THREE LECTURES 
 
 ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF EDUCATION.
 
 Cambridge : 
 
 INTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. A SON, 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
 
 f tit frtss Smtn. 
 THREE LECTURES 
 
 ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF EDUCATION 
 
 DELIVERED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE 
 IN THE EASTER TERM, I 88 2) 
 
 H. W. EVE, M.A. 
 
 HEAD MASTER OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE SCHOOL ; 
 
 ARTHUR SIDGWICK, M.A. 
 
 FELLOW AND TUTOR OF CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE, OXFORD, AND LATE ASSISTANT 
 MASTER AT RUGBY SCHOOL ; 
 
 AND 
 
 E. A. ABBOTT, M.A. D.D. 
 
 HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL. 
 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
 ILontion: C. J. CLAY, M.A. & SON, 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, 
 
 17, PATERNOSTER Row. 
 
 1883 
 [All Rights reserved^
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THE three lectures contained in this volume were 
 delivered by their authors at the request of the 
 Teachers Training Syndicate. The University of 
 Cambridge determined about four years ago to in- 
 stitute lectures on and to hold examinations in the 
 History, Theory and Practice of Education. For the 
 first two years, complete courses of lectures on the 
 Practice of Education were delivered by Mr J. G. 
 Fitch, and Canon Daniel. After this, it seemed to 
 the Syndicate better to revert to a plan originally 
 proposed, and to ask distinguished teachers to deliver 
 single lectures on subjects with which they were 
 specially familiar. 
 
 The lectures here presented excited much interest 
 and attention when they were first heard in the Uni- 
 versity. It has been thought that their publication 
 will make them accessible to a wider circle, and may 
 help to stimulate the movement towards the systema- 
 tic training of teachers, which is every day assuming 
 larger proportions. 
 
 OSCAR BROWNING. 
 
 KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, 
 January, 1883. 
 
 2017253
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 ON MARKING, BY H. W. EVE, M.A i 
 
 ON STIMULUS, BY ARTHUR SIDGWICK, M.A. . . .29 
 
 ON THE TEACHING OF LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION, BY 
 
 E. A. ABBOTT, D.D 67
 
 ON MARKING. 
 
 BY H. W. EVE, M.A. 
 
 HEAD MASTER OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE SCHOOL.
 
 ON MARKING 1 . 
 
 WHEN your Syndicate did me the honour of asking me 
 to lecture before you, I thought I could not do better than 
 select a plain every-day subject, which must take up a good 
 deal of a schoolmaster's time and attention, however little 
 it may, at first, attract his real interest. Whether the ele- 
 ment of constant competition, which plays so important a 
 part in English education, is altogether good, I do not pro- 
 pose to discuss; the whole question of "Stimulus" will 
 fall into abler hands than mine. It is, at least, the system 
 under which most of us have to work, and whether good 
 marking be superfluous or not, no one will deny that slovenly 
 and inefficient marking is detrimental. Justice is, perhaps, 
 the quality which most of all commends itself to the young ; 
 and injustice at school, as elsewhere, is more frequently due 
 to ignorance or carelessness than to partiality. I have no 
 intention, however, of embarking on so wide a subject as 
 justice at school, at the risk of having to imitate Plato, and 
 to construct an ideal school to illustrate my definition. I 
 propose to deal with only a small portion of school ad- 
 ministration, but I hope at the same time to suggest some 
 thoughts on the graver aspects of our profession. If my 
 remarks seem somewhat common -place, I can only plead 
 
 1 Reprinted by permission from the Journal of Education. 
 
 I 2
 
 4 0.V MARKING. 
 
 that nearly every point on which I shall dwell has been 
 raised by difficulties occurring within my own experience. 
 Many of my conclusions will be self-evident to any one 
 accustomed to think in numbers, as I hold every school- 
 master should be. In fact, I should be disposed, for many 
 reasons, to write over the door of the profession a sort of 
 M^Seis ayeo)//.T/j>7Tos ciatTU), and to require a saving know- 
 ledge of arithmetic as an indispensable condition of entry. 
 
 It will be convenient to discuss, first, the marking of 
 paper-work, including both examination-papers and the exer- 
 cises and translations occurring in our daily routine; next, 
 ordinary class-marking ; and lastly, the reduction and com- 
 bination of marks. 
 
 First, then, an exercise or translation may be marked in 
 three different ways. You may subdivide it into a number 
 of small problems, and give marks for everything that is 
 right which I would call the constructive method of mark- 
 ing; or, you may deduct for mistakes from a given maximum, 
 which we will call the destructive method; or, lastly, you 
 may mark by general impression without going consciously 
 into details. There are many kinds of work, but mostly 
 beyond the range of school routine, to which the last 
 method alone is applicable ; I would only say that it is not 
 easy to mark in a very trustworthy way from impression 
 without some preliminary discipline in marking in detail. 
 
 The second, or destructive, method is perhaps the com- 
 monest in school-work. In its most primitive form it con- 
 sists in accepting a maximum assigned by the authorities, 
 and deducting one for each mistake. I do not suppose that 
 any of those whom I have the honour of addressing, would 
 fall into quite such a helpless system ; but it is convenient 
 to take an extreme case, if only for the sake of pointing
 
 ON MARKING. 5 
 
 out one or two common errors in marking. Why, then, is 
 the plan I have mentioned so obviously absurd? First, it 
 is clear that there are mistakes and mistakes : one mistake 
 may involve a total misconception of the meaning of a 
 passage, or a gross violation of a grammatical principle, 
 another may consist in the ignorance of an accessory word, 
 or a trivial blunder in orthography; one may be a failure 
 in reasoning, the other a mere deficiency in verbal me- 
 mory. No reasonable person would put the spelling of 
 adresser with two d's on a level with il a se lev'e, or an error 
 in the gender of porticus or silex with ut and a subjunctive 
 after a verb of declaring. 
 
 Or, again, let us take a short sentence of French. The 
 author has been speaking of the resemblance between men 
 and animals, and continues, " Enfin il n'est jusqu'au Ian- 
 gage qui ne semble commun a I'homme et a 1'animal, car on 
 peut voir les animaux s'entendre et se concerter par des signes 
 dont le sens se devine aux mouvements qui les suivent." 
 The first line, you will see, or you would see if you were 
 accustomed to teach average boys, is easily misunderstood. 
 Half the class will make out that language is not common 
 to men and to animals, and lose themselves in a delightful 
 non-sequitur. Now, that is just the mistake I should mark 
 most severely. If 10 marks were given for the whole pas- 
 sage, 5 of them would be ruthlessly cut off, while a minor 
 error, a mis-translation say of se concerter, would forfeit only 
 i or 2. And, apropos of this short quotation, I would 
 point out, that in selecting extracts for examination nothing 
 is so important as to choose passages where the general 
 sense is a guide for those who catch it, and a convenient 
 raluctio ad absnrdum for those who do not. This is espe- 
 cially necessary in French, where so much is really easy
 
 6 ON MARKING. 
 
 that the disciplinary value of translation is at times in 
 danger of being lost. En revanche, I have heard a dis- 
 tinguished schoolmaster say that he could always catch his 
 Sixth tripping in Guizot 
 
 But to return to our marking : the primitive plan I have 
 mentioned errs in another way. Suppose you reckon, 
 whether rationally or irrationally, 25 mistakes, and deduct 
 them. If your standard is 50, the paper will have 25, and 
 come out as an average production ; if your standard is 
 100, it will have 75. and be reckoned decidedly good. Or, 
 to put it more strongly, suppose you reckon 50 mistakes, 
 the difference, according as you choose for your standard 
 100 or 50, is that between an average exercise and an abso- 
 lutely worthless one. It is clear, then, that there comes a 
 point at which we must say to ourselves, Such and such 
 an exercise is an average one for the class, and must be 
 marked accordingly; such another is poor, but not abso- 
 lutely worthless, and so on. You must, in fact, think in 
 numbers for some of your exercises ; the rest of the set 
 can then be treated more mechanically. I believe there is 
 something fascinating in the practice of thinking in numbers, 
 at least if I may credit a story I once heard of two young 
 schoolmasters. They had been spending their holidays, as 
 young schoolmasters mostly do, in Switzerland, and were 
 passing through Paris on the way home. Other topics 
 failing, they took to marking their friends for intellectual 
 power, manners, temper, and what not. At last they went 
 so far as to apply their numerical gauge to the personal 
 appearance of the ladies they met, and it is recorded that, 
 on one whispering to the other 17 (20 was the maximum), 
 they followed a carriage at a respectful distance all the way 
 to the Arc de Triomphe, and missed their train in con-
 
 Oy MARKING. 7 
 
 sequence. Seriously, there are few faculties that a school- 
 master should cultivate more than the critical faculty the 
 delicate discrimination of degrees of merit, not merely as 
 between boy and boy, but with reference to an ideal stand- 
 ard. And the habit of discrimination in details is no bad 
 training for the higher kind of discrimination, which not 
 only enables a schoolmaster to deal wisely with boys in 
 difficult cases, but also often makes him the most competent 
 adviser as to their future. 
 
 But I fear I have digressed rather too far : the two 
 points I have wished to bring out are (i) that mistakes 
 are of very unequal value : and (2) that, whatever mechani- 
 cal routine you adopt, your results ought to conform to 
 your general impression. My own plan in marking a set 
 of exercises for examination, if I want to keep the papers 
 themselves intact, is to lay a sheet of paper with vertical 
 divisions beside the exercises, and enter my deductions for 
 each boy in a separate column 5 for a bad mistake, i for 
 a trivial one, and so on, and here and there a + 2 or +5, 
 if I see any extra good turn. The advantage of the sheet 
 of paper is that, if I forget what value I assigned to a given 
 mistake, or change my mind, I can at once refer to the 
 column. Then I proceed to choose my maximum. Sup- 
 pose, for example, the best exercise has 20 to be deducted, 
 the worst 70. Suppose I think, too, that the worst exercise 
 deserves some marks, and that the best is good, but not 
 brilliant ; I choose 80 for my maximum, thus giving 60 to 
 the best and 10 to the worst, and the others fall into their 
 places between. If I still thought there was room for im- 
 provement if, for example, I thought the best exercise was 
 inadequately remunerated with marks, I could easily 
 add, say, 10 marks to the best, and a proportionate amount,
 
 S ON MARKING. 
 
 in this case ^, to the other. The reduction or raising to 
 the standard assigned by external authority is a matter of 
 simple arithmetic. 
 
 With regard to the constructive method of marking such 
 a piece, it is often a useful check on the destructive method 
 to apply it to two or three exercises, especially if, as will 
 sometimes happen, the exercise is rather too hard for the 
 class. I should be disposed to apply the constructive 
 method at the two ends of the scale, on the one hand, to 
 a very bad set of exercises, and, on the other, to more ad- 
 vanced composition, where mistakes are few, and style and 
 turning the most important thing. It is the natural way, 
 for example, of looking over prize translations, at any rate 
 into prose. But I should be sorry to dogmatize on methods, 
 everyone in the long run makes his method for himself; 
 I am chiefly concerned to urge the importance of making 
 that method represent, both in its details and its general 
 result, one's deliberate judgment on boys' performances, 
 of using a system of marks, in fact, as one's servant, and 
 not as one's master. 
 
 In this connection, I should like to notice one effectual 
 means of promoting good marking, because it suggests a 
 way of gaining experience otherwise than from failure I 
 mean the practice adopted in many of the Public Schools 
 of examining in committee, so that the same exercise is 
 submitted to two examiners. It causes double trouble, it is 
 true, at a busy time ; at the same time it not only minimizes 
 the risk of error, but also affords an invaluable opportunity 
 to a novice of learning from a more experienced hand, and 
 gives to even experienced hands a chance of profiting by each 
 other's experience. I do not think we are quite alive to the 
 danger a schoolmaster incurs of getting into a groove, and
 
 ON MARKING. f) 
 
 not producing his best ; his work is mostly lonely, criticised 
 only by immature minds, whose criticism rarely reaches 
 him ; it is utterly different from the perpetual conflict of 
 the bar, or the give-and-take of the scientific world. Young 
 men, living together in a common room, do stir each other 
 up : for those of us who have grown older, and live more 
 apart, there is often little left but to apply, in a humble 
 way, such maxims as Lord Bacon suggests in his Essay 
 of Great Place for example, "Examine thyself strictly 
 whether thou didst not best at first." 
 
 Before I leave Language -teaching, I will say a few words 
 about the marking of a complete paper, say on a book of 
 Virgil or a play of Schiller. Suppose it is for a middle 
 form, and contains a couple of passages of 12 or 14 lines 
 for translation, several detached lines for translation and 
 explanation, one or two general questions, and some straight- 
 forward parsing. First of all, never mind about the maxi- 
 mum that will take care of itself. Your maximum can 
 always be reduced or raised. Pick out first the easiest ques- 
 tion, say the parsing of a case of a noun, to which you 
 might assign 2 or 3 or 4, i or 2 for the case, the number, 
 and gender, i or 2 for the reason of its case. By the way, 
 never assign i to any question, unless it be such a simple 
 question as "What is the supine of pello" which must be 
 absolutely right or absolutely wrong. Otherwise, you will have 
 fractions, which are in all cases to be eschewed. Next, for 
 the isolated scraps. As they are chosen for their difficulty, 
 probably none is worth less than 5, the explanation attached 
 to each will carry from 2 to 5, or even more. And mind 
 that, in setting the paper, you make it clear what explana- 
 tion you want. Again, there are explanations and explana- 
 tions. If you ask for the explanation of the subjunctive
 
 io ON MARKING. 
 
 in " Socrates accusatus est quod corrumperet juventutem" you 
 will give something to the boy who says it is a case of 
 virtual oblique oration ; you will give a good deal more to one 
 who takes it step by step, and tells you "(i) They said 
 ' Socrates is worthy of blame, because he corrupts the young;' 
 (2) they said that Socrates was worthy of blame because he 
 corrupted the young; (3) 'they said that Socrates was worthy 
 of blame' is represented by 'Socrates was accused'." Going 
 on in this way, you will find that your pieces de resistance, the 
 continuous passages, will require some 40 or 50 marks 
 each. Of the method of marking such pieces, I have 
 already said enough. I would only repeat that errors in 
 these must be marked as severely as errors in the isolated 
 passages, fives being deducted pretty freely; and that a 
 translation where all the points are missed, should have 
 absolutely nothing, even though two or three easy lines are 
 rendered correctly. And do not forget to allow some 
 marks for style. To put the case a little differently what 
 you really have to estimate is, not the excess of a boy's 
 knowledge over absolute zero, but its excess over what 
 may be called the light of nature. In a general public 
 examination, some credit may reasonably be given for the 
 knowledge even of detached words and phrases; in the ex- 
 amination in prepared work of a class supposed to be read- 
 ing a book within their comprehension, such knowledge 
 means nothing, and your marks should tell an idle boy 
 plainly that you think so. I need hardly say that a paper 
 should be set with this principle clearly in one's mind. 
 
 In looking over papers where the answers are in the 
 form of short essays, narratives, or explanations, as in the 
 case of History or Science papers, it is not easy to 
 give rules, and much must be left to general impression.
 
 ON MARKING. 1 1 
 
 A lucid answer, hitting all the points, is of course the 
 ideal, and such an answer is sure to get justice done 
 to it. It is generally worth while not to treat the answer 
 en bloc, but to make up your mind what are the several 
 points you expect, and assign part of your marks to 
 each, with a pretty wide margin for general effect. One 
 great danger is, lest a clumsy answer, correct in the 
 main points, should be under-marked, especially if? as is 
 often the case, bad writing goes with ill-arranged thought. 
 A careless or inexperienced examiner will not always take 
 the trouble to follow a boy's train of thought, and may do 
 serious injustice. The ill-expressed answer may be the 
 result of genuine assimilation of an idea ; a more lucid one 
 may be merely glib reproduction. Nothing in the course of 
 teaching has given me greater pleasure, than to find that 
 when, for example, I have done a series of experiments and 
 talked about them, several boys have written substantially 
 correct accounts of them, but all in different words. I should 
 be sorry to undervalue the faculty of accurate reproduction, 
 and stigmatize it as "cram"; but I should still press for 
 great care in judging the genuine workings of an immature 
 mind, when you are lucky enough to get them. One word 
 more as to History papers. It is needless to say that your 
 questions will probably be of unequal values, and that you 
 will not find out their true relative values till you have 
 looked over several papers. But there is no subject in 
 which examiners are fonder of setting alternative questions, 
 often ridiculously unequal. Thus you will see short bio- 
 graphies of half-a-dozen statesmen in one question, and an 
 account of the Gunpowder Plot, in another, carrying, as 
 alternatives, the same marks. The best remedy is to ar- 
 range your alternative questions in groups of two or three ;
 
 I 2 ON MARKING. 
 
 it is easy to make two or three questions practically equal, 
 but almost impossible to equalize a dozen. 
 
 Next, one or two hints as to marking Arithmetic, both in 
 daily work and in examinations. No one of any experience 
 goes simply by the answer, but it is reasonable to condemn 
 at once a gross absurdity, as when an ordinary drawing-room 
 requires 100,000 yards of paper, or a pipe of Johannisberg 
 costs $s. 6d. In teaching, one sometimes tries to counteract 
 such blind proceedings, by making boys write down rough 
 answers before they begin the formal working, and this is 
 one of the best kinds of mental arithmetic. If the answer 
 is wrong, but not unreasonable, it is well to allow a good 
 deal for method, and to hunt down the mistake, even at the 
 cost of a little extra trouble. If you think how many opera- 
 tions have to be performed in even a simple sum, it is easy 
 to see that a child may easily be discouraged if this be 
 neglected. Verbal explanations, too, should be encouraged; 
 I generally put at the head of an Arithmetic paper a maxim 
 very inapplicable to most things in this world, "Use as 
 many words as possible;" for it is only by the free use of 
 words that Arithmetic becomes a training in methodical 
 reasoning. 
 
 Before I leave the marking of paper work, I should like 
 to notice a plan adopted in the South Kensington exami- 
 nations 1 , which is very suggestive. A South Kensington ex- 
 amination generally involves the marking, in a limited time, 
 of 3,000 or 4,000 sets of answers to the same questions. 
 There is a chief examiner, who sets the paper and looks 
 over the very best answers, and three or four sub-examiners, 
 
 1 It is worth mentioning that the Civil Service Commission require 
 each examiner to send in complete answers to his own paper, a most 
 useful check.
 
