boarded
had 120 cannon.
The accused had been having
counsels ; they no longer re-
ceived any. They had been
sentenced one by one, they
(now) were sentenced en
masse.
[307.] The distinction between the imperfect and the preterit is not so
absolute but that a certain degree of option is allowed. Especially in
compound tenses, the tendency is in favor of the imperfect form. Thus,
J' avals dejeune lorsqu'il entra 'I had had my breakfast (or I had just
breakfasted) when he entered.'
[308.] After si 'if (not after si ' whether'), introducing an
unreal, unaccomplished condition, the imperfect is regularly
used in French where the conditional or past would be used
in English. — Ex.
Si vous me trompiez, je de-
viendrais bien malheureux.
Si je venais, viendriez-vous ?
11 m'a demand^ si fy con-
sentirais.
If you should deceive (or
deceived) me, I should be
very unhappy.
If I should come (or came),
would you come ?
He asked me whether I would
consent.
Note 1. — Even in main clauses, the imperfect may be used for the
conditional when in energetic writing attention is called to the certainty
of the result. — Ex.
S'il ne I'avait pa* fait, I'autre etait If be had not done it, the other would
mort. be dead.
308-313.] VERBS. 183
Note 2. — About the use of the compound imperfect subjunctive,
instead of the conditional, cf. 338.
[309.] As the present may express a state or action con-
tinued from the past (304. b) so the imperfect may also (con-
trary to English usage) denote a state or action continued from
a previous time. — Ex,
II y etait depuis longtemps. He had been there for a long
time.
310. The Simple and Compound Future. — These
tenses correspond to the same tenses in English, observing
only that French is more strict than English in using the
future where logically required, especially in temporal clauses.
— Ex.
Je parti rai demain. I shall depart to-morrow.
J'aurai fin/' avant vous. I shall have finished before you.
Je le verrai aussitdt quHl I shall see him as soon as he
viendra. , comes.
Je parti rai quand faurai fini I shall leave when I have fin-
mes affaires. ished my business.
Vous direz ce quHl vous plaira. You will say what you please.
[311.] After si the future is used only in the sense of 'whether' (cf.
304. d). — Ex. Je ne sais s'il viendra 'I know not whether he will come/
Si vous venez, je vous le dirai * If you (will) come, I will tell you it.' Je
partirai s'il vient ' I shall be off if he comes.'
[312.] About the use of the present for the future to denote immediate
action, etc., cf. 304. e.
[313.] The compound future sometimes expresses that an act has prob-
ably taken place. — Ex.
// lui aura tout dit. 1 He has probably told him all.
77 sera parti hier. He must have started yesterday.
II se sera egare, sans cela il serait He has probably lost his way, other-
ici. wise he would be here.
1 Cf . German : Er voird ihm alles gesagt haben.
184 SYNTAX. [314-317.
314. The Simple and Compound Conditional.—
These tenses correspond to the same tenses in English, except
(a.) that they cannot be used after si 'if,' which requires the
imperfect (cf. 308) ; and (b.) that they are more strictly used
in subordinate clauses where logically required. — Ex.
Je viendrais si je pouvais. I should come if I could.
Je I'aurais fait si favais pu. I should have done it, had 1
been able.
Si vous me trompiez, je If you should (or were to) de-
deviendrais bien malheureux. ceive me, I should be very
unhappy.
Sijeretournaisa Londres, If I should return to London,
je le verrais. I should see him.
Je vous suivrais partout ou I should follow you wherever
vous iriez. you went.
[315.] After quand, quand meme 'though, even though,' the French
conditional may in English be rendered by 'were to (love, etc.).' — Ex.
Quand vous me ha'iriez, je ne m'en Even if you were to hate me, I should
plaindrais pas. not complain.
[316.] For the conditional of devoir etc., cf. 317. b.
317. Devoir, pouvoir, ne savoir. — The rendering of these
verbs in English needs some special explanations. Thus :
a. As ' can ' and < ought ? have no participle in English, the
compound tenses of pouvoir and devoir are there rendered by
another turn of the expression : j'ai pu 'I could ' (or 1 1 may have,'
or ' I have been able ') ; j'ai du ' I ought to have ' : etc. — Ex.
Je n'ai pu lefaire. I could not do it (I was unable
to do it).
Tl aurait du le faire. He ought to have done it.
Ces hommes ont (or auront) These men may have perished.
pu p4rir.
II aurait du m'e'crire (cf. b). He ought to have written me.
b. Devoir, pouvoir, and ne savoir are used, before an infini-
tive, in the simple conditional to denote respectively * ought/
317, 318.] VERBS. 185
'could' ('might '), and 'can not'; and devoir, pouvoir likewise
in the compound conditional for 'should (ought to) have/
'could (might) have.' — Ex.
Je devrais le faire (Je dois I ought to do it.
with ref . to immediate duty).
Je pourrais Vessayer. I could (might) try it.
Pourriez-vous me dire f Could you tell me ?
Je ne saurais (ne puis more I cannot do it.
definite) le faire.
J'aurais du le faire. I ought to have done it.
Vous aur/ez du venir. You should(ought to) have come.
II n'aurait pu le faire. He could not have done it.
Note. — In part this usage of the conditional seems idiomatic only
because English has fused two originally independent forms into one. Cf .
8i fe'tais invite', je ne pourrais y alter ; J'e'tais invite', mais je ne pus y alter 'If
I were invited I could not go there : I was invited, but I could not go there.'
c. Devoir may be used in any tense (cf. b) to state things as
due [doit 'ought, should, is (destined or intended) to']. — Ex.
Les enfants do/ vent oMir a Children should obey their
leurs parents. parents.
Cela devait arriver. That was (destined) to happen.
II devait mourir (cf. 308. 1). He ought to have died.
Elle a du btre belle dans sa She must have been beautiful
jeunesse. in her youth.
Selon le testament il devait According to the will, he should
avoir la maison. (was to) have the house.
318. Alien in auxiliary use. — To denote immediate fu-
turity, je vais etc. are used as in English ' I am going (I am
about) ' etc. — Ex.
II va partir. He is going (is about) to leave,
J'allais lui tcrire. I was about to write to him.
Exercise XVI.
186 SYNTAX. [319, 320.
Subjunctive.
[319. HISTORY. — The use of the subjunctive in French has grown
out of the use of the same mode in Latin. Yet the connection between the
two has been much disturbed by various restrictions as well as extensions
in French. In both languages, the subjunctive is used chiefly :
A. When the idea involved in the verb-expression is not referred to as
fulfilled or certain of being fulfilled [e.g. Lat. Opto ut veniat = Fr. Je desire
quil vienne ; Lat. Necesse est ut veniat = Fr. 77 faut {II est necessaire) qu'il
vienne ; Lat. Legatos qui consu/erent Apollinem misere = Fr. lis envoyerent
des deputes qui consultassent Apollon] ;
B. When the idea involved in the verb-expression is not the thing
affirmed, as especially (in French almost exclusively) when it is accepted
with some surprise or reserve [e.g. Lat. Miratur quod veniat = Fr. Elle est
surprisse qu'il vienne ; Lat. Unus est qui possit = Fr. II est le seul qui le puisse ;
Quamvis boni sint=¥r. Quoiqu'ils soient bans'].
Still, by a process of differentiation which has been going on through-
out the whole history of the French language, some discrepancies of a
comprehensive nature — such as the loss of the subjunctive of indirect
discourse, the development of a conditional mood, in part assuming the
office of the Latin subjunctive, the greatly increased use of the subjunctive
of surprise (after any expression of emotion), etc. — and many of a more
restricted nature, now exist between that language and the Latin. The
quite uneven tendency of the French has been, on the whole, towards
a restriction of the use of the subjunctive both in independent and sub-
ordinate clauses, but especially in the former. Even yet that tendency is
at work, and the choice of mode depends, in a measure, on the style used,
whether rhetorical or colloquial.
In the 17th and 18th centuries the use of the subjunctive was not
always the same as now. Thus we often in classical authors find the
subjunctive, where we should expect the indicative instead : e.g. Je crois
qu'il so/'t fou (Malherbe) ; Je crois que ce so/'t I'autre (Corneille) ; On
dirait que les temples fussent autant d'hotelleries (Racine) ; Je pensais qu'il
fat/tit pleurer (Moliere). And, vice versa, we also sometimes find the
indicative where we should expect the subjunctive : e.g. J'appre'hende qu'il
sera plus difficile (Balzac) ; II semble qu 'il est en vie (Moliere) ; Quoiqu'il
n'y aurait rien de surprenant (Bossuet).]
320. The Subjunctive is used, as described below,
I. In Subordinate Clauses to qualify the notion of their
verb-phrase, with reference to some preceding expression, as
320-322.] VERBS. 187
a. not realized (but simply willed, feared, doubted, etc.) ; b. as
realized with some emotion (surprise, joy, sorrow, etc.); c. as stated
with some mental reserve (either as being of a sweeping and ex-
clusive nature, or as simply admitted without special affirmation.
II. In Principal Clauses chiefly to qualify the notion of
the verb-phrase as willed.
I. Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses.
321. The subjunctive is used in subordinate clauses intro-
duced by the conjunction que, or a conjunction-phrase ending
with que, or a relative pronoun or particle, for mainly three
purposes, viz. : —
A. To denote that the idea expressed by the subordinate verb-
phrase is not put forth as realized or certain of being so, but
simply with reference: — a. to its willed or intended com-
pletion or non-completion [e.g. Je desire (ordonne, defends, etc.),
quHl vienne e I desire (order, forbid, etc.) that he come']; — or
b. to its contingent completion [e.g. En cas quHl vienne
'In case he should come']; — or c. its doubtfulness, or
uncertainty [e.g. Je doute (ne crois pas, ne dis pas, etc.) quHl
vienne ' I doubt (do not believe, do not say, etc.) that he comes '].
B. To denote that it is realized. with some emotion, as of
surprise, joy, sorrow, etc., expressed in the leading clause:
Je m'tionne quHl I' ait dit 'I am surprised that he has said
it ' ; Je suis fdcJU quHl le sache ' I am sorry that he knows it/
C. To denote that it is stated with some mental reserve,
whether: — a. as involving a sweeping assertion that may
be erroneous [e.g. II est le seul qui puisse le faire 'He is the
only one that can do it'], — or c. a concession made in favor
of a more emphatic statement and as such admitted without
positive assertion [e.g. Bien quHl soit pauvre, il est honnete
homme ' Though he be poor, yet he is an honest man'].
[322.] These general principles are more fully specified in
the following scheme, presenting in a synoptical form all the
chief rules for the use of the subjunctive in subordinate clauses.
o o
188 SYNTAX. [323.
[323.] Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses ■
a. With the conjunction que (or a relative word) after verbs
or phrases implying that the act expressed by the dependent
verb is viewed with reference to its ■willed or intended com-
pletion, or the reverse: — i.e. after verbs and phrases denoting
command, exhortation, desire, expectation (esp€rer and
verbs of believing, unless referable to c, excepted), permis-
sion, fitness, necessity, etc., or their opposites (forbid,
fear, apprehend, etc.). — Cf. 325.
Note. — After a relative (qui, lequel, dont, ou) only if the idea of
purpose is implied.
b. After conjunctive phrases such as a/in que ' in order that,'
en cas que 'in case/ pourvu que 'provided,' etc., denoting a con-
tingent completion of the act expressed by the dependent verb ;
— and after que, if used for such phrases or for si (403. b). Cf.
326.
c. With the conjunction que (or a relative) after verbs or
phrases describing the act expressed by the dependent verb as
not certain, or probable, or possible, as after il n'est pas certain
(probable, possible), douter, and so on, and after negative, interroga-
tive, or conditional statements. — Cf. 327.
Note. — Espe'rer ' hope ' and verbs of believing or thinking
must be used negatively, interrogatively or with si, to be followed
by the subjunctive, while verbs of doubt and fear always
require that mode.
With que after verbs or phrases expressing an inner emotion,
such as surprise, disappointment, joy, sorrow, shame,
rage (all rarely allowing the indie, when no surprise is involved)
— Instead of que with the subj., de ce que usually with the indicative
may be used to emphasize the reality of the verbal action. — Cf . 328.
a. In relative clauses to soften a sweeping assertion (intro-
duced in the main clause by some exclusive word or phrase, as
especially a superlative, seul, nul, etc.), when there may be
room for a possible mistake. — Cf . 329.
6. After concessive or hypothetical conjunction-phrases,
such as bien que 'although,' si . . que 'however* (not after si
alone), quoique (the only one written in one word) 'although,' etc. ;
and after indefinite pronoun-phrases, such as qui que, quel que,
quelque que (but rarely tout que), etc. — Cf. 330.
°. *
n h
p o
CO S
M
H
K
H
o w
. <*>
« pS
323.]
VERBS.
189
Examples (determining words are spaced, and the sub-
junctives in bold type) : —
A. Subj. of unrealized or uncertain completion (323. A) :
a (cf. also 382-3)
J'ordonne que vous lefass fez. 1 I order you to do it.
Dis-leur quHls soient pr&ts.
Je defends quails vienneni
jamais.
Le maltre exige que vous
soyez attentif.
Je desire (souhaite) que vous
soyez toujours heureux.
Permettez (souffrez) que
je vous dise la v4rite.
J'emp&cherai quHl ne le
fasse.
Je prendrai garde quHl ne
' le fasse.
J' attends que vous me
teniez parole.
Tell (= Order) them to be ready.
I forbid them ever to come.
The teacher requires you to be
attentive.
I desire (wish) that you may
always be happy.
Allow me to tell you the truth.
I shall prevent him from doing
it.
I shall take care that he does
not do it.
I expect you to keep your
word.
J'approuve que vous preniez I approve of your taking your
vos precautions.
It faut qu y il vienne tout de
suite.
II importe quHl le sache.
II est juste (de toute jus-
tice) que vous lui ecriviez.
II etait temps que tu
vinsses.
precautions.
He must come immediately.
It is important that he should
know it.
It is only fair that you should
write him.
It was time that you should
come.
1 French often (cf. 331) allows a subjunctive or an infinitive construe-
tion, where in English only the latter can be used. Here Je vous ordonne
de le faire would also be correct.
190
SYNTAX.
[323.
Je cherche un mattre qui
sache m'enseigner lefrancais.
Lisez des livres qui puissent
former votre gout (cf. a. note).
lis envoy&rent des deputes qui
consu/tassent Apollon.
Choisissez une place ou vous
so/ez a votre aise.
Je c rains que ma mere ne
(383) so it malade.
Je ne crains pas que ma
mbre soft malade.
J'ai peur quHl rt arrive pas
a temps.
b (cf.
Approchez a fin que (or sim-
ply que) je vous dise cela.
Je le ferai, pourvu quHl le
fasse.
Conduisez-vous de maniere
que vous so/ez estime'.
[But 11 s'est conduit de maniere
quHl est estime'.']
A mo ins que vous ne so/ez
diligent et que (for a moins
que) vous ne preniez de la
peine, vous ne r4ussirez pas.
Je ne le ferai pas que je ne
Vaie vu (for sans que je
Vaie vu).
Si je ne suis pas de retour a
midi, et que (for si) quel-
qu'un vienne me dem<nly
ne
ne
ne
ne
ne
ne
ne
ne
ne
aucunement \ not at all
nullement /nowise
ni etc. cf. 390.
b. ne with pronouns :
Ex.
II ne parle jamais. He never speaks.
II n'a guere parle'. He scarcely spoke.
II ne faut plus chanter. You must
sing no more.
Je ne connais que mon pays. I know
my country only.
Je ne lui en veux aucunement. I
nowise wish him any harm.
aucun \ not any
nul ino
personne nobody
quelconque
qui que ce soit
rien nothing
none
soever
Ex.
Je n'y ai nul inte'ret. I have no
interest in it.
II n'a vu personne. He has seen
nobody.
77 n'a parle' a qui que ce soit. He has
not spoken to anybody (soever).
II n'a rien vu. He lias seen nothing.
Note 1. — Jamais, plus, aucunement, nullement, aucun, nul, personne, and
rien often, by ellipsis, have a negative meaning without ne, when the verb
is omitted and in certain phrases. — Ex. Viendrez-vous? Jamais 'Shall
you come? Never.' Plus de larmes, plus de chagrins 'No more tears, no
more sorrows'; etc. Cf. 112. 4.
Note 2. — ' Only ' is expressed by ne . . que, or by seu/ement. Either may
limit an object or predicate adjunct {Je ne connais que mon pays or Je
connais seu/ement mon pays. Seulement must be used to limit the subject
(Les bons seu/ement sont heureux) or the predicate (Regardez seulement),
and before que (il dit seulement qu'il viendrait). Seulement may also serve
to strengthen ne . . que (Vouz n'avez seu/ement qu'a me dire une parole).
[389.] Brin ' mote,' goutte 'drop,' mie 'crumb,' mot ' word ' occur (in sense
of rien) as complement to ne in a few set phrases. — Ex. Je n'y vois goutte
' I see nothing in it.' II ne dit mot * He does not say a word (He says
nothing).'
1 ne . . pas plus means ' not any more ' (with reference to quantity or
comparison).
390.] INDECLINABLES. 225
390. USE OF ni. — The expression 'neither . . . nor' when
determining other words than a personal verb is rendered
by ni . . . ni, arranged as in English ; and if there is a verb
in the sentence, ne is placed before it: e.g. Ni mon pbre ni
ma mere (ne viendront) i Neither my father nor my mother
(will come).'
Determining directly personal verbs, 'neither . . . nor' is
rendered by ne . . . ni ne : e.g. II ne lit ni n^crit l He neither
reads nor writes.'
Further examples :
Qui Va fait f Ni lui ni moi. Who has done it ? Neither he
nor I.
Ni lui ni moi ne viendrons. Neither he nor I shall come.
II n'a ni fr&res ni soeurs. He has neither brothers nor
sisters.
II ne sait ni lire ni derive. He can neither read nor write.
Je ne Vai ni dit ni pense". I have neither said so nor
thought so.
Je ne veux ni qu'il Use ni I will not allow him either to
quHl derive. read or write.
II ne mange ni ne boit. He neither eats nor drinks.
Je ne vous loue ni ne vous I neither praise nor blame you.
bldme.
Je ne veux, ni ne dois, ni ne I neither wish nor ought to
puis vous obeir. obey you, nor can I do it.
