■NRLF Charles Ernest Schwartz. No 3o^ m MEMORIAJA Jo Mil Su^ett GRAM M A;R German Language HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES DESIGNED FOR BEGINNERS AND ADVANCED STUDENTS H. C. G. BRANDT HAMILTON COLLEGE, CLINTON, N. Y. SIXTH EDITION WITH AN APPENDIX CONTAINING FULL INFLECTIONS, AND A LIST OF STRONG AND IRREGULAR VERBS iSoston ALLYN AND BACON 1894 Copyright^ 1884, by ir. P. Putnam 5 Som^ EDUCAT'Ov Copyright, 1888, by Allyn &» Bacon, PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. ^THHIS is the first thorougMy revised edition. Of the criti- cisms of this work, I have been able to accept and embody especially those of Professor A. L. Ripley, of Yale College, and of Professor Geo. O. Curme, of Cornell College (Iowa), to both of whom I express my sincere thanks. The strictures made upon my classification of nouns and upon the standard of pronunciation I do not think well founded. The classification of nouns is historical and scientific. If the best standard should finally settle upon M, jh (§ 375) for g and not upon k (surd stop), nothing would please me better. " Hard " t] except after n is a biiter pill for a North German. To the objection that the work is too con- cise, let me say that I have tried to make it concise. The Accidence and Part II. were once as large again as they are now. The first contained too much syntax, until, follow- ing the excellent method of the French grammarians, I re- solved to separate entirely inflection and syntax. I have in this edition transferred several paragraphs from Part I. to Part II. Part 11. is a historical foundation broad enough for Part I. to rest upon. It is not intended to be a minute his- torical reference-grammar for teachers and specialists only. The word-index has been very much enlarged. With the demand for the traditional list of irregular verbs, " which no IV PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. grammar should be without," I have compHed so far as to include all the irregular verbs in the word-index (see intro- ductory remarks on p. 271). I wanted to make the G.-Eng. vocabulary cover all the sentences and words, but found that it would swell the book too much. It is complete only for Part I. (see p. 271). The list of reference-books has been omitted at the sug- gestion of Prof. Ripley, It may not be out of place to enumerate the distinguishing features of the grammar : (1) the complete separation of inflection and syntax ; (2) the historical treatment of the latter, that should make it a welcome aid in the reading of 16th, 17th, and 18th century Literature ; (3) the attempt to treat German grammar with regard to the present stage of Germanic philology ; (4) the scientific analysis of German sounds and accent. The Author, PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION. I HAVE finally complied fully with tlie demand for a sepa- rate List of Strong and Irregular Verbs, and have also added more extensive inflections of substantives, adjectives, and verbs, to be used in connection with the first section of the grammar. H. C. G. B. Clinton, N. Y., April, 1893. TABLE OF CONTENTS, PAET I. SECTION 1. PAOH ACCIDENCE 1-47 Pronunciation with Alphabets 1-5 The Articles 6-7 Declension of Nouns 7-17 Declension and Comparison of the Adjective 17-21 Numerals 31-33 Pronouns * 33-30 Conjugation , 30-47 Weak Verbs 35-87 Strong Verbs 37-43 Anomalous Verbs 44-47 SECTION 2. SYNTAX. SPECIAL SYNTAX 51-130 Articles 51-55 Nouns 56-74 Gender 56-63 Singular and Plural 63-64 Cases 64-74 Adjectives 74-80 Numerals 80-83 Pronouns 83-96 Personal Pronouns , 83-85 Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns 8d VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGB Possessive Pronouns 86-88 Demonstrative Pronouns 88-91 Interrogative Pronouns ., 91-93 Relative Pronouns 93-95 Indefinite Pronouns 95-96 Vekbs 97-118 Classification of Verbs 97 Auxiliary Verbs 97-99 Modal Auxiliaries 99-102 Voice 102-104 Tenses 104^110 Moods 110-112 Infinitive 113-116 Participles. 116-118 Gerundive 118 Advekb 119 Preposition 119-130 Conjunction 130 GENERAL SYNTAX 131-152 The Simple Sentence 131-135 The Compound Sentence ... 135-147 Coordinate Sentences 135-137 Subordinate Sentences 137-147 Substantive Clauses 137-138 Adjective Clauses 139 Adverbial Clauses 140-147 WORD-ORDEll 147-154 PAET II. ADVANCED GRAMMAR A Phonology 157-193 Historical Notes on the Orthography 157-160 Analysis and Description of German Sounds 160-176 Ablaut, Umlaut 176-182 Grimm's Law, Verner's Law 182-189 Accent 189-1 93 TABLE OF CONTENTS. vil PAGE B. Historical Commentary upon the Accidence 194r-216 Noun-Declension 194-198 Adjective- Declension 198-199 Pronouns 200-208 Conjugation 203-216 C. History of the Language 217-230 Characteristics of the Germanic Languages 217 Classification of the Germanic Languages 218 Classification of the German Dialects 219-221 History of " German " 221-228 The German Wordstock 228-230 D. Wordformation 231-264 Derivation and Composition of Substantives 232-245 Derivation and Composition of Adjectives and Numerals. . 245-251 Derivation and Composition of Verbs 252-261 Derivation of Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Interjections. . 261-264 List of Abbreviations and Symbols that Require Ex- planations 265 Subject-Index 266-270 Word-Index and German-English Vocabulary 271-286 Appendix: Fuller Inflections of Substantives, Adjectives, and Verbs; and a List of Strong and Irregular Verbs.. , . o 287-314 FIRST PART FIRST SECTION. ACCIDENCE. THE GERMAN ALFHA'ig^lt •' \, > Jv' ;\: 1—2. German type. German script. Name. German type. German script. Name. 3t a ^ 33 6 S c ® b g e % f ® 9 |) ^ S t ^ J « f ? I 2«m (2^ 9le ci i ^ ^ Ue iiii ah bay tsay day (b)ay ef gay C/'^y hah yot kah el em 5^ n ^<^ £) £x q 9t r ^. U u SB IB ^^- 3 5 l^ ah-umlaut /^ (h)ai(r) -r*-^ ^ oh-umlaut oo-umlaut c/ iu ^^I.j:'^^ '"(""^Ir* oh pay koo Air es iay (t)oo fou(l) vay ix ipsilon tset tsay-hah tsay-kah es-tsay-hah (-sh) J^ROKUKOIATION. [3- PRONUNCIATION. The German sounds are here only very inaccurately represented by English words and letters. A full analysis is found in the second part, p. 160. The following description, with a few key-words, will suffice for the beginner ; but it is meant to be only a popular description. As soon as the student begins to read, he ought to study Part II., p. 160-174. 3. a as in 'Emg. father : 25ater, 3lal, 2oi% a, not in Eng., but similar to Scotch a as in Sc. hand, land: ^ann, Sanl), 4. B = Eng. 6, but surd ( =p) at the end of words: S3uk, 5. c, rf = Eng. k : (£arl, ^a(fe, 53acfer. 6. H), not in Eng., but in Scotcb as in loch. A single guttural sound. Two kinds : 1. Palatal (forward) after palatal vowels, viz. : e, i, b, ii, d, ei, eu, and in the suffix ?(^en, e, g., \6^, 2Bd(^ter, 33le^, mod)te, eu(^, ®erud)t, wei^, ^d^d^en, ^ama^en. 2. Back- guttural after the other vowels, a, 0, u, o^n, e. g., ac^, Vc^6^, So(^, 33u(^, 33auc^ (betrog in N. G-.). In (E^rfrei'tag and in foreign words =1 k : (£^ara'fter, S^or ; also like f(^ in foreign words : S^ampa'gner, (^angie'ren, (E^ance. 7. b = Eng. ^, but surd (= t) finally: ^u, bo(^, 33at), Iut>. 8. c, long, similar to Eng. a, a?/? as in pa?/, pate, rate ; short, like Eng. e, as in me^, e: gc^n, 53eet, tt>ert; e: rec^t, SBette. 9. f == Eng./; ^offett, §afen, fii^ren, ?^Iagge. 10. Q = Eng. ^, but surd (=^) finally: glauben, plagen, graben; but 2:ag, 3ug, fragte, trug, 33alg. 11. ^ = Eng. h if it stands initially : iputtt), §ofe, ^afe. After a vowel and after a t it is silent : ftel)n, fe^(e)n, fa^, t^Utt, 2:l)at, 3:^al. See the dropping of I), p. 159. 12. I similar to Eng. i : Mn, flnbe, bringe. ! or ic = Eng. ee in feet : »ier, ftegcn, ntir, fcir, 3gel, 33iber, 24] PEONUN^CIATIOl^fl, . : . 3 13. j similar to Eng. y: jung, iagen, 3iig^» 14. f, if = Eng. k: ^a^e, Bade, ^alen. 15. ( similar to Eng. I : Sage, la^en, tuo^l, @aal, Bait). 16. m = Eng. m ; 9Hol(^, @aum, f(^n?{mmen. 17. n = Eng. w. 1. Initially, finally, and before a den- tal: yf^agel, nun, fein, fen^en, ^ant, ^unb. 2. In the stem-syllable before t, and combined with g like Eng. ng in sm^, singer: ^nfang, ©attger, ?5i«gf^', ^ti«^, fenlen, feUnlen; but an^ge^fommen, 18. = Eng. 0, oa, in hold, foal : 33ote, 53oot, tot, rot, Soo^, lo^, J^on (clay), o not in Eng., but short Sc. o ; e. g.: 2Bo(^e, 2o(^, @tO(f, 9lo(f (not at all Hke Eng. stock, rock, but see p. 164). 19. ^ = like Eng. p; plagen, ^appe, 3:rap))er, ©alo'pp* ^f = p +/; ^f«nt), 5^apf, (Sumpf, tapfer. In Eng. only in accidental juxtaposition, e. g., " a cap for him," " stop for me." |i]^ ia foreign words only =/: ^^ilologie', 2;elegra'rt» 20. q always followed by u, similar to Eng. qu: quer, Duaft, Duart, bequem. 21. r unlike Eng. r. 1. Trilled: S^legen, Sflac^e, fern, %\xx{, treu. This is the standard r. 2. Uvular or guttural in N. G,, very much like the guttural (^, but sonant. 22. f, ff, §, fj =: Eng. surd s: S^au^, ^aufe, Staffer, guf, 9}?uge, fetfl ; but initially and after a vowel it begins surd and ends sonant, as in N. and M. G. Standard unsettled. But see p. 175. 23. f^ = Eng. sh (surd) : fc^tdfen, fd)en!en, ^afc^ett, ©(^(ange. 24. ft, f^ = f j^t, f j^^ initially in the standard pronuncia- tion and in S. and M. G. But in the middle and at the end of words, in N. G. also at the beginning of words = Eng. st, sp ; f(^t, fd)p : @tein, @tra§e, @tu|I, ®pag, fpriegen ; st, sp : ^aft, njiifte, berften, 3Burft, Sefpe, ^afpeln. N. G.: ©ptef, etod. *^' : /' ; '' , '' ' i '' r . \ /''\ ' c *ronukciatio:n". [25- 25. t, it) = Eng. t : ^at, !)atte, ^^at, 5fla^t. 26. u = Eng. 00 in too : iput, Sut, 33(ume, 33u^, 33u^le. u = Eng. u in pw^f ; 33utter, ftu^en, ®ulr)en, 27. ti = Eng./ in German words: 25ater, ^rei)cl, ijteL tj = German tu in foreign words: ^ita'x, i)inbtjte'ren, ^^afa'nj. 28. ttJ like Eng. v dento-labial : ^Better, SSaffer, warncit. After fi^ labio-labial like u after q, but not quite like Eng. w : ©c^tvefter, ©($mei§, Sc^meUe, But see p. 170. 29. J in foreign words and c§§^ t^f = Eng. x : Sllejfanbev, 2Cacfcg, gu(^^, pcl)fm, fec^^. t| = ii, which see. 30. 3, ^ = Eng. ts, as in cats, rats : 3w«3^/ 3^W9/ SBarje, c in foreign words before e, i, ^, a =: ^s ; cerebral, (Eafu'r, (Sifa'be, S^^flo'p; but the spelhng is unsettled: 3^9^'^^^/ S^tt^^^^^^ 3^n)n'x. 31. Modified Vowels (Umlauts). tt long = Eng. ai in fair : 3Sdter, 9ldt)er, fld'^Iern* d short = Eng. and Ger. c : ipdn^e, SSdnte, fallen. not in Eng. It has the Hp-position of o, the tongue- position of c: long in bofe, Ibfert, ^er^bge; short in ^Boiler, ^Mt, ®erbt(e. ii not in Eng. It has the lip-position of u, the tongue- position of i: long in M^k, 53tt(^er, ^ud)lein; short in ^iifler, @unt»e, 33utteL t| = ii, as in S^a'n, S^pre'jfe, only in foreign words. 32. Diphthongs. oi (rare) and ti = Eng. i in find: ^aifer, ^ai, (eife, tveif, Heiben, an = Eng. ou in /lowse ; Hau, ipau^, SJJau^. du and cu similar to Eng. oi in exploit : SRdufe, Iduten, 33eute, 37J PRONUNCIATION^: Quantity of Vowels. 33. Vowels are long in an open syllable, e. g.^ Za^^^t^, jo^gert, 33u-ct)er. They are also indicated: 1. By doubling, but only in the case of a, e, o: 'Baal, @ee(e, Woo^, 2. By t) after the vowel and after t : ^a^n, D^nt, i^tt, Zl^van, Zi^ov. 3. By c after i: lie6, Zux, ijieL 4. a and e are generally long before r, rt, xt) : mx, xax, ter, mxt, mxUn, ^axt, ^ferb. Short in fertig (< %a^xt), SGarte, ©d^arte, ^erj, ©(^merj. 34. The vowels are short before more than one consonant: ^anbeln, Bergen, ^ad^it, ®elu6t)e, ^a^m* 35. ft counts as a single consonant ; it becomes ff medially (see " Rules," § 12), e. g., glu§ — ^^luffe^, gliiffe ; fltepen — flop, gefloffen. The vowel remains long before inflectional endings, e.g., lokn, lot»f!, geloit (but ge^abtf gentoc^t) ; also in a closed syllable, when the stem- vowel stands in an open syllable under inflection, e. g., %t + hawk, ipering + herring, 3lti^ (pl- S^tiff^) pole-cat, 3ungling + youth, ^onig + king, WM salamander, S[Ronat + month. 4. Many neuters, among which monosyllabics ; those with the prefix @e-; in -nx^, -fal : ^(li 3e^ 3t^ttum^ tern S^rtumc Srrtiimer ben S^rtiimem 57. To this class belong: 1. About sixty neuter monosyllabics : tag 2lag {^^^), 33latt, ^ad^, gac^, etc. 2. All in -turn, whether masculine or neuter: tag iperjogtum, ter Sleic^tum* 3. Some mascuhnes, viz.: ter 53bfen)i(^t*, 'Dorn*, ®etft, ®ott, Seib, ?i)?ann, Drt*, 9lant, ©traud)*, 3Sormunt, Salt, 2Curm. 4. A few neuters, with the prefix ®e- : tas ©ernac^, ©emiit, (S^cfc^led^t*, ©eMt*, ©efpenfl, d^emant*. 58. Only neuters had this plural -er at first. Of the sixty sub 1, some twenty form a different plural, and usage is unset- tled; so do those sub 3 and 4 marked with a *. In the fol- lowing a distinction is made in meaning between the different forms of the plural: Subl, 2,4,- tag 33ant, 53ante, ties, 33anter, ribbons. 'Denlmat, -male, monuments, -mdler, figurative sense. 'Dtng, £)tnge, things, T)inger, coll., e. g., girls. m6^t, ®ef{d)te, visions, ©efiti^ter, faces. ®cwant, ®ewante (poetic). ©etvanter (commonly). Sant, Santc (poetic). Sdnter (commonly). Sic^t, Sit^te, candles (only). Sici^ter, lights. ©djilt, masc. ©djilte, shields, ©c^ilcer (sign-board). m\t, masc. ©tifte, pencils, (^tifter, institutions. 2uc^, 2^u(^e, kinds of cloth. 2;uc^er, cloths, shawls. 2Bort, SBorte, words (their mean- ing), SCbrter, parts of speech 62] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 13 Sub3,— ber ^^^nn, Sl'Jannen, retinue, Wanner, men. Ort, Drten, D. and G. pi. only, Drter, places, towns. 59. S^riintmer occurs in the plural only. But a weak plural Slrummern occurs in tlie classics. Singular S^runtm + thrum. »^dvi\ittn," as dative plural, is isolated in wju bcit ^aupten." Wlam was originally a co7is-Btem, *mann- (see Kluge's Diet.). The form 2)?anu in fiinfjig Wlam is the real nominative plural of the cons-stem. 5SKcnfd) was originally neuter, being an adjective 0. H. G. mennisco. T>a^ Mtn\d}, tie ?Wenfvi)er, now implies a slur, speaking of woman = strumpet (see Kluge's Diet.). SBic^t in Sofe^ tDtd}t was also once a neuter, + wight. See 431. 60. In early N. H. G. many of the neuters still occur without -er. ^inbe^ tinb werben bcine 2Berf ^reifen (B.). tinbcr unb ^inbe^ ^inb (erjci^Ien) son bent ^olf noc^ unb feinen ©c^aren (Sch.). The plural in -^ is not elegant. (SdhtU, Sungcn^, %xauini, ^xMm^ are more than colloquial, though found in the classics. This -<3 is strictly Low German, and identical with English 8. The parts of speech are used with « : bie 5lc^^, bie %btx^, bie SBenn^. Weak or n-Declension. 61. Characteristics: (e)n in the plural and also in the sin- gular of mascuhne, except the nominative. Masc. Fem. Sing. N. ter 33ote Whole sing, ^un^c G. vt^ Soten All through sing, and plu. Whole plu. ^nnQtn Only feminine and mascuhne nouns belong to this declen- sion. Like 3wnge decline all feminines, except : 1. Gutter and Zo6^kx. 2. The few in -ni5 and -fal (see 50. 1). 3. The strong of the 3d class (see 53, 2). 62. Of the masculines belong here : 1. All of two or more syllables ending in e, except ,^afc and the doubtful strong ones sub 4, 1st class (see 46). 14 DECLENSTOK OF NOUNS. [63- 2. The following wliicli generally do not show the e, which belongs to them: tier Sdr, 33auer, ^urf(^, gutrft, ^in!, ©ed, (S3efell(e), ®raf, ^ageftola, ^elt), ^;err, ipivte, 3nfaffe, ?i}^en[(^, ^o^r, 5^an*, D^fe, ^rinj, ^fau, ©pa^, ©prog, Steinme^, 2;^or (fool), 25orfa^r, 3. Many nouns of foreign origin, which are difficult to tell from strong nouns, many of them names of persons and ani- mals. They generally end in -t, ~nt, -ft, with the suffix -Qxap^, -ax^, -frat, -109(e), -nom, e. g., ^oe't, 53ant)i't, 3^raeli't, ^atrio't, Strc^ite'ft, ^ome't, ^(ane't, ^onfona'nt, Stute'nt, ^^atita'ft, 2:ele9ra'|)i ©eogra'p^, ^atria'rd?, 9JJona'rd), 5lutofra't, l^emofra't, 2lftroIo'9(e), ^^ilolo'ge, Stftrono'm, £)e!ono'm (pohte for " farmer ") ; also 3:9ra'nn. 4. Some names of nationalities in -ar, and -er, e. g., ter ll'ngar, 33ul9a'r(e), Zoia'x, S3aier, ^ommer, Gaffer* 5. The adjective used as a noun when preceded by the arti- cle (see 220). Remark.— An isolated form is now ,,auf (Srben." (Srbe was either weak or strong. But „in (5t)ren," „mtt gveuben" are old datives plural (see 434, 1). Notice the spelling llomgin, pi. tbntginnen. Mixed Declension. 63. Chanictoristics : G. sing, (e)^, the whole pi. (c)tt. Only mascuUne and neuter nouns belong to this declension, and very few have not double forms for genitive singular and for the plural. The following generally belong here: 1. 3luge, ^tii, Snbe, (55eyatter, ^cmD, Worker, ?!}?aft, mum, Dl)r, ^attto'ffel, ©c^merj, (See, (3tarf^eI, (Btaat* 9^ad)Kir, Untertlum, ^Setter sometimes retain in genitive singular the (e)n of their former declension. S3auer, peasant sub 62, 2 is sometimes classed here. I^a^ ^erj inflects G. t)e5 ^ergen^, D. bent Jpcrscn, A. ba5 ^erj; allowing for its being a neuter, which always has nominative and accusative singular alike, it really comes under 1st Class, strong, sub 4 (see 46). *3 (^merj rarely has (Scbmerjen^. Der ©porn, 64] DECLENSIOl^ OF NOUNS. 16 beg ©porng, has taken an -n in the singular, but the old weak plural ©poren is still the rule, though "Sporuen occurs. Z^xonm, borrowed in M. H. G. < Gr.-L. thronos, is very rare. The plural of X)ortt is either "Dome (old) or generally 'Dornen ; also Dbrner. The mixed declension is quite modern, and does not exist in M. H. G. 2. Foreign nouns in -or (o long and accented in the plural, short and unaccented in the singular), e. g., tier I^o'ftor, ^te 1)o!to'ren, tcr ^rofe'ffor, tie ^rofeffo'ren. Also ^n\t'tt, 3titere'ffe, 3ume'I, ©tatu't, and others. Colloquially one hears sometimes -n after nouns in -et and -er : bie §ummern, lobsters; 6tief ein, boots ; but they are not to be imitated. Declension of Foreign Nouns. 64. Those which are fully naturalized come under the declensions already treated of. It remains to speak of those not at all or partly naturalized, and their inflection is very irregular and complicated. 1. Those that retain their foreign inflection, e. g., ^i\u€ (£Wtw^/3em St)rifa; iD^ari'a, 9)^ariae; ?i}Zot)u^, pi. ?0^obi ; SajHpl- (Eafu^ ; S^erub, pi. S^erubim ; Sonto, pi. (Eonti ; @ae!ulum, pi. ©aefula; Sorb, pi. SorJg; Jiempu^, pi. 3:empora. Their number is decreasing. 2. Those which take a German plural ending, -en for instance, and do not inflect in the singular, e. g, : ba^ Drama, pi. 'Dramen ; 3:l}ema, pi. 2;l)emen ; Snbioi'Duum, pi. 3ttbioibuen. ®Iobu^, Si^t^mug. But these are also found with -i in geni- tive singular, and then come under the mixed declension. 3. Nouns whose foreign plural ended in -ia take -ten: (Stubium, pi. @tubten ; ®^mna[tum, pi. ©^mnaften. The ending of the singular may have been lost, and they have -^ in geni- tive singular, as Slboe'rb, ^Partici')), e^ Slfaffe^; tie ©^weig, Ux ©(^weij, etc. 3. Names of persons are uninflected if preceded by the arti- cle (an adjective or title between article and name makes no diff'erence), e.g.,'tt^ Rdxi, teg ^dfer^ ^arl, tern grofen ^rietncb. If the title follows the name, or if the name in the genitive, modified by an adjective, stands before the noun upon which it depends, then the name takes -i, e. g., tag 9teict| SutttJigg teg Btommen, teg gro§en grietridjg ©enerale. 4. Names of persons, places, and countries without an arti- cle take a genitive in -eg: ®oetI)e, (^oetl)eg; Snglant, (Snglantg; 2lnna, 5tnnag. But names of males ending in a sibilant, if inflected at all and an apostrophe is not preferred, and femi- nine names in -e, form a genitive in -eng, e. g., Sfflax(n^, ?^ranjeng, ^JZarieng, ©orticng. Surnames in a sibilant certainly prefer an apostrophe, e.g., ?!J?ufaug' 55oI!gmard)en, O^i^^ S3erfe, ®aufi^ Jot. Names of places in a sibilant are constructed with i^oti : tic Sfteii^gfrei^eit »on ^o'nftanj, tie 53efeftigungen »ott ^ari'g. 09] DECLENSIOI^ OF AJDECTIVES. 17 66. A dative and an accusative in -en of names of persons are liardly in use now, as e.g., ©(^illern, ®oet^en, ^lopfloden. Christian feminine names retain them more easily than masculine, e.g., ^ajl bu 2)?aricn 0efprod}en ? See 68, 3. Such genitives as 9)iuUerurt(3tag are hardly proper. 67. Plurals of names of persons are formed in various ways. The general rule is : -e for masculine and -e(n) for feminine names, e, g., ^einric^e, ^arieu ; but also 53run^ilte, Slifabete* -^ forms the plural of masculines ending in a vowel and of feminines in -a: 3{nna^, ^ugo^» 68. 1. Here also belongs the plural of surnames denoting the mem- bers of the family, formed by -^ if ending in a consonant not a sibilant ; by -(e)n if ending in a vowel or a sibilant (occurs only in familiar lan- guage however), e. g., ©teirtbruggen, the Steinbriigges ; ©u^lingi^, the Suhling family ; ^U(f^. Other endings for the plural, generally of for- eign names however, are -ne, -nen : Sato, Satone; en ecn,bic mit mtr iikrfu^ren 81] PRONOUNS. 23 .... (Uh.), 3tX)io ^ofen c i n e <5 %u^^, cut from the same cloth. „3wo Sungfern in ben bejlen Sa^ren" (Gellert). The plurals jwcie and brcie are in analogy with the strong noun and adjective declensions From 4-12 the e in the plural represents 0. H. G. i when they were i-stems, funfe < finifi. The only other case in which these numbers are inflected is the dative plural (in -en): auf aUtn SJiercn friec^en, atle S)lere »on fid) ftredfeu; mit ©ed)fcn fa^ren; ju !Drcien. Bweier, jweien are according to the adjective inflection. 80. Ordinals. The ordinals are formed from the cardinals by adding -te to the numbers from 2-19, and -fte from 20 on. (ler) erjle, + first fedjfte, + sixth giveite, 4- second )>c^^el)nte, + sixteenth tritte, + third ^tvanjigfte, + twentieth loierte, + fourth l^untertftc, + hundredth fiinfte, + fifth taufent^fte, + thousandth Their inflection is that of adjectives ; jmeiter, ter ^mik, tin 3»eitev; G. eineiJ jweiten. See 438, 1. PRONOUNS. 81. Personal Pronouns. Special forms for gender in the Common gender '. singular. I. II. III. III. Reflexive. Masc. Fem. Neuter. Sing. N. ic^ tu er fte ed G. meiner fceiner feincr feiner i^rer feiner (metn) (bcin) (fein) (fein) (fein, eg) D. mir ttr M i^m i|r i^m A. mic^ tic^ i|r ftd) m fte eiJ Plu. N. wiv fte G. unfer euer — i|rer (unfrer) (eurer) D. m^ euc^ m i^nen A. un0 eit4 fid) fie 24 PROKOUNS. [82- Tbe first and second persons and the plural of the third person are of common gendfr. The singular of the third person has a form for each ge iider. 82. In the genitive singular the longer forms in -er are common; the others are now archaic and poetic, e.g., „35ergi§^ metnnii^t" (the flower). „3(^ t)enfe !I)ein/' etc. (G.). The length- ened forms eurer, imfrer are not yet sanctioned, though common in the spoken language, and, especially eurer, not very rare in the classics, e. g., „(2Bie er) bei 2:afel (Surer felbft nidjt ac^tet" (Sch.). „I^ann ktarf e^ uuferer ni(^t„ (Sch.). The genitive singular neu- ter „ii" occurs still in certain constructions, generally called an accusative: „(Sr ^at e^ leineu ^e^( ta^ . ♦ . ."(Sch.). 3c^ 6in eg mut)e» e^ nimmt mi^ SCuuter. (See 183, 199, 2.) 83. Reflexive Pronouns. For the first and second persons the personal pronouns serve as such, e. g., ic^ fiird^te mid), wir freuen uu^, i^r f^eut eu(^. For the third person the forms are made up of the personal and the old reflexive pronouns : MaBC. and neuter. Fern. Common gender. Sing. G. feiuer (iker, pers. pron.) Plu. (i^rer, pers. pron. ) D., A. fic^ M P* 84. The reciprocal pronoun has no special form ; as such are used uu^, eu^, fic^, einan^er, meaning "each other," "one another." Ex.: 3^r fd?k(^t (M&i. 2Cnr |Uelten einankr nic^t. The Possessive Pronouns. 85. The possessive pronouns are: mein + my; tein + thy; fein,his,its; i^r, her; unfer + our; euer + 5'our; i^r, their; ^^x, your ; ber meine + mine ; ter teine + thine, etc. ; ter meinige + mine; ter fceinige + thine, etc. The}' are inflected like adjectives (see 69) ; but mein, t>ein, 87] PRONOUNS. 25 fein, iinfer, cuer, i()r, like the indefinite article (see 38), in which the nominative singnlar masculine and the nominative and ac- cusative singular neuter are uninflected, e. g. : Neuter. Feminine. Hing. N., A. mcin %yx^ fceitte 9iid)tc G. mctnc^^ 3:u(^e^ Reiner ^\^{t D. meinem %\x^t tetner 9lid^te Flu. N., A. meine %\x^tx beine 5^id)ten Gr. mciner %\xHx teiner ^^lic^ten D. meinen 3:uc()ern fceinen ^^lid^tcn For the declensiou of l)er meine, ter nieinige, see the weak adjective, 69, 2. The rest stand uninflected used predica- tively and when they follow the noun (now archaic), e. g., S3a5 metn tfl, fca^ ift tein unt) ma^ tjtxn ift, ta^ ift mein (B.). T)u baft tai^ ^erge mein fo gan^ genommen ein (Song). 86. (Suer, Sure, ©elner, ©einc are often abbreviated into ©»., ©r., ©e. : ©c. aWajcftat, (5». 9SD()tcjc&orcn. ^t^ro is archaic, «. g-., 3t)i-D ®nabcn. It is an imitation of the old G. fcevo (see 89). It does not occur before the seventeenth century. It stands for mas- culine and feminine sing, and pi. in titles: Sfiro ©Itabett, ©miltettj, 2)ur(^IaU(^t. 87. The possessive pronouns form certain compounds with wegen, l^alkn, xt)\Uix\, and glelc^en. Ex. : meinetracgen, t|rettt)egen, meinet^alkn, i^rea== gletc^cn, cure'3glcid)en. The compounds with wegen and ^alkn are really D. plu. metncn wegcn, beinen ^alben. After n sprang up the excrescent t — meinentwc(\en, beinent^alben, current in the sixteenth century. These hecame the now classical meinctwegen, belnet^alben, though the longest forms are still heard ; also meintl^al^en, even mctnt^^alkn, occur, but they are not good. SSKeinettnillen < metnentttjitten < mcinentoiEen are original accusatives, e. g., urn meinen wttten = for my sake. The origin of ifere^gleid)en, etc., is not so clear. ©leii'^en is without doubt the adjective used as a noun and governing a preceding genitive, which was at first the genitive of the personal pronoun and became later the possessive pronoun agreeing with gtei^en (M. H. G. 8%ne gelichen). But whence (5 ? Is it the genitive sign -e^ in compound nouns, Siek^^ 16rtef, ?0?itta9^ilunbe, which was looked upon as a mere connective ? (See 518, 2.) In M. H. G. was a Gen. mines, dines, which with miner, stood for 26 PRONOUNS. [88- ndn, almost exclusively before selhea. But beine^gleic^en is not old enough to connect with M. H. G. dines selbes. Other compounds with the possessive, like meine^teil^, meinerfeit^ (see 552), are clearly genitives. Demonstrative Pronouns. 88. These are : 1. kr, tie, bag + the, that ; 2. biefcr, biefe, ticfe^ + this ; jener, jene, jene^, that, + yon. The first, when used with the noun, differs only in accent and not in declen- sion from the article (see 39). When used substantively (without the noun) it declines : Masc. Fern. Neuter. Common gender. Sing. N. Ux bie "tiiii Plu. Die G. beffen beren beffen teren beg ber beg berer (ter) D. bem ber bem benen A. ten bie bag tie 89. The spelling of M^» for M^' ' is unwarranted. It implies that it is an ahbreviation of „beffen," which it is n( t. wIDero" is the O. H. G. form retained in certain phrases, as in bero ®naben. !Derentwegen, ^\ji\\Ux[, etc., are forms like meinettDe^en, etc., but rarely lose the n before t. For their explanation see 87. Masc. biefer Jener 90. Fern. biefe iene Neuter. biefeg and bieg + this jeneg + yon, that These are declined like strong adjectives, and stand adjec- tively and substantively: biefe i^^ter, biefeg 2;intenfa9, jener 33aum. 3cneg bort ift mein 33ud^. 91 Another group of demonstrative pronouns, sometimes called " determinative," consists of : Masc. Fem, bcrjenige biejenige bcrfelk biefel&e biefelMge felMge W(e) bcrfetbige feI6er, felbjl (uninnected), felbiger fold)(er) Neuter. bagjenige, the, that bagfelbe, the same bagfelbige, the same felbigeg, the same fol^(eg), 4- such 02] PRONOUKS. 27 1. The inflection of the first three is that of „ter" and a weak adjective, e. g., terjenige, fce^jenigen, temienigen, etc. Their composition is apparent, -ig is the usual adjective suffix (see 525, 1). In the 16th century ber is still separated from felb-, jen-, and earlier the latter were even declined strong, ber jener, bem felbem, but they soon followed the n declension. „X)er iene," from which wberienige" developed, becomes obsolete in the 17th century. w^DerfelMge" < wberfclbe.". Accent : be'rjemge, but berfe'lbc. 2. ©cIBer is a stereotyped form hke ijottcr, and felbfl is a geni- tive singular of [elb, M. H. G. selhes. The excrescent t appears first in the 13 th century. 3. (Sol^ is inflected like any adjective, even with -en in the genitive singular, e.g., foId)enfalI^, folc^eu ©lauben^. It may be uninflected, always if followed by ein and generally if followed by another adjective. An apostrophe after folc^ is uncalled for. (Sold) ciu ^iJlann, fol(% f(^bne 33Iumen. (Eine foldje Selei^igung !ann i(^ ni(^t »ergeffen. 21U cr folc^ee fa^ . . . . (B.). 92. Interrogative Pronouns. 2Ber + who ; ma5 + what ; meldjer -|- which ; tva^ fiir ein, what sort of. 1. 2Cer declines : Masc. and fern. Neuter. N. mx wag G. weffen, mi weffen, mi D. mm A. men tt)a^ 2Bc§ or it>ef(3: roe^ as bcfTcn t bc^. See 89. The genitive lengthened by -en like beS > beffen was not yet established in the 16th century, 5i3e<3 is now archaic, except in compounds, e.gr., we^^alb, we^wegcn. For weffent^al&eit, see beffent-, bercnt^albeit/ 87, 89. 2, 3Belc^ + which, what, declines strong. Before „ein" it is 28 PROITOUNS. [08- always, and before an adjective it is often left uninflected, also in poetry when used adjectively: SBeld) ^etiimmel (Strafen auf ! (Sch.). mi&i tin ^efii^I (R 1011). SBel^er miwxn mx e^ ? 3. 2Ca^ fiir, toa^ fiir ein, what, what kind of. ,,'din" alone is inflected like the indefinite article if used adjectively; like a strong adjective if used substantively: „2Ba^ fiir 53er9e, \va^ fiir 2Biiften ♦ . . ♦ trennen un^ tenn no(^?" (Le.). SSa^ fiir ein ^aum i(l i)ag ? 2Ca^ fiir Dinte ift tie^ ? 93. Relative Pronouns. 1. !Der, tie, bag, which, + that, who, declines like the demon- strative, but the genitive plural is never berer : Reiner fiegte nod) ter nid^t geftritten ^at (Bo.). 2. 2BeI(^er, jvelc^e, tt»elc^eg, + which, who, that, always declines strong: T)a0 33n(^, m^t^ i(^ gelefen t)abe. 3. SSer, + who, whoever. The inflection is the same as that of the interrogative: S3er eg (an(^) fet, whoever it be. 4. 3Cag, + what, whatsoever. The inflection is the same as that of the interrogative : 2Bag er (an(^) fagen ma^, no matter what he says. Indefinite Pronouns and Indefinite Numerals. 94. Slnberer, anbere, anbereg, + other, different : ber anbere, bie anbere, bag anbere, bie anberen. Declined like any adjective, used substantively and adjectively. 95. Siner, eine, eineg, + one, the numeral with its deriva- tives !ein, none, and cinige, generally only plural " some." (Sin- is always strongly inflected and stands only substan- tively. Standing adjectively it is declined like the indefinite article (see 39). With del art. : ber eine, bie einen. ^ein is inflected like the indefinite article, but standing substantively is declined leiner, feine, !ein(e)g x Reiner wlrb aU ^eifter gekren (Pro v.). 99] PRONOUNS. 29 96. (Etric^- some ; ctwa^, anything ; jver, anybody ; tt)a^, any- thing, something ; mel(^-, some, any ; einig- some. StUd^- and welc^- are always inflected strong. The singular of ctlt(i^ is rare, having the force of "tolerable," "some": mit etU(i)em Srfolge, with some success. 97. Compounds with je: jeter, every, each; jegHd», jcfcjreter (= itUv) stand adjectively and substantively; jetermann, every- body; temant), anybody; niemant), nobody. 3et)er, jegltc^, jeDweber, each, every, are declined like strong adjectives. Sfglit^ and jetmeter are not common now ; they have the same meaning. S^^^^ntann has only a genitive singu- lar in -^. 3^ '«ant> and niemanb decline : N. jemanb, G. jemant»(e)g, D. jemant'em, -ben, A. jemauben. If jeber, jegHd), jebweber are preceded by the indef. art., they are declined Uke any adjective preceded by tin, e. g. cin jeber, eine^ jebcn, eiuem jeben, einen jeben. The accusative and dative are N. H. G., taken from the adjective inflection. Though the classics are full of these cases, the best usage for the spoken language favors no case- ending for accusative and dative. 98. ^an, one, any one. It is only nominative. The other cases are made up from ein- or n?ir. 3JJan is old spelling for ^iJiann, from which in M. H. G. it was not distinguished. Its corresponding possessive is fein : ^an glaufct i^m nid)t. ^an !ann feinen eigenen ^o^jf ni<^t cffen (Prov.). 99. 5*lid)terben never takes ge-, when it is an auxihary in the passive voice, e, g., @r ift gelobt njorten. Ill] CONJUGATION. 33 Compound Tenses. 109. These are formed by means of the auxiliary verbs l^aben, fein, tverten ; the last in the future active and the whole passive; ^akn and fein in the active voice. As a matter of con- venience the simple tenses of these auxiUaries are given here. 110. PRESENT. Ind. fcu ^aft er ^at tvir ^akn fte ^aktt Suhj. laktt ^a6en Imperative. 2. sgr. ^aBe (^u) 1. p/. l^aben »ir 2 JDakt(iW ( :^akn (Sie PRESENT. Ind. t(^ tverte tu anrfl er n?irb n?ir merten i^r werbet f!e merben werbe werbejl ttjerbe tverbett mertet ttjerben PRETERIT. Ind. Subj. ^atte ^attcft ^atte ^tten ^ttet fatten ^atte ^atteft l)atte ()atten ^attet ^^dtten PRESENT. Ind. hin tnfl ift ftnt) feib ftttD PRETERIT. Inf. Pres. part., gerund. patent) Past part. PRETERIT. Ind. ttjarl), wurbe warbft, itjurbeft ttjarb, njurbe wurben murtet njurben fei feiefl fei feien feiet feien Imperative. %sg. fei (bn) 1. pi. feien n>ir ( feien ©ie Ind. n?ar njarjl n?ar njaren waret maren Subj. IV are Jtjdreft ivdre mdren mdret mdren Inf. fein Pres. part. feienb Fast part. gcwefen njiirbe wiirbefl tviirbe n?itrben wiirbet wiirben Imperative. 2. sg. n>erbe {liw) 1. pi. merben mir 2. pi. I^^^^^^M^W * t wcrben @ie i>i/. merben Pflw^ part, ujorben 111. 1. ^aten has contracted forms for the 2. and 3. pers. sing.: ^afl < hast < lialest ; ^at < hat < habet. The pret. has undergone the same contractions : |atte < hate < habete, etc. The pret. subj. has umlaut due to the influence of strong and pret.-pres. verbs. In dialect the old con- 34 COiq-TUGATION. [112- tracted forms with d, prevailing through the whole present, are still heard. In M. H. G. hciben as auxiliary has the contracted forms ; as an independent verb, the uncontracted. 3. SBerben is a regular strong verb of the 3. class. It is the only verb that has retained the two pret. vowels, generally the vowel of the sing, prevailing over that of the plural. 2Barb is more common as independent verb ; JDurbe, as auxiliary. In elevated style roarb is preferable. 112. The Perfect is formed with the present of baben or fcin and the past participle, e. g., x6^ ^ak (jetragen, I have borne; ic^ Mn Qml)nn, subj. id) fei gefa^ren, I have ridden. Perfect Infini- tive: getrageu ^aBen, gefa^ren fein, to have carried, ridden. The Pluperfect is formed with the preterit of l)akn or fein : id) ^atte gch-agen, subj. ic^ ^litte getragen, I had borne; ic^ mar gefal)ren, subj. id) mare gefa^ren, 1 had ridden. 113. The past participles without ge- accompanied by an infinitive (see 108, 1, 2), the modal auxiliaries and weak verbs which followed their analogy, form such tenses as these : 3(^ ^abe t^n ge'&en ^eipen, I have ordered him to leave. (Sie '\)abtn einen fRod ntat^en laffen, you have had a coat made or ordered a coat to be made. !Der ^nabe ^at bie Seftion nic^t lernen fonnen, the boy has not been able to learn the lesson. 6r ^at e^ nur fagen |orcn, he has only heard it said. !Dcr ^ad)hax ^at ben Settler ttrreticren laffen tooUtn (or vooUtn arretieren lafftn), my neighbor wanted to have the beggar arrested. 114. The Future ind. and subj. is formed with the present of merten and the infinitive, e. g., ic^ merbe tragen, i(^ merte fa^ren, I shall carry, ride. The Future Perfect is formed with the present of mvVcn and the perfect infinitive, e. g., ic^ tverte getragen |akn, ic^ iverte gefa^ren fein, I shall have carried, ridden. 115. The first Conditional is formed with the preterit subj. of njerten and the infinitive, e. g., i(^ miirte tragen or fal)ren, I should carry or ride. The second or perfect Conditional is formed with the pre- terit subj. of iverten and the perfect infinitive : id) iviirtc getragen 'hcibm or gefa^ren fein, I should have carried or ridden. 118] CONJUGATION. 35 Passive Voice. 116. The passive voice is formed by iverben except in the imper. The tense of the auxiliary with the past participle of the verb forms the corresponding passive tense. SBerten forms its compound tenses with fein and n?erten. Present : id) mvlc gelobt, I am praised, am being praised. Preterit : i(^ mart) or wnvU getoBt, I was praised. Perfect : ic^ Bin geloBt ivorten, I have been praised. Pluperfect ; i(^ war geloBt mortiert, I had been praised. Future : id) mxU geloBt merl>en, I shall be praised. Future perfect : id) werte gelobt ivoriDen fein, I shall have been praised. 1. Conditional : id) n?iirt)e gelobt werbcn,! should be praised. 2. or Conditional perfect : i(% wiirte gelobt njortien fein, 1 should have been praised. Imperative : fei (tn) getobt, be (thou) praised. feien ®te gelobt ) Infinitive : geloBt tuerlien, to be praised. geloBt iDOrDen fein, to have been praised. Weak Conjugation. 117. The weak conjugation forms the principal parts by suffixing -te or -ete in the preterit: lokn, lobte, retten, rcttete; by prefixing ge- and suffixing -t or -et in the past participle: geloBt, gerettet* For the simple tenses see 103, for the com- pound, 112-115. 1, Verbs of this conjugation are with few exceptions derivative verbs, and most of them can be recognized as such by certain marks of derivation, such as suffixes (-etn, -em, -tgcn, -icren, -jen, -fc^cu) or umlaut. (But there are a few strong verbs with umlaut; Iftgen, triigen, gebaren, etc.). 118. 1. The connecting vowel always stands before t, whether per- sonal suflBx (3. p. sg. and 2. p pi.) or in the participle and preterit, if the stem ends in b or t (t^); if the stem ends in nt and n, preceded by another 36 CONJUGATION. [119- consonant whicli is not m or n, e.g., cr rebct, ibr ntetbet, roir ivalteten, getrojlet, cr atttiete, ic^ jeic^nete. Those in m and n have lost an e before these consonants. Compare them with their nouns ; Sltem, QnA)in. Those in n are often treated like those in el, er, to which they really belong (see sub 3) : 3ci(^cnte, vejciite. But these forms are not elegant, 2. The connecting vowel stands in the 2. p. sg. present ind. also after stems in f, fd). p, ff, i, i^, besides the stem-endings sub 1, e.g., bu rebej^> njalteft, [d)mad)tejl, rec^nefl, reife|% fif^eft, \\>a^i\X faffefl, tuibmeft, kijif, f^u^efi. 3. Verbs in -eln and -em rarely show the connecting vowel c, e. g., ic^ ^anbeltc, er l^anbelt, geladielt, tuir Wvinberten. In the 1. p. sg. present ind. and subj., in the imperative 2. p. sg. they generally lose their own e, e.g., i^ roanhU, wanbre, fc^meid)Ie (bu). 