 ON MARKING. 1.3 
 
 who do the bulk of the work. It is, of course, of great 
 importance to secure uniformity, and they proceed as 
 follows : The examiners meet, talk over the paper, learn 
 what answers the chief expects, and assign their marks. 
 Then each of the sub-examiners looks over say fifty or sixty 
 of his thousand, marks them, and notes all the difficulties 
 that occur. Truth, some philosophers say, is one; be 
 that as it may, error is undoubtedly various, and in this 
 process unexpected forms of error are certain to crop up. 
 Thus prepared, the examiners meet again, and discuss 
 the vagaries they have encountered. Then they return to 
 their duties with a revised scale of marking, and, it is to be 
 hoped, attain something like uniformity of standard. Now, 
 to look over a thousand sets of answers to the same paper 
 by people you don't care about, is next door to penal servi- 
 tude ; but the process is instructive to those of us whose 
 tasks are more limited and more interesting. However 
 carefully one gets up a paper before looking it over, it is 
 impossible either to anticipate all the more or less distant 
 approximations to correctness you will meet with, or to 
 estimate their value; and therefore I should recommend 
 every one to keep his standard a little elastic till the first 
 four or five papers are done, to note his details in an ac- 
 cessible form, and then to go back and revise his scale of 
 marks. One finds it necessary in looking over any but a 
 quite elementary set of school exercises. 
 
 Next, let us pass to Class-marking, or the record of the 
 result of daily lessons, an operation to which I confess 
 I attach more importance than is, perhaps, now the fashion. 
 The healthy reaction against what Lord Byron calls 
 
 "The drill'd dull lesson, forced down word by word, 
 In my repugnant youth,"
 
 14 ON MARKING. 
 
 has led some people to an opposite extreme, and induced 
 them to dwell on the communication of knowledge by the 
 teacher, rather than on its acquisition by the pupil, and 
 therefore to depreciate the machinery for exacting mental 
 effort, in comparison with the methods for presenting in- 
 formation. I know how much most of us have to learn in the 
 latter direction ; to-day I am confining myself to a humbler 
 task. I want to answer the question, How can one best utilise 
 the principle of emulation, in order that as many as possible 
 of a class may, from day to day, really exert themselves to 
 master their lesson ? Political economists, pure and simple, 
 conceive mankind as animated by the one desire of buying 
 in the cheapest and selling in the dearest market ; they find 
 that it conduces to clearness of thought to eliminate for the 
 time all other motives. In the same way, to compare small 
 things with great, I should like, for the nonce, to think of a 
 boy simply as a creature desirous of marks, and his teacher 
 as the just distributor of them. We are all agreed that there 
 are nobler and better motives to study, but we are not more 
 likely to commend those higher motives to our pupils, if we 
 mark in a casual, slovenly, half-hearted way. Careless 
 marking often means the discouragement of merit, and the 
 tacit approval of idleness. 
 
 One naturally touches first on the time-honoured system 
 of Place-taking the plan according to which a question is 
 passed down from boy to boy, and the one who answers it 
 goes above all who have missed. It has in its favour its 
 liveliness and excitement, a certain amount of rough justice, 
 and, I think, a general popularity with boys. Against it are 
 to be urged the gambling element involved, and the danger 
 of discouraging slow but sound learners. Some would add, 
 that it affords opportunity for noise and confusion, and delays
 
 ON MARKING. 15 
 
 work. It does, no doubt, add to the difficulties of a weak 
 disciplinarian. To any such I would recommend, first, to see 
 that the material arrangements are good, and next, if there 
 is any disorder associated with place-taking, to discontinue 
 it for a time as a punishment. Be that as it may, we may 
 assume that place-taking is an institution, and say a few 
 words as to how it may be most effectively worked. I will 
 begin with describing its worst possible form. I have heard 
 of a class arranged alphabetically at the beginning of a month, 
 in which, at the end of that month, the original order, the 
 oyeiSo? cnrapydvwv, was traceable, not only in the total, but in 
 the places the boys actually occupied. Everyone remembers 
 the story Sir Walter Scott tells of his own school-days, how 
 there was one boy at the head of the class whom he could not 
 displace by fair means, and how he finally superseded him by 
 cutting off the button unconsciously associated with all his 
 mental operations. Had the Dominie understood marking, 
 Sir Walter would have been spared the temptation. There is 
 another extreme. You may concentrate all your energies 
 on place-taking, and cease to instruct, which is indeed 
 " propter vitam vivendi perdere causas". It is necessary, 
 on the one hand, to treat the change of places only as an 
 accessory of teaching, and, on the other, to make it im- 
 possible for a boy to feel that he has no chance of getting 
 up, however well he may learn his lesson. The ideal would, 
 no doubt, be to arrange one's class every day in strict order 
 of merit ; but that is almost out of the question, and boys 
 are quick enough to see the conditions of the game. They 
 can easily bear, and ought to learn to bear, small disappoint- 
 ments, just as a rising cricketer is not, if he has anything in 
 him, discouraged by one or two unsuccessful innings. I 
 will give a few hints. First, as to the physical conditions.
 
 1 6 O.V MARKING. 
 
 Perhaps the best plan is for the boys to be sitting, or 
 occasionally standing, round the wall of the room. But, for 
 much of their work, they ought to be sitting in rows in front 
 of the master, with the light coming from the left-hand side ; 
 and few people are fortunate enough to have a very large 
 room, or a double set of seats. If they take places in their 
 ordinary rows, it is, on the whole, best to arrange them 
 at the successive desks from left to right. Some people 
 prefer a /JowTpo^SoV, serpentine arrangement, taking the 
 first desk from left to right, and the second from right to 
 left. There should, I think, be uniformity in each school, 
 and the arrangement from left to right has in its favour our 
 habits in other things, as in circulating decanters and dealing 
 at whist. Of course, the number seated in each row should 
 be a constant quantity. In counting, the top boy should 
 take the highest number, generally the number of boys on 
 the books of the class, giving the bottom boys the benefit of 
 absentees. Counting downwards saves much trouble in 
 combining the results of occasional examinations with place 
 marks, and the aggregate of the term with the result of the 
 final examination. A great deal may be done by placing 
 questions judiciously. It is a canon of questioning, that 
 attention is best secured by addressing an interrogation to 
 the whole class, before you say who is to answer it. But 
 some sort of order is both fair and convenient. If you 
 wish to give the bottom boys a chance, you will work 
 regularly upwards, with occasional diversions; if you suspect 
 idleness near the top, you will ask the same boy several 
 questions in succession. It has occurred to everyone to 
 pass on questions after they have been answered correctly, 
 particularly where there are only two or three possible 
 answers. You not only shuffle the class, but make boys
 
 ON MARKING. 1 7 
 
 think instead of guessing. But the best way of shuffling is 
 by written work. A frequent rearrangement by exercises, 
 provided they are done under equal conditions 1 , obviously 
 suggests itself. Even in viv& voce lessons, History, for 
 example, it is a good plan to begin by distributing scraps 
 of paper, and having half-a-dozen questions answered by all. 
 You can look over thirty of them in five minutes, or some- 
 times trust the boys to mark them themselves. Then, when 
 they are arranged by the result, you are at liberty to proceed 
 with that fire of teaching questions which has been compared 
 to the Socratic method, or to the interrogations of a barrister 
 addressed to a witness. I need hardly say that an art of 
 asking such questions is one to be specially cultivated. 
 Sometimes, again, if there is but little change in a lesson, it 
 is desirable not to mark at all, or to put the places down 
 only for the sake of record, as some boys are sure to forget 
 them, and to draw your pen through them so that they 
 do not count in the total. Your lesson may be largely 
 taken up with explanations, and the changes may be insig- 
 nificant, so that your marks, if added in, would really give 
 double value to the previous lesson. A difficulty often 
 arises as to questions outside the lesson, or questions bring- 
 ing out general intelligence. Most bright teachers go off at 
 a tangent now and then, and are led by some suggestion to 
 ask a question about the Prime Minister of France, or the 
 contents of the British Museum. It is a good plan, if you 
 think of it, to take a show of hands when such a question is 
 asked, and limit the number of places a boy gains, so as not 
 
 1 The difficulty of allowing for assistance given to boys in preparing 
 their "Home-work" is often a serious one. The assistance may be 
 judicious, and ought then not to be discouraged. Like many other 
 problems, solvitur ambiilando. 
 
 2
 
 1 8 ON MARKING. 
 
 to give to general knowledge too large a share of the reward 
 meant mainly for ordinary industry. It is not good for the 
 moral of a class if an idle boy is always getting to the top in 
 his Latin lessons by familiarity with English politics or 
 Scott's novels ; but it is very good that miscellaneous topics 
 should sometimes be hooked on to the Latin lesson, and 
 that miscellaneous knowledge should receive reasonable en- 
 couragement 1 . 
 
 But there is a limit to the usefulness of place-taking. 
 Very few masters would use it in the highest forms ; many 
 would banish it even from the middle forms. It seems, 
 at any rate, to be one of those childish things that should be 
 gradually put away, and ought hardly to continue much 
 above the place where boys begin to be "set on" to con- 
 strue six or seven lines of an author. It is not easy to find 
 an altogether satisfactory substitute. Written work can, 
 of course, be accurately marked, and to ordinary exercises I 
 should be disposed to add an examination paper about once 
 in three weeks. For daily lessons, the usual plan is to give 
 marks each time a boy is put on to construe, and count the 
 number of questions he answers, either recording them one's 
 self, or letting the boys note them down. Either involves 
 asking questions regularly round which is not an unmixed 
 good. To let boys keep them for themselves may, in some 
 few cases, open a door to dishonesty; for the master to 
 
 1 I owe to Mr Fairbanks of Clifton an ingenious suggestion for 
 diminishing the injustice of place-taking. He would mark only the 
 places gained or lost in each lesson. To avoid negative quantities, each 
 boy is allowed 10 marks a lesson, like the sines and cosines in a table of 
 logarithms. Of course, in this system, when a boy gets to the top, he 
 begins his circuit again, and may make two or three rounds in a lesson. 
 But then he is probably ready for promotion.
 
 ON MARKING. 19 
 
 record them Is a distraction, though not a serious one to 
 anyone who is used to it. It seems, however, to have horri- 
 fied Dr Wiese, on his last visit to England ; and, as it is 
 good to see ourselves as others see us, I will read a few 
 lines from his "Deutsche Briefe iiber englische Erziehung". 
 "Such a lesson," he says, "which becomes a sort of in- 
 tellectual communion between the master and his class, is 
 impossible when the teacher is constantly compelled to fix 
 his attention on accessories. But I have reason to think 
 that this is still the case in many English schools. Only 
 imagine ! I was present at a Sixth-form lesson, where Thucy- 
 dides or Tacitus was being read. The master had the 
 author open before him, and his mark-book beside it. His 
 questions were asked only in regular order, and, after each 
 answer, he entered a number opposite the name of the boy 
 who had given it the number of marks, in fact, which 
 the answer deserved ! After the -lesson the boys came 
 round his desk to find out how many marks they had got, 
 and entered them in their own memorandum-books. At 
 the end of the week the marks were added up, and the grand 
 total counted in the determination of the final order and the 
 award of prizes. Such a system, even in the highest part of 
 the school, has at least the advantage of compelling the 
 master to pay attention to the whole class, instead of con- 
 fining himself to a few. But teachers with a higher ideal are 
 undoubtedly embarrassed both by the demands of external 
 examiners, and by the competition for places and prizes." 
 I appreciate Dr Wiese's criticism, but I think I could say 
 something on the other side. 
 
 In this connection, the marking of written work, of 
 which I have spoken so fully already, suggests one or two 
 difficult questions. How is the adequate correction of 
 
 2 2
 
 20 ON MARKING. 
 
 exercises to be effectively carried on without overburdening 
 teachers ? Many an hour is spent over dreary routine 
 which would be better employed in reading, or in regain- 
 ing that freshness and elasticity of spirits without which a 
 schoolmaster is almost useless. On the other hand, it is 
 .one of the golden rules of the schoolmaster's art, that any 
 .written production should be carefully revised and returned 
 ,-as soon as possible. When to exercises and translations 
 we add notes of science and history lectures, the task be- 
 comes a very serious one. The ideal form of correction 
 is, no doubt, the system best known in its application to 
 original copies of verses or Latin essays. The tutor goes 
 through the verses with each boy separately, correcting, 
 criticising, and, as much as possible, following his line of 
 thought, and putting it into a better form. Such criticism 
 is laborious, no doubt, and ill adapted to day schools, 
 where it is hard to get hold of boys out of school hours. 
 But the personal intercourse with boys that it brings about, 
 and the chance of understanding their real difficulties, and 
 of meeting them as you cannot meet them in a general talk, 
 fully compensates for the consumption of time ; and no one 
 who has been accustomed to it will drop it without regret. 
 Next, but "longo proximus intervallo", comes the plan 
 of talking to the class in general, after a good deal of red 
 ink or pencilling applied to the individual exercises. If it 
 is possible to add two or three minutes with each boy, to 
 show him his own blunders, this does not fall quite so far 
 short of the first plan. For exercises, properly so called, it is 
 adequate. Of course, in both cases, the master marks the 
 exercise. There is a third system, supposed to be economi- 
 cal of a master's time, in which the exercises do not pass 
 through the master's hands at all, or only in the most
 
 ON MARKING. 2 1 
 
 cursory way. The correct version is read out, explained, 
 and perhaps written on the board, while each boy corrects 
 and marks his own or some other boy's exercise. My own 
 experience is strongly against such a system. I have tried 
 it occasionally, but have never been able to work it to 
 my own satisfaction. I believe a few masters succeed with 
 it 
 
 Fauci, quos aequus amavit 
 
 Jupiter, aut ardens evexit ad aethera virtus, 
 
 Dis geniti, potuere; 
 
 but I found, on questioning a friend who I knew liked the 
 plan, that he took the exercises home afterwards, and re- 
 vised the marking carefully. I should certainly advise no 
 young schoolmaster to try it. For teaching purposes only, 
 it may work. Even thus used, it presupposes an unusual 
 desire to learn for learning's sake, and takes away the 
 stimulus of the teacher's approval, who cannot pass a 
 judgment on work he scarcely sees. As a means of giving 
 marks, it has everything against it : it wastes the time of the 
 class, it requires that all mistakes should be counted alike - 
 unless, indeed, a very elaborate system be adopted ; it opens 
 the way to disputes, and consequent relaxation of discipline; 
 and it leaves the master, unless he is very sharp, in ignorance 
 of many of the mistakes actually made. One is placed in 
 this dilemma : if only the time really necessary for expla- 
 nation be given, the marking will be slovenly, and, what is 
 worse, disputed; if full time be given to marking, the 
 energies of the class are wasted on routine which might be 
 performed by the master out of school. I believe one dis- 
 tinguished schoolmaster solved the difficulty by employing 
 some lads who had just left school, and were willing to 
 earn a little money, to put the red-ink lines and reckon the
 
 22 ON MARKING. 
 
 mistakes, leaving the master to explain only. The plan is 
 well worth imitation, if the right lads can be found. One 
 suggestion I would offer, as tending both to save trouble and 
 to increase efficiency a very rare combination. It is to spare 
 no effort in explaining an exercise beforehand, and, without 
 actually going through it, to make quite sure that every boy 
 knows exactly what he has to do, and how to do it. There 
 ought to be no thoroughly bad exercises in a class. No 
 doubt, excessive guidance is not good for boys ; it is well, 
 however, to remember that an exercise need not be all grit ; 
 it is' not fair to young boys to accumulate two or three 
 problems in one sentence. There is a great difference 
 between doing something right once with mental effort, and 
 habitually and unconsciously doing it right, and therefore 
 some sameness is allowable. It is worth adding, that 
 rigorously conscientious marking of all written work is in 
 itself the best preventive of having too much to mark. A 
 man who is resolved never to shirk any manuscript becomes 
 unconsciously more careful in seeing that what he does look 
 over is worth the trouble. Instead of notes on a whole 
 lecture, he will have some definite point written out more 
 fully; instead of the next ten sentences in the exercise-book, 
 he will construct an exercise for himself to illustrate what he 
 wants to teach. Some of the best teachers would like every 
 master to make his own exercises ; and there is much to be 
 said for it. 
 
 I now pass to the last head the reduction and com- 
 bination of marks. The first question that arises is that of 
 averages for absence. The marks corresponding to an 
 absence of a few days in a place-taking class are, of course, 
 easily supplied. In the case of longer absences, and a more 
 complicated system of marking, some discretion is wanted,
 
 aV MARKING. 23 
 
 and it is not safe to trust to routine. Suppose, for example, 
 that your marks are made up monthly, and that a boy has 
 been absent during one of three months that make up a 
 term, it would not be right to give him at once the average 
 of the other two. The only case in which it would be right, 
 would be when the marks of the head boy are the same for 
 each of the three months. Take a simple instance, which 
 often occurs. The head boy gets about 400 in each of the 
 first two months, 250 in the third month, which is generally 
 shortened by examinations and the preparation for them. 
 The third boy was present the first two months, obtaining 
 about 360 each month. If you give him an average by the 
 rough method for the third month, his total will be 1080, or 
 30 ahead of the boy who was head of the class throughout. 
 There is more than one fair way of taking such an average. 
 We might add up the marks of the first few boys for the first 
 two months, and find that our friend is third, but rather 
 nearer to the fourth boy than to the second. We need then 
 only interpolate his marks for the whole term after the 
 second for the whole term, taking care to make him again 
 a little nearer to the fourth. Or if, as often happens, the 
 same boy was head in all three months, the absentee might 
 have his proportion of the head boy's total ; that is, in this 
 case, 10 per cent, less, or 945. There are two obvious 
 principles in giving averages (i) if you are startled by the 
 result of an average, you have certainly taken it wrong ; 
 and (2) in doubtful cases, a boy should lose rather than gain 
 by absence certainly, in no case, gain. 
 
 I believe there are persons to whom the reduction of 
 marks is a troublesome operation, but it is absolutely neces- 
 sary where the results of term and examination, or of 
 examinations in several subjects, have to be combined.
 