Note 1. — ' Nor ' used without preceding ' neither ' is rendered (a) before
a verb at the beginning of a clause by et ne : e.g. 77 ne devrait pas le /aire,
et il ne lefera pas, * He ought not to do it, nor will he do it ' ; but (b) within
a clause before other words than personal verbs by ni, and (c) before per-
sonal verbs by ni ne: e.g. Je ne Vai pas dit ni pens€ (or ni ne Vai pense'),
1 1 have not said it, nor (have I) thought it.'
Note 2. — Ni . . . non plus is used in the sense of 'nor . . . either'
where the verb is understood. — Ex. II ne le /era pas, ni moi non plus ' He
will not do it, nor I either/ Ni mon frere non plus 'Nor my brother either.'
Exercise XXI.
226 SYNTAX. [391-394.
B. Other Indeclinables.
391 . The following short remarks about the use and mean-
ing of some of the indeclinables that have not already been
sufficiently described in the preceding part of the grammar
may here be added.
Adverbs.
392. Position of Adverbs. — Adverbs, unless introduc-
ing the sentence (416. b), follow a personal verb-form, and
an infinitive, with some exceptions as described under 411. —
Ex. II parle souvent 'He often speaks.' II a souvent parte
' He has often spoken ' : etc.
Distinctions of Certain Adverbs.
393. Aussi, si 'as, so/ autant, tant 'as (so) much or many.'
— Aussi, autant are used in comparisons generally ; si, tant only
in negative comparisons, or where no comparison is involved.
— Ex.
Elle est aussi grande que lui. She is as tall as he.
Elle n'est pas si (or aussi) She is not so tall as he.
grande que lui.
Elle est si belle, si bonne. She is so pretty, so kind.
Henri possede autant de cou- Henry has as much courage,
rage, mais pas tant (or but not so much prudence, as
autant) de prudence que John.
Jean.
Je Vai tant pri4 quHl m'en a I prayed him so much that he
accorde" la permission. granted me the permission.
Note 1. — Tant mieux means 'so much the better/ and tant pis 'so
much the worse.'
Note 2. — Tant introducing a clause is emphatic, corresponding to ' so,
so much' (usually in same position) : e.g. Tant il marchait rapidement 'So
rapidly did he walk.'
394. Au moins, du moins 'at least/ — Au moins denotes the
lowest limit or estimate, du moins is equivalent to ' however/
'at any rate' ; but in ordinary usage nodistinotion is made. — Ex.
394-398.] INDECLINABLES. 227
II a au moins cent mille He has at least a hundred
dollars. thousand dollars.
S'il ne peut pas le faire, il If he cannot do it, he should at
devrait au moins en parler. least (for the least) speak of it.
S'il West pas riche, il a du If he is not rich, he has at least
moins de quoi vivre. (however) enough to live.
395. Au reste, du reste ' as for the rest, otherwise, besides,
moreover.' — Au reste is equivalent to ' besides/ and du reste to
' otherwise ' ; but in ordinary usage no distinction is made. — Ex.
Au reste je vous dirai que cela Besides (Moreover) I will tell
n'est pas vrai. you that is not true.
II est capricieux, du reste il He is capricious, otherwise he
est honn&te homme. is an honest man.
396. Plus, davantage ' more.' — Plus is used both absolutely
and to modify another word. Davantage is used absolutely,
and usually only at the end of a clause. Either may be
strengthened by bien or encore. — Ex.
Cela me plait bien plus (or That pleases me far more.
davantage) .
La paresse est plus dangereuse Laziness is more dangerous
que la vaniti. than vanity.
La vanite" est dangereuse, mais Vanity is dangerous, but lazi-
la paresse Vest davantage. ness is more so.
Note. — In archaic style davantage is often followed by que.
397. Out, si 'yes.' — Oui is the affirmative and si the cor-
rective answer to a question (si being used where a negative
answer is expected). Si may be strengthened by fait. — Ex.
T avez vous tie 1 ? ' Were you there ? ' Oui, monsieur ' Yes,
sir.' Vous n'y avez pas 6t6 f ' You were not there ? ' Si (or
Si fait) 'Yes (yes indeed).'
398. Quand, quant. — Quand 'when' is an adverb of time
or a conjunction ; quant * in regard to, as to, as for ' is always
followed by cfc (e.g. Quant d, moi 'as for me').
228 SYNTAX. [399-403.
399. Tout a coup means ' suddenly 7 and tout d'un coup
'in one stroke, all at once.' — Ex. Tout a coup il disparut 'He
suddenly disappeared/ II perdit sa fortune tout d'un coup ' He
lost his fortune in one stroke.'
400. Com me and que often introduce an exclamation.
French then, unlike English, places the word qualified by these
adverbs at the end of the clause. — Ex. Comme elle (or Qu'elle)
est belle 'How beautiful she is ! '
Conjunctions.
40 1 . Et . . . et means ' both . . . and ' ; soft . . . soit (or ou)
' whether (either) . . . or ' ; soit que . . . soit que (or ou que)
'whether . . . or.' — Ex.
Et lui et moi. Both he and I.
Soit clemence, soit (or ou) Either (whether) clemency or
justice. justice.
Soit qu'il vive, soit qu'il (or ou Whether he lives or dies I shall
quHl) meure je le verrai. see him.
402. Si. — The use of mood and tense after si has been
described already in the preceding (cf. 304. c, 308, 311, 314,
332). Below (403. b) will be noted that que (with the sub-
junctive) is often used instead of a repeated si.
403. Que 'that.' — a. Que can not, as often 'that' in Eng-
lish, be omitted, but must be repeated at the head of each
proposition. — Ex. Je crois que voire cause est bonne et qu'elle
va prosperer 'I believe (that) your cause is good, and will
prosper.'
b. Que is often used for ' when ' after an expression of time
or a negative ; and also to supply a comp. conjunction or con-
j unction-phrase in que, or si, or comme. (Cf . also 323. A. b. ) — Ex.
Le roi n'ttait pas mort qu'on The king was not dead, since he
(=puis qu'on) le vit. was seen.
403, 404.]
INDECLINABLES.
229
Lorsqu'on a des dispositions et
qu'on veut etudier, on fait
des pr ogres rapides.
A moins qu'on ne soit diligent
et qu'on ne prenne de la
peine, on ne reussira pas.
Quand on est riche et qu'on est
genereux, on ne manque pas
d'amis.
Si vous avez des amis et que
vous disiriezles conserver,
rendez-vous digne de leur
estime.
A peine fus-je arrive qu'il
vint me voir.
Je ne serai point content que
(= a moins que) je ne le
sache.
Le train n'etait d peine passe*
quHl vint.
c. Cf. also for the use of que in
and b. note, and in exclamation 400.
When one has the ability and
is desirous to study, one
makes rapid progress.
Unless one be diligent and (un-
less one) take trouble, he
will not succeed.
When one is both rich and
generous one does not lack
friends.
If you have friends and wish
to retain them, render your-
self worthy of their esteem.
Scarcely had I arrived when he
called on me.
I shall not be satisfied unless
I know it.
The train had hardly started
when he came,
comparison 84, as an expletive 266 a.
404. Quand, lorsque 'when.' — Quand is said to refer to
time in a more general way than lorsque. In actual usage,
however, little distinction is made, except that quand alone can
be used as an interrogative adverb, and that lorsque must be
used with a historical present. — Ex.
J'avais quinze ans lorsque je I was fifteen years of age when
perdis mon ph-e.
II est bon d'etudier quand on
est jeune.
Quand (adv.) $tes-vous arrive ?
Lorsque enjin les blessures de
ces infortunes s'amelio-
rent, Us perissent faute de
subsistance.
I lost my father.
It is well to study when one is
young.
When did you arrive ?
When finally the wounds of
these unfortunate men are
healing, they perish for want
of food.
230 SYKTAX. [405-40:
Note. — Quand and lorsque also denote condition, with reference t(
time: Cf. Failes-le si vous venez (implying doubt), quand vous viendrez (im
plying probability), lorsque vouz viendrez (implying almost certainty).
405. Parce que ' because/ pu/sque ' since.' — Parce qu»
introduces the cause of what is stated in the main clause^
puisque refers to it as a consequence. — Ex.
Je le veux parce que cela est I wish it, because it is right.
juste.
Je le veux pu/sque cela est I wish it since it is right.
juste.
Note. — Par ce que means 'from what, by that which': Je le sais, par
ce qu'il via dit ' I know it from what he told me.'
406, Pendant que, tandis que 'while.' — Both denote simul-
taneousness of action, but tandis que is usually equivalent to
' while on the contrary. 7 — Ex.
II entra pendant que je dor- He entered while I was sleep-
mais. ing.
Je me consume de chagrin tan- I pine away with grief while
dis que vous vous amusez. you are amusing yourself.
Exercise XXII.
XVIII.
AKKANGEMENT OP THE SENTENCE.
[407. HISTORY. — Latin, being able to express the relation of words
to each other by their form, possessed far greater freedom in the arrange-
ment of the sentence than French, where inflection is largely replaced by
fixity of position. In Latin, for instance, pater amat Jilium, or jilium amat
pater, or amat pater Jilium were equally allowable, while French, unable to
distinguish between the nominative and accusative, except by their relative
position, allows only le pere aime le fits.
This transition to a fixed state of position was accomplished only gradu-
ally. Old French, retaining much of the Latin inflection, also allowed
407-411.] ARRANGEMENT OF THE SENTENCE. 231
much of the Latin freedom of position. Even yet some traces of an
earlier independence are preserved, especially as regards certain modifying
words, and much more in poetry than in prose. But the common language
is tending more and more towards rigorous uniformity.]
408. The arrangement of the sentence is in French, as in
English, either direct or inverted.
409. Direct Arrangement. — The direct arrangement,
being used for the most part in affirmative and negative state-
ments, is : 1. the subject with its modifiers, 2. the predicate
with its modifiers. The relative position of the modifying
words, as far as it is peculiar to French, is described below.
Adjectives, pronouns, and negative particles. — The arrange-
ment of adjectives, conjunctive personal pronouns or pro-
nominal particles, and negative particles is described already
in the preceding (adj. 221-3; pron. 102, 254-6; neg. 374, 388).
[410.] Direct and indirect object. — The direct object, unless
decidedly longer than the indirect, usually precedes it. An
emphasized object, however, comes last, whether direct or
indirect. — Ex.
II inspire le courage a ses He inspires his soldiers with
soldats. courage.
II faut inspirer aux enfants Children should be inspired
V amour de Dieu. with love to God.
Note. — Tout and rien, when used alone as objects, often precede an
infinitive and a participle. — Ex.
Pour ne vous rien celer. To conceal nothing from you.
Elle croit avoir tout fait. She thinks she has done everything.
[411.] Adverbs and adverbial phrases. — They are arranged
as follows :
a. They usually follow the personal verb-form (i.e. the
simple verb or the auxiliary). But long adverbs or adverbial
phrases, and adverbs of relative time (hier, demain, etc.) follow
the past participle of a compound tense. — Ex.
232 SYNTAX. [411-414.
II parte souvent. He often speaks.
II ra'a souvent parle. He has often spoken to me.
On met ordinal 'rement Vad- We usually place the adverb
verbe apres le verbe qwil after the verb it modifies.
modifie.
J'y ai eie quelquefois. I have been there sometimes,
Je Vai fait a fa hate. I did it in haste.
II est arrive hier. He arrived yesterday.
Note. — The position before or after the participle is often optional,
the latter being rather more emphatic. But many common adverbs like
deja, souvent, toujours, bientot, etc. always precede.
b. Long adverbs and adverbial phrases follow an infinitive.
But several short adverbs like Men, mieux, mal, pis, trop, and
usually adverbs of negation (374, 388) precede it. — Ex.
7/ faut % ecrire tendrement. One (or I) must write tenderly.
II s'efforce de bien ecrire. He makes an effort to write well.
Vous ne pouvez mieux faire. You can not do better.
c. Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time, unless very long, usually
precede those of place ; and both are followed by other adverbs. — Ex.
Qu'il vienne a /'instant au palais. Let him come instantly to the palace.
Marchons maintenant (or presente- Let us now walk with assurance.
menf) avec assurance.
[412.] Prepositions precede the words to which they belong,
and can never as in English by ellipsis (omission of a relat. or
interrog. pronoun) be placed at the end of a clause : e.g. La
maison de laquelle (or dont) il parle ' The house he speaks of.'
Note. — Exceptionally d\rant (by origin a participle) follows its noun :
e.g. sa vie durant ' during his life.' In adverbial use (as in on s'e'leva contre)
prepositions are construed as adverbs.
413. Inverted Arrangement. — The inverted arrange-
ment, requiring the subject to follow the verb, is used in the
cases described below.
[414.] In questions, the personal subject-pronouns and also
on and ce follow the verb. Other subjects usually (cf. note)
414-416.] ARRANGEMENT OF THE SENTENCE. 233
precede the verb, being repeated after it in the form of a
personal pronoun. Or the question is introduced by the
paraphrase Est-ce que 'is it (the case) that ' (152) with direct
arrangement. — Ex.
Est-// venu f Has he come ?
Voire frere est-// venu f or Est- Has your brother come ?
ce que voire frere est venu ?
Note. — When the verb is preceded by an interrogative particle or by
its object, the subject-noun may in many cases optionally be placed after
its verb. — Ex. Oil est votre frere? (or Ou voire frere est-il?) 'Where is your
brother?' Combien vaut ce/a? (or Combien cela vaut-il?) 'How much is
that worth?' Quel livre a votre frere? (or Quel livre votre frere a-t-il?)
' What book has your brother ? ' Que veut cette fern me? (or Cette femme que
veut-elle ?) * What does the woman want ? ' Qu'a cet homme ? (or Cet homme
qu'a-t-il?) 'What is the matter with this man ? '
[415.] In optative or conditional phrases not introduced
by a conjunction, the subject follows the verb. — Ex.
Puisse-t-il r6ussir I May he succeed !
Me pre'servent /es cieux oVun Heaven preserve me from such
tel malheur ! a calamity !
Je le ferai, dut-il m'en couter I shall do it, even if it should
la vie. cost me my life.
lis auraient resists, n'eut He They would have resisted, but
le canon. for the cannon.
[416.] When another word than the subject introduces the
sentence, the subject is frequently (though often more or less
optionally) placed after its verb. Thus :
a. The noun-subject frequently follows its verb when the
phrase begins with (1.) a word introducing an indirect question
(qui, ce que, comment, etc.) or an indefinite concession (qui que,
quel que, tout que, etc.) ; — (2.) an adverb or adverbial expression
of time, space, or circumstance (alors, id, ainsi, au milieu, etc.) ;
— (3.) the relative que, quel, or oii; — (4.) a predicate adjective
(especially tel) . — Ex.
234 SYNTAX. [416.
1.
Dites-moi qui sont ces jeunes Tell me who these young people
gens. are.
Je lui demandai comment lui I asked him how this unex-
etait advenu ce secours pected assistance was ren-
inattendu. dered him.
Quel que soit cet horn me, il Whoever this man be, he is not
n'est pas poli. polite.
Quelque habile que soit votre However skilful your sister be,
scBur, elle ne reussirapas. she will not succeed.
2.
Alors commenca une lutte Then a terrible struggle ensued
terrible. {or Then began etc.).
Id jleurit jadis une ville Here nourished formerly a rich
opulente. city.
A c6t6 de mon fr&re itait ma Beside my brother was my
sceur. sister.
De la depend votre sa/ut. On that depends your safety.
3.
La loi permet souvent ce que The law often permits what
defend I'honneur. honor forbids.
J'ai vu la place ou est dressS I have seen the place where the
I'echafaud. scaffold is erected.
4.
Telle e'tait la fiertS de ce Such was the^ pride of this
peuple. people.
Humbles furent d'abord les Humble were at first the
pouvoirs. powers.
b. The pronoun-subject commonly follows its verb when
the phrase is introduced by certain adverbs or adverbial phrases,
especially such as contain a preposition or end in -ment (d peine,
au moins, du moins, en vain, rarement, etc., and also others,
as aussij encore, peut-itre). Other subjects than personal
pronouns in similar cases precede their verb, being repeated,
416-419.] PUNCTUATION AND USE OF CAPITALS. 235
however, as in questions (414), in the form of a personal pro-
noun placed after the verb. — Ex.
A peine etais-je arrive qu'elle Hardly had I arrived when she
entra. entered.
A peine mon frere etait-il Hardly had my brother arrived
arrive" qu'elle entra. when she entered.
En vain (or Vainement) Vai-je In vain did I say so.
dit.
Peut-&tre pourrai-je un jour Perhaps one day I shall be able
vous itre utile. to serve you.
Peut-itre mon pere pourra-t-il Perhaps one day my father may
un jour vous &tre utile. be able to serve you.
[417.] In phrases like dit-//, s'ecr/a-t-f/, etc., inserted in
the middle or at the end of a quotation, the subject follows its
verb, as usually in English. — Ex. Consolez-vous, dit-//, tout ira
bien. Elle est morte, s'tcria-t-f/. Bien, ripondit le roi.
Note. — Such interjected phrases are in French very common, and
sometimes used where dit etc. has already a subject : e.g. Alors le sublime
orateur, e'levant sa voix, Dieux protecteurs d'Athenes s '6cria-t-il, etc.
[418.] Exceptionally, the verb itself introduces an affirmative state-
ment. — Ex. Vinrent ensuite deux cents hommes arme's ' Finally came two
hundred armed men.'
Poetry allows much more freedom of arrangement than prose : cf. 426.
XIX.
PUNCTUATION AND USE OP CAPITALS.
419. PUNCTUATION. — The rules of punctuation are so
similar in French and English that any difference of usage in
special cases depends rather on individual option or preference
than on difference of principle.
Note. — French, more consistently than English, requires a colon before
any direct quotation.
236 SYNTAX. [420, 421.
420. Capital Letters. — The rules for the use of capital
initials are, with few exceptions, the same in French and
English, a certain option being, in certain cases, reserved in
either. French, however, contrary to English, requires a small
initial :
a. In adjectives denoting nation, party, or sect, and also in
names of languages. — Ex. un livre frangais ' a French book *■ ;
un prttre catholique ' a Catholic priest ' ; le frangais ' the French
language ' ; V anglais 'the English language.'
Note. — Nouns denoting nation, party, or sect usually have a capital
initial, though usage varies when they refer to individuals. — Ex. Un
Frangais (or frangais) ' a Frenchman ' ; les Frangais * the French ' (viz.
people) ; les Protestants 'the Protestants'; les Gibelins ' the Ghibellines.'
b. In names of the months and of the days of the week. —
Ex. mai, juin ; lundi, mardi.
c. In the pronoun je 'I.'