4. In solemn diction and in poetry any verb may retain the connecting vowel. On the other hand, the poet and the people take many liberties in the omission of it (sub 1 and 2). For instance, 1)a^ neiie ^au^ ift aufge- ric^t't (Uh.). ©eib mtr gegrit^t, "befreunb^tc (3d)aren ! (Sch.). 0lcb^|lbu loon eincm ber ha le&et? (id.). ®egru§et feib mir, eble ^errn ! (?5egriipt i^r, fc^one 2)amen (G.). See F. 3216, 3557. In fact though such full forms as bu ftfd)eff, rafejl, faffejl* ^u^efl, etc., are written, one generally hears bu ftfd)t, xa^, fa^t, Jju^t, etc. This applies also to strong verbs, e. g., bu tt)afd)t, flopt, rei§t. 5. The present subj. nearly always shows full forms, but the preterit ind, and subj. have coincided : ba§ bu liekjl, i^r liebet; bap ic^ Iie(>te, rcbete. Irregular Weak Verbs. 119. There are two groups of these verbs. One has a dif- ference of vowel which looks like ablaut, the other has besides different vowels also a change in consonants. 1. The stems show nn or nb: Inf. Pret. ind. Subj. Past participle. brennen brannte brennte gebrannt fenben fanbte fenbete gefanbt Here belong brentten, + burn ; fennen, to be acquainted with, + ken; nenncn, + name; renncn, 4- run; fcnben, + send; menben, to turn, + wend, went. The last two have also a pre- terit ind. fenbete, wenbete. 121] CONJUGATION^. 37 2. The stems show nf, ng. Here belong : Inf. Pret. ind. Subj. Past participle. tenfen tadjte tac^te getad)t biinfen ( teuc^te (nciud^te) } t)Mit tcud^te geljeuc^t tiiinftc getiinft bringen bradjte hxa&)k gebrac^t Strong Conjugation. 120. Strong verbs must have different stem- vowels in the preterit and present, since in this way difference of tense is expressed. But the vowel of the past participle may coincide with that of the present, as in gekn, gab, gegeben v, fa^ren, fu^r, gefa^ren vi, l)alten, l)ielt, ge^alten vii; or with that of the preterit, as in bei§en, U% gebiffeit i, Inegen, bog, gebogen n, glimmcn, gloinm, geglommen vm. The past participle ends in -en, and has the prefix ge- e. gr., geftoMen, gerufen. For simple tenses see 103. 121. The personal suffixes are the same as in weak verbs. Compare Hebte, tiebteft, (iebte, etc.; fa^, fa^ft, fa^, etc. The imper- ative 2. p. sg. has no ending when the present ind. has inter- change of e-i, ie, e. g., i(^ bergc, tu birgft, er birgt; imp. birg ; bred)en — bricb; effen — i§. This interchange of c-i, ie occurs in in 3, IV, v; in verbs which do not have it there is no difference of stem- vowel in the imperative and the present, e. g., l)alten — ^att ; [(^njimmen — fc^mimm. But often e is added in analogy with weak verbs, always when the verb is either strong or weak, e. g., rufen — rufe vii ; fdjlagen — fc^lage vi ; always n?ebe, bewege, crwage vni. In the last group there is of course no interchange of e-i, e, g., tu bewegft, er bemegt. When the stem ends in t, -tet in the 3. p. sg. is contracted to single t, if the stem-vowel changes. M. H. G. giltet > giUH > gilt. K g., gelten — er gilt; fed^ten— er fid^t; raten, rat; but reitet, fd)neiM. Special mention is made of these peculiarities under each class and verb. The preterit subj. always has umlaut and 38 CONJUGATIOIS^. [122- tlie 1. and 3. p. sg. end in e, e. ^., id) fal), t)U fa^ft, er fat), etc. ; but id) fdk, tu |*dl)eft, er fdt)e. The verbs are best classified according to the ablaut- series. (See 393.) 122. I. Class. Ablaut : ei i, ic i, ie. 1. Division : ei i i* The stem ends in ^ (ff), f, (^, t, t)-t. Examples: ki^en, H§, geBiffen ; fd)letfett, f(!^(iff, gefd)ttffen ; fd)reiten, fdjritt, gefd^ritten; n)eid)en, tt)i(^, gewi^en; leiten, Hit, gelittcn. The following verbs belong here : ki^en, + bite ; Meid)en (intrans.), + bleach, but also weak, always when trans.; \i6) befleipen, to apply one's self; Qid6)tn, to be + like, strong since the 17th century, in the sense of + liken it is still weak, a N. H. G. distinction, M. H. G. only weak ; 9lei§en, + glitter, nothing to do with the rare gleifen < gelihsen, to deceive, or entgleifen, to run off the track < ®eleife, track ; gleiterif + glide ; greifen, to seize, + gripe ; gretnen, + grin, rare and generally weak, grinfeitf its derivative, has taken its place ; feifett; to quarrel, is strong or weak, < L. G, ; fneifeit, to pinch, L. G. > N. H. G. ; fretfd)en and frei^enf to scream, are related, both weak and strong, not H. G. ; leibeit; to suffer, + loathe ; pfeifen^ to whistle, + pipe < L, pipare ; rei§en> to tear, + write, draw ; reitertf + ride on horseback; fc^Iei^en, to sneak {+ slick and sleek); fc^Ietfen, to grind, + slip, weak in the sense of " to drag, raze" ; fd)lei^en, + slit, split ; fc^meipen, + smite, throw ; fc^neiben, to cut ; fd)reitcn, to stride ; fpleipen, + split, L. and M. G. ; ftreic^ertf to wipe, cross, + strike, etc., with very varying meanings ; jlreiten> to strive ; tt>ei(^en, to yield ; compare mid), + weak, wicker ; weak, it means to soak, soften. 2. Division : ei ie it. Examples : getei^en, geDie^, gebie^en ; reiben, rieB, gerieben. Here belong : Meiben, to remain ( + leave) ; gebei^en, to thrive, the part, has a doublet, gebte^eitf thriven, gebiegen, solid, pure ; Iei|)en, to borrow, + lend ; metbeit, to avoid ; Vteifen, + to praise, strong only since the 15th cen- tury, < ^xti^ < M. H. G. pris < O. Pr. pris < L. pr^tium, analogous to Fr. priser ; xdhtn, to rub ( + rive) ; fd)etben, to separate ; fc^einen, + shine; fc^reibenf to write ( + shrive) ; fc()retenf to scream (?) ; fc^weigen, to be silent, weak in the sense of "to still a child"; fpcten, to spit, + spew; jletgenr to climb; treibenf + to drive; miftn, to point out, in the 16th century still weak ; jei^en^ to accuse ( + indict). 125] CON-JUGATIOIT. 39 123. Notice the interchange of b-t in the first division, e.g.^ fc^netbcn, ^c^nttt, ge^ct^nitteu ; but not in the second, viz., mciben, mieb, gemieben ; jdjeiben, jctjieb, gci^ieben. (See 416.) When the stem ends in ^ or j, the 2. p. sg. present ind. is heard merely as ending in ft, whether spelt so or not. The full form -eft stands only in elevated diction, e.g., bu fc^mci^t, bei^t, beflci^t bic^ ; bu roeifeft and wetft, bu ^reiKft and preift. (See 118, 4.) Notice also the doubling of t and f in fd^reiten, f^ritt ; ftveiten, flritt; f^teifcn, fc^Iiff* etc. 124. II. Class. Ablaut : ie (ii, au) o, o o, o, 1. Division : ie (au) o " o* The stem ends in f (jj), c^, f, b-t. Examples : fticgen, flog, gefloffen ; triefen, troff, getrojfen. Here belong : verbriepen, to disgust, vex ; flieiettf + flow ( + fleet) ; giepen, to pour ; friec^eti, + to crouch, creep (?) ; geniepen, to enjoy ; riec^en, to smell, + reek ; fc^icpen, + to shoot ; fc^Iiefen, to slip, rare, supplanted by its derivative [d^Iii^^fcn; fc()lie§en, to close, lock; fprie^en, + to sprout; triefen, + to drip ; faufen, to drink (of animals); fteben, see index. 2. Division : ie, it, au o o. Examples : fliegen, flog, geflogen ; triigen, trog, getrogen ; faugen, fog, gefogeu. Here belong : 1. In ie : Megen, to bend ; Meten, to offer, + to bid ; fliegen, + to fly ; flie^en, + to flee ; frieren, + to freeze ; Hie ben, + to cleave, split ; fc^iekn, + to shove ; jliekn, to scatter ; ^erlieren, + to lose; jie^en (jog, gejogen)), to draw. 2. In ii ; furen (fiefen), + to choose ; lugen, + lie ; triigen, to deceive. 3. In au : faugen, + to suck ; fc^naukn (fc^nieten), to snort, L. and M. G.; f(feraukn, to screw (+ ?), L. G. > late M. H. G. 2., 3. pers. sg. pres. show archaic forms sometimes in eu : fleu^t, freuc^t, fleugt. (See 406.) Of those in au only faufen has umlaut, viz., fSiuffl, fiuft. The stem ending in ^, the 2. p. sg. may be bu f^le^t, genie^t. Notice the interchange of :^-g in jiel^en, jog, gejogen, but ^ is silent. (See 416.) Notice also the doubling of t : faufen, foff, etc. 125. m. Class. Ablaut : e, i a it, o» 1. Division : i a it. The stem ends in n -f cons. (l>, g, !)♦ Examples : bittfcen, banb, gebun^en; fpringeit, fprang, gefprungen* 40 CONJUGATION. [127- Here belong : binben, + to bind ; bingen, to hire, originally and still at times weak, the isolated weak past part, bebtngt is a regular adjective ; bringen, to penetrate ; ftnbeitf + to find ; gcUngen, to be successful ; flingen; to be heard, resound ; ringen, to struggle, + wring ; fc^inbcn, + to skin, pret. fd)unb ; [(^Ungctt; to twine, + sling, it also has the force of the now lost fd)Unben, to swallow ; fc^winben, to disappear ; [(^tvingen, + to swing , fingen, + to sing ; finfen, + to sink ; fpringen, + to spring ; ftinfcn, + to stink ; trinfen, + to drink ; tt»inben, + to wind ; jwingen, to force. 2. Division : t a 6. The stem ends in mm and nn. Examples : fpinnen, frann, subj. fpcinne and fpbnne, gefponnen; fdjnjimmcn, fdjmamm, fc^wdmme and fc^momme, gef^tvommen. Here belong: bcginnen, + to begin; rinnen, to flow, + run; jinnen, to think ; fc^wlmmen, + to swim ; fpinnen, -f to spin ; gcwinnen, + to win. 3. Division : e-i a o. The stem ends in I, r + cons, except trefc^en. Examples : :|elfert (Mlft), ^alf (^iilfe, I)a(fe), ge^^olfen ; merfen (wirft), warf (miirfe), geworfen. Here belong: bcrgen, to hide, + bury, burrow; Berjlen, + to burst; brefd^en, + to thrash ; gelten^ to be worth, pass for ; :^elfen> + to help ; fc^elten, + to scold ; jlerben, to die (+ starve) ; tterberben, to spoil (intrans.) ; ^tx- bcrbcn (weak), to corrupt ; wcrben, to enlist, woo ; tr>erben, to become, + worth (see 110) ; werfen, to throw ( + warp). 126. Notice the double preterits subj. (See 464, 3.) Sub 2, rinnen never has „ranne." The 3. division has generally and better ii, because you cannot tell „t;alfe" from „^elfc" by ear. CDreJci^en and berften, once belonging to the next class, have br6id>c — bva^(i^e, barfte — 66rjle. The 2. and 3. p. sg. present ind. have I instead of c. (See 403.) As to the suffix, Berj'ten has bu birft, tiirfteft, cr 6ivft; getten, bu giltft (pronounced gtlft), er gilt; aerben, bu iBirft, er rcirb; fdjelten like gelten. 127. IV. Class. Ablaut : a,e,e — i, ie a o, o. The stem contains I, r, m after or before the root-vowel. Examples: 6re6cn (brid)ft), Brac^ (brac^e), gebroi^en; fte()Ien (ftic^lft), ftal)l (ftd^Ie, ftot)le), gcftoMen, 129] CON^JUGATION'. 41 Here belong : Brec^en, + to break ; geBaren. + to bear, bring forth ; befe^len, to command ; entjjfe^len, to recommend ; erfc^rccfcn (erfc^raf), to be frightened; ne^men, to take, + nim ; fprec()en, to speak; jle(i)cm + to stick, stab ; fte^Ien, + to steal ; treffen (traf ), to bit ; fommen, fmi, gefommeu, + to come. (See 489, 1.) iBefe^lcn and empfe^len belonged to the III. Class, and have double subjunctives, Befo^te— fccfa^Ie, etc. So has [k^ten, fto^te — fta^te. The umlaut in gcfiaven is only graphic for e < e. Those in -^t and geSdven have ie in 2. and 3. p. sg. present ind. : empfieI;U, gebievt. The rest have i : triffft, fpvi^fl ; t»u fommft, ev f oiumt are quite common, but not elegant. 1^8. V. Class. Ablaut: i, ^,e — i,ie a e,e. The stem ends in any sound but a liquid. 1. Division : e,e — i, ie a ?, ?♦ Example : gekn (giebft, gibft), gab (gabe), gegeBen. Here belong : (f(m, + eat ; freffen, + eat (said of animals) ; gekn, + give ; genefen, to recover ; gefc^elicn/ to happen ; lefert; to read ; nteffen, + to measure, + mete ; fc^en, + to see ; treteit, + to tread ; vergeffen, + to for- get ; (wefen) war, getDcfen, to be, + was. 2. Division : i, ie a e, e» Here belong: bitten, bat, gekten, to ask, + bid; liegen, (ag, gelcgen, + to lie ; ft|en, fa§, gefeffen, + to sit. The form of the 2. and 3. persons sg. of the present ind. of verbs ending in ff is -^t; of those in f is ft for both persons : bu, cr i^t, wergi^t, frt^t ; bu, cr lieft. But genefcn, fcu, er geneft, has no ie, probably because genieft would have coincided with genie^t < genie^en, geno^, ii. ; bu fi^eft may be contracted > [igft, pronounced merely „fi5t." The participle of effen, viz., gegeffen, has gc- twice, because geeffen was contracted into gcffcn very early. This is now colloquial. (See F. 2838, 4415.) Notice bu trittft, ev tvitt ; bu tittcft, cr tittct. 129. VI. Class. Ablaut : a, a-a u a, a. The stem-vowel is short before more than one consonant. Example: ba(fen,(bacfp),bu!(6u!e), gekte. Here belong : bad en, + to bake, in N. G. generally weak ; fal^ren, to ride, + fare ; graben, to dig; laben, to invite, and laben, + load ; laben (strong). 12 CONJUGATION. [130- + to load, and laben (weak), to invite, have been confounded since early N, H. G.; they are of different origin ; [c^affeu (fd)uf), to create (weak, "to work ") ; fd)Ia9en, to strike, + slay ; tragen, to carry ; wac^fen, to grow, + wax ; wafc^en, + to wash ; (jlei^en), jlunb, flanb (jlitnbe, f^anbe), geilanben, + to stand, ftunb is still common in S. G. Here belonged also formerly : ^c^en (^eBfl), ^u^, gc^okn, to raise, + heave; fc^wbren (ft^tt)5r|l), f(|n)ur— fc^wor, 9ef(|rooren, + to swear. %xaQtn (fragfl), frug (but never gcfragen)* " to ask," are frequently heard ; also jagen (jagjl), iug^ "to chase." The forms are still frowned upon by gram- marians because they are "wrong," but the people use them just the same. In the 2. and 3. p. present ind. a is the rule excepting jc^offen, fct>afffl, which is under the influence of the wealj verb. Notice bu and er wadj^t, bu reafc^fl (pronounced wajc^t). Isolated participles : gemal)Ien, ground ; ma^Ieu is now weak, mal)len, ma^Ue, gema^lt, to grind ; cvl;aljen, lofty, < er^efcen, erl^oben. 130. VII. Class. Characteristic is te in the preterit, which is no ablaut, while the past participle always has the vowel of the infinitive. For convenience we make two groups. 1. Division. The seeming ablaut is : 5, a ic a, a. a before more than one consonant, ic = short i before -tig. Examples: f), ge^aucn, + to hew ; laufeit, lief, gelaufcn, to run, + leap ; ^ei^en, ^ic§, gel^etpen, to call, command, + hight j jlopen (jliep), to kick, thrust ; rufcn (rief), to call. 133] CONJUGATION. • 43 Only flo|en and generally laufcn take the umlaut: in, ev flo^t; bu I&ufjl. ©tfjeiben, once of this class, has gone into i ; „ge:^ie|ett," according to i, is some- times heard, but must still be rejected as incorrect. Of this class there are a great many isolated participles of verbs that have changed conjugation, e. g., bcfc^cibcn, modest (but IJef^ieben," ordered ") ; ge^c^roten, rough-ground ; gefaijen,+ salt ; gefpatten, " split " ; gercaljen, rolled, etc. 9iufen, ruftc, geruft is not correct. 132. VIII. Class. Characteristic is o in the preterit and past participle, long or short according to the following con- sonants. The verbs belonging here are stragglers from all the other ablaut - series. There must be therefore a number that are still afloat ; that is, according to the usage of the period in which they are taken, they be- long to their regular class or to this. Present usage in the spoken lan- guage always favors o — o, e.g., fc^tt)orcn, fc^wor, gefc^woren, vi ; brefc^eiu brcfc^, gebrofc^en* iii ; f^tUn, ^oh, ge^o'ben, vi, which have been assigned by us, however, to their proper classes. Citgen, ii, and triigett, ii, have sprung from Uegen and triegen under the influence of the nouns Siige, 2rug. They might be classed here; as also furen, ii, for fiefen ; compare the noun itur(*furjl), elector. 133. The vowels of the present may be e, i, a, a, b* The ablaut is most frequently e o o» We count here : fceHen (bettt, Mt), to bark, iii ; fe(^ten (ftc^t|l, ftd)t), + to fight, IV, III; flec^ten (flic^tfl, pronounced f[tct)jl, fli(^t), to braid, iv, iii; J)flc9en> to carry on, undertake, v, iv, in the sense of " to be accustomed/' " to care for," always weak ; melfen (meUt and milft), + to milk iii ; queUcn (quiUt), to swell, gush. Ill ; fd^eHen (f^ittt archaic), generally f(|atten the weak verb, " to resound," weak = to cause to resound, ring, iii ; fd^meljen (fc^mtljfl, fc^mitjt), + to melt, in ; \^mUtn (f(|wittt), -f to swell, in ; mUn (rotb^i), strong and weak, -i- to weave, v; bettjcgen (bewcgfl), to induce, weak = to move, v ; glimmen, to glow, in, 2 ; fUmmen» + to climb, in, 2 ; garen (gcirt), to ferment, also weak, iv ; erwagcn (erwagjl), to consider; iragen or wiegen (if ie, n), wagft, »legj!, + to weigh (-tt>agen» wtcgen, -wegen are in M. H. G. the same word, v) ; rcic^en (rad^t), + to wreak, sometimes has ro*, geroc^en, but is generally weak, iv; erlof^cn, intrans., to die out (of a flame), (erlifc^ejl, erlifc^^t), but trans. lofc^en, to extinguish, in ; verwirren, to confuse, in, is generally weak, but has an isolated participle, »erWorrctt = intricate, complicated ; fc^eren (fc^ierjl, fc^iert) + shear, iv, is sometimes weak. 44 ANOMALOUS VERBS. [134- ANOMALOUS VERBS. 1. The Preterit-Present Verbs. 134. To this group belong the modal auxiliaries and miffen* They are originally strong verbs, whose preterits are used as presents. New preterits, past participles, and infinitives were formed weak. The infinitives, the present plural, and the new strong participle have the same vowel, sometimes with an irregular umlaut : !5ttnen (inf.), Wiv tbnnen, lonnen (past part.). The different vowels' of the present in the sg. and pi. iveig, jviffen; the subjunct., with umlaut, ntag, moge; the lack of t in the 3, p. sg., er mag, are still traces of their strong conjugation. The weak preterit was formed without connecting vowel, and has umlaut in the subjunctive : mbgen, mo(^te, mbd)te, gemoc^t* (See 119, 2, and 454, 3.) The strong participle in -en stands in the compound tenses, when an infinitive depends upon the auxiUary: id) Hh^ fd)reiben miiffen, but ic^ l)abe gemu§t. An im- perative, the meaning permitting, is made up from the subjunctive, e.g., tooUt, miJcje. 135. 1. Siffen, i, to know, + to wit (wot, he wist). Inf. Pret. ind. Subj. Participles. ttiffen ttugtc wujte jj'*"^* The pres. ind. inflects: tc^ wet§, tu tt>ei§t, er mi^, tvir tviffen, it)r miff(e)t, fie miffen. Subj. : ic^ juiffe, njiffeft, tviffe, etc. Imp. : wiffe, miffft, tviffen @ie. 2. !Durfen, in, to be permitted. Laf. Pres. sg. Pret. ind. Subj. Past part. biirfen tarf burfte biirfte ■! ^.. . Pres. ind. : barf, barfjl, barf, biirfen, biirft, biirfen* Subj. : biirff, biirfeft, biirfe, etc. 136] ANOMALOUS VEEBS. 45 3. i^onnen, in, to be able, + can. Inf. Pres. eg. Pret. ind. Subj. Past part. fijnnen tann fonnte fonnte ] 2, ( ronnen Pres. ind, : tann, fannft, Unn, fbniten, etc. Subj. : fbnne, fbnneft, *5)nne, etc. Imp. : !bnne, fbnnt, lonnen en. According to ti ; from a stem '^ stand " 3. Z^nn. Pres. ind. : id) tl)uc, t)U tl)ufi, er tl)ut, mir t()un, i()r t()ut, fte tt)iitt. Subj. : id) tt)ue, bu ti)ueft, er iijm, tvir t()im, i(}r t()ut, fie tt)uen. Imp. sg.: t^u; pi., t^ut, t^un ©ie. Part.: t^uent). Pret. ind. : id^ t^at, tu t^mtft, er t^at, tt)ir t|aten, il)r tljatet, fie t^aten. Subj.: i^ t^dte, tu t^ateft, er ti^'dtt, etc. Part.: getl)att. The full forms with c of these three verbs are not used in the indica- tive. The ^ is merely graphic, and is not pronounced, e. g., i(^ geoc is not gc-l^e, but gc or gc'c. 137. The compound verbs are not inflected differently from the simple verbs. Notice the position of the separable prefix, and ge- in separable compound verbs: ic^ fd)reibe an, fi^ri^b an; imp. fd)reibe (tu) an, ic^ ^be angefc^rieben, id) werbe anfc^rei&en. The separable prefix stands apart from the verb in the simple tenses (pres. and pret.), but only in main clauses; ge-, ju- stand between prefix and verb, angefd)riekn, anjufc^reiben. Ex.: 3(^ fd)reibe, fd)riet ten 33rief ab, but tt?a^rent> id) ten ^rief abfc^rieb (dependent clause). In inseparable compounds notice the 138] ANOMALOUS VERBS. 47 participle has no ge t id) ijerfte^, »erjlant, ^aBe ijerftanben, mxU m\td)n. (See 108, 3.) 1. Notice a class of inseparable compounds derived from compound nouns. These have ge. They can be easily recognized by the chief stress falling on the first element: ha^ ^ru'^flitrf, verb frii'^pden, frit^ftucfte, gefru^fliicft, to breakfast; ber 9fta' tfc^lag, verb ra'tfci^lagen, ratfc^lagte, geratfc^lagt, to take council. 138. Additional examples of verb inflections. 1 . Strong presents with the second persons sing, and pi. of the imperative. a. ftreitett, strive, 1. ; id) ftreite, bu flreitefl, er flrettet, tvir flreiten, i^r jireitet, fie ftreiten ; ftreite, ftreitet. b. Bitten, ask, V. ; i(^ bitte, bit Mtteft, er bittet, n?ir bitten, it)r Mttet, fie Bitten ; Bitte, Bittet. c. tragen, carrjs VI. ; i(^ tra^^e, bu tragft, er tragt, tt)tr tragen, i()r traget, fie trngen ; trage, traget. d. raten, advise, VII. ; ic^ rate, bu ratft, er rtit, wir raten, i^r ratet, fte raten ; rate, ratet, 2. Reflexive verb : ftc^ fe()nen, to long. a. Present : id) fel)ne mid), bu fe()nj^ bi^, er fe^nt ftd^, wix fe^nen uni?, i()r fe^nt eu(^, fie fe()nen ftd). b. Perfect : icfe ()aBe mic^ gefe^nt, bu ^a|l bic^ gefeljnt, cr ()at ftc^ gefet)nt, wiv ^aBen uns gefe()nt, i()r ^aBt eu(^ 9efel)nt, fte ^aBen ftc^ gefe()nt. 3. Separable compound and reflexive verb : fti^ anmelben, announce one's self. a. Present : i(^ melbe mic^ an, bu melbejl bic^ an, er melbet fic^ an, wir melben un^ an, i^r melbet eu(^ an, fte melben fic^ an. b. Perfect: ic^ ^aBe mid^ angemelbet, bu ^afl bid^ angemetbet, er :^at fic^ angemelbet, wir ^aBen un^ angemelbet, i§r l)aBt eud^ angemelbet, fie ()aBen (tc^ angemelbet. FIRST PART SECOND SECTION. SYNTAX 142J SYNTAX OF THE AKTICLE. 51 SYNTAX. 139. For practical reasons we divide the Syntax into Special and General Syntax. The Special treats of the function of the word, inflected or uninflected, in a sentence. The General treats of the combination of words into a sentence, of the word-order, and of the combination of clauses into a compound sentence. It is of course difficult to keep these two divisions separate, as in fact all the differ- ent branches of grammar. Thus the separation of inflection and function, of phonol- ogy and inflection, of word-formation and syntax is a violent one. The division into special and general syntax is the custom of French grammarians, who have succeeded best in freeing their grammatical system from the strait-jacket of Latin and Greek grammars. SPECIAL SYNTAX. The parts of speech are treated here in the same order as they are in the Accidence, Syntax of the Article. 140. The use of the demonstrative pronoun as definite article is much older than that of the numeral wCin" as indefinite article. „(i\n" was used where the definite article could not stand ; hence the plural of ein 3)?ann is still 3Ji(iinner. In O. H. G. the article is still lacking ; its use spread in M. H. G. , so that now it is almost a necessity. Some General Cases of Absence of the Article. 141. Proper names, names of materials always when pre- ceded by nouns expressing quantity and measure, have no article. Ex. : ©oet^e erreic^te ein ^o'^e^ filter, ©critter fiarb »er^ |dltni^md§tg jung. S3(ei i|l weic^er aU (5)otr. din ^funt) ^ndtx. 142. No noun preceded by a genitive can take an article: Deg ^enlcn^ %([Dtn i^ gerriffen (F. 1748). Xtv alien ©otter fcnnt ®e»lntmel (G.). 52 STN^TAX OF THE ARTICLE. [143- 143. There is no article before nouns (connected by unt», iveter, no^ or unconnected) in certain set and adverbial phrases; iD an enumeration of objects belonging to the same class or genus. Ex. : ^t\\) unt) ®ut. ^au^ unt) ^of, 9Jiit @ott fiir ^bnig unt 3SaterIant). 3" @au5 unt) 33rau^» @inn unb 3Serftant) ijerlier^ i6^ fdjier (F. 2504). g^ict^t irMfc^ ift fce^ 3:^orett 3;ranl nod) ©pctfe (F. 301). ©oa ic^ mit ®rip, ^eifel, ^cber fd^reikn? (F. 1732). Ura^ne, ®ro§mutter, Wlutkx unt) §int) in bumpfer ©tube beifammen ftnt (Schwab). 3w 2;if(^, su 53ette, ^auiJ an Jpaus, @tein auf @tein, na(^ Dften, gen ©iiten, »on ^lorben (but notice m Djlen, im (Siiten, etc. 144. All pronouns exclude the article, except foI(^, man^, n>elc^, ma^ fiir, which allow an indefinite article after them, and a(I(e), which allows the definite article after it; e. g. : 2Ba^ foil all ber ©c^merj unt Suft (G.). Selc^ ein gefc^aftig 3SoIf eilt ein unt) au5 (id.). S3a^ fiir ein Sant^mann Mjl tu, 3ie @au, @tute. 1. Exceptions : nouns denoting the young of animals, diminutives, and ba^ 2Bei&, ba^ 9JJenfc() (see 59), t^a^ grauenjtmmer are neuter. Ex. : bad gerfel, Mullen, Mb, SWabc^en, ^raukin. 2. Any grammatical gender is ascribed to the names of the species without regard to sex. Neuter: bad ^fixh, bad ©(^wein, bad eit, ^rommig^ fett; i^reuntfdjaft ; tie SBiltni^, ?5aulni^; tie ^lamage, Sourage, 3. Neuter are: All in -(^en, -lein ; most in -fel, -fal, -ni^, -turn ; nearly all of the form ^e-e or ®e- without e; some in -el. Ex.: ta^ ^iintc^en, ^ndblein; ta^ Mtid, UberHeibfel; ta^ ©d)i(f^ fftl, Sabfa(; ta5 ©etac^tni^, 3Sermd(^tni^; ta^ ^onigtum, (E^riftentum (only two masc, ter 9lei(^tum and 3^t*tum); tai5 ©efilte, ©erndlte; ta^ (SeHIt, ®ef^icf ; ta0 53iintel, ©eftntel, and the S. G. diminu- tives ta^ 9lintel, 33ukl, etc. On the whole the gender of nouns has changed very little in the history of the lan- guage. Ex. of changes are: bie ©itte < O. H. G. der situ, already M. H. G. sometimes (Hu site. ®ie SSIume was O, H. G. both masc. and fern. ®ie ga^ne was O. H. G. der fano. 162. The following groups of nouns have varying genders, though some are of the same origin and have the same mean- ing. They should be fully treated in the dictionary, to which the student is referred. Only a few examples are given in each group. \st group. The same form and meaning, but double gender (m. and n.) ; ter and ba^ 5)?eter, 2;^ermome'ter, SSarome'ter, 23evci(^, ilber *ber 3;^or, fool Sl^oren ba^ Xi)cx, gate Z^oxt Gender of foreign words. 163. Foreign words retain generally the original gender : W ^eitt < L. poena, later pena ; ta^ ^(ofter < L. claustrum ; fcer Verier < L. carcer{em). Many have changed gender for various reasons. They were fully Germanized and followed German models according to ending or meaning, or they followed French (Romance) rules. Some changes are difficult to account for. 1. Examples of neuter nouns that became masculine, masculines that be- came neuter, and feminines that became neuter : ber ^alci'^, < palatium ; ber S3alfam, < balsamum ; ber Si}Jantel, < mantellum ; ber 9)reig, < pr^- tium ; ber 5)unftf < punctum. Neuter nouns in -at : ba^ ^onfula't, < con- sulatics ; ba^ %oxma' tf formatum or -us; ba§ 9tie^, < V. L. risma (f.) ; ba* ^reuj, < cruc{em) (f.). 2. Examples of nouns that have changed gender in analogy with Ger- man words similar in meaning and ending : ber Biegel, < tegula ; ber 60 SYNTAX OF THE GENDER. 164- SWarmor, marmor, n., on account of ber ©tein (see 160, 1) ; ber ^orper, < corpus, n. ; ber ^aba'^cr, < cadaver, n,, on account of ber Set5, ber Ceic^^* nam, and the many masculines in -er; bie 9?ummer/ < numerus, since bit 341. ©uropa, ©parta, 3lt^en, Zxm, now all neuter (see 160, 3). 3. Nouns in -arium, -orium, -erium, -are, became all masculine in analogy with H. G. words in -er, < cere < ari : ber Sltta'r, < altare ; ber teller, < cellarium ; ber 9)fcilter, < psaltenum; ber SBei^er, < O. H. G. wiwdri < vivarium ; ber 9)ia)ler, < It. piasira, f., < V, L. plastrum. 4. Neuter nouns, whose plural ended in -a in Gr. or L., became feminine in German from analogy with femiuines in -e, < a, and also through Romance influence : bie Stkl; < biblion, V. L. MbUa ; bie Drgel, < organum, -a; bie ^Jfriinbe, < V. L. provenda (pi.) ; bie erloren» foklb ha^ 9)?ab<^en 5lt)fd)teb na^m (Sch.). 3tM^ 3)?ab(i)cn i^^^, ba<3 »ertrteknc, bie bu gewa^It ^aft (H. and D., IV. 210). Du geknebeietc unter ben 9Beibern(B.). (Sie unglit(fli(^er, 'Bit unglucflii^e, you unhappy man, woman. The adjective therefore also agrees with the sex. i^rciulein and the diminutives of names of females have „bie" sometimes in colloquial language : bie ^^xmlm, bie (Sop^te'd>em bie !Dort(^en (Dorothy). But „3^re ^rciulein %od)Ux" is quite common and correct : 3^re %xdulm %emu§ mit einanter n?ec^feln mie eg !ann (F. 1756-8). @tillfd)n?eigent Morten fte (three persons) ^n, inum jelieg in fic^ felbfl ^uriidfe^^rte (G.). 169. When adjectives are used substantively, the mascu- line and feminine denote sex, the neuter an abstract noun or thing: Uv ®ute, bie ®ute, the good man, woman; bag ®nte, the good (abstract), ^omm^ |eraB, o ^olbe (Sd)one, unb »erla§ bein ftol^eg ©(^log (Sch.). T)u ^ajt iperrac^eg ijoa&rac^t (id.). T)ag 33o|e, bag i(^ ni(^t ti?itl, bag t^^ue id) (B.). SYNTAX OF SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 170. Names of persons and materials can take a plural only when they denote several persons, species, or kinds, viz., Cie ipeinrid^e, bie 8ert^ag, bie Die (the various kinds of oil), bie (^rdfer, bie %dk, bie ©alje^ 171. Abstract nouns do not as a rule admit of a plural, but as in English the plurals of such nouns were once quite common, viz., 50^inne, ®nabe, SBonne, ipult, S^re* Some of these plurals are left in certain phrases: in S"^ren, gu S^ren; »on ®otteg ©naben ; ju @Wben fommen (affen, to be guilty of; (Sw. (53naben ; bie .^errfc^aften. Compare Eng. thanks, loves (in Shakspere), favors, regards. 172. To the sg. -mann in composition corresponds often -I cute, pi. only, which in sense really corresponds to SJIenfc^; 9}?cnfc^cn, without regard to sex. Examples : Sbelmann — ©belleute, gentry ; Canbmann, peasant, — Canblcute, country folk : ©^emanit; married man, — S'^elcute, married people ; but the pi. S^emd'nner means " marriod men" ; ^u'^rmami — t^ut^rleutc, driv- ers, carters ; ilaufmann — ^aufleutc, merchants, etc. But S3icbermamt, hon- 177] SYNTAX OF SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 63 est man ; S^renmanm man of honor ; 8taat^mann, and a few more, form only the regular plural in -er. 173. For certain nouns which form no plural, plural compounds are used, some of wliich have also a singular. — E.g. : ba^ %tmv bie ^euer^hiinfte ber 3;ob bie 3:cbe«faIIc ber fRat bie 0tatfd)Ia9e ber T)anf bie 2)an!ra9Uti9en 174. Nouns only used in the plural are : a. Diseases : Slattern, 5S)?afcrti, 9toteIn. h. Certain dates : Dfterit, 9)ftn9flen, 2Bei^na(^ten, ^^erien, gaften, m Sod)en = in childbed. c. Names of relationship : Sltern; ®e6ruber, brothers, as ©ekitber ®rimm, the brothers Grimm, but generally only in the names of firms ; ®cfd)tvifter, brothers and sisters, rarely in the sg. = brother and sister ; other nouns as ®efilbe, Binfen, S3rleffc^aften, einfiinftc, etc. 175. Masc. and neuter nouns denoting quantity, weight, extent, preceded by numerals, stand in the singular, but fern, nouns (except ^axt) in the plural as in Eng., e.g., 6 (^\a^ ^ier, 10 5a§ SBetn; „an bie ^reimal t)uutcrttaufent) WUnn" (Song of Prince Eugene), 5 %n^ tief, 3 maxt 70 ^fenni9(c), 70 x 7 == ftcKnisig mat [Kkn mal (B.). Eeminines : 3 ^iikn keit, 10 ^lafdjen ^ort? min, 12 8tun^en. The coins, ba^ 3^^)^, ^^^ SJJoitat, 8c^ritt gener- ally stand in the plural, e. g., 50 ^fenni^e madden 5 ®rof(^en, 3 i)u!atert, 20 (S^ritte latig; yet also sing., „90 3ci^r — geBiicft jum 2;obe"; 7 ^3}iottat(e) alt; but jebn ma^ Cekn ijerloren, many lives were lost or many lost their lives. SYNTAX OF THE CASES. Nominative. 178. The nominative is the case of the subject and of direct address: SJ^eitt gveunt, tie 3citen lev ^eniangen()eit ftnD un^ ein 33u(^ mit fiekn ©iegeln (F. 575-6). *3nit eudj, §err Doctor, ju fpajieren ift e^ren^oH unt ift ©eminn (F. 941). Absolute N. 297. 179. Neuter verbs and verbs in the passive voice which govern two accusatives in the active, are construed with a predicate nominative. See 270. Such are : 1. urbe »om 23li^e getroffen. !Dicb ijon (einem) Sebienten; ^^eufet i)on 2Betk (Le.). See Prepositions, 303, 15. 7. Pariitive G., dependent upon nouns of quantity, weight, measure ; with numerals, various pronouns ; comparative and superlative. Ex. : %^\xi nir^ta (= no matter). (£r (ber 9)?antel) ^at ber S^ropfen niel^r (Le.). 9?imber S5efd)eiben^eit gcnug (id.). !Dem ret(|te fte ber ©aben "bel^e, ber SBIumen allerfc^onfte bar (Sch.). ?5unf unfer(3 Drben^ tx>aren fc^on . ♦ . be(3 fii'^nen 9)?utea Dpfcr iDorben (id.). Saffl mir ben tejlen S3ed)er 2Ceina in purem ©olbe reic^en (G.). 2)u fc^lugft bi(^ bur(^ mit ^unbert ai^tjig ^^\m burc^ i^rer 3:aufenb (Sch.). Unfer eincr fann ftd^ ba^ ni(^t leijlen, = " One like (of) us cannot afford that." 181. In the spoken language and also in the classics (excepting poetry) this partitive G. has passed into mere apposition ; especially after nouns of weight, measure ; after numerals ; after ntcl)ta, ntd)tf and the indefinite pronouns. Ex. : (£tn 9)funb %^u ; brei (Sc^effel .*^orn. Stlva^ (S(|onea, nid)ta S3i)fea, ijtel ®utea are no longer felt as genitives. The adjec- 66 SYNTAX OE THE CASES— GEKITIYE. [182- tive used as noun is governed independently of the pronoun or numeral. Ex. : Beigt be nic^t ♦ . . (B.), literally "and had nought of charity." It is supplanted by yottf au^, unter + D. See Prepositions, 303. 2Ber »on un^, unter un^ ? Genitive Dependent upon Adjectives. 182. It stands after adjectives denoting possession and interest or lack and want; fulness or emptiness; knowledge or ignorance; desire or disgust; guilt or innocence; e. g., fal)!^, H)a^ait, ftc^er, teil^aftig, wnfat)ig; Bar, *lo^; *yot(, *fatt, leer, quttt, ijerluftig; !untig, *geiDa^r, unfunbig; *mute, Begieng; fc^ulDig, lettg, etc. Ex.: X)eg hn^tn ipaber^ miite (Bii.). De^ Set6e^ Bift bu Iet)ig (id.). T)e^ (S3eric()t5 fcBuItig (B.). (^;engfte) Beciierig be^ ©tailed (H. and D., VI. 313). @te fmt) iJoU fu§en S3etn^ (B.). T)u Bift e5 bo^ jufriebett, Skitter ? (Le.). 183. The adjectives marked * and others not given admit also of the accusative. In the last illustration „e^" was felt as A., and therefore ,M^" is much more common. See Pronouns, 199, 3. E. g., 3d) Hn \>innen (F. 1908). 185. After verbs governing an A. of the person the G. of the thing stands as remoter object, such as judicial verbs, those with privative meaning, verbs of emotion ; after many reflexive verbs with meanings similar to the adjectives in 182, e.g., 3eil)en, i)ernagen,freifpre(^en, kfd^ulcigen, berauben, entlaien, entlajfen, entMnben, iiber^ckit, yerfti^ern, kle^ren, ma^nen, and others ; fid) freuen, befcie^ tten, erinnern, fc^cimen, kflei^en, erfrec^en, fic^ m^xcn. Ex. : (Stttlafft tntc^ meiner 9(^nen))rok, \6^ will eu(^ eurcr njieberum entlaffen (La). SBer fann mid^ einer ©unbe jet|en ? (B.). Senianb be*? Sanbe«J yertveifen ; eineiS S5erkec^en(S anflageii, iikrfii|)ren, etc. ©ntf(^lage bid) allcr fc^tvarjen ®ebanfcn (Le.). 2)u barfll bi^ beiner Sal}I nic^t fd)amen (Sch,). But many of these gen- itives are supplanted by auf, iikr + A., and by A. alone. 186. Certain impersonal verbs expressing feelings, which are construed with the A. of the person feeling and with the G. of the cause and object of the feeling. Ex. : @<3 efelt mtc^, e<3 reut, erl6armt, jantmert, vcrbrie^t mic^ ; e^ lo^nt fic^. •Darot) erkrmt ben ^irten bca alten l^o'^en ^crrn (Uh.). Unb brt cr ba^ 35olf fa'^c, jamnterte i^n beffelbigen (B.). But the nominative supplants here the A. of the person, and the A. the G. in the spoken language as a rule; „t^" was again felt as A. See 183. Ex.: !Da^ Qereut mic^, bauert mid^. 2)er ®ered)te er^armt fic| feine^ aJie|e« (B.). Adverbial Genitive. 187. It expresses place, time, manner, and other adverbial relations. Ex.: Place: linfer ^anh, red)ter ^anb, atter Drtem "everywhere." 3^ mij(^te (it is not likely that . . .) biefei? SBege^ foMIb nid)t wieber fomnten (Le.). Time : biefer Za^t, be^ 5lbeiib^, M^ SDlorgen^ in ber ^^rii^e." Manner: trotfnen i^u^e^, dry-shod; fle^enben %u^q^, immediately; "atx^ nunftiger SBeife, reasonably. (Sie fanien un^erric^teter ©ac^e prud, they re- turned without having accomplished their object. 68 SYKTAX OF THE CASES— DATIVE. [188- A large number of these genitives have passed into adverbs, e. g., flug^, For genitive after Prepositions, see 302. Genitive in Exclamations. 188. Interjections are followed by a genitive only when it denotes the cause or occasion of the exclamation. 2Bol)l and )t)el)(e) have often a dative of the person and a genitive of cause or origin : D te^ ^ranjofen, ter feinm 3Serftanb, ttefeS gu iikrlegen, feitt ^erg tiefe^ au fii^len ge^^abt l)at (Le.). D beg ^tucfUcben, bent eg ijergonnt ift, e i n e Suft mit eudj ju atmen (Sch.). Dative. 189. It is the case of the indirect object, less remote than the genitive. The nearer object can also stand in the dative, but is more remote than the nearer object (the direct one) in the accusative. 190. The dative stands as nearer object after intransitive verbs denoting : 1, approach and removal, similarity and dis- similarity; 2, pleasure and displeasure; 3, advantage and dis- advantage; 4, command and obedience; 5, yielding and re- sistance ; 6, belonging to, agreement, trust, etc. A large number of these verbs are compounds, viz., those with ent-, !oer-, ab-, an-, auf-, Bei-, etn-, mig-, nad)-, «or-, ijoran-, wiber-, ju-, and those with noun, adjective, or adverb: leiC> t^un, tvot)!^ njoKen, fauer mxtm, juftatten fommen, n?eig maiden, 3U teil merben, ^a^ SOort reten, "to defend," etc. 1, na^en, nad^ge^en, 6egegnen, gleid^en, al)neln, 3ufet)en, entfprec^en, tWen, entgekn, nad)ftel)en; 2, 9efaOen,batt!en, genugen,k^gen, l)ultigen, ntt^fatlen, j(^mei(^eln, laffen (to look), broken, groflen, flud)en; 3, ^elfen, n%n, bienen, betfte^en, frommen, tt?e^ren, fc^aben ; 4, geHeten, befe^Ien, pren, get)or^en, folgen ; 5, mi6^m, ttjiUfa^ren, miberfte^en, tvtberjlreBen, tro^en; 6, antmorten, emicbern, ge^ijren, eignen, Beiftimmen, gureben, trauen, glaukn, »er^ trauen. 194J SYNTAX OF THE CASES — DATIVE. 69 Ex. : !I)e^ 2ekn^ utigemifc^le j^reubc warb feincm (SterMi(^en ju teil (Scli.). ^trviflofe ^rei^eit fpric^t ben ©itten ^o^n (id.). iDu rebefl t^m ba^ Sort, anftatt t()n anjuflagen (id.). !Dae ©te^en n)irb i^m fauer, It is hard work for him to stand. 1. 2)u glcic^fl bent ®ei|l, ben bu begreifji, nic^t mir (F. 512). ®a^ jwingfl bu i^r (ber 9tatur) nic^t a& mit ^e^&eln unb mit a^, !ommt (mir auf etma^) ait, fd}autert, fd^mitttelt, traiimt, ^iemt, and many verbs in 190 can be counted here : l^em 3Sater graufet^^ (G.). Sv5 Hegt mir i)iet barait, I care much for it. X)em ^aifer tvarb'^ fawcr in ^i^' imb in ^alte (Bii.). Dative after Adjectives. 