 24 ON MARKING, 
 
 It is a very common practice at schools, instead of having 
 absolute maxima, to assume the head boy's marks as the 
 maximum. An absolute maximum, in fact, means very 
 little, except in examinations properly controlled by tra- 
 dition and mutual checking, like the Cambridge Triposes. 
 In public examinations, at least such as I have had to do 
 with, where each examiner wanders at his own sweet will, 
 the maximum is the most independent variable I ever en- 
 countered. But to return, the problem of reduction is, of 
 course, this : the head boy A. gets 437, B. 362; what is B. 
 to have when A, is reduced to 100? Strictly speaking, a 
 proportion sum is wanted in each case, which requires some 
 labour very often a little ingenuity will shorten it. In this 
 case, for example, which was selected quite at random, 
 I should deduct i per cent., bringing it to 433, which is 
 4^ hundreds, then deduct -^ bringing it to 400, and lastly 
 divide by 4. So the 362 would become 358, ~% is 28, write 
 down 3301, divide by 4 and you have 82. But, modern 
 civilization has saved us even this slight trouble by the 
 instrument I hold in my hand, the Harrow Mark Reducer 
 (to be had of Messrs Aston and Mander), a slide-rule, from 
 which corresponding numbers can be read off at once. 
 
 There is a question connected with reduction that often 
 agitates common-rooms and even masters' meetings Shall 
 the minimum be fixed as well as the maximum ? Take this 
 case : Mr A. teaches a class, and marks high throughout, so 
 that, when his marks come to be reduced, they range from 
 1000 to 600 only; it is examined by Mr B., who is a slashing 
 marker, and brings out his results ranging from 1000 to 200. 
 The range in the one case is 400 marks, in the other 800, so 
 that the examination, instead of telling equally with term 
 marks, counts double. For example, Mr A.'s last boy is
 
 0.V MARKING. 25 
 
 half-way .up the class in examination; his grand total is 
 600 + 600, or 1200. Now, he ought, obviously, to be equal 
 to a boy who is half-way up in term, but last in examination, 
 that is, to a boy who gets 800 in term + 200 in examination. 
 You will see that he is 200 marks above him, and that 
 simply owing to the personal equation of the two masters. 
 I know of no means of eliminating personal equation, 
 except that of reducing the marks, so that the top boy has 
 the maximum and the last boy o. There are strong argu- 
 ments against such a system, as tending to discourage the 
 lower boys in a class ; it requires, too, some correction when 
 one boy is overwhelmingly behind the rest. My own im- 
 pression is that it is the fairest, but I should be sorry to 
 dogmatize. 
 
 I will conclude by working out, if you will allow me, a 
 problem in the combination of marks, of a kind that often 
 occurs where the system of promotion is at all elaborate. 
 I am myself working in a school where the promotion in 
 every subject is independent, and where what little compli- 
 cation there is, is in the distribution of the classes by the 
 head-master. In most schools, a different system is adopted. 
 The forms, properly so-called, are taught together in Classics 
 and English subjects, each group of three or four forms being 
 redistributed for their Mathematics, Modern Languages, and 
 Science, and promotions from form to form being made by 
 the aggregate of marks from all sources. Let us take a form 
 of 26 boys, the members of which are distributed among 
 4 mathematical sets, and let us suppose that 200 marks are 
 to be given for mathematics. Now, it is possible to arrange 
 beforehand that the mathematical masters shall send in their 
 marks for each class to a given standard, say the highest set 
 200, the 2nd 150, the 3rd 100, the 4th 50. The result will be
 
 26 ON MARKING. 
 
 chaos. You have in the form, for example, the head boy of 
 the 2nd set, who gets his 150; the boys of the ist set, being 
 about the middle of their set, get only no or 120. In fact, 
 the marks become periculosae plenum opus aleae ; they pass 
 entirely out of one's control. 
 
 Let us, then, look into the conditions of the problem. 
 Suppose the 26 boys formed an arithmetical progression in 
 respect of mathematical industry and knowledge, we should 
 distribute them along our scale from 200 to o, at intervals of 
 7 or 8 marks, thus: 200 192 184 176, and so on. And, 
 in reality, allowing for expansions here and contractions 
 there, such a distribution is what we want to accomplish. 
 If they were to take places day after day, were always to 
 come out in the same order, and to count from o to 25, the 
 figures of that scale would correspond to their actual marks. 
 The evenly divided scale is, then, a first approximation to 
 what we want. Now, let us proceed a step further. The 
 best boy in the 2nd set is nearly always, in point of industry, 
 and generally in point of actual performance, superior to the 
 last boy of the ist set, and so on. Again, the differences 
 among the head boys are more important than those among 
 the lower boys, and require to be accentuated accordingly. 
 But they must not be accentuated so as to swamp the dif- 
 ferences lower down. I will suppose there are three boys of 
 the form, A, B, C, in the ist set; eight, D to K, in the 2nd; 
 eleven, L to V, in the 3rd; and four, W to Z, in the 4th. 
 I should ask all the mathematical masters to send me their 
 marks so that their top boy has 200, their last boy o. Next, 
 I should allot a certain part of the scale to each mathematical 
 set, so that the highest boy in that set could not rise beyond 
 a certain maximum, nor the lowest boy fall below a certain 
 minimum. In the subjoined table the part allotted to the
 
 ON MARKING. 
 
 3 boys in the first set is 165 to 200, say 17 apiece; that to 
 the 12 boys in the 2nd set, 90 to 175, say 12 apiece; and 
 that to the 3rd and 4th sets, 15 to 105, and o to 25, or 
 about 8 apiece. Then we shall have the following re- 
 sults: 
 
 Set I. 
 
 Set II. 
 
 Set III. 
 
 Set IV. 
 
 In the lowest set, Z is treated as the worst mathematician 
 of the form, and therefore has o. His marks (100) are 
 subtracted from W, X and Y, whose reduced marks repre- 
 sent their superiority to Z, not to the lowest boy of their 
 own set. In the higher sets, the marks sent in are reduced 
 
 
 
 Reduced 
 
 
 Actual Marks. 
 
 Marks. 
 
 rA. 
 
 117 
 
 165+35 = 200 
 
 B. 
 
 93 
 
 .... 165+28=193 
 
 1C. 
 
 17 .... 
 
 .... 165+ 5 = 170 
 
 D. 
 
 200 
 
 90 + 85 = 175 
 
 E. 
 
 182 
 
 .... 90 + 75 = 165 
 
 F. 
 
 127 
 
 90 + 54=144 
 
 
 
 
 i. 
 
 7 
 
 90 + 30=120 
 
 j. 
 
 29 
 
 90+13=103 
 
 IK. 
 
 o 
 
 no + o = 90 
 
 f L. 
 
 .. 18=5 
 
 V s 
 
 15 + 83= 98 
 
 M. 
 
 J 
 
 15 + 76= 91 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 u. 
 
 4O 
 
 15 + 18 33 
 
 
 
 
 IV. 
 
 ii 
 
 15+ 5= 20 
 
 rw. 
 
 203 
 
 25 
 
 X. 
 
 154 
 
 13 
 
 Y. 
 
 117 
 
 4 
 
 Z. 
 
 .. 100 
 
 o
 
 28 ON MARKING. 
 
 to a maximum determined as above (35, 85, 90), and 
 added to a fixed minimum (165, 90, 15). 
 
 In conclusion, permit me to thank you for the kindness 
 and patience with which you have followed me through so 
 many details. I have tried to put the common-sense view 
 of part of a schoolmaster's routine. But I need hardly 
 remind you that routine and common-sense cover but a 
 small part of what goes to make a good schoolmaster. 
 Beyond all our machinery, the real incentives to study are 
 a keen sense of the value of the teacher's approbation or 
 disapprobation, the sense of duty, and that contagious en- 
 thusiasm for learning, which can only be caught from those 
 who possess it ; the first strongest in the earliest years of ac- 
 quirement, the last only developing fully at a later stage. 
 Common-sense and a mastery of routine will generally save 
 us from failure ; genuine success in the government of boys 
 can only be attained through those higher qualities that are 
 essential to the government of men.
 
 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 BY ARTHUR SIDGWICK, M.A. 
 
 OW AND TUTOR OF CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE, OXFORD, 
 AND LATE ASSISTANT MASTER AT RUGBY SCHOOL.
 
 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 I SUPPOSE it is clear that the intention of the Syndicate 
 in instituting this term's course of lectures, one of which 
 I have the honour of being asked to deliver, was to supple- 
 ment the instruction which they have provided in the theory 
 of teaching by inviting some of those who have had several 
 years of practical experience to contribute what suggestions 
 or guidance that experience may have enabled them to offer. 
 The task which I propose to myself this afternoon, in ac- 
 cordance with this intention, is to say a few words on 
 stimulus, viewed from the practical side. Apart from all 
 educational theories, the question which I raise, and to 
 which I shall do my best to find some sort of an answer, is 
 this : to what qualities or methods is due the success which 
 the best teachers achieve in stirring their pupils to at- 
 tentiveness, to interest in their work, and generally to 
 intellectual keenness and growth. And of these qualities 
 and methods I shall try to direct particular attention to 
 those which are capable of being adopted or acquired, and 
 are not merely matters of natural gift. 
 
 I had better state plainly at the outset that my ex- 
 perience, such as it is, is derived from 15 years' teaching
 
 32 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 at Rugby and three at Oxford; that at school I taught, 
 almost entirely, classics (including composition), history, 
 English, and divinity. Of mathematics and French and 
 German my experience has been limited to an occasional 
 lesson. Of science I know nothing, I have not even taught 
 it. At Oxford I have taught nothing but classics'. More- 
 over, my experience has been almost wholly of boys. Of 
 girls I know nothing, except what I may have got by once 
 examining a girls' school, by a few lessons in Latin and 
 Greek to occasional pupils, by correspondence-teaching in 
 English Literature and composition, and by a course of 
 lectures on English to a girls' college. I thought it better 
 to state this clearly, that it may be plain where I am speaking 
 at first hand, and where I am merely repeating the experi- 
 ence of others. 
 
 One great difficulty of my subject, at which I have al- 
 ready hinted, everyone will feel at once. It is this, that the 
 power of stimulating pupils is so largely a matter of natural 
 aptitude, a special form of genius, that it becomes not only 
 very difficult to analyze, but it may even seem that the whole 
 topic is rather out of the beat of a lecture on the practical 
 art of teaching. To dwell on the need of stimulus to one 
 who would be a teacher is like Ruskin's first rule given to 
 the art student, 'Be born with genius'. It is true no doubt 
 that in all branches of teaching the lively and attractive 
 
 1 I mention my Oxford experience for the sake of completeness : 
 but the reader will see that it is school-teaching alone which is treated 
 in the lecture. Of teaching Undergraduates I have only the limited 
 experience of three years in my own small but distinguished college. 
 As far as such experience enables me to speak I should be inclined to 
 say that manner is of less importance and matter of more importance 
 than with boys.
 
 ON STIMULUS. 33 
 
 manner, quickness and adaptability and resource, insight 
 into character and the orator's instinctive sympathy with 
 his audience, real personal interest both in the studies and 
 the students, force and variety and felicity of expression, 
 wide and accurate knowledge, the power of seizing on the 
 telling points of a subject and presenting them suitably, apt 
 and copious illustration, and above all a strong personality 
 and highmindedness of character all these are most power- 
 ful stimulants to young natures brought under their influence, 
 and all or most of them very hard, if not impossible, to give 
 rules or hints for acquiring. They constitute, or they go far 
 to constitute, the genius of the teacher. But this genius, like 
 others, may be observed in the working ; and something may 
 be got by so observing the details of its work. And though 
 few or no teachers possess all these things, all of us have 
 some of them, or the elements of some of them : and some- 
 thing may be done by trying to see what requires cultivation 
 and how it should be attempted. And even those teachers 
 who can lay no claim to the possession of genius may make 
 an enormous difference in their power of stimulating by 
 seeing what to aim at. And further, there are not a few 
 points of detail and method quite capable of being acquired 
 by care and effort, which again may increase immensely 
 the teacher's power of stimulus. I believe, in spite of the 
 difficulty, the subject has its practical side: and on that side 
 I shall try to help you to approach it. 
 
 I mentioned just now three things to which the teacher 
 can excite the pupils, attentiveness, interest in their work, 
 and generally intellectual keenness and growth. Of course 
 these three things are often found together, and indeed usually 
 where one is there will be something of the others. But they 
 may be treated separately, and they are often present in very 
 
 3
 
 34 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 different proportions. One of the most stimulating teachers 
 I have known could not keep a class orderly or attentive at 
 all ; he stimulated only the few, but them much. And we 
 most of us have had at one time or another the bad luck to 
 be under a teacher who kept his class perfectly attentive, 
 who yet bored them inexpressibly, and the total result of 
 whose teaching was rather to disgust the pupil with learning 
 a stimulus of the negative and evil kind. The awakening of 
 attentiveness may thus be regarded apart from other forms 
 of stimulus, as the lowest form of it. Let me begin with a 
 few words about it. 
 
 I quite agree with what may be called the commonplace 
 of education, that the first requisite in a teacher is that he 
 shall be able to secure the attention of his class. Those 
 who cannot do this have mistaken their vocation, and what- 
 ever other qualities they may have in teaching, to the mass 
 of boys they do more harm than good. They ought not 
 to be teachers at all, and I shall say no more about them. 
 Those who have the power of securing attention can 
 usually do it with ease at any rate after a short time, 
 when they have learnt their business. The danger for these 
 a danger I think not sufficiently observed is that it is 
 too easy. It may be overdone. I do not of course mean 
 that a class can be made too attentive : but they can easily 
 be made attentive by the wrong means and in the wrong 
 way. Learning is hard, and boys are easily bored : and 
 it is natural and right that they should be easily bored. 
 And the teacher should always remember that it is his 
 business, not to make them attend when they are bored, 
 but to make them attend by not boring them. Let me put 
 a very humble instance as a parable. If Jones begins talking 
 to Smith when you are explaining how Caesar made his
 
 ON' STIMULUS. 35 
 
 bridge, there are three courses open to you. The first is to 
 go on explaining how Csesar made his bridge, and take no 
 notice of Jones. That is the course of the bad disciplinarian. 
 The second is to say, 'Jones, don't talk'. Here we have the 
 good disciplinarian, as he is called ; but the bad teacher. 
 The right way is very likely all the time to go and draw the 
 bridge on the slate, or better still, perhaps, to make Jones 
 or Smith go and draw it, and let Robinson correct him 
 where he blunders, and then go above them both. That is 
 stimulus. I well remember a boy to whom I taught very 
 little, but from whom I learnt one valuable lesson. I had 
 been expounding something, no doubt very wisely and accu- 
 rately, but without due regard to the different capacities of 
 the top and bottom of the form a daily mistake of school- 
 mastersand when I had done I noticed this boy writing a 
 letter or doing something wholly irrelevant. I rebuked him, 
 and he replied, with what was rather gaucherie than impu- 
 dence, ' I thought you were only talking'. Schoolmasters- 
 even in the best-regulated forms are often 'only talking', 
 and 'only talking' is not stimulus. 
 
 Of course I do not mean that a teacher will never have 
 to recall his boys' attention by a rebuke in the course of a 
 lesson. He will often have to do so. But I do mean that 
 there is, in what are called well-managed forms, too much of 
 this. When I hear that a man's form is so well in hand that 
 there is never a whisper, I know at once this is overdone. 
 There are two ways of making a form attentive ; discipline 
 and stimulus. Those forms where there is never a whisper are 
 governed by discipline alone. Discipline must be always at 
 hand and ready; but stimulus is the more excellent way. A 
 form kept attentive by stimulus is as different as possible to the 
 eye from a form kept attentive by discipline. In the former
 
 36 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 there is life. In the latter there is stagnation. Schoolmasters, 
 like other despots, sometimes make a wilderness and call it 
 peace. It is tempting because it gives them no trouble. 
 But it is bad. I will illustrate my meaning by an analogy. 
 At Rugby we used to have a lesson before breakfast, seven 
 to eight. It was always the quietest lesson; somnolence 
 and hunger combined made the boys indisposed to any 
 movement. After breakfast they came back different crea- 
 tures : there was more vitality. There was less of the pin- 
 dropping silence of the morning hour : but for real teaching 
 the second was the best. And some masters act like hunger 
 on the boys : others act like breakfast. To put it in one word : 
 in a form there should be attentiveness, but there should 
 also be life : attentiveness without life is a mistake. 
 