XX.
FKENCH VEESE.
421. General Character. — The construction of French
verse differs from that of either classical (Greek and Latin)
or Germanic.
1 The essential element of Classical verse was rhythm (p^/xos
1 regular movement') as determined by a regular recurrence,
at short and measured intervals, of a syllable with * musical '
stress (ictus, entirely independent of the word or sentence-
accent), intervening syllables being arranged in various though
definite order, with regard to their quantity. — The chief ele-
ment of modern Germanic verse (English included) is, likewise,
rhythm, but a rhythm which, though largely borrowed from
classical models, is determined not by musical accent, but by
421.] FRENCH VERSE. 237
the natural accent of the words in the verse, and not by the
quantity of intervening unaccented syllables but, prevailingly
at least, by their number. To this essential requirement of
accentual rhythm in the Germanic verse, rhyme has been
added as an accessory element, which may be present or not.
In French verse, finally, the essential elements are also
rhythm and rhyme. But the rhythm of the French verse is
something quite different from that of either the classical or
Germanic verse. The only definite metrical law observed in
French poetry is that each portion of the verse-line that can
be uttered without fatigue of the voice — i.e. practically, every
short line, or each part of a longer line divided into two —
shall contain a definite number of syllables and terminate in a
word whose final sonant-syllable has a full rhetorical accent, and
thus naturally requires, or at least allows, a brief pause (in
the middle of the line called caesura). Between these final
syllables, which form the pivots of the French verse, neither
accent nor quantity are regulated by any other law than that
which requires, in a general way, variation of accentual rhythm
and harmony of combination.
The absence in the French verse of regular and sus-
tained rhythmical pulsation within each line, such as is
characteristic of the English verse, is apt to offend, at first,
the ear of one used to the latter. To the French ear, how-
ever, the freedom and variation of his verse is preferable to
the regulated accentual beat of the Germanic verse, in which
he is apt to perceive something of monotony ; and practice
will soon teach even a stranger to appreciate the harmonious
movement of good French verse.
In compensation for this freedom of rhythm, rhyme has
become a well-nigh indispensable element in French poetry. 1
Moreover, the French poet imposes on himself certain pro-
1 Assonance (accordance of last tone-vowels simply) was characteristic
of the oldest French poetry, and is yet used in popular songs.
238 SYNTAX. [421-423.
sodial laws, in part tending to promote harmony, but in part
also more or less artificial. Thus especially he avoids hiatus, 1
except in a few cases where a formerly pronounced consonant
has become silent. Further he gives, archaically, full syllabic
value to every e mute that has a consonant before and
after it, except at the end of the line. Again, he is restricted
in his choice of words and constructions by certain principles,
the neglect of which would tend to deprive his verse of its
poetical effect.
The essentials of the French verse that are briefly sketched
out above, are considered more in detail below.
422. Number of Syllables; C/esura. — The number of
pronounced syllables that may be contained in one line varies
from two to twelve. Short lines counting less than six sylla-
bles are rarely used except in alternation with longer lines.
Lines of ten or twelve syllables are divided into two parts
(hemistichs) , separated by a short pause, or caesura, which in
lines of ten syllables comes after the 4th syllable, or sometimes
the 6th, but in lines of twelve syllables usually after the 6th.
— Ex.
12 3 4 5678
Un jour, seul dans le Colis&Q, 2
12 3 4 56 789 10 11 12
Oui, je mens dans son temple, || adorer VEternel,
423. £ MUTE SOUNDED. — In any syllable not ending a
verse-line, e 'mute' is slightly sounded and counted as full
vowel of syllabic value, except before or after a vowel-sound,
where it is silent as in prose (cf. note 1). Thus, the combina-
1 Old French poetry was much less rigid in avoiding hiatus than mod-
ern French.
2 Roman type here used for e without syllabic value (423),
423-425.] FRENCH VERSE. 239
tions /aire ce, faites-le would each in the middle of a line
count three syllables, and /aire avec, feraient ce, lajoie est also
only three. In the last syllable of the line it is also faintly
uttered (thus serving to bring out the harmonious interchange
between masculine and feminine rhymes : 425) ; but does not
count syllabically. Thus, nous sommes would in the middle of
a. line count as three syllables, but at the end only as two. — Ex.
12 3456 7 8 9 10 11 12
Telle qu'mie berg&re, \\ au plus beau jour de fetQ.
Note 1. — E mute is not allowed to form hiatus with a preceding vowel.
Hence it is either replaced by a circumflex, especially in future and con-
ditional of verbs (e.g. lourai for louerai: 128 ; gaiteior gaiety) ; or it is simply
silent, as in prose (e.g. aimaient, 2 syll.). As final, after vowel, it can occur
only when followed by a vowel (before which it is elided), the resulting
hiatus being then tolerated (e.g. lajoie est, but not lajoie que etc.).
Note 2. — To aid in making up the required number of syllables,
several words with an e mute in their end-syllable are allowed to be
slightly changed. Thus we may find encor for encore, ay for die, certe for
certes, jusques (also allowed in prose, before vowel) for jusque, Londre for
Londres, and so on. Instead of avec is also sometimes used avecque.
Note 3. — The distinction between diphthongs and dissyllables (cf. 16)
is in verse, at times, quite arbitrary. Oi is, indeed, always treated as a
diphthong, but ie, io sometimes as dissyllables where they would not be so
treated in prose.
424. Hiatus. — Between two words, hiatus (meeting of
vowels) is not allowed, except 1. when the final of the first
word is e preceded by a vowel (423 note 1) ; or 2. when it is a
mute unlinked consonant (e.g. huissier, ayez garde).
Note. — Et * and ' is not used before a vowel.
Note. — As the phrase il y a ' there is ' contains a hiatus, it is in verse
regularly supplanted by il est ; found also in prose.
425. RHYME. — There are in French two kinds of rhyme:
masculine, when the rhyming syllables are final (e.g. mur : pur),
and feminine, when they are followed by an e 'mute' (e.g. mUre :
pure). Masculine and feminine rhymes are required to alter-
nate, though with considerable freedom of arrangement.
240 SYNTAX. [425-428.
Note 1. — The chief quality of French rhyme is sameness of sound.
But, as an inheritance from a time when final letters were pronounced,
some really rhyming words that terminate in discordant, though now mute,
letters (others than d : t, c : g, or s : x, z) are not allowed to rhyme. Thus
pere : meres; peux : feu ; plier : fiez would not he acceptable rhyme-couples,
while aidant : attend ; banc : rang ; fais : paix would be so.
Note 2. — The final s of the 1st singular of a verb (an anomalous
addition : p. 6J.) may be omitted to make the verb-form rhyme to the eye
with another word not ending in s (e.g. vien, vol, be'ni for viens, vois, benis).
426. Choice of Words and Constructions.— French
poetry like English, only in a higher degree, is characterized
by the exclusion of certain common terms and by much free-
dom of construction. Thus :
a. — It prefers, in the serious style, certain more poetical words, for others
more common, as for instance glaive or fer for e'pee ; ep/'eu for lance ; flanc
for ventre or sein ; Jad/'s for autrefois ; maint (-te) for plusieurs ; soudain for
aussitot; trepas for mort ; courroux for colere; etc.
b. — In the arrangement of the sentence it allows, or even prefers,
certain irregularities, as, especially, that of placing a modifier before its
verb. — Ex.
Ma sozur, de voire sort || je vous laisse Vempire.
Et tons devant /'autet || avec ordre introduits, *
427. EN JAM BEM ENT. — In French poetry (especially classical : 428)
it is objectionable to have a line terminate with a word that is in too close
construction with a word in the following line to allow a natural pause
(such a 'striding over' from one line to another being called enjambe-
ment) . Thus, to separate on different lines (or even on different hemistichs)
son cozur aimable or il aime cette femme etc. would be unpoetical, especially
when in lines of ten or twelve syllables.
428. Some of the rules described above, as those referring to hiatus
and enjambement, are much less strictly observed by modern poets,
especially those of the Romantic school, than they were by the poets of
the classical school (in the 17th and 18th centuries).
429. One line is usually called a verse. A certain number
of verses forming a unit by themselves, constitute a stance (or
428, 429.] FRENCH VERSE. 241
in an ode a strophe, or in a ballad a couplet). A stanza again
is called quatrain, quintil, sixain, etc. according to the number
of syllables (4, 5, 6, etc.) it contains. Several stanzas form a
poem, their number being undetermined, except in a few kinds
of poems, as in the sonnet and the rondeau.
Examples of Various Kinds of Verse:
a. — Alexandrines. — In larger poems and especially in drama-
tic compositions, lines of twelve full syllables divided into two
hemistichs, and usually with masculine and feminine rhymes
in alternate couplets, are much used. Such verses are called
Alexandrines, probably as being first used on a large scale in a
poem about Alexander the Great (Roman $ Alexandre) in the
latter part of the 12th century. They were once much more
common than they are now, even outside of France, and the
18th century has, in fact, been called i the age of Alexandrines?*
— In the example below, caesura and rhythmically prominent
syllables l are marked :
Oui, je viens dans son temple || adorer VEternel ;
Je viens selon Vusage || antique et solennel
CeUbrer avec vous \\ la fameuse journee
Oil sur le mont Sina || la loi nousfut donnee
Que les temps sont changes ! \\ Sitdt que de ce jour
La trompette sacree || annoncait le retour,
Du temple, orne pari out || de festons magnifiques,
Le peuple saint en fou/e || inondait les portfques ;
b. — Verses of ten syllables :
A Never s done, \\ chez les Visitandines
Vivait naguere || un Perroquet fameux,
A qui son art || et son cozur gSnereux,
1 In declamation of course taste decides how much prominence should
be given to these syllables.
242 SYNTAX. [429, 430.
Ses vertus meme || et ses graces badfnes,
Auraient du fa/re \\ un sort moins rigoureux,
Si les beaux ccbups \\ etaient toujours heureux,
c. — Verses of eight syllables (very common) :
Quand on se rencontre et qu'on s'aime,
Que peut-on ^changer de mieux
Que la priere, don supreme,
Or pur qu'on recoit meme aux c/'eux ?
d. — Mixed verses :
Lorsque V enfant parait || le cercle de f ami lie
Applaudit a grand oris || son doux regard qui brifle
Fait briller tous lesyeux,
Et les plus tristes fronts || les plus souilles peut-§tre,
* Se derident soudain || d, voir V enfant parait re
Innocent etjoyeux.
XXI.
RELATION OF ANGLO-FRENCH AND FRENCH WORDS. 1
430. French Words in English. — A very large por-
tion of the English vocabulary is of French origin. The bulk
of its French elements was brought into English in conse-
quence of the Norman conquest (1066). The obstinate resist-
ance of the Saxons against the Normans led to their exclusion
from all offices of state ; and the language of the conquerors
became the official language of the government and the
1 For a fuller discussion of this subject, cf. the author's Quelques observa-
tions sur V element roman de I'anglais conside're' dans ses rapports avec lefranqaU
moderne (Acta Universitatis Lundensis, xix).
430,431.] ANGLO-FRENCH AND FRENCH WORDS. 243
fashionable dialect of all the upper classes. Even the instruc-
tion of the schools was given in French alone.
During more than two centuries, the Saxon idiom, retained
by the lower classes, and looked down upon by the higher as
a rude jargon, kept almost entirely free from any influence of
the French, as is shown by the two poems, Layamon's the
Brut and the Ormulum. But later a vast body of French
words was added to those of native stock; and the English
of the latter part of the 14th century reveals the fact that,
owing chiefly to a severing of political ties between England
and France, the interests of the upper and lower classes, as well
as their two languages, had then begun to blend. This assimi-
lating process continued, with various fluctuations, during the
following centuries. To the Anglo-Norman element many
words borrowed directly from French were added in the course
of time. The whole number of French elements engrafted on
the English stock is so large that, from a dictionary point of
view, they compete with those of native origin. (The entire
number of foreign words considerably surpasses that of the
native.) The Saxon words, however, being of much more
familiar use than the French and making up almost entirely
such categories of frequently recurring words as pronouns and
indeclinables, are, as actually used by classical and modern
writers, in a very decided, though of course varying, majority.
[431.] Proportion of French Words. — A careful esti-
mation of all the words in Skeat's etymological dictionary
(i.e. of the 'primitive ' words of the language) gives the follow-
ing results in round numbers : 1 Out of nearly 14,000 words
that it contains, 5,000 are considered to be derived from French
(which has received 3,500 of these words from Latin, the
remainder from other sources, chiefly Greek and German).
Only 4,000 are of Germanic origin (a trifle above 3,000 purely
1 See foot-note, p. 242.
244 SYNTAX. [431-433.
Saxon). The remainder are from Latin (2,700), Greek (400),
Celtic (250), or other sources. — Taking into account also
derived, words, these proportions would change in favor of the
German element, Germanic primitives having yielded a much
greater number of derivatives than French.
[432.] With the French element of the English language the purely
Latin element must not be confounded. Already the introduction of
Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons (7th cent.) brought with it the study
of Latin, and many Latin words were popularized (e.g. presbyter : priest;
prcedicare: preach; diabolus : devH, etc.). When, in the 16th century, the
classical literature became known to English scholars, a considerable influx
of Latin elements took place, later increased by the necessities of science,
commerce, and industry. The Latin words can generally be distinguished
from the French by their form, which is less altered, and by their prevail-
ingly technical use. Yet, it is not always feasible, even by more scientific
tests, to decide the immediate source in this respect, because many French
words have in English (as indeed in French) been reformed in their spelling
so as to come nearer their ultimate classical origin : thus the old sugette
was changed to subject ; iuge to judge ; marchant to merchant ; voicinage to
vicinage; etc.
433. Difference in Form between Anglo-French
AND FRENCH WORDS. — It is natural that Anglo-French and
French words should gradually diverge more and more in form
as they lived a separate life under different circumstances,
each yielding to the tendencies of a different language. Their
pronunciation is never alike. In writing they are, indeed,
sometimes identical (e.g. mention, portion, etc.). Far more
frequently, however, they differ ; for the most part so slightly
as to be recognized as cognates at a glance, or after but little
familiarity with the commonest changes (e.g. Fr. e'Mgant : Engl.
elegant ; concours : concourse; ancUre: ancestor; coupable: cul-
pable; 4pice: spice; chanter: chant, etc.) ; but also often so as to
require a more practised eye for their identification as twin-
forms (e.g. Fr. cdte: Engl, coast; proie : prey; hultre: oyster;
guerre: war; guichet : wicket; 4teule : stubble ; jlasque : flaccid,
etc.).
433-436.] ANGLO-FRENCH AND FRENCH WORDS. 245
A few of the more common peculiarities of the Anglo-French
forms as compared with the native French are noted below.
[434.] The Anglo-French words gradually yielded to the
tendency in English of accenting (emphatically) the beginning
instead of the end of the word. As a consequence, atonic
syllables were generally dimmed or lost (e.g. Fr. chap/tre,
capitaine, gentil, demoiselle, branche — Engl, chapter, captain,
gentle, damsel, branch). A wide-reaching result of this prin-
ciple was the loss of the French infinitive-ending, after its
previous assimilation to that of English, formerly -en, as in
German (e.g. old Fr. chant-er, abat-re, obe-'ir — o. Engl, chant-en,
abat-en, obey-en = Engl, chant, abate, obey).
[435.] On the other hand, many Anglo-French words, by
regular transmission or artificial reform (432), contain various
sounds or letters (chiefly consonants and tone-vowels) that
were lost or altered in French. Thus, for instance, the English
words barge, function, glory, judge, bailiff, pilgrim, hostage,
market, gim(b)let, corne, staple, liquorice, varlet, arrest, court,
waste, have each one sound or several which, though formerly
present in old French forms, are lost or altered in the modern :
berge, fonction, gloire, juge, bailli, pelerin, otage, marche,
gibelet, cor, etape, rtiglisse, valet, arrester, cour, gdter.
[436.] In virtue of this preserving tendency, it is especially
common to find in Anglo-French words an old s or / which
is lost in French. Nearly 200 English primary words have
such an etymological s, and not far from a hundred, V The
loss of s within a French word is usually there indicated by a
circumflex : e.g. Engl, coast: Fr. cdte (old Fr. coste, Lat. costa) ;
cost : couter (o. F. coster, L. constare) ; cloister : cloltre (o. F.
cloistre, L. claustrum) ; honest: honnite (o. F. honeste, L. ho-
1 See foot-note, p. 242.
246 SYNTAX. [436-440.
nestus); oyster: hultre (o. F. oistre, L. ostrea)-, but also discover:
decouvrir (o. F. descoiwrir) ; etc.
Latin initial sc(h)-, si-, sp-, usually taking in popular Latin a
prothetic i (later e), became in old French esc-, est-, esp-, and
then by the loss of s (retained in Anglo-French) ec-, 4t-, 6p-
(cf. 1. II.). Hence Engl, esquire or squire: Fr. 6cuyer (o. F.
escuyer, low Lat. scutarius) ; espy or spy : tpier (o. Fr. espier,
0. H. Germ, spehon) ; spice : 4pice (o. F. espice, L. species) ; stable :
etable (o. F. estable, L. stabulum) ; etc.
The lost I is in French usually changed to u: e.g. Engl.
culpable: Fr. coupable (o. F. culpable, L. culpabilis)-, mantel or
mantle : manteau (o. F. mantel, L. mantellum) ; chisel : ciseau
(o. F. ci'seZ) ; /aw & : faute (o. F. faulte, L. fallere) ; pewci7 :
pinceau (o. F. pincel, L. penicillum), etc.
[437.] It is also well to notice that several Germanic words
that have come through old French into English have there
retained a primitive w, which in French was changed to gu
or g (as such also, in part, by later transfer brought into
English): e.g. Engl, reward (= regard) : Fr. regarder (o. F.
rewarder) ; wardrobe : garderobe (o. F. warderobe) ; ivicket :
guichet (o. F. wislcet, viquet) ; etc.
[438.] Owing to the fact that both in English and French words of
classical origin have frequently, by learned reform of spelling (also, in
part, affecting the pronunciation), been brought nearer the originals, it is
not always easy to decide whether such apparent archaisms, as those
pointed out above are to be considered as genuine, i.e. transmitted by
general usage, or simply accidental.