194. These have meanings similar to the verbs in 190, e. g.^ angenet)m, a()nU(^, eigen, feinb, folgfam, tienftbar, gnattg, ()olt>, 70 sy:n^tax of the cases — dative. [195- nad)teilig, »er6unten, gutragtic^, Ex.: Da^ ftel)t i^m dl)n(ic^, = that's like him. ^uc^ tvar fcer ^nfang il)ren ^Biinf^en ^otc (Sch.). 2)ie metften ftnt) mir juget^an (id.), "devoted." 195. Substitution of preposition + case, both after verbs and adjectives. ^iir, ttuff an, gegen, ukr + accusative, mit and von + dative may replace the dative : 3(| jiime auf bic^, i^ gtauk an bi(^, yertraue auf i^n; Mn freunblid) gegen bie Strmen. 2)er 5lnjug (suit) ifl fe^r paffenb fur bid), etc. 196. Verbs with unsettled constructions. With a number of verbs usage is either unsettled or the classics still show two cases, while the spoken language has settled upon one, e. g., now only e*^ baud)t mir, but e^ biinft niic^, classics have D. or A. after either. ®laukn with D. only, or an + A.; but F. 3438: 3d) glaub' \^\\ (®ott) nid)t. (£(3 efcit mir and mic^. 3)kn beja'^lt ben ^ned)t (person), ba(3 S3rot (thing), bem SBader ba^ 23rot. 3(^ rufe bir, I call out to you ; id) rufe bic^, I call you, etc. 197. The few reflexive verbs after which the reflexive j)ro- noun stands in the dative are really transitive verbs, and the pronoun is the indirect object: Sr Billet ft(^ etmaS dn, " he imag- ines something," "is conceited." 3d^ tarf mir fc^meid^eln (Le.); but see 190, sub 2: 3(^ tenfe mir t)ie (Sac^e fo. Accusative. 198. The accusative is the case of the direct object after transitive verbs, including many inseparable compounds of intransitive verbs with 6e-, ent-, er-, ux-, itx-, t)itrc^-, l)inter-, liber-, itnter-, urn- iJoU-, mieCer- ; such as Befa^ren, kfolgen, h^ feuc^ten, ent!raften, entfd^eibett, erfa^ren, erftnten, ^erlac^en, »crtreikn, gerftreuen, turc^fe'geln, Mnterge'^en, ukrfe'^en, umge'ben, ^oUbri'ngen, ttjieber^o'len. Ex.: 3^r fe^t etncn 5)?attn Wtc anbere me^r (F. 1874). S^erac^te nur SJcrnunft unb SBiffenfc^aft (F. 1851). S)ie 9fiiikn tiaben mid) »ertriekn (Folk-song). Soof ^at bie 2BeU umfegelt. S3. 3;a^Ior ^at ben %m^ iiberfe^t. 199. Two accusatives may stand, one of the person and one of the thing, after verbs meaning to ask for, to inquire, 201] SYNTAX OF THE CASES— ACCUSATIVE. U teach, to cause to do a thing or have a thing done, and simi- lar ones, e.g., fragen, le^ren, laffen, Httcn, Ex.: 2Ber le^rte M(^ btefc gemaltigen SGorte ? (Le.) Sel)re mid) t^un nad) kinem Bo^(^ gefatlen (B.) (t^un = second ace). SoUen @ie ben Strjt nid)t fommen lajfen ? 1. After fragen, Mtten, itkrreben, bereben, the two accusatives stand, as a rule, only when the accusative of the thing is a neuter pronoun, e. g., id) bitte, frage bic^ etwa^, nic^t^, »icU If the pronoun is lacking, then fragen m&j + D., Mtten urn + A., itkneben »on or ju + D. or the G, without prep- osition is the prevailing construction : ^aft bu m^ i|m gefragt ? 3c| ^afee i^n barum gebeten. :8u9en flrafen, SSunber ne^men govern an A. of the person : X)a^ nimmt mic^ Sffiunber, " I wonder at that." 2. But these pronouns, ba6, nid)t3, Biel, stand for old genitives which were felt as accusatives. The construction was : SBunber nimmt mi(^ beS or te^fcit, wonder seizes me on that account. (See 186.) Sugen is probably a G. of cause : 3emanb wegen bet Sugen ftrafen. Semen for te^ren, though found in Goethe, is wrong. 200. Notice a choice of construction in certain cases, when the personal object is further defined by another case or prep- osition and case. The verbs that concern us here are such as [(^lagert, treffen, treten, ftedjen, and similar ones. 1. Dative of the person and accusative of the affected part: 3(^ maf^e mir tie ^dnte or meitte ipattte* 2. Dative of the person and preposition + A. : 3c^ trete i^m m ten %\x% fc^lage i^m xxC^ ^efti^t. 3. Accusative of the person and preposition + A. : 553tr fc^tai^en ben ^einD anfiJ ^aupt. SGir treten tie ©flange auf ben ^opf. The choice is between 2 and 3. But 2 is preferable after intran- sitive verbs; 3 after transitives. 201. These accusatives are both object-accusatives, but after verbs meaning to name, scold, regarding, and others of similar meaning, the second accusative is a predicate or facti- tive accusative, while the first is direct object, e, g., after nennen, fd^elten, fc^im^fen, gtanben, taufen, '^eigen (trans.). 72 SYNTAX OF THE CASES — ACCUSATIVE. [202- Ex. : 3n tiefiler (Seek f(^merjt mic^ ber ©jjott ber ^remblinge, bie un^ ben 93auernabel [d)elten, " who call us by the nickname of ' peasant nobility ' " (Sch.). 2)ie 3;reue . . . ift jebem SSJlenfc^en mt ber ixMiiH SSIutfifreunb, al& il)ren dtdd)tv fii^lt er fic^ geboren (id.), ^o^ fit^le i^) mic^ benfelben, ber i^ iDvir (id.). 3^ ac^te i^n aU einen (S^renmann. 202. 1. After laffen + fetn and werben a predicate A. by attraction is found instead of tlie predicate nominative, but the latter is the prefera- ble construction, e. g., Sa§ ba^ 33ii(^lein beinen ^reunb fein (G.). Sap biefe ^alle \dh\i ))tn ©c^auplot} luerbcn (Sch.). Fiasco V. 12. W\6) lafjt ^tn erften jein. 2. For the passive construction, see 179, 2. The verbs in 199, 1, may retain the accusative (pronoun), also le^ren. This would also admit an accusative predicate noun in the passive : 2)a^ (Sc^Itmmfte, ix»a^ un^ njiberfoi^rt, ba^ werben ir>ir »om S^ag gele^irt (G.). 3c^ tx>erbe ben %mi gele^rt. But it is best to avoid all these predicate accusatives. They sound pedantic. Better say : 3(^ ^abe 2:anjunterri(^t, Xan^flunbe. 3c^ werbe imnter wieber barnac^ gefragt, barum gekten. 203. The inner or nearer object stands in the accusative called the " cognate. " The noun has the same meaning as the verb. Its idea is generally included in the verb : (Sinen guten ^ampf ^be id) gelampft (B.). (Sine ©i^lac^t Wagen, t^etfe 2;^rdttett weinen, etc. ; Garten fpielen, ®d)littf(^u^ laufen* ®ar fd^one ©piele fpieP id) mit tir (G.). 204. Notice that the noun is sometimes replaced by an indefinite pronoun, voo^i, t^, dn^, etc. Compare Eng. " to lord it," the unclassical "to come it over somebody." 5lkr bie (£iferfu(^t uBer ©panien gettiann ea bie^ntal u6er biefe polittf(^e (St)m'pat'^ie (Sch.). ©{e ®otter l^alten e(3 mit ben Za'pUr^ fien (id.) ; jt(^ wa^ rec^te^ (predate) laufen, fpringen, tanjen, "to run, etc., a great deal." Sitgen ©ie nitr etne^ auf etgene 0le(^nun9 ijor (Le.). Sd) fc^wa^e etn^ ntit (Le.). See also F. 3416. 205. After many impersonal verbs and some other verbs the logical subject stands in the accusative (see 186). The verbs denote states of the body and mind : e^ tiirftet, ()uttgert, f^ldfert, mutt^ert, txMt, ttertriegt mic^. Here belong also e^ qxU, e^ ^at, e^ fe^t, e^ gilt : ^Dergleic^en -en : novMfdj, irMfd), tagtic^, anfanglii^, tniU6>, cjoltcn, feiben, ftlkrn, glcifern ; 4, the comparatives and superlatives in 76, 2. 1. If they do stand in the predicate, they must be inflected, and the noun may be understood, e. g., bie Cieferung tfl eine jliinblic^e, not jlunbli^. For the adjectives in -en and -em, i)on + noun is substituted, e.g., ein a3e(^er »on purem ®olbe. But in poetry the adjective is found: S)er @tu^l ij! elfenBeinern (R.). 212. The attributive adjective is inflected and agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case : Wii filler ^oft unb frtf^em @^aum ^at er mid) njo^I gend^ret (Uh.). It may stand uninflected, however: 1. Before a neuter noun in N. (and A.) (very rarely before a masc. or fem.) : Wldnt 'Muittx |at mand) giilDen ©etvanb (G.). (S^ ift ein jjubelnarrifc^ 3:ier (F. 1167). Fre- quently in certain phrases like „bar ^elb", " cash " ; „auf gut mM\ Rare : ®rof ^O^ac^t unb M Stfl (Lu.). I^a^ filter ifl ein ^efli(^ ^ann (G.); „fremb unb frember @tof (F. 635.). 2. When it stands after the noun, mainly in poetry; commonly after coins, weights, and measures: Ter ipauptmann ful)rt im @^ilb cln 214] SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 75 3ftb^Ie{tt rot ijon ®oI^e unb eitten SBer wilb (Uli.). Sttt ®c^n?arm »on ©aften gro^ unt) flein (Bii.). 3^^« 5u§ r^einifd), funf ^funt) flamifc^. In prose also, when the adjective or participle has adjuncts: Dort tin gutartige^, geftttetc5 ipantel^yolf, [(^ivetgent) i)on ten iippigen griic^ten eine^ gefegneten gleif e^, tvac^fam auf ®cfe^e, Die feine 3Co^l^ t^ater maren (Sch.). 3. Of two adjectives the first stands unin- flected in certain set phrases; when the two express one idea; in poetry, very frequently in Schiller : i;;ie grof^ergogtid^ kbifd^e 9leciierung; ta5 fonigUc^ preu^ifd^e Si^tfamt, 2Ce^ tern, ber an ten miirtig alten Jpau^rat i^m rii^rt (Sch.). T)m falfd^ ijerratcrifc^en 3^at (id.). „3n bte mit wnt Brette 2Celt" (G.). Schiller has „traurig ^nftrer Slrgmo^n" ; „meltU(^ ettle ypDl)eit" ; „D ungliidfelig jammerijol^ ler Za^" ; „mtt graufam teufelifd)er Suft/' etc. 1. Sautcr, and generally eltel, both in the sense of "pure," "nothing but," also the adj. in -er, 507, 2, are undeclined : S)a^ ijl lautcr Unftrtn. effet eitel ungefauert S3rot (B.). 2)er i^ijlner 2)om. 213. The attributive adjective is inflected weak after cer- tain limiting words, viz., after the definite article and pronouns declined like it; after ein, !ein, and the possessives, excepting the N. sg. of all genders and the A. sg. neut. and fern. Ex. : ter gute Slpfel^aum (Uh. ) ; m gliidlic^en ©tunte ; gu jenem frozen ^efte; eine^ fdjbnen 2:age^; an einem (angen ^jle (Uh.); fein griine^ ^an^ (id.); eine arme ^Sduerin (N. and A. sg.); ein [eitene^ ^Ieit» (N. and A. sg.). 214. The adjective is therefore declined strong, when not uninflected (see 218) and when not preceded by any of the above limiting words, mentioned in 213, e. g., ^otte ©e^nfud^t, fii^e^ ^offen (Sch.). ©tumme fitter toter ©c^a^e (Platen ?). Also after the uninflected pronouns meld?, fo(c&, »tel, mentg, me^r, ttwa^^ nic^t^, and after uninflected numerals. Ex. : Sr gibt tern treuen ipirtcn ttianc^ Manfe^ ©tiid (piece of money) baijon (Uh.). 3BeIi^ reic^cr ^immel (G.). eff\c 3eitett aU bie unfern (Sch.). In O. H. G. the weak form was the rule ; in M. H. G., the strong in the sg. 4. After certain pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and indefinite 219J SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 77 numerals, sucli as foId)e, tvelc^e, ctnige, etlic^c, alle, manege, feine, and others, there stands in the N. and A. pi. very frequently the strong form against the rule, but rarely in the G. pi. This strong form is the older. Even after blefe and jene strong adjectives may be found in the classics. Ex. : 2)er SSlumen^cinbler ^at feine fc^one 9tofen me'^r. So ^aft bu folc^e l^alb^HxfauUt aSirnen gefauft ? After the Q. pi. jnjcier and breier the weak adjective is fre- quent, but in the spoken language these genitives are very rare : ber 5lnfauf i)on jwei neuen ^aufern or jwei neuer ^dufer, and not jtueier neuen (or -er) ^dufer. 217. If two or more adjectives hold the same relation to the noun, they have the same inflection. If the second adjective, however, be more closely related to the noun, forming a joint idea, then it usually stands in weak form in G. and D., not in N. and A It can often be formed into a compound noun, and has less accent than the first adjective : (£r traftierte un^ mit fc^led)tem roten Seine (= Siotwein); bie f^olgen blutiger bitrgerlic^en ^riege (= aSitrgerfriege). 1. After certain adjectives like folgenbcr, oBiger, erwd^nter, gebac^ter, etc., the second adjective, as a rule, is inflected weak in all cases : ©enannte^ unumjl5pltd)e S^rinji^Jf oMger anerfannte (Sa^, The Adjective in the Predicate. 218. The predicate adjective is uninflected. If it stand inflected in the predicate, the noun is supplied and the adjec- tive is looted upon as attributive: ^ie ^raft ift f(^)t?ac^, allein tie 2uft ift gro§ (F. 2203). Dein ©ef^aft ift eitt fc^iuierige^ (supply "one"); „t)e^ ^olisiften So^ ift !ein gliicflii^e^." The adjective (or participle) is also uninflected when it is an appositional or factitive predicate : 2Bir famen gliicfU^ an* «nun, fca^ ftnt) id) J)umm (F. 961). Der ®Iauk mac^t felig (B.). 219. Certain adjectives are only used predicatively. Some of these are really nouDs, like feint), frennl), ^eil, fd)at)e, not, nii^e, fc^ulD. Others, originally adjectives or past participles, have been restricted to this use, like ^b^aft, ab^olD, getroft, anftd)tig, ^ertnftig. All of them have not yet become full adjectives; and many, if with adjective form, are of late derivation : abfpcnftig, ab^olt), ahvenUg, an^ftnDig, l)antgemeirt, Ex.: Cttilie 78 SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. [220- fonnte tern ^atct)cn ni(^t feinb fein (G.). Sin f*oner Mam, cine fc^bne %xavLl ift ter Xireftor g(u(f(id) genug^i^rer l)abl)aft ^u mermen, fo ♦ ♦ ♦ (id.). 2jie ^ned)te tcuxUn l)ant)gemein, 1. In O. H. G. the adjective in the predicate is still inflected, though not always. In M. H. G. it is rarely inflected. In N. H. G. ijotter and l^alber are stereotyped strong forms used for both numbers and all gen- ders : 2)ie 9iac^t i|! ^alkr ^in (coll.) ; ,M^ 9?a(|t^ urn l^alber BwiJlf" (student song). Spotter (S(|merjett unb ^ranf^eit (B.). Substantive Use of the Adjective. 220. The adjective when used as a noun is inflected ac- cording "to the rules already given for the adjective proper : 5!}^ it ^leinem fangt man an, mit (Sro^em l)ort man anf (Prov.). t^n ©d^ivert an nteiner Sinfen (Korner). tu Srften merben Me Se^ten fein (B.). For gender see 160, 3. No inflection is the rule in certain set phrases: ®(eid) unt (S)leid) gefellt fid) gem (Prov.). 3ung unt) 3llt, (3vo^ unt ^lein, did&i unt 5lrm, tjon ^tein an, \)on 3nng anf; also in the names of languages : (Sn^lif^, ^ranjbfifd^ ; mein geliei^te^ Xentf^ (F. 1223). 2Cie l)ei§t t)ie^ anf Stalieni)^ ? Sr |at 'oon .tint) anf ^Zorwegifc^ gefonnt. Also of colors: ©riin, 33(an. 221. Usage admits of many irregularities. 1. The weak form in the plural when no article precedes as 33ebtenten» S3eamten, (S(^onen, Sungen, or rarely the strong form in the singular like any feminine noun, invariable in the sg. : ber arje (the bull's eye of a target), etc. Syntax of Comparative and Superlative. 222. These may be used just like the positive, only that the superlative is never used predicatively, i. e., uninflected, excepting allerliebft, e. g., tie 33Iume ift alterliebft* If it stands in the predicate, it is always weak, being preceded by the definite article: 'Diefer 53aum ift ter Bod^fte or ticfer Saum ift am l)0(^ften. These two should not be used indiscriminately, however, as they too generally are in the spoken language. The first is the strictly relative comparison; it can be strengthened by aller- e. g., Ux l)o^fte »on alien, ter a(lerl)0(^fte. The prepositional superlative should only be used when not so much the objects themselves or different objects are to be compared, but the same objects under different circumstances of time and place. This is generally the " absolute '* superlative, expressed by an adverbial phrase: l^er ©tarfe ift am ma(^tigften all e in (Sch.), " The strong man is most powerful standing alone, unimpeded by the weak." ^ie Spfel finl) auf ter fonnigen @eite te^ Gartens am reifften. 511^ 53oot^ 9ti(^elieu fpielte, toax ba^ 3:|eater am ijollften. 1. The "relative" superlative is generally preceded by the definite article, the " absolute " has, as a rule, ein or no article. Goethe is very fond of such an absolute superlative : ©in aflerlie^fie^ ^inb, a most lovely child. Die^ beutet auf ein fpdtejle^ (a very late) S'Jatureretgni^ (G.). Notice also : miVi bte SBenigjlen fonnen (G.), because very few know how; bcr Sitrfl, bie Sltern, bic neueren ^pxa^tn, and other examples. They show absolute comparison with the definite article. The absolute superlative is best expressed by an adverb + adjective in the positive. The more common adverbs used are : fe^r, rec^t, p(^fl, oiuperfl, uUxau^, e. g., cine §oc^fl angene'^me Uberrafc^ung, ein rec^t bummer Sunge. 223. Any adjective can be compared by -er, -efl, except those that are never used attributively (see 219) and a few whose form seems awkward, like !ned)tifd}, ^errifc^, but the latter 80 SYNTAX OF THE NUMEBALS. [224- axe not absolutely excluded. 5lt(ein, njeif ®ott, fte tvar me^r fc^ult) aU i&i {¥. 2960). 224. When two qualities belonging to the same object are compared, me^r, meniger, minDer are now used, but the classics are still full of the comparatives in -er. According to Lehmann (L. Spraclie, p. 206) Lessing uses me^r only once : 2)iefe Slui^rufungen fmb r^etorifi^er al<5 grunbUc^ (Le.). Present usage: Der ®efeHe ift weniger ^eimtM ifc^ aU bumm. 1)er Solbat if! me|r tapfer aU Hug. 225. Logically the superlative cannot be used of two objects, but it is so used much more frequently in German than in English, e. g., 3tt)ei ©ij^ne, n)o»Dn fie ben dlteflen . . . mit einem ^feile erfc^op (Le.). 1. For the conjunctions benn, o.U, after the comparative, see 333. 3. Notice the bold comparative in H, and D., IX. 311 : S'iun, i|l baS 9)leine meiner aU \moXi. Such forms as ber 2)eimgfle, etc., at the end of letters are rare. Seiber is a comparative of leib (adj.), which became a noun very early. Dfterer occurs in Lessing. SYNTAX OF THE NUMERALS. 226. The cardinals, used attributively, are mdeclinable now, except eiit, eine, ein. The G. and D. of imx and hei now and then occur still : 3^^ter S^^^^it ^unt mad^t atle S3a^r^ett futtt (Pro v.). (Here ^gmeier" shows the case; jwei ^tn^tn 5)?unt would not be clear.) 3ret or auf trei, or cin 5SierteI nac^ (iibcr) pin (all mean a quarter past two). S^ ift t>rel ^Siertcl brei or auf 229] SYNTAX OE THE NUMEEALS. 81 trci or etn 3Siertel »or trei, = a quarter of thr'^.e. S^ i(l ^alb ^hjolf, = half past eleven, on the same principle as ^ierte^alb (see 229). We can say: 20 ^IJ^inuten na&i ge^n (past ten), aii^cinjtg »cr set)n (of ten), ^er 3ug fd^rt 3 U^r 20 ^Hinuten tta(^mittagg ah. Sir mlkn um urn fiinf treffen* 227. Used substantively the cardinals are more frequently inflected, having a plural in -e (see 429) and a dative in -en^ (see 79): S^ maren i^rer fiinf (e), 3mblf(e)* 1. Colloquially this -e is very commonly used as far as 19 incl., even when the figure itself be meant, which stands in the feminine singular : 1)tcfc 3ld)t(e) tft nti^t gut gemac^t. Diefe 9?eun(e) jlel^t fd)ief. ©If ift bie ©itnbe. Slfe ukrfd)rettet bie jel)n ©ebote (Sch.). 2. ©ie ?KiGto'n, bie SBiQto'n, bie 9)Htttarbe are regular nouns, and, unlike ^Hubert and taufenbr stand in the plural after the cardinals, e.g., bict TliU Vmmi, but fiinf ^unbert, fed)^ taufenb. 2)a<3 |)uiibert, ta^ 2;aufenb are common nouns, pi.: ^unberte + hundreds, Siaufenbe + thousands: e.g., gu ^unbcr*^ ten, a hundred at a time ; ki ^unberttaufenben bie 3)Ienfc5en briicEen (Le.). 228. „Seit)e" corresponds to Eng. "both "in form and use: 3ft ^a^ ^\^^^ , both in the accusative and dative : Unt {\k) nidftcn ftc^ (D.) px unt) grii^ten fid) (A.) freunblid^ im (Spiegel (H. and D., VII. 42). SSenn ftc^ tie ^^iirften kfetoen, miiffen tie Diener ft(^ morben unb toten (Sch.). Bat if any ambiguity arises, as is frequently the case, the unvarying form einanber or the inflected einer (ber eine) ben anbern referring to masc. nouns, bie eine bte anbere referring to fem. nouns, bie einen bie anbern pi. of both, are used instead of them and even, though tautologically, in addition to them. Ex.: unb Itekn un^ unter einanber (B.). (5te fpotten ber eine be^ anbern. Syntax of the Possessive Pronouns. 239. The possessive pronoun used adjectively agrees with the noun like any other adjective. See 212. The uninflected forms mein, tein, fein stand in the predicate and can be subjects only when used as nouns with or without the article, e. g., ^txn unb !Dein ift alle^ 3anfe^ Urfprung (Prov.). 1. Standing in the predicate, therefore, it is right to say : ^a« S3u(^ tfl ntein> mtm^, ba^ nieine, ba^ nteinige. As subjects referring to ba^ S3uc^ : 5Weine^, ba<3 metnc, ba^ meintge if! tjerloren, = mine is lost. 2. Care should be taken that the right possessive be used when per- sons are addressed with beren G. sg. fern, and G. pi., are used when they have the force of possessives (see 242). c. The present usage favors berer, G. pi., referring to persons and beren, beffen referring to things. But the classics do not agree with this. Gen- erally these forms are antecedents of relative pronouns. Ex. : 3e^o fag' mir ba^ ©nbe berer, bie »on %xm fe^rten (G.). ^at ba^ ^inb fd)on Ba^ne? ©^ %o^i beren »ier. S)ort fte|t man bie ©liter berer (of the gentlemen, lords) »on SBebelo^. 2. The lengthened forms in -en and -er sprang up as early as the 15th century both in the article and in the pronoun. Luther has „t)enen," D. pi,, but the short genitives „t)e§" and ,,t)ev." In the 18th century they lost -cv and -en again, owing, no doubt, to the desire of distinguishing between article and demonstrative, and between the sub- stantive and adjective uses of the latter, Goethe has still ,,unb won benen SOJenjc^en bie fie 6efonber8 f^afeen." Present usage, however, requires the short forms of the pro- noun, when used adjectively, .3. Notice the frequent emphatic force of the pronoun, e. g., ^Som Sie^te, ba§ ntit un8 geborcn ift, ton b e m ift leiber nie bie grage (F. 1978-9). Di efer, jener, 245. '^\t\ix points out what is near in time and space, jener what is remoter. Ijiefcr is "the latter," jener, "the former." They are used substantively and adjectively : l^iefe^ jitnge ^rauenjimmer ^at ©efii^l unb @timnte (Le.). !Diefer tvill'5 troden, lua^ jener \t\x^i begekt* Dieg 33Iatt :^ier — ^iefe^ njillft Du geltenD mad)en? (Sch.). 1. 2)a<3, bie(3 like t^, but less frequently, can be the indefinite subjects of neuter verbs. See 236. E. g., !Da« ijl bie ^Wagb be^ S^ac^^ar^. !Da^ ijl cin weifer Skater, ber fein eigen tinb fennt (Sch.). ©ie^ if^ bie %x\, ntit |)exen um== jugel^n (F. 2518). The verb may be in the pi. See 313, 3. ^ie^ unb ba«, bie^ unb fene^ have the force of ^irgcnb ein," e.g., SBir ftnb m&ji me|r Beim erflen ®la^, brum benfen wir gem an biea unb ba^ (Song). Unb er flrecfte al^ ^nak bie |)anbe nic^t au^ nac^ biefem unb jenem (H. and D. V. 64). 3. S)iefer is strengthened by ^ter ; ber, jener and ba^ by ba, e.g., SWit bent ba t»erben ©ie nic^t fertig (Sch,). 3ener, in the sense of " the other " and 90 SYKTAX OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PEOIS^OUK. [246- " to come,'' „in iener Beit", in jenem Seben. ©^affpere^^ ©efpenjl fommt toxxUxdj flU(5 iener SBelt (Le.). 246. Wlien not referring to persons ^ier + preposition may take the place of tiefer, and ^a + jpreposition the place of feer and jener, e.g., SBer fonft ift [(^ulD taran aiv il)r in 2Bien ? (Sch.). Da\jon f^weigt te^ Sanger^ ipbflic^leit (?). ^iernacb (according to this) mu§ tie Se^art eine gang antere gewefcn fein* 1. Notice tlie two strong forms in Lessing's ^Ui^ biefcsg, feine ©rftnbungen unt) bie ^i|lori[c()en SS)?aterialien, fnetet er benn in eincn fein langen, fein fd)tner ju faf^ fenbeu Dloman pfammen. For an ha^, toa^ . . . , »on bem, txta^ ... no baran n)a!3 . . .,bai)onwa^ . . . should be substituted, though this is done colloquially. «2Bir ba(|ten baran, toa^ bu jel^t anfangen ix>iirbeft" is not elegant. 247. T) e r-, He-, t a j e n i g e is generally used substan- tively followed by a relative clause or a genitive. Used adjec- tively it stands for Jer, tie, ta^ when a relative clause follows, e. g., tieienigen ^SJlenfc^en, weld)e . . . The best usage accents ter, tie, ta^. Used adjectively it has only medium stress. Ex. : ^Diejenigen ber ^nakn, wel(^e il)re SlnfgaBcn nic^t gentai^t fatten, mupten Hcic^ft^en (stay after school), ^xz^it bieienigen, n?el(^e eu^ verfolgen (B.). 248. T) e r-, b i e-, t a f f c ( t e denotes identity. It refers to something known or mentioned. It is used equally well substantively or adjectively. It can be strengthened by „c(^en'': '^xi aller 3:rene ijewenr' \6^ cnre (Saben; ter 2:;urfti9e foil \\^ terfelben erfreuen (H. and D. II., 74-5). 1. 2)er ncimltc^e also denotes identity, but is not written as one word. »!I)erfelM9e" is rarer than berfelk. 3Bar bn^ nic^t ber S)icnftmann (porter),ber bie 5lu^tt)anberer betrogen ^i ? !S)er namlid)e. 3. @eIMg without ber is rare, e.g., (Selbige^ wei^ td^ gett^ip (Heyse). 249. m (S^eg) jetgt mix an, ten id) ijermag ^u gct)en (Sch.). 2Bo njar tie Ukriegung, aU mir ♦ . ♦ foli^e ^a(^t gelegt in foI(^e ipant (id.). 1. The use of folcf) for the personal pronoun or ber-/ bie-, baffel&e is not good although found now and then in the classics, e. g. , ^l^ fte bie 9)100^^ l^utte errei(^ten, fanben fte [old)e auf ba^ tufttgfle (see 300, 2) au^gefc^miicft (G.). 2. For folc^ eitt, fo ein is a frequent equivalent. It is more common in the spoken language than folc^ ein. Lessing and Goethe are very fond of it, e.g., ©0 ein ^i(^ter ijl (5^a!fpere unb ©^affpere fajl ganj aUein (Le.). 3c^ fann mi^ nic^t, tuie fo ein 2Bort^elb, fo ein Sugenbfc^ttjci^er, an meinem 2Bitten war* men nnb ©ebanfen (Sch.). „©o ein" does not come from ,,So\6) ein," but from ein fo before adjective and noun : „ettt fo :^o:^er Surm"— „fD ein ^o^er %uxxa," then „fD etn SEutm." Syntax of the Interrogative Pronoun. 251. SB e r, + " who," " which," and w a 5, + '* what," are used substantively only: 2Ba^ fiimmcrt e^ tie Motrin, ter man tie 3ungen raubt,in tveffen SBalte fte t^riiUt (Le.). 5^un, men liefcen jmei 92 SYNTAX OF THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. [253- »on eu(^ am meiften (id.)o 2Ca^ i(l ber langen 3(lebe furjer (Sinn ? (Sch.). 1. Once the genitive after mx and was^ was common. 2Ber is almost entirely supplanted by ml^tx, and »a^ by it>ao fitr etn» But toa^ + geni- tive, which generally looks like an accusative, still remains in phrases like 2Ba^ Sunber(a) (Le.). SBa^ be^ Xtn\d^, ma^ ^enfer^. 2Ba^ x)l 3Bei^e^ bort am griinen 2Balbe (G.). See 181, 188. 2. 2Bem only refers to persons. When it refers to things or whole sentences JX)o(r) + preposition is substituted. SSo^u ber Sarm ? (F. 1322). SCoran erfennft bu ben 2)ieB, 2Bor before a vowel, wo before a consonant. 3. In the spoken language „n>a^" is preceded by a preposition that does not govern the accusative ; ju toa^, mit Was^; but ttjomit, tt»o^u are pref- erable. The classics have it too. Even fiir toa^, urn toa^, bur(|> tt>aig are supplanted by iDofiir, t»orum, tt)oburd&* 3u tt)a^ bie ^^offe? (G.) SDlit twag fann i(^ aufrvarten ? 4. 2Ba^ in the sense of voaxnm and wie is originally an absolute accusa- tive, e. g., S5ai3 j^e^t t^r unb lec^t bie ^cinbe in (= in ben) (Sc^op (Scb.). 2Ba(3 wirb ba$ |)erj bir fc^wer (F. 2720). 5. Mark the interrogative adverbs: Wo, + where; wanttf + when ; n)te, + how ; WD(r)- with preposition ; wavuntr + wherefore, + why, only interrogative. For their etymology see 551. 252. 2B e I (^ means + " whicli " and singles out the indi- vidual, though etymologically it inquires after the quahty. It stands adjectively and substantively: Unb lueld^er ift^^, ben ^\x (tm meiften Uebft? (Sch.). 2Ce(^e^ Unge^eure ^xximi \i)x mix an? (id.). In exclamatory sentences welc^ is originally interrogative, often fol- lowed by ein : Sel^ ein 3u:&eln, welc^ ein ©ingen ivirb in unferm ^aufe fein ! (Song). See F. 742. 253. 5Bag fitr, tt>a^ fitr ein inquires after the nature and qualities of a person or thing. 2Ga^ fitr always stands adjectively, wag fitr ein adjectively and substantively. 2Bag is separable from fiir ein. Lessing is particularly fond of this separation. SSa^ fitr stands before the singular of a noun 256] SYNTAX OF THE RELATIVE PROKOUNS. 93 denoting material and before a collective noun; before tbe plural of any noun. 2Ba^ fiir ein inquires also after an indi- vidual. Ex. : Sa^ fiir Sein tfl bte^ ? 2Ba^ fiir 33erge , . . trenneu un^ benn no(^ ? Cu.e.). Wa^ in fda^lon id) bir fiir einen fc^iinen ©toff gcfaitft (id.). Syntax of the Relative Pronouns. 254. There being no original relative pronouns, the other pronouns were nsea as Hiich or conjunctions like so, dar, da, unde (see below) connected coordinate sentences, one of which later became subordinate. The first pronoun used as a relative was bcr, ^te, baS, in O. H. G. SSct^er, wev, waS developed into relative pronouns gradually. First Ihey were made indefinite pronouns by means of the particle so, O. H. G. so hwelich{so), -«o hwer(so), so hwas{so) > M. H. G. swelich^ swer^ swas = whosoever, whatsoever > ^. H. G. irelc^ev, wev, xoai, which can be strengthened by nur, auc^, tmmer (= ever). To oay therefore that, the interrogative is used as the relative is hardly correct, though, no doubt, the indirect question had its influence in the coincidence of the forms of the interrogative and indefinite relative pronouns. The demonstrative bev, bie, baS intro- fremter @toff fid) an (F. 634-5). 1. (£r, wer; ber 3D?ann wer; ber, mx are impossible. But Goethe has (in the" Walpurgisnacht'^), F. 3964: (Bo (£()re bem, n)em (£^re geMilrt. The proverb says : «S^rc,bem (£|re ge^u^rt," the Bible „(£^rc,bem bie d^xt QiH^xt." 2. SBae referring to a substantive and Yotl^t^ referring to a whole clause are not present usage, though the classics use them so. 1)k 5llten fanntcn ba^ ^^ing nic^t, \va^ ttjir ^Dtlid)felt ncnncn (Le.). ^cn friiljcr Sugcnb an ^attc mir unb metner ai man mi^, fann man nic^t hauc^en (F. 1066-7). ^^rit^ iibt ftd), iwa^ cin SJJeifler ivcrben Witt (Sch). For the gender in this illustration see 168. 4. The old short form m^ is now archaic except in lu e ^ | a I b, tt) e ^== W e 9 c n t S[Be^ SBrot id) effe, be^ Cieb tc^ jtnge (Prov.). 257. If the dative and accusative, governed by a preposi- tion, do not refer to a person, m, now rarely t)a, with that preposition, are generally substituted : 5*lid)t^ ift 3wf«U ; am irenigften ba^, tvoijon bie 5tbfid)t fo !(ar in Me 5tucien leud^tet (Le.). 1. r" has lost „unb'' and stands for einige unb »ierjig Sa^r, forty (and) odd years. 260. Sin, e t w a ^, m a ^, w e r, i c m a n b, w e I (^ c, e i n i (^ e can be strengthened by irgent (compounded of io -f /ii^ar and gin r:= "ever," " v/here," ''you please," <7m corresponding to L. -cun). For the origin of ma^, mx, m\6^, see 254. 3td), ivenn \^ tixo^^i auf tic^ fijnnte ! " if I could influence you at all (F. 3423). n<\^ anber^ fnd)e ^u Beginncn (F. 1383). %k 3^9^ ift bod) immer tva^ unb etne %.xi »on ^rieg (G.). ipier finb ^irfd)en gu »cr^ faufen. SBitlft bu n?elc^e? ipaft bu irgenb ma^ ijerloren? 1 . They stand generally only in the nominative and accusative. (Sinig is rare in the singular, and for it irgenb ein is better used. 261. '21 1 {-. The following examples show the many vari- ous forms of aE- : all "i^Ci^ (^etb, aU be^ ®i\u^, aUe^ ba^ ®elb, m^ foil ba^ alles; ? Mt fangcn, 2(Uc ^}}?enfii)cn miiffen fterbeu. 96 SYNTAX OF THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. [262- 1. Slffe stood ill M. H. G. only after prepositions as still now, e. g,, ki atte bem, " withal." 3Kir ivirb »on alle bem fo bumm (F. 1946). The form alle before the article and not preceded by a preposition, though very com- mon in the classics and in the spoken language, is not so good as aH or att with strong endings, e.g., 5ttt bcr (Sc^merj (G.). 91II or allc in such pJirases as ber SBein i|l all, " there is no more wine," has hardly been satis- factorily explained yet. 2. Notice the following meanings ; 3tffe rt feine ^di, ©otteig iBiel) in (Stvigfeit (Hymn). The singular in the sense of Eng. " all " is archaic, alien 2B inter (Logau, quoted in Grimm's Diet.), all winter. For all day, all night, we say best bie ganje 9lad)t, ben ganjen 2;ag. Notice also in aHer ^5ru^, " very early," in aller ©tttte, in aHe Selt. 3. The plural of jeber, iebweber, jcglidjer is rare. It is expressed by /,alle." Even the singular of the last two is now archaic and rare. 262. ^ a n ($ e r does not differ from the Eng. " many " in use and force. Compare etn mandser, mand) etner, mandjer gute ^ann, manc^ ein guter SJJann, manege fc^one 33tumc. 263. 35 i e I and n) e n i g, denoting the individual and used substantively denoting persons, must be inflected ; if they denote an indefinite number, quantity, mass, they are gener- ally uninflected. ttnxi ^iele finfc krufen, aber luentge [Inb au^er^ ivd^(et (B.). ^iel no^ ^aft bu ijon mir ^u ^oren (Sch.). ^xoox mei§ id) oiel, tod) mi3d)te \^ atle^ ivijyen (F. 601). S^ ftubieren del 2lmert^ faner in Deutfc^lanb* 1. 33ieler, -c, -eg denotes "various sorts," e.g., ijteler Sein; in composi- tion 5)ielerlei SSetn, "many kinds of wine." A ftiller treatment of the large number of indefinite pronouns and numerals belongs rather to the Dictionary. 265] SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 97 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. Classification of Verbs. 264. According to meaning and construction the verbs may be variously divided : 1, into independent verbs; 2, into the small class of tense auxiliaries and the modal auxiliaries. See 267. Again: 1, into personal verbs, which can have any person, the 1., 2., or 3., as subject; 2, into impersonal verbs, which have the indefinite subject e^, „e5 iti^net." See 236. The personal verbs again divide: 1, into neuter or subjective verbs, as tie ©onne fi^etnt (see 179); 2, transitive or objective verbs, the direct object of which stands in the accusative (transitive proper, see 198) or in the genitive or dative (called also in trans., see 184, 190). As subdivisions of transitive verbs may be regarded : 1, the reflexive verbs; 2, the causative. The reflexives again : 1, into reflexives proper, which occur only as reflexives, e.g., ft^ gramen, to pine; f{(^ erbarmen, to feel pity; 2, into both transitive and intransitive verbs used re- flexively, e. g., ft(^ tvafd^en, ftdj ijereinen, ft(^ tot lai^en. The pronoun is always in the accusative, but see 197. 1. Transitive verbs have often intransitive or neuter force, but there can be no direct object then, ©a^ 9)ferb jte^t ben SBagen, but T)k SBoIfen Xte|en ant ^imniel. Personal verbs can also be used without a logfical sub- ject: S)ag Staffer rauf(^t, but ©a raufc^t tm 9lo|ve. Also the modal auxilia- ries occur still as independent verbs ; ^a^ fott bas? ? but SBo^itt foE ber t)ui gep^tet feitt ? See 267. Syntax of the Auxiliaries. I. § a B e n and f e i n . 265. ^ a 6 e n forms the compound tenses, active voice : 1. Of all transitive verbs : ic^ ^aBe getragen, i(^ ^ak Bebedt, i^ |abe angeHagt. 98 sy:n^tax of the verb— auxiliaries. [266^ 2. Of the modal auxiliaries, of reflexive and impersonal verbs proper, ^r i^at e^ nicbt gemot^t, l)at fid? geiuafc^en, e^ kt gmgnct, e^ ^at micb gereut, 3. Of intransitive verbs which have no direct object, at most the object in the G. or D. @r ^ttc mein gefpottet, cr I)at mir gefdjaDet, er Ijattc gelai^t, geiveint, gejWafen* 4. Of (intransitive) verbs of motion when the mere action within a certain space, the effort, and its extent are to be emphasized, without reference to direction, point of depar- ture or destination. %. yon ipumBoltt l^at i?iel gereift, = was a great traveler. Xer ©tallfned)! Ijat eine ©tunte ^in unt ^er gerittcn. Sr ^tte in S3ten 3el)n 3^^1*0 gefat)ren (Le.). ^aS Sammc^cn l)at gel)upft, t)er gifc^ l)at gcfd^wommcn. Xa^ ^leine (the httle one) i)at no(^ nie gegaitgcn (has never walked). (So|jl)ie l)at geflettert unt> fi^ Die ©d)iirge gcrriffen. X;er ©c^nelllaufer ^at fdjon langft gclaufcn (finished running long ago). Good usage favors: 'Die Ut)r Ijat ciiimal gegangen, ahx je^t ftel)t fie ftid. Tie SHiible, Ue 9)^afd)ine, ta^ Stat) l)at gegangen, but ift is frequently used. 5. Of fi^cn, fte^en, liegen, anfangen, beginnen, anf^bren. But in S. G. fein is more common and it is also found in the classics. 3Bo l)aU i^r gefeffen, geftanten ? SSann ijat Die (Sd)nle angefangen ? 266. @ ein forms the compound tenses: 1. Of all verbs of motion, except some, which take ^kn, when action simply is denoted. See 265, 4. These take fein when the direction, points of departure, destination and ar- rival are mentioned. These circumstances are often expressed by inseparable and separable prefixes in compound verbs. Ex. : „1)er ^ai ift gefommen." (£r wivo gefatlen fein, = he proba- bly fell. 2Bir fmD fd)nc(I ^inabgeftiegen* Die (5eefal)rer pnt) auf fcer 3nfel 8!i^e getantet. Die ©torc^e fmb nad) ©iiten ge^ogen. Der @ta(I!nec^t ift in einer ©tnnbe ^in unD ^er geritten, = he rode to a certain place (there) and back. Die geinDe fint entflo^en, cnt^ laufen, eingetroffen. Sir finD fd)on mel)rerc SJiate nmgcgogen (moved). 267] SYNTAX OF THE VERB— AUXILIAKIES. 99 2. Of certain verbs denoting a springing into being or pass- ing away, a transition and development, growth and decay, often expressed by er-, ijcr-, jer-, and separable prefixes. 'Lu Wild) ift gefroren (< gefrieren, but e^ bat gefroren < frieren, there was a frost). Da^ er ware nid)t geftorkn." X;a^ Saumd}cn ift geitjad)fen» Xic reid)en Seute fint) im ^riege ijerarmt, 2^a5 Sidjt ift erlof^en. I^ie ©c^ale ift gcfpruttgen (cracked). Ter Sekling tuar eingefd)lafen (had fallen asleep). In the compound verbs it is just this prefix that called for fein* Compare trinlen — ertrinfen, f(^eitteu — er;; f(^einen, ma(^en — ernjad^en, ^uttgern — ^erl)ungern, frieren — erfrieren, 3. Of fein, bleiben, begegnen, folgen, gelingen, gefd?e^en, gliiden, for which it is hard to account by meaning, but see 283, 2. Ex.: S^ ift i^m nidt gelungen, gegtiidt* T)a^ ift fdon alleg tagewcfen. Sin filler 2:roft ifl it)m gebliebcn (Sch.). 4. §aljen has gained upon feiii in German, but not so much as English " to have " upon " to be." gcLjen and tcgcgncn were once genei-ally compounded with ^atcn. Also the ten- dency to use intransitive verbs as transitives, so strong in Eng., has increased in Ger- man. While in Eng. one can " run " a locomotive, a sewing machine, a train, a ship, in German fii:^ren, leiten, in ®ang tringen, get>raucl)cn, or the verb of motion + lajfcu or tnac^en, will have to be used. ®er ^utf^er f)at un§ fd^neQ getal^rcn. ®er ipoftittion Ijat ben SBagen worgefa^ren. 90?an lonnte tie geuer^prii^e ni(^t in ®ang bringen. 5. The difllculty as to the use of i)aiin and fein lies after all mainly in the way in which a verb is used, transitively or intransitively, and in the meaning. Tlie student should attend particularly to these points and not be too timid, as in many cases usage is by no means settled. As to the omission of I^aBen and fein in dependent clauses, see 346. II. Special Uses of the Modal Auxiliakies. This subject belongs really rather to the Dictionary, but the appreciation and trans^ lation of these verbs is so difficult that a brief treatment of them is given here. 4 267. 