 How then are we to stimulate this attentiveness ? The 
 obvious answer is, by making the lessons as interesting and 
 amusing as possible. Interesting of course : but how ? First, 
 manner goes for something. The teacher should be as easy 
 and friendly and familiar as he can : all stiffness is a mistake. 
 'But a schoolmaster must keep up his dignity'. If that 
 means he must not make a buffoon of himself, and must not 
 allow liberties to be taken with him, then certainly yes. 
 But my experience is that what is usually called at school 
 'keeping up your dignity' is altogether a mistake. My advice 
 lo a young teacher would certainly be, think about inter- 
 esting and amusing your pupils in their lessons, and let your 
 dignity take care of itself. It is not the interesting masters 
 with whom liberties are taken : it is the helpless. You 
 should put no artificial restrictions upon yourself. You 
 should be able to say anything you like or want to say 
 to your form : any illustration, any anecdote or jest which 
 is in point, any perfectly familiar address or appeal, I
 
 ON STIMULUS. 37 
 
 would even say any digression in short let the footing 
 on which you are with your boys be natural. The English 
 boy likes to be easy with his teacher : and he perfectly 
 understands the difference between familiarity and imper- 
 tinence. Familiarity breeds affection and respect and 
 attention. The least approach to impertinence can be easily 
 stopped by a word, even a look : and if you have a really 
 coarse specimen to deal with they are getting astonish- 
 ingly rare in schools since the spirit of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury has introduced new relations more friendly and natural 
 between master and boy but if you do get them, they are 
 quite easy to deal with. The master has the whole situation 
 in his hands : he has the whole power : he can punish if 
 need be. No violence is needed : the quieter you are 
 the better. Send the culprit out of the room and speak 
 to him quietly afterward. Rhetorical reproof and theatric 
 punishments such as school-tales delight in are always a 
 mistake. And if you are on friendly relations with your 
 form, an impertinence is a sin against public opinion, and 
 you have the boys with you in quietly disposing of the 
 offender. It may have been observed that I have said 
 'interesting and amusing'. Do I really mean amusing ? 
 Yes, certainly, as amusing as possible. I don't mean neces- 
 sarily that the master should make jokes, for the simple 
 reason, if for no other, that jokes are so often not amusing. 
 But he should not be afraid of a joke if it comes his way. 
 For instance, I remember being present when a boy, being 
 read out bottom of a grammar paper, said playfully but 
 respectfully ' I think there must have been some mistake, 
 sir'. To whom the master replied gently ' I think there 
 must have been a good many'. The form were hugely 
 delighted, and for the rest of the hour worked all the
 
 3 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 better for it. But you may amuse your form, and stimulate 
 them by amusement, in a hundred ways without making 
 jokes. For instance. In a form lesson, particularly with 
 young boys, everything that admits of it should be drawn 
 on the slate, instead of being explained in words, as I 
 said just now of Caesar's bridge. If you are doing Vergil's 
 plough, you, or better one or two of the boys, should be 
 commissioned to make one of cork and cardboard. Both 
 maker and admirers will be amused, and all will re- 
 member temo, aures, buris, culler, to their dying day. If 
 you are doing Syracuse in Thucydides, let them make 
 a model of clay, and they will never forget the ground, 
 and will be amused as well. And you can often amuse 
 them and stimulate their flagging attention, where the sub- 
 ject is not so concrete, by taking a little pains. An instance 
 of a construction may sometimes be made rememberable by 
 being amusing instead of dull 1 . Again you may take pains 
 to select your illustrations from a boy's own experience, and 
 so stimulate his attention and memory. A boy is much 
 more likely to listen and remember when you are explaining 
 
 1 For example : In Prof. Jebb's excellent edition of Sophocles' 
 Electra, there is a note in which he explains the difference between the 
 two Greek expressions Spa firj TiOijs (indicative) and opa M TiBys (sub- 
 junctive) : a rather subtle point of Greek syntax. He illustrates it in 
 the following manner : suppose a man writing at one end of the room : 
 a man at the other end if he suspected the writer of making a mistake, 
 would say opa ^17 d/aaprdVj;? (subj.), 'beware lest you make a mistake': 
 but if he came and looked over his shoulder and saw the error, he 
 would say opa /w; anapravfts (ind.), 'beware lest you are making a 
 mistake'. This happy and vivid illustration excites the attention and 
 remains as a landmark in the memory, because it is amusing. And at 
 Oxford I have had this particular illustration over and over again sent 
 up to me in examination.
 
 ON STIMULUS. 39 
 
 the figure meiosis if you tell him that his common phrase 
 'an average long way' is meiosis. Lord Macaulay was 
 stimulating the memory and attention when he gave as 
 an example of the Saturnian metre ' The queen was in the 
 parlour, eating bread and honey.' Mr Bowen, of Harrow, 
 a teacher of rare genius, once preached a striking sermon on 
 public spirit in one sentence, by quietly remarking that any- 
 body would sooner be run out at cricket than run his 
 partner out. Again, though regularity and routine in a 
 form are good, if the attention begins to flag, it is often good 
 to vary the routine. A very slight change in the ordinary 
 system may often wake up boys who are getting dulled with 
 the recurring round. To make them write those parts of the 
 lesson which they usually say, or do viva voce what they 
 usually write; to alter the order in which things are done; 
 to stop construing and make them all answer a couple of 
 questions on a bit of paper and then look over each 
 others' work; to set an English poem instead of the ordinary 
 theme; to dart questions at random instead of passing down 
 the line; to let them do a bit of Greek play taking parts, 
 instead of translating one after another anything for a 
 variety sometimes even a change of position to relieve 
 the monotony of an hour's sitting, or to send a specially 
 restless boy on a message to the next room all these 
 and a hundred other such devices are little things, but 
 little things that tend to stimulus in the matter of attention. 
 The teacher's mind and sympathy should be constantly 
 active on the point, and he should cultivate fertility of 
 resource in these little things. ' The nature of man is 
 fond of novelty ', says the Eton Grammar : and the 
 nature of boy is a thousand times more so, especially 
 when his quick young limbs are planted on the same
 
 40 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 square foot of hard board for an hour in a summer 
 morning. 
 
 I have tried to suggest in this necessarily brief sketch a 
 few of the true methods of stimulating attention in a com- 
 mon form lesson. There are two false methods on which 
 I should like to say a word : they are what I will call the 
 satirical and the nagging. I will take the nagging first. By 
 nagging I mean a constant fire of little rebukes to one and 
 another for inattentiveness. It wears out the patience of 
 the best-regulated boy to receive or even to hear such 
 rebukes. It is exasperating to human nature, and is utterly 
 futile. Moreover it distracts and worries the teacher, and 
 destroys even what chance there was of any real stimulus to 
 attention. My own advice would be this you may have 
 in many lessons to caution once or twice; but if you find 
 the thing becoming common, look elsewhere for the cause 
 and for the cure. The probability is you are becoming dull. 
 Either quicken up a bit, or at any rate vary the proceedings. 
 But don't nag. It may of course be not your fault. The 
 weather may be hot : or there may be some excitement 
 toward : a great match after school, or races in the vicinity, 
 or some new promotions to the eleven, or news has come 
 that the ice bears on the reservoir. Any how don't nag. If 
 it is hot, open the door and any remaining window : if it is 
 an excitement, try and compete with it, rather than choke 
 it by nagging. I have learnt the futility of this method by 
 having tried it, and failed. 
 
 The other false method is satire. Whatever a man can or 
 cannot learn, he can at least learn to avoid that. It is nearly 
 always a fatal mistake. Perhaps occasionally, if used among 
 older boys high up, and only very rarely, and only under real 
 provocation, and used in a kindly spirit, and by a man
 
 ON STIMULUS. 41 
 
 known to the boys to be really kind, and finally to the 
 right boy, it may be successful once in a way as a stimulus. 
 I need scarcely say these conditions are rarely all observed. 
 It tends to become a habit and be used indiscriminately : it 
 reacts on the master's temper : and it is very hard to know 
 the right boy. Many a boy will sit and seem stolid, and all 
 the while resent your satire with exasperation. You cannot 
 tell a sensitive boy by the look. He is not the shy dark- 
 eyed creature of the school tales. He may just as likely be 
 a ruddy high-spirited person, or a brawny athlete, or an ugly 
 lumpy log of a boy. And the satire may often be unjust. And 
 just or unjust, nineteen boys out of twenty hate it. The worst 
 mistake of all is to use it among small boys. They never 
 understand it, and they always think you a brute. And 
 unfortunately it is here that it is commonest. A clever 
 young man comes as an Assistant from the Universities 
 where talk is keen and eager, and satire good or bad is 
 rampant, and he is set down by the wisdom of headmasters 
 to teach small boys. When they are ignorant, or inattentive, 
 or stupid, he begins to be sarcastic, i.e. to show a far worse 
 ignorance and stupidity than theirs. They don't know what 
 he means : they think he is hard on them : they are aware 
 that he is laughing at them : they set him down as dull and 
 bitter : and all his good qualities go for nothing. Moreover 
 it feels to them like an abuse of his position. He is older 
 and cleverer than they are, and of course can 'score off' 
 them if he tries, and say clever things at their- expense : 
 especially as they cannot reply. They think it unfair : and 
 they are right. I knew a boy who said to a master in a 
 moment of intimacy, 'Oh, sir, I'll tell you a story which 
 will amuse you, as you are fond of bullying'. It is difficult 
 to imagine a bitterer thing said by an unconscious boy to an
 
 42 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 earnest teacher, as he was : and I know that the man felt it 
 deeply. 
 
 So far I have been dealing with the lowest form of 
 stimulus, that which can be applied to make boys attentive 
 in school. I must now pass on to the more important kind, 
 the stimulus which stirs them to love of work, and interest in 
 it. Of course as the two are closely connected, much of 
 what was said on the last head applies here too. The man 
 who makes his boys attend will also be the man who by the 
 same and allied methods will make them interested in their 
 work. The boys attend because they are interested. That 
 is true ; but the question how to make them really in- 
 terested in their work is a larger question than the other, 
 how to make them attentive in school. It is larger, and 
 it involves other methods and qualities in the 'teacher; and 
 we have now to ask what these are, and how far they can be 
 acquired by the young educator. 
 
 In this part of my subject the detailed points to which 
 I shall have to 'draw attention differ a good deal according 
 to the nature of the subject that is being taught. I think it 
 will be better first to take construing lessons, understanding 
 that term to mean Latin and Greek construing lessons, and 
 to include repetition and grammar : next to take Latin and 
 Greek prose and verse composition, with a few words about 
 English. 
 
 First then, construing lessons : how are we to stimulate 
 boys to love of this work ? I may remark at once that there 
 is a great difference between the requirements in the case of 
 young boys between the ages of 12 and 15, arid older boys 
 from 1 6 to 19. It requires very much more care and ability 
 not of course classical ability, but educational ability, a very 
 different thing to stimulate little boys properly and teach
 
 ON STIMULUS. 43 
 
 them well, than it does to do the like for the older. When 
 a young man comes from the University, the chances are 
 he is vastly fitter for teaching the older: though he will 
 have plenty to learn even there. And to know how to deal 
 with little boys requires not merely a special training and 
 aptitude : it also requires you to keep your hand in. Most 
 head-masters having been many years away from young 
 boys, have lapsed into ignorance about them : and he is 
 a wise head-master who knows his own ignorance. The 
 beginnings of language are very dull the moraine of the 
 mountain of classics, as someone well called them. To 
 put spirit into this part of the work, the manner of the 
 teacher is all-important : but that we have dealt with. The 
 next requisite is to have appropriate books. The old theory 
 was, start with delectus, then the easy classics. The best 
 conceivable delectus would be bad : the actual delectuses 
 are infamous beyond description 1 . The easy classics are 
 better of course; but no book B.C. being written for children, 
 none is really suitable. This old theory we have changed. 
 There are some excellent Greek and Latin story-books, with 
 sentences sufficiently simple and matter light and amusing, 
 and above all short : shortness is a great point. Think what 
 the most thrilling narrative of Macaulay would be if read at 
 the rate of 10 lines a lesson, 2 pages a week. In the story- 
 books you can do a tale in one or two bites, and then begin 
 another. Again, there are numerous editions of the classics 
 'cooked' as it is termed; i.e. the difficulties and dulnesses 
 removed, the main plot or story left, and needful help given. 
 
 1 I have seen fragments from Aristophanes, totally unintelligible 
 apart from their context, put down among the earliest Greek sentences 
 for the hapless beginner.
 
 44 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 In this most excellent movement I am proud to remember 
 that the first great pioneer was Dr Temple of Rugby. But 
 whatever books there may be, still the greatest care is 
 needed to prevent too hard subjects being chosen for the 
 little boys. Even to understand their difficulties, is a matter 
 requiring the most acute, and laborious, and experienced 
 mind. And the teacher naturally wants to get his boys on. 
 I know by bitter experience of myself and my colleagues 
 that time after time even experienced schoolmasters will 
 make the fatal error of setting the lower forms to read too 
 hard work. Let all teachers be solemnly warned of this. 
 
 The next important requisite may seem too obvious to 
 mention : that the teacher should be master of his subject. 
 Or speaking more .precisely, I should say that for upper and 
 older boys, in classics, one of the most efficient ways to 
 excite the love of learning, is for the teacher to be himself 
 an eager student. If he does not work hard and read, he 
 will get stale : and staleness is a blight which spreads from 
 mind to mind most rapidly : it will render sound learning un- 
 attractive with marvellous rapidity. Of course if his interest 
 in the study reaches the point of enthusiasm, it is the most 
 potent stimulus by far in the world. I was myself under a 
 teacher for a year and a half who was totally inefficient in 
 every other way, but had an absorbing enthusiasm for Greek 
 and Latin scholarship. His tones and his glances as he paused 
 over a fine point of grammar, or a felicitous translation, 
 remain with me to this day. He made us fee!, without ever 
 saying it, that accurate scholarship was the enticing and 
 important study. He had many weaknesses. He kept no 
 order or discipline, he let much go by default, he never 
 accommodated himself to the weaker vessels: and so he 
 influenced only the few: but those he influenced profoundly.
 
 ON STIMULUS. 45 
 
 The influence was many-sided. He gave us an ideal ; we 
 believed in his knowledge and judgment and taste; he 
 enlarged our horizon : our best efforts were appreciated, and 
 when successful gave him a real personal delight : the failure 
 of our slipshod work was manifest to ourselves. And he sowed 
 his own love of the study in our hearts. Of course such 
 enthusiasm is rare: it is genius. But failing that, eager study, 
 hard work, is most important ; and this is in the power of all. 
 For one thing boys are very imitative: and what the teacher 
 cares for, the boys tend to care for too. Again, the mere 
 fact that he is thorough, and takes trouble for them, and is 
 thinking, and doing his best, is borne in upon them sooner 
 or later, and is sure to be a stimulus. An idle man, however 
 clever, in the long run demoralises his form. Again, an 
 unprepared lesson is a dull lesson. The teacher is living 
 from hand to mouth, making out as he goes on : he has not 
 thought out his illustrations, put his expositions into shape, 
 made certain of his decisions on knotty points, &c. He 
 ought to know exactly what he is going to do when he gets 
 into school : or else he is teaching at half steam-power. 
 The holding in hand a class of boys is always a tax on the 
 nervous-system : the brain should have its way clear and be 
 free to act. I spoke at first of its being necessary for upper 
 boys that the teacher should work : it will be seen that these 
 latter remarks apply equally to the teacher of lower boys. 
 It is not of course necessary that 10 lines of Xenophon 
 should be prepared like 100 lines of Agamemnon. But in 
 the Xenophon too preparation is required in the way 
 indicated. Nor do I mean that it is at all equally necessary 
 for the teacher of small boys to be a student. Manner, tact, 
 insight, many things of course come before learning for the 
 teacher of small boys. Nay, one may go further than this, and
 
 46 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 admit that there is a peculiar sort of clever superficial man, 
 who has ideas and picks up things, but knows none thoroughly, 
 who may be even an extremely successful teacher of small 
 boys. They are not deep enough themselves to get to the 
 bottom of him, though the bottom of him may be not far 
 off. And if he is kindhearted and genial he may do very well 
 with them. But let the head-master forbear to put him to 
 any high work. And note that he succeeds by his merits, 
 not by his defects. Ceteris paribus, give me the thorough 
 man. My emphatic advice to the young teacher would be, 
 On no account relax your intellectual efforts or lower your 
 intellectual ideal because you are going to teach boys. Be 
 a student all you can. For the elder boys it is vitally 
 important : on the younger it will not be wasted. To all it 
 is a stimulus. 
 
 As to what may be called the accessories of a construing 
 lesson, pictures, drawings, casts, photographs, models, plans, 
 maps, antiquities, Sec., in illustration of our texts, the more 
 the better. We have made an immense advance in this 
 matter in recent years : and I have no doubt that very much 
 more advance will be made yet. The classics may be 
 treated as language, as literature, or as part of the ancient 
 life. The language as such appeals to few, if indeed it does 
 appeal to few. The literature appeals to more, but still few, 
 as British human nature goes. The life appeals to many. 
 If we would treat our construing lessons, without neglecting 
 grammar, and close rendering, and the needful, with constant 
 reference to the ancient life of which they were a fragment 
 and a record, the stimulus would be far greater. This was 
 attempted by Arnold and Lee, though from lack of materials 
 it went but a little way. Recently museums and lectures at 
 schools have done something, and the most forward of the
 
 ON STIMULUS. 47 
 
 assistant masters have done more. When a new generation 
 of masters arises themselves trained under the new influences, 
 we may expect a great advance. Meanwhile it is interesting to 
 note, that the first systematic attempt in English to illustrate 
 ancient literature by ancient art has come from a Newnham 
 student 1 . If we help the ladies, they will perhaps return the 
 favour unexpectedly. I will not dwell farther on this branch 
 of the subject, for I belong I fear to the old school, and the 
 little I have tried of this form of stimulus has been of an 
 ignorant and intermittent kind. But the young are right, and 
 it must be left to them, and we must welcome and applaud 
 their better methods. 
 
 The bulk however of a classical lesson must still consist 
 of language : construing, analysis, grammar. What is the 
 most stimulating way of dealing with these? There are 
 numerous difficulties small and great ; one is, that in all 
 schools, and especially in small schools, the forms are so 
 unequal. If you teach the top, you are over the head of 
 the bottom; if you let the bottom boggle through the 
 lesson, you are boring the top. Every teacher will feel this 
 difficulty : he must meet it by tact and compromise : turn 
 and turn about; easy things to the stupid, a little teaching 
 directed to each order of mind in every lesson, and so 
 forth. As to the actual translation, the real way, it seems 
 
 1 Myths of the Odyssey in Art and Literature, by J. E. Harrison. 
 Rivingtons, 1882. The book is a most interesting and attractive one: 
 and its genuine merit and value has been amply attested by far better 
 judges than myself. Miss Harrison was one of the first Newnham 
 students who read for classical honours at Cambridge. 
 
 It should not be forgotten that Mr Oscar Browning was the first to 
 draw public attention in a practical way to the need of using the study 
 of art and archaeology to illustrate classical form teaching, in a paper 
 published some years ago in the Fortnightly Review.
 
 48 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 to me, to stimulate, is to set a high standard, to prepare 
 carefully yourself, but to accept thankfully from boys any- 
 thing that shews search or effort in the way of idiom, force, 
 or taste. Word-hunting is often an amusement, and good 
 if well kept in hand and each suggestion criticised. The 
 boys should be led up to a good translation if possible, by 
 the developing process; all contributing. Notes in school- 
 editions are often dreadful offenders in telling too much. If 
 the note gives the rendering cut and dried, there is an end to 
 effort, i.e. to stimulus. At the end of the lesson the master 
 should translate fluently, and give it out well as though he 
 were acting (if a play), speaking (if an orator), reciting (if an 
 epic), &c. The boys get their author delivered in the proper 
 form and continuously, to minds thoroughly awake to the 
 detailed points, and in a style which is wholly beyond their 
 power of producing. The better the master reads, the more 
 stimulating is the process. To this day I remember the 
 effectiveness of Mr Thomas Evans' Sophocles translations, 
 when the lesson was over: and many a Shrewsbury boy 
 would doubtless echo the following words written by a pupil 
 of the great Dr Kennedy. ' He is not merely translating 
 Demosthenes he is Demosthenes speaking extempore in 
 English. The voice is modulated in a most expressive 
 manner description, question, dilemma, invective, sarcasm 
 all are rendered in their most appropriate tones. The 
 voice gets louder and the pace quickens as he nears the 
 end, and when he stops, you might hear a pin drop.' That 
 is stimulus in translation. 
 