[439.] Among other changes may be noticed the frequent attachment
of an English suffix to an Anglo-French word : e.g. motion-less, pain-j\d,
pain-less, pain-ful-ness, nice-ly, cease-less, charm-er, etc.
440. Difference in Meaning between Anglo-French
AND FRENCH WORDS. — The meaning of words is subject to
change not less than their form, and the student will do well
to observe carefully any distinction in sense between French
440.] ANGLO-FRENCH AND FRENCH WORDS. 247
words and their Anglo-French cognates. Even here it is natural
that French and Anglo-French words, subject to varied influ-
ences, should gradually diverge. Different conditions have on
either side expanded, restricted, or otherwise modified the
sense of originally common words. The divergence is, indeed,
at times so slight as to be appreciated only by the nicest
observation. Respectable means in both English and French
' worthy of respect,' but the moral tone deciding what is worthy
of respect is not in all cases precisely the same; sentiment
usually means the same thing in English and French, yet un
sentiment de la musique is 'a sense of music/ un sentiment
(Littre ; or sensation) de la faim ' a feeling of hunger/ un senti-
ment (or sensation) dans le bras 'a, feeling in the arm'; English
and French religion coincide in general use, yet the French sa
religion pour le serment is in English 'his pious regard for an
oath ' ; marcher is * march/ but il marche vite, il y arrivera is
' he walks fast, he will get there ' ; and so on.
Yet more often cognate words differ in some or all of
their usual acceptations. Engl, fashion: Fr. facon often
accord in sense, but the meaning of ' prevailing style ' is so
peculiarly English (not quite covered by French mode) that
the form fashion has in that signification been borrowed again
into French. Engl, barb: Fr. barbe may both mean 'beard/
or, by metaphor, something resembling a beard; but while
barb is rare in the former sense, barbe is the word for it
{barbe d'homme ' a man's beard,' barbe de chat ' a cat's whiskers,
barbe de bouc 'a goat's beard') ; and while in their figurative
sense they agree in part, yet the usual meaning of English
barb as part of a hook or arrow is lacking in French. Engl.
viand means ' article of food/ but viande usually t meat ' ; Engl.
abase is now rarely used except in a figurative sense, while
Fr. abaisser usually means ' let down, lower ' ; Engl, impeach
is obsolete in the sense of 'impede/ meaning now 'accuse/
while Fr. empScher means ' (impede) prevent ' ; Engl, pier is a
248 SYNTAX. [440-442.
* solid stone-work, wharf ' (of stone or wood!), but Fr. pierre
1 stone ? (Lat. petra ' rock ? ) : and so on.
[441.] As might be expected, the Anglo-French words have
much more frequently than the French deviated from their
primitive sense. Transplanted into a new soil where they had
to struggle against the Saxon words, while the rootlets of their
own etymological origins could not thrive as well as in the
native soil, they usually adapted their meaning to special needs
or shades of thought not covered by the indigenous words.
In its adjustment of original synonyms or quasi-synonyms,
English, where it did not drop one of them, has prevailingly
given to the French derivative the more metaphorical or ele-
gant, and to the indigenous (esp. Saxon) the more literal or
every-day sense (cf. barb: beard; abase: lower; bounty: good-
ness; travail : work); or the discrimination is more subtile, often
one of taste (cf. sacred: holy; Jlower : bloom; liberty: freedom).
The result has been of great benefit to the English language,
whose stores of expression have been much enriched by this
struggle between native and foreign words, and their mutual
adaptions to different uses.
[442.] A few examples will serve to illustrate the relative
conservatism of Anglo-French and French words as regards
their ordinary meaning. Thus,
a. Anglo-French words less conservative than French : — Lat. barba
1 beard ' : F. barbe ' beard/ E. barb ; — Lat. bonitas ' goodness ' : F. bonte ' good-
ness/ E. bounty ,- — Lat. clavis ' key' : F. clef ' key/ E. clef; — Lat. colligere
' collect ' : F. cueillir ' collect/ E. coil ; — Lat. acer ' sharp ' : F. aigre ' sharp/
E. eager ; — Jj&t. folium ' leaf ' : F.feuille ' leaf/ E.foil (as tin foil etc.) ; —
Lat. diurnus ' daily ' : F. journe'e * day/ E. journey (orig'ly of a day) ; —
Lat. penna * feather ' : F. penne ' tail-feather/ E. pen ; — Lat. sequere ' follow ' :
F. suivre (o. F. suir) ' follow/ E. sue ; — Lat. scintilla 'spark': F. e'tincelle
' spark/ E. tinsel; — Lat. petra ' rock ' : F. pierre ' stone/ E. pier.
b. Anglo-French words more conservative than French : — Lat. pinna
'wing': F. pignon 'gable' (Norm. Fr. 'wing'), E. pinion; — Lat. usus
442, 443.] ANGLO-FKENCH AND FKENCH WORDS. 249
'use': F. user 'wear (out),' as intr. also 'make use' (de 'of'), E. 'use';
— Lat. separare ' separate ' : F. sevrer * wean (a child)/ E. sever ; — low Lat.
vivenda (fr. vivere 'live ' ): F. viande ' meat,' E. viand.
c. Anglo-French and French words both deviating from their etymologi-
cal sense: — Lat. cara 'face': F. chere 'entertainment,' E. cheer; — Lat.
continere ' hold together ' : F. contenance ' deportment, air,' E. countenance ;
— Lat. stare ' stand ' : F. e'tage ' story = floor,' E. stage ; — old Germ, warjan
'defend': F. gue'rite 'sentry-box, watch-tower,' E. garret ; — Lat. trabs
'beam,' trave (to confine horses when shod): F. travail 'work' (pi.
travails 'brakes, trave s,' 49. 4), E. travail, travel.
443. Anglo-French Words whose Originals are
LOST IN MODERN FRENCH. — Words not only change inform
and meaning. They also often grow obsolete and are dropped
out of use, now in favor of some other word, now without any
such substitute ; sometimes forever, sometimes to be resusci-
tated and enter again as current coin into the language.
English has thus lost many an Anglo-French word 'which it
once possessed (e.g. devoir, egal, sperance, misericorde, penible,
petit, roy yet Scotch, rivage, scrimer, etc.). On the other hand,
English has also preserved not a few words which, once bor-
rowed from old French, have died out in modern French. It
is not always easy to say when a word should be considered
as obsolescent or abandoned. But even counting liberally as
modern such French words as are doubtful in this respect, the
vocabulary of the English language is found to contain about
300 words once present as type-forms in old French, but lost or
replaced by other words (kindred or not) in modern French. 1
A few of the common ones are given, as examples, below.
Abeyance, affiance, aggrieve, alas, amount, arraign, arson, avenge, barter,
benison, bondage, canvass, carol, cavil, challenge, claim, cloak, contemn, contend,
dainty, deface, delight, discrepant, disturb, encounter, enhance, entice, entreat,
feature, genial, host, involve, motley, navy, obedient, ointment, peculiar, pilfer
plenty, quaint, quiver, rear, rehearse, relish, remain, remote, revel, rob, satchel,
scorn, solemn, sullen, surrender, vouch, etc.
1 For full list cf. the work referred to foot-note, p. 242.
EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX.
Exercises in fine print correspond to rules in fine print. They may
then be omitted in a first course. Help is given the student only in less
obvious cases and where the reference-paragraphs of each exercise, which
should be well mastered, do not furnish the required key. For general
reference the vocabulary and the index may be consulted. Articles,
numerals, pronouns, and proper names when identical in French and Eng-
lish, are not repeated in the Vocabulary.
The Definite Article (180-195).
A. 1. This woman has a little mouth and blue eyes. 2. The
wolf has a long head, a thin nose, and small ears. 3. F6nelon
had a good heart and a penetrating mind. 4. This tree has a
hard bark, a high trunk, and slender branches. 5. He is always
seen (tr. One sees him a.) with a pen in his hand. 6. He
entered with his hat in his hand. 7. That cloth costs two
dollars a yard. 8. Meat is sold (refl.) at eighteen cents a
pound. 9. I have bought his cloth at five francs a yard. 10. The
bookseller has sold one third of his books. 11. General A.
has shown his horses to Lieutenant B. — B. 12. Ancient Rome
was a glorious city. 13. France is now a republic. 14. Asia
is much larger than Europe. 15. The Pyrenees separate France
from Spain. 16. The scenery on the Rhine is magnificent.
17. My brother lives i n (en) Germany. 18. These emigrants
come from Sweden. 19. I am going t o (en) America. 20. The
empire of Russia and the kingdom of Spain. 21. The army
of Italy (i.e. the French army, so called) accomplished in
Europe the work of the French revolution.
A. 1. Those horses have beautiful necks. 2. Their minds are tired
EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 251
(transl. They have tired minds). 3. He has lost his courage. 4. My sister
has a headache. 5. I have a (severe) toothache. 6. The poor man was
asking alms. 7. I wish you welcome. 8. This poor man has not a farthing.
9. Somebody cries for help. — B. 10. Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau
have enlightened (141) us by their writings. 11. Washington was the
Cincinnatus of America. 12. He is in Canada. 13. This bold man as-
cended Mont Blanc. 14. He lives in southern France (in Great Britain).
15. The emperor of France and the queen of Great Britain. 16. He is
going to India. 17. He comes from Mexico. 18. English cheese is very
good. 19. I have studied the history of France with much pleasure, but
I have not read the history of the Netherlands. 20. The American ambas-
sador was once a German merchant. 21. Naples is a delightful country.
22. The Mississippi is immense. 23. Rhine wines are excellent.
II.
The Generic Article (195-6).
1. Man is weak. 2. Men fade away (passent) like flowers.
3. A man has rights (partitive) which he can not (ne saurait)
sacrifice. 4. Life is a continuous combat. 5. Moderation is
the wise man's treasure. 6. Patience and prudence are neces-
sary to a general. 7. Iron is a useful metal. 8. Water is the
most healthful of drinks. 9. Rich people have no other rights
than poor people. 10. Blue becomes you better than green.
11. My sister is learning French, but she does not yet speak
French.
III.
The Partitive Sign (197-201).
A. 1. I have eaten bread and meat. 2. That man has c o u r-
age (cozur). 3. With courage (courage) and perseverance you
will succeed. 4. Rome was at first governed by kings. 5. Y o u
must not (II ne faut pas) think too much of (a) money and
clothes. 6. He has beautiful pictures and excellent books.
7. I bring you good news. 8. He will surely rise to high
2 1
dignities. 9. I have bought some black silk. 10. Your brother
2 1
devotes himself to deep studies. 11. That man has no c o u r a g e
252 SYNTAX.
(coeur) ; that woman has no feelings. 12. The Turks never
drink any wine. 13. You ought not to make any remarks o n
the subject (la-dessus) . 14. She has no such mean feel-
ings. 15. I shall not make useless remarks on the subject.
16. That is not wine, it is water. 17. We live on (de) bread
and meat. 18. She was overwhelmed with flattery. 19. We
are in need of money. 20. This work is full of happy thoughts.
— B. 21. A great number of soldiers have passed through the
city. 22. A crowd of curious people followed him. 23. I have
bought two pounds of sugar, a pound of coffee, and five pounds
of tea. 24. This man has many acquaintances and few friends.
25. It is not polite to (de) ask (faire) too many questions.
26. I have many (or plenty of: Men) books. 27. I have more
books than my brother. 28. Many (Men) persons were present.
29. Most people are industrious.
1. Has she any grandsons f 2. This man has good sense. 3. Has he
not money and friends ! What more does he need? 4. He showed some
manliness on this occasion. 5. He sells good cloth and bad. 6. We have
white silk and also black. 7. There are good and bad people in this world.
8. I have something new to (a) tell you. 9. There were (136) eight hundred
killed and five hundred wounded. 10. Which (271) is the happier, you or 1 1
IV.
Repetition and Omission of Articles and Partitive Sign
(202-204).
1. This woman sells apples and pears. 2. Good and candid
friends are rare. 3. This poor man is hungry (204. A. 1). 4. 1 am
sleepy. 5. What kind of weather is it (< What weather makes
it') to-day? 6. It is very fine weather to-day. 7. I have
opened the windows purposely. 8. He said he would do it
with pleasure. 9. I am an Englishman. 10. Charles has be-
come a big boy. 11. My father was a physician. 12. He was
made (tr. One made him) general. 13. He comes from Caen,
a city i n (de) Normandy. 14. The Miser, a comedy by Moliere,
is played to-night. 15. Children, parents, friends, all- bewailed
him.
EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 253
1. He is hungry and thirsty. 2. I am cold ; I am not warm. 3. He
was afraid. 4. She will be ashamed of her folly. 5. He is right, but you
are wrong. 6. The children are sleepy. 7. I shall ask justice. 8. These
children do not pay (maker/o^) attention. 9. She excites {fait) envy.
10. He fired (tr. made fire). 11. She is homely enough to (a) frighten
people (tr. make fright) . 12. He looks pleased. 13. Take care. 14. Take
breath. 15. She takes part in (a) our society. 16. I shall do him justice.
17. I shall visit this lady. 18. I shall find means to do it. 19. He was
on horseback. 20. I did it on purpose. 21. I shall do it with pleasure.
22. I am without fear. 23. I take her as (pour) a model. 24. He receives
me with (a) open arms. 25. I have bought these books at a great cost.
26. First volume, third chapter. 27. He lives in Washington street.
28. He is (II est) a Frenchman; it is (c'est) a Frenchman. 29. His
brother is a merchant. 30. Emily has become a big girl. 31. These men
are soldiers; these men are soldiers that come from the war. 32. They
are (lis sont) English. 33. Augustus, the nephew of Caesar. 34. Rich
and poor, high and low were animated with (de) the same ardor. 35. This
poor girl has neither father nor mother, and she is without money.
Nouns (206-208).
1. His brother was made captain in the guards. 2. They
became (transl. made themselves) nuns. 3. His uncle has been
appointed minister to France. 4. I consider him (to be) an
honest man. 5. There is the man who gave my child some
apples. 6. I have made my friend read your letter (208, note 1).
7. Make that girl tell the truth (208, note 1). 8. I have made
him say it (208, note 1, 2). 9. Pride and vanity cause men to
commit many follies. 10. I have heard them say these words.
11. He has shown these girls his collection of pictures. 12. I
have seen him try it. 13. I shall make them do it.
VI.
Nouns with Prepositions (209-217).
1. My father's books have come from Paris. 2. He has (est :
142) died from hunger. 3. He repents (refl.) of his conduct.
254 SYNTAX.
4. She is loved by everybody. 5. I have bought English steel.
6. They overwhelmed him with praises. 7. Do not accustom
your heart to envy and hatred. 8. A son owes obedience (no
art.) to his parents. 9. Let us put that off (imp've, 1 pi.)
until to-morrow. 10. He is exposed to the sun. His brother
lives in Boston and his sister in the country. 11. Birds fly in
the air. 12. This thing has (est: 142) fallen into a deep
oblivion. 13. My uncle lives in Great Britain, and my brother
in Germany. 14. This happened in the year 1850. 15. He
was here last summer in July. 16. He defends himself
as (214) a brave man. 17. It was no longer (Ce ne furent
plus: 252, 300) the soldiers of the republic, but of Sulla,
Marius, Pompey, and Csesar.
1. I have punished her for her fault. 2. They were armed with guns.
3. Your success depends on your perseverance. 4. She has m a n y (bien or
beaucoup) friends. 5. This wall is thirty feet high (express in three
different ways). 6. This table is six feet long. 7. The weight of that box
is twenty kilogrammes. 8. The price of this picture is three dollars. 9. I
am three inches taller than he. 10. My watch is five minutes slow.
11. Do you play the violin? 12. No, I play the harp. 13. I have treated
him as a friend. 14. This man has abused my kindness. 15. He serves
me as model. 16. He changes his (omit) opinion. 17. I enjoy his favor.
18. They were approaching the city. 19. I shall redouble my efforts.
20. He perceived her falseness. 21. He suspected this treason. 22. Have
you never passed over a grave without suspecting (inf.) it ? 23. He trav-
els on horseback. 24. They speak in a loud voice. 25. She does it on
purpose. 26. My sister has the headache. 27. I have a sore arm. 28. The
penknife belongs to my brother. 29. She is always thinking (thinks
always) of her mother. 30. What are you thinking of? 31. I advise
my brother to do it, and she also advises him to do it. 32. He reproaches
his sister for her fault (tr. reproaches her fault to his sister). 33. Have
you promised your teacher to be diligent ? 34. I have borrowed this book
from my friend. 35. He snatched the knife from the scamp. 36. Fortune
can take (oter) nothing from a wise man, because it gives him nothing.
37. I ask pardon of this man. 38. There is not a man in the city who
knows (subj.) it. 39. My father dines in town (or out of town) to-day.
40. He will leave in two hours. 41. I shall see you again ineight days
EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 255
(d'aujourd'hui en huit). 42. I suppose he has done it from fear. 43. Come
this way, please. 44. I receive two dollars a day. 45. Troy was destroyed
by the Greeks. 46. Mr. B. is respected by everybody. 47. I arrived
before you. 48. He appears before the judge. 49. I have been at your
father's. 50. I come from your house. 51. Be charitable towards the
poor. 52. He went towards the hill.
VII.
Agreement of Adjectives (219-220).
1. My good father and mother have come. 2. The poor
(sing.) and the rich are alike before God. 3. I found the door
and the window shut. 4. My brother and my sis tec are very
happy. 5. This man has an astonishing courage and prudence.
6. It is a ruined castle or house. 7. Public order and useful-
ness cannot be the fruit of crime. 8. The polecat and the
weasel are equally dangerous.
1. I study the French and German languages (express in three ways).
2. Enclosed you will find my debt of two dollars. 3. My brother speaks
with much kindness of his late aunts. 4. These ladies look good-natured.
5. These stones seem (to be) very hard. 6. He was bare-headed and bare-
footed. 7. I shall come in an hour or an hour and a half. 8. All except
the ladies may enter. 9. She sings false. 10. These paintings cost dear.
VIII.
Place of Adjectives (221-223).
1. Mary is a nice girl, and Henry is a pretty little boy.
2. My neighbor is a laborious man. 3. I have bought a round
table. 4. This famous lawyer is also an amiable and virtuous
man. 5. I like the blue, sky, the high trees, and the green
fields. 6. This virtuous queen was much beloved, as are
(comme le sont: 250, b) all (292) virtuous persons. 7. This
man is an English merchant. 8. Have you ever read a French
poem ? 9. History is an interesting and instructive study.