1. ^ 5 n n e n denotes ability : 2)er %x\^ farm fd)t»tmmen. ^ier |lc^^ t(^, tc^ Um nic^t anber^ (Lu.). Possibility : 3^r tonntet i^r 2Berfjieug fcin, mi(| in ba§ (^axn gu siet)en (Sch.). Knowledge, "to know how," its oldest mean- ing: ^annfl bu Stdic'mfc^? Compare fijnnen^ **to have learnt," then "to be able " ; fenncn (< kanjan, causative of !atnt — fonnen)/ "to be acquainted with" ; wiffen, "to know." 2. ® u r f e n denotes : 1. Permission and authorization : 2)u barffl au(| 100 SYNTAX OF THE VEKB — MODAL AUXILIARIES. [267- ha nur fret erfci^etnen (F. 336). D^ne Sagbf^ein barf nicmanb auf bic Sa'gb ge'^n, 2. " To have occasion to," " reason for," ** need " : ?Wan barf ben @d)luffel nur jwei ?Wal umbre^en unb ber 9licgel fpringt prucf, "You need ..." ®u barfjl ^tnau^ge'^en/ bie Suft ijl ^ter fe^r felled)!, " You have good reason to go out ..." This force is the oldest, but rather rare now. 3. " To trust one's self to" : 2Ber barf i|n nennen unb i»er kfennent 3c^ glaut il)n (®ott) (F. 3433-5). This force has sprung from 1 and 2 and from the verb tar — tiirren + dare, whose meaning was embodied in barf — burfen. On the other hand, it has nearly given up the original force of " need," " want," still apparent in 2, to its compound kbiirfen. In some editions of the Bible biirfen, " to want," and lar — turren, " to dare," are still the rule. In later editions beburfen and burfen have been substituted for them. 4. The preterit subjunctive (potential, see 284, 3) burfte is used for a mild asser- tion : Die S'iac^weU burfte SSebcnfen tragen, biefe^ Urteil ^u unterfc^rctkn (Sch.), " Posterity very likely will ..." ®a^ burfte ju fpat fein, " I fear very much, that is too late." Etiquette admits such redundant phrases as : l^urfte or barf tc^ mir ertau'6en/ etc. 3. 9)1 i) g e n denotes : 1. In its oldest, but now rare sense except in dia- lect, " ability " and " power." This it has given up to „!onnen/' Compare its cognates " may" and "can" in Eng.: 3^r SlnHitf gilU ben ©ngeln ©tarfe, wenn feiner fte ergritnben mag (F. 247-8), " although no one is able ..." 2. Concession, no interference on the part of the speaker : ®er S3urfd)e mag nac^ ^aufe ge'^n (It lies with him, I have no objection). Ser mir ben Seeder fann Jvieber jeigen, er mag i'^n k'^alten (Sch.). 3. Possibility, the action does not concern or influence the speaker ; fijnnen means a possibility that lies in the ability of another person or object. 2Ba^ fitr ®riinro(f^ mbgen ba^ fein (Sch.). Sr mag baa gefagt ^ahn, er mag ba^ t^un, It is possible he said so, he may do it. 1)a^ %m mag je^n Sa^re alt fein. With this force it supplants the potential and concessive subjunctives ; if it stands itself in the subjunctive of the present or preterit, it supplants also the opta- tive subjunctive. 3d^ ttjitnfc^e bap bie ganje Selt una ^oren mag, |oren mijge. 9)J5c^te au(^ bo^ bie ganje SSelt una pren (Le.). 4. From 2 springs the force of " inclination," " liking," " wishing." S©aa ftc^ »ertragt mit meiner 5)flic^t, mag tc^ i^r gem gewa^ren (Sch.). 3^ moc^te, ba§ er ea nic^t n>ieber crfii^re. 3^ cffc n?aa id^ mag unb Icibe i»aa i^ mu§ (Prov.). 4. 9)1 uf fen, + must, denotes : 1. In its oldest sense, " to have occa- sion, room," "to be one's lot," "it is the case." A trace of this is left in the following uses : ?Wetn ^unb war o'^ne SKauIforb |)inauagelaufen. 9?un mupte aud^ gerabe ein 9)Dltji'|l ba|er fommen (as luck would have it, a police- 267] SYKTAX OF THE VERB — MODAL AiUXlil/iRli:^.; ' ; ' ^I'Qi J man came along). 1)er Bufall mu§te i^n grabe ^in ^ringen. 3um jweitcn 5D^al fott mlr lent ^lang erfd>atten, er mupte benn (unless it should) kfonbern ©inn begritnben (G., quoted in Sanders' Diet.). 2. Necessity of various kinds : Stile 3)icnf(^en muffen fterkn. 2)er ©enne mu^ [c^eiben (Sch.). (£in Dber^aupt mup fein (id.). 2)a^ mu^ ein fci^lec^ter WlMtx fetn, bem niemal^ fiel ba^ SBanbern ein (Song). (£r ntu§ fe|r fran! gewefen fein; er ifl noc^ fo fc^nwc^. The force of biirfen : 3(^ mu§ nid^t i^ergeffen, " I must not forget." 58vau(^en + negative generally takes the place of muffen + negative when it denotes moral necessity. ®a§ IJraui^ft bu nic^t ju tt^un, wcnn bu nic^t wittft. 9Boi^I bem, bev mtt ber neuen (3ett) mcf>t me:^r Brau^t 511 leBen (Sch.). 5. o^ frant fein ? Is it possible that he is sick ? 6. SB 1 1 e n, + will, denotes : 1. The will and purpose of the sub- ject. 2Ba^ ttJoHteft bu mit bem !l)ol(^e ? fprid) (Sch.). ^^ will e« tt)ieber »ergef^ fen, mil ©te bo^ nic^t woUenffca^ id) e(3 njiffen foil (G.). SBotfe nur toa^ bu fannf^ unb bu Wirfl fonnen wa^ bu iDiUfi. 2. "To be about," '*on the point of." (Sin armer 35auer wottte j^erkn (Nicolai). (£i3 will regnen. Frequent in stage- directions, „n)itt gc^en," «n)itt abge^n." SBill ftc^ Rector ewtg ijon wir wenben? (Sch.). 3. The claim and statement of another, who "says" or ''claims to " : 2)er 3euge will ben Slngeflagten gefel)en ^aben. 2)u wittf^ t^n ju einem gutcn Bwecfe betrogen ^aben. Notice the ambiguity of such a sentence as 1)(x ^err will e6 get^an ^aben, " claims he did it," or according to 1, "wills or wishes that it be done." aScCcn is really the most diflSicult to understand and use. It occurs in a great many more idioms with ever varying shades of meaning. Notice, e. g., G§ mU »evtauten, " it is spread abroad." aSa§ »ctU bag fagen? = "What does that amount to?" "that is nothing." 3(i> mU eS nic^t gefe^en ^aben, I will act as if I had not seen it or "nobody shall see it," according to 1. SBenn ber ©(^uler bod) biefe SKeget lernen wottte, " if he only would . . . = conditional. SBotttc ©ott ba^ . . . , would to God that . . . ®iefe gebev Witt ni(i)t, this pen does not write (well). But it is impossible to give all these meanings. 102 , SYJ^TAX OF THE VERB— PASSIVE VOICE. 268- Still Eng. " will " is not far behind the German, ©cllen and wctlen should not be con- founded with Eng. "shall" and " will" of the future, see 279, 3. 7. Caffen, sometimes classed here, is really a causative auxiliary and never used as such without an inf., which stands as a further object, ^etne i^lage Ia§t fie [(fallen (Sch.). lln^erjiiglicl Ue§ er brei 33attcrtcn aufivcrfeit (id.). See 202, 1. A second force is "to allow," " not to hinder." T>n ®efangentt)arler lie^ ben ©efangenen emwifd)en. Saffen ©ie ba^ Meikn (= to leave a thing undone. iCaffcn, to look, is a neuter verb. For laffcn + reflexive, see 272 ; in the imperative, see 287, 4, Remark. — Verbs of motion can be omitted, particularly when an adverb expresses the direction. 2Biaft bu mit ? 3<^ "mji I}in. SaS ^arfe't fcQte fort (ought to be sent). ®er §ut mu^ in bie (S(J)a(^tet. But all except niii)fen and bitrfen can be used as inde- pendent verbs, i. e, no other verb need be supplied. There is no call for a verb in 3Sa§ foil bcr §ut? (Sch.), " What is this hat (here) for ? Notice that foHen, mov3en, and wottcn are really the only ones that deserve the term modal auxiliaries, since they assist in expressing the mood. See 287- THE PASSIVE VOICE. 268. The active voice needs no comment. Only transitive verbs form a complete passive. But transitives whose mean- ing admits only of an object of the thing, also intransitives and subjective verbs, form only the third person singular with the grammatical subject CiS or without it. 3t)nen ivtrt) ^e^olfen* S^ tvirfe gelac^t unt) gefungen* ©eftern murte gefpiett. 33ei Utt^ gtt ^aufe (where I come from) tt)ir^ i^iel 3CI)ift gefpielt. 269. In the transformation of the active into the passive voice, the direct object in the accusative becomes subject- nominative and the former subject is expressed by ijon + dative denoting the agent and by burc^ + accusative denot- ing means and instrument. 53aumgarten erfd?Iug ten SBoIfen^ f(^ie§en. 2G. murbe yon 53. eriWagen. 1)er 33rtef murbe burc^ einen X)ienftmann beforgt (through a porter). See prepositions, 304, 2. 270. When a verb governs two accusatives both accusa- tives become nominatives with the verbs of naming, calling, scolding. Sr tvurte fein greunt) genannt. See 179, 2. 273] SYNTAX OF THE VERB — PASSLS^E J<)1CE., :'/ : ' \H}3, 1. With Ie|ren and fragcn the accusative of the thing may be retained, particularly if that accusative be a pronoun, e. g., T)a^ ©(^Iimmtle,iua(5 un(3 TOiberfd'^rt, ba^ mxttn wtr »om Slag gele^rt (G.). For etwa^ gele^rt werben it is better to use unterric^tet toerben ; for ettva^ gefragt werben, better nad) etwa^ gefragt t»erben. The accusative of the noun now sounds pedantic, though le^ren in M. H. G. always retained the accusative in the passive. See 202, 2. 271. With a verb governing an accusative, a genitive, or a dative, the accusative becomes nominative in the passive, but the genitive and dative are retained. ^, wurbe tci? ^o(^»errat^ angeflagt. Deiner wurbe getiai^t (no grammatical subject) or e^ njurfce beiner ^etad^t, ^ir tvurte gefolgt, /was followed. 1. The verbs folcjen, ^elfen, ge^orc^en, fc{)mei(i^etn, iDibev^prec^en, banfen often form a personal passive in the classics and in the spoken language, but it is very questionable whether this use should be imitated ; certainly not by foreigners who are accustomed to this construction in their own language and are apt to make mistakes in the active and say „ic^ tolge btcf)" if they hear or say „ic^ werbe gefolgt, gey(!^meic^ctt." Those who defend the personal passive appeal to the older accusative after Ijelfen and fc^metc^etn. 272. The reflexive, encouraged by French influence, and marif e^ 4- active often replace the passive. For ^^ roirb gefungen, ge^O(^t stands ?P?an ftngt, ^o(^t, Xia offnet fic^ ba^ %^ox, Then the gate is opened, ^er ©cl)lufrel Wirb ftd) finben, The key will be found. More frequent than the reflexive alone is jid) . . . laffen, e. g., (£r ivirb ft(^ Beflimmen laffen ju . . . , He will let himself be influenced to . . . , He can be induced to . . . 2)a(5 (apt fi(| (eid^t mac^en, That is easily done. 2)a(J la^t ftc^ t)oren, That is plausible. See 290, 3, h. It is clear from this that the German passive is less fre- quent than the English. The grammars boast more of the full and long compound tenses than actual usage justifies. 273. Origin of the Passive Voice. 1. In O. H. G. fetn («2w, wesan), toerben (werdan) were used to express the passive. Gothic alone shows traces of anything like a Latin passive, but even there the peri- phrastic form had to be resorted to. In M. H. G. the present is ich wirde gelobet ; pre- terit, ich wart gelobet ; perfect, ich bin gelobet ; pluperfect, ich was gelobet. Warden was added to the perfect from the 13th century downward, but was not considered essential until the 17th century. The passive idea lies originally only in the past or passive participle and not in lucrben, which means only "I enter into the state of being „gelie6t," „ge?(^tagen," etc. Compare the future, ict) roerbe licfeen, "I enter into the state of loving." The M. H. G. ich bin geliebet, ich was (war) geliebet are by no means lost. Only they are not called tenses now. ^* 6in geliefet, ba§ ^tmmev ift gefegt mean " I am lOit ; ; : .?JNTkX OF THE VERB — TENSES. [274- in the state of being loved," "the room is in a swept state," "has been cleaned," "is clean." The fjarticiples are felt as adjectives. 3^ 6in geltefit worben, ia^ 3""'"^^ ift gefegt wcrben mean ' I have passed into the state of being loved," "the room has passed into the state of being swept." The transition into this state, and not the present state, but the fact or action are emphasized, hence the idea of tense is promi- nent. The fitness of the name of perfect passive for this form and not also for \^ 6in gelicbt is apparent because i^ 6in gelieBt njorben is composed of tc^ 6in (ge)tt»Drbcn (the perfect) + geliebt. In O. H. G. fein still formed the present as " to be " now in Eng., but already in M. H. G. werden was the prevalent auxiliary (see above), while sein was prevalent in the perfect. 2. Perhaps the following examples will illustrate the force of the vari- ous forms : !S)ie %^6)\ix if! ^erlobt, is engaged to be married. S5cm ©ife t'efrett finb ©trom unb 33a(^e (F. 903). ©iefer teffel ifl i)on ^Bergen fcegrenjt (Hu.) These three are not passive tenses. But compare : 3u bent !Gad)erli(i)cn nnvb etn (Sontra'ft »on SSolIfomtnen^eiten unb UnvoUfommen|eiten erforbert (Le.) (present tense). 1)icfer 9)un!t tfl ijtel Beflritten n^orben (perf. pass.). The same differ- ence between wurbe + participle (= imperfect pass.) and n>ar + partici- ple (no tense), e.g., .^onte'r war »or 5(Iter^ unflreitig fletpiger gelefen al^ je^t (Le.). !Die |)aufer tuaren fefllid^ gefc^mitcft (no tense). ®er 9f?aukr^auptmann war \&im gefangen genommen worben, dU feme Ceute '^erkifamen (pluperfect pass.). !E)er ©pio'n wurbe o^ne weltered an einen Slfl gefnitpft unb erMngt (imper- fect pass.). Examples of the future and conditional perfects passive are very rare in the classics. Syntax of the Tenses. Simple Tenses. 274. The Present. 1. It denotes an action as now going on. S5ie glanjt tie (Sonne, wie la(^t tie %hxx (G.). 2. It is the tense used in the statement of a general truth or fact or custom, in which the idea of time is lost sight of. ^reimal tret ift neun. ®ott ift tie 2iek (B.). ^orgen mad^t @orgcn (Prov.). 3. The historical present is used in vivid narrative for a past tense. IDa^ 3U Sinj gegeBene 53eifpiel fintet aUgemeine '^^6>^ almung; man »erflu(^t ta^ Slntenlen te^ 3Serrdter^ ; alle 5lrme'en fallen »on t^m aB (Sch. ). 275] SYKTAX OF THE YERB — TElsTSES. 105 4. For the English perfect German (also French) uses the present when the action or state continues in the present time, but there is generally an adverb denoting duration of time qualifying it. Ex.: 5flun bin id^ fieben 3:age l)ter (G.). S^vd Sage gekn mir f(^on l)ter ^erum (id.). Sci) Un atl^ier erft fuqe S^tt (F. 1868). Tins use is by no means new in German or unknown in English, e.g., " I forget why." " The world by what I learn is no stranger to your generos- ity " (Goldsmith, quoted by Matzner). It is closely related to the present sub 2 and 3, and generally translated by " have been " + present participle. 5. The future present, that is, the present with the force of the future, is much more frequent in German than in English. Ex.: ^nn, nein, id) g4e nac^ itx (Btalt ^uxM (F. 820). S3er n?ei^, mx morgen ixbtx un5 bepe^It (Sch. ). It is a very old use of the present, from a time when the periphrastic future was not yet developed. 6. The English periphrastic present in " I am writing," " I do write" rarely has corresponding German phrases. For instance, t^un is dialectic and archaic. Unb t^u^ nic^t me^r in SCBorten framen (F. 385). A large num- ber of present participles are looked upon as adjectives and stand in the predicate after fein> but they do not form a tense (see 273, 1). There is a difference between the simple present and fein + pres. part. The for- mer, if it occur at all, denotes an act of the subject, the latter denotes a quality of the same or of another subject. Ex.: ^an nimtnt teil an tttoa^, one takes part in something. Semanb ijl teUne|menb, one is sympathetic. 'Lk %axhi fc^rett is hardly used, but bie %axU t)! eine fc^retenbe, the color is a loud one. Die 2(u(Sii(|t retjt einen^tmmer p^er ju jleigen, the prospect entices one to climb higher and higher, but bie STu^ftc^t tj^ reij^enb; the prospect is charming. Compare the Eng. " charming," " promising," etc. 275. The Preterit. 1. It is strictly the " historical " tense, used in narration, when one event is related in some connection with another event, as following it or preceding it. Ex. : (Eafar tarn, fa^ unt ftegte. (£r mart) geBoren, er leBte, na^m ein SGeib unl> j^arb (Gellert). In the story of the creation in Genesis only the pret. is used until 106 SYiq^TAX OF THE VERB--TENSES. [276- chapter 3, verse 4, when the account is summed up Sllfo ift ^immel unb (£rbe gcworbett/ which has the perfect as it should have. See 276. 2. It represents a past action as lasting, customary; also as contemporaneous with another action. ®efterrt tam ter ^iJZeticu^ l^ier au^ Uv ©tatt ^inau^ ^um 3lmtmann (connect „t)inau^" with „^um'' not with „au^ Ux @tatt") unt) fant mic^ m^ ter Srte unter fiotten^ ^intern, mie einige auf mir ^erumfraB&elten, anterc mic^ nerften (G.). ^ii^n mar ta^ SSort, weil e^ tie 2:^at nic^t n?ar (Sch.). Compound Tenses. 276. The Perfect. It is used to denote a past event as a separate act or inde- pendent fact. The act is completed, but the result of it is felt in the present and may continue in the present. Ex. : ^d) t)abc genoffen ba^ irJif(^e ®IM (Sch. ). (^ott |at tie SCelt erfd^affen = God is the creator of the world, but ^m Slnfang fd)uf ®ott ^immel unD (Srte (B.). i:u W^ ^^^W, ^cta^io (Sch.). See 279, 2. 1. In the best writers this distinction is generally observed, but not in the spoken language, in which the perfect is crowding out the preterit. As an illustration of the exact use of the tenses, particularly of the pre- terit and perfect, may be recommended the introduction to Schiller's @ef(^t(|te be^ 5(bfatt^ ber ijereinigten S^Zieberlanbe. 277. The Pluperfect. It denotes a past action which was completed before another past action began. Ex. : ZiU"!^ ^atte !aum feinen 9fluc!marfd) m^c^ treten,aU ber ^ontg fein Sager au @(^n?elit auflo& unb gegen Sranffurt an bcr Ober riicfte (Sch.). 278. The Future. 1. It denotes an action yet to take place. Ex. : S3a^ Wirb aw^ bem ^inbtein n?erren ? (B.). T)tv ^aifer ttjirb morgen abreifen. 2. It denotes probability and should then not be translated by an EngHsh future as a rule. Ex. : ^er ipunb tuirb fed)g ^a^xt alt fein (= ij^ mo^l or n?a^rfc^einUd)), the dog may be or is prob- 280] SYNTAX OF THE VERB — ^TEKSES. 107 ably, six years old. 2Cer flojjft? (£^ wirb cin 53ettler fein, it is probably a beggar. 3. In familiar language it stands for the imperative implying confident expectation of the result. Xn mirft t)ier Bletben, You shall stay here. Du luirft U&i pten, Take good care not to do it. For the present with the force of the future, see 274, 5. 279. The Future Perfect. 1. It is the perfect transferred to the future. 3Sergekn6 mxt)d i^r fitr euren gelD^errn eu(^ geo|)fert 1^aUn (Sch.). More fre- quently than the future, the future perfect denotes probability: So toin er tie 5^ac^t gugeBrat^t ^ahm ? (Le.), Where can he have spent the night? (£5 mirt) toa^ anbre^ tooU kbcutet ^ahn (Sch.), It probably meant something else. 2. As the present can have future force, so the perfect can have future perfect force. 5^t(^t e^er fccn! t(^ tiefe^ 33Iatt git brauc^en, U^ eine Z^at get^an ift, tie unn)iterfpred)li(^ ben Jpo(|ijerrat Begeugt (Sch.). 3. In M. H. G., the future perfect is unknown and its force is expressed by ge prefixed to the present, and by the perfect. \ a. Guard against confounding the modal auxiliaries in German with the Eng. future. Approach to a future might be felt in tooUcn and fotteit, e.g., Wa^ wollen fte benn l^erau<3»er^oren, mm einer unfc^ulbig ijl:? (G.). 2)er dtti^^ta^ ju 5lug^krg fott ^offcntU^ unfere ^xoit'ttt jur 0leife fertngen (G.). See 283, 4. 280. The Conditionals. They are future subjunctives corresponding to the preterit and pluperfect subjunctive as the future corresponds to the present. As in all subjunctives, the idea of tense is not empha- sized. Preterit subjunctive and I. conditional, pluperfect sub- junctive and II. conditional are nearly identical in force, but preterit and pluperfect deserve the preference, particularly in the passive. In dependent conditional clauses the preterit or pluperfect subjunctive only can stand. In the main sentence 108 SYNTAX OF THE VERB — TEKSES. [281- there is no choice between them and the conditionals. Ex. : O^ne teinen ffiat n?urbe i(^ e^ ni(^t get^an 1^abm or l)atte i(^ e^ ntd^t get^an. SBa^ mvu\t tu an meiner ©telle t^un? S3dreft tu ^icr gemefen, mein 33ruter n?dre ni(^t geftorkn (B.). 281. The conditionals should be substituted for the subjunctive of the preterit and of the pluperfect : 1. When the force of the future is to be emphasized as in : ^a^mt ber ^ranfe bie 5)?ebt^in regelmcipig ein, [o Jvurbe ba(3 %uhtx »on biefer urbe bagegcn feiu, which means '*he would be opposed." (£r teteucrt, er fei bagegen gewefcn, he had been 283] SYNTAX OF THE VERB — TEI^^SES. 109 opposed ; er woirc bagegen gewefen might moreover be understood as having the force of the II. Conditional. For the mood of the indirect statement, see 285. For further remarks on the use of tenses, see 284, also the General Syntax. 283. Origin of the Compound Tenses. 1. The compound tenses in all the living languages are products of the development of 80-caUeA periphrastic conjugation, which uses certain independent verbs denoting existence, possession, transition, or the beginning of an action, in connection with an infinitive, participle, or gerundive. The more the inflectional endings of the simple tenses of the earlier periods weathered, the more favorable were the chances for the growth of analytical and circumlocutory tenses. Compare the Latin amor, amattis sum or fui ; excusavi, excusatam, -um habeo or teneo with French je suis aime, -ee, je fus aime, -ee ; je Vai excuse, -ee, je Vavais excuse, -ee. The Germanic languages have only two simple tenses. Gothic shows still a mutilated passive. But the future perfect and pluperfect active and passive sprang up within historic times from a com- bination of an independent verb with an infinitive or participle, which were at first felt only as predicate noun or adjective. The participle in O. H. G. could be inflected like any predicate adjective. 2. At different periods of High German there were dififerent verbs which could be thus employed. Besides the modern auxiliaries :^aBen, fein and luerben, in O. H. G. cigan, + to owTa. In Gothic haban + inf. was made to express the future, in O. H. G. suln (shall) and werdan + pres. part. ; in M. H. G. besides these, wellen, muezen. 3ct) l^abe ten ^ut alJgenDmmcn or aufgefe^t means originally I have, possess the hat in some state or position, viz., in my hand (taken off") or on my head (put on). The German order, too, shows this early construction much better than the English " I have taken oft' my hat." Compare the Latin Excusatum habeas me rogo, " Have me excused, pray," ,,93itte, ^ar i(^ ju ^au^ (G.). D foi^fl bu, »ofler SWon* benfc^ein ... (P. 386). 2Bare er nur no^ am Sefeen ! (Implying „er ifl aber tot"). Srommer ©tab, o l^att^ ic^ nimmer mit bem ir ni(|t wdrcn, fagte bie Saterne jum 9)?onb. !Da ging fie au^ (Folk-lore). 285. The subjunctive is the mood of the indirect state- ment, in which the speaker expresses the ideas of another in 112 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. — MOODS. [286- his own words without sharing the responsibiUty for, and belief in, the statement. For examples see 282. The third sentence sliows that unreal conditional clauses are not affected when part of an indirect statement The fourth, also the last of 328, show- how other clauses are affected. Imperative. 286. It expresses a command and occurs only in the 2. p. sg. and pi. For the 1. and 3. p. pL, see 284, 1. Sile mit SBeile, Make haste slowly. Seke In mid) meine Seutc fennen (Sch.). 33inbet xbn (id.). 3Bartet i|r, inbem n?ir iooran kufen* 1. The pronoun is quite optional ; only when there is a contrast, as in the last sentence (i^r — xoix), it should stand. In the subjunctive it al- ways stands. The imperative is only used in the present and has future force, but by a license also a perfect imperative occurs : 33efen ! 33efen ! (Seib^«J getDcfen ! says the apprentice when he wants the brooms to cease being watercarriers (G.). 287. Other verbal forms that take imperative force and a very strong one, are : 1. The infinitive : ?0^aul (SHunb) ^alten I Hold yonr tongue. ^x6^t anfaffen 1 Do not touch. 2. The past participle : ^ie 2;rommeI gerii^rt (G.). S^'ifd) auf ^ameraten, an\'^ f fert, auf^ ^ferb ! in t»a6 gelb, in tie ^rei^eit geaogen (Sch.). 3. The present and future indicative : ®eorg, fen Hei6ft urn mi(^ (G). t)n tvirft ten Slpfel f(^ie§en i)on tern .to|)fte^ ^naben (Sch.). See 278, 3. 4. The modal auxiliaries denoting a necessity, duty, can express imperative force, also laffen. tn fotlft nic^t fte^Ien (B.). ^ein ^^enf^ mn§ miijlfett (Le.), no man ought to be compelled. Since the Eng. "let" shows no inflection, notice the German forms: Cag itiv:J !^cf)en, to a person addressed as bit ; plural fiaffl un^ ge^en. Saffen ©ie uni3 gc^en, to a person addressed as iE ben ©efangenen gefel^en ()aben = claims to have seen him, but ^at t^n fc^en roollen = wanted to see him. S)er ^auftrer mup ttorkigegangen fein = must have passed by, but ^at ijorbeige^cn muffen, was forced to pass by, etc. 289. We distinguish between the infinitive wilhout ju and with ju. The former is the older construction. Being a noun, the infinitive always stood in the D. after ,511 in O. and M. H. G. But in early N. H. G., when it was no longer in- flected, the prepositional infinitive gained ground and gave also rise to the gerundive (see 298). Usage is in many cases still unsettled as to the use of ju. Its frequent use is the source of much bad style (sec Sanders' ^^auptfc^merigleiten" . . . sub Inf.). The cases where the infinitive has taken the place of the present participle are mentioned below under each head. In the gerundive alone the participial form has taken the place of the infinitive. See 298. The Infinitive without ju. 290. 1. It is dependent upon the modal auxiliaries. Dcr ^ote mlE e^ OiWi alter Seute ^yxxi^ erfa^rett ^aben. Wler- fanfenfce ©^ran!, the wardrobe which is still to be sold; but feer ©d^ranf ift nod) ju ^erfaufen, the wardrobe is still to be sold. See 289, 452. It has always passive force. Though the form is rather that of the gerund than of the gerundive, in construction it closely resembles the Latin gerundive. Hence the name in German. SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 299. The adverb qualifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Ex.: 'Du ^ajl ntic^ mMtxQ angegogen (F. 483). Die un&egreiflid^ ^o^^en Serfe jtnti ^^errlii^ ttjie am erftcn 3:ag (F. 249-50). Da^ ift fe^r fdjon gefc^rieBen. 1. The adverbs of time and place often accompany a noun with the force of an attribute : S3or Senem brokn fte^t getiirf t, ber ^elfen le^rt unb ^ilfc fc^idt (F. 1009-10). ®eor9 V. (ber %m]U), einjl tiJnig »on ^annoDer, flarb im Slu^lanbc. 3011 SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 119 2. The adverb stands as a predicate : S)te fd)onen Betten »on Sfraniuej finb nun ijoriikr (Scli.). 2)le 2;pr tj^ ju (one can supply wQcmac^t'O' S'er or bent 9)lim'ller i|l nic^t roo% a. Do not confound gut and reo^I. Except in a few cases, as in WD^l t^un, to do good, rao^l does not qualify a transitive verb. We do not say in German ttJO^l fdjvciten, uidI)I antitJDvten, wo^l anfangen in the sense of English " well." Gr t)at e^ wdI^I gefd^iteOcu means " he wrote it, indeed, (I assure you) " ; or it is concessive and can mean ; " to be sure he wrote it, but then — ." In the last sense loo^l has no stress. 3. With adjectives or participles used as nouns that are felt rather as substantives than as adjectives or as derived from a verb, the adverb changes to an adjective: ein m^ 35erlDanbter > ein nal)er S^emanbter; eln iutim 23e!annter > ein intimer SBefannter. But compare Goethe's famous line : ^a^ ewtg^SBeiMic^e jic^t un« ^inan, 300. An adverb maj^ strengthen the force of a preposition by standing before or after the preposition + case. This is always the case when the adverb is the j)refix of a separable compound verb: ring^ urn tie ©tabt (l)erum), mitten turd) Un 5ffialc, in Dag Dorf ^tnein, am tm Garten ^txan^. (£g ritten trei 9teiter aum Zijoxt ^irtau^ (Uh. ). 1. Mark the adverbs which are only adverbs and not adjectives : wo^b fai^> f(^on, fe^r, mu\i^, freilid^, fru^ (rare), f^jat (rare), Mb, and others. 2. The uninflected comparative and superlative of adjectives serve also as adverbs. Notice the difference between auf + A. and an + D. ©ie fangen auf ba auger^alB; tie^feite, jenfeit^, ^alhn, ttjegen; ftatt, an6!) Idng^, sufolge, troj* These are all cases of substantives or adjectives (participles) and their number might be easily increased, e.g., by bejuglic^, with reference to ; angeftc^t^, in the face of; feitensS, on the part of ; inmitten, in the midst of, etc. (The order is the one in which they are given in German grammars. The semicolon shows the ends of the lines of the doggerel.) We comment in alphabetical order briefly upon those that seem to require comment. Often a mere translation will suffice. 1. Slnjlatt, an — flat t, ftatt, + instead of. 2)rau^ (from which, from whose breast) ftatt ber golbemn Cicber ein SBIutftra^l ^od) auf fpnn9t(Uh.). Sin Xo^itx ftatt, in daughter's stead. (Statt sometimes with the dative. It also governs an infinitive like o^ne, translated by " without + participle." See Infinitive, 291, 1. 2. Sluicr^aU + outside of; inner^aU + inside of; oBerl^aU, above; unter'^alb, on the lower side of, below. They are all more expressive than the simple forms. They rarely govern the dative. 3. © i c 6 f e 1 1 («), i e n f e i t (^), this side of, on the other side, beyond. Rarely with the dative. 4. ^ a U e n, ^ a U e r, 1^ a U, on account of, + in behalf of. Follows 302] STiq-TAX OF THE PREPOSITION — GENITIVE. 121 its case. Frequent in composition : ht^f)ai^, therefore ; meinet^alkn, on my behalf; 5llter<3 l^alUx, on account of age. Comp. wegen and willen. 5. ^raft, according to, by virtue of. ^raft be^, ©efe^e^ ; fraft bc^ 5(mte^. Formerly only in ^raft, e.g., ha^ jleta ber liebjle (©o^n) . ♦ ♦ in ^raft nttcin bei3 ^ing^, ba^ ^aupt, ber ^itrfl be^ ^aufe^ njerbe (Le.). Comp. laut. (?. 2 ant, from, „m^ Saut," Uut^ (Luther), means "according to,' "by." Caut SSefe'^t^, by command ; laut be^ Seflamente^, according to the last will and testament. Plural nouns without articles in which the genitive could not be dis- tinguished stand in the dative : laut S3riefeit, according to letters. 2aut means literally according to a verbal or written statement ; fraft gives a moral reason. 7. Wilt til ^, mitteljl (most common), »erm it telft, by means of, with. ?S)?itteIjl eitte<3 ^ammtx^, mt^ 93o^rer<3, It is more expressive than niit or burc^. Rarely with the dative. 8. D h, rare and archaic. With genitive if causal (on account of) ; with dative if local (above), and temporal (during). 2)a tDeinteit jufammen bie ©reitabter^ wo^l c6 ber flaglic^en ^unbe (Heine). Dl) bent 2BaIb; nib bem SBalb (Sch., Tell); el bem Slltare (id.). 9. 3; r ^, with genitive and dative, in defiance of, in spite of ; in the sense of "in rivalry with," "as well as," always with the dative. %xoi) be^ ^eftigen 9legen^ fu^ren ti)ir a\u !l)te ©angerin fingt tro^ einer 9'?ad)tigatt, as well as a nightingale. Comp. the forms ^u or jum Xxo^t preceded by a dative : Wix jjum Xxci^t fu^x er fort ju lefen/ in defiance of me or to defy me he continued reading. 10. U n a n g e f e ^ e Uf setting aside, unBefc^abet, without detriment to, u n g e a d) t e t, notwithstanding (very frequent). The last two also with a preceding dative ; bemungeac^tet is felt as an adverb. These are very modern prepositions. Unwett, unferU/ not far from, occur also with dative. 11. 2[J e r nt b g e, in virtue of. through, in consequence of, by dint of. Denotes a reason springing from a quality of the subject: ^ermoge feiner Oiebltc^fett, through his honesty. We could not say fraft feiner 9i. ; uermoge (and not fraft) grower ^Cnjlrengungen, by dint of great efibrts. (Perhaps from ,m^ S^ermogen.") 12. SB a :^ r e n b, during. Sometimes with the dative : tt)a^renbbem# meanwhile. 13. SB e g e n, on account of, both preceding and following the noun ; 122 SYKTAX OF THE PREPOSITION— DATIVE. [303- a}so with the dative. SBegen denotes also a motive and an impediment. Seiner ®ro§e ttjegen Umk ba^ ©(^iff m(^t burc^ ben ^anaU !Der 3)?uller war a?egcn [einer ©tarfe krii^mt. SBegen from Don — tuegen, still common in „i)Ott S'tecltiS iuegen," strictly, injustice. 14 2B i n e n, generally u nt — » i U e n, denotes the purpose, the ad- vantage or interest of a person. Urn meiner 9?u^e tuitten erflaren ©te ft(i) kutlidjer (Sch.). Urn be^ ©o^ne^ wttten, urn meinetmillen, for the sake of or in the interest of the son, for my sake. SBegen, f^alhtn, and tx>itten all appear with pronouns, and are used promiscuously. 15. 3 u f I ge, as frequently with the dative, denotes the result, " in consequence of." Bufolge be^ Sfuftrage^, in consequence of the commission ; feen SSera&rebungen iufolge, in accordance with the verbal agreements. Prepositions governing the Dative. 303. @c^rei6: mit, nac^, nai^ft, tteBft, famt; feit, ijon, ju, pxtoi'ux; entgegcn, au^er, an^ — flet^ mit bem X)ati» nieter. 1. 51 b, stili used in the Alemanic dialect (Baden, Switzerland) as a preposition. In business style it denotes the place at which merchan- dise is delivered or the time after which anything is to be had : db ^am^ burg, ah 9?euia^r, ah = ''all aboard." 2. 51 u ^ denotes the starting point of a motion, the opposite of in + accusative, = "out of," "from": 5lue ben Slngen, an^ bem ©inn, "out of sight, out of mind " : ftu^ bent ^enfler fe^en, to look out of the window. Origin and descent : aui alten QtiUw, from olden times ; avii ^anwotx, from Hanover. Material : ftu^ 2(^m, of clay ; au^ ?We^I, of meal. Motive : aua 5)?itletb, ^ap, from pity, hatred. Origin also in au^ ©rfa^rung, from experience ; au^ 3[Jerfe^en, by mistake. Notice the idiom : au^ ^oln geMrtig, a native of Cologne, born in C. 3. 51 u § e r, outside of, beside, the opposite of in + dative. Denotes also exception and " in addition to." More frequent in the figurative than in the local sense, because au§er^Ib is more precise. 5(uper bem ^aufe, not at home ; au§er |)aufe fpeifen, to dine out ; aupcr jid) fein, to be beside one's self. 9?ur ber SJetter toax auper mir ba. Mark once the genitive au^er Canbe^ gef)en, to go to foreign parts; also the accusative in nuBer atlcn Stoeifel fetjcn, put beyond all doubt, (©e^en being a verb of motion.) 4. S3 c i. Original meaning is nearness, hence by, near, with : Ux bcr ^^e^eune, near (by) the barn ; bet ber 3:ante, near the aunt or at the house of 303] SYiq'TAX OF THE PREPOSITION — DATIVE. 123 the aunt ; ktm B^n^t by Jove ; bie (B6)la^t M 2Bort^, the battle of W. ; feci 3:ifc^ fetn, to be at dinner ; feet %aQ unb feei 9ta(fit, by day and by night ; feci (einem) 5tamen nennen, to call by name (but ^^riebridi m 1 1 '^amtn, Frederic by name) ; feei (rare) neunjtg ®efangenen, about ninety prisoners ; feet et9t ntir jeber 5S)?unb (Sch.). ©r ij^ herein felt nte"^reren ©tunben (id.), it is several hours since he came in (into the city), ©ett einigen Sft^ren ja^lt er feine 3infen, For sev- eral years he has paid no interest. 15. ^ on, " from," denotes the starting point of a motion or action in time and place. Its case is often followed by another preposition or by kr. ©on ber ^anb in ben 9)?unb; i»on SBorten fam'i3 in Sc^tagen, from words they came to blows. S3on Djlern bit^ 9)ftngften ijl fitnfjig Slage. Origin : Saltt)er ijcn ber S^ogelweibe. ^^itrft »on SSt^mard. ^err »on ©c^ulemburg. Hence »on in the names of persons denotes nobility : ^err i)on ©o ttnb ®0. 2Jon Sugenb auf; »on ®runb au<3, thoroughly ; »on Dj^en '^er. Separation : fret, rein »on ettva^. Supplants the genitive : ein ^am i3on ©^re, »on gro^en ^enntniffen ; ber ^'oM »on 9)arii3. Denotes the personal agent : Sattcnjlein tvurbe i)on 9)tccolomini ^intergangen unb yon titelen ©eneralen im (Sttc()e (in the lurch) gelaffen. Notice : (B^uxU Jjon einem 9Birt (Le.). Cause : na^ ttom (with) %au, »om 0tegen. 16. Bn denotes first of all the direction toward a person (but nac^ toward a thing) + "to": p jemanb ge'^en, fomnten, fprec^en, etc. @ie fang ju t^nt, fte fpra^ ju i^m (G.). 3u ftc^ fommen, "come to" ; etwa^ ju fic^ fiecEen, to put something in one's pocket. (This is its only use in O. H. G. In M. H. G. its use spread.) In dialect and in poetry it stands before names of cities and towns (= at). 3u ©tra^urg ftuf ber ©(i)anj (Folk-song). 3^r feib ntetn ®afl ju iiito (-A..)- The German and English prepositions are more nearly identical than any other two. See 305, 1, 2. 306] THE PKEPOSITIOI^ — DATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. 129 3n + Accusative. Denotes direction, including transition, change, division : SKenn bcr 2iib in ©taut jerfallen, lebt ber gro^e 9?ante noc^ (Sch.). 2)eutf(^lanb jerrip auf biefem 9iei(^^tage in jwei ^teUgio'nen unb jtvei ^olitifc^e 9)artei'en (id.). 6. 91 e b e n, near, by the side of. See 305, 1,2. < enehen, lit. "in a line with." 7. fiber + over, above. See 305, 1, 2, 3. ii&er H- Accusative. After verbs denoting rule and superiority over, e.g., l^errfc^en, ftegenf serfiigen (dispose) ; laughter, astonishment, disgust, in general an expres- sion of an affection of the mind, e.g., iiber iixoa^ Iad)en, erf^aunen, fi(^ . . . 6e^ flagen^jic^ . . ♦ entriitleUf ftc^ atgern. (For an older simple genit.) ^arlber®rc§e ftegte u6er bte ©ac^fen. ©a^ Sleflament ^erfiigt iikr ein grope*^ SSerntogen. 2Bie finite ber 9)o&el iiber bie neuen Si^jre'en (G.). Die ©efangenen kflagen ft^ iiber i^re SBe^anblung. Uber fein SSene^men babe tc^ mic^ re(|t geargert. It denotes time and excess in time, number, measure : Ukr^^ Sci^r, a year hence, only in certain phrases, duration : iikr ^o^^i, bie S^Jac^t ii&er. ©en <£at)()at^ itber waren fte fiitte (B.). Ufcer ein 3a^r, more than a year (ambiguous, either "more than a year " or " a year hence "). Ukr brei taufenb ^anonen. iikr atte SBegriffe [d)on, beautiful beyond comprehension. When it denotes duration or simultaneousness, or when the idea of place is still felt, then the dative follows ; when it denotes the reason then the accusative follows. This is clear when the same noun stands in both cases, as in 3c^ Mn iiber bem 23u(|e eingefc^Iafen/ means " while reading it I fell asleep." 3<| kn iikr \)a^ S3u(^ etngefc^Iafen means "it was stupid, therefore I fell asleep." Ukr ber S3efd)ret6ung ba ijergeff ic^ ben ganjen ^rieg (Sch.). (Sd)abe, bap iikr bem fc^onen 2Ba§n be^ Sekn^ kjle ^alfte ba^in gel)t (Sch.). Notice »on etwa^ and iikr etn)a^ fpre(|en. 3c^ ^aBe ba»on gefpro(^en, I have mentioned it. 3(^ |abe bariikr gef^jroc^en, I have treated of it, spoken at length. 