 A word finally about repetition and grammar. Is there 
 any way by which stimulus may be imparted by, to, or along 
 with these 'names of weariness'? Briefly and frankly, if 
 Eton and Winchester will forgive, I do not believe in Latin
 
 aV STIMULUS. 49 
 
 and Greek repetition, as a form lesson, at all It is supposed 
 to train the memory, tc cultivate the taste, to store the mind 
 with models of poetic form and metre, and noble climax ! 
 to prevent false quantities ! It may train the memory a 
 little, but it does not do the other things. The only stimulus 
 supplied by repetition, is that which comes to their ear and 
 poetic sense when boys like repeating. Most boys like, or 
 would like if properly handled, English poetry. The rhyme, 
 the simple metre, and the familiar language, make all the 
 difference. It pleases them, it increases their vocabulary, 
 their ideas, their sense of rhythm, and form; sometimes even 
 when quite infants it excites them to write rhymes. In short, 
 it stimulates them. With Latin and Greek verses it is not so. 
 Who ever heard of a boy being stimulated by his repetition 
 to do verses for himself? Nothing can make a repetition- 
 lesson other than dull and mechanical ; and I am convinced 
 that in nine cases out of ten it cultivates nothing but the 
 memory, and that with unsuitable material; and is a task 
 generally disliked, involving a heavy and very unequal ex- 
 pense of labour, and is a waste of everybody's time. What 
 I should like to see in schools, and what would be really 
 stimulating to the literary sense, would be to make English 
 poetry the staple subject for repetition, and set long pieces 
 (as extras from time to time) of Latin and Greek poetry to 
 the promising scholars. 
 
 With grammar of course it is different. Accidence must 
 be learnt if the boys are to learn the languages systematically 
 at all. The learning must always be a drudgery; it must 
 always seem to the learner a mass of arbitrary irregularities. 
 The mastering of these is not merely a burden : it is even 
 in itself depraving to the mind, initiating it early into a dis- 
 belief in law and order. We should recognise that this is a 
 
 4
 
 50 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 real evil, only borne for the sake of greatly preponderating 
 benefits, and unless these benefits are realized, intolerable. 
 What the stimulating teacher can do is only to lighten the 
 burden. First, in Greek ; the new method of consonant and 
 vowel declensions, and the teaching of verbs and nouns by 
 stems, are great improvements, reducing chaos to something 
 like order. Secondly, let the beginner, where examinations 
 allow, learn as little as may be of the out-of-the-way ir- 
 regular words. Let him avoid primer-doggrels, and needless 
 genders 1 . Thirdly, the accidence should be ingrained, not 
 by mere said lessons of grammar, but by the natural and 
 stimulating method of constant exercise in making easy 
 sentences. Fourthly, don't let the beginner spend too much 
 time on the mere committing of grammar to memory. 
 As soon as ever he knows one declension he should 
 practise it by translating and composing. Translating 
 and composing, i.e. reading and writing one's new lan- 
 guage, are stimulating : saying accidence is not. In 
 early teaching there is always too much accidence. With 
 syntax again there is a good way and a bad way, a stimu- 
 lating and a discouraging way. The rules should be taught 
 as much as possible in the course of reading, then illus- 
 trated by writing: and as little as possible by heart. Let 
 the boy have the facts first, then arrange and explain them. 
 I would even go so far as to say, let much of the grammar 
 
 1 What can be the use of a lower-school boy learning that cunae 
 and magalia are only used in the plural : that coins, pampinus and 
 sapphirus are feminine : that vespertilio and pugio are masculine, as well 
 as mugil, ren and attagen? The Public School Primer contains no 
 lines on gender and noun anomalies, and about as many on quantity : 
 altogether making a poem as long as Lycidas. I suppose somebody 
 learns them: at any rate they must have been written to be learnt.
 
 ON STIMULUS. 51 
 
 wait Explanations of syntax are dreadfully often given 
 prematurely. And as in the early stages, so in the later, 
 let the teacher carefully recognise the limitations of human 
 faculty. There are many boys who can thoroughly appre- 
 ciate a Greek play who never for the life of them could 
 discriminate the various uses of the optative. Hundreds of 
 boys can fairly understand and thoroughly enjoy Homer, for 
 ten who can parse him without fault. I am not recommend- 
 ing slip-shod work. I am recommending the observance of 
 a due proportion in the different departments of language- 
 teaching. If the boys parsed every word in ten lines and 
 then read 40 lines, swiftly, and even inaccurately, they 
 would have a far more stimulating and instructive lesson 
 than if they parsed twenty lines thoroughly: and it would 
 be done in less time. They would learn more Greek, and 
 more of other things too. The negative rule then is to 
 teach Syntax principles neither too much nor too soon. 
 The positive rule is mainly this : give them clearly. Choose 
 your instances as striking as you can: use the slate 1 always: 
 write down the sentence, leading on the boys from point to 
 point, with questions and illustrations on the way, contribu- 
 tions if possible from several, keeping their attention awake, 
 till the whole thing is plain before them. If you are dis- 
 criminating between two different usages or expressions, 
 show the difference by writing out two clauses differing 
 
 1 May I put in a word in favour of using a large slate, instead of 
 that odious invention, the painted black board? The slate is easier 
 to write on, clearer to read from, is wiped absolutely clean in an instant, 
 and lasts for ever. The black board is worse both for writing and read- 
 ing, and is much more easily scratched. It is like a palimpest manu- 
 script; the ghosts of dead instructions are never wholly obliterated 
 from it. 
 
 42
 
 52 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 only in the one particular point. Draw their attention 
 to all illustrations of your rule which are to be found 
 in the lesson, and bring it in as soon as you can in 
 their composition. By methods like these you will make 
 your grammar-teaching, I do not say stimulating, but as 
 little depressing as may be. 
 
 But it is in composition that stimulus is most important 
 In other lessons it is the greatest of aids: in composition 
 it is almost the whole matter. I shall treat chiefly of prose, 
 because I see that Dr Abbott, a born teacher of the first 
 rank, is announced to give a lecture in this course on 
 Verses : and from him you will learn, if from any man in 
 England, the true stimulating method of teaching verse- 
 composition. I think then, as I said before, that Prose- 
 composition should begin at once, at the very earliest stage. 
 Not merely is it the best way of practising accidence, but 
 the boy gets from the first the strong stimulus of feeling 
 that he has produced something. It is far easier to get a boy 
 to take a pride in his written work than in book-lessons: 
 even careless boys will often become comparatively careful 
 when they have to write. The written work, he knows, will 
 all be seen : it is all his own, with his name at the top : if he 
 is timid or unready (as most boys are) he still has his chance 
 here to do well many motives combine to make him try his 
 best on paper. This being so, we have scope for stimulus 
 supplied by the very nature of the work and the boy: and 
 it is obviously important to make the most of the oppor- 
 tunity. The first thing, as in construing, is to have the 
 work well within his power. Of course it is true that diffi- 
 culties are required to nerve the learner to effort : and that 
 to go on at the lower when one can do the higher tends to 
 contempt and carelessness. But the teacher will not make
 
 av STIMULUS. 53 
 
 this mistake: he will make the other. The desire to get 
 his pupils on: the constant tendency to over-estimate their 
 powers (all teachers complain of the stupidity of their boys, 
 which only means they are stupider than the teacher thought, 
 i.e. the teacher is always mistaken and always discovering 
 his mistake and always making it again) above all the 
 extraordinary difficulty of seeing exactly what will be diffi- 
 cult these causes will amply protect the teacher against 
 setting too easy composition. At starting, at any rate, the 
 boy should be able to do his exercises perfectly if he gives 
 his whole mind to it It gives him self-respect and a high 
 standard of work, which once established, he does not like 
 to lower : and this is a powerful stimulus. 
 
 The next thing is to make your earliest exercises lively. 
 I preach again the doctrine which I have preached many 
 a time, that even the earliest exercise books should be all 
 stories. If a man takes trouble, he can write his stories 
 in the simplest of clauses, each containing one simple pro- 
 position. And a boy likes doing a story better than dis- 
 connected sentences. I open the latest exercise book, and 
 I find. ' The poet's pride was not honouring the steward's 
 'gifts'... 'the peltasts in the village had clashed the iron 
 'arms.. .the tears of the bride were the beginning of the 
 ' revolt... &c.' What conceivable interest is there in this? It 
 is just as easy to write ' One of the slaves stole the gold. 
 ' The master assembled them all and spoke : The thief has 
 'a feather in his nose. The others remained quiet: but 
 'the thief plucked his nose. Thus he was discovered and 
 'received blows'. The boys learn as much Latin or Greek, 
 and they like doing the old Hindoo tale, even if they have 
 heard it before. 
 
 When they get a little further, it is a great stimulus to
 
 54 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 begin original exercises. It does not do to set original 
 exercises only, because the boy is never made to grapple 
 with definite difficulties. But pari passu with translation- 
 pieces original exercises call out his power. I would still 
 have stories. Let the master tell the boys at the end of 
 the lesson a story viva voce, to be reproduced after their own 
 fashion next morning in Latin. When the boy sits down 
 to do it, the story arises in his mind in its natural English 
 dress, too idiomatic and too complex (though doubtless 
 simple enough), in short too hard, to go straight into Latin. 
 In his own interest he simplifies: and the straits to which 
 he is put, and the effort, and the comparison of tongues 
 involved, and the ingenuity developed all are a valuable 
 exercise both in thought and in language. It is precisely 
 the process we employ when we begin to talk French or 
 German, and is a most stimulating and instructive one. 
 By and bye he reaches a second stage, when he begins to 
 get some mastery over structure. He appropriates certain 
 constructions or idiomatic turns, and reproduces them in 
 exercise after exercise. This is capital: you praise him: 
 he blushes responsive, and gives you a new one next time. 
 When that happens, he is a made man, and will go from 
 strength to strength. And the command and confidence 
 gained in the original exercise will help him in the set 
 translation piece, where he cannot shirk or outwit difficul- 
 ties but has to face them. I have seen what I am describ- 
 ing : it is no imaginary picture. 
 
 The second stage passed, when accidence and ordinary 
 syntax are fairly mastered, we come to the third stage of 
 prose composition, the stage from fifth form onwards, where 
 though syntax has constantly to be studied and maintained, 
 the chief points are idiom and style. This is the real crux
 
 ON STIMULUS. 55 
 
 both for teacher and taught. It is the point at which a far 
 larger number break down than anywhere else. And nowhere 
 else is stimulus so needful and so difficult. Accidence can 
 be mastered by judicious drilling. Syntax can be fairly 
 mastered by any boy not a real dolt (and there are very 
 few), if he be properly taught and properly willing to learn. 
 But style requires some elements at least of the literary 
 sense. A boy may look at the Latin, work at it, read it, 
 translate it, try to imitate it, perfectly understand it, and 
 yet all the while miss the style. The question is, how 
 to help him to see it? The subject is very wide, and I 
 cannot do more than indicate a few of the leading points. 
 First, to set good pieces, and let the pupil have good models 
 in his authors. If it be speech or description, let it be 
 stirring; if narrative or essay, let it be pleasant and amusing. 
 A good piece in the English, I have noticed time after time, 
 produces good exercises, where a duller though easier piece 
 would have been worse done. And it is obviously wise to do 
 pieces more or less like the authors being read. If no author 
 is being read and one cannot always be doing Latin 
 Prose it is not a bad plan to have a small selection of 
 well-known Latin bits like Walford's Cicero, an excellent 
 book to which to refer the boys, and urge them to read 
 one or two before setting to work. Secondly, we can narrow 
 the ground by instilling two or three main principles, with 
 constant and copious and /^///^illustrations: such for example 
 as the principle of turning English abstracts into classical 
 concretes; the principle of turning English metaphors into 
 plain statement; the principle of connection of clauses; 
 the principle of order to gain clearness ; the principle of 
 making in Latin and Greek the people do the things where in 
 English we employ phrases like 'silence reigned', 'misgivings
 
 56 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 seized him', 'the retrospect was glowing', 'the news was far 
 from removing their suspicions', &c.; the principle, finally, 
 of interpreting into clear sense what in English is hinted, 
 inferred, alluded to. Thirdly, let us be keen to detec", 
 amid mountains of crudeness and awkwardness, the germs 
 of thought, of effort, of grappling with the difficulties. The 
 boys will fail again and again after they have begun to try : 
 it is vital to give them prompt and generous encouragement. 
 Fourthly, the good and stimulating composition teacher will 
 make effective play in construing lessons ; he will often stop 
 sharply and shew the boys when they have with ease or 
 difficulty got the right English idiom for the Latin, that 
 there before their eyes is the way to do it back again. The 
 boy is thinking of the hard journey from classics to English; 
 he is not thinking of the return journey : but a word will 
 make him think. And what shall I say finally of model 
 versions by the master, or what are called fair copies ? The 
 common plan is, or was, to write them (and let the boys 
 copy), or dictate, or in these hectographic days to multiply 
 and distribute. I am convinced this is no use at all to the 
 boys, or at least to the mass. They don't all read them : 
 when they do they rarely understand why or where they are 
 better than their own : for teaching, the fair copy as 
 such is useless. To the master it is absolutely necessary 
 to do the piece as well as he can himself: or else he 
 does not really know the difficulties and cannot properly or 
 promptly correct the copies. But if it is to be of use to the 
 boys, the man should assemble the form, when all the papers 
 are corrected and returned, distribute the fair copies, and 
 then go through it carefully ; he should shew exactly where 
 the English is obscure, or idiomatic, or requires rearranging : 
 why he has cut this metaphor, inserted that particle, altered
 
 ON STIMULUS. 57 
 
 the order, connected in such a way, expanded or modified 
 in such another. In short, he should do the piece before 
 them, reproducing and solving all his own and most of their 
 difficulties. And inasmuch as it often happens that the 
 thing can be done in a great many different ways, he should 
 shew the boys, or better, lead them on to contribute, alterna- 
 tive renderings. Of these alternatives, all possible, some 
 will emerge better than others for sound, or neatness, or 
 effectiveness : and here we have the elements of literary 
 taste. The more copious and quick the teacher is here, the 
 more stimulating. 
 
 Into the details of verse-teaching I will not enter, for 
 reasons given above. I will confine myself to four remarks. 
 First, if a boy is not idle and hates his verses, they are 
 wasting his time, and he should do something else. Secondly, 
 in verses, even more emphatically than in prose, I say the 
 way to stimulate is to set good poetry as soon as the boy 
 can do poetry at all. Some men, in their desire to find 
 what is easy, go on setting trivial and commonplace pieces 
 about birds, and spring, and water, and hearts, and violets. 
 The commonplace English produces necessarily the dull 
 and bald Latin. The pieces should be rich and fresh and 
 striking, with plenty of matter, or what the boys call sense, 
 in it. The most plaintive of all laments, ' I cannot do my 
 verses because I have got no sense,' should be ever in the 
 master's mind. Thirdly, for the same reason, if you set the 
 boys original verses, suggest two or three lines of treat- 
 ment don't let them make bricks without straw. Fourthly, 
 Greek verses are far easier than Latin. 
 
 On English composition I must be content with a few 
 bare suggestions : and here I should say that my experience 
 has been very slight and has been almost confined to girls.
 
 58 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 I am convinced, however, from what I have seen that for old- 
 er pupils, such as these girls were, and I will add with equal 
 confidence, for all, the really stimulating method is the exact 
 opposite of the old system of Themes. That was to teach 
 a certain cut-and-dried method of treatment of all subjects : 
 introduction, reasons, similes, illustration, quotation, con- 
 clusion. The real aim of English essays is not so much to 
 teach the pupil to write still less of course to write in such 
 a deadly and artificial way as to teach them to read and 
 think. Let them learn no scheme of treatment, aim at no 
 style, but just try to think out the question and write sense : 
 they will soon find, that the best way to get style is to have 
 things to say. Their repetitions and confusions and bald- 
 nesses come, as you will easily shew them, not from having 
 no style, but from not having thought their points out : 
 and you will help them to do that by a few questions and 
 hints. You will be careful, particularly if you teach girls, to 
 allow no fine writing and no sermonizing ; boys try fine 
 writing, but they do not sermonize. The subjects must of 
 course, as before, be chosen with great care, being such as 
 they are likely to have some knowledge or thoughts about 
 already. It is often good to give a choice of subjects, as is 
 done in examinations. The skilful teacher will weave in 
 questions of the day, questions that arise in their daily life, 
 questions alluded to in the course of the current lessons, 
 or illustrated by them. And perfect freedom should be 
 allowed in the handling ; and special praise be given to the 
 least originality of thought or treatment. And, above all, 
 there should be no dogmatism on the teacher's part, no 
 pattern essay or scheme of treatment given as final : the 
 essays should be regarded as each a different search after 
 truth, and the line taken by each writer followed, corrected,
 
 ON STIMULUS. 59 
 
 enlarged, enriched, made as far as possible consistent, and 
 clear, and cogent. 
 
 But I fear I have dwelt too long on the detailed work of 
 a teacher and the stimulus to love of work in the various 
 departments and subdivisions of classical learning. I must 
 hasten to conclude by a few words on the third and highest 
 form of stimulus, namely the methods and qualities by which 
 the teacher can excite the pupil to general intellectual interest, 
 activity, and growth. 
 