10. An affected simplicity is a delicate deception. 11. A plain,
natural style is the only one to be recommended. 12. I like
256 SYNTAX.
the simple and cordial manners of the Scotch. 13. Montaigne,
the greatest thinker of his time, enriched the young and un-
formed literature of France with his profound and brilliant
essays.
1. That is the finest picture (add that, 281) I have ever seen. 2. Gus-
tavus Adolphus was a truly great man. 3. Charles is an honest lad, but
I do not know whether he is a brave boy. 4. He is a poor actor, but
he is not a poor man. 5. He is a tall man, but he is not a great man.
6. His action betrays a black ingratitude. 7. My honored brethren, thig
is a hard necessity.
IX.
Comparison (224-231).
1. France is about as large as Germany, but it is not so
large as Russia. 2. He is witty (II a de V esprit) like a
Frenchman. 3. The dog is more faithful than the cat. 4. This
young man is taller by two inches than his brother, who is
three years older. 5. He has been married more than two
years. 6. This wine is worse than water. 7. France has
more than 500,000 soldiers. 8. America is the greatest and
the most powerful republic in the world. 9. They are my
dearest and most faithful friends. 10. He is the bravest man
in (de: 211, d) the world.
1. The more difficult a thing is, the more honorable it is. 2. The poorer
people are, the fewer cares they have. 3. That girl speaks better than
she writes (n'ecrit: 386). 4. I like this flower, but I like that one yet
more. 5. The best thing you can do i s (c'est ; 266, b) to fulfil your duties.
6. This stream is deepest at its outlet. 7. That is certainly the least
(that) he can do.
Numerals (233-237).
1. Louis XVI, king of France, was beheaded at Paris on the
21st of January, 1793. 2. What time is it? 3. It is three
o'clock; it is a quarter past three; it is half past three; it is
EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 257
a quarter to four ; it is ten minutes past three ; it is twelve
minutes before ten ; it is twelve. 4. What day of the month is
it ? 5. It is the twentieth. 6. To-day (411. a) is the fourth of
July. 7. How old is your sister ? 8. She is fifteen years old.
1. I have been here already half a year, but you have been here only
a fortnight. 2. I shall return in a week.
XL
Personal Pronouns (239-256).
Review carefully 100-105.
1. He knows me, and he hears me. 2. Does he know me ?
does he hear me ? 3. I do not see him, and I do not hear him.
4. She gave me a silver thimble, and I gave her a work-box.
5. I told them that they would come. 6. Have . you told her
that he would come ? 7. They (o?i) will tell it to me (or to
him). 8. They will grant it to us (or to them). 9. I have a
pretty rose. I shall show it to her (or to you), but I shall
not give it to her (or to you). 10. I have his letters. I shall
send them to you (or to them). 11. Hear me : tell me if that
is true. 12. Here is an inkstand ; take it and give it to him.
13. Send her this needle. 14. Here are the documents, send
them to them ; do not send them to them. 15. Here
is a ruler, keep it and do not return it to him (or to her).
16. Where is my copy-book ? Who has taken it, you or he
(or she or they) ? 17. He and I have seen it. 18. I shall
introduce you to her (to him). 19. He hastened to them.
20. I appeal to you. 21. If she had asked it of me, I would
have given it to her with pleasure. 22. Do not discover your-
self to him. 23. Do not repeat that to her. 24. She has
written me a letter, and I shall answer her (or it). 25. There
is your friend ; we were just speaking (spoke just) of him.
26. When I have (fut.) received a letter from her, I shall tell
you of it. 27. I admire this castle, I have a picture of it.
258 SYNTAX.
28. This road is very dangerous ; keep away from it. 29. You
have (got) fine cloth ; give me some. 30. The science of lan-
guage is most interesting (229, note 2) ; I shall devote all my
time to it. 31. One ought rarely to speak of one's self.
32. Crime brings remorse in its train (tr. i drags = traine
remorse after itself '). 33. Everyone for himself. 34. This
young man, while obeying (&) his father, is working for him-
self.
1. / have ventured it. 2. He will do it. 3. You may act thus, but he
will act differently. 4. This umbrella belongs to her. 5. I shall rely on
you. 6. He is always thinking of her. 7. I the undersigned (or We the
undersigned) give my (our) assent to this contract. 8. Are you the heirs
of the deceased ? Yes, we are (cf. 250, a, note). 9. Are these gentlemen
brothers 1 I believe (that) they are. 10. I have found a person such as
I desired.
XII.
Possessive and Demonstrative Pronouns (257-270).
1. She took her pencil from her box. 2. Your brother is
not in his room ; he is in mine. 3. He gave me your keys and
his. 4. You are my dearest and most faithful friend. 5. This
carriage is too large ; it is larger than that (which) you showed
me. 6. If you act in that manner you will not be allowed to
go out with us. 7. Your greatest fault is (c?est, 266, b) your
idleness. 8. What is false is always bad. 9. What is of
consequence (importe) to us is to do what is right.
10. What astonishes me is that you have not come. 11. To
do good (Faire du bieri) to men is to render homage to God.
12. He who triumphs over (de) himself is happy (render in
two ways) . 13. Those who love others are themselves beloved.
14. Our engravings are better than those (which) I saw at
(chez) the bookseller's. 15. I have read the life of Welling-
ton and that of Napoleon ; the latter was the greater man, the
former the better citizen. . 16. I love Paris, its streets are fine.
EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 259
1. This house is mine. 2. A relation of mine. 3. My children received
each their present. 4. I have found to-day a handkerchief of yours
amongst mine. 5. A handkerchief of mine, you say ; it is not mine, it
is your friend's. 6. That is not gold; it is copper, as I think (ce me
semble). 7. New York is a beautiful city (express in two ways). 8. Caesar
was a great captain (two ways). 9. This is beautiful, and that is not
beautiful. 10. That is impossible for me. 11. It does not please me that
you do (subjunctive) that. 12. Is that your work-box?
XIII.
Interrogative and Relative Pronouns (271-281).
1. Which horse will you ride ? 2. Who is that gentleman ?
3. What is that project you are talking of (fr. of which you a.
t. : 412) ? 4. Which one of these young girls is your sister (or
Which ones etc.) ? 5. Which one (or Which ones) of these en-
gravings do you prefer ? 6. Who has come ? 7. Whom do you
expect ? 8. Who are these boys ? 9. Whom do you love most
of your comrades? 10. What does she say? 11. What are
you meddling with? (412). 12. What are you thinking
of (ct)? 13. There are many customs in these provinces that
are ridiculous. 14. A man who is truthful is always respected.
15. His mother, for whom he works, is old and infirm. 16. He
tries to alleviate the position of his father, which is a painful
one (one not transl.). 17. The house in which I live belongs
to my brother whom you saw yesterday. 18. Here is the book
in which you have read this passage. 19. The man of whom
(express in three ways) you speak has just gone out. 20. The
news of which (two ways) you speak is false. 21. That man
whose will is strong is sure to succeed. 22. Weariness is an
evil whose remedy is work. 23. This is the gentleman in
whose house I live. 24. He alone has the right to be happy
on whose life rests the happiness of others. 25. I do not
know what troubles him. 26. I cannot surmise what he is
thinking of. 27. Here is what you ask for (for not transl).
260 SYNTAX.
1. What is that ? 2. What is death ? 3. What frightens you 1 4. These
men do not busy themselves with anything whatever (287, note). 5. Nothing
could be expected of one who knows nothing. 6. He who says nothing,
consents. 7. I shall receive a hundred dollars, of which amount you shall
have one half.
XTV.
Indefinite Pronouns (282-294).
1. Have you some books to (a) lend me ? 2. Whatever riches
you may possess (subj.), do not despise the poor. 3. How-
ever skilful you may be, try to be modest. 4. However dull
a man may be, he has always something good in his character.
5. Do not laugh at (de) other people's faults. 6. Charity is
contented that others be (subj.) preferred. 7. Nobody has
been forgotten. 8. One person has been forgotten. 9. Is
there anybody who is (subj.) perfectly happy? 10. He left
without pa}dng anybody. 11. I do not think there is (subj.)
any man without a fault. 12. She had no knowledge of my
arrival. 13. Every man is subject to error. 14. The whole
family is in good health. 15. This man speaks of everything,
but he does not think of everything. 16. My sister was quite
astonished, quite surprised, at your request. 17. We (on)
ought not to speak ill of each other. 18. Men deceive each
other. 19. Both (give m. and f.) are gone. 20. Both the
(The two) consuls followed his standard. 21. I know these
girls : either the one or the other will surely come. 22. Neither
(give both m. andf.) obtained the prize. 23. Whoever you be ?
have regard for justice.
1. She is some twenty years old. 2. I have seen something beautiful; I
have seen a beautiful thing. 3. Remember, my sister, one is not always
young and pretty. 4. However rich you are, do not despise the poor.
5. All Paris is in an uproar. 6. Such a man is despicable. 7. Many a
man speaks of things which he does not understand. 8. One covets what
another (I' autre) despises. 9. He had called on Mr. So and So. 10. There
is not any one at all (287, note) to help me.
EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 261
XV.
Agreement of Verb and Subject (296-302).
1. I shall do what the others do (tr. will-do the others:
310, 416. a). 2. Truthfulness and honesty go together.
3. Sciences, arts, and literature are sources of enjoyment and
happiness. 4. (Either) you or your brother will come. 5. His
ruin or his safety depends on his answer. 6. Luck or rash-
ness may have made (out pu /aire : 317. a) heroes. 7. Neither
your fate nor mine is worthy of envy. 8. Neither my father
nor my mother will come (for ' neither . . . nor' cf 390).
9. A single word, a smile, a look, is sufficient. 10. The gentle-
ness, the kindness of the great Henry has been celebrated
with (de: 211. a) a thousand praises. 11. Great and small,
rich and poor, none can escape death. 12. Learning as well
as (de m&me que) valor has its value. 13. My brother and I
will come to see you. 14. You and he will be rewarded.
15. The number of (the) dead was considerable. 16. Many
men were there. 17. A crowd of children were running in
the street. 18. It is they (It is we) who request it of you.
19. It is vices that degrade us. 20. It is facts we want.
1. It is compliments (that) he wants. 2. We are the only ones that
will come. 3. They (On) made up (transl. agreed) and were good friends.
4. You are welcome, sir, and you also are welcome, ladies.
XVI.
Indicative Tenses (303-318).
1. I work to (pour) earn my living. 2. I have been here
since Monday. 3. How long have you been in France? I
have been here two years (two days). 4. Have you met the
inspector to-day? 5. I rose (or got up) at six o'clock this
morning. 6. We have had much rain this year. 7. Alexander
the G-reat destroyed the Persian empire. 8. Rome was not
built in one day. 9. I received a letter from my husband
262 SYNTAX.
yesterday. 10. I was dressing when yon came in. 11. He
often comes to see us. 12. When I was young I liked to play.
13. He had left when I arrived. 14. I saw him yesterday.
15. I received his letter the day before I left (la veille de
mon depart). 16. As soon as I had arrived, I went to ('go to'
idler chez or aller trouver) my friend. 17. When he had finished;
he went out. 18. If you would come, I would tell it to you.
19. I would pay you, if I had the money. 20. I would have
done it, if I had been able. 21. I had been two years in
America when my brother arrived. 22. I shall write when
I have seen him. 23. As soon as it is dark we shall go out
together, you and I. 24. We are going to buy Christmas-
presents. 25. I was about to go out when the clerk entered.
26. We should always fulfil our duties towards God and men.
27. She certainly ought to write to her guardian about it.
28. She ought to have (317. b) written to her mother. 29. They
should have received the news with fortitude. 30. That dis-
grace was to (317. c) happen (was inevitable).
1. He will do it, if he comes to-morrow. 2. It is uncertain whether she
will come to-morrow. 3. I leave to-night. 4. He has probably found his
watch, or he would not be back. 5. They cannot do it, but they might
try it. 6. I am not able to tell you (add it: 250. b).
XVII.
Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses (320-337: cf. also 382-7).
A. 1. I wish him to come (tr. that he c). 2. Caligula
wished that the Komans should render him divine honors.
3. The law requires that thieves should be punished. 4. Au-
gustus commanded in his will that they (on) should not seek
to extend his empire. 5. I will be obeyed (tr. that one obey
me). 6. The teacher expects you to be attentive. 7. You
must (use II faut) leave. 8. It is right (juste) that you
should be punished. 9. Itisimportant(i7 importe) that he
EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 263
should know it to-day. 10. I shall prevent him from going
out. 11. I fear some misfortune has happened to him. 12. I
do not apprehend that he will do anything wrong. 13. I hope
he will come ; do you hope he will come ? I no longer hope
he will come. 14. I doubt whether he knows it. 15. The
Egyptians did not doubt that certain plants and animals were
divinities. 16. I do not think it will rain to-day. 17. It
is not probable (or not certain) that he will send me the
money. 18. He denies that he has been told that (tr. that one
has told etc.). 19. Seek friends that can assist you with their
advice (pi). 20. I seek a retreat in which I may be quiet.
21. Is there a mortal that can say that he is always happy ?
22. Let us go home (Eentrons) before it grows dark ('grow
dark ' faire nuit) . 23. I say it that you may know it.
24. You will succeed, provided you act with vigor. 25. I
cannot depend on your promise, unless you give me the nec-
essary security. 26. Wait till the rain is over.
B. C. 27. He is the best player I know. 28. Wisdom is the
only thing the possession of which is certain. 29. You are
the first friend I have met with in Paris. 30. This is the only
hope that remains to me. 31. There are few men that can
always hear the truth. 32. It is surprising that he has cared
to do it. 33. I am glad (or I am sorry) that you have come.
34. I rejoice that you have succeeded. 35. It is a pity that you
cannot come (or have not come) earlier. 36. The tailor did not
come, although he had promised me (add it : 250. b). 37. What-
ever efforts men may make, their nothingness appears every-
where. 38. His mind is always active, although he is sick
and cannot work. 39. Although Homer, according to Horace,
slumbers at times, he is nevertheless (il n'en est pas moins)
the first of all poets. 40. However rich you are, do not despise
the poor. 41. Whoever you are, trust in God alone. 42. He
complains about your not keeping your word (or that you
have not kept your word) : obs. 323. B.
264 SYNTAX.
(Indicatives and subjunctives.) 1. Your father ordered that you should
do it (' should do ' one verb-form). 2. The tribunal has decided that the
donation was void. 3. I desire that he may come. 4. I hope he may come.
5. I believe she will do it ; do you believe she will do it 1 6. He labors in
order that he may be able to live. 7. He labors so that (defacon que) he is
able to live. 8. I have come inorderthat( pour que) we may speak of our
affairs. 9. I shall come, provided (pourvu que) he comes. 10. I shall come
if (si) he comes. 11. If he had listened to (cru) me, he would not have
written verses. 12. Do you think I need your assurance ? 13. Do you
think I can rely on his assurance ? 14. I shall not come, since he does
not write me. 15. Before he is torn (tr. Before one tears him) from us,
suffer me to conceal him. 16. Do you know whether he will come ?
17. Do you know (the fact) that he has arrived? 18. Do you forget that
Mary is my sister 1 19. If you believe that this book is useful, I shall
buy it. 20. If it were known (If one etc.) that you have spoken in his
behalf (pour lui), you would be hated. 21. I do not doubt that the
marriage pleaSes you. 22. There can be no doubt (On ne saurait
douter : 317. b) that the Germans used to purchase (= purchased:
imp/.) their wives. 23. Show me a way that leads to knowledge. 24. Show
me the way that leads to Paris. 25. The best use one can make of his mind
is to distrust it. 26. I know (that) he is the first one that has seen you here.
27. He is the most learned man I know. 28. If you need a knife of
which temper is good, here is one. 29. All (Tout) jaded as I am, I
traverse all the city. 30. However powerful they may be (or are) I do
not fear them. 31. I am delighted that you have that opinion of me.
32. I rejoice that she has returned (render in two ways). 33. He com-
plains that you have beaten him and torn his clothes (two ways).
XVIII.
Subjunctive in (quasi) Independent Clauses (338-339).
1. (Long) live the emperor ! 2. Heaven be blessed for it !
3. May God watch, over us. 4. May she succeed. 5. Would
to God it were so. 6. Let him depart immediately, come who
will. 7. Let Joad put a check upon (a) his savage zeal.
8. Any ( Une or Toute) hesitation might have ruined all. 9. If
he had dared, he would have become angry. 10. I know no
one better endowed.
EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 265
XIX.
Infinitive (341-362).
1. To hate is a torment, to love is the soul's need. 2. To
think and to act is to live. 3. I shall have him called (tr. I
shall make call him). 4. You have let him fall. 5. I must
{dots) go and see him to-night. 6. She intends to leave to-
morrow. 7. The lawyer wishes to come this afternoon.
8. They have gone to live at Paris. 9. She will come to
visit me to-morrow. 10. It pleases her to see his attentions.
11. It is a torment to hate ; it is the soul's need to love.
12. It does not become you to speak thus. 13. Abstain from
reading useless books. 14. He seems to like playing. 15. I
forbid you to behave thus any longer. 16. Beware of falling
into the water if you cannot swim. 17. He does not like (or
He hates) to study. 18. You try in vain to deceive me.
19. Religion teaches us to love our neighbors as ourselves.
20. He aspires to win my approbation. 21. He endeavors
to study. 22. I have made him decide (tr. decided him) to
leave. 23. I have just seen (cf. 353, venir) her. 24. I come to
see her. 25. If I should happen to die, what would you do ?
1. I begin to understand you. 2. It has begun to rain. 3. He continues
reading. 4. I shall continue to read this afternoon. 5. I beg (demande)
to speak to you. 6. I ask (demande) you to listen to me. 7. I defy him
to go there. 8. I challenge him to play at billiards (au billiard). 9. He
came near (' come near ' = 'fail ' : manquer or faillir) falling. 10. He failed
to fulfil his engagements.
XX.
Participles (364-371).
1. A young man who knows (tr. knowing) his interest will
not neglect his studies. 2. I saw the letter-carrier going to
the post-office. 3. That is a convincing proof. 4. She is as
pale as a withered flower. 5. This school-boy's letter is well
266 SYNTAX.
written. 6. Selfish men are despised. 7. Concealed enmity
{pi.) is dangerous. 8. Here is the letter (which) I have
received. 9. The affairs you have undertaken are of a dif-
ficult nature. 10. Where are your gloves ? I have lost them.