8. Unter + under. See 305, 3. In the abstract sense this rule holds good. It denotes protection, in- feriority, lack in numbers (Dative, opposite of it6er), mingling with, con- temporaneous circumstance (D.). It stands for the partitive genit. (= among). Unter bem ©(^u^e. 2)er ^elbweBel jle^t unter bem Dfft.uer. 2Bcr Will unter bie ©obaten, ber . ♦ . , he who wants to become a soldier (Folk- 130 SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. [306- song). 6r ift bruntcr geBliekn, he did not reach the number. Saml^rai offnete feinem ©r^Sifc^ofe unter (amid) freubigem Burufe bie Xi)oxt wieber (Sch.), SBer unter (among) biefen (D.) reid)t an unfern ^^rieblanb ? (Sch.) (ijon biefen would be " of these "}. It denotes time wlien none of the exacter modes of ex- pressing time is used : Sir ftnb getoren unter gletc^en ©ternen (Sch.). Unter ber Dlegierung ber ^ontgin SJictoria = in the reign ; iva^renb imp]ies not a sin- gle act, but a commensurate duration, = during. 2)er ©afrifta'n fd)lief wci^renb ber ^Jrebigt, but ging unter ber 3)rebi9t '^inau^. In „unterbeffen,« and other compounds of that class, inbeffeu/ etc., the gen. is probably adverbial and not called for by the preposition. See 5n)if(|en. 9. 2$ r + before, in front of. See 305, 1, 2, 3. SSor -f Dative. Introduces the object of fear and abhorrence ; ^ein ©ifengitter f(i^u|t i)or i^rer Sif! (Sch.). 25or gen^iffen ©rtnnerungen m^V ic^ mic^ gem ^iiten (id.). 9)?ir grant »or bir. Time before which anything is to happen or has happened : 2)er MmQ tft gefonnen, "oox 5(benb in 9)?abrib nod) einjutreffen (Sch.). SJor breipig Sa^ren, thirty years ago. S5or ac^t 2:agen, a week ago. Hindrance and cause : Die ©ropmutter wirb i>ox Summer f^erkn (Sch.). ©en Salb i)or lauter SBaumcn nid^t fe^en (Pro v.). SJor hunger, vor ®urfl fterkn. Preference : »or alien !l)ingen, above all things ; |errltc^ »or aUen. 3? or and fur are doublets and come from fora and furi respectively. In M, H. Q.fur + A. answered the question whither? wr + D. the ques- tion where ? In N. H. G. they were confounded, even in Lessing very frequently, but in the last seventy years the present syntactical difference has prevailed. Goethe and Schiller rarely confound them. 10. Btuifc^en, " Between " two objects in place, time, and in the figurative sense. 0letn ntup e^ Heikn jttjifc^en mir unb i^m (Sch.). 2)ie SBoIfenfauIe fam jwifc^en ba^ ^ecr ber 5(g^^ter unb ba^ ^eer S^rael^ (B.). See 305, 1, 2 ; also unter = among, sub 8. SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 307. The conjunctions are divided : 1. Into the coordinat- ing, like unb, tenn, etc. ; 2. Into the subordinating, e. g., jveil, ^a, aU, etc. They are treated in the General Syntax, where see the various clauses. 309] GENERAL SYKTAX — SIMPLE SENTENCE. 131 GENERAL SYNTAX. I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 308. Subject and verb make up the simple sentence. This sentence may be expanded by complements of the subject and of the verb. The subject may be either a substantive, a sub- stantive pronoun, or other words used as substantives. The attributes of the subjects may be adjective, participle, adjec- tive pronouns, numerals. These are adjective attributes. Substantives, substantive pronouns, and the infinitive are substantive attributes. Their relation to the subject may be that of apposition and of coordination; or they may be con- nected by the genitive, or by preposition + case in subordi- nation. Preposition + case is more expressive than the genitive alone, when the subject is to be defined as to time, place, value, kind, means, purpose. The predicate is either a simple verb or a copula + adjec- tive or substantive or pronoun which may be again expanded like the subject. The complements of the verb are object and adverb. The object is either a noun, substantive pronoun, or other words used as nouns. It stands in the accusative, dative or genitive, or is expressed by preposition + case. The adverb qualifies the verb, adjective, and other adverb. It is either an adverb proper or preposition + case of substan- tive or what is used as such. It may also be a genitive or an accusative. 309. As to form the main sentences may be divided as follows : 1. Declarative sentences, which either affirm something of the subject or deny something with regard to it. Affirmative : ^urj ift ter ©(^merg unt) mxQ ift i?ie ^xmu (Sch.). !Du ^aft l^ia;; ma'nten unc ^erlen (Heine). Negative : Va^ Seben ift kr fitter 132 aEKERAL SYNTAX — SIMPLE SEKTEKCE. [309- pc^fte^ nid^t (Sch.). ®ie foKen i^n nic^t ^ahn, kn freien beutfc^en 3fl^eitt (Beck). 1. The double negative is still frequent in the classics and collo- quially, but it is not in accordance with correct usage now : ^eine Suft »on feiner ©eite (G., classical). S)lan fie^t, bap er an nic^t^ feinen 3(nteil nimmt (F. 3489) (said by Margaret, coll.). After the comparative it also occurs in the classics : Sir muffen ba^ 2Berf in biefen nac^ften Xa^m weiter forberit/ al^ ea in Sa^ren nic^t gebiel) (Sch.). 2. After verbs of "hindering," ''forbidding," " warning," like 'otx^ ]^utcn> ijer^inbentf warneit/ ijerMeten, etc., the dependent clause may contain wttic^U: ^m ptet eud^, bap i^r mir nic^t^ ijergiept (G.). Sfiimm bic^ in 5l(i)t, bap btc^ 9?ac^e ntc^t ijerberk (Sch.). 3. When the negative does not affect the predicate, the sentence may still be affirmative. Wn^t mir, ben eignen Sfugen ntogt i^r glauben (Sch.). But nic^t mir stands for a whole sentence. 2. Interrogative sentences: ^aft tu ba^ @c^lo§ c^efe^en? (Uh.). 2Cer reitet fo fpat burc^ ^^lai^t unti 2Cint ? (G.). Double question : S5ar ber 33ettler ^erriiclt oter war er Betrunfeit ? (Slaubft t)U taiJ oDer nic^t ? 2CiUft tu immer n?eiter fd)tr>eifen ? (G. ). 2Ber ti?ei§ ta^ nid^t ? For the potential subjunctive in questions, see 284, 3. For the indirect question, see 325, 2. 3. The exclamatory sentence has not an independent form. Any other sentence, even a dependent clause, may become exclamatory: D, tu 2CaIt, o i^r 53erge triiben n?ie feiD i^r fo jung geBUeBen un5 ic^ Un worsen fo alt! (Uh.). !Dag ift fca^ 2o^ te^ @(^onen auf ter (Srte ! (Sch.). S3a^ tan!' (owe) i(^ t^m nic^t atle^ ! (id.). Sie ber ^nabe gemad^fen ift ! For the imperative and optative sentences, see 284, 2 ; 286. 310. Elliptical clauses generally contain only the predicate or a part of it, including the object or adverb, ©uten ?[Rorgen ! mt I Truly! ©etroffen I You have hit it ! Sangfam ! ©c^nelt I etc. It is very frequent in the imperative, see 287. Proverbs often omit the verb : SJiel ®ef(|rei unb ttjenig 2BoIIe, ^Uint ^inber, fletnc ©orgenj gro^e ^inber, grcpe (Sorgen. See 309, 3, in which the last examples are really dependent questions. 313] GENERAL SYNTAX — SIMPLE SENTENCE. 133 Concord of Subject and Predicate. 311. The predicate (verb) agrees with the subject in num- ber and person. Two or more subjects (generally connected by. unfc) require a verb in the plural : Unter ten 5lntt)ejcnten wei^feln ^ur^t imt Srftaunen (Sch.). l:o(| an km iperjen nagten mix ber Unmut wnt W ©treitbegier (id.). 1. If the subjects are conceived as a unit and by a license greater in German than in English, the verb may stand in the singular ; also in the inverted order if the first noun is in the singular, Ex. : SBai^ t|l ba^ fur eitt 2Kann, bap H^m SBinb unb 9J?eer gelorfant ifi (B.). S^^ fprec^e 2Belt unb ^ad)^ mlt, etc. (Sch.). ©a fommt ber Soulier unb feine ^nec^te. By license : ©agen unb %i)m ifl ^weierlet (Prov.). 2)aa 9)?i^trauen unb bie ©iferfuc^t ♦ . . txtoa^tt Mh wieber (Sch.). 2. The plural verb stands after titles in the singular in addressing royalty and persons of high standing. In speaking of ruling princes the plural also stands. Servants also use it in speaking of their masters when these have a title. Ex. : Sure ((£».) 5J?aieflat, 2)ur(^lau(|t, Sxcettenj kfe^len? (Seine 2)?aie|lat ber ^dfer ^ahtn ^tm% etc. 2)er ^err ©e^etrne ^ofrat fmb nic^t ju ^aufe. 'Dk ^errfd^aft ftnb au^gegangen. 312. After a collective noun the verb stands more regularly in the singular than in Eng. Only when this noun or an in- definite numeral is accompanied by a genitive pi., the plural verb is the rule. In early N. H. G. this plural was very com- mon. T)k ^enge flol). Mt mU nimmt Zdl (G.)- ^^"^ ^^^^ junge 33oI! ber @^nitter fliegt gnm %an^ (Sch.) ©ort fommen ein paax an^ ber ^ud)e (Sch.). Sine ^D^enge (Sier ftnb ijerborBen. 313. When the subject is a neuter pronoun, e^, bte^, ba^, etc., the neuter verb agrees with the predicate noun or sub- stantive pronoun in number: Da^ ttjaren mir felige 3:age (Over^ beck), a^ [xnt) bie M*te i^re^ 3;^un^ (Sch.). S^ s^gen brei Sager tvo^I auf bie 53irf(^ (Uh.). In this case e^ is only expletive. S3er flnb biefe ? 134 GENERAL SYITTAX — SIMPLE SENTEi^CE. [314- 314. When subjects are connected by entn?eter — ol?er, nic^t nur — fotttern au(^, treter — noc^, \om^ — aU (au(^), the verb has the person and number of the first subject and joins this one if the subjects are of different persons. The verb for the second subject is omitted. (Sntwelier In ge^ft (or gel)ft tu) oter id). XnU n?ar id) f(^ult), teiU er. Subjects of the same person connected by the above correlatives ; by oter, nebft, mit, famt have as a rule a singular verb and the verb joins the second subject. ID em 35olfe fann mitv geuer 6ei nod) SBaffer (Sch.), Neither fire nor water can harm those people. 315. If the subjects are of different persons, the first has the preference over the second, the second over the third. Moreover, the plural of the respective pronouns is often added. S)er Da unb idj, n?ir ftnt m^ figer (Sch.). Du unt ter ^Setter, (i^r) gel)t na(^ ^aufe. The adjective as a predicate or attribute has been sufficiently treated under the adjective, see 210-225. 316. The noun as a predicate agrees with the subject in case ; if the subject is a person, also in number and gender, but in the latter only when there are special forms for mascu- line and feminine. See 167. Ex.: Die S3eltgef(^id)te ift ba^ Seltgerid^t (Sch.). tk ^ot ift tie mntkv ter Srftntung (Prov.). Xa^ ?0^dt(^en tviU iejt Srgielerin njerten, auerft tvottte fie @^au)>ieleritt merben* 1. If one person is addressed as itt man'^ felkr au^ (Busch). 320. Adversative Sentences. 1. One excludes the other (disjunctive-adversative) : oter, or, entlveter — oter, fonft (else), 136 GENERAL SYNTAX— COMPOUND SENTENCE. 320- anternfafl^, otherwise. Ex.: (£r ( Sallenftein) mu^te entmeber gar nic^t befe^Ien oter mtt iJoUfommener gret^eit ^anteln (Sch.). One contradicts the other (contradictory - adversative) : fontern, »ielmel)r, fonbern ♦ , . »ielmel)r» The first clause contains ni(^t, gmar, freilic^, allerbing^, wo^L i c ©onnen alfo fd^eitten un^ nid^t me^r (Sch. ). SUBOEDINATE SENTENCES. 323. We shall distinguish three classes of dependent clauses, according to the logical value of the part of speech they represent: 1. Substantive clauses, with the value of a noun. 2. Adjective clauses, with the value of an adjective. 3. Adverbial clauses, with the value of an adverb. Substantive Clauses. 324. The clause is subject : "Za^ ekn ift ter gluc^ ter bbfen Zl)at, Daf fte fortivci^rent) ^ofe^ mu^ geMrett (Sch.). ^i(^ reuet, t)a§ i^'^ t^at (id.). Predicate (N.) : Xie ^enf^eit pnt) nicbt immer tua^ (te f(^einen (Le.). Object (A.): ©lauBjl t)U ni&it, fca^ erne SBarnung^jltmme in 2:rdumett ttorkteutent) ju itnd fprtdJt? (Sch.). S3ag man f^tvarj auf we{§ befi^t, !ann man getroft na(^ ipaufe tragen (F. 1966-7). Dative : S3o^l bem, ter M5 anf t)te ^fletge (to the very end) rein geleBt fein Seben ^at (He.). Genitive : 2Be^ ta^ iper^ »oII tft, be^ ge^t ber ^unti likr (B.). Apposition: T)en ebein 8tol3,t)a§ bu bir felbft nic^t genugej^, ^eqet^' id) bir (G.). 325. As to their contents the substantive clauses may be grouped as follows: 1. i)a§, or declarative clauses, always introduced by „ba^»'' ©(^ott @o!rate^ le^rte, ba^ bie @eete be^ 'Mtn\6>m unfterBlid) fei, or bie Se^re,ba§ bie @eele . . . , or mir glauBen, ^a^ bie @eele ♦ ♦ ♦ More examples in 324. 138 GENERAL SYI^TAX — SUBORDIIS^ATE SENTEI^CES. [325- 2. Clauses containing indirect questions : a. Questions after the predicate always introduced by ob ; in the main clause may stand as correlatives e^, ta^, Ceffen, tat)on, etc. (Er l^atte n\6>t gef^rickn, ob er gefunt geblie&en (Bii.). (See F. 1667-70). h. Questions after any other part of the sentence, introduced by an interrogative pronoun, by an interrogative adverb, simple or compounded with a preposition, viz., mv, tva^, mie, m, wann, \nomit, itjo^er, m^n, etc. Ex. : (^raget nic^t, n?arum t(^ traure (Sch. ). See ¥. 1971. 53egre{fft bu, ttjie antac^tig fc^marmen »iel leit^ter aU gut ^anbeln ift? (Le.). 91oc^ fe^tt un^ ^unbe, n?ag in Untemalten unb @d^n?i93 gefi^el)en (Sch.). c. The question may be disjunc- tive, introduced by ob — oter; oB — oter ob; ob — ob. Ex.: 3lber fag^ mtr, ob loir fte^en ober ob loir wetter ge()en (F. 3906-7). Unb eV ter 3;ag ft(^ neigt, mug fi(^^^ erftdren, ob x&i Un greunt, ob ic^ ben 33ater foil entbe^^ren (Sch.). Remarks. — 1. The mood in 1 and 2, according to circumstances, is either the indicative or the potential subjunctive. See the examples sub 1 and in 324. 3. In „ba§"-clauses the other two word-orders are also possible, but without ba^: ©ofrate^ le^rte, tie (Seek fei unf^erblic^. ©^ wurbe fcefauptet, geflern l^vibe man i^n noc^ auf ber trn nic^t papt. ^^ur i»a^ brein ge|t unb ni(|t brein ge'^t, ein fraftis Sort ju 2)ienflen jlc^t (F. 1950-3). 3. Case-attraction between relative and antecedent is now rare. ^U Wel(^er, denoting rather a cause than a quality, is now archaic, but still quite frequent in.,Lessing's time, tnea^, al^ m\d)tx fic^ an ben Motlen (mere) ^iguren erge^et, = "^Eneas, since he delights ..." (Le.). ^on ber Xragobie, al^ iiber bie un^ bie 3eit jiemlic^ atte^ barau^ (of Aristotle's Poetics) gonnen ..." about tragedy, in so far as time has favored us ... " (id.), „!Da" in the relative clause is no longer usage. 2Ber ba ftet)et, fe^e ju, bap er nic^t falle (B.). 328. The mood depends upon circumstances. The poten- tial subjunctive (of the preterit and pluperfect) is frequent after a negative main clause. S^ ift feine gro^e ©tatt in Ticutfd)^ lanfc, Die ber Dn!el nicbt Befu*t I)dtte (= did not visit). The sub- junctive of indirect speech also stands. "Lit Sle^iernng Der 3?ereinigten (Staaten befd^merte fic^ iifcer bie Sanbuna fotoieler airmen; wel^e manege euro|)dif(^e Sflegierung fortfi^ide. 140 GE2^EEAL SYKTAX — SUBORDINATE SEJ^TENCES. [329^ Adterbial Clauses. ' 329. They are introduced by the subordinating conjunc- tions. The main clause often has an emphatic adverb, e. g., alfo, tann, ta, ba^in, je^t, fearer, Ux\xvx. ©o does not, as a rule, stand after dependent clauses expressing time and place, and generally becomes superfluous in English after dependent clauses of manner. 330. Temporal Clauses. 1. Contemporaneous action imply- ing either duration or only point of time. Conjunctions : ma^rent), intern, xxC^t^ (inteffen), tute, t>a (all meaning "while," " as ") ; folange (aU) ; fo oft (al^) ; fo balb (at^) ; ta, lt)0 (rare and colloquial) = when; wenn (wann is old) + " when," refers to the future; al0, "when," refers always to the past with the preterit ; ttjeil, bteweil, bcrtDetl, = -{- " while," are archaic, ©olange, fo oft, foBalb are now much more common without Ex.: 5[(^ ! steKeii^t inbem (as) tt)ir l^offen, ^at Utt« Unveil fc^on getroffen (Sch.). ^m ber ©tarfe JDttb ba^ ©cfcitffal jwingen, tt)enn ber ©c^wac^Ung unterliegt (Sch.). Unb wie (as) er ft^t unb xoxt er Iaufd)t, teilt fic^ bie glut empor (G.). 511^ be^ (Sanctum SBorte tamen, ba fc^ellt er bretmal bei bem S^Jamen (w jerfatten, ItU ber grope 9?ame nod) (Sch.). Unb tt>tc er winft mit bem ginger, auf f^ut ftc^ ber weite Btvlnger (id.), ^aum njar ber ^aitx tot, fo fommt ein jeber mit feincm 9?ing (Le.). (Notice the inversion.) 332] GENERAL SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 141 5)er tbnig »erUe§ fRurn^berg, nai^bem er e^ jur ^iirforge mit etner linlanglic^en aSefa^ung ijerfefien ^atte (Scli.). 3. Subsequent action. The action of the dependent clause follows. Conjunctions: (£l)e, Bei)or, + "ere", "before"; hi^, until, with or without taf . Ex. : 9?{e ijerac^te ben 9)?ann, eV t)u fetn Snn^rc^ erfannt '^afl (He.). 35c»or n)ir^« laffen rlnnen, :6etet etnen frommen ©pru(^ (Sch.). 33i^ bie ®to(fe fic^ ttcr= fii^let, rafll bte ftrenge Str:6eit ru^n (id.). (£|e wir e^ un« ijerfa^en (unexpectedly), hac^ ber SSJagen jufammen, a. The main clause may be emphasized by bann, bamal^, banit, barouf, and fOf if it follows the dependent clause. In 2 and 3 the potential subjunctive can stand. 331. Local Clauses. They denote the place and direction of the action of the main clause. They begin with mo, n?oI){n, nJO^er, and the main clause may contain a corresponding ta, Ex.: 2Bo 5Kenfc^entunf! nic^t jureic^t, ^at ber ^imntet oft geraten (Sch.). 2)ie SBelt i^ ijottfommen nhtxaU, too ber SWenfc^ md)t Ijinfommt mit feiner Dual (id.). 2)etin ektt i»o Segriffe fe'^Ien, ba fleUt ein 2Bort jur re(|ten 3eit |tc^ ein (F. 1995-6). tein Sapr if! ju |akn, wo|tn man fic^ auc^ wenbe. a. The demonstratives ba, ba^tn, batjer in the local clause are now archaic. Do not confound the relative clauses and indirect questions with the local clauses which generally refer to an adverb. The potential subjunctive may stand in them, Glauses of Manner and Cause. 332. Modal clauses express an accompanying circumstance and are therefore related to contemporaneous clauses. Con- junctions: intern, tag jtic^t, o§ne tag, without, intern nt^t, ftatt or anftatt ta§, instead of. Ex. : Xix diitkx ging fort, intern er auf ten ©egner einen i)erac^t(i(^en ^M marf. 3(^ Un nie in Sonton, tap i(^ ni&it ta^ ^ufenm Befui^te (subj.). 1, They may have the potential subjunctive. But these clauses occur more frequently in the form of participial and infinitive clauses with 142 GENERAL SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. [333- wO^ne ju," „an\tan ju" : 5U*|)afl, anflatt ju empfansen, mu^te ja!^kn. (£r ritt fort o|ne ftc^ umjufe^en, 333. Comparative clauses denote manner, degree, and measure. Conjunctions: \vk, aU, " as," " than " with the corre- sponding fo, alfo, ebenfo (=: so) in the main clause. After the comparative aU, Unn, meter, "than." Other forms: cjleid)tt)ie — fo ; fo n?ie — fo ; just as — as, so. Khc denotes rather manner and quality, aU the degree and quantity. When both clauses have the same predicate, contraction is common. Then wit denotes likeness, aU identity. Ex. : 3c^ finge mt ber SJogel ftngt (G.). 'Danfet ®ott fo warm aU i(^ fitr biefen 2;runf eu(^ banfe (id.). 2Bte bu mir {„t^u\t" understood), fo ic^ bir (Prov.). Du t>ljl mir ni^t^ mef)r aU fein (So^n (Sch.). 2)er trcige ©ang be^ ^riege^ ^at bem f onig eben[o»tcl (Sd)aben get^an aU er ben 9?eknen SSorteit brac^te (id.), ^atte ftc^ ein 9flanjlein angemafl^t aU wie ber 2)oftor Sutler (F. 2139-30) {aU n>k is collo- quial). „2Bte ein 9litter»'' " like a knight " ; „aU (ein) flitter," " as a knight." ©cin (^liicf war grower aU man krec^net ^atte (Sch.). (£ine^ ^aupte^ (by one head) Idnger benn atte^ SSolf (B.). 2Beber is very rare. 1. Specially to be noticed are the clauses with aU o^, al^wenn» gener- ally followed by the potential or unreal subjunctive. For Wenn + de- pendent order occurs also the inverted without wenn. Ex.: 3^x eilet ia, ciU mm \\)x i5litgel ^attet (Le.). ©uc^e bie SSiffenfc^aft, aU wiirbefl ewtg bu ^tcr fein; J^ugenb, aU "^ielte ber Zoh bic^ f(|on am flraubenben |)aar (He.). But the indica- tive is possible : Unb e^ waltet unb ftebet unb Braufet unb jifc^t mt mm Staffer mit i^euer fid) mengt (Sch.). 2. 1)enn is preferable after a comparative when several „aU" occur. SSie is colloquial. (£^ fragt fic^ ob Seffing grower aU 2)id)ter benn al^ Wh\\\6) gcwcfcn fci. W\ur(^ ba§, ta'mit ba§ express rather the instrument. S3eil expresses the material cause; ba the logical reason; „in^ tern" is a weak causal and borders rather closely upon the contemporaneous ^intern." X)enn + normal order expresses a known or admitted reason. It is emphatic. See 321. Ex. ; 2)ad ©ci^tepptau (hawser) jerrtp, loeil ber ©c^leppbampfer (tug) ju fd)nea anjog* a^it bem ^eflen SBillen letften wir fo iDenig, mil una taufenb Sitten freujen (G.). Seben anbern ^u fd)i(fen ifi beffer, ba i^ fo flein Mn (G.). 2)ir bliifit gejoip baa fc^onjle &IM auf (£rben, ba bu fo fromm unb ^eiHg bijl (Sch.). 0lic^elteu rouptc jld^ nur baburc^ sw ^elfen, ba§ er ben ^^elnbfeligfeiteu cin fc^Ieunigea ©nbe mad)te (Sch.). 1. 9'Jun, bieweil, attbieweil, mapen, [internal, and others, are rare and archaic. 339] GENERAL SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. 145 2. The clauses with ba'burc^ baf, ba'mit ba^ border closely upon the substantive clause. 2)a, says Becker, denotes the real and logical rea- son, Weil the logical only when the kind of reason is not emphasised. 2BeiI stands in a clause that answers the question as to the reason. Sffiarum wurbe SBattenjlein a^efe^t? Sell man i^n fiir einen SJerrater ^ielt. 338. Final clauses express intention and object. Con- junctions: Vami't, baf, "in order that." 2luf taf, unb ba^ are archaic. In the main clause rarely stand tarum, t)ii^\i, in tcr ^bftd)t, 3U bent 3^cdt (both followed by ta§), Ex.: ©arum cBeit lei^t er fetnem, bamit er fiet« ju ge'ben ^abt (Le.). ©aju anub it)m ber ©erfianb, bap er im innern ^erjen fpuret, wa^ er erf(^afft mit feiner ^ano (Sch.). e^re 3)ater unb SS^utter, auf ba§ bir'^ wo^l ge^e unb bu lange UUfi auf erben(B.). 1. The reigning mood of this clause is the subjunctive. If the object is represented as reached, the indicative may also stand. Urn ju + inf. forms a very common final clause ; Wlan le^t ni(^t um ju effen, fonbern man t§t um ju leben. 339. Concessive clauses make a concession to the contra- diction existing between the main clause and the result ex- pected from it in the dependent clause. They are called also adversative causal clauses. Conjunctions : obgIei'(^ (o& * . . gleic^), ob[(^o'tt (ob . ♦ . f<^on), obttjo^l (ob . . . mo^l), ob auc^, ob gn?ar, mnn and), mnn qUx6^, ob, all = "although." The main clause may contain tc'nnoct), t)0(^, nic^t^bejioiueni^er, gteidjmo^I, but fo only if it stands second. Relative clauses with indefinite relative pronouns and adverbs, njer . . . and) (immer,nur), n?ie ♦ . . auc^, [o . . . auc^ (noc^) ; inverted clauses and those with the normal order, con- taining the adverbs fc^on, Qkidj, jti^ar, t»o^I, freilid), noc^ have also concessive force. Ex. : 3\t ea 9lei(^ 9^ac^t, fo leuc^tet unfer OJec^t (Sch.). (Compare Dbgleic^ e^ ^ad^t til, ob e^ gteic^ ^a^t ift . . .) 2Ba^ Sfeuer^wut i^m auc^ geraubt, ein fiiper Srofl ift t^m geblie'&en (id.). 9)luttg fprac^ er ju 9ieine!en^ bejlen (in favor of R.) fo falf(| auc^ biefer befannt mx (G.). ©in ®ott ift, ein ^eiltger 2BitIc lebt, tt)tc au6) ber menf(^li(|e wanfe (Sch.). ©rfutt' ba»on bein ^erj, fo qxo^ ee ifl (F. 3453). 146 GENEKAL SYNTAX — SUBORDIKATE SENTEI^CES. [340- SKan fommt in^ ©erebe^ wie man jtc^ immer flettt (Q.). 2)cm S3i>fett)id^t wirb aUt^ \^mx, er t^ue iwa^ er mU (Holty). Qroax t»eig ic^ »iel, boc^ mbc^t^ i^ atte^ toiffen (F. 601). 1. Mark also the form of the imperative and unb + inversion : (Set nod^ fo bumnt/ e^ gibt bo(^ jemanb(en), ber bic^ fitr weife l;alt. !Der 5Wenfc^ ifl fvci fiefc^affen, i|l frei, unb twiirbe er in ^'etten ge^oren (Sch.). 2. Mood : if a fact is stated, the indicative ; if a supposition, the con- cessive and unreal subjunctive. See examples above. 3. When certain parts of speech are common to both clauses, there may be contraction, Dlbtoo^l i)on §o^em a, tann, in fcem %(iUt, and if it stand second, generally begins with fo. Ex.: Senn jtc^ bie S5Hfer felftfl iefrein, ha fann bic SKo^Ifa^rt nic^t gebei^n (Sch.). SiBenn bu aIj'd^o^ ic^ 6ud^, mm i^ mein liebe^ ^inb getrofen l^attc (Sch.). D warfl bu wa'^r gewefen unb gerabe, nie fam e« ba^in, atted fliinbe anber^ (Sch.). 4. Contracted and abbreviated forms : ©ntworfen Ih^ t|l^^ ein gemetner gre»el; ijottfii^rt ifl^^ ein unflerMic^ Unternebmen (Sch.). SBenn nic^t, two nic^t, tt)0 ntoglic^ are very common. SBir »erfud^ten i^n l»o moglic^ ju krul^igen, mnn nic^t ganj ju entfernen. For the tenses see also 275-280. WORD-ORDER. 341. We distinguisli three principal word-orders according to the position of subject and verb: 1. The normal, viz., subject — verb. 2. The inverted, viz., verb — subject. 3. The dependent, viz., verb at the end. (By " verb " we shall understand for the sake of brevity the personal part and by "predicate" the non-personal part of the verb, viz., participle and infinitive.) 342. The normal occurs chiefly in main sentences : T)tv SBint m^* It is identical with the dependent order if there is only subject and verb in the dependent clause. T)it Wixi^U ge^t, tweil ter SCinb m% 343. The inverted order occurs both in main and depend- ent clauses: ®e|t Me WlMt ? Se^t ter SBint, (fo) ge^t Me Mvi\^U. It occurs : a. In a question. b. In optative and imperative sentences. c. In dependent clauses, mainly conditional and after aU + subjunctive, when there is no conjunction like mnn, oh, etc. d. If for any reason, generally a rhetorical one, any other word but the subject, or if a whole clause, head the sentence. e. For impressiveness the verb stands first. Examples with adjuncts (objects, adverbs, etc.) added: 148 GENERAL SYNTAX — WORD-ORDER. [343- a. (Sc^reibt ter greunb ? 53leiBt kr !Diener nic^t lattge au^? Sa^ f(^ret6t tir ter greunt ? But when the inquiry is as to the subject the normal order stands of course. 2Ber f(|ret()t einen S3rief? Sai3 ijl ber langen 0tebe furjer ©inn? (Sch.). b. WoQt nte tier 2:ag erfc^einen, mnn be^ raukn ^rtege^ ^orben liefer flillc 2:^1 turc^tokn (Sch.). For more examples, see 284, 1, 2. But the inverted order is not required: '^it 2(if)\ ber S^ropfen, bte er ^egt, fei euren Sagen jugelegt ! (F. 989-990). c. SBttlft Du genau erfa^ren wa^ ft(^ jtemt, fo frage nut ki etien grauen an (G.). 5Birb man n?o (=trgentwo) gnt aufgenommen, muf man nit^t glei(^ ujieterlommen (Wolff). (Sr) @trtd) trauf ein ©pange, ^ett^ unt Sting', aU njdren'g eben ^fifferltng' ; ban!f nidjt ttJeniger unb ni($t me^r, aU oh'^ ein ^or6 »oa ^^luffe n>dr' (F. 2843-6). Notice here the inversion after aU alone, but dependent order after ftl^ o5. See 340, 1 ; also F. 1132-25, 1962-3. But for emphasis and to add vividness, the normal is still possible : !Du fle^ej^ jlitt, er mrUt auf; bu fpric^j! i^n an, er flrett an bir ^inauf (F. 1168-9). This is mere parataxis. d. T)n 5Bot|(^aft pr' [6:, mo^l, aUein mir fe^lt ber® lank (F. 765). Srnft ijl M^ Mm, ^eiter ift bie ^unft (Sch.). ^i(^ ()at mein ^er^ betrogen (id.). 2Co aBer ein ^a^ ift, M ^erfammcln ft^ bie 2lbler (B.). Deine^ ®eifte5 ^ah' ic^ einen ipaui^ ijerfriirt (Uh.). See also F. 860- 1, 1174-5, 1236. iiBerfe'^en fann (Sa^Iu^ bie^ ©emdibe nid^t ^aUn (Le.). ©ef^rteBen fte|t: „3m Slnfang mx bag Sort" (F. 1224). See also 236, 3. 1. The main clause, inserted in any statement or following it, has in- version according to this rule. Xia^, fpri(^t er, ijl fein Slufent^alt, )X)a^ fbrbert ^immelan (Sch.). SBie feib i^r glutfUc^, ebler ®raf, ^u^ er ijoU 5lrgUfl an (id.). For emphasis the speaker can insert a clause uninverted : 2)enn, id) luei^ e^, er ijl ber ® liter bie er bereinfl erBt, Wert (H. and D., III. 53). 2. The coordinating conjunctions aBer, atlein, benn, namli(^> ober, fonbernf unb standing generally at the head of the sentence, any adverb with the force of an elliptical sentence (jwar, ja, etc., having generally a comma 345] GENERAL SYl^TTAX — WORD-ORDER. 149 after them) call for no inversion. After enttveber there is option. Ex.: Sl&er bie ^unfl ^at in ben neueren Beiten ungleic^ meitere ©renjen cr'^alten (Le.). 3»ar cuer S3art ift frau«, boc^ ^ebt i^r md)t bie JRiegel (F. 671). ^^itrwa^r ! i^ bin ber einjtgc ©o^n nur (H. and D., IV. 91). 3a, mir f)at e^ ber ®eijl gefagt (id., IV. 95). 2)entt bie 2«anner fmb ^eftig (id., IV. 148). 3. When the dependent clause precedes, the main clause can for em- phasis and very frequently colloquially have the normal order. Ex. : ^viitte er bie Itrfac^en biefe^ affgemeinen 5lberglauben^ an ©^affpere^^ (Bd^iln^eiten aud& fiefu^t, er toitrbe |te Mh gefunben ^abtn (Le.). €. §at bie ^onigin toc^ ntc^t^ ijorau^ »or bent gemeinen 55ur(^eni?eiBe (Sch.). »ergej[en,n?ie'^ ptte fommen fonnen? (Sch.). X;ag ein SHenfc^ bo(^ einen 9)^enfc^en (o »erlegen foil mad)en fonnen! (Le.). a. But in this case and in other compound tenses the *' verh " (i. e., the personal part) may also stand between the participle and the other aux- iliary or the infinitive, e. g., roeil ber ^aufntann ba^ $au^ fott gefauft ^akn or gefauft fott ^akn (in poetry). ®efauft ^afeen foE is the common order. 2. The normal order may stand: 1. Li dependent clauses containing indirect speech. Sr 150 GEN^ERAL SYN^TAX — WORD-ORDER. [346- ^hiiU, ©lalfpere l)aU 33rutu^ inm ipelcen te^ ©tiicfe^ ma&im milm (La). 2. In a second or third dependent clause. See 358. 3. In certain clauses with negative force containing an enclitic „t)enn"; e^ fei tenn ta§ + dependent order. See 336.- 4. In substantive clauses : (53ott n?ei§, id) bin nid^t fd^ult) (Le.). This is mere parataxis without conjunction. 346. The auxiliaries Ijahm and fein are also frequently dropped in dependent clauses to avoid an accumulation of verbal forms, both in prose and poetry. Lessing, Goethe, and Klopstock, especially the first, drop the auxiliary very freely and skillfully. Ex.: SSie wnBegreiflt(^ i(^ »ott i^m Beleitigt n?ort)en (supply Bin here or before Beleiuigt) nnfe no(^ iuerbe (Le.). ^bglid), taj ter 55ater W Zi^xmnt'i te^ e i n e n 9iing^ nic^t langer in feinem ipaufe (supply l)at) tulten ftJoUen (id.). 347. The dependent order in main clauses is archaic and poetic. Ex. : ©tegfrieb ben jammer mi)i [(^wingen funnt (dialect for fonnte) (Uh.). Ura^ne, ®ro§mutter, Wlutttx unb ^inb in bumpfer ©tube kifammen |inb (Schwab). 348. 1. The inverted order in the conditional clause and in a main clause for the sake of impressiveness has sprung from the order of the question. Compare, for instance : 1. 3ft bcr greunb treu ? (question). 2. 3ft bev gvcunb trcu ? (question). 63ut, fo wtrb er mir beifte^en. 3. 3ft i>ev S-reunb tveu (conditional clause), fo wirb ev miv 6eiftcl}cn. 4. 3ft mir ber greunb bo* treu geBUebeit ! (impressive inversion). 2. The main clause has inversion when the dependent clause precedes, because it generally begins with an adverb like fo, bann, etc. ©e^^ft bit ni(^t, fo t:^ufl bit Uuvcdjt. Without fo, the inversion really ceases. Hence we say, the normal order may still stand for emphasis. But fo, etc., were so frequent that inversion became the rule. Inversion is therefore limited originally to the question and to the choice of placing the emphatic part of the sentence where it will be most prominent. 349. 1. The dependent order was in O. H. G. by no means limited to the dependent clause. Toward the 10th century it begins to become rarer in the main clause. In early M. H. G. it became limited to the dependent clause, so that now we may justly call it the " dependent-clause order. '^ 2. The verb at the end is, no doubt, a great blemish of German style— second only to the separation of the little prefix of separable compound verbs, which may turn up after many intervening parts at the close of the sentence. According to Delbrftck, the dependent order— subject, object, verb— was the primitive one, still in force in Latin. 352] GE:ffERAL SYNTAX — WORD-ORDER. 151 General Rules for the Order of other Parts of the Sentence besides Subject and Verb. Position of the Predicate. 350. The predicate, be it an adjective, a substantive, par- ticiple, infinitive, or separable prefix of a compound verb or the first element of a loosely compounded verb, stands at the end of a main clause in a simple tense. The adjuncts of the predicate, such as objects, adverbs, stand between verb and predicate. Ex.: ^Der @enne mu§ fc^eiben,ter ©ommer ifi ^in (Sch.). 3^^^ f^i^ tin Wlti^ta (id.). @r ^at ^erlor^ne SJorte nur gefproi^en (id.), ^etn ©d^ilC finij btefen ^ort)ftreid) auf (id.). (Straflofe ^rci^^eit fprt(^t ben ©itten ^o^n (id.), ©eftern fanb ein ©agner^^Sonce'rt ftatt* In tlie dependent clause only the verb changes position, subject and predicate remain as in the main clause, and the adjuncts stand between them. For instance : ®tautt ha^ nic^t ! S^r werbet biefe^ ^ampfci^ ©nbe mm^^ mer erMtcfen (Sch.), becomes ®laubt nid^t, bap i^r biefes? ^am^jfesS (Snbe ie erblicfen mxhtt, 351. In the compound tense the separable prefix immedi- ately precedes the participle, be it in a main or in a dependent clause. !I^reifi9 3a^re ^aben iinr jufammen au^gelebt unb au^ge^alten (Sch.). £)ie (E^olera will (is about to) ii'ber^ant* ne^men. See 137. Order of Objects and Cases. 352. a. Case of a person before a case of the thing. 5l6er au&j no(^ bann . ♦ . fu^r ber ^aifer fort, ben ©tdnben ben ?5ncben ju geigen (Sch.). b. Case of a pronoun before a noun. Wan Beftimmte fie (them) bem aUgemeinen Unmillen ^nm t)pin (Sch.). c. The dative stands before the accusative; if both are per- sons, the accusative may stand before the dative. (£r fel6fl l^atte bem Tienfte biefe^ ipaufe^ feine erften ?5^I^3ug^ gemibmet (Sch.). 152 GENEEAL SYJSTTAX — WORD-ORDER. [353- d. The accusative-object stands before remoter objects, a genitive or a preposition + case. But see also a. W(kn mo^te fagen, 3SoItaire :^a6e ein ^efiiW »on ter 2Ci(^tig!eit biefer ^erfonlt(^fett gel)abt (H. Grimm). Die ©(^iilerin fc^rteb einen Stuffa^ iiber l)en SSinter* e. As to pronouns, pd) stands generally before e^, and both before every other pronoun. The personal pronoun stands before the demonstrative. The personal and fid) may stand before the subject, if it be a noun, in the inverted and depend- ent orders. Sr ^at fid) e^ angeeignet. ^rummau (a proper name) ttd^ert ft(^ t^m (Sch.). 5Cer liarf ft(^ fo etma^ eriauben ? S^nem ben S3eg aw bent Bbm{fd)en 3;^rone 3U ijerf(^Uegen, ergriff man bie SBaffen f(^on unter ?D^att^ta^ (Sch.). 2Ba^ i^m bie i?ergro§erte 3)lad)t ber ©tanbe (estates) oxi @elbftt^dtig!eit no(^ it6rig lief, ^ielten feine Slgnaten (relatives) unter einem fc^impflii^en 3^^<^"9 (id-)- -^^^ M bie Slotte ergeben ? ^aft bu ei$ i^m tt)ieber gegeben ? 1. c also includes the personal pronouns : 3Bie fonnt^ id) o'^nc Beugen nttc& i^r na^n ? (Sch.). The rules a, c, d are by no means strict. 353. For the position of the adjective, see the use of the adjective, 194, 212. Notice that what depends upon an adjective, participle, or infinitive precedes these. Die Sng^ Idnber pwb i^rem iperrfc^er^aufe ergeben. 3wm ©e^en geBorcn, gum ©djauen Beftettt, bem 2:urme gefc^moren, gefdUt mir bie 2Belt (G.). 'Mx kten i^n, Un 33rief auf bie ^oft gu geben. (®^af|>ere'^ 2Ber!e fmb) feine Siugenble^ren, in ^apitel gebrac^t unb bur(^ rebenbe (£yem))el erldutert (Le.). Position of Adverbs. 354. In general, adverbs stand before the words they qualify. The modal adverbs nid^t, dtQO., gnjar, fc^on, tt?oI, etc., and the adverbs of time immer, fd)on, je^t, nie, nimmer stand generally immediately before the predicate or in place of it if there is none'. Die^ 33i(bnig ift bejauBemb fc^bn (Mozart's '^CkMUx^ 358] GENERAL SYKTAX — WORD-ORDER. 153 flotc) Sin fe^r T^eftiger ^ujlen greift tiert ^ranfen flar! an* ^a« fc^mere ^erj n?irt) nxM trnri^ SBorte ki(%t (Sch. ). ©(^on i?iele 2:age fe:^^ ic^ e^ fc^meigenli an (id.). 3c^ ^cibe euc^ no^ nie erfannt (B.). ^aft l)tt t^n ttO(^ ni(^t 6efuc[)t ? (Notice the opposite of the Eng- lish order in " never yet," " not yet.") 355. An adverb of time stands before one of place, and both before one of manner. Ex. : 3Sie(e 33auem mxm gepern nac^ fcer af er ntcin guter ©ngel ifl (id.). ®ie e^r\ bte i^m gebiirt, geb^ ic^ i^nt gem; baa ^ec^t baa er jtc^ nimmt, ijeweigrMcl i^m (id.). 2l(a id) jiinger tt>ar, liehe i(^ nic^ta f0 fe^r, aU fftoma'm (novels) (G.). 9iii|cUcu tt)u§te fid) baburd) ju bclfen, ba§ er ben ^einbfeligfeiten jtx>tfc^en 6eibeu ein fc^teunigea Snbe mac^te (Scli.). -SHein guter ®etfl kma'^rte mic^ hMox, bie ^Jatter an ben S3ufen mir ju legen (mir before bie IRatter in prose) (id.). S)er Men^d) bege^rt, olleS an fic^ au reiBen (G.). U^enn bantt bie roUenben Ul^agen l)orbeigefouft finb unb man prt fie nur nod^ in ber feme, . . . (for unb man fie . . . prt (Auerbach). 359. The rules given can hardly be abstracted from poetry. Even in prose they will be found frequently infringed. Rhythm, rhyme, and, in prose, emphasis control the •order of words and allow of much choice. But students translating into German should iidhere to the rules very strictly. It will be noticed that the German word-order coin- cides very nearly with the old English, and does not differ after all so much from the modem English word-order. The chief points of difference are the dependent order, <3ie position of adverbs of time, which in English stand generally at the end, and the position of the adjuncts of adjectives, participles, and infinitives, which precede the latter instead of following them as in English. 1. The word-order required by certain conjunctions has been frequently mentioned ^ the General Syntax. See, for instance, 320. SECOND PART. ADVANCED GRAMMAR. CONTAINING PHONOLOGY, HISTORICAL COMMENTARY ON THE ACCIDENCE, HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE, AND WORD-FORMATION. 361] PHOi^OLOGY. 157 A. PHONOLOGY. Historical Notes on the Orthography. 360. The letters used in Germany are the strongly modified Latin (Roman), called "Gothic," in vogue all over Europe during the later Middle Ages, when printing was invented. Germany is the only nation of the first rank which retains them, and for this reason they may be justly called " German " now. In Denmark, Sweden and Norway they are also still in use to a certain extent. Italy, France, England and Holland abandoned the ugly " Gothic " alphabet very early and returned to the Roman. The German people and the more conservative among the scholars make the retention of the " German " letters a matter of patriotism. 1. An edition of SchUler in Latin type ruined a Leipzig publislier twenty years ago. Yet in the 18th century much literature was printed in Latin type. It is an interesting fact, stated by a correspondent of the " Evening Post" of New York, that the first German book published in America was printed in Latin type by Benjamin Franklin. It was a sectarian hymn-book, " Harfe Zions.'" 