 For making boys think, as opposed to merely cramming 
 them, though there may be higher qualities, there are few 
 more important than clearness. It may seem at first sight 
 as if it was easy to be clear in teaching : in fact there are few 
 things that want more constant attention, and even prepara- 
 tion. To make his own words precise and clear-cut : to put 
 complicated things in lucid order and simple language: to 
 search out for the point, and emphasize that duly; to avoid 
 formulae as much as may be, and constantly to formulate afresh 
 when the boys begin to use words by rote : when there are diffi- 
 culties, to shew exactly where the difficulties are : to lead on 
 confused answers till the confusion, and the exact point of 
 the confusion, becomes apparent : to cross-question neatly 
 and succinctly half-knowledge, so as at once to expose its 
 incompleteness and supply the deficiency : to divine exactly 
 in a muddled head what is the particular tangle which has 
 caused the muddle : these are some of the marks of the 
 really clear teacher, and such clearness is excessively stimu- 
 lating. Iron sharpeneth iron, and edge produces edge. 
 Nothing is so delightful to the growing mind as to have one 
 after another in an hour's lesson all the cobwebs swept 
 from his mind, till every detail is clearly and fully seized. 
 Dr Bradley, now Dean of Westminster, was remarkable for
 
 6o ON STIMULUS. 
 
 this precision and incisiveness in teaching : so was Professor 
 Bonamy Price : so was Dr Temple. Closely allied to 
 clearness, also peculiarly exemplified in Dr Temple, comes 
 what I will call grasp : the power of presenting a complex 
 whole so that the youthful mind can seize it. ' Dr Temple 
 would take a chapter of Guizot (I quote the words of one of 
 his best pupils) ' or De Tocqueville, or a book of Livy, or 
 the Philebus of Plato, and threw it out on the dissecting 
 table with its skeleton arrangement quite clear, till we 
 marvelled that we had found any difficulty.' I can add 
 my own testimony to this. I remember to this day his 
 lessons on the Epistle to the Romans the revelation which 
 they were to me in the matter of thought and handling. 
 Everything fell into its place : the fragments became a 
 whole : the maze was mapped. Such clearness and grasp 
 gives the young mind a sense of power and conquest: it 
 makes deep thought and serious argument interesting as 
 such : it disposes to new efforts : it widens, matures, stimu- 
 lates. And observe that without such grasp and lucidity of 
 exposition we should not merely have gained less from such 
 work : we should have gained nothing at all. Many of the 
 subjects I have mentioned were for the most part out of our 
 reach without it : we should have else been doing work 
 beyond us, with all the consequent confusion, helplessness 
 and discouragement, on which I have before dwelt. 
 
 And speaking of this leads me to give one caution, of a 
 danger to which all teachers are exposed, and certainly not 
 least those who are keen and eager, and feel this power of 
 lucid exposition within them. And that is the danger of 
 explaining too much and too soon. It is so tempting, when 
 the boys are all in a muddle, and the subject admits of clear 
 exposition within their power of apprehending, to have
 
 0.V STIMULUS. 6 1 
 
 recourse at once to the slate and put it all out before them. 
 The danger is lest the boys finding such aid always at hand 
 should relax their own efforts in the face of difficulties and 
 come to rely too much on the teacher. In unseen trans- 
 lations and compositions, where the master does not inter- 
 vene till the work is done and written out, the boys always 
 have the stimulus of having to meet, and solve as best they 
 can, their own perplexities. In oral lessons the preparation 
 is always more indefinite, and the boy knows he can always 
 say ' I couldn't make it out '. The teacher's business is 
 to judge in each case whether he ought to have been able, 
 and if so, to use a wise reticence : to give a hint, or no help 
 at all, and make him try again. The boys should be made 
 to feel that their powers are gauged, and the master's ex- 
 pectation should be pitched high. To leave a point un- 
 cleared up is always a self-denial, especially to a keen and 
 able expounder. But it is a self-denial that is often required, 
 in the true interests of stimulus. 
 
 Another potent stimulus to thought and interest is sup- 
 plied, by getting the pupils, wherever it is possible, in how- 
 ever humble a department of knowledge, to share in anything 
 like original research. It is of course very rarely that boys 
 with their undeveloped powers and narrow knowledge can 
 find work of this kind in a field so thoroughly explored 
 as classics. Some faint approach to it, but not to be 
 despised, may be sometimes found : the boy may be set 
 to find instances of a point of style or grammar for himself: 
 or if there is a mistake in his notes he may be made to 
 correct it : or still more delightful, he may confute .his 
 master. I do not say the teacher should make mistakes 
 deliberately for this end : but if he do err and the boy can 
 detect him, the man will welcome this lucky incident for the
 
 d 2 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 powerful spur it gives to the boy. But it is in science-work 
 that the chance most often occurs of getting something like 
 real investigation. And here I will say a word of the 
 powerful incitement to thought and interest given by these 
 excellent new school institutions, the Natural History 
 Societies. The whole of the work is voluntary, and the 
 boys take the keenest interest in it. At Rugby we had two 
 really stimulating teachers of a high order, both science 
 masters 1 , and they produced in this Natural History De- 
 partment most valuable results. Several of the other 
 masters also devoted a good deal of time and trouble 
 to the society. The boys worked the district thoroughly 
 in Botany, and very fairly in Entomology. The addition 
 of a new species was an honour much coveted. In 
 Geology similar results were obtained; a large local 
 collection of fossils, and thorough examination of the 
 country. The Society also kept the statistics of the 
 weather: rain and temperature were duly recorded, the boys 
 using all the gauges and instruments. The whole neigh- 
 bourhood was surveyed by the boys with aneroids, and the 
 survey perpetuated in a clay model. Even the actual 
 scientific results were not absolutely nil. One observer 
 contributed facts for Wallace and one even for Darwin : 
 and one continued an investigation up to the satisfactory 
 end of a paper before the Royal Society. But the recog- 
 nition, though prized, was the least part of the results. The 
 work was invaluable as a stimulus : it made the boys keen, 
 and careful, and quick, and moved them to aspire to 
 knowledge as to an attractive thing. 
 
 1 Mr F. E. Kitchener, now Headmaster of the Newcastle Grammar 
 school : and the Rev. J. M. Wilson, Headmaster of Clifton College.
 
 ON STIMULUS. 63 
 
 And this naturally leads us to the last and highest form 
 of mental stimulus, the teacher's own enthusiasm and per- 
 sonal force of character. It is powerful in school lessons, as 
 I have said above, and it is infinitely more powerful in its 
 general influence on the boy's mind : its effect is visible on 
 his whole life and being. Whether it be school lesson or 
 subject of common talk out of school, the enthusiast drags 
 the boy's mind captive. He makes him attend, he makes 
 him interested, he makes him think : without trying to do so 
 he makes learning seem attractive and delightful. Boys are 
 naturally impressionable, and enthusiasm impresses : they 
 are naturally imitative, as I said before, and whatever they 
 see a man keen about, they at once begin to excite them- 
 selves about it too. And all such enthusiasms are valuable. 
 Whether it be poetry, history, politics, art, science, natural 
 history, or archaeology, the enthusiast will at once make 
 a school of his own imitators about him. And he will do 
 far more than this. He will lift boy after boy out of the 
 barbarous intellectual atmosphere in which the natural boy 
 lives and moves, and make him conscious though it be 
 only dimly conscious of the vast world of interest which 
 lies around in every direction, waiting till he gird up his 
 mental loins and come to explore. This is the real result 
 of a master's enthusiasm ; it cultivates. Under plodding 
 hum-drum teachers who will not put soul into their work, 
 a boy may pass through a school from bottom to top, doing 
 all the work so as to pass muster, and be a savage at the 
 end. But let the enthusiast catch him, though but for a term, 
 and the savage is converted. I need not cast about for in- 
 stances : all school-histories consist of them. Dr Arnold when 
 he was composing sermons, histories, notes on Thucydides, 
 and teaching Rugby better than any sclic-ol was ever taught
 
 64 ON STIMULUS. 
 
 before, was writing letters, as his life shews, on every mortal 
 subject of interest, the Newmanites, Niebuhr, Rome, the 
 Jews, the Chartists, London University, the French Revo- 
 lution. This width of interest took hold of the boys as 
 it always does and must. And he himself knew it and felt 
 it. ' The more active my own mind is,' he said, ' the more 
 ' it works upon great moral and political points, the better for 
 ' the school.' With Dr Temple it was the same. His eager 
 interest and his wide knowledge when he talked to us of 
 history, or politics, or literature, or the men of the day, or his 
 Oxford memories, woke up the dullest of us and made us keen 
 to know more. It was the same with Dr Lee of Birming- 
 ham, a man who made an extraordinary mark on what was 
 before his time an unimportant school. It was the same 
 with Dr Bradley of Marlborough who taught the fifth at 
 Rugby when I was in it. It was the same with Dr Kennedy 
 of Shrewsbury, as I learn from many friends who were his 
 pupils. Widely different as these men we're in many ways, 
 with one and all the boys felt the honour and the delight of 
 contact with large knowledge, and eager interest, and stren- 
 uous energy. And they knew that their teacher was always 
 giving them of their best. These of course are the born 
 teachers, who must ever be few. But there are many lesser 
 men, well known in their profession, and some not far 
 behind those greater ones, who have their share of the same 
 qualities, and whose value to their schools is quite beyond 
 estimate. And something of their success I doubt not all 
 can achieve, who will follow in their steps and put their 
 heart into the work. 
 
 Lastly, of the greatest stimulus of all in education, the 
 moral stimulus, I have not spoken, and I have neither the 
 time nor the intention to speak. Assuredly it is not because
 
 ON STIMULUS. 65 
 
 I fail to recognise its primary power and importance. What 
 it was, to come for months or years into daily contact, at 
 the most impressionable time of life, with a man whose every 
 look and tone and word spoke to us of high aims and 
 resolute endeavour, whose life in the sight of the dullest and 
 weakest of us was plainly based on duty and self-devotion, 
 whom all could absolutely trust, to whom the most timid 
 would naturally turn in trouble or perplexity, whom all 
 could love and venerate without reserve such an experience 
 it is not likely that one who had ever known it could forget 
 or ignore. And to the power of such an influence those 
 who knew it best are least disposed to set a limit. Among 
 boys, even more than among men, it is the one power that 
 transfigures : it gathers grapes of thorns and figs of thistles. 
 But to treat of it lay outside my purpose : and with this one 
 word I leave it. 
 
 And one word more I would fain say, if I might without 
 presumption, a word of earnest encouragement to those who 
 mean to make teaching their profession. It is a work, you 
 will be truly told, of hard and constant labour, and much 
 drudgery. But the interest and the delight of it are such as 
 far outweigh the labour. The mere daily life among the 
 young is to the true teacher a constant happiness. An if 
 one have any fitness for the work, and give his heart to 
 it, there is no work so richly rewarded. The gratitude of 
 the young to those who have done their best for them is 
 more fervent and more durable than any other. To any 
 teacher who is near to knowing his own faults and short- 
 comings, such gratitude must always seem far and away 
 beyond his deserts. It is filled full, and pressed down, 
 and running over. And it lasts to the end of life. 
 
 A. SIDGWICK. 
 17 May 1882. CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 5
 
 ON THE TEACHING OF LATIN 
 VERSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 BY E. A. ABBOTT, D.D. 
 
 HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL. 
 
 52
 
 ON THE TEACHING OF LATIN 
 VERSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 IT is very doubtful whether Latin Verse Composition 
 will be, and still more doubtful whether it ought to be, 
 taught in our Public Schools at all a generation hence. But 
 as the wave of the reforming spirit, which passed over the 
 Head-masters of schools some ten years ago, seems for the 
 present to have exhausted its strength, it is possible that 
 Latin Verse-making will not pass away from among us till 
 the end of the present century. I have accordingly selected 
 the subject for this lecture because, as at present taught, it 
 is one of the most tedious, mechanical, and profitless of our 
 school studies, and a teacher's attention may well be drawn 
 to the best means of diminishing the evils, and increasing 
 the benefits, that may result from it. 
 
 A few words may suffice as to the present system. Boys 
 generally begin the study young, sometimes as early as 
 10 or u, and very often before they have any very clear 
 notions of the difference between poetry and prose. Having 
 mastered the rules of prosody, and learned how to construct 
 tags for the beginning and end of a hexameter or penta-
 
 70 ON THE TEACHING OF 
 
 meter, they then pass to some Clavis, or Nuces, or Elementa, 
 or other manual, in which they are presented with a mass of 
 words, neither Latin nor English, but a mongrel Latin- 
 English, to be rendered literally into Latin Verse. Seldom 
 attaining any amusing height of absurdity, these exercises 
 generally keep a low level of uncouth obscurity, which is, to 
 say the least, not calculated to train the young reader to 
 appreciate a good English style. Take the following ex- 
 tract from a book of merit above the average. The subject 
 is " Marius ". 
 
 "Of him the Libyan shore sees the first triumphs, 
 
 Where, Metellus, thou grievest for war's prizes snatched away, 
 
 The great prizes which Jugurtha gave his conqueror, (when) forced 
 To go before his triumphal wheels. 
 
 Then, as consul, he moves new wars, and conquers and routs 
 Alike the bands of the Cimbri and the Teutonic bands." 
 
 To make this stuff readily intelligible, some knowledge of 
 the Latin idioms, latent under the English, is almost need- 
 ful even for older readers ; and for younger boys the difficulty 
 of grasping the exact meaning of what they have to translate, 
 is often very great. Naturally, many of them make no 
 attempt to understand it, but, with the aid of their vocabu- 
 lary, render the lines into Latin word for word, arranging 
 their results like pieces of a puzzle, so as to fit into the 
 metre. I have heard it said, by way of apology for such ex- 
 ercises, that they involve no strain on the young pupils, 
 while they give boys an encouraging sense of the power 
 to accomplish something. But the sense of power thus 
 bestowed is a mere illusion ; and surely an exercise is not 
 sufficiently defended on the plea of " involving no strain", if 
 it destroys the appreciation of English idiom and English 
 rhythm, and tends to suppress thought. Indeed, for a boy
 
 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION'. 71 
 
 of any taste and spirit, few tasks of drudgery can be more 
 irritating than to slave for an hour at thirty or forty of these 
 mechanical lines, and to find that a quarter of the time, 
 perhaps, has been spent fruitlessly over a single line, because 
 he has forgotten to avail himself of some particular and 
 probably rare word, which alone can fit into the line, wast- 
 ing twenty minutes, may-be, in trying to make " bellum" do 
 service in a line which absolutely requires "duellum". 
 
 The wastefulness and barrenness of this study in its 
 initial stages are all the more serious because a large number 
 of the pupils will probably drop it before they have attained 
 any power of writing passable Latin verse ; so that, for 
 them, the only possible utility lies in some indirect benefits 
 resulting from the work in its elementary stages. For these 
 boys, if there are no such benefits, the subject will have been 
 pure loss ; or, in other words, two or three hours a week, of 
 the hours devoted to study from the age of 10 or n, to the 
 age of 1 6 or 17, will have been absolutely thrown away. 
 
 Without further preface, I will now suggest a new method 
 of teaching Latin Verse Composition, which shall have the 
 following advantages : ist, by delaying the commencement 
 of the study till the age of 13 or 14, it shall effect a great 
 saving of time ; 2nd, it shall begin with a preliminary series 
 of reasonable, interesting, and stimulative lessons, profitable 
 to all alike, whether they continue or discontinue Verse- 
 making ; 3rd, this course shall not occupy more (rather less 
 than more) than one hour a week, with a minimum of half 
 an hour of home-work; 4th, by enabling the teacher to dis- 
 tinguish rapidly between those who are likely, and those 
 who are unlikely to prosecute the study with success, the 
 new system shall release the latter class, after the preliminary 
 year of instruction ; 5th, in the former class, i.e. those who
 
 72 ON THE TEACHING OF 
 
 continue Verse-making, it shall produce nearly, if not quite, 
 as good technical results as if they had spent three times the 
 labour on it ; 6th, instead of running the risk of injuring the 
 pupil's English style by recourse to hybrid exercises, the 
 new method shall teach Latin Verse by means of English 
 Verse, by directing the attention to the characteristics of the 
 best English poetry, and creating or developing the germs of 
 a literary taste. 
 
 Let us, then, imagine ourselves in the presence of our 
 class, some 25 boys, from 13 to 17 years of age, all of whom 
 have read a book of Virgil, and not less than 300 or 400 
 lines of Ovid. It will be better, and the teacher's task will 
 be far easier, if they have read more (for a scanty vocabulary 
 is a deficiency that cannot be compensated by any skill in 
 the teacher or intelligence in the pupil), but I assume the 
 very low standard with which experience has made me prac- 
 tically acquainted. If the pupils have not as yet learned any 
 Ovid by heart, they must now begin to learn some. Not 
 much must be learned, but what is learned must be learned 
 well, repeated again and again, till they are quite familiar 
 with it. This is necessary in order that the teacher and 
 pupils may have some common store-house from which to 
 draw materials for the forthcoming lessons; and consequently 
 the boys ought to know some 200 lines, say the Raptus 
 Proserpinae, so well as to be able to go on at any passage, 
 and to understand the slightest allusion made to it by the 
 teacher. 
 
 As to the prosody, little or no learning of rules will be 
 necessary, if the boys use the pronunciation recommended 
 by the Professors of Oxford and Cambridge, at the request 
 of the Head-masters of schools, some ten years ago. I do not 
 mean to say that mistakes of quantity will not occur, for, as
 
 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION, 73 
 
 soon as boys begin to write, they will often ignore the most 
 familiar facts of pronunciation, just as they will also ignore 
 the rules of prosody ; but I believe the new pronunciation is 
 a great help to us ; and whenever I hear, at the performance 
 of a Latin play in a celebrated Public School, " ego " pro- 
 nounced "eego", I often feel disposed to feel thankful that, 
 in the present keen competition for University distinctions, 
 our formidable rivals are handicapped by the burden of an 
 ancient tradition, which only an ancient school can afford to 
 bear. 
 
 But to return to our class. We tell them that we are 
 intending to learn how to write Latin poetry, beginning 
 with Elegiacs, and imitating, as far as we can, the style of 
 Ovid. But, before we begin, do we know what poetry is, 
 and how it differs from prose ? There may be some differ- 
 ence, we admit, between English poetry and Latin poetry, 
 of which we may have to treat hereafter ; but for the present 
 we ask, What is the object of poetry as distinct from the 
 object of prose? From their English manual, the pupils 
 have an answer ready, and they answer that, while the 
 primary object of ordinary prose is to give information, the 
 primary object of poetry is to give pleasure (where pleasure, 
 it must be admitted, is used in a wide sense). From this 
 general principle, we infer the characteristics of poetic 
 diction. For hence, our pupils tell us, still quoting from 
 their manual, which they have studied in their English 
 lessons, poetry often avoids colloquial words and prefers 
 words with old and venerable associations ; hence, also, 
 it delights in picturesque expressions ; hence, also, it is 
 euphonious ; hence, lastly, brief though it is in the cement 
 and grammatical structure of the sentence, it is ample in 
 ornament and imagery. All this may be summed up in the
 
 74 ON THE TEACHING OF 
 
 dictum of Milton, that poetry is to be " simple, sensuous, 
 and passionate," where it will be explained that the epithet 
 " sensuous " means " appealing readily to the senses," and 
 is applicable to the picturesque images and the euphonious 
 diction of poetry. 
 