11. I have lost my gloves. 12. She stood up (comp. tense of
se lever). 13. All your relatives have rejoiced at your happi-
ness. 14. They presented flowers to each other (se).
15. The flowers which they presented to each other were
exquisite. 16. He died seeing his friends around him.
1. This is a tiresome play. 2. That was a fatiguing march. 3. All
were welcome, except you and me (two ways). 4. The years that I have
labored on this work are not a few. 5. The three leagues she has walked
have tired her. 6. Have you some flowers? Yes, he has given me some
(en). 7. You know the good opinion I have already conceived of it (en).
8. I am fond of flowers ; I have gathered some. 9. The letter I supposed
you would receive, has arrived at last. 10. I made her come. 11. He
kept us waiting. 12. He has written as many letters as he could.
13. Even while scolding him she loved him. 14. He met his sister
returning home (= on her way home) ; he met his sister while on his
way home.
XXI.
Negation (372-391).
1. Have you seen him ? No. 2. His mother, but not his
sister, is here. 3. Has he any friends ? Not many. 4. He
has not come. 5. I have not written to my banker about it.
6. It is bad not to study; (or not to have studied). 7. He
will never come ; he will come no more ; he will hardly come ;
he will nowise come. 8. I do not know anybody here. 9. The
paper said nothing about it. 10. Nothing is better than truth,
even if it is bitter. 11. I dare not go there. 12. The unfor-
tunate widow does not cease weeping. 13. I could (saurais)
not do it. 14. I am not able (cannot) to do it, and I don't know
whether the girl (servant- girl) is. 15. No matter, I shall do
it. 16. God forbid that this misfortune should happen. 17. I
EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 267
see no one that does not love you. 18. If you are cold why
don't you put on your overcoat ? 19. I have few friends that
are not yours. 20. Is there a man that does not complain of
his fellow creatures (semblables) . 21. Take care that she
does not fall. 22. I shall prevent him from going out. 23. I
fear this may be true. 24. I shall go to see him (le trouver),
lest he start without my seeing him. 25. I do not doubt that
this is true. 26. Do you doubt that this is true ? 27. I doubt
that this is true. 28. I do not deny that this is true. 29. Do
you deny that he is guilty ? 30. I deny that he is guilty.
31. Do you not deny that he is guilty ? 32. We had not seen
each other for six years. 33. How has she been (se porter
'be' with ref. to health) since I saw her? 34. He is older
than I thought. 35. The boat was quicker than he had cal-
culated. 36. My shoemaker has more work than he wants.
37. The state of my health is worse than you imagine.
38. Your teacher will not come, unless you write to him.
39. Neither the shoes nor the boots have been sent. 40. This
idle boy neither works nor plays. 41. These laborers can
neither read nor write. 42. He knew neither that I had seen
you, nor that I have spoken to you.
1. I say yes (= I protest). 2. He believes not. 3. You will come, will
you not? (transl. is it not ? ) 4. No more tears, no more sorrows, my friend.
5. God has created the world from nothing. 6. She did not say a word.
7. I shall not do it, unless you do it. 8. That house is not far from being
three miles from the city. 9. We have not seen each other for many
years. 10. He is a different man from what (que je ne) I thought. 11. He
has not seen me nor spoken to me (two ways). 12. My neighbors will not
pay this expense, nor I either.
XXII.
Other Indeclinables (391-406).
1. This soldier is as brave as he is kind. 2. She is not so
wise as she appears. 3. That young fellow reads as much as
268 SYNTAX.
you, but he does not work so much. 4. The contractor made
(a gagne) at least 200 dollars. 5. If my tailor is not rich, he
has at least something to live on (de quoi vivre). 6. That
course is the wisest ; besides it is also the most just. 7. This
storekeeper is rich, but his brother is yet more so (or is yet
more so than he), 8. As for my cousin, he does not know
when he will come. 9. The engineer told me he would come
and bring his plan. 10. Scarcely had I arrived when the
curate came to see me. 11. If the doctor does not come, it
is because he is sick. 12. Both rich and poor must die.
13. Whether he comes or writes, I shall be contented. 14. I
will have it so (Je le veux), since it is right. 15. While my
uncle was in Paris, I travelled through Switzerland. 16. This
stuff is red, whilst that is pink.
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
(ADAPTED, IN THE MAIN, FOB EQUIVALENT TRANSLATION).
XXIII.
A child of six years of age, being introduced into company for his
extraordinary abilities, was asked by a clergyman where God is, with the
proffered reward of an orange, if he should answer (308) correctly. " Tell
me," replied the boy, "where he is not, and I will give you two" (supply
en 'of them').
XXIV.
Dumoulin, a (204. B. 2) famous physician, was sinking (' be sinking ' etre
a Vagonie). He was surrounded by several of his colleagues, who deplored
his loss. " Gentlemen," said he to them, " I leave behind me three great
physicians." Each one thought he was (transl. thought to be: 862)
one of the three: he was urged (transl. 'one urged him') to name
them. "They are," he answered (417), " water (195), exercise, and diet."
XXV.
King (187) Xerxes, astonished at the tranquillity of the Lacedemonians,
waited a few (282) days to {pour) allow them time for reflection. On the
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 269
fifth day (simply Le cinquieme) he wrote to Leonidas, "If thou wilt sub-
mit, I shall give thee the empire of Greece." Leonidas responded, " I prefer
('prefer/ aimer mieux) dying for my country to enslaving it." A second
letter from the king contained only these words, "Surrender (Rends-moi)
thy arms!" — Leonidas wrote below, "Come and take (362) them!"
XXVI.
Cornelia, daughter of the great Scipio, and wife of Consul Sempronius,
was in a company of Roman ladies who were displaying their precious stones
and jewels. Cornelia was asked (use on) to show also hers. This wise
Roman woman (one word) ordered (transl. made) her children to ap-
proach. These she had brought up with great care for the glory of their
country, and she said in showing them: "There is (void) my orna-
ment, there my jewels."
XXVII.
There was a time when everybody (tout le monde) used to say
(='said/ impf. : 306) big (gros) instead of great (grand) ; a big thing,
a big house, a big reputation, etc. As Louis XIV was one day at the
house of (chez) a minister where he met Boileau, he indicated to the latter
that he did not like this novel expression. "It is surprising," said B.,
" that people (on) everywhere will use (mettre) big for great. For instance,
there is much (bien) difference between Louis the Great and Louis the
Big" (usually " Fat " = Louis VI) .
XXVIII.
An Arab, having lost his way in the desert, had not eaten anything for
two days, and saw himself compelled to die from hunger. Passing near
one of those wells where caravans come to water their camels, he sees on
the sand a small leather-bag. He picks it up, he feels it: "Allah be
blessed!" he cries; "These are, I believe, dates or hazel-nuts." Full of
this sweet hope, he hastens to open the bag; but at the sight of what it
contained he exclaimed with disappointment (transl. pain), "Alas, I
thought it was at least hazel-nuts, and it is only pearls !"
XXIX.
A man who had twelve sons made them assemble around his death-bed,
and as they were waiting for his last blessing, he showed them a bundle
of arrows, and ordered each to try to break them thus bound together.
None of the sons could doit (y parvenir). Then he told them to make the
270 SYNTAX.
same attempt by taking the arrows one after the other. In this way they
broke them with ease. Then the father called their attention to
(attira leur attention sur, or les rendit attentifs a) this emblem of the power
of concord. "Observe, my children," said he to them, "that as long as
you remain united, no one will be able to conquer you."
XXX.
When Boabdil, the (204. B. 2) last king of Grenada, was obliged to aban-
don the kingdom of his fathers, he stopped on the summit of Mount Padul.
From this high place was discovered (transl. one disc.) the sea where
the unfortunate monarch was about (' be about ' aller) to embark for Africa ;
also Grenada and the Xenil, on the border of which the tents of Ferdinand
and Isabella arose, were seen. At the sight of this beautiful country and
the cypresses that yet marked here and there the tombs of the Mussulmans,
Boabdil began to (se mit a) shed tears. The sultana A'ixa, his mother,
who accompanied him in his exile, together with the lords (grands) that
once composed his court, said to him : " Weep now as a woman for a
kingdom, which thou couldst not defend as a man." — They descended the
mountain, and Grenada disappeared from their eyes forever.
XXXI.
Charles XII, king of Sweden, was born in Stockholm on the 27th of
June, 1662. He lost his mother in his eleventh year, and was hardly
fifteen years old when his father died. According to the will of the late
king, he should (317. c) not be of age before he was past (qu'apres
avoir passe') his eighteenth year; but on the proposition of the minister
Piper, the diet transferred the government to him as early as (deja)
1697. In the year 1700, Peter I, emperor of Russia, Frederick IV, king of
Denmark, and August, elector of Saxony, declared war against him. — He
attacked them one after the other, and gained at first brilliant victories,
among others that Of Narva, where with less than 8,000 Swedes he defeated
80,000 Russians, of whom more than twenty thousand remained on the
field of battle, while he lost only six hundred men. But later, when he
penetrated into Russia, he lost the decisive battle of Pultawa, and was
forced to take refuge on the Turkish territory with a feeble escort of two
hundred and fifty Swedes.
XXXII.
The old hunter Maurice had in his room a starling which he had
brought up, and which had learned to articulate some words. When he
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 271
said for instance, "Starling, where are you (2d sing.)? " the bird always
answered "Here I am" (Me voila). — Little (def. art.) Charley, the son
of a neighbor, liked the bird (very) much and often paid (transl. made)
it visits. One day he came to see the starling while the hunter was absent;
he quickly seized the bird, put it into his pocket, and would fain (transl.
wished to) steal away with his larceny. But at this moment the hunter
entered his home. He thought he would amuse the little boy by (en) ask-
ing as usual " Starling, where are you f — " Here I am ! " cried with all
his might (pi.) the bird that was concealed in the boy's pocket. And thus
the little theft was betrayed.
XXXIII.
One day Frederick the Great rang the bell (simply, 'rang'), and no
one came. He opened the door and found his page asleep in an arm-chair.
He went up to (s'avancer a) him and was about (aller) to awaken him,
when he noticed the corner of a letter (un bout de billet) which stuck
out of his pocket. He became curious to know what it was, took it and
read it. It was a letter from the young man's mother, who thanked him
for (de ce qu'il) sending her a part of his salary to console her in her
poverty. She ended by saying that God would bless him for (a cause de)
his love to her. When the king had read (use pr. pple.) this note, he took a
purse of ducats, slipped it with the letter into the pocket of the page, and
returned softly to his room. Soon ( Un peu) after he rung the bell so loud
(fort) that the page was awakened (re/7.) and came to the king. ** You
( Tu) have slept well ! " said Frederick. The page tries to excuse himself,
and in his embarrassment he puts his hands into his pocket. He feels the
purse, he draws it out, and reaches the climax (se trouve au comble) of
astonishment and confusion ; he grows pale, and looks at the king, shedding
a torrent of tears, unable (sans pouvoir) to utter a single word. "What
is the matter?" (Qu'est-ce ? or Qu'as-tu ?) says the king, — " What is the
matter, then?" — "Ah, Sire," said the young man, throwing himself at
his feet, "They (on) wish to ruin me, I don't know what this money
means (ce que c'est que cet argent) which I find in my pocket." — "My
friend," said Frederick, "God often sends us good things (le bien)
while we are sleeping ; send that to your mother, and assure her that I shall
take care of her and of you."
XXXIV.
Servilius defends himself before the people.
" If y o u (transl. one) have made me come here to demand from me (we)
272 SYNTAX.
an account of what took place in the last battle where I commanded, I am
ready to inform you about it ; but if it is only a pretext to destroy me, as
I suspect (add 'it'), spare me useless words: here you have (voila) my
body and life which I surrender to you : you may dispose of them. — What,
then, is my crime 1 What fault have I committed hitherto 1 I am accused
of having lost many men (use monde for « men ') in the last battle. But
who is the general that can fight (transl. deliver) battles against a warlike
nation that defends itself courageously, without blood being shed on both
sides (de part et d' autre) 11 . What divinity has bound itself to (envers) the
Roman people to make it gain victories without any loss ? Whom can
you make (fera-t-on) believe that glory is to be gained otherwise than by
great perils? I joined battle (J'en suis venu aux mains) with more
numerous troops than those you had confided to me. I routed their legions,
which finally fled. What remained for me to do 1 ? Who among you
could have refused to accept [eut pu (317, 338. B) se refuser a] the
victory that came to meet me ? Was it even in my power to restrain your
soldiers, who were carried away by their courage (tr. whom their courage
carried away) and pursued with ardor a terrified enemy i "
XXXIV.
Snow is the product of a thick fog, which the cold changes into an in.
finite multitude (transl. infinity) of little imperceptible icicles , which , in
coalescing, for the most part form light irregular flakes that fall with more
or less abundance, and cover the earth with a more or less thick layer, the
effect of which is to protect against the extremest cold those plants which
it conceals. It sometimes happens, and chiefly when the air is calm, that
every particle of snow has the form of a little star with (a) six rays of
an extreme delicacy, and which resemble little feathers.
The snow hardens at last (a la tongue) ; it even changes to ice, when
it is powerfully pressed. In countries where it falls abundantly, as in
Nevada, there are mountains where the snow never melts, and it is that
snow which gives rise to glaciers, which are enormous masses of ice. When
the snow is amassed on very steep slopes, a moment arrives when it can-
not sustain itself, and then occurs (' occur ' se /aire) what is called an
avalanche, that is (c'est a dire) a kind of snow-slip, which carries along,
covers, or crushes everything in its path.
VOCABULARY TO THE PRECEDING EXERCISES.
Numerals, ordinary pronouns or pronominal adjectives, and proper names
spelled alike in French and English, are omitted in this vocabulary. For
other references than those given below, consult the grammar-index. Words
and phrases considered in the paragraphs heading each exercise are to be
studied specially under their respective paragraphs.
Abbreviations : n. = noun ; adj. = adjective ; v. = verb ; irr. = irregular
(consult § 161). Notice also that 'h = h aspirated (23).
a, un; distrib've (as in
'a year' etc.) par.
abandon, abandonner.
ability, talent, m.
able, capable, be — , pou-
voir (irr.).
about (^nearly) environ.
absent, absent.
abstain, s'abstenir, irr.
abundance, abondance, f .
abundant, abondant.
abundantly, en abon-
dance.
abuse, v., abuser de.
accompany, accompa-
gner.
accomplish, accomplir.
according to, selon.
account, compte, m.
accuse, accuser.
accustom, accoutumer.
acquaintance, connais-
sance, f.
act, v., agir; -ive, actif.
action, action, f .
actor, acteur, m.
admire, admirer.
advice, conseil, m.
advise, conseiller.
affair, affaire, f.
affect, affecter, toucher.
afraid : be — , avoir peur.
Africa, Afrique, f.
afternoon, apres-midi, m.
age, age, m. of (6 etc.)
years of — , age de (6
etc.) ans ; of — , ma-
jeur.
agree, s'accorder.
air, air, m.
alas, he'las.
Alexander, Alexandre.
all, tout (292).
alleviate, adoucir.
alike, e'gal.
allow, permettre, irr.
alone, seul.
already, de'ja.
also, aussi.
although, quoique (330).
always, toujours.
amass, amasser.
America, Ame'rique, f.
American, Ame'ricain, m.
amiable, aimable.
among(st), entre,. parmi
(216. d).
amount, somme, f . ; total,
m.
amuse, amuser ; /aire
plaisir a.
ancient, ancien.
angry, fach€; be (be-
come) — , etre fdche',
se mettre en colere.
274
VOCABULARY.
animal, animal, m.
animate, animer.
answer, v., re'pondre.
answer, n., re'ponse, f.
any (45, 199).
appeal, en appeler.
appear, paraitre, irr.
apple, pomme, f.
appoint (to office), nom-
mer ; (settle) designer.
apprehend (=fear), ap-
pre'hender.
approach, tr., approcher
or s' approcher (cf . 211);
intr., s'approcher.
approach, n., approche,
f.
approbation, approba-
tion, f.
Arab, Arabe, m.
ardor, ardeur, f .
arise, se lever, s'e'lever.
arm, n. (weapon), arme,
f . ; (limb), bras, m.
arm, v., armer.
arm-chair, fauteuil, m.
army, arme'e, f .
around, autour de. [f.
arrive, arriver; -sd,arrive'e,
arrow, jleche, f.
art, arty m.
articulate, articvler.
as, adv. (before adj.),
aussi, (after) que; —
much or many (as)
autant (que) ; — long
as, aussi longtemps que ;
— soon as, aussitot
que, des que.
as, conj., comme; de
(211.f);en(204.A.2);
pour; (= when) lorsque.
ascend, monter, fair el' as-
cension (de).
ashamed : be — , avoir
honte.
Asia, Asie, f.
ask, demander; — a ques-
tion /aire une question.
asleep, endor mi ; fall — ,
s'endormfr.
aspire, aspirer.
assemble, rassembler.
assent, n., assentiment, m.
assist, assister.
assure, assurer.
assurance, assurance.
astonish, e'tonner.
astonishing, e'tonnant.
astonishment, e'tonne-
ment, m.
at, a ; en, dans ; de ; par ;
( — the house of, — 's,
chez) ; — all, du tout ;
— first, d'abord ; —
last, enfin ; — least, du
moins (au moins : 394) ;
— times, parfois.
attack, attaquer.
attempt, n., essai, m.
attentive, attentif.
attention, attention, f.
August (us), Auguste.
aunt, tante, f.
avalanche, avalanche, f.
awaken, re'veiller.
B.
back: be — , etre de
retour.
bad, mauvais.
bag, sac, m.
banker, banquier, m.
bare, nu: bare-headed.
nu-tete or tete nue;
barefoot (ed) , nu-pieds
or pieds nus. [219,
note 4.]
bark, n., e'corce, f.
battle, n., bataille, f.
beat, battre (134.3),
frapper.
beautiful, beau (75).
because, parce que, puis-
que. [405.]
become, devenir, irr. ;
(suit) seoir (161), con-
venir, irr. ; — angry,
se mettre en colere.
before, avant, devant.
[216.]
beg, prier.
begin, commencer.
behave, se conduire, irr.
behead, de'capiter.
behind, derriere, apres.
believe, croire, irr.
belong, appartenir, irr.
below, sous, dessous, au-
dessous de.
best, adj., le meilleur ;
adv., le mieux ; —
thing, mieux or la
meilleure chose.
betray, trahir; (show)
re've'ler, montrer.
between, entre.
bewail, plaindre, irr. ;
dfylorer.
beware, prendre garde
(of de), se garder.