3. Nearly all German scientific books are printed in h. type to-day, because all scholars and civilized nations that would read such books are accustomed to this type. Grimm advocated it strongly and had all his books printed in it. Koherstein' s Literaturgeschichte ; Bauer's, Krause's, and Wilmanns' grammars are printed in it. That G. type was not ban- ished from the schools by the new ''Rules" is due to the personal prejudice of the Chancellor of the German Empire, who, not long ago, when a publisher sent to him a book in Latin type, returned it, because it was more troublesome for him to read than German type. 3. German children therefore still continue to learn to read eight alphabets and to write in four, viz., capital and small Latin script, and capital and small German script In the Swiss schools German type and script have just been given up. The Latin type and script seem bound to prevail in Germany before very long. 361. The German alphabet represents the sounds of the language more adequately than the English does the English sounds, but that is not saying much. In no living language do the signs keep step with the sounds ; they are always behind, nowhere more so than in English. But .158 PHONOLOGY. [362- in German also are several signs for the same sound and one sign may have to stand for several sounds. For instance, 6) in „ad)" and „x^,'' n in funf, fanb, fang, denote different sounds ; ^, f, ff, § stand for the same sound ; also d (short) and e. The long vowel is indicated by doubling in 8aal, SSoot, Seet; by | in SBa^l aBo^l, 2Be^, and not at all in ^6^, ^u^, ^ut. And yet, while German spells more phonetically than English, its standard of spelling is as uncertain as the English, if not more so. 1, In 1876 an orthographical conference was called at Berlin, which was to discuss certain modifications and propositions aiming at uniformity, laid before them by R. von Kaumer. They met and agreed upon certain rules, which proved, however, unacceptable both to the government and the public. 2. In 1879 and 1880 the various governments in Germany took the matter in hand and prescribed the spelling to be followed in their schools. Thus we have Prussian, Bavarian, Saxon, Austrian rules, but they vary" very little. The kingdom of Wiirtemberg alone, with true Suabian tenacity, still clings to the old spellings. Some seven millions of chil- dren, therefore, now have to learn spelling according to these official rules. All new school-books must be spelt according to them. In- fluential journals and periodicals have taken up the matter. The excellent new edition of the classics now appearing in Gotta's '* Bihliothek der Weltliteratur" is spelt accordingly. While these "Rules" leave much to be wished for, yet no one can deny that some of them are a great step in advance. They change the spelling about as much as the five rules for modified spellings of the American Spelling Reform Asso- ciation would change English spelling. This grammar is spelt accord- ing to the rules. We shall not give them, since they can be so easily obtained. For title of the speller, see 37. A few explanatory remarks are given on certain points. 362. Umlaut signs. Of the numerous signs in M. H. G. only two are left, viz., e after and " over the vowel ; e is to be discarded now entirely even with capitals, after which it was generally put. Umlaut of a was always e, not to be con- founded with e, which is old e. In N. H. G. a has been put for e in words whose connection with words containing -a was transparent. SJater, pi. SJciter, but SJetter; alt, alter, but ©Item; 5Kann, ?Kanner, but 3)?cnfc(). 1. Dictionaries and encyclopedias often put i, ^ after ab, ?tb, which is very annoy- ing. Unfortunately none of the umlauts have a fixed place in the alphabet. They stand generally mixed up with a, o, u. 364] PHONOLOGY. 159 3. R was ae, a, ct in M. H. G. 5 was rarely marked ; o was oe^oe, o ; it, also frequently not marked, was n, ue, it, u. The stroke over ,^ is the remnant of o over u, which stood for the diphthong ito. This became ii in N. H. G. (see 488, 4), hence the stroke. 363. On the marks to show length. 1. M. H. G. ie > t, but the sign te of the old diphthong remained and was put also where i was lengthened as in kil > ^kl, spil > ©j)iel. 2. ^ was used as a sign of length for several reasons. 1. It became silent as in je^n, ©^ma^er, fe^en, gebei^en. It stands frequently now, where an old I or w was dropped, as in hlu'i)tn, Oiu^e, broken, ^u'^, vStrof), but it is not pronounced. The preceding vowel was long originally, or became long according to the general vowel-lengthening. See 488,2. 2. O.H.G. th (= Eng. th) passed into d. This sign after the sound had changed appears still in the M. G. of the 12th and in the succeeding centuries, and stands not only for b but also for t. 3. Since the 15th century many MSS. have regularly f^ for t, and this t^ was used indiscriminately whether the vowel after or before it was long or short, when printing was invented. In the 16th and 17th centu- ries t^ was very frequent. Whether the breath-glide (aspiration) after t was then pronounced, and if so, whether it was appreciated and expressed by I), is a question. Paul thinks this was the case. It would then be a development parallel to the Eng. t in tch for ch {= tsh). Certain it is that ^ after t was no " dehnungs-\) " originally. In 2Btrt^ and 3:^urm, still in vogue, in older t^anne (= %amt), tt)ifd) (= Slifd)), gart^en (= ®arten), I) could not be " dehnungs-^." The grammarians of the 17th and 18th cen- turies began to consider it a dehnungs-^ and tried to limit its use. It has lost ground with every coming generation, and it is a pity that the offi- cial spelling does not abolish it entirely. 4. The doubling of vowels is the oldest method to show length. U, ti and the umlauts are never doubled. 364. The use of initial capitals. This is a self-imposed task of great difficulty and „toj)fierBrc^en.« In the MSS. capitals were only used for the beginning of a paragraph, sometimes of each line ; so also in the early printed books, in which the capitals were added by hand. In 1529 Kolross prescribed capitals for the beginning of every sentence, for proper names, for „®ott" and w^err'* 160 PHONOLOGY— THE VOWELS. [365- (Lord), as he says w®ott ju eeren unb rcijerentj.'' Soon capitals spread over appellatives, then over neuter nouns, and then over the abstract. In the 17th century every noun and any part of speech that could possibly be construed as such got a capital. English can boast of some superfluous capitals in the names of the months, days of the week, points of the compass, adjectives derived from proper nouns, but German carries off the palm among the languages of civilized nations. The oflS.cial spelling reduces capitals considerably. 365. The spelling of foreign words is in a hopeless muddle. There is no system and no rule. All that can be said is that there is a prefer- ence of one spelling over the other. The official spelling leaves much liberty. ANALYSIS AND DESCRIPTION OF GERMAN SOUNDS. 366. In Part 1. we have treated of the alphabet and the pronunciation of the letters in the traditional way. But this way is quite unscientific and is barely sufficient to start the student in reading. To describe the sounds of a language, however, is not an easy matter. If the instructor were acquainted with the Bell-Sweet system as presented in Sweet's "Handbook of Phonetics," Oxford, 1877 and in Sweet's "Sound-Notation," the matter would be comparatively easy and might be disposed of within small space. The system analyzes the vowels as well as the consonants according to the position of the organs, for nothing is more delusive than to " catch " vowels by the sound alone as is generally done. Sweet's Hdbk. gives specimens of German, French, English, Dutch, Danish, Icelandic, and Swedish, transcribed in Latin type, and if the student have a little perseverance, these transcriptions will be a great help to him in learning to pronounce any of the above languages. The system uses none of those big Latin terms, which hide a multitude of inaccu- racies and which are so much afiected by philologians. The Vowels. 367. 1. The most tangible quality of vowels is " round- ness," produced by the rounding of the mouth-cavity in that region where the vowel is made. Pronounce ie of 33iene, round it and you have ii of 33u^tie, Pronounce e of 53eete, and round it and you have b of 33ote. Pronounce a of falter, round it and you have o of goiter* In o is very little lip-rounding (labializa- tion), but mostly cheek or inner rounding. 2. The second, but less palpable quality, of vowels is " nar- rowness." Its opposite is " wideness." A vowel is " narrow " 368] PHOKOLOGT — THE VOWELS. 161 by the convexity of the tongue caused by a certain tenseness in it. It is " wide " when the tongue hes flat and relaxed. This is the difference between i of 53iene and i of Mn, between long ix of SJ^ii^Ie and short u of 5[Rutter, between o of ©o^le and of fod, between the Eng. vowels of "mare" and "man," "sought" and "sot." 3. The third important element in producing vowels is the position of the tongue. Two positions should be distin- guished, the vertical (height) and horizontal (forwardness or retraction). In each we distinguish three grades, viz., " high," "mid," and "low" ; "back," "mixed," and "front." In the vowels of „liegt/' „Sic^t/' „lugt/' „£u(le" the tongue is "high" and " front " ; in the vowels of „^u6^" and „^uc^t" the tongue is "high" but "back." The table on next page shows the rela- tion of the German vowels to each other and also to the English vowels. Key-words for Vowels. We give below some more key-words, some hints as to acquiring the sounds and some of the dialect-variations in pronunciation. High Vowels. 368. 1. u (high-back-narrow round) is only long. Ex.: iput, Xn^, 3flu^e, U^u. Short it is rare in S. G-. Sautter, ?^utter. Since u < wo, the second element still appears in S. G. as eh (in ®aBe), but this pronunciation is not classical. See Hart's Goethe's prose, p. 40. Identical with Eng. oo in too, boot. Its length is either unmarked or indicated by ^, e. g.y %u6>, ipu^n, t^un. It is never doubled. 2. u (high-back-wide-round) is identical with Eng. u in "full," but for a stronger labilization in G. Ex.: ^wikx, hunger, ©|)ru(5^. It is always short. The u pronounced by the extreme N. G. is rather like Eng. w. 162 PHOKOLOGT— THE VOWELS. i high-front bitten E.bid hi 1« la p •So ^ 5 ^ ^ ^_^ P 1 -4 It ■2? •—I o 1 a -a a? X a 1 A ^< *^ 'S'^' U ^ r<^ ^H ^W % <^ ^ M eri (h -^ ^ "o ^O M 1 % ^1 :lfl II d ^ -f^ Art ^ d d 2 A 2 - ® '^•s ^^• 1- •SI fiS %-^ OH •rt o S >»^ OJt® 8 ^ 'd {D 1 1 a- a:s 1 1 1 -a 3 •g® o a> t 'a 1 13 1 o3 ■*^ 'gW o ^ 8 :3 w 1^' a « '■A P f3 o O 369J PHOKOLOGY— THE VOWELS. 163 3. y (high-front-narrow round). This differs from u by having the tongue-position of T, that is, it is high-front, instead of high-back. Ex.: ^iiten, griifen, Su§^» Long all over Ger- many, but diphthongal in S. G. „®ute" = „®uete/' which, like ue for u, is not classical, though old. M. and S. G. rounding of ii is not so emphatic as N. G., so that ii sounds more like i. Its length is sometimes shown by ^, oftener unmarked. Ex. : SWii^le, ©tittle, ipiite, Zu6^tx, 4. y (high-front-wide-round). This is N. G. short ii in ipiitte, Sliiffe, etc. S. G. short it is only slightly rounded and rather the short of their long narrow ii, and therefore itself narrow. Extreme N. G. ii (in Bremen, Holstein, etc.) is rather "mixed" than front. The first ii (N. G., Hanover) is clas- sical. In the alphabet the u-umlauts are represented by u, u§, and 9, as in g)fu^e (short), 3)fu^l (long), Sn^rte, fi^'rif. 369. 1. i (high-front-nan*ow). The same all over Ger- many. Ex.: ©teg, mix, »ier, fte^» Before final I and r it is slightly diphthongal, showing a " vanish " or " glide '' before the consonant. 3SieI, ttter are not fil, fir, but, marking the voice-glide by ^, fiy^l, fi^^r. (See Sweet's Hdbk., p. 133.) Always long. It is represented by i, i^, ie^, but generally ie, Ex. : ^ir, i|r, S3ier, (lie^It. 2. i (high-front-wide). Peculiar to Hanover and M. G., as in Bin, SBinK, ^int>» The strict Low Germans of Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen lower this i toward e as in Eng., making it e^, so that their ^ittt) sounds much like kent. In S. G. neither I occurs. For it the medium long narrow i is substituted. Hence a S. G. pronunciation of Eng. little sounds like " leetle," while a N. G. has no difficulty with it. The wide i of Hanover and M. Germany may be considered classical. Always short. It is represented by i; by ie in ^ier^e^n, ijieqig, generally also in t)ietleic^t. 164 PHOKOLOGY— THE VOWELS. [370- Mid Vowels. 370. 1. o (mid-back-narrow-round). The regular German o of (Bo^n, 3:^ron, ipof* o is S. G-., as in t)offen, 2o^, toc^. o is represented by o, o^, oo» Ex.: 5!)iont), tt)0^nen, ^oot, 2. (mid-back- wide-round). 6 of M. and N. G., where S. G. has the narrow o. Ex. : (Sonne, toll, ^Btod. This and b are per- haps the most difficult vowels for Eng. speakers. Do not lower to low-back, making it like Eng. o of stock, not. Eng. o is equally hard for N. G., as they too feel that the effect upon the ear is much the same, and they do not readily appreciate the difference in articulation. The D-umlaut has very different shades in different parts of the coun- try. The S. G, 0, whether long or short, is narrow (more "close"). The N. G. is wide (more "open"). 3. o (mid-front-narrow round) is both long and short in S. G. Long in bofe, lofen, ©oet^e ; short b in Sb^er, ^bc^er, @tbc!e, S. G. b is identical with Fr. eu in feu. 4. a (mid-front-wide -round) is long and short in N. G. Long b in fd)bn, ?i)Ibi?c, Sbtre ; short b in ®btter, ©potter, ©tbrc^e. Do not confound b with the vowels of Eng. bust, bird. The 0-umlauts are represented by b and b^ ; by eu in French words: Souleu'r. Popularly speaking, S. G. B is closer than N. 6. 6. To acquire the sound it is best to start with S as in „6eete" and contract the mouth corners, in which the rounding mainly consists in this vowel, and „^bti" will have to result. In u the rounding is mainly in the lips (labialization). In Berlin and M. G. there is a provincial pronunciation of 13 which sounds very much like 6. It is caused by imperfect rounding and is by no means to be imitated. 371. 1. e (mid-front narrow) is easily produced. But guard against diphthongizing and widening it as in Eng. may, paid, pate. Ex. : 33eet, m\!}, 3:^ee, 3fte^. Pure Fr. and G. narrow 6 sounds as if it were cut off short, and so it really is compared with Eng. ei in say. Signs are t^, ec. Always long. 372] PHOiq^OLOGY — THE VOWELS. 165 2. e (mid-front wide) is the common short e in Eng. and G. Ex.: ^enfc^, n?enn, 3ett(cl), e (€i) is slightly lowered toward the Eng, vowels of man, mare ; for instance, ^afe, 5t^re, ware. Complete lowering to the Eng. vowel is pro- vincial. Signs, e, O 13- «> ^ g 3 ^ B § ^. S. o § f^E a(^ gg P CD ,_^ fj P o !§'«'< ~; (C "■" p _. ^ 1=1 U B o re rf g Pi Pi E- 2 2- <0 ■" r— ^ „ -.. on k»j ti 0*^ & O W^ O ^ p tr^ d, 1-15 (B t ^' CO p TJ i:j 2.«^ 2. *=g* 3- §2 i§ gi ^ a^ i* J^ *■ S ^ a. a g ^. s^ a ^ 02, pj g- g- «• s o o P I ^ a o I s 5 -li'^ P g! Shut (Mutes, Ex- plosivse),. O pi If Surd. ? •pl^ Sonant. ^g Surd. a 1 " 1^ Sonant. 1 1 1 S B= 1 Surd- i Sonant. If - 1 Surd. 1 * 1 « p^«- Sonant. 5 Surd. 1 u Sonant. |Q IB Surd. 1 ^ P pi ^ 1 OS- Sonant. l» Surd. 1 t ills Sonant. 1 « teip 1 i 1 Surd. ' 1 P Pfg Sonant. l-s Surd. I l'« Sonant. f H, Surd. c/- 1 1 1 Sonant. 168 PHONOLOGY — THE CONSONANTS. [377- 2. jh (front-open-surd) is sometimes called the " palatal- guttural." It stands after the front (palatal) vowels (i. e., after all vowels except a, o, u), including the diphthongs, ax ei, eu an, and always in the suffix -d^en. Ex.: 3ron, 33onbon» This is an unsuccessful attempt of Germans at pronouncing the French nasal vowels, which are not at all identical with q ; q does not exist in French. Though incorrect, this sound is given by the educated classes and by the stage. 387. n is the " point-nasal" (half-dental). For Eng. and G. n, see 381. n is represented by n, nn as generally written, except where it becomes either guttural or labial by the prox- imity of guttural and labial consonants. (See 386.) Ex.: 389] PHOl^OLOGY — ^THE CONSONANTS. 173 fenten, ^anb, ©pinne, Siittbel, matK^e, Zm6^^, mo^nen, 2;^ron, wantten =: vantn. 388. m, the lip-nasal, is identical in Eng. and G. It is represented by m, mm: ?O^Uttt), @timme, tvarm; also by en after b and |J, as in )jumpen =pumpm, Zvtp^m = trepm. 1. In untaught pronunciation not influenced by tlie letter, n is also pronounced as m before f, as in fanft, fitnf, ^anf, 3u!unft, 3unft. Over- precise speakers pronounce as two full syllables words like Mei^'^ettf Cum- \)m, ftn^ben, ftn^geitf etc., but persons speaking naturally pronounce as stated above. Compound Consonants. 389. These are composed of single sounds already de- scribed, but some of them seem to call for special mention. Their elements are closely joined together without any glide. 1. pf is composed of p and f, and is always represented by pf, as in ^firftd), ^amp\, ^arpfen, 8umpf. But this pf is not pro- nounced except by a special effort. The current and " natu- ral " pf is composed of a lip-teeth-stop and f. (This was first noticed by Sievers and Sweet.) The first element being formed by lower Hp and teeth instead of by lower and upper lips, as in a real lip-stop. Final pf is in N. G. commonly made into f, but it is not to be imitated. 2. ks is composed of the surd back-shut and the surd blade-open, as in Eng. Kepresented by r, as in %t, Ztxt, Sflin, 2lle):attt>er ; also by (^^ and d^f, if of the same stem, as in 2Bad)^, D(^fen. See 383, 1. 3. ts is composed of the surd t (point-shut) and s the surd blade-open. Bepresented by a, as in 3^no^^, 3tel, S3eisen, SSarje ; by tj, as in ©prii^en, fd^mi^en, ^a^e ; by c in foreign words before front vowels, as in ^tcce'nt, ^m'l, 9tccenfe'nt, Sbliba't, etc.; by t in foreign words before i, as in ^atie'nt, 5^atio'n, etc. 174 PHONOLOGY — THE CONSONANTS. [390- 4. G. ts differs from Eng. ts in cats, liats in this respect . in G ts s is long, in Eng. ts t is long. In ft = sht and \p = shp (see 378. 3) the first element is also short. In "natural" pronunciation final j in N G is made into ^ after n, rarely after r and I ; so that ganj becomes ®an^, (S(|tt)atij > i, b > e* 6. Xag, 3^9, 2Seg have long vowels, = tac, zuc, wee. See sub 2; also 488, 2,6. 7. The lip-teeth m and not the S. G. labio-labial bh has the preference. 176 PHOKOLOGY — ABLAUT. [392- 392. 1. But it is possible to have a dialect-free pronunciation and yet have dialect-accent, e.e., ** intonation," "modulation of voice." Very pronounced are, e. g. , the " accents " of Berlin, Vienna, Bavaria (Miinchen), Saxony, which can be distinguished without much diflBculty even in a good pronunciation. The stage favors the North German " accent," par- ticularly the Hanoverian, and this is at bottom what is meant by saying the Hanoverian is the best pronunciation. 2. There is another reason, however, why the N. G. pronunciation is " purer," as it is generally called, than S. G. The Low German dialects are farther removed from the classical language than the High German. The contrast is felt more in North Germany than in South Germany, The school and the educated make a stronger effort to acquire the stan- dard pronunciation as far as there is any. The N. G. is more influenced by, and has a higher respect for, the written language. He pronounces according to the letter before him. Compare, for instance, B and p, which the Saxon calls a " soft 'h " and a ''hard 6." 3. Another reason for the purity of N. G. lies also in the political and intellectual predominance of the Northern half of Germany for nearly two hundred years. The speakers of S. G. dialects are divided between Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. The modern theatre also developed earlier in N. Germany than in S. Germany. 4. The Swiss too can speak dialect- free German when conversing with strangers, of whom they of course see a great many. They make then a special effort to drop their dialect, which is nearly as far removed from the written language as is a Low German dialect. 5. One thing is surprising, viz., that the excellent G. school-system has not more power to spread a common spoken language. It is true, the school does modify the dialect, but when the child has left school, its language relapses, as a rule, into pure dialect. SOME PHONETIC LAWS, LIKE ABLAUT, UMLAUT, GRIMM'S AND VERNER'S LAWS, ETC. Ablaut. 393. Ablaut is the gradation of vowels, both in stem and suffix, under the influence of accent. The vowels vary within certain series of related vowels called ablaut-series. 395] PHOKOLOGY — ABLAUT. 177 The ablaut of suffix-vowels, e. ff., of case-suffixes, is difficult to determine even for so early a period as O. H. G. or Ags. We shall speak only of the stem-vowel-ablaut. The phenomenon of ablaut appears in all the I. E. languages and is characteristic of the Teutonic languages, only in so far as a very large system of verb-inflection has been developed. On the Greek ablaut, see Amer. Journ. of Phil . vol. I., No. 3, p. 281 — , an article by Bloomfield. 394. Osthoff and Brugman have the credit of establishing as many as four grades or stages of ablaut, viz., hochstufe^ strong and weak; tiefstufe, strong and weak, which may be called in Eng. strong, medium, weak, zero. They do not appear in every series. But the second has them all, viz., ^*au" strong; "ew — m" medium; " u " weak; " u " zero. The first two stand under the strong accent; the third under the secondary, the last in the unaccented syllable. Why there should be a difference of vowel under the strong accent is not clear, but the fact of two grades is undeniable. 1. For the I. E or Parent-speech- period three series have been recon- structed with tolerable certainty and there are traces of several more. But the exact quality of the vowels can hardly be determined, o of the first I. E. series was probably unrounded, and more a than o, see 459. 1. e — o, G. T. e, i — a, appears in I. to V. 3. a— a, G. T. a— 6, in VT., see 459, 4. 3. e — 6, O. H. G. a — uo, in G. tat, Slliat — tuon, t^un. We give the Germanic series in Braune's order. (See his Gothic grapomar, followed also by Sievers in his Ags. and Paul in his M. H. G. grammar.) 395. * I. Ablaut-series. *1 2 3 4 strong. medium, weak. zero. G. T. ai ei i i O. H. G. ai, ei, ^ i 1, e N.H. G. ci(ie, i),c ei i (ie), e, c. Compare Gr. Tren-otfla, neiOa, icAt/iaf , neniOfiev ; oi/oto?, ei/oti, Ifievai, ifxev, I IS the zero Stage, because the first element of the diphthong, e — o, has disappeared, while the second, the consonant element of the falling diphthong, has become a vowel. * The figures I.,n., etc., always refer to the ablaut-series : the figures 1, 2, 3, 4 refer to the ablaut stage. 178 PHONOLOGY — ABLAUT. [396- Ex. : 1, leren, k^ren, < lai^an, to teach ; lera, 2ti^n, + Ags. Idr, Eng. lore ; Seifien + last (Kluge) ; pret. sg. of strong verbs of CI. I. 2 and 3, pres. of verbs of CI. I. 4, ^x% lernen, with the words of 1, from the same V]xa. X represents the vowel that is to appear according to accent and is an unknown quantity in the root. 1, jeigen, Beigeftnger; 2 and 3, jet^en; 4, gejie^en, iDerjid^ten, all from a Vdxc. Compare L. dtcere. Notice the Eng. cognates show in 1, a, o : ladder, wrote, last, lore, loaf; in 2 and 3 : i, rise, smite ; in 4, i : risen, smitten, list. 396. II. Ablaut-series. 1 2 8 4 G. T. au eu A u 0. H. G. ou, 6 iu, 60, io ii u,6 N. H. G. 0,6 ie, eu au n, 0, 6. AU four grades still apparent in German, ft bears the same relation to eu, au as I to gi, ai. See above. Compare x^Fw, xoF»y, x^f^o?* x'^^ds. Ex.: From the V\^: l.So^e, flame. 2, 2id^t < Ueht,Uu6^ttr{, + light. 4, 2n6)^ + lynx(?). From a Vklu : 2, Ceumunb. 3, taut < hlut + loud ; 4, Subtwig, Sut:^er, Gr. kXvtoc, L. indiitus. Again, 2, fiec^ + sick, ©eud^c, and 4, ©uc^t. See the strong verbs of CI. II. < Vb'xd' : 1, bot pret. of Metett* 2, Metcn, ®eMet. 4, S3ote, ®e^ot, S3uttel + beadle. Eng. bid repre- sents older leodan II. and biddan V. The corresponding Eng. vowels are very irregular. 397. ni. Ablaut-series. 1 2 8,4 G. T. a e, i u before r, 1, m, n German a, e (umlaut) e, i u, o» As to 3 and 4, see 459, 3, a. The roots all end in r, 1, m, n + cons. Ex. : See the strong verbs of CI. III. From the root of winben, want, gewunben, + wind : 1, bie 2Banb, wenben < *wa?idjan, + Eng. wend, gewanbt, wanbern + wander, etc. 2, bie SBinbe, SSJinbel. < Germanic l^bxrg. 1, barg pret. sg. 2, SSerg, ©ebirge, tergen. 3, 4, Surg, + burgh, borough, to burrow. SBUrger, SSiirge, borgen + borrow(?). Also + bury. Correspond- ing Eng. vowels in verbs before nasals are i in 2, a in 1, u in 4, e.g., spin, span, spun. In nouns, etc., they are quite irregular, but generally also e or i, a, u, o. 400] PH0:N^0L0GY — ABLAUT. 179 398. IV. Abiaut- •series. G. T. a, 4 0. H. G. a, d N. H. G. a 2 e e,i I, e, ie, i 3,4 U u, o u, it, 0, 0. The roots end in a single liquid or nasal, or these stand before the vowels. 0, & are not yet explained. Ex. : Verbs of CI. IV., jle^Ien, fla^I, geflo^kn. 1, !Dietfla^I. < Vdxm. 1, la^m, ja^men + tame. 2, gejiemen. 3, 4, 3unft. < Vh's.v. 1, bie SSa^re, + bier, barrow(?), ftc^ geba^ren, bie ©eBarbe, -bar. 3, geMren + bear, (£imer < ein-her, Buber < zwiber (see Kluge). 3, 4, bie Siirbe + burthen, bie ®eburt + birtli, bie ®cbit^r(?), geM^rli^. Eng. cognates show generally ea, o, €. ^., bear, bore. 399. V. Ablaut-series. 1 2, 3, 4 G. T. a, a e O. H. G. a, a e, i N. H. G. a, a t, I, i, ie Only two grades. The roots end in a single consonant, not a liquid or nasal. Ex. : Verbs of CI. V. < Germanic Vgxb. 1, gab, ®abe. 2, 3, 4, geben, gegeben, bu gtebft, bie and bai3 ®ift. Eng, vowels the same, + give, gave, gift. 400. VI. Ablaut-series. 1 2,3 4 G. T. 6 a(o?) a 0. H. G. uo a, e u N. H. G. ti,fl a, e (umlaut) W,tt 4 Not in the past part., only in nouns. A difficult series. Ex. : Verbs of CI. VI. < V^. 1, fu^r, fit^ren. 2, 3, fa^ren, bie %oi)XX. 4, bie %\xxi + ford. < Vmxl. 1, M. H. G. muol (now ma^Ue). 2, 3, ma^len, 9«e^l + meal, ntalmen, 3nalter. 4, 9«it^Ie + mill, SKiitter, ?D^utt, 9Kaul^ tt)urf + mole, by popular etymology < moUwurf + mould-warp. 180 PHONOLOGY — UMLAUT. [401- Umlaut. 401. Umlaut is the modification of an accented vowel by an i (j) in the next syllable. See 362. 1. By it a, o, u become sounds lying nearer to i. In other words, back and mixed vowels become more like front vowels through the influence of front vowels. The tongue-position of back and mixed vowels changes to "front," while the rest of tiie articulation remains the same. Tliis "fronting" is called by the Germans "mouil- lierung," i.e., palatalization. Sievers' theory is that the intervening consonants were first affected and then the immediately preceding vowel. Such palatalized consonants are the Fr. 1 and n still in ''feuUle " gaebe > goi^e, pret. sbj. ; gast — gasti > geste, ®aj^e; *aU-lantjo > eli-lenti > eUende> elenb, unfortunate because in an "other country;" se6ni > schoene > f(^on; angil > ©ngel; bSsi > Uh, etc. 402. The extent of this phenomenon varies with the period and the dialect. Certain consonants have prevented umlaut. But we cannot enter upon a further discussion. Compare gebulbig, gewalttg. By umlaut, then, a > a, e; o (=:) > 6 (-) ; u > u (-) ; au > au, eu, but this only seemingly in cases where au < fl, since U passed into u (iu) and this Into eu, au, according to 488, 5. 1. While in German umlaut is still a living factor, it is dead in Eng. and has been for some 8-900 years. Eng. only has isolated forms with umlaut, e. g., mouse— mice, cow— kine, etc., that belong to no system of inflection or derivation in which umlaut serves as the expression of a function or meaning. We call the above examples " ir- regular " plurals. 2. There is no such thing as " rflckumlaut " = " umlaut reversed," as the old gram- marians called it, e. g.^ in benfen, ba^te, 9eba(i^t. See 454, 3. Interchanges of Vowels: e — i, te; no Umlaut — Umlaut; tt — ; it — tn* 403. c — i (ic)» 1, where e is original, that is G. T. and I. E. e. e passed into i before i (j) standing in the unac- cented syllable, a process exactly analogous to umlaut; e > i 405] PHONOLOGY — PHOKETIC LAWS. U — O. 181 also before a nasal belonging to the same syllable, generally before nasal + cons. The physiological reason for the latter change is not clear. Ex.: The present of CI. III., IV., V., see also the O. H. G. paradigm. The first p. sg. nimu may be due to analogy, but in 0. H. G. and Ags. e > i also before u and it may therefore be a phonetic transition, ft^en, Uegen, Mtten have i all through, see 457, 1 , but ©effel < se^^al. i^elb— ® eftlbe e are not numerous. It is a High German and Old Saxon peculiar- ity. Eng. has still i. This is still called 93ve(^ung after Grimm. Ex. : fe(f — erqutcfen + quick, quicken ; lekn + live, flekn + cleave, fc^lDcBen belong to ablauts. I. with the zero grade. SJerWefen^ to decompose, compare L. vvrus, Skr. msh-am. Sekr + liver. ^t iu before i (j) and w, but > eo before a, e, o; and later eo > io > ie, ie* The process is e > i and u > o in the same diphthong. Ex. : Ablauts, and CI. II., see 124, Remark. SS5a^ ba freu(^t wnb fleugt (Sch.). Meten — SSeute (?> SBeutel (?). Grimm's Law or the "shifting of mutes" Saut^erf^teButtg* 407. It concerns the so-called "mutes," b, p, f; d, t, th; g, k, ch, media, tenuis, aspirata. This law was discovered by Rask, but first fully stated by Jacob Grimm. It includes two great shiftings, the first prehistoric, that is, General Teutonic or Germanic; the second, historical or German. The first is a peculiarity of the whole group and shared to very nearly the same extent by every member of the group; the second is a peculiarity of the German dialects proper, is partial both as to the number of sounds and of dialects affected. We very briefly represent the first shiftiug. See the author's article in the Amer. Jour, of Phil., vol. I., for a fuller account. Let y represent the sonant stops, z the surd ones and x the so- called " aspirate," which represents various sounds. The fol- lowing formulas will be of use. G. is added now merely for illustration. Parent-speech, I. E. Q.T. G. L X > y > Z n. J > z > X m. z > X > y Notice I. E. is the oldest stage of the language reconstructed from the various I. E. dialects. You can substitute for I. E. any language but the Teutonic, provided you make allowance for any changes in that particular language, e. g., d' has become f or d in Latin. By General Teutonic or Germanic is meant that stage which is reconstructed from all the Teutonic dialects. By G. we mean the written language of Germany ; H. G. means South and Middle as opposed to Low German. 410} PHOKOLOGT — PHONETIC LAWS— GRIMM'S. 183 Substitute in each formula the labials, dentals, etc. 408. Form. I. 1. x = d'. I. E. d' = d + sonant aspiration (Ellis), " sonant affricate," this d' through G. T. dh (sonant spirant) > d > H. G. t, but dh remains in Go. and Scand., e.g., I. E. * d'ur-, Gr. ^vgn, 'L.foreSy > G. T. * dur-, Eng. door > G. %^ox — 2:^ur, doublets. 2. X = b'. I. E. b' > G. T. bh, b > G. b, e. g., I. E. A/b^d^ ablauts. II., Gr. nv&- > G. T. Vb^, Eng. bid > G. bieten,6ot, ge6otett. No German shifting of b > p therefore. 3. X =_g\ I. E. g'l^ G. T. gh, g > G. g, e. gr., < Vg^ (Skr. Vhu > G. T. Vgu-), *gud-, Eng. God > G. ®ott, "the being invoked " (see Kluge). No German shifting of g>k. 4. X = g'^, the second series of gutturals, the "labiaUzed " > G. T. g, gw (w) if medial, > G. g, or zero if medial, e, g., I. E. * ang'^, L. angustus > G. T. angu-, Go. aggwus > G. engc < angi < * angwjo. I. E. * g^^ostis, L. hostis > G. T. ghast, gasi, + Eng. guest > G. ®a(l:» 409. Form. II. x in G., see later. 1. y ziz d. I. E. d > G. T. t, Eng. t. Vdxnt, to eat, I. E. dont-, L. dents > G. T. tuntli-, Eng. tooth > Za\xi, < zand. Before d the vowel has disappeared by apocope. The form is participial =: "the eater" (Kluge). Comp. L. edere > Eng. eat > Gr. effen. 2. y — b. I. E. b is very rare and examples doubtful. 3. y = gSg^. I.E.gi>G.T. k = G.k. < VgxL, L.greZar(3 > G. T. * kald, Eng. cold, cool + G. Mi, fii^I, ablauts. YI. I. E. g^ > G. T. kw, k = G. !, qu, e. g,, < Vg^xm, L. venio « *gvemio)y G. T. queman, Eng. come, + G. lommen, adj. kc|iicm. The phonetic change of y > z consists in the loss of sonancy. 410. Form. III. x = G. T. surd spirant, I. E. z = unaspi- rated surd stop. 184 PHONOLOGY — PHONETIC LAWS — VERNER'S. [411- 1. z = I. E. t. t througli the transition stage t' = t + surd aspiration > G. T. tli > H. and L. G. d, e, g.y L. tertius > G. T. thridj-, Eng. third, > tritte, 2. 2 = p. I. E. p > G. T. f, bilabial, Eng. f > G. f : h.pisc-is > G. T. Jislc-os > gifc^, + Eng. fish. 3. z = ls.\ k2. I. E. ki > G. T. h, kh, > G. I c^. Ex. : L. pecus > G. T.fehu, Eng. fee, > SSie^. I. E. k2 > G. T. hw, h, Eng. wh, > G. m, zero = silent ^. L. sequ-or > G. T. sehw-an > \^¥^, + Eng. see. L. quis, quod > G. T. hwer^ hwat + Eng. who, what, > G. mx, m^* Verner's Law. 411. After the first shifting and when the accent was not yet limited to the root-syllable (see 420, 2) a new phenomenon ap- peared, viz., Verner's Law or the " shifting of spirants." The G. T. surd spirants th, kh, f, s became sonant spirants and later sonant stops, when the immediately preceding vowel was unaccented. This affects only form. III., but the transition of sonant spirants into sonant stops is identical with the tran- sition of the sonant spirants which sprang < sonant affricate according to form. I. See 408. Hence there is an inter- change of the following consonants: th — dh, d which became G. t ; f — bh, b; kh, khw — gh, ghw, g, w; s — z, r. See 416. As to accent, see 420. Students who know Greek can generally go by the Greek accent, which is often still the I. E. Ex. : Gr. narvp, Gt. T. fathar > fadhar (Go.) > fddar (Ags.) > G. Skater, M. Eng. has again dh (througli Norse influence ?), but L. frdter, G. T. hrothar, Eng. brother > G. 33ruber according to form. III. G. T. lithon, laith, but pL lidlion-, part, lidhan-, Eng. loathe, > G. leiben (litt by levelling), Qelltten. L. sequor, G. T, sehwan, sahw, segwun-, segwan-, O. S. sehan, sah, sdwum, gisewan, Eng. see, saw, seen (levelling) > G. fe^cn, fa^, gefe^ien (levelling, | silent). G. T. wesan, was, werwn-, wesan- > Eng. was — were > G. war (levelling), mnn, gewefen (levelling). Com- pare fiefen — !o^ (for, levelling) — geforen. 413] PHOKOLOGY — PHONETIC LAWS— GERMA]^ SHIFTIKG. 185 412. In certain consonant groups the first shifting of Grimm's Law allows of modifications. 1. Original st, sk, sp remain, e.g., L. vestigium + G. ^ii%, (Steig; L. sc in poscere + G. T. sk, Eng. and G. sh, fc^ in forfc^en, waf(^en (see 457, 4). L. sp in spicere, speculum + G. fpa^cn + espy, spy. 2. Before t every dental has become s, every labial f, every guttural kh, d), while t remains intact, but st can become ss by assimilation. Examples are very numerous. 35u »cipt < waist < *waid + t; L. cap-tus + G. -^aft (but see Kluge); L. noct-em + G. 9?ac^t + night ; ?Koc^t + might < Vmxg', from which ntttg— mogcit; ablauts. VI.; gewip < *wid-to' a past participle < l^wxd, + L. vid-, + to wit, wist. The differentiation into st and ss is difficult to explain. Rogel ascribed it to accent, but see Kluge, P. and B. Beitrage, vol. VIII. A different origin has the st of 9?ej!, ma^ (of a ship), ©erjle, and a very few others, viz., < zd. For these see Kluge. See also 454, 6. THE GERMAN SHIFTING. The second or German shifting we shall treat chiefly with a view to represent Eng. and G. cognates. We shall not treat of every dialect separately. It must suffice to say that upon the extent of shifting the classification of the dialects is based. See 480. For a fall account, see Braune's article in P. and B. Beitr., vol. II. In fact, to Braune we owe the best light that has been thrown upon this difficult subject. This second shifting, though coming within the historic period of the language, had been much less understood and more misrepresented than the first shifting. The material was very different from that of the first shifting and the result had to be diffferent, though Grimm supposed that the first stage was reached again in H. G. Nor is there room to enter into the chronology of the various steps, though it has been tolerably settled. The latest shifting, th > d, we find still going on in the 12th century, and is the most exten- sive of all the shif tings. Geographically the movement began in the South and the farther North it spread the less it grew and the later it occurred. See 480. We follow the order of the formulas. Where Eng. is identical with G. T., as is generaUy the case, the Eng. examples will at the same time illustrate the corresponding sounds and the cognates of Eng. and G. For foreign words see 402-494. 413. Form. I. 1. G. T. d > G. t. Eng. dead — G. tot ; do — t^un; bed — S5ett; steady — ftetig; mother for M. Eng. moder — 5iKutter (see 411) ; hoard + ^ort* a. Where Eng. d — G. b in a small number of words, there d has been restored in N. H. G. through L. or M. G. influence, M. H. G. showing t ; or the word has come from L. G. into the written language. Eng. dumb 186 PHONOLOGY — PHONETIC LAWS — GERMAN SHIFTING. [414- — buntm; dam — !Damm; down — Suite; "Dutch" is L. G. > Eng., wliile G. beutfc^ belongs to form. III. After 1 and r are some cases of d — b, e.g., wild — n)Ub; mild — mttb; murder — ?IJ?orb. These are due to a change of Ags. th > d. Also after n, e. g. , wind — tt)inben; bind — binben. These are due to a change of O. H. G. t > d. 2. Eng. b and g = G. B and g, see 408, e. g., bold — kl^ ; beck — 33a^ ; gold — ®oIt) ; garden — ®arten» For mb — mm, see 490, 4. But b and especially g have often disappeared in Eng. Compare hawk — ipabi(^t ; ^aupt, < houbit, — head ; B^egcn — rain; SCagen — wain. G. b — Eng. v, ^ahm — have; ikhn — love, etc. 3. G. T. bb > G. :|j^: Stap^je < *rappo, G. T. rabbo-, but ^aU — raven, ^nap^je < * knappo, G. T. knabbo-, but ^mU — knave. (EBBe + ebb, is L. G. 4. G. T. gg > G. rf, but G. T. gg > Eng. dzh (-dge). *mugj6, Ags. mycge, Eng. midge — G. ^Mt. * hrugjo, Ags. hrycge, Eng. ridge — G. 9lu(fen. Eng. edge — Scfe, bridge — Sriicfe, etc. Sgge, barrow, is L. G. 5. y = sonant stop has sprung either from I, E. x = sonant affricate according to form. I. or from I. E. z = surd stop > G. T. surd spirant according to form. III. and Verner's Law, in both cases through a sonant spirant. Notice " affricate " is a double consonant, " spirant " is a single one. The process of G. T. y > G. z is loss of sonancy the same as I. E. y > G. T. z. Notice that consonants were doubled, i. e., lengthened before West-germanic j, w, r, 1, as the examples show, see 389, 5. 