 Starting, then, from Milton's first epithet, we find that, 
 if poetry is to be " simple " in thought, it must avoid small 
 and subtle distinctions, modifications, qualifications. It will 
 not stand too nicely on arithmetic : the prosaic fact may be 
 that 9999 soldiers fell, but the simplicity of poetry necessi- 
 tates hyperbole and requires "ten thousand". 
 
 Again, since poetry is to be simple in language, it avoids 
 conjunctions of cause, obstacle, result, consequence, and 
 prefers participles and other equivalents, partly for brevity, 
 but partly from the poetic habit of looking at occurrences in 
 a simple and objective manner. In order to illustrate this 
 for the class, it will be well to turn a few couplets of Ovid 
 into periodic Ciceronian prose, and to bid them note what 
 poor stuff it becomes in the process. 
 
 We come now to the second part of Milton's definition. 
 Since poetry is to be "sensuous", that is, to appeal to the 
 ear, it is consequently to be euphonious in diction. Here 
 illustrations from English poetry may be largely employed, 
 and the results of English training may be utilised. - In the 
 class which I have in my mind, simultaneously with the 
 commencement of Latin Verse Composition, the study of 
 Pope is commenced ; and few English authors bring home 
 to boys the use of euphony so simply and directly as Pope. 
 In their repetition lessons they will naturally commit to 
 memory the famous passages in the Essay on Criticism, 
 which instruct the young poet to adapt his verse to the 
 speed of Camilla, or the slow strength of Ajax ; but it is the
 
 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION. 75 
 
 indirect influence of Pope that will be most useful. It will 
 be good practice for the teacher to read a hundred lines of 
 Pope aloud, previously prepared by the class ; and, pausing 
 every now and then, either to leave a blank in the verse, or, 
 better still sometimes, to insert a word of his own which 
 satisfies the metre but is deficient in euphony or exactness, 
 calling upon them to substitute the right word. I have 
 found this a very interesting and stimulating lesson ; and its 
 indirect influence has been very marked in teaching boys to 
 distinguish between fit and unfit epithets, and in giving them 
 a perception of euphony. 
 
 Applying these results to Latin Verse, we shall have to 
 point out a difference between Latin and English euphony. 
 The history of English poetry shows that initial alliteration 
 was a recognised necessity in the earliest times, and the 
 latent necessity of it still abides with us. In Latin it was 
 not so, and the alliteration, though necessary, is much more 
 artfully concealed, and depends more upon the interior 
 syllables of words ; moreover, the alliterative syllables are 
 more often separated from one another with a "wanton 
 head and giddy cunning", which produces a more pleasing 
 effect than the open and brazen-faced repetition of similar 
 sounds. Even in English poetry the necessity for disguised 
 alliteration is now recognised, and the teacher may compare 
 the lines satirised by Shakespeare, 
 
 The preyful princess pierced and pricked a pretty pricket, 
 
 or 
 
 Whereat with blade, with bloody, blameful blade, 
 He bravely broached his boiling, bloody breast, 
 
 with the disguised and alternate alliteration of the beautiful
 
 7 6 ON THE TEACHING OF 
 
 line in which Milton tells us how, during the passage of the 
 cranes, the air 
 
 Floats as they pass, fann'd with unnumbered plumes. 
 
 With such a preparation the pupil will be better prepared to 
 note the alliterations in his Ovidian repetition 
 
 Terra tribus scopulis vastum procurrit in aequor, 
 Trinacris a positu nomen adepta loci ; 
 
 or the repetition of initial vowels in 
 
 Valle sub umbrosa locus est aspergine multa 
 Uvidus ex alto desilientis aquae. 
 
 A teacher might easily give his pupils mechanical rules 
 for constructing a sonorous Latin verse; but such knowledge 
 would probably be worse than worthless, leading them to 
 think more of sound than sense, and tending to mannerism 
 of the worst sort. Much better, occasionally repeat to them 
 lines of striking euphony, and leave them to draw their own 
 inferences, or rather to feel their way towards the best 
 means for producing the full -sounding effect of a solemn 
 line : 
 
 Di, quibus imperium est animarum, umbraeque silentes. 
 Monstrum, horrendum, informe, ingens, cui lumen ademtum. 
 Non exorando stant adamante fores. 
 Porta adversa ingens, solidoque adamante columnae. 
 
 We now pass from the sensuousness of poetic language 
 to the sensuousness of poetic thought. Since poetry is to 
 be sensuous, it must be picturesque, avoiding all expressions 
 that do not readily call up images, and preferring particular 
 terms to general abstractions. " Go, lovely rose," for ex- 
 ample, is more picturesque, and therefore more effective,
 
 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION. 77 
 
 than "Go, lovely flower"; and in the Allegro, apart from 
 the mischief to the rhythm, you would spoil the poetic 
 picture by substituting "small tree" for "hawthorn", in the 
 couplet which describes how 
 
 Every shepherd tells his tale 
 Under the hawthorn in the dale. 
 
 This precept of picturesqueness and vividness applies more 
 or less to all poetry, but still more to Latin poetry than to 
 English. In Latin poetry not so much can be left as in 
 English to imagination, and there is less scope for that in- 
 direct method of expression which may be described as 
 innuendo. " Who is she?" would be the question of a Roman, 
 if you began a poem with 
 
 She dwelt among the untrodden ways, 
 
 Her tears fell with the dews of even. 
 
 For this reason you point out that the pronouns " is " and 
 " ea " are hardly ever used in Latin poetry ; and, in the two 
 lines above quoted, either nouns or names must be substi- 
 tuted for "she" and "her", even the emphatic form of the 
 pronoun " ilia " being impermissible. 
 
 It will be quite to the point to explain to our class why 
 Latin poetry must be more definite and distinct than English 
 poetry, especially the poetry of this century. When glancing 
 at subtle changes of the human mind, many of which have 
 received a prominence in modern times from the influence 
 of our religion, and when singing of the varied phenomena 
 of nature, of which our poets speak in abstract terms, the 
 ancients recognised the influences of gods and goddesses, 
 Pan, Silvanus, Dryads, Naiads, and the like ; and the same
 
 78 ON THE TEACHING OF 
 
 tendency to personification runs all through Latin poetry, 
 even where there is no direct mythological influence at 
 work. Hence Croesus represents "the rich"; Pactolus, 
 "wealth"; Niobe, "sorrow for the dead", and so on. To 
 take an extreme case, suppose we have to render in Latin 
 verse the lines of the poet mourning for the loss of a friend 
 in heaven : 
 
 And our sorrow may cease to repine 
 
 When we know that thy God is with thee, 
 
 it has always seemed to me that the audacious rendering 
 which briefly expresses this by an allusion to the story of 
 Ariadne transported to the sky, although it may possibly 
 pass the bounds of good taste, supplies, nevertheless, a 
 most instructive instance of the difference between English 
 and Latin verse : " it is useless to mourn Ariadne, now a 
 constellation in the skies," "fletur inutiliter fixa Ariadna 
 polo." 
 
 For a similar reason, English abstractions must often be 
 rendered by Latin similes. Thus, in the poem on Epi- 
 menides, telling us how the inspired seer put to shame the 
 teachers of conventionalities, it is said that 
 
 The worldly-wise 
 Shrank from the gaze of truth with baffled eyes. 
 
 Pierce to the bottom of this, and it seems to mean that the 
 owl-like teachers of common-places shrink from the prophet 
 who soars eagle-like to the sun of truth ; and, accordingly, 
 this modern metaphor seems to demand as its Latin equi- 
 valent some simile to this effect 
 
 rimidae sic alta petentem 
 
 Bubones aquilam, caeca caterva, tremunt.
 
 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION. 79 
 
 Here it may be pointed out that, whereas metaphors, 
 that is to say compressed similes, are appropriate to prose, 
 poetry and more especially Latin poetry prefers the simile 
 at full length. The reason is readily deduced from the de- 
 finition of poetry and its object. The primary object of 
 poetry being to please, it has more leisure for these figures 
 of speech which contribute to pleasure. Besides, a simile is 
 more ancient and simple than metaphor (which is but simile 
 compressed by constant use), and therefore poetry, being 
 both simple and archaic, naturally prefers the simile; and 
 Latin poetry, being more simple and ancient than English 
 poetry, manifests this preference still more strongly than 
 English poetry. It must be added, that many metaphors, 
 which have become so embedded in our language (in poetry 
 as well as prose), that they are scarcely recognized as 
 metaphors, do not admit of being translated literally into 
 Latin. All the more necessary is it that Latin poetry should 
 utilise its natural compensations, viz. simile, personification, 
 and allusion. 
 
 Two other minor consequences follow from the pic- 
 turesqueness of poetry. In the first place, since poetry 
 is to be picturesque, it will indulge more freely than prose 
 in picturesque epithets, "the red gold," "the blue sky," 
 "the green pastures," which are sometimes merely orna- 
 mental epithets, as in English Ballad poetry, but at other 
 times serve as simpler substitutes for more complex con- 
 structions, such as "the redness of gold," "the blue of the 
 sky," &c. In the next place, since adverbs cannot be pic- 
 turesque, poetry must substitute for adverbs adverbial phrases 
 which shall appeal to the senses; and hence the bird and 
 the ship will not move "quickly" in verse, but the one 
 "with rapid pinions", the other "with full sail"; the lark
 
 8o ON THE TEACHING OF 
 
 also will not always sing "in the morning", but "when the 
 sun rises", and so on. 
 
 We come now to the third division in our definition. 
 Poetry, we say, is to be passionate. That is, it must not be 
 scientifically impartial in its statement of facts, but must 
 dwell here with a lighter touch, here with a heavier, tinging 
 everything that it describes with the emotion of some transient 
 thought. For the purposes of a teacher, a good example of 
 the "passionateness" of Latin poetry is to be found in the 
 poetic preference of "jam" to "nunc". It impresses boys to 
 learn how it is that " nunc " (which means " at this present 
 moment," say 2.30 p.m., without regard to past or future) is 
 hardly ever used by Latin poets (except, of course, with im- 
 peratives) in comparison with "jam", which means "already" 
 or "at last". With the poets everything happens either 
 sooner, or else later, than might have been hoped or feared. 
 The lingering spring comes "at last"; death comes "already"; 
 in either case " jam ", not " nunc ". Thus even the colourless 
 element of time, and so passionless a thing as chronology, 
 become tinged, even in Latin elegiacs, with the unscientific 
 "passion " of the poet. 
 
 In many different shapes the passion of poetry manifests 
 itself; but one of the most important is the abhorrence of 
 what may be called the enumerative style. Here is a point 
 on which the teacher of boys must lay great stress. Only 
 those who have taught Latin Verse-making to beginners will 
 realise the liability of the boyish mind to this prosaic danger. 
 Strange perverseness ! Give a boy a proposition of Euclid 
 to write out, and he will, not unfrequently, explore new 
 paths of fancy, and invent original varieties with startling 
 success : but give him two or three verses to write, say about 
 the seasons of the year, and he will imitate with fatal pre-
 
 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION. 8 1 
 
 cision the scientific monotony of the great Geometrician, 
 with results sometimes such as these : 
 
 Ver venit, atque aestas, exinde auctumnus, hiemsque. 
 
 As an antidote against this disease, it is necessary to 
 show one's younger pupils that poetry is worth nothing, 
 unless it is tinged with emotion. But a general precept 
 of this kind is sure to be forgotten, unless impressed by an 
 example, such as the following contrast between Thomson's 
 description of the birds' song-time in spring, and a similar 
 description contained in Sheridan's Critic. Here are Thom- 
 son's lines : 
 
 The blackbird whistles from the thorny brake ; 
 The mellow bullfinch answers from the grove ; 
 Nor are the linnets, o'er the flowering furze 
 Poured out profusely, silent. * * * 
 
 * * The jay, the rook, the daw ; 
 And each harsh pipe, discordant heard alone, 
 Aid the full concert ; while the rock-dove breathes 
 A melancholy murmur through the whole. 
 
 Contrast this with the comical effect of the enumerative 
 style in Sheridan : 
 
 Now too, the feather'd warblers tune their notes 
 Around, and charm the listening grove. The lark, 
 The linnet, chaffinch, bullfinch, goldfinch, greenfinch. 
 
 Of the two extracts the latter, as far as my experience 
 goes, is more efficacious, as a deterrent, than the former, 
 as an attraction; and the word "chaffinch", scored upon 
 a copy of Latin verses, may convey a criticism brief but 
 more intelligible and impressive than a more lengthy com- 
 ment. 
 
 6
 
 82 ON THE TEACHING OF 
 
 At this stage, a useful word may be taught in season 
 concerning tautology. For, in teaching boys that tautology 
 (except when it is used for emphasis, or in a refrain) is an 
 offence in poetry, it becomes needful to explain to them 
 why it is not an offence in ordinary prose. Poetry, they 
 must be reminded, does not aim at communicating informa- 
 tion, but at infusing thoughts, or at painting a picture in 
 words ; and a poet's thought ought not to repeat itself twice 
 in precisely the same way, nor ought a poet's picture to be 
 monotonous. At the present time, it is most important to 
 lay stress on this great difference between poetry and ordi- 
 nary prose, because the dislike of tautology, spreading from 
 our newspaper-writers, has infected the whole of the nation, 
 to such an extent that sensible men of business, drawing up 
 a business document, will hesitate sometimes to use a most 
 essential word, "man", for example, because, say they, "it 
 has occurred once in this page already 1 ". If this should 
 seem a digression, let it be remembered that it is part of our 
 system in teaching Latin Verse Composition to let fall, so to 
 speak, copious crumbs of instruction for the majority who 
 are never likely to write Latin verses well ; and it will be a 
 very substantial crumb indeed, that they should, however 
 
 1 The horror of tautology felt by writers for the press is. manifested 
 not only in descriptions of prize-fights and races, but even in the details 
 of the, Court Circular, and sometimes grapples most skilfully with the 
 driest statistics. Witness the following feat of verbal versatility ex- 
 tracted from the Times, of Easter Tuesday, 1882: "The Botanical 
 Gardens at Kew had their 56,000 visitors against 43,000 last year. 
 The National Gallery, in Trafalgar Square, was visited by 23,700 
 persons, a number which compares favourably with the 171283 visitors 
 of 1881. The British Museum received 15,685 visitors between the 
 hours of 10 and 5, a notable advance upon the 10,668 sightseers 
 recorded on the previous Easter Monday."
 
 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION. 83 
 
 indirectly, be made to understand that, in the ordinary 
 prose of business, tautology is sometimes as necessary as in 
 Euclid. 
 
 But now to recur to Latin Verse-making. After our 
 pupils have obtained some rational notions of the character- 
 istics of poetry, and the causes of them, they will not be 
 harmed by a few hints on the mechanism of Latin Elegiacs. 
 
 The first thing to point out is, that each couplet is 
 generally independent of the couplet before and after it ; 
 so that the Periodic structure of prose is out of place, 
 and simple sentences must often be used, broken by short 
 parentheses : 
 
 Tola domus laeta est ; hoc est, materque paterque, 
 Nataque; tres illi tota fuere domus. 
 
 Or, again, 
 
 "Mater," ait virgo, mota est Dea nomine matris 
 "Quid facis in solis incomitata jugis?" 
 
 We then show that the emphasis falls naturally on the end 
 of the pentameter, which place is consequently almost al- 
 ways reserved for some word either emphatic or at all events 
 essential to the sentence. Hence ornamental adjectives, 
 and still more necessarily adverbs, are excluded; and we 
 can place here nothing but verbs, nouns, and essential 
 adjectives (such as the pronominal adjectives meus, tuus, 
 &c.). 
 
 "Now," say we, "let us examine more minutely the 
 words that come at the end of the pentameter. Open your 
 Ovids at the 'Raptus Proserpinae '. You observe that the 
 pentameter ends with an iamb, sometimes beginning with a 
 vowel, sometimes with a consonant. Read out the iambs 
 beginning with a vowel or h, each boy, one." They 
 
 62
 
 84 ON THE TEACHING OF 
 
 begin : aquae, humus, amant, equis, equi, ubi est, humum, 
 aquas, habet, Eryx, Ityn, humus, aquas, aquae, &c. You 
 then point out how small is the number of these vowel- 
 iambics, how frequently they recur, and how useful it must 
 be for the purposes of verse-making to have these words 
 at command. You also show how many large classes of 
 words can precede these vowel-iambics, and cannot pre- 
 cede consonant-iambics. Afterwards the boys read out the 
 consonant-iambics in the same way, loci, solo, dapes, pede, 
 sinus, labor, sinus, comas, legit, comes, sinus, veni, manus, 
 comis, thereby discovering that, although there are three 
 or four times as many of these as of the vowel-iambics, yet 
 even these are limited and soon recur. 
 
 You then ask a boy near the bottom how he can turn 
 into a pentameter, " Thus she comes to the Attic harbours." 
 Where in the verse can "Atticos" stand? When even the 
 bottom boy has firmly grasped the discovery that it can 
 stand nowhere, you take this as a text on which you en- 
 force the proposition that Latin differs from English in 
 having a very large number of unmanageable forms of 
 words, which must be altogether excluded from poetry, 
 not as being prosaic, but as being incompatible with the 
 metre. In English this is hardly ever the case, and al- 
 though some of our longer words (such as " unquestionably") 
 could not find a place in trisyllabic poetry, there is hardly 
 any word in the language that might not, so far as metre 
 is concerned, find a place in the ordinary disyllabic metre. 
 Hence arises the need of certain shifts and devices which 
 are essential for the writer of Latin elegiacs. If we wish 
 to make the goddess "come to the Attic harbours", Atti- 
 cos, Atticae, and Atticam being impermissible, we are driven 
 to " Attica " and to apostrophe :
 
 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION. 85 
 
 Sic venit ad portus, Attica terra, tuos. 
 