VOCABULARY.
275
big, gros (74), grand.
bind (together), Her;
bind one's self, s'en-
gager.
bird, oiseau, m.
bitter, amer.
black, noir.
bless, benir.
blessing, benediction, f.
blood, sang, m.
blue, bleu.
body, corps, m.
bold, 'hardi, courageux.
book, livre, m.
bookseller, libraire, m.
boot, botte, f.
border, bord, m.
born, ne'; be — , naftre
(with etre), irr.
borrow, ernprunter (of, a).
boy, garcon, ni.
box, froite, f.
branch, branche, f.
brave, iraye (222), cou-
rageux.
bread, pain, m.
break, casser, rompre.
breath, haleine, f.
brethren, cf. brother.
brilliant, brillant, €cla-
tant.
bring, apporter (lead),
amener ; — up, elever.
brother, frere, m.; ( =
colleague, pi. breth-
ren), confrere, m.
build, bdtir.
bundle (of twigs, etc.),
faisceau, m.
busy one's self, s'occuper.
buy, acheter.
by, par, de, a.
C.
Caesar, Cesar.
calculate, calculer, com-
pter.
call, nommer, appeler ; —
upon, aller (irr., with
etre) voir.
calm, calme, tranquille.
camel, chameau, m.
can, pouvoir, irr. ; I can
not, je ne saurais
(317, b).
Canada, Canada, m.
candid, franc (76.1).
captain, capitaine, m.
caravan, caravane, f .
care, n., soin, m. ; take
— , prendre (or avoir)
soin.
care, v., se soucier.
carriage, voiture, f.
carry, porter ; — along,
entrainer ; — away, em-
porter.
castle, chateau, m.
cat, chat, m.
cause, n., cause, f. ; (mo-
tive) raison, f.
cease, cesser.
celebrate, celebrer.
cent, cent, m. (Am. = a
Fr. sou).
certain, certain.
certainly, certainement.
challenge, defer.
change, changer.
chapter, chapitre, m.
character, caractere, m.
charitable, charitable.
charity, charitie', f.
Charles, -ey, Charles.
check, x\.,frein, m.
cheese, fromage, m.
chiefly, principalement „
surtout.
child, enfant, m.
Christmas, Noel, m. ;
present, cadeau de
Noel ; (etrennes, ' new-
year's gift').
citizen, citoyen, m.
city, ville, f .
clergy m an jeccle'siastiq ue,
ministre ; (priest) pre-
tre.
clerk, commis, m.
cloth, drap, m.
clothes, habits, m. pi.
coalesce, se re'unir.
coffee, cafe, m.
cold, adj., /rote?; be (feel)'
— , avoir froid ; be —
(weather) faire froid.
cold, n., froid, m.; froi-
deur, f.
colleague, collegue, m.
collection, collection, f.
combat, n., combat, m.
come, venir ; — in, entrer ;
— to meet, marcher
devant ; aller au devant
de.
comedy, comedie, f.
command, commander.
commit, commettre, irr.
company, socie'te, f .
compel, contraindre, irr.
276
VOCABULARY.
complain, se plaindre,
irr.
compliment, compliment,
m.
compose, composer.
comrade, camarade, m.
conceal, cacher, celer ;
dissimuler.
conceive, concevoir, irr.
concord, concorde, f.
conduct, v., conduire, irr.
conduct, n., conduite, f .
confide, confier.
confusion, confusion, f.
conquer, vainer e, irr.
consent, consentir, irr.
consider, considerer,
(think) re'fle'ehir.
considerable, conside'-
rable.
console, soulager.
consul, consul, m.
contain, contenir, irr.
content, content.
continue, continuer.
continuous, continu.
contract, contrat, m.
contractor, contractant,
m. ; entrepreneur, m.
convince, convaincre, irr.
copper, cuivre, m.
copy-book, cahier, m.
cordial, cordial.
correctly, correctement ;
(in tune) juste.
cost, v., couter.
cost, n., (expense) frais,
m. ; (value) prix.
country, (gen'ly) pays,
m.; (region) contre'e,
i.; (native c.) patrie,
f. ; (as opposed to the
city) campagne, f.
courage, courage, m.
courageously, coura-
geusement.
course, cours, m.
court, cow, f.
cousin, cousin, m. ; cou-
sine, f.
cover, couvrir, irr.
covet, rechercher.
create, cre'er.
crime, crime, m.
crowd, foule, f.
crush, €craser.
cry, crier, — out, s' eerier ;
— for help, crier au
secours.
curate, cure', m.
curious, curieux.
custom, usage, m.
cypress, cypres, m.
dangerous, dangereux.
dare, oser.
dark, obscure; be — ,
faire nuit.
date (the fruit), datte, f.
daughter, jille, f.
day, jour, m.
dead, morf.
dear, c/*e/\
death, mort, f. [mort.
death-bed, frf (m.) de
debt, dette, f.
deceased, defunt.
deceive, v., tromper.
deception, deception, f .
decide, decider, tr. or
intr. (as tr. also =
'cause to decide, in-
duce').
decision, decision, f.
declare, declarer.
deep, profond.
defeat, v., de'faire.
defend, defendre.
defy, defier.
degrade, degrader.
delicacy, delicatesse, f .
delicate, ddicieux, d4li-
cat.
delighted, char me.
delightful, ddicieux.
deliver, livrer ; deiivrer.
Denmark, Danemark, ni.
deny, nier, denier.
depend, de'pendre(on,de).
deplore, deplorer.
descend, descendre.
desert, n., de'sert, m.
desire, desirer.
despicable, meprisable.
despise, m€priser.
destroy, de'truire, irr. ;
faire (irr.) p€rir.
devote, de'vouer.
die, mourir, irr.
1. diet (regulated food),
diete, f. ; (food) nour-
riture, f.
2. diet (legislative as-
sembly), diete, f., (/es)
e'tats, m. pi.
difference, difference, f.
different, different.
differently, diffe'remment,
ctiversement.
VOCABULARY.
277
difficult, difficile.
dignity, dignite, f .
diligent, diligent.
dine, diner.
disappear, disparaitre,
irr.
discover, de'couvrir, irr.
disgrace, n., de'shonneur,
m.; honte, i.
disgrace, v., de'skonorer,
avilir.
display, e'taler.
dispose, disposer.
distrust, v., se defier de.
divine, divin.
divinity, divinite.
do, /aire, irr. ; rendre.
doctor, me'decin, m.
document, document, m.
dog, chien, m.
dollar, dollar, m.
donation, donation, f.
door, porte, f .
doubt, n., doute, m.
doubt, v., douter.
draw (out), tirer.
dress (one's self), s'ha-
biller. {son, f .
drink, boire, irr.; n. bois-
ducat, ducat, m.
dull, (tedious) ennu-
yeux; (stupid) stupide;
(blunt) emousse.
duty, devoir, m.
each, adj., chaque; —
one, n., chacun ; —
other, I'un V autre (294);
«• (150).
early, de bonne heure.
earth, terre, f.
ease, facilite', f.
eat, manger.
effect, effet, m.
effort, effort, m.
Egyptian, adj., egyptien;
n., Hgyptien, m.
elector, e'lecteur, m.
embark, s'embarquer.
embarrassment, em-
barras, m.
emblem, embleme, m.
emigrant, emigrant, m.
Emily, Emilie.
emperor, empereur, m.
empire, -empire, m.
enclosed, inclus, ci-joint.
end, n.,Jin, f. ; (extrem-
ity) bout, m.
end, v.,finir.
endeavor, s'efforcer.
endowed (favored), par-
tag€.
energy, e'nergie, f. [m.
engagement, engagement,
engineer, ing€nieur, m.
English, adj., anglais or
d'Angleterre ; n., An-
glais, m. pi.
Englishman, Anglais, m.
engraving, gravure, f.
enjoy, jouir de, posse'der;
refl. s'amuser, se re-
jouir.
enjoyment, plaisir, m. ;
jouissance, f.
enlighten, illuminer.
enmity, inimitie', f .
enormous, e'norme.
enrich, enrichir.
enslave, asservir, irr.
enter, entrer.
envy, enwe, f .
envy, v., envier.
equally, e'galement.
error, erreur, f.;faute, f.
escape, tr., e'chapper a;
intr., s'e'chapper.
escort, escorte, f.
essay, essai, m.
Europe, Europe, f.
even, adv., meme.
ever, (always) toujours;
(at any time) jamais.
every one, chacun.
everybody, tout le monde.
everywhere, partout.
excellent, excellent.
except, excepte (219. 4).
exclaim, s'e'crier.
excuse, excuse, f.
excuse, v., excuser.
exercise, exercice, m. ;
(tranl'n into a foreign
lang.) theme, m.
exile, exil.
expect, attendre.
expense, depense, f . ;
depens, m. pi.
expose, exposer.
expression, expression, f.
exquisite, exquis.
extend, tr., etendi-e; intr.,
s'e'tendre.
extraordinary, extraordi-
naire.
extreme, extreme, le plus
grand,
eye, ceil, m. (pi. yeux).
278
VOCABULARY.
F.
fact, fait, m.
fade (away), passer,
faithful, fidele.
fall, tomber.
false, faux.
falseness, perfidie, f.
family, famille, f.
famous, fameux, ce'lebi'e.
'farthing,' sou, m.
fate, destin, sort, m.
father, pere, m.
fatiguing, fatiyant.
fault, (mistake)y«i.
fire, /ew, m.
first : at — , d'abord.
flake, jiocon, m.
flattery, flatter ie, f.
flee, ,/wtV, prendre (irr.),
la fuite.
flower, fleur, f.
fly, voler.
fog, brouillard, m.
follow, suivre.
folly, folie, f. ; sottise, f.
fond : be — »f, aimer.
foot, /?/eJ, m.
for, />o**r ; (during) pen-
dant ; (since) depuis.
forbid, defendre.
force, forcer, contraindre.
forget, oublier.
form, n., forme, f.
form, v., former.
fortitude, fortitude, f.
fortune, fortune, f.
France, France, f.
franc, franc, m.
Frederick, Frederic.
French, francais, de
France.
Frenchman, Francais,m.
friend, ami, m.
frighten, effrayer.
from, de; (of time)
depuis.
fruit, fruit, m.
fulfil, remplir.
full, plein.
G.
gain, yayner, acque'rir ;
(a victory) remporter.
gather, cueillir, irr.
general, yene'ral, m.
gentleman, monsieur (pi.
messieurs) ; (man of
rank) yentilhomme (pi.
(jcntilshommes.
gentleness, douceur, f .
German, adj., allemou-
voir, irr.
mean (low), Z>as.
means, moi/en, m.; (pe-
cuniary) moyens, m.pl.
meat, viande, f.
meddle, se meler.
meet, rencontrer.
melt, fondi-e.
merchant, marchand, m
metal, metal, m.
Mexico, Mexique, m.
might, force, f.
mind, esprit, m.
minister, ministre, m.
VOCABULARY.
281
minute, minute, f.
miser, avare, m.
misfortune, malheur, m.
model, modele, m.
moderation,?«oc?era£uw,f.
modest, modeste.
moment, moment, m.
monarch, monarque, m.
Monday, lundi, m.
money, argent, m.
morning, matin, m.
mortal, moriel.
most, la plupart (198,
299. b).
mother, mere, f.
mount, monf, m.
mountain, montagne, f .
mouth, bouche, f .
much, beaucoup de, bien
du (etc.) ; too — , trop.
mussulman,wiMsuZ/nan,m.
must (faut etc. of) fal-
loir, irr.
N.
name, nom, m.
name, v., nommer.
Napoleon, Napole'on.
nation, nation, f.
national, national.
nature, nature, f .
near, pres de.
necessary, ne'cessaire.
necessity, n€cessit€, f.
neck, cou, m.
need, n., necessity, besoin,
m. ; be in — of, avoir
besoin de.
need, v., avoir besoin de.
needle, aiguille, f.
neglect, n€gliger.
neighbor, voisin, m.
neither, cf . 390.
nephew, neveu, m.
Netherlands, Pays-Bas,
m. pi.
never, ne . . . jamais
(388).
new, nouveau (75, 222),
neuf (69).
news, nouvelle, f., or -s.
nice, joZi.
no longer, ne plus.
Normandy, Normandie,f.
nose, nez, m.
not, cf. ne, index,
nothing, ne . . . rien (390).
nothingness, ne'ant, m,
notice, apercevoir, irr.
novel, nouveau (75, 222).
now, maintenant.
number, nombre, m.
numerous, nombreux.
nun, nonne, f.
obedience, obe'issance, f .
obey, obe'ir.
oblige, obliger.
observe, observer.
obtain, obtenir, irr.
o'clock, heure, f. (deux
heures ' two o'clock '
etc.).
of, de; think — ,pensera;
— it(etc.),en(101,244).
often, souvent. [(211).
old, vieux (75), age de
on, sur ; live — , vivre de.
once,unefois; (formerly)
jadis.
only, adj., seul, unique.
only, adv., ne . . . que
(388), seidement.
open, v., ouvrir, irr.
open, adj., ouvert.
opinion, opinion, f.
or, ou.
order, ordre, m.
ornament, n.,ornement,m.
ornament, v., orner, d€-
corer.
ornamental, d'ornement,
beau.
other, autre.
otherwise, autrement.
ought (devrais etc. : — ,
of) devoir, irr.
out of, hors de.
outlet, embouchure, f .
over, sur, au-dessus de;
(passed) passe'.
overcoat, surtout, m.
overwhelm, accabler,
combler.
P.
page (boy), page, m.
pain, peine, f .
painful, douloureux; (toil-
some) pe'nible.
painting, peinture, f .
palace, palais, m.
pale, pale ; grow — , pdlir.
paper (news-) ,journal,m.
pardon, n., pardon, m.
pardon, v., pardonner.
parents, parents, m. pi.
part, part, f ., partie, f . j
for the most — , pour
la plupart, le plus ordi-
nairement.
282
VOCABULARY.
particle, particule, f.
pass, passer.
passage, passage, m.
path, passage, m.
patience, patience, f .
pay, v., payer.
pay, n., gages, m. pi.
pear, poire, f .
pearl, perle, f .
pen, plume, f .
pencil, crayon, m.
penetrate, pe'ne'trer.
penetrating, penetrant.
penknife, canif, m.
physician, docteur, m.,
medecin, m.
people (nation), peuple,
(folks) c-ens (62. d) ;
(indef.) on; other — ,
autrui (289) ; rich —
(gen'ly) les riches.
perceive, apercevoir, irr.,
(hecorne cognizant)
s 'apercevoir de.
perfectly, parfaitement.
peril, peril, m.
perseverance, perseve-
rance, f.
Persian, de Perse, per san.
person, personne, f.
Peter, Pierre.
pick up, ramasser. [f.
picture, tableau, m.,copie,
pink, ceillet, m.
pity : it's a — , c'esf dom-
mage.
place, place, f., lieu, m. ;
take — , se passer.
plain, adj., plain, simple.
plain, n., plaine, f.
plan, plan, m., pro jet, m.
plant, plante, f . ; plants,
plantes, ve'getaux, m. pi.
play, \.,jouer.
play, n., /eu, m.
player, joueur, m.
please, plaire (irr.) a ; if
you — , s'il vous plait.
pleasure, plaisir, m.
pocket, poche, f . [ete.
poem, poeme, m.; -et, po-
polecat, fouine, f.
polite, pofo".
Pompey, Pompe'e.
poor, pauvre (222).
position, position, f.
possess, posseder.
possession, possession, f .
post-office, jwoste, f .
pound, livre, f.
poverty, pauvrete', f.
misere, i.
power, pouvoir, m.
powerful, puissant.
powerfully, fortement.
praise,/ower; r\.louange,m.
precious stones, pierre-
ries, f. pi.
prefer, preferer.
present, adj., present.
present, n., present, m.
present, v., presenter.
press (together), com-
primer.
pretext, pre'texte, m.
pretty, joli, beau.
prevent, empecher.
price, prix, m.
pride, orgueil, m.
prize, /;r?*.r, m.
probable, probable.
product, produit, m.
proffer, offrir, irr.
profound, profond.
project, projet, m.
promise, v., promettre i
irr.
promise, n., promesse, f .
proof, preuve, f .
proposition, proposition,
f.
protect, prote'ger, pre-
server.
provided, pourvu que.
province, province, f.
prudence, prudence, f .
Prussia, Prusse, f.
public, jo«6//c (f . 76) .
punish, punir.
purchase, acheter.
purpose : on — , it dessein.
purposely, a dessein.
purse, bowse, f.
pursue, poursuivre, irr.
put, mettre, irr.; — off,
remettre.
Pyrenees, Pyrenees, m.
pi.
Q.
queen, reine, f.
quick, rapide; -\y,-ment.
quiet, tranquille.
R.
rain, pleuvoir, irr.
rain, n., pluie, f.
rare, rare.
rarely, rarement.
rashness, temerite', f.
ray, rayon, m.
read, lire, irr.
VOCABULARY.
283
ready, pret (with a).
receive, recevoir, irr.
recommend, recomman-
der; to be — ed, re-
commandable.
red, rouge.
redouble, redoubler.
reflection, reflexion, f .
refuge, refuge, m. ; take
— , se refugier.
regard, e'gard, m.
rejoice, tr., rejouir ; intr.,
se rejouir.
relation (affinity), rela-
tion, f . ; (reference)
rapport, m. ; (kindred)
parent, m.
relative, parent, m.
religion, religion, f.
rely, sefier.
remain (be left), rester,
etre de reste.
remark, remarque, f.
remedy, remede, m.
remember, se rappeler.
remorse, remords, m.
render, rendre.
repeat, repeter.
repent, se repentir (irr.)
de.
reply, re'pondre.
reproach, v., reprocher.
reproach, n., reproche,m.
republic, republique, f.
reputation, reputation, f.
request, v., prier, de-
mander.
request, n., demande, f.
require, exiger.
resemble, ressembler a.
respect, v., respecter.
respect, n., respect, m.
respond, re'pondre.
rest, reposer.
restrain, retenir, irr.
retreat, retraite, f .
return, v., retourner ; be
— ed, etre de retour ;
— to, rentrer.
return, n., retour, m.
revolution, revolution, f.
reward, recompense, f.