414. Form. II. G. T. z >G. x. 1. G. T. t > G. ts (3, ^) and this remains when initial, after r, {, n and when sprung from tt, but becomes ^ (Grimm's sign), supposed to have been a lisped s, and later s (f, §), see 490, 2. In M. H. G. this ^ and s never rhyme, hence they must have been different sounds, tt > ts is much later than t > ts. Examples exceedingly numerous: tongue — Bunge ; wart — 2Barje; holt — |)olj; mint — SKiinje < L. moneta through * mUbnita ; ^sattjan > Eng. set — G. fe^en ; whet — tue^tn; wheat — SBeijen; sweat — f(|n)i^en; water — SBaffer; hate — ^a^, ^affen^ etc. All seeming exceptions can he explained in some way or other, e. g., in foreign words introduced since the shifting : tar — 3^eer < L. G.; temple — Zmptl < L. templum ; tun 415] PHONOLOGY— PHON-ETIC LAWS — GERMA^- SHIFTIITG. 187 — 2;onue < Keltic (?). The combination tr is an exception. Compare also ft, kht, St, 412, 2. True — treu ; bitter — Mtter < G. T. Utr-os ; winter — SBittter. ■Winter and unter are M. H. G. hinder, under, see 413, 1, a. Words introduced before the shifting are Germanized, e. g., plant -^ SJflanjc < L. planta ; tile — Biegel < L. tegula. 2. G. T. p > G. ^f, which remains initially, after m, and when sprung from pp, but passes into f after vowels and r, 1. Ex, : Eng. path — G, 9)fat) ; pea(-cock) — 9)fau < h. paw ; plight — 3)pli<^t; swamp — ©um))f (?) ; rump — 3fium))f; hop, hip — |itpfen; stop — |lo})fett; sleep — fc^Iafen; hope — '6offen; sharp — fc^arf; help — ^elfen. a. Where Eng. and G. p correspond, they indicate either L. G. or other foreign words introduced since the shifting, e. g. , pocks — 9Jo(f en ; poke — po(^ett < L. G, ; pain — 3)ein < L. poena; pilgrim — ^i\o,tx < L. peregrinus ; pulpit — 9)ult < L. pulpitum. 3. G. T. k > G. kh, jh (t^), except initial k and double k, which appears as rf, Eng. has frequently palatalized its k into tsh, written ch, tch. Ex.: Eng. like — gleid); bleak — Heic^en; knuckle — ^nod)eI; knee — ^nie ; church — ^trd}e ; cook, kitchen — ^oc^, ^itc^e. Westgerm, kk — Eng. k — G. (f : bake, baker — batfen, SSader ; waken — n^etfen; acre — 5l(fer; naked — nacft. a. The links between G. T. z and G. x are probably surd stop + aspirate, surd stop + spirant, spirant, e.g..,\i> k + H > kkh, an affricate, > kh. kkh is still S. G,, tth is the Irish pronunciation of Eng, th. The processes are identical with those of I, E, z > G. T, X, But G. X is a long consonant or an affricate, while G. T. x < I, E, z is a single, weaker consonant. Compare the present wai^en having a long and strong d) with SBac^t ; ^offen, §anf with the initial f as in fflr, gcuer, »or. The latter corre- sponds to G, T, f, the former to G. T. p. See below. 415. Form. HI. G. T. x > G. y. This shifting only took place in the dentals. G. T. th > G. d. Eng. thing — G. X)ing; that — ta5 ; hearth — iperb ; earth — Srte ; brother — 53ruber» As to extent and time of this shifting, see p, 185. The process of the shifting of the G. T. surd spirant under the accent > G. sonant stop, final surd stop is identical with that of G, T. surd spirants unaccented > G. T. sonant spirant >G. T. sonant stop in certain positions. For this G. T. y > G. z, see 41 1, 1. Eng. h, gh, f correspond to G. ^, ^, f (d), but Eng. gh is often silent. 188 PHOiq-OLOGY— PHO^STETIC LAWS. [416- Ex.: Eng. floor — G. ^lur; fowl — SJoget; heart — |)erj; hart — ^irfc^ < liiT^, ; might — ?P?a(^t; fraught, freight — ^^rac^t. 2. G. T. hw, Eng. wh — G. tn* Ex. : Eng. which — G. m^ ; whelp — 3CeIf. 3. All irregularities must be explained as before, either as due to levelling or to foreign origin. See 414, 1. herd — ^erbe, L. G., but ^irtc — shepherd according to rule ; throne — S^ron < Gr.-L. thronus. The relation of S^aufenb to thousand is not cleared up. Eng. f — G. (^, L. G. , see 493, 4. h before 1 and r has been lost in both languages. Comp. kIvtoc, Ags. MM, — Eng. loud, G. laut ; < Vkrx, ablauts II. Lat. cruor — Ags. Tirea — Eng. raw, G. rol^. The Interchanges Eesulting from the Shifting of G. T. Spirants. See 411. 416. Levelling has so largely done away with the results of Verner's law in German that what is left of them may be looked upon as isolated cases. They appear more in derivatives of the same stem than in the verb-inflection. 1. ^ — t most frequent : leiben — litt, gelitten ; leiten ; fteben — fott, gefottert. f — B: t)arf, tiirfen, 5flotcurft — Darken, tierberben (?). ^), ^—r* I'^^W W silent), 3u(^t — gesogen, iperaog. f — r: 35er^ luft, + loss — ijerlieren (levelling), ijerloren + forlorn; !iefcn — ^ur, erforen, + choose, chose, chosen (s is due to levelling). 417. Correspondences between Eng. and G. consonants outside of the shiftings. 1. Loss of n before spirants in G. T. and later. Before G. T. kh as in fa'^en (archaic for fangen) < *fanhan ; bacbte < *danhte, + thought, etc. Ags. — Eng. also before th and f, where G. has preserved n. Compare: tooth — 3^^^) mouth — ?0]unb; but south — ©lib, of L. G. origin; soft — fanft, but fa(^t, of L. G. origin. 2. Eng. wr — G. r: Eng. write — rei^en, ri^en ; wrench — renfett ; wretch — Slede ; wring — ringen, 3. Eng. w, r, 1, m correspond to G. ti), r, I, m. 419] PHONOLOGY — ACCEN^T. 189 4. For Eng. m — G. n, see 490, 5. For Eng. mb — G. mm, see 490, 4. 5. Eng. s (original s) — G. s: house — ^a\x^; sink — ftnfcit* a. Eng. X — Q. Xt ^^* The phonetic value of the sign is the same in both languages. The sign x, borrowed from Latin, stands for 6)i, U, tf^. Ex.: Eng. wax — G. tt)ac^fen ; fox — ^u^^ ; axle — 5lc^fe; box — a3ud)fe < Gr. TTv^ig; box — SSud^^kum < L. buxtis. Eng. s— G. f(^, see 490, 1. ACCENT. 418. We are following still the traditional method of treating of the accent, but, as a matter of fact, in speaking we never divide the word into the syllables or the sentence into the words as they are printed or written. Such a division is purely for the eye and artificial. We speak in " breathgroups,'''' as Sweet calls them. Sievers uses " Sprach- takt,''' but " Sprechtakt " would be better. A breathgroup consists of a certain number of sounds that can be pronounced " in one breath," as we say. If one or two sounds ha\ e very strong stress then the number of " syllables " in the group is small, because the store of air is spent. If one syllable has only the amount of air spent upon a secondary or medium accent, then the number of syllables can be larger. Eng. and G. have a prevailingly falling rhythm, that is, the stress falls upon the initial sounds or syllable of a group. French is different. Its stress is very uniform and the predomi- nant stress very difficult to place in the group. Excellent authorities, both French and Dutch, claim that the stress lies at the begining ; other authorities, just as high, that it lies at the end of the group. The French groups are very long. In G. and Eng. the amount of stress concentrated upon some part of the group varies, else there would be a great monotony as in French, but Fr. has a more varied intonation or " tone," which gives it an advantage over Eng. and G. 1. For very trustworthy division into breathgroups, see Sweet's transcriptions of Eng., G. and Pr. in his " Handbook." For the whole difficult subject of the synthesis of sounds, see Sweet and also Sievers' Phonetik, § 33. Notice that the principle of breathgroups is recognized when we speak of proclitics and enclitics. All syncope, elision, contraction, metre, assimilation take place according to this principle. When there are too many syllables to to be pronounced conveniently by one breath-impulse some are cut off and always according to a certain fixed rule varying with the different languages. Or if the sounds coming together in a group are very different we assimi- late them to each other. This we call " ease of utterance " or " euphony." 4l9u We distinguish three degrees of accent or "stress," viz., chief (strong, primary), medium (secondary), and weak, marked respectively 1, 1, ^. Thus : Sl'pfel, ba'n!Ba>, ^a'vih fea"r!ei't» 1. " Weak" also inclades " unaccented," when there are not syllables enough, e. g., D'bilga''rte"'n, 5l'^)fe"'lbau^m, But when the word is very long 190 PHOI^OLOGY— ACCENT. [420^ or in a group of several words we may distinguisli not merely between weak and unaccented, but the variety of stress can be further marked by 1 2 4 3 figures, 6. g.y SBere'bfa^nifei^t (33e unmarked or 4^32^. ©ro^^erjogtuni/ 148 2 5 13245 5lltertum!3funbe, SDierjigid^riger. Accent in Uncompounded "Words. 420. The chief accent rests in all uncompounded words on the stem-syllable (no matter if suffixes and inflectional end- ings follow). This syllable is always the first, e. g., ^a'kv, ija'terlic^, fo'I^fam, Sa'c^erlti^feit, ^lei'not, f(^mei'(^eltt, tie ^u'ngernfcen* 1. Exceptions: letc'nbig from Ic'&eu; words in -ei and -ter, -teren, e.g., MaUxd', Benebct'en, »ermalebei'en, ftubie'ren, SBarbie'r; lut^e'rifd) (long e), mean- ing " Lutheran," pertaining to that confession, but lu't|)er(t)fd), of, per- taining to Luther; at^e'rifc^ ; a few derivatives in -^a'ftioi (see 526, 2); tt)a^r:^a'fttg, IeiB:^a'fti9» sometimes tcil^a'ftig; also H)a:^rf(^et'nli(^, but see 422,2. 2. This limitation of the primary accent to the root syllable is a peculiarity of the Germanic languages. It is called the logical or "gebundene" accent. The other Indo-European languages have the "free" accent, which can faU on any syllable. The original accent must have been preserved in G. T. until after the shifting of I. E. z > G. T. X, because then the law of spirants (see 411) went into effect. 3. The Teutonic element of Eng. has, of course, the same accent as G. and even the Norman-French element in Eng. has largely submitted to the Germanic accent, e.g., sea'son < L. satio'nem ; rea'son < L. ratio'nem ; li'berty < L. liberta'tem. Compare the foreign accent in G. ©aifo'n, raijonnie'rcn, Ciuatttd't. It is to be noted that the two past participles and the pret. pi. were not stem-accented, originally, standing in con- trast with the pres. and pret. sg. The accented sufllxes we cannot enumerate. Accent in Compound Words. 421. In compound words the chief accent rests upon the stem-syllable of the first component part if the second part is a noun (subst. or adj.) ; on the stem-syllable of the second part if this is a verb or derived from a verb : ^^a'brftra^f e, \\m\, gii'rfprec^, U'rteil, ijo'rne^m, ^O'li'fgunft ; but ^crfpre'(^en, ertei';= leti, ijerne'^men, betra'gert, ijotWngen, mi^U'ngen, i^ollfo'mmen, 1. This old principle should be understood even by the beginner, though to him there wUl seem to be many exceptions, which an advanced scholar will generally account lor. Sl'ntworten, u'vtcileit are no exceptions, because they are derived from the nouns 422] PHONOLOGY — ACCENT. 191 3l'nttt»Dtt, U'rteit; nor are bad SSerla'ngen, ber 93efe'^I, uerite'^mlic^, because they are de- rived from the corresponding verbs. SoUfo'mmen has the correct accent, because it ia a past participle. The prefixes are fully treated in the word-formation, which see. 422. The more striking exceptions are as follows : 1. A large group of words which have not become real compounds but have sprung from mere juxtaposition in orthography : 2)a^ Sek^o'c^, vivat ; »ie(Iei'c&t, 33iellie't»(^en, Sekwo'^I, SJergi'^meinnii^t, |)an^na'rr, ^o^er== prie')ler, Sangewei'le (but Ca'ngweil after the genuine compound ^u'rjwein, 3a:^»r^u'nbert, Sa^rjc'^nt, bretei'nig, !Drciei'mgfeit, atler- + -lk'b\t, -c'rjl, -^ei'ligeif' feft, etc. ; 2)reif5'ni9^fejl. Their etymologies are apparent. 2. In a number of adjectives, most of them ending in -lic!^, and their derivatives, the chief accent has shifted from the original position to the syllable preceding the suffix : ijorju'gtic^, but SJo'rjug; vortre'fflid) ; abf(^eu'li(^, but Wb]^tn; auabru'cfUd), but Sfu'^brucf; bie 2}ortre'fflid)!eit, bie 5lu^fu'^rlic^!eit, Icibei'gcn. In some the accent is uncertain, but the chief accent on the first element is preferable, e. g., la'nbgreiflid) better than l)anbgre{' flic^ ; no't== irenbig, n)a'^rfd)eiulid), ci'gentumlic^. A distinction is sometimes made be- tween ei'gentumlic^, " belonging to," and eigentii'mlid^, " peculiar to." Notice offenba'r. 3. fearml^e'rjig, full of pity, ^ar- (formerly (£§ar) as in ^arfrei'tag, Good- Friday, .^arwo'c^e, Holy Week (^ a r-, + c<7?v, sorrow, but also ^a'rtvodje), i^rD^nlei'c^nant, Corpus Christi, perhaps because the meaning of the first element is no longer clear, ©ubo'll, ©iibfubo'fl, norbioe'flHc^ as in English. 4. In a large number of adjectives in which the first element denotes a comparison or a high degree, e.^r,, '^imntel^o'c^, as high as heaven, ei^fa'lt, as cold as ice, fo^lfc^tDa'rj, the accent may stand on the second element, but must remain on the first when the adj. is inflected, ©teinrei'c^, ''very rich," originally " rich in precious stones," jlei'nrei^, stony, are sometimes distinguished. 5. aller- is accented only in a'tter^anb and a'llerlet, doubtful in several, as in a'llerfeit^. aH- is generally unaccented : attei'n, aUma'i)lid), aUgemei'n, but also SClImac^tr S('E»ater, WUtaa, and its derivatives, but also aKtd'gUd), as sub 4. 6. utt-. For this prefix it is diflScult to find a general rule. The best founded and most practical is this, based upon nominal and verbal com- pounds : Un- compounded with nouns and adjectives not derived from 192 PHONOLOGY — ACCENT. [423- verbs attracts tlie chief accent ; if they are derived from verbs, then the stem-syllable retains its original accent, e,g.y u'ttfrud^tbar, u'nbanfbar, u'nflar, U'nmenfc^, but unglau'Mt(^, unfa'glic^, unent:6e'|rli(|, un»cra'nttt)ortlt(^, un^egrei'flicl. Notice, however, utte'nbt{(^, ungelcu'er — u'nge^euer. See a. a. With regard to adjectives there is also a feeling approaching a principle, that un should have the chief accent, when a regular adjective exists, of which the compound with un- denotes the contrary or negation : brau'(!^6av, u'n6rau(^6av, fi'c^tBar, u'txHc^tfeav, etc. This f peling frequently unsettles the accent, as untterjei'^Ii^ > u'tiwer^eipc^. 7. Dter- varies in accent in compounds consisting of three parts. When it belongs to the second part it has chief stress, and the third part secon- dary stress : D'krfiefer^ijerle^^ung, injury of the upper jawbone. But if the second and third form one subdivision and oBer- denotes rank, then it has less stress than the third part and the second has chief stress : Dkr^^ fc^u'Ile'l^rer = chief school-teacher ; Dkr^^mu'nbfc^e'nf ; Dkrgeri'c^t^a^nroalt, chief attorney. But accent the first and last examples differently and they mean different persons, viz., D'krfc^ulle^^rer, teacher at a high- school ; D'ber9eri(i)t^anHvaU, attorney at a high-court of justice. 423. In compound adverbs the chief accent falls generally upon the second element, if they are compounded of a simple adverb and a preceding or following noun or pronoun; or if compounded of two adverbs, e. g., bergau'f, firoma'b, ja^rei'n, ja^rau'^, jufo'Ige, anfta'tt, :^inu'6cr, Ijtvoo'x, fofo'rt, ta^i'n, fca^e'r, ixkxaW^, liBerei'tt, ukr^au')Jt, i)or^a'nt>en, ab^a'nten* 1. This includes their derivatives fofo'rtig, jufrle'beti, ijor'^a'nbcn* Exceptions are: 1, compounds which contain demonstrative and posses- sive pronouns, e.g., be'mnac^, be'rgefialt, mei'netwegen, etc.; a'nber- or a'nber^-, -'f^alb, -'mxt^, -gej!ern, 6.g., a'nhamo, a'nbcrfeit^, o'kr'^alb, ^ei'mwart^, »o'r^ toiixt^, ^o'rgeflernr etc.; be'nnoc^; e'twa; 2, many compounds which are fused adverbial phrases and derivatives from compounds. They retain their original word accent, e.g., a'ngeftc^t^, a'bfeit^, na'd^mittag^, H'btxmoxQm, ju'fefenb^. See the rhetorical accent, 426. 424. For the secondary accent rules can be given only in derivatives and compound words. 1. Certain nominal suffixes have always medium stress. 427] PHOI^'OLOGY — ACCENT. 193 a. Substantive suffixes: -at, -ut, -ofc; -^eit, -ridjt; -in, -!eit, -lein, -MuQ, -ni^, -\oX, fcbaft, -turn, e. g., §ei'ma't, ^lei'no't; (S'njigleiU, gi'nfierni^^, %xvi!\i\'^attg, diMmnQ^-a^Ua^t, ©o'lb-k^rgwe^^rf, 3)e'lH'i'nb[(^u^^, i^e'Ibma\f(i^att; but |)a'nbfc§u""^-ma"c^er, ^u'^bavrm-t)o% Sc^n'ft|le""IIertterei'n. The misplaced medium stress would give no meaning at all, e. g., ^n'^-ban^m^oU, because ku'm|o'lj is meaningless. In Seu'eri)er|t(^erun9^- gefe'ttfc^aft secondary accent on -ft'c^- is only possible, if there is such a thing as f^eu'er-re'ttung^gefcttfc^aft. 4. The foreign endings, of course, also cross this accentuation, e. g., S3u'd)brucferei'f U'nterfefretaria't, i'rrlid^telie'ren. 425. Unaccented are all inflectional endings, many pre- fixes and suffixes. The syllables generally contain e = eh. 426. The rhetorical accent can interfere with the placing of the various degrees of stress, as in English : ta^ 3Bt(0 ni(^t e'rjagen fonliem ttc'rjagen ; la'xim and tabei' ; ei'nmat, einma'L In Sch.'s Wallenstein occurs ^a'ttn ni(^t fein, fann ni'(^t fein, etc. 427. The accent in foreign words is as a rule foreign. Very few words have taken German accent when introduced since the O. H. G. period. Substantives in -ie and -ci, verbs in -teren retain, for instance, the prima- ry accent on these suffixes, e.g., SWagie', S^eologic', 2)ru(ferei', fhibie'ren, ^antic'ren. 194 HISTORICAL COMMENTARY 01^ ACCIDEKCE. [428- B. HISTORICAL COMMENTARY UPON THE ACCIDENCE. Comments on the Noun-Declension. 1. Vowel-Declension, [See table on next page.'] There are two numbers, three genders. Only two cases have now endings, viz., G. sg. and D. pi., but other parts of speech still inflect for the N. and A. The number of cases was gradually reduced. In O. H. G. there is still an Instrumental. 428. 1. There were two large systems of declension according as the stem ended in a vowel or in a consonant. Vowel stems ended in o or in a. We generally count here also the i- and w-stems, but they really belong to the consonant stems, since i and u have the functions of consonants as well as of vowels. Stems in o (jo, wo) belong to the I. E. e — o ablaut-series and are always masculine or neuter. Stems in d {jd, wd) belong to the a — a series and are always feminine, jo, wo, jd, wd are counted as separate classes, because j and w produced some peculiar changes, w-stems are very rare, since they soon became i-stems, e.g., sunu, pi. suni, (So^nc. There is only one neuter i-stem in 0. H. G., viz., meri, ba^ 9)Zeer + L. mare. 2. The consonant stems end in n, r, in a dental and in a guttural. The most frequent are the n-BXems,, to which went over a great many fem. nouns from the earliest times, e.g., zunga + L. lingua for dingua. 3. J. Grimm fancied that there was strength in the vowel-declension and so called it " strong," the consonant declension he called " weak." The names have been gener- ally accepted and though Grimm's reasons are fanciful the terms have the advantage of brevity. 4. The stem and case endings have been very much reduced according to certain principles called the " laws of finals" and the " rules of syncope." We cannot illus- trate these here, as it would presuppose a knowledge of the older dialects. There was also a great levelling of oases, e. g., the N. sg. fem. (a- stem) took a from the A. sg. fem. Its own vowel had to go according to the law of finals, and Jb-Stems. 5. The nouns sub 46, 1, in el, en (< em or en), and cr are o-stems that lost the e of the plural in M. H. G., see 434, 3. Masc. in er < aere < dH (originally j-stem runs through sing, and pi. ; the umlaut of HISTORICAL COMMENTARY OK ACCIDEKCE. 195 rjl . d fl a c 1=1 S ri 5 73 Q CS W I 'T 03 Oi OJ +i +^ -tJ 02 Cp QO O) OJ (D bC&D&C oi oS o o el i=) .9 .S .S .5 c tiC &X) be a fl fl a s 1=1 ^ ri N N N N a a d .2.9 9 asa a !=i C<0 be be bo d a a d d IS N N N -a cS.S.S f^ f-i t^ <0 > > t> 3 ^ o) ^ ^ -stems of 50, 2, and therefore cannot have umlaut. In O. and M, H. G. these neuters were either uninflected or took the -ir, -er of 56 ; see 431. The masculines sub 50, 2, 3 are o-atems, and come properly by their -e. See p. 195. ' 429. /-Stems. The paradigms of " kraf t " and " gast " show which cases were entitled to umlaut. The sg. of the masc. very early took its Gr. and D. from the o-stems. The feminine was made in- variable in M. H. G. since the apparent cause of umlaut had disappeared and since all other feminines, strong and weak, did not vary in the root- vowel. 1. The old bulk of the third class is made up of e-stems. Their number has been increased by u-, o-, jo-, and cons-stems. %\i^ and Bci^n were originally cows-stems. Comp. Gr. 7rod-6f, L. dent-is. They appear as -w-stems in Gothic, as t-stems in O. H. G. ^ad)t is also a cons-stem. Comp. L. noct-is. Isolated cases of its old inflection are ^a<^t^ the ad- verbial genitive and the dative plural in SSei^nac()tert < zen wihen nahten. In ^Zad^tigatt + nightingale appears the genitive of its ^■-stem inflection ; compare also SBrauttgam -f bridegroom, lit. "bridesman." (See 489, 5). An isolated -w-case is w^anben" < O. H. G. Mntum, dative plural, in ab^ lanben, lost; sor^anben -f " on hand." Mitxi'* is an isolated dative plural; the nominative plural is obsolete. Compare the Eng. umlaut in mouse, mice ; louse, lice ; loft, lift, Ags. lyft, but Go. luftus ; cow, kine, etc. 2)a^ Slof is O. H. G. masculine i stem. 196 HISTORICAL COMMENTARY OIT ACCIDENCE. [430- 430. 1. A small group of fern, is interesting, because tlio sg. was lev- elled in favor of the longer umlaut-forms of the G. and D., while the pi. became weak at the same time. For instance, bie ®nte,the duck, inflected M. H. G. at first ant, ente, ente, ant ; pi. ente, ente, enten, ente. Then it became ente for the whole sg., enten for the pi., as it is now. Similarly M. H. G. Uuot, now bie 33Iute + blowth ; sM, now bie ©ciule, column ; i^urch, bic %\xx&ii + furrow, no umlaut in M. H. G. ; huf, bie ^ufte, this form *'huft" with excrescent t, + hip, also Eng. with umlaut, + Ags, hype; stuot, bie ©tute, + stud. %^xmt, Ba^re + tear, SCfjur (?) + door, are origi- nally plurals, that have become singulars. See Kluge. a. In this way doublets could spring up, e. g., M. H. G. sg. stat^ stete, stete, stat fur- nished bie ©tatt + stead, bie ©tabt, pi. ©tabte, city, and bie ©tatte, pi. -n, place, spot- all + Eng. stead, ©tatt also occurs in the sense of representation " in place of," anftatt, an feiner ©tatt, an ^InbeSflatt, to adopt as one's own chUd. Another such is M. H. G./aW— modern bie %Ck^xi, pi. gaf^rten, ride, and bie %^xt^, pi. ga^rten, track, scent. 2. All nouns in -^eit, -feit, -fc^aft and a large group of others were in M. H. G. still strong (mostly i-stems), but are now weak. 3. The modern fem. nouns in -ttlf pi. -innettj are also strong in 0. H. G. The suffix -in < -njd. See paradigm of mdgin. They had the fate of all fem. nouns, viz., invariable in the sg., generally -en in the pi. 431. Plurals in -er. See paradigm, p. 195. 1. This sign started from old os-stems corresponding to L. genus, generis ; corpus, corporis. It is rare in O. H. G. in the sg., where it may have been even reintroduced from the pi. In the G. and D. pi. -o, -urn are the regular case-endings. -ir therefore is really stem-ending, but it was too convenient a form for the pi. to escape being used as a pi. sign. Some eight to ten nouns are thus inflected in O. H. G. In M. H. G. -er spread and gradually formed a pi. even of mascuHnes. 2. The word ®i is originally a jo-Bieva. The double plurals in -c and -er have sprung up from the apparent necessity of distinguishing sg. and pi. of neuters, which according to the law of finals had to lose all end- ings. Some nouns took e; some er, some both. In the latter a distinc- tion in meaning developed. See 58 and the inflection of wort and kaJb^ p. 195. 434] HISTORICAL COMMEI^TARY OK ACCIDEKCE. 197 2. Consonant Declension. 432. The masculine and neuter n-stems ended once in -on, -jon, the feminines in -on, -jon. They correspond to the L. homo, hominis ; fulmen, fulminis ; ratio, rationis. As to their frequency in the Teutonic languages, see 478, 5. The Latin declension shows also in the singular, how the case-endings were added ; in O. H. G. these appear still in the pi., e. g., in herzono 6 is sign of G. pi. What was therefore the mere stem- suffix has become a means of inflection in the course of time. 1. r-stems are the names of relationship, ^aitx, etc. They with the dental stems were forced into the strong, first into the o-, then into the t-declension lor lack of case-endings, which could appear only in the Q. and D. pi., viz^ fatero, faterum. Already in M. H. G. the umlaut appears in the r-stems. 2. Nouns like @ute, 3D?enge, Oro^c end in i or in in O. H. G.: guoti, managi, -In. That is, they wereja- and J^n-stems. They are all derivatives from adjectives, and those in in are later than those in %. In O. H. G. they had i or in throughout except in the G. and D. pi., which were managino, managim respectively. Therefore umlaut through- out. The in-fovms, had to coincide in time with the strong feminines in -in{n) at least in the sg. and therefore disappeared. They were rarely used in the pi. See paradigm of mdgin, p. 195. 433. 1. All feminines having now no inflection in the sg. and the old strong fem. having taken e(n) in the plural, it is diflBlcult to tell the original vowel-stems from w-stems. It would he correct to summarize the changes that have taken place in them, thus: All fem. nouns have become strong in the sg. and most of them by far, weak in the plural. 2. The fem. a-stems (see paradigm) had already two cases in -en, viz., G, and D. pi., the other two were like the whole sg. It is not to be wondered at, then, if N. and A. pi. also took -en and thus a sharp contrast was formed between the sg. with no varia- tion and the pi. with -en throughout. By this levelling and by the jon (i and in) stems the loss of -en in the sg. of w-stems was brought about. 434. 1. -nin the D. and Gt. sg. is still frequent in the 16th century and is preserved in certain phrases and in poetry. Schiller's Wallenstein's Lager has ^ir(^en, ^lubtn, ©onnen. f^eftgentauert in ber (£rben (Sch.). See 171. 3. The masculines in -e are the bulk of old ?i-stems in M. H. G. Some nouns have become strong, e. g , Star, |)a^n ; others have become weak, ^irtc (originally j6>-stem), §elb (already in M. H. G.). See 61; 518, I, 2. 3. As to the nouns in 46, t, in M. H. G. e was dropped after r and I in 198 HISTOKICAL COMMENTARY OIT ACCIDEN'CE. [435- the N. sg. and all through ; after m and n only in the N. In modern G. no -e is the usage. See paradigm of 'cogel, p. 195. 435. 1. In O. H. G. were only four neuter yi-stems, viz., 8ra, D^r ; ouga, 9tuge ; herza^ §ers; wanga^ SBangc. In M. H. G. they inclined toward the strong and now the first three have joined the mixed declension ; wanga has become weak and fern,; namo, bcr 9?ame, was once neuter. Comp. L. nomen, nominis. 2. Interesting are bie 93{ene + bee and bie 93irne + pear, in which the inflectional n has entered the stem. Compare the older J?e, Mr, This entering of n into the N. of mas- culines is very common and has furnished the hulk of strong nouns, 1, class sub 1 and 4, 46, e. g., Dtiiifen, ©atgen, ^foflen, Dioggen, ©^aben (but notice the isolated „e8 i^ ©(i^abe," it is too bad). One can tell these by comparing them with their Eng. cog- nates + ridge, gallow(s), post, rye, etc., which show no n. 3. In ber §etbe < heidan + heathen ; (S^rifl + Christian < Jcristen < L. christianus ; SHaBe < robe and raben + raven, n is lost as if it had been regarded an inflectional suffix and the nouns became weak. 4. In bie gerfe blind(t) just as *dagoz > tag. The strong declension is the pronominal inflection, which in some cases coincided with the substantive declension. These cases and the uninflected forms are put in small capitals in the paradigm. 439] HISTORICAL COMMENTARY ON ACCIDENCE. 199 1. The a ea > ia. de without r is the older ; r is the same as in wer, er, '^ L. quis, is. to is treated as o and i stem, de < thai, dei is probably dual like zwei. O. H. G. daz < G. T. thata, in which final t is a particle. The Instr. exists still in the isolated „t)eflo/' + the In " the more," < desde < des-diu. des is the Gen. 443. . H. G. Masc. Fem. Neut. Sg. N. dgse, dgs§-r deisu, diusiu diz, dSzzi, di^ G. dgeses dgsera, derra desses etc. etc. etc. dese is composed like a strong adjective of de and a particle sa. In the G. sg. both elements are inflected, generally only the second, di^ has in j the neuter pronominal 202 HISTORICAL COMMENTARY ON ACCIDENCE. [444- suffix, but nothing else in it is explained. In M. H. G. the forms beginning with dir' prevailed, always short. bie§ goes back to O. H. G. di^, but biefeg first appearb as late as the 15th century. Hans Sachs still spells diz^ ditz. 1. jcn-er seems to contain the same suffix -in as the possessive pronouns. Its stem is limited to the Teutonic languages. The origin of „^tXb" + self is dark. fol(^ + such is compounded of swa, so, fo and lich, like, -Ud§. 2. The pronominal stem hi, which appears also in the Eng. pronoun he, his, him, her, is hidden in ^eute <• Mudagu (Instr.), '^euer < Muja/)'Uy |eint (now dialectic) < M. H. G. liinet < Mnaht, + to-night. It occurs also in the adverbs lin, l^er, + hi-ther. Compare L. hir-c, Jiacr-c, ho-c. 444. Interrogative Pronouns. O. H. G. Masc. and Fern. N. huer G. hues Neuter. hna^ M. H. Q. wer, wa^ wes D. huemu wem(e) A. huen(aii) Instr. huin, hiu wen, wa^ win a. From the stem -ko with k'^ that was labialized in Latin and the Teutonic languages. Compare L. guis—guid, guod, which perhaps requires another I. E. stem ki. A. huenan is only O. H. G. and the ending is taken from the adjective declension. 1. Wie < O, H. Gt. wiu, huiu, + why, how, comes from this stem, G. T. hwa-, I. E. ho-, + Go. hwaiwa, Age. M. But the phonetic relation be- tween tuiCf why and how is not yet cleared up. Eng, whom is really the D. + went, but served as D. and A very early. 3. »cld^ < O. H. G. hu'dih, welich, + which < Ags. h^Dplc, lit. *'how or what like." 3. webcr + whether, now only conjunction, is still a pronoun in the 16tli century. Formed, with the comparative suffix -ber < thar < tero, from ko- the interrogative stem. Comp. Gr. iiorepog, archaic form. 445. Indefinite Pronouns. 1. jeber/ jemanb, ntemanb contain the prefix io, ie, jc, + ever, io gave the original interrogative weder indefinite force, jeber < ieweder < ioweder. Like " either," it meant "one of two," " which ever you please." The end- 446] HISTORICAL COMMETSTARY OK ACCIDEIJCE. 203 ing -er was confounded with the adjective-endings -er, -c, -e3 and the full forms jeberer/ jebere, jcbereS are preserved, though rare, down to the 17th century. jemanb is compounded of ie — man, niemanb of ni — ie — man. As to b, see 491, 2. ieglid^ < iegelih < io — gil%h, *' ever (the) like." 2. jebweber < ie — deweder, "■ any one of two," It contains an element de, which is also in ctlic^, etwa^. Its origin is unknown, fein < dechein. This also contains an obscure element dech-. 3. anber + other is a comparative like tt)eber» < O. H. G. andar < *aD — tero. Comments on the Conjugation. 446. Strong Verbs. O. H. G. M. H. G. Pres. ind. Svbj. Sg. 1. nimu neme nime neme 2. nimis(t) nemes nimest nemest 3. nimit neme nimet nem© PL 1. nemam(^s) nem^m(es) nemen nemen 2. nemat, et nem^t nemet nemet 3. uemant nemen nement nemen Pret. ind. Subj. Sg. 1. nam ndmi nam nsRme 2. nami ndmis nseme nsemest 3. nam ndmi nam nseme PL 1. namum(es) namim(es) ndmen nsemen 2. namut ndmit namet nsemet 3. namun ndmin ndmen ngemen Imp. 2. sg, niTTi Inf. neman nim nemen 1. pL nemam(^s) Ger. ze nemanne nemen ze nemenne 2. pL nemat Pres. part, nemanti nemet nemende Past part, ginoman genomen 204 HISTORICAL COMMEi^TARY ON ACCIDEi^CE. [447- 447 Weak Verbs. 0. H. G. M. H,G. Imp. 2. sg. neri salbo ner salbe Pret. nerita salbdta, dahta nerte salbete Inf. neren salb6n uern salben Part. nerenti salbonti nernde salbende ginerit gisalbot genert gesalbet a. Grimm called a verb " strong" because it would form its preterit of its own re- sources, without the aid of composition. We retain the terms " strong " and " weak " simply because they are generally used. 448. Tenses. There are only two simple tenses left in the Germanic languages, viz., the present and the " preterit" which corresponds in form to the "per- fect" of the other I. E. languages. What we call "the subjunctive" is in form the optative, the suffix for which was ie — i, in an nimi > nim. In 463] HISTORICAL COMMEKTARY OH ACCIDENCE. 205 weak verbs the ending is amalgamated with the connecting vowel : neri, salbo. neri should become ner, but there was levelling in favor of the long-stemmed verb. The 1. p. pi. is exhortative. It is indicative. 451. Infinitive. This is a verbal noun ending in -no-. Perhaps an isolated accusative. 452. Gerundive. It is confounded with the infinitive with which it has originally nothing to do. Suffix is -^j- ; hence the double n. It was inflected like any noun. Since in modern German it has taken a construction similar to the Gerundive of Latin grammar, we have called it " Gerundive." The form with ~d occurs, according to Weinhold, as early as the 12th century in Alemanic, zi tuonrte and zi tuonde were con- founded. In the latter form lies the modern construction, as in eine ju kad)tentte SJorfc^rift. 453. Pakticiples. The suflSx of the present participle was -nt, a consonant stem, but afterwards a jo-, jd-siem, hence nemanti. For the nouns Srcunbf Seinb, |)eilanb, see 505. 1. The passive participles are two verbal adjectives formed by means of -to- and -no- (both accented) from the verb-stems, not from the tense-stems. They were at first not limited, -to- to weak verbs and -no- to the strong. Compare miss- (the modern prefix mip- + Eng. mis-) < misto < *mith — to the .weak stem of the verb nteiben, mieb, gemieben, to avoid : 0en)i§ < gawiss < *-wiUa < ^widto, from the stem of twcip, wiffen; alt + old < al — to- from the strong verb (Go.) alan + L. alere, to nourish. Besides in these and other isolated forms -to- occurs in the past part, of the pret.-pres. verbs and in a class that had no con- necting vowel, e.g., geBrac^t, gebad^t, etc., see 454, 3. Compare Gr. -t6q, L. ^tus. -no is rare in non-Germanic languages ; compare L. dignus, 'plenus + full. 3. The prefix ge-. It is the inseparable prefix ge- and belonged at first only to the participle of verbs compounded with it. But in simple verbs it could give the present the force of the future, it would emphasize the preterit or give it the force of the pluperfect and give the infinitive de- pendent upon a modal auxiliary the force of the perfect inf. Thus also n the participle it emphasized the completion of an act. Some parti- ciples very rarely took ge- in M. H. G., e. g., komen, worden, funden, Id^en, fre^^en, hei^en. „®nabe funben" is common in the Bible. The Patriarch in Lessing's Nathan uses it. Compare Eng. yclad, yclept. 806 HISTORICAL COMMENTARY OK ACCIDENCE. [454- 454. Weak Veebs. 1. The connecting vowels are i(j), S, in O. H. G. The original type of connecting vowel is supposed to have been ojo — ejo, but the reduction to 6 (Go. ai) and 6 is by no means clear. The large majority have i(j) < *^'o, but a not small number both of orig- inally strong and weak verbs have none. The preterit is formed by the suffix -ia, now -te. Its origin is by no means settled. Paul reconstructs two suffixes, viz., -dho and -ta. The Old Saxon forms sagda, hadda, lidda with corresponding participles can only come from Vdhd, from which is also t^un + to do. The majority of verbs take I. E. -ta,> tha >da>ta according to Verner's Law. See 411. 3. We distinguish originally three classes : 1, no connecting vowel in the preterit ; 2, connecting vowel and short stem ; 3, connecting vowel and long stem. 3. There was very early (in 0. H. G.) a levelling between the 2. and 3. classes, because in short-stemmed verbs, in which no syncope could take place, j(i) caused doubling of the final consonant. This made them appear like long-stemmed ones. The first class has now been reduced to the three verbs benfen, biinfcn, and kingen, see 119, 2. Compare O. H. G. denlcen, ddhta, giddkt ; dunken, dHhta, gidHht ; bringen, hrdhta, gibrdht Long a < a nasalized < an. ^x guttural spirant which takes place only directly before t ; 2, by the umlaut in the pret. subj. For the M. H. G. forms are denken, ddhte — dcehte, geddht ; dunken, dilhte — diulite, geduht ; bringen, brdhte — brcehte, {ge)brdht. hmtm, biinftc, gebiinft begins as early as M. H. G. The present mir bciuc^t is a N. H. G. formation from the preterit. That furc^ten once belonged here is shown by the archaic form „fur(^te," e.g., 1)tx xoad^xt ^B^^rodU fox^V ft(^ nit (U.). Lessing has wfurc^te," < O. H. G. furhten {mi/rhten), for{a)hta, gifor{a)ht (the a is a secondary development). 455. The verbs in 119, 1, are the only verbs that still show the difference between the long and short-stemmed of the i(j)- class. They formed their principal parts in O. H. G. : brennen, branta, gibrennit — gibranter ; nennen, nanta, ginennit — ginanter. According to syncope %rannita, *g'ibranniter had to become branta, gibranter. The i that produced umlaut in brennen 457] HISTORICAL COMMEl^TART ON ACCIDENCE. 207 gibrennit had disappeared from hrannita, gibranniter and therefore there is no umlaut in brannte, geBrannt. The parti- ciple with umlaut was leveUed away. 1. The umlaut in the modern pret. subj. is due to analogy with 5ra(|tCr biirftc, etc. It is a Middle German feature. Even preterits indicative with e of rennen, brennen, nennen occur now and then in the classics. The levelling into fenben, fenbetc, gefenbet; wenben, tuenbete, gewenbet is not uncom- mon. Schiller has ♦ . . bte ©renje, tt)o er ba^ »on ben (£c^t»eben erokrtc e^am krennte. 3. All other differences were levelled away, e.g., M. H. G. hce,ren, hdrte, geho&ret — gehort, becomes loren, prte^ gelort; furc^ten, fitrc^tete, gcfitrc^tet ; fprengen, fprengte, gefprengt; fiillen, fiittte, gefiiEt; beef en, becfte, gcbetft. 3. A few isolated participles are left, such as gej^alt (ungeflalt), Qetrojl (adverb), and others. Strong Verbs. 