 Mannerisms being thus a necessity in the elegiac metre, 
 we may now fairly point out the use of a few typical phrases, 
 such as " te veniente," " non valiturus," " qui fuit ante," 
 "non sine," and leave the pupils, in the course of their 
 reading, to make further discoveries of typical phrases for 
 themselves. Collecting these phrases in a rational way, with 
 a clear insight into the artificial structure of the Latin 
 elegiac, and with the reflection constantly suggesting itself 
 to him, " How different this is from English poetry ! " it 
 need not be feared lest our pupils should be intellectually 
 demoralized by an hour or two spent in the analysis of the 
 elegiac metre. But everything should be done at first with 
 the guidance of the teacher, and viva voce in class ; no home- 
 work being as yet given, for fear the pupil should fall into 
 bad slow habits, or be discouraged because he is retarded 
 by a scanty vocabulary. In this way the drudgery of tags 
 and ends and beginnings of verses, which often occupies 
 boys for a month or more, may be got through in two or 
 three hours, and with better results than those attained 
 by the slow system. 
 
 Having now described our preliminary lessons on the 
 nature of poetry in general, and on the mechanism of Latin 
 elegiacs in particular, we proceed to apply our theories to 
 practice by writing Latin verses. It seems to me the best 
 plan that the first two or three exercises should be on 
 " skeleton subjects", if they may be so called, allowing the 
 boys a very ample latitude in construction and even in 
 thought. Thus, let our English be : 
 
 The hawk 
 Looks down on the birds.
 
 86 ON THE TEACHING OF 
 
 "What is the thought here implied? How is the hawk 
 regarded in his relation to the birds?" " As a conqueror, 
 oppressor, king, &c." " What epithets, then, will suit the 
 hawk ? " " Swift, cruel, high up, proud, lordly, king of the 
 birds, &c." " What epithet will suit the birds ? " " Small, 
 timid, silent, unwarlike." " How shall we make the hawk 
 picturesque?" One boy suggests that he is to be repre- 
 sented " high up " ; another, " with poised wings " ; another, 
 " looking down from a high rock". Out of a kind of struggle 
 between this multitude of suggestions having secured the 
 survival of the fittest, we proceed to business. "What word 
 will come at the end of the pentameter? " " Aves." "And 
 before 'aves'?" "Altus." "Well, let us try it; what will 
 come then before ' altus ' ? " " Despicit." " True, and now 
 you might make a seventh-rate line by adding that he looks 
 down from 'the liquid air above'; how would the verse 
 run?" "Aethere de liquido despicit altus aves." "Now 
 tell me why is this line a poor one." Silence. "What does 
 'aethere de liquido' tell you?" "Where the hawk is." 
 " And what does ' altus ' tell you ?" " Where the hawk is." 
 "Then why is the verse poor?" "Because it repeats the 
 same thing in different words." We now have the Ovids 
 opened, and find that in the vast majority of cases the noun 
 coming at the end of the pentameter has an epithet to pre- 
 pare the way for it, partly because poetry dislikes surprises, 
 partly to express some thought or suggest some picture. 
 Recurring to our store of epithets, we obtain, perhaps, 
 
 Despicit, en, timidas aethere celsus aves. 
 
 Objecting to the particle "en" introduced before "timidas," 
 as being unnecessary, we obtain, as an amendment, " im- 
 belles." Still we are not contented. We remind the class
 
 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION. 87 
 
 that in their English manual, which gives them suggestions 
 for writing clearly and forcibly, there is a certain element 
 mentioned as tending to force and point, which is ? "An- 
 tithesis." "How are we to obtain antithesis?" "By 
 attaching to 'hawk' an epithet antithetical to 'imbelles'." 
 Making trial of this, perhaps the same boy who suggested 
 "en timidas," now suggests "ecce, superbus"; but, being 
 emphatically remonstrated with for his love of expletives, 
 and the class having been solemnly warned that the intro- 
 duction of "ecce," "en," "jam," and the like, is fatal to 
 progress, if boys fall back upon that expedient whenever it 
 can make a line scan, he gives place to better thoughts, and 
 the class is led to see that a full-sounding word signifying 
 "lordly, imperious," will be appropriate here, ultimately 
 lighting on "imperiosus" : 
 
 " Despicit imbelles imperiosus aves." 
 
 The same process will now have to be repeated with the 
 hexameter, except that, whereas he always began with the 
 last word of the pentameter, the teacher's first question, in 
 dealing with the hexameter, will be, " What word or words 
 will come naturally at the beginning ? " He will then show 
 the boys how to adapt the end of the hexameter, so as 
 to connect it smoothly with the pentameter ; and he will 
 teach them, above all things, to keep their minds open to 
 new thoughts, new images, and new expressions, not bind- 
 ing themselves fast down to one beginning or end, which 
 may be found incompatible with a happy rendering of the 
 whole couplet, but tossing, as it were, in their minds a 
 number of thoughts, and evolving, out of their mutual con- 
 flict, a survival of the fittest 
 
 In this lesson, the teacher will do wisely not to lay down
 
 88 ON THE TEACHING OF 
 
 always beforehand what shape the verses shall take, but to 
 catch up any hints the class may give, and to follow them 
 out as far as possible ; sometimes so as to make the worst of 
 them, exhibiting clearly the fault inherent in the original 
 suggestion ; but at other times making the best of them, 
 even though it may be impossible to make that best into 
 anything very good. For it must be remembered that boys 
 are often less interested, and often learn less, in hearing 
 first-rate verses that come to them perfect from the teacher's 
 lips perfect and hopelessly inimitable than they learn 
 from second or third-rate verses, over the making of which 
 they have watched or even participated. It may be third- 
 rate ; but the boy's heart says feelingly, with Touchstone, 
 "A poor thing, sir, but mine own". 
 
 After two or three exercises of this kind, it will be time 
 to give the class a copy of simple English verses to turn into 
 Latin. And here all that I would urge is, (i) that the 
 English verses shall have in them a little poetry ; (2) that 
 they shall not be accompanied by any Latinized English 
 version, which, if allowed, is fatal to all thought about the 
 English poem, and to any originality in rendering it; the boys 
 being sensible enough to know that the Latinized version 
 makes the English superfluous, and far too modest, or too 
 lazy, to prefer thinking for themselves when they have an 
 interpreter to do the thinking for them. 
 
 As to the way in which these new exercises should be 
 attempted, there is little to add to what has been said above, 
 except that, in starting, the first question will always be, 
 What is the poet's thought? By which we do not mean 
 What is the literal meaning of the first few words? but 
 What is the thought running through the whole poem ? Is 
 he sad ? Joyful ? Hopeful ? Despairing ? Wondering ?
 
 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION. 89 
 
 Loving ? Hating ? The turn of every expression through- 
 out the poem may be influenced by the answer. For, sup- 
 pose you have to render and to amplify, "the sun was 
 setting". Obviously, the poet may be regarding sunset in a 
 pleasing aspect (" the departing sun was bringing welcome 
 rest to men "), or in a gloomy aspect (" the sun was fleeing 
 before sad darkness "). And we must point out to the class 
 how more especially the opening words of the translation 
 must be carefully adapted to express in rhythm, as well as in 
 thought, the purpose of the original, because they serve as a 
 kind of key-note to prepare the mind and ear for what is to 
 come afterwards. A good illustration may be obtained by 
 the contrast between the sad monotony and the sprightly 
 variety of the two following openings : 
 
 'When I consider how my life is spent, 
 
 Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide. 
 
 Now the bright morning-star, day's harbinger, 
 Comes dancing from the East, and brings with her 
 The flowery May. 
 
 The rest of the lesson will consist of the application of the 
 principles laid down above ; and only a few hints need be 
 added. 
 
 1. Do not severely snub effervescence and exuberance; 
 but remember the dictum of the great orator : " Velim effer- 
 vescat atque exuberet juventus." 
 
 2. Be always prepared with a few amusing English ex- 
 amples of poetic errors, so as to illustrate the faults of the 
 young composers in an interesting and impressive way. 
 "The Critic" and "Rejected Addresses" will generally 
 supply you with instances. Tameness, for example, and 
 platitudes, are appropriately censured by reference to the
 
 90 ON THE TEACHING OF 
 
 hackney-coach drawn by those well-known horses of which 
 the poet assures us that 
 
 The tails of both hung down behind, 
 Their shoes were on their feet, 
 
 or by quoting the lines which tell how 
 
 John Edward William Alexander Dwyer 
 Was footman to Justinian Stubbs, Esquire. 
 
 In order, however, that these castigations may be effective, 
 it is necessary that these or similar passages should have 
 been read, or committed to memory, by the class in their 
 English lesson. I cannot think that the time spent in such 
 a task will be wasted. The class I. have in my mind is in 
 the habit of committing to memory a stanza of eight lines, 
 illustrating the not uncommon habit of sacrificing sense to 
 sound. It begins by describing how 
 
 'Tis sweet to roam when morning's light 
 Resounds across the deep, 
 
 and ends with a couplet which I have never found a boy 
 capable of forgetting : 
 
 And the wolf rings out with a glittering shout 
 To-whit, to-whit, to-whoo! 
 
 "What rubbish ! " some of my younger auditors may pos- 
 sibly feel inclined to say "what rubbish to make boys 
 learn by heart ! " Yes, I reply, but what rubbish, what very 
 similar rubbish, at this very time, is written and even pub- 
 lished, not in Latin verses merely, but in English, and not by 
 boys only, but even by those older than boys, and under the 
 guise of poetry too, by some who have enjoyed or are 
 enjoying the advantages of being educated at this or at the
 
 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION. 91 
 
 sister University ! To ray mind, these eight lines of rubbish 
 are a possession for ever for the youthful mind, never likely 
 to be more precious than in the present generation. 
 
 Some conscientious and scholarlike teachers may be de- 
 terred from giving such a lesson as I have been attempting 
 to describe above, because such verses as will be the outcome 
 of it, appear to them less profitable to their pupils, and less 
 satisfactory to their own self-respect, than those which they 
 could elaborate in the evening solitude, with pains and 
 thought, to be presented to their class on the following morn- 
 ing as a " fair copy". Such scruples are certainly misplaced. 
 If the class contributes its fair share of suggestions, the boys, 
 and not the teacher, may be considered responsible for the 
 verses ; and, so far from feeling obliged to assume that they 
 are excellent, part of the teacher's duty will be to point out 
 the defects of the couplet when the best has been made of 
 it, and to assume that the joint-stock method of verse- writing 
 seldom results in the highest felicitousness. Besides, when 
 the class has done its best, the teacher can always, if he 
 likes, produce some elaborate and excellent translation with 
 which the boys can contrast their own. 
 
 But, should the teacher avail himself of such a translation, 
 I should strongly advise him not to look at it, or know any- 
 thing of it, till he reads it out to his class. Otherwise, he 
 cannot so readily place himself on a level with his boys. 
 The very beauties of the translation, striking his fancy and 
 continually recurring to his mind, will preoccupy him to the 
 exclusion of other inferior renderings, and will prevent him 
 from accepting the suggestions of his pupils, and from follow- 
 ing out each train of thought as far as it will lead him. Not 
 having any problems himself to solve, he will not be so well 
 able to appreciate the difficulties of the class in their attempts
 
 92 ON THE TEACHING OF 
 
 to solve them. Besides, it takes away a great deal of the 
 stimulus of the lesson, when the teacher no longer feels 
 himself on his mettle, genuinely working at the same ques- 
 tions which are perplexing his class. To the boys, also, 
 there is a diminution of the interest, when they feel that the 
 master has an unfair advantage over them in the possession 
 of what they may profanely call "a crib". Therefore, if the 
 teacher has pluck enough for it, it is best that the Foliorum 
 Silvula should be opened at manifest random, so that all 
 the class may perceive that master and boys together are 
 entering on unknown regions, in a common voyage of ex- 
 ploration. 
 
 After nearly a year's work of this kind, the teacher will 
 be able, without difficulty, to make three divisions in his 
 class, ist, the majority, who have neither taste, memory, 
 nor knowledge enough, to enable them to prosecute this 
 study by themselves ; 2nd, those who would like to continue 
 it, and are so far qualified for it that they may be permitted 
 to prosecute it for a year longer, on probation ; 3rd, the 
 very small minority, who have a distinct taste for it, and 
 who (at all events in the present condition of studies at the 
 Universities) may be encouraged to attempt to attain skill 
 in it, at the heavy cost of two or three hours a week. For 
 these, as well as for the second class, little more can be done 
 by oral teaching. They must now be left to depend on their 
 own reading, aided only by the criticism of their exercises, 
 and the occasional comparison of their own verses with good 
 "originals". 
 
 At one point, however, effectual assistance may be given 
 to them ; and that is when they are first introduced to 
 hexameters. Boys mostly approach this new metre, under 
 the illusion that it is not new. Whereas, before, they wrote
 
 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION. 93 
 
 a hexameter first, and a pentameter second, now they vainly 
 suppose that they are to make both lines hexameters, and 
 the same hexameters as before. They do not know that, 
 in the first place, the unmixed hexameter implies a continuous 
 style, not broken into couplets and not admitting a regular 
 pause at the end of the line ; and that, in the second place, 
 when we speak of hexameters, we mean Virgilian hexameters, 
 as different from Ovid's, as Milton's blank verse is from 
 Pope's couplets, a hexameter in which the pause, not at 
 the end of the line, but at different positions in the line, is 
 as important an element as it is in the Paradise Lost; and 
 that hexameters without pauses, and carefully varied pauses, 
 are not worthy to be called hexameters at all. The following 
 passage from the seventh book of the Paradise Lost, pre- 
 viously committed to memory in an English lesson, for the 
 purpose of enforcing the beauty of the pause in English 
 blank verse, may well be repeated at this stage : 
 
 From branch to branch the smaller birds with song 
 Solaced the woods, | and spread their painted wings 
 Till even; || nor then the solemn nightingale 
 Ceased warbling, | but all night tuned her soft lays.|| 
 Others, || on silver lakes and rivers, | bathed 
 Their downy breast ; || the swan with arched neck 
 Between her white wings mantling proudly, | rows 
 Her state with oary feet ; || yet oft they quit 
 The dank, | and rising with stiff pennons, tower 
 The mid aerial sky. || 
 
 After this, some passages must be selected from Virgil, 
 to show the subtle art with which the Virgilian hexameter 
 avoids monotony, by varying, not only the pause, but also 
 the subject, and the position of the subject; and how he 
 combines the continuous and periodic structure, fit for the 
 higher level of elevated poetry, with the more abrupt verse
 
 94 ON THE TEACHING OF 
 
 which suits graphic narrative on a lower level. The contrast 
 between &neid i. i n, in the elevated and continuous 
 style, and the following lines in the abrupt style, beginning 
 " urbs antiqua fuit," would furnish a good instance, but are 
 too long to quote. Let us take the opening of the sixth 
 book, where two continuous lines with one subject describe 
 ^Eneas smoothly sailing into the coast of Cumae, and then 
 follow six lines with six several subjects in every variety of 
 position : 
 
 Sic fatur lacrimans, classique immittit habenas, 
 Et tandem Euboicis Cumarum adlabitur oris. 
 Obvertunt pelago proras ; turn dente tenaci 
 Ancora fundabat naves; et littora curvae 
 Praetexunt puppes. Juvenum manus emicat ardens 
 Littus in Hesperium ; quaerit pars semina flammae 
 Abstrusa in venis silicis, pars densa ferarum 
 Tecta rapit, silvas, inventaque flumina monstrat. 
 
 Even with all this telling and warning, the necessary 
 effect will not yet have been produced. It will, therefore, 
 be a good plan, when the first copy of hexameters is set, to 
 bid the young composers select some passage in Virgil, as 
 similar in thought as they can find to the English before 
 them, and to reproduce the pauses of that Virgilian passage. 
 If they still altogether neglect or fail to do this, the copy 
 must be torn up, and they must do it again, or give up the 
 attempt to write in this metre; but in no case must the 
 teacher allow himself to tolerate, or take the trouble of 
 correcting, a copy of pauseless hexameters. 
 
 One word of warning in conclusion. We have been 
 dealing with a class of some 25 boys, of whom not one, 
 or not more than one, is under 14 years of age at the time 
 of commencing our course ; and our materials had to be
 
 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION. 95 
 
 drawn from one book of Virgil, and 500 lines of Ovid. It 
 must not be expected that even the best specimens of such 
 a class, beginning with so small a vocabulary, and so slight 
 a knowledge of Latin poetry, will equal the very best per- 
 formances of those who begin verse-writing and verse-learning 
 from the age of 10 or n. But the best of those taught on 
 the short system will rapidly overtake and surpass all but 
 the very best of those who have learned on the long system ; 
 and I am inclined to think that, with more reading and a 
 larger vocabulary, they could not be prevented by the late 
 commencement of actual verse-making from reaching even 
 the highest results achieved by the early verse-writers. But 
 the teacher who should try this method must not expect too 
 much at first. Let it be remembered, that there is to be 
 no home-work at first ; and even afterwards not more than 
 half an hour a week is to be compulsory. Not much can be 
 done by a slow boy, in the way of thoughtful and rational 
 verse- writing, in half an hour. The great majority will pro- 
 duce practically nothing. Yet the teacher ought not to 
 consider the time wasted if the dull pupil gives evidence of 
 having applied his mind to the task. Better one poor, one 
 very poor couplet, with traces of thought, than thirty me- 
 chanically evolved correct verses. For the majority of the 
 class, let it be never forgotten, the object of teaching Latin 
 verses is, not that they may write Latin verses, but that they 
 may attain some degree of literary taste and judgment. 
 Whether this object might be better attained directly by 
 teaching English verse composition, than indirectly by teach- 
 ing Latin verse composition, is another question, into which 
 there is no space to enter. For myself, I shrink from this 
 alternative, regarding the mother-tongue as too sacred a 
 material to trifle with in the same venturesome way in which
 
 96 LATIN VERSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 one makes and re-makes a Latin elegiac, and shrinking from 
 the irretrievable injury that an incisive lesson on the art of 
 writing English poetry might possibly inflict on some future 
 Shelley or Shakespeare. In any case, I submit to your con- 
 sideration this sketch of an attempt to teach Latin verse 
 through English verse, with at least one ground of confidence. 
 It may be defective, it may be bad, it may be even very 
 bad, and yet it may be a great deal better than the present 
 system. 
 
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