Rhine, Rhin, m.
rich, riche.
ride (on a horse), mon-
ter.
ridiculous, ridicule.
right, n., droit, m.
right, adj., juste; (not
left) droit ; be — (of
persons), avoir raison ;
to the — , a droite
{main, f ., 'hand,' being
understood),
ring, sonner.
rise, v., (get up) se lever,
monter.
rise, n., naissance, f.
road, chemin, m. ; route, i.
Roman, romain; n., Ro-
main.
room, chambre, f.
rose, ro.se, f.
round, adj., rond.
round, adv., = around,
rout, mettre (irr.") en
dfroute.
ruin, n., ruine, f.
ruin, v., ruiner, perdre
(tr.) ; — ed, ruine'
ruler, gouverneur, m. ;
souvera in,m., — regie, f .
run, courir, irr.
Russia, Russie, f.
Russian, russe, de Russie ;
n., Russe.
S.
sacrifice, sacrifice, m.
safety, siirete, f.
salary, salaire, m.
same, meme.
sand, sable, m.
savage, sauvage.
Saxony, Saxe, f.
say, dire, irr.
scamp, coqirin, m.
scenery, scenes, f. pi.,
vues, f. pi.
Scipio, Scipion.
school-boy, e'colier, m.
science, science, f.
Scotch, €cossais, d'lZcos-
se ; n., Ecossais.
scold, blamer.
sea, mer, f.
security, garantie, f.
see, voir, irr. ; apercevoir,
irr. ; — again, revoir,
irr.
seek, chercher.
seem, paraitre, irr.
seize, s'emparer de,
self, meme (107.3),
selfish, egoiste.
sell, vendre.
send, envoy er, irr.
sense, sens, m.
separate, separer.
284
VOCABULARY.
servant-girl, bonne, f.,
domestique, f.
serve, servir, irr.
several, plusieurs.
severe, severe.
shed, re'pandre, verser.
shoe, Soulier, m. [m.
shoemaker, cordonnier,
show, montrer.
shut, fermer.
sick, malade.
sight, vue, f.
silk, soie, f.
silver, argent, m.
simple, simple.
simplicity, simplicity, f .
sing, chanter.
single, seul.
sir, monsieur, m.
sister, sceur, f.
skilful, habile.
sky, del, m.
sleep, dormir, irr.
sleepy : be — , avoir
sommeil.
slender (thin), mince;
(graceful) svelte.
slip, glisser.
slope, pente, f .
slow, lent ; be (5 minutes
etc.) slow, retarder de
(5 minutes etc.).
slumber, sommeiller.
smile, v., sourire, irr.
smile, n., sourire, m.
snatch, arracher.
snow, neige, f.
snow-slip, e'boulement de
neige.
society, society, f.
soever, qui (quoi) que ce
soit : 287, note,
softly, doucement.
soldier, soldat, m.
some, du etc. (de) ; (a
few) quelques; (of it
etc.) en.
somebody, quelqu'un.
something, quelque chose.
sometimes, quelquefois.
son, Jils, m.
soon, bientot ; as — as,
aussitot que.
sore : have (a) — , avoir
mal a.
sorrow, chagrin, m.
sorry, j ache' (for de).
soul, dme, f.
source, source, f.
southern, meridional.
Spain, Espagne, f.
spare, epargner.
speak, parler.
standard, e'tendard, m.
star, e'toile, f .
starling, sansonnet, m.
start, partir, irr.
state, etat, m.
steal away, s'esquiver.
steel, acier, m.
steep, rapide.
stick out, sorfrV, irr.
stone, pierre, f .
stop, s'arreter.
store-keeper, marchand,
m.
stream, fleuve, m.
street, rue, f.
study, n., ^wcfe.
study, v., etudier.
stuff, ).
baril : I silent, 23 {il).
battre: irr., 134.3.
beau: forms, 75; — com-
par. 81.
beaucoup : with de, 44 ; —
compar. 168.
bel : lb.
binin: f., 70.
benir : irr., 133.
betail : pi., 50.3.
bien : with du, 198 ; — com
par., 168.
bijou : pi., 50.i.
bis : s heard, 23 (6).
blanc : f., 76. i.
bleu: pi., 66.1.
boeuf: /in, 23 (/).
boire : 161.
bon : compar'n, 82.
bouger : with ne alone, 376
boiiillir : 161.
braire : 161.
brave : posit'n, 222.
288
INDEX.
brin = jnis : 389.
bruire : 161.
c : pron'n, 23; — linking,
30; — change to qu or q,
37, 76, 129.
qo, : use, 268.
caesura: 422.
caillon: pi., 50.i.
cap : p heard, 23 ( p) .
capitals: 420.
cardinals: 88; — for ord'ls,
90.
carnaval: pi., 50.2.
ce : 107; pronoun, 107. 2; —
use, 265; — ce or il, 252;
— explet., 266; — with
sembler, 267; — ce sont
(edc.) 300; — ce que (que),
273.2; 280.
ceci : use, 268.
cedilla: 7.
ceindre : cf. peindre, 161.
cela : use, 268.
celui : use, 269 (omitted,
269.3).
celui-ci : 269. 1; 270.
celui-la: 269. 1; 270.
cens : s heard, 23 (s).
cer : verbs in, 129.
certain : posit'n, 222.
cesser : with ne, 376.
cet for ce: 107. 1.
ch : pronunc'n, 23, 24. A.
chacal: pi., 50.2.
chacun: with son or leur,
260.
changer : de, 211. g.
chaque: 112.
chinil : I silent, 23 (»7) .
chef-d'oeuvre : /sil't, 23 (/).
c/ter : posit'n, 222.
chez : use, 216. c.
choir : 161.
chose : ra. or f., 62. b.
chou : pi., 50.i.
Christ : stin, 2Z(t).
chut : t heard, 23 (t).
del : pi., 50.4.
ci-inctus : 220.2.
ci-joint: 220.2.
cing : pron'n, 88.
circoncire : 161. 1.
circonscrire : cf. ^crire,
161.
circonvenir : cf. venir, 161.
circumflex: use, 5. b; in
verbs, 124.
cte// / silent, 23 (/).
clerc : c 6ilent, 23 (c).
clore: 161.
comme or <7«e, 400.
commettre : cf. mettre, 161.
comparaitre : cf . paraitre,
161.
comparative : cf . compari-
son; — with rendre, 161.
(lejmis que : with ?*e, 385.
dernier : posit'n, 222.
des, des .• distinc'n, 5. a. 1 .
desapprendre : cf. prendre,
161.
deteindre: cf. peindre, 161.
ditenir : cf. tenir, 161.
ditruire: cf. conduire, 161.
derant : avant, 216. a.
devenir : cf. 7'ejiir, 161.
rfrnfir: cf. ?v'!7r, 161.
devoir: conj., 161; — use,
317. a. b. c.
diaeresis: 6, 77.
ditf<'vtnt : place, 222.
difficile : de or «, 361.
diphthongs: 16.
rf/re: 161.
disconvenir : cf. venir, 161.
ditjoindrt : cf. joindre, 161.
diapara&tre : cf. porottr^
161.
INDEX.
289
dissoudre : cf . resoudre,161.
dissons : f., 71.
distraire: cf. traire, 161.
dissyllables: 16.
divers : place, 222.
dix : pronunc'n, 88.
doigt : gt silent, 23 (t).
done : c heard or not, 23 (c).
dont : use, 111; 276. b.
dor mir : 161.
dot: t heard, 23 (t).
d'oit: 111.2.
dona: : f., 76.2.
drachme: ch — g, 23 (eft).
rfn, rfft.- distinc'n, 5. b. 1;
— du of de, 6, 41 ; — as
part., see part, sign; —
du moins, 394; — reste,
395.
duquel ; for rfoti^, Ilia.
e: hist., 1; pron'n, 14; —
change to e, 35, 74, 126 ; —
lost in fut. cond., 12S;
— elided, 27; — nouns in,
57. b, 59, 60, 63. b, 67,
78. 2 ; — fr. Lat. a, 64; —
e ' mute ' in verse, 423.
e" : hist. 1; — pron'n, 4. a,
14; — change to e,35; —
e" or e before -ge, -je, 35. i,
151.
e: hist., 1; — pron'n, 4. a,
14; — fore (e), 35, 74, 126;
— e" or e before -ge, -je,
35a, 161.
g; hist., 1, 4. a; pron'n, 14.
eau : hist., 1 ; — pron'n, 15.
kbouillir : cf . bouillir, 161.
ichapper : d, 213. d.
4 choir : 161.
eclore : cf . clore, 161 ; —
with etre, 142.
ecrire : 161.
ei (ei): pron'n, 15.
eYire .• cf. lire, 161.
elision: 26. a, 27.
em : pronunc'n, 19, 19.2.
embassadeur : 1, 78. i.
emettre : cf. metire, 161.
mm- • pronunc'n, 19.2.
-emment : pronunc'n, p. 12,
note 4.
e"moudre : cf. moudre, 161.
tmouvoir : cf. mouvoir, 161.
emp&cher : subj., 325; and
ne, 382.
einpereur: f., 78. i.
empreindre: cf. peindre,
161.
emprunter : a, 213. d.
en/ prepos'n; with
nouns, 214, 192. a; — with
pres. partic, 101, 359, 367;
— repeated, 217 ; — p r o-
nom'l particle, 101,
102, 244, 250. c, 259.
enceindre : cf. peindre, 161.
enchanteur : f. , 78.
enclore : cf . clore, 161.
encourir : cf. courir, 161.
endormir : cf. dormir, 161.
enduire : cf . conduire, 161.
enfant : m. or f., 60.
enfreindre : cf . peindre,
161.
enfuir: ci.fuir, 161
enjambement : 427.
enjoindre : cf. peindre, 161.
enlever ; a., 213. d.
enn-/ pron'n, 19.2.
enquerir : cf . acquerir, 161.
ensuivre : cf. suivre, 161.
-en< .• in pi., -ens, 66.3.
e?i/re .• use, 216. d, 358.
entremettre : cf. mettre,
161.
entreprendre : cf. prendre,
161.
entrer : with eYre, 142.
entresecourir : cf . courir,
161.
entresuivre : cf . suivre,
161.
entretenir : cf. tenir, 161.
entrevoir : cf. voir, 161.
entrouvrir : cf. couvrir,
161.
envoy er : 161.
^prendre; cf. peindre, 161.
iprendre : cf . prendre, 161.
kquivaloir : cf. valoir, 161.
es ; use, 41. i.
estomac : c silent, 23 (c).
e£ .• pr. o etc.: ft in, 23 (ft).
in spell-
290
INDEX.
hibou : pi. 50. i.
TxonnUe : place, 222.
hiatus: 424.
historical infinitive : 349.
huit : pronunc'n, 88.
hyphen: nouns, 53; numer-
als, cf. 88; pron's and
verbs, 102, 151.
i (i) : pron'n, 14; — elided,
27.5. a; —for?/, 36, 131.
-ien; pron'n, 19. i.
il : pronoun, 100 ; as impers.
' sub., 251-2; — /force with
Ure, 252; — il y a, 136;
— il est, 252 (for il y a),
424.2; — il faut (coustr.
with) , 331 ; — il s'en faut
with ne, 384.
-il : pronunc'n, p. 20.
-ill- : pronunc'n, p. 20.
imperative: form'n, 135; —
with pers. pron., 102. b;
— cepr. by subjunct. 308,
308.i.
imperfect: form'n, 135; —
use, 306; (in subj.) 336-7;
for condit'l after si, 308;
indep'ly, 308. i.
impersonal verbs : 136.
indeclinables: history, 162,
372; form, 163-75; synt.,
373-406.
indef. article : cf . un.
indefinites (pr. and adj.):
form, 112; synt., 282-94.
indicative: cf. the different
tenses.
induire : cf. conduire, 161.
infinitive: history, 113. B,
340; — sign of, 117; —
correspond'g to Engl. inf.
and ger., 341; — without
prepos'n, 343-4, 353; with
de, 346-9, 353,361; with a,
350-3, 361; —historical in-
finit., 349; — after nouns
and adj., 361; — for sub-
junct., 331; — frequent
use of, 362.
inscrire: cf. e"crire, 161.
instruire : cf . conduire, 161.
interjections: 175.
interrogative verbs: 151-2.
interrogatives (pr. and adj.) :
108; synt., 271.
intervenir : cf. venir, 161.
introduire: cf. conduire,
161.
inversion: 413; in questions,
414; in opt. or cond.
phrases, 415; in clauses
not headed by the sub-
ject, 416; in interjected
phrases, 417.
irregular verbs : 155-61 (list,
161; all repeated in in-
dex).
issir : 161.
jadis : s heard, 23 (s).
jamais : with ne, 388; alone,
388.1.
je : for moi, 245.
joindre : cf. peindre, 161.
joug : gr heard, 23 (g).
jouer : de or a, 211. c, 212. a.
jouir : de, 211. g.
: de,
jusque : elis'n, 27.4.
joujou : pi., 50.i
juger : de, 211. g
k : 3.2, 20.
I: doubled, 35, 73-5, 126;
— change to u, 1, 47. b,
49; 6aved in Engl., lost in
Fr., 436.
la, Id ; dist'h, 5. a. 1; Id,
107.
laisser : with inf., 208. i.
la plupart : cf . plupart.
laps : s heard, 23 (s).
le (la, les) : history, 38, 179;
— form, 40; — not elided,
27.i ; def. or gener. article,
40, 40. note; — contr'n,
41; — gen'l use, 180-196;
for poss. adj., 182-4; with
nouns of weight, etc., 185;
with fractional names, 186;
with titles, 187; in idioms,
188; with proper nouns,
189-90; withgeogr. nouns,
191-4; as gener. art., 195;
with names of lang., 196;
.— with the part, de, 43,
45, 199, 200; — le as de-
terminat., 107.4; — le ex-
pletive, 250. a. 1 ; — le' so',
250. b ; — le moins, leplus,
as adv., 230; as noun,
231.i.
lequel: inter., 108, 110,271;
relat., 110, 276 ; as adj ., 278.
leur : pers. or poss., 100,
106; use, 244.
linking : 26. b, 28-33.
lire : 161.
lis : sin, 23 (s).
Von for on : 112. n.
lorsque : elis'n, 27.4 ; — use,
404.
lui: pers. pr., 100; use,
242.x; 244; for son, 258.
luire: cf. conduire, 161.
I'un I'autre : 294.
m: pron'n, 23, 19; in for-
eign names, 24. A, 25 ; —
linking, 33.
mats : s beard, 23 (s).
maintenir : cf . tenir, 161.
mal : comp., 168.
malfaire : cf . /aire, 161.
malhonnete : place, 161.
malin : f ., 70.
' many ' : rendered, 85 ;
' many a,' 293.
marc : c silent, 23 (c).
mars : s heard, 23 (s) .
maudire : cf. dire, 161.
masculine : see gender,
mauvais : compar'n, 82 ;
place, 221.
measure : how expressed,
211.
miconnaitre : cf. connaitre,
161.
michant : place, 222.
midire : cf . dire, 161.
mtfaire: cf. /aire, 161.
m&me: 100.4; 104-5; 107.
mentir : cf. sentir, 161.
meprendre : cf . prendre, 161.
mettre : 161.
mie = pas • 389 ; in ma mie
106.1 (parenth.).
mien : for le mien, 263.2.
mil : for mille, 89. i.
mille etc. : pron., 23 (ill).
' mine' etc. : expressed, 263.
mozurs ; s heard, 23 (s).
mol ; forms, 73.
mon ; for ma, 106.1 (hist.,
note 1, parenth.); — in
address, 262.
monsieur: pron'n, 19.2; —
orig., 262.
'more, most': rendered, 85.
mot = pas : 389.
mou : forms, 73.
moudre : 161.
mourir : irr., 161 ; with Ure,
142.
mouvoir : 161 .
-mpt- = mt : 23 (p) .
multiplicative8: 95.
n : pron'n, 23, 19; in for-
eign names, 24. A, 25; —
linking, 31; — doubled,
35, 73-5, 126.
nattre : conj., 161; — w.
etre, 142.
nasal vowels: 19; linking;
31.
n'avoir garde : 376.
ne : — (a) with pas (point
etc.): history, 372; use,
153, 169, 374, 388-9; with
aucun, personne, vu/,
112.4; 291, 388; — (b) ne
INDEX.
291
alone, 375-80 (with pou-
voir etc., 376; after que,
qui, 377; with plaise, 376,
376. i; after negat. verbs,
378; after expressions uf
effort, 379 ; after si, 380) ;
— (c) we e x p 1 e t i v e,
381-7 (after empecher
etc., 382; after words of
fear etc., 383; after avant
que, 383.i ; after il s'en
faut, 384; after depuis que
or que, 385; after com-
pa rat., 386 ; after autre
etc., 386.i ; after a moins
que, 387).
negation: cf. we.
ner/:f in, 23(f).
net : t heard, 23 (t).
neuf : pron'n, 88.
ni: use, 390, 390.2, 297.
n'importe : 376, 376. i.
non (.pas) : 373.
nouns: history, 47, 205; for
numb., geud., etc., cf.
these topics; — with
prepos., 209-17.
nous ; for je, 246.
nouveau : forms, 75 ; —
place, 222.
nu : infl. or not, 219.4.
nuire : cf. conduire, 161.
nul : t, 74; with ne, 291; —
alone, 388.1.
nullement : with we, 388;
alone, 388.1.
numerals: 86-95 (cf. cardi-
nals, ordinals, etc.) ; —
synt., 232 etc.
o (6) : pron'n, 14.
obeir : a, 213. d.
object: place, 410.
obtenir : cf . tenir, 161.
oz : pron'n, 15.
ceil: pi., 50.4.
ceu : pron'n, 15.
£ : j? silent, 23 (p).
JC: pron'n, 23 (s).
se .« 100, 104, 253.
sec- f., 76.i.
second : c= g, 23 (c).
secourir : cf . courir, 161.
s&duire : cf. conduire, 161.
s'era oZZer .• 149.
sentir: 161.
sens/ s heard, 23 (s).
sentence: accent, 10. 2; — ar-
rangem't (history, 407; di-
rect, 409; inverted, 413).
seoir .• 161.
septf .• pron'n, 88.
servir : cf. sentir, 161.
serviteur : f., 78. 1.
seulement : 388.2.
si .• i elided, 27. s. a; — with
cond'l, 295, 314; — with
pres't, 304. c ; — with im-
perf., 308; — with fut.,
311; — with subj., 332; —
si or aussi, 393; — re-
placed by gwe, 403. b.
si or oni.- 397.
signet : g silent, 23 (