456. The Present. 1. The interchanges of c — i ; ie — eu; no umlaut— umlaut in the present and the um- laut in the pret. subj. are accounted for in the phonology. See 403. See also under each class of verbs. 2. The first p. sg. has followed the analogy of the forms that have e and of the verbs of VI. which had of course no umlaut in 1. p. sg., e.g., O. H. G. faru, ferist, ferit. The contrast is now for all classes between 2. and 3. pers. sg. with i, a, etc: bu fci'^rj^, er fa^rt, bu gtbjl, er' gttt and all the other forms with a and e : fa^rettf t(^ fa^re, wir fa^ren, i^r fa'^rt, fte fasten; geten, ic^ gek, wir gekn, i^r gebet, jle geBen. Formerly the contrast was between the whole pres. sg. and the whole pi. for CI. III., IV., V. See paradigm, p. 203. 457. Of the numerous formations of the present-stem the following \Te still to be recognized by certain peculiarities : 1. I. E. jo—je, L. capio, fugio, German Htten V. < Udjan < ^bedjan according to the interchange of e — i, but the participle gekten < hedan-. Exactly like this ft^en V., Uegen V., but gefeffen, getegen. Also ^efcen VI. and fd^rooren Vi., e.g., fc^woren < »wem < swerien < swarjan, swor, swaran-. Hence i, or in the last two, a umlaut through the whole present. This was once a large group. Here belonged for instance the class benfcn, ba^te^ sec 454, 3, + Go. thankjan. 2. The suffix -n {-nw, nj), which also entered the pret. if it was within the root, fragen < *frehnan, Ags. frignan, but already weak in 208 HISTORICAL COMMENTARY Old ACCIDENCE. [458- O. H. G. crtDct^ncn < an O. H. G. {giy-wahhinnen, nn < nj. beginnen, rinnen and others have nw. Go. standan, German flunb, |!anb — geflanben; (Qf^en), gieng, gegangen; fangen^ etc. Compare L. tundo, tutudi. 3. Reduplication, corresponding to Gr. ti'&ijjui and nirrTO), is preserved in UUn < biben, to quake, and jittern, to tremble, both weak (Kluge). 4. sk, corresponding to L. -sco, in bref(|en, forfc^en, tt)iittf(|en, mafc^en (see Kluge's Diet, for these words). 458. The Preterit. 1. Reduplication. There are traces of ablaut without reduplication, but generally the two occurred together. In Gothic are still verbs which have both. The reduplication consisted in the repetiton of the initial consonant + e or if beginning with a vowel by prefixing 'e, e. g.. Go. haldan, haihcdd (ai = 6 in Gtothic), aukan, aiauk. O. H. G. has only one clear example, viz., tela, i^ t^at. Compare L. fatto —fefeUi, tango — tetigi. How the reduplicating syllable was lost, how it coalesced with the stem is not yet clear. Our VII. class includes the reduplicating verbs, that is, those still reduplicat- ing in Gothic, though it is by no means certain that Gothic has preserved the original method of reduplication. 2. In O. H. G. the stem-vowel of the reduplicated preterit appears as e and eo, e. g. , rdtan ret^ fdhan feng and feng (fahan < fanlian). e by diphthongization > ea > ia > ie ; eo > io > ie, so that already in M. H. G. we have ie as the regular vowel of the preterit. Examples; std^an — steo^, stio^, M. H. G. stie^ — gisto^an ; hloufan — hleof, hliof^ M. H. G. Uef—giJiloufan^ N. H. G. laufen — lief — gelaufen ; fallan — fet > feed > jial>fiel (M. H. Q.)—gifollan, N. H. G. faKen — ^e(— gefatten; hei^^an — he^, heaf, hia^, M. H. G. hie^—giTiei^^an, N. H. G. l^ei^en — l^iep — ge'^ei§en. 3. However the vowel appearing in the pret. may have arisen, it is not ablaut. It never appears in derivatives as all the ablaut vowels do. Unter^^teb is only a seeming exception, since it stands for the older „Unterf(^eib," which was crowded out, because the verb went over into the I. CI. The Ablaut-series and the Verb-classeSo 459. No one verb shows all the four stages of ablaut as they have been determined. See 394. The first five classes belong to the origi nal I. E. e — o series, the VI. 'is the I. E. a — a, G. T. a — o series. To the latter series belong also the reduplicating verbs which have in the Btem a + liquid + cons, (halteu) ; ai (ei) ; and au, o. 460] HISTORICAL COMMENTARY ON ACCIDENCE. 209 In the first group e corresponds to G. T. e, i ; o to G. T. a in tlie pret Eg., for in I. and II. we must count i and u as consonants. The fi ve classes can be grouped as follows : 1. a. I., II.: i and u as consonants in the pres. and pret. sg*.; a* vowels in the pret. pi. and part., viz., e ~ i + cons. a - i + cons. i + cons, e - u + cons. a - u + cons. u + cons. The stem ends in i or u + cons. b. III., IV., V. have in the present e - i + liquid or nasal + cons. (HI.); e + liquid or nasal (IV.), or e + cons. (V.). In the pret. sg. they have a. The stem ends in a liquid or nasal + cons. (III.) ; in a single liquid oi- nasal (IV.) ; in a single cons, not liquid or nasal (V.). 2. I., II., III. have- the weakest stages of ablaut in the pret. pi. and participle ; IV. in the part, only ; V. in neither. IV. and V. have a long vowel in the pret. pi., that is very difficult to account for. O. H. G. a corresponds to G. T. e, the length of which may be due to compensation, ^ff-> *gegbum > gebum. See 458, 1. 3. A third grouping is possible according to the quality of the vowel, viz., I. to V. run in a system of unrounded vowels, VI. runs in a system of rounded. a. ti (o) in n. is either consonant in the accented stage (pres. and pret. sg.) or vowel In the unaccented stage (pret. pi. and past part.), u before r, 1, m, n in the unaccented stage is also due to their double nature, according to which they serve as vowels or as consonants. Nasalis and lAquida sonans (Brugman) are represented in all the Teu- tonic dialects by ur, ul, um, un, a characteristic of the whole group. 4. VI. stands alone and contains rounded vowels. Its a cannot have been originally the same as the a of the other series. It was probably more o than a. Levelling in the Preterit. 460. Tracing the classes from O. H. G. to N. H. G. we have to notice one great levelling in all the classes, viz., of sg. and pi. pret. This was started by VI. and VII., which had sg. and pi. alike. In IV. and V, the difference was only one of quantity. The sg. was short and the pi. wag long. The sg. had to take a long vowel according to 488, 2. 1. In CL II. G. T. au > ao > 6 before dentals, before 1, r, h, and finally no HISTORICAL COMMENTARY OK ACCIDEl^CE. [461- There were therefore already o's in the pret. sg. The levelling was in favor of o, but of 6 before certain consonants (ff, c^, f, b — t). o was already in the past part. < ii. Only I. and III. are left. But in 1. 1 > ei accord- ing to 488, 5. The pres. and pret. had to become alike. The principle of ablaut was thus interfered with in I., and the levelling in the pret. was in favor of the pi. and part., viz., i or ie according to the following con- sonants. III. is the only class in which the levelling was in favor of the pret. sg. Before nasal + cons, u stood in the pi. and part. A levelling in favor of the pi. was therefore not likely. In IV. and V. , where such a levelling occurred, the pi. and part, had different vowels. Before 1, r, + cons., to be sure, there was u in the pi., o in the part,, but u — o stood in no ablaut-relation. But this levelling was the latest of all and we find none in S. G. dialects at the present day. In the written-langnage of the 16th and 17th centuries it is rather rare ; in the 18th it is the rule with not a few exceptions. SSerben* toaxh — luurbe, get»orben is the only verb of III. in which the pi. -vowel stands by the side of the sg. But this verb stands isolated from the rest as an auxiliary verb. The pret.-pres. verbs have not suffered levelling except fotten(see 471, 2), but these have stood in an isolated position toward all the other strong verbs from pre- historic times. 461. We give a few examples of the classes in their earlier stages. Space will not per- mit to trace each verb of each class. It would be easy to show what verbs have died out, what verbs have become weak, and what weak or foreign verbs have become strong. The stock of verbs belonging to each class varies with every period; in fact, it is ever varying. Compare, e.g.^ iog, iug, frag, ftug VI. (see 129), and the large num- ber of doubtful ones in VIII. 462. LCI. O. (M.)H. a. 1 ei, ^ grifan greifen zihan snidan fdjneiten greif sneit grifum griffen zigum snitum fc^nttten -grifan gegriffen -zigan -snitan gef^nittcn 1. The interchange of h— g, d— t according to Verner's Law, see 416. i > ei according to 488, 5. N. H. G. i in the whole pret. by levelling, ei > e before h, r, w. i represents both the medium stage G. T. ei and the weak stage i. i is the zero stage. 464] HISTORICAL COMMENTARY ON ACCIDENCE. 211 463. . II. 0. H. G. iu — io ou, 6 u triofan trouf trufiim -trofan triefen troff troffen getroffen kiosan k6s kurum -koran fiefen, fiiren foc, for (er)foren erioren siodan s6t sutum -sotan fteben fott fotteit gefotten sufan souf sufum -sofan faufen foff foffen gefoffen 1. The interchange of iu — io according to 406; iu in the pres. sg. triufu, triufist, triufit, but pi. triofames, etc., inf. triofan. For a period this iu, having passed > ii, became eu by diphthongization. These forms are now archaic, ie prevailing through the whole present, see 124. M. H. G. io > ie. G. T. au > ou, but > ao > 6 before dentals, 1, r, h and finally. The interchange of s — r, d — t according to Verner's Law, but levelled, as in f(^nett>en I., in favor of t, in the whole preterit. In M. H. G. kiesen, kos, korn, gekoren for a while, but later, lu\tn, U^, gefofen; fiefen, for, geforen; now fiiren, for, geforen. See 132. 2. In this series all the four grades of ablaut are represented, ou strong ; io, iu medium ; u the weak ; u zero, u > au regularly, u ap peared in verbs that had the accent on the suffix. Compare 457. 464. III. CI. O. (M.) H. G. e— i a I, a, u before nasal + cons.; e — i, u — o before r, 1 f- cons. U u— 5 swimman swam . swummum -swuniTnan fc^mimmen fd^tvcintm f^ttjammen gefc^wommen fintan fant funtum -funtan flnfeen fant) fanten gefunben helfan half TmlfnTYi -holfan ^effen ^alf ^alfen ge^olfen 1. This is in N. H. G. the most primitive series, ftnben, fanb, gefunben is already the G. T. series. In the second group (see 125, 2) the secondary 212 HISTORICAL COMMENTARY OK ACCIDEKCE. [465^ transition of u > o is a M. G. feature. It takes place before nn and mm. The older transition from u > o before 1, r + cons, is already O. H. G. See 405. 2. The interchange of e IV., V. alike. i is regidar (see 403). It appears in III., 3. The double preterit subjunctive (see 125) is due to the levelling of the indicative. The subjunctive was regularly formed with the vowel of the pi. and umlaut of the same. Now when the vowel of the sg. spread over the pi. it is natural a new subjunctive should be formed also by um- laut: fanbe, Mrge. Wherever the new pret. subj. in a did not approach too closely to, or coincide with, the present ind., it prevailed as in the first division: ftnbe — foinbe, binbe — banbe, gelinge — gelange. Where such a coincidence was the case, the old subjunctive is still in use and prefer- able as in the third division: berge — (Mrge) Burge, jlerk — jlurbe, mxbt — romU, see 126. 33efe|len and empfeflen of IV. belong here since in M. H. G. they were bevelhen, enpfelhen, containing I + cons, ftc^len IV < stein has followed the analogy of III., 3, on account of jla^Ie, the regular subj. and fte^Ie the pres. ind. The 2. division has o for older li just as it has o for u : gewiinne > getx>onne, but the new ones in a are quite common except of rinnen, on account of rcnnen. 4. e — i is the medium stage, a the strong ; the weak and zero appear as u — o. 465. IV. CI. O. (M.) H. G. e— i stelan koman, queman fommen stal quam lam stdlum fta^len quamum famen -stolan gefto^Ien -koman ge!ommen 1. Here is again interchange of e — 1. regularly. a prevailed in the pret. u > o 2. Queman > koman according to 489, 1. It is possible that "koman " is the weak grade (see 471, 2). jled}en belonged originally to V. ; it has no liquid. Before d) and ff the vowel is short, except in the pret. of course : ftl^tn, jlac^, aef^o^en* 4691 HISTORICAL COMMENTARY ON ACCIDENCE. 213 466. V. CI. O. H. G. e geban gektt gab gab gabum QaUn -geban gegeben ezzan effen dzum agen -e^jan (ge)geffen bitten Mtten bat bdtum kten -betan gefeeten wesan was wdrum -wesan (feirt) war njaren aenjefen 1. In e the three lowest grades are represented, there was no liquid or nasal to represent the 3. and 4. grades, a is the strong stage. The origin of a is not certain, a^ is perhaps from'ea^, 'e being the reduplicating syl- lable. For bitten, see 457, 1. In the part. t)ie interchange of s — r was levelled away after the inf. as early as O. H. G.; in the pret. with the levelling of the vowels. 9Ba<5 is archaic in Feuchtersleben's : uo> ti. For e in heffen, ^ebeit, see 457, 1. For a > o, see 489, 3, 468. VII. CI. Its verbs do not form an ablaut-series, see 458. 469. Vni. CI. Its verbs have mostly o for a, a in the pret. and the majority belong to III., IV., V. Some of these were unsettled very early, e. g. , M. H. G. pflegen IV. and V. For 4 > o, 6, see 489, 3. 214 HISTORICAL COMMEITTARY ON ACCIDENCE. [470- The Preterit-Present Verbs. 470. In these the meaning admitted of the perfect being used as a present. They are a primitive class. Compare Gr, olda, Ufiev, Lat,(?c?i, novi. With a few irregularities they can yet be assigned to the regular ablaut- series as has been done (see 135). Weak preterits were formed without connecting vowel. Therefore umlaut in the subj. The stem-vowel is the same for the old pret. pL, the new preterit, the participles and the infinitive. The participles (see 453, 1) were formed either weak or strong, generally weak. Since the infinitive is a new formation as well as some of the strong participles, and since as in gan — gunnen (goitnen) the strong participle was formed before there was an infinitive, it is hardly correct to say the infinitive is used instead of the part, in modern German : eigen* O. H. G. gawi^an, M. H. G. gunnen, gegunnen, {er)kunnen are strong participles. The others, burfen, fonnen, mo gen, fotten, were formed later. No doubt, participles like hei^^en, l%en, etc. (see 453, 2), had their influence in the non-use of ge- Eng. has formed no infinitive. 1. The inflection of the present is that of the regular strong pret. They have even one very old feature, viz., in 2. pers. sg. t is used, the second- ary ending, while in all other strong verbs the optative has entered the indicative, e. g., ndmi, but tarsi ( -i- durst) darft, scalt ( 4- thou shalt), maht. st in canst, anst is a mystery. This t still occurs in the 16th and 17th centuries, bu folt ttic^t ftel^len (B.). 471. 1. O. H. G. wei^ — wi^^um I. corresponds exactly to Gr. olda — i'dfjiev, in ablaut and consonants. 2. seal, scalt (2. pers. sg.), senium, scolta IV. It is possible that senium is older than the long vowel of IV. (" stalum "), for it may be the weak grade of ablaut, like -boran, sufan. 3. O. H. G. muoj muost muoijum muosa and muosta M. H. G. muo^ muost miie^en muose, muoste subj. mtiese, miieste N. H. G. mu§, mupt, mitffen, mu§te, miiptc. Of the double form muose — muoste the former is the older and regu- larly developed, muose < *m6t-ta, muosta has the sufiix added once more. The umlaut that appears in M. H. G. and later in the pres. pi. and inf. is difficult to account for. 474] HISTORICAL COMMENTARY ON" ACCIDENCE. 215 4. fott < scliol < schal < seal. Why f < fc^ ? Compare O. and M. H. Q. skal — sal, but always (Sc^ulb. 5. goitnen III. and taitgen II. have become weak. They come respec- tively < gan-gunnen, in which g- is prefix, and < touc-tugen, to be fit, + Eng. do in *' it will not do," " how do you do " (?). 6. eigen + own < eigan is the strong part, of a stem of which there appears only a pi. aigum in O. H. G. g according to Verner's Law, It belongs to the a — a ablaut-series like hei^an — hej — giheij^an. tar — turren + dare has disappeared. Its meaning has passed into barf — burfen. 472. 1. Notice that Eng. must is really a double pret.-pres. verb. must is the weak preterit used again as a present. n)U§te < weste, see 489, 1. Compare Eng. to wit, wist, wot. See Skeat. 2. O. H. G. will wilt, wili, pi. wellemes, wellet, wellent, pret. welta, inf. wellau. o appears for e already in this period (see 489, 1). M. H. G. 2. pers. sg. is wilt, wil. N. H. G. wiEjl. This is really no pret.-pres. verb, but we have according to custom put it at the end of this class. It is really a mi-verb, whose ind. was lost. Compare L. mlim. ^«« r , Mi- Verbs. 473. feim 1. O. H. G. bim, bis(t), ist, birum, birut, sint. Subj. si, etc. Inf. sin, wesan V. Imp. wis, wesat, sit ; pret. was ; subj. wdri. In M. H. G. tbe pres. pi. runs: 1. p. birn, sint, sin; 2. p. birt, sit, sint ; 3. p. sint, sin. In N. H. G. mir fmt) < the 3. person; t^^r feit) < the subjunctive; fte ftnt is primitive, comp. L. sunt, sint. 2. Three stems have helped to form its conjugation, viz., Ves-, Vb'x-, L. fui, Gr. (pvD, and the verb wesan. It would lead us too far to enter minutely upon the part each plays, but the development is not at all dif- ficult to trace. Only r in birum, birn is a mystery, but it appears also in the reduplicating verbs of VII. 474. gdn, gen, gangan, g e ^ n, + go. 1. O. H. G. gdm, gas, gat, gam, gat, gdnt; g^m, g^s, g^t, g^t, g^nt; the subj. only g^, ges, ge, etc. Imp. ganc, gdt, get. 216 HISTORICAL COMMENTARY OK ACCIDENCE'. [475. 2. The verb gangan is of VII. The relation of a to e is not clear. Kluge has shown that gen is compounded of ga (prefix) + Vi, L. ire. Then gem < ga-im, ges < ga-is, etc. See his Diet. 475. ^Idn, sten, stantan, ft e ^ n, -f stand. 1. It inflects just like gen. standan, stuont — gistandan according to VI. A past participle gestan occurs also. 2. Both gangan and stantan show a secondary stem and a present- formation with n (see 457, 2), which n also entered the preterit and the other forms. 476. iuon, {%\xxi, -\- do. 1. O. H. G. tuom, tuos, tuot, tuom, tuot, tuont ; subj. tuo, tuos, tuo, tuom, tuot, tuon; pret. teta, tdti, teta, tdtum, tatut, tdtum ; subj. tdti, tatis, tati. M. H. G. subjunctive with umlaut. Past part, gitan. 2. teta is the pure reduplicated perf. te + ta, the stem. The pi. in a is probably ablaut of the almost lost series I.-E. e — 6, O. H. G. a — uo. Comp. Gr. prjyvvjui — eppuya. N. H. G. t^t < M. H. G. tet is archaic and has a curious spelling as if it were subj. 478] HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. 217 C. HISTORY OF THE LANG-UAGE. 477. "German" belongs to the Germanic or Teutonic group of languages, which again is a member of the Indo-European group. To the latter belong the following : the Aryan (Sanskrit, etc.), the Iranic (old Batric and Persian), Greek, Latin, Keltic, Slavic, Armenian, Germanic, and perhaps as a separate member Albanian. Whether the Germanic languages are more intimately related with one member than with an- other is considered very doubtful by most authorities, though some think Slavic and Germanic so related. 478. Characteristics of the Germanic languages: 1. Grimm's Law with Veruer's Law (see 407 — 416). 2. The double verb-inflection, one by ablaut, the other by composition. The suffixes -da, -ta in the weak preterit are quite peculiar. The tenses have been reduced to two. The future and the subjunctive (see 448) are lost. 3. A certain "law of finals" showed itself in General Teutonic in the consonants, but the " law of final vowels " belongs entirely to the indi- vidual dialects. For instance: I.-E. ^h'eroit became G. T. %eroi, Go. herai (e written for Go. ai). N. sg. masc, o-stems : G. T. ^dagoz, Go. dags, Scand. dagr, Ags. dag, O. H. G. ta/i. N. sg. fem.: I.-E. ^gebd > G. T. gebo, Ags. giefu, but by levelling of Ace. and Nom. O. H. G. geha. 4. The limitation of the accent to the stem-syllable was probably General Teutonic, though Verner's Law shows that the Indo-European accent was preserved until the surd spirants in the unaccented syllable became sonant. Gr. rcaT'np shows I.-E. accent, but G. T. fathdr > Go. fadhar > fadar > O. H. G. fater. 5. The spread of the n-declension, which in German is still going on. See 428, 2. The locative case is lost. 6. The double adjective declension. The other I.-E. dialects decline adjective and substantive alike. The Germanic has, 1, a strong declen- sion made up of substantive and pronominal case-endings ; 3, a weak de- clension identical with the n-declension of substantives. See 437. 218 HISTOKY OF THE LANGUAGE. [479- Classification of the Germanic Languages. 479. The following is in our opinion the best classification . I. East Germanic, viz., Gothic, the language of the Goths, who once probably occupied European Russia. The chief literary monument is part of the Bible translation made for the Westgoths by their bishop Ulfila (A. D. 310—381). The manuscript is of the sixth century. a. In comparison with Anglo-Saxon and 0. H. G. the language is " simple," but in spite of the great age of its literary monuments, it should be made the basis for the comparative study of the group only with great caution. II. The North Germanic or Scandinavian Languages. Two groups : East-8candinaman,y'\7.., Swedish and Danish ; West-ticandinamm, viz., Norwegian and Icelandic. Earliest literature of East-Scandinavian of the fourtheenth century consisting of laws. Runes of the 5. (1) cen- tury. Rich literature of West-Scandinavian on Iceland, colonized by Nor- wegians, of the 13th century and earlier. The literary language of Norway, Sweden and Denmark is East- Scandinavian. Norwegian exists only in dia- lects. Icelandic is the official as well as the popular language of Iceland. III. West Germanic Dialects, English was very early isolated from the rest of the group, being the language of the early colonists in England, who were mainly Frisians, viz.. Angles, Saxons and Jutes. The Frisians emigrated from their old homes on the coast of the North Sea from the river Scheldt to the river Eider in Schleswig. The Jutes lived to the north of them. This settlement continued during the 5th and 6th centuries. In the 9th the Danish conquest occurred and in the lltli the great Norman conquest, which gave to English that great influx of Romance words and removed it still more from its cognate dialects on the continent. Literature beginning with the 7th century. Runes, Beowulf, Caedmon, etc. a. The oldest dialects are, 1, Anglian, incl. Northumbrian and Mercian ; 2, Saxon, the chief is West-Saxon ; 3, Kentish. 480. The Continental West Germanic dialects are divided according to Grimm's Law. The North and East-Germanic, and English only under- went the first shifting, that is, the General Germanic (Teutonic) shifting. The continental dialects shifted again, some more, some less. 481] HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. 219 Classification of the German Dialects. 1. The Low (or Nobth) Gebman shifted only th > d, compare Engl. '* the " — Low German " de ". 2. The Middle German shifted much more. 3. The South German {Oberdeutsch) shifted most of all. a. " High German " if it is to translate " HocMeutsch " is ambiguous, since many still make " hochdeutsch " include " Oberdeutsch" and " Mit- teldeutsch." Nieder (low), Mitiel (middle), and Ober (upper, south) refer to the geography of the country only. 481. L The Low German Dialects. 1. Frisian. Though the literature is only of the 15th and 16th cen- turies, the language shows a stage at least some 300 years older. Its territory (see 484) has been largely encroached upon by Low Saxon and Frankish. It embraces still the northern provinces of Holland (West Frisian); Oldenburg and the Hanoverian county of Ostfriesland (East Frisian); North Sleswic with the islands off the western Sleswic-Holstein coast (North Frisian). But the modern dialects of the region described are strongly influenced by Low Saxon. 2. Low Saxon. Earliest literature the Heliand of the 9th century. Territory very large. Draw a line from Dflsseldorf to Cassel curving slightly southward; from Cassel to Quedlinburg to Posen and to the boundary of the empire. All that is north of this, except Frisian and Slavic in East Prussia, is Low Saxon. Two thirds of its territory is colonial, however. The Slavic conquests from the 6th to the 9th centuries had their western limit in the following line : Kiel, halfway between Brunswick and Magdeburg, Naumburg, Coburg, Linz, Klagenfurt. What is east of it is colonial for the German language, either for Low, Middle, or High German. About half of Germany and three fourths of Prussia therefore are on once Slavic territory. a. Frisian and Low Saxon together are now often called " Plattdeutsch,'''' which even in our day can boast of a poet, Klau« Groth (Holstein dialect), and of such a capital novelist as Fritz Renter (Mecklenburg dialect) who died a few years ago. 3. Low Frankish. Literature : oldest the Lex Salica, very badly pre- served, and fragments of a translation of the Psalms. Of the 12th century the " Eineide " by Veldeke, and in the 13th a very rich literature in Hol- land and Brabant. Territory : Holland (Dutch crowding out Frisian), the northern half of Belgium (Flemish), and the northern part of the Prussian Rhine Province. Dutch is now the only Low German literary language. Attempts are making to revive Flemish. 220 HISTORY OF THE LAl^GUAGE. [462- 482. II. Middle German. For this group draw about the following line, which will separate it from the South German dialects : From Nancy (but this is French) across the frontier wiih a curve north of Strassburg to Kastatt in Baden, through Heilbronn to Eichstadt, then north to Eger, from there directly eastward, but Bohemia is Slavic, of course. Beginning in the west we have then : 1. Middle Frankish (according to Braune). Its territory consists chiefly of the Rhine Province, whose centre is Cologne. Very little literature. 2. South FranMsh and Hessian. South and west of 1, and north of South German line. The eastern limit would be a line drawn from Cassel to Heilbronn. A rich and old literature : Isidorus of the 8th cen tury. The great gospel harmony of Otfrid of Weissenburg. The Lud- wigslied and much more. 3. East or High FranMsh. East of 3. Eastern limit is the S. G. line from Eichstadt to Eger and a line from Eger to Cassel. Its old literary centre was Fulda. The larger monuments are Tatian, and Williram's paraphrase of the Song of Songs, about the year 900. The next three are almost entirely on colonized territory, viz., 4. Thii- Hngian, north of 3 and south of the Low German line; 5. Upper Saxon. chiefly the present kingdom of Saxony ; 6. Silesian. 5. and 6. are east of the rest, but do not extend to the boundary of the empire, since there is a long stretch still Slavic, though with German written language. Their literatures belong to the M. H. G. period. 483. III. South German. The southern limit towards the Komance dialects would be, roughly speaking, a line drawn from the lake of Geneva eastward to Klagenfurt in Austria and beyond, then directly north through Pressburg to Briinn. The eastern boundary is the Hun- garian, the northeastern the Slavic of Bohemia and Moravia. 1. Alemanic, divided into : a. Alemanic proper, covering Alsace, the larger part of Baden and Switzerland. &. Sudbian, covering the larger part of Wiirtemberg and Suabian Bavaria. The eastern limit would be a line from Eichstadt to Fiissen. The literary centre was St. Gallen. Abundant literature of the 8th and 9th centuries. The " Benedictiner Kegel." The Paternoster and Credo of St. Gallen. Vocabularius St. Galli. Murbach Hymns. '* Christ and the Samaritaii woman." The extensive works of Notker. 486] HISTOEY OF THE LANGUAGE. 221 2. Bavarian-Austrian, covering the larger part of Bavaria and non- Slavic Austria. The oldest of all Old H. G. is the Glossary of Kero (740) ; the Glossary of Hrabanus Maurus ; the so-called " Exhurtatio " and the poem Muspilll, besides smaller pieces. 484. It is impossible for us to give here a description of the phonology of these (iia> lects. Besides Grimm's Law the long vowels and the diphthongs are the chief criteria for their classification. Their territories have not remarkably changed. Note that Frisian has been driven out of Holland by Dutch and in Germany it leads a very precarious existence upon the islands off the coast of Hanover and Oldenburg, having been crowded out by " Plattdeutsch." Low German has also encroached upon Middle German territory in northeastern Germany. The only scientific description that we have of any modern dialect is that by Winteler of the Kerenzer dialect (Swiss- Alemanic). History of German. 485. In point of time we divide the history both of the lan- guage and of the literature into three periods, viz., Old High- German till 1100; Middle High German till 1500; New High German since then, perhaps better till about 1800, because the literary language of the 18th century is already taking on an archaic character in comparison with the language of the last fifty years. See 487, 3. 1. The literature of the O. H. G. period is entirely dialectic and clerical. We have one poem, unfortunately only fragmentary, tlie Hildebrantslied, that goes back in matter and meter to the period before the introduction of Christianity. 2. There has been much contention, whether there was a standard written language in the M. H. G. period. Lachmann and his school main- tain that there was and that it died out with the decay of literature in the 14th century. But the opinion is losing ground. The reasons against are well stated in Paul's "Gab es eine mittelhochdeutsche Schriftsprache ? " The literature was mainly lyrical and epic. Its climax falls in the 13th century. The chief differences between the O. and M. H. G. periods are : 1, the spread of umlaut ; 2, the weathering of unac- cented and inflectional vowels to mere e. 486. With the N. H. G. period begins the written lang\iage that became not suddenly, but gradually the standard literary language of Germany. In phonology it agrees with that of the East Frankish dialect, which is the M. G. dialect that is most closely related to S. G. Its territory was in 222 HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. [487- the very centre of Germany, Both this position and tMs relationship are two elements tliat help to account for its spread. 1. From this same centre started the Reformation. Luther's share in the establishment of the written language is generally not well stated and even overrated. Fourteen translations of the Bible had been published up to 1518 in H. G. alone, made from the Vulgate. The language was based upon the ^' Kanzleisprache,'' i. e., the "official" language in which em- peror and princes published decrees and laws and in which all govern- ment business was transacted. 3. There were at first several of these "Kanzleisprachen." differing more or less. We find traces of them as early as the 14th century. Those of Austria, Bohemia and Saxony were first amalgamated. It was this lan- guage that Luther used in his Bible translation, moulded by him, of course, as every man of genius will mould his mother-tongue. Luther, by birth a Middle German, had come in contact with peopleof all stations, speaking Low and South German. No Bible, the circumstances being the same, translated into strict South German would and could have been accepted by North Germany. Again Luther had sprung from among the people and had a most hearty appreciation of folk-lore and all that is " volkstiimlich," of proverbs, saws and songs. This made him a trans- lator for the people. The proverbs of Solomon and the psalms are with- out doubt the most taking portions of his translation. 487. The spirit of the Reformation was one roused from the lethargy of the preceding centuries and ready for something new. Luther's New Testament appeared in 1522, the whole Bible in 1534. Besides the Bible the catechism, hymns, sermons and the numerous polemical pamphlets were written and read in the new language. With the Reformation began also the public school {" volksschule") and the first grammars and " formeWucher " appeared, written often by the lawyers, who, of course, favored the " Kanzleisprache." But last and foremost of all the invention of printing, some fifty years before the Reformation, made a common language possible. 1. The clerks would write and spell as they spoke, i.e., according to their own dialect. Printing brought about a certain uniformity in the orthog- raphy. It spread the language to the most different parts of the country. About the year 1600, books were already cheap in comparison to the costly manuscripts. In 1523 a Bible was printed at Bale, which had as appendix a sort of dictionary explaining the tei'kns unfamiliar to the Swiss. 488] HISTOEY OF THE LANGUAGE. 223 2. The struggle of the new language was hardest in Switzerland. Both Catholic and Calvinist objected to a Lutheran language. In North Ger- many it was favored by the fact that the whole North became Protestant en masse. Yet hymns were printed there in Low German for a long time. In the 17th century High German preachers came to the North. But through printing the writings of one man exercise a great influence upon the speech of his readers. Printing in fact has introduced into the de- velopment of language a certain stiff, artificial element that the written, and especially the unwritten, dialects do not have. The printed language has more of a fixed, stereotyped character than dialect. But on the other hand we must remember that the letters of the alphabet are not the language. They are only contrivances that represent speech very im- perfectly, contrivances invented several thousand years ago, which we try to apply now to that most subtile institution — language, that has been changing and developing ever since. 3. The language of the 19th century differs not a little from the lan- guage of the 16th. The differences in forms and functions have been treated to some extent in Part I. The 17th century is a dark gloomy page in the history of Germany and almost a blank in its literature. In the first half of the eighteenth we see the beginnings of the classical period. Until then Latin was the language of the learned, and in the 17th and 18th centuries there was a large number of foreign words both in the written and spoken languages that were never assimilated, but driven out again by a school of literary men that started a revival of the love of old German. The following are the more important and far-reaching sound- changes in the transition from M. H. G. to N. H. G. 488. A. Vowels. 1. The further spread of umlaut by analogy (levelling). Ex. : as a sign of the plaral, see 48; in derivatives as in: glau6tg, »ttter== lid), 6ruberltc^, S3riiberd)en, J^oc^terlein ; in long-stemmed weak verbs as in : l^oren, prte, ge|5rt^ < hoeren, horte, gehorit — gehCrter (see 455, 2). 2. The lengthening of short accented stem-vowels in the open syllable, and of a and e before r, rt, rd. To this process the largest number of the present long vowels is due. 224 HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. [488- Ex.: a^ogel, |)of— .^ofe^; QtHxtn ( < bern), QiXod^xtn, lekm totbtn, fe^en; ^at)n—^a^m^ ; 3::^ur, mir, tt)ir, cr, ber (demonstrative), Ux (but Mrfu§) ; ^erb, Werbe, mxt, jart, 33art. Ur in the sense of "great " as in : Urgro^ttater, other- wise short or long : Uriaut, Urfprung, but Urtetl is always short, -art and -arj are unsettled still. Compare ^Srj, SSJarje. a. The short vowel is retained before more than one consonant and in a closed syllable, except before r (rt, rd). Ex.: ^ojfen, i)ott, renneti, ^edfc, twoUen, fafl, etc., but mir, wir, as above. b. This point of N. H. G. phonology is by no means all cleared up. Paul is the only one that has thrown any light upon it. See P. and B. Beitrage, VII. p. 101-. When through inflectional endings the stem-vowel is now in an open, now in a closed sylla- ble, the standard pronunciation demands levelling in favor of the long vowel of the open syllable. For instance, ba§ ©laS, @(aye§, ©tafe, ®Ia§, ©lafer, all with long stem-vowels. In N. G., however, ©lag, ®va§, Stag, Sob, (N. and A. sg.), are always short according to the law of short vowel in a closed syllable. N. and S. G. agree in the levelling between the sg. and pi. pret. of ablaut-series, IV. and V. in favor of the long vowel of the plural, e. g.^ ga6— gaben, jat)— fa:^en, c. This principle may be stated in another way : N. H. G. makes a M. H. G. accented syllable containing a short vowel long, either by length- ening the vowel or by lengthening, i.e., " doubling," the consonant, par- ticularly if that consonant be t or m, and if a single consonant is followed by er, el, en. Ex.: ©tatte, ©itte, fommen, ©ommer, Setter; in the pret. and past part, of the I. and II. ablaut-series: fi^mtt — gefi^nitten, fott — gefottcn. This change began in the M. H. G. period, starting from L. G. it spread over M. and over S. G. as late as the 16th century. 3. Long accented vowels are shortened before more than one consonant. a. This process is not far-reaching, but includes also the long vowels sub 4, that have sprung from diphthongs. It started with the M. G. dialects. Ex.: ec^t L. G., see 493, 4, < ^haft; bac^te, bra(|te (see 454, 3). STc^t < dhte ; ^err, ^errfci^en; l^orc^en ; ftng, ^irtg, ging < fienc, hienc,gienc; »ier in the compounds »ierje|in, -jig, ^iertcl, etc., 9)'?utter < muoter. 4. The simplification of the diphthongs ie > i, still spelt ie ; uo > ii ; lie > u long. Examples very numerous : S3Iut < Uuot; Wi\xi < muot; ©lite < guete; fu§ < sue^e; fiil^ren < m&ren; Hitmen < Uuejen; lie^; ttef; always in the 489] HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. 225 preterit of Class VII. and in the present of Class II., viz., riet, ftel, l^ieten, fteben, but see 3. a. This also is a M. G. feature that was fixed upon the " Schriftsprache," showing itself as early as the 13th century. The S. G. dialects do not know it yet (see Hart's Goethe's Prose, p. 40, bottom). 5. The diphthongization of the long vowels i, u, iu (whether < G. T. eu or umlaut of u, value ii long) > ei, m, eu (du), respectively. Ex.: brei < dri, SBeiB < un^p ; ei in the present of the I. Class; taut < lUt; ^aut < Mt; ©au < »ii; .^aufer < hiusir < hits; 3)?aufe < miuse < mils; %xt\xi < triuwe; eu^ < inch; Seuc^te < liuhte; er kut < hiutet. The Eng. cognates, e. p'., the verbs of the I. Class write — wrote, shine — shone, loud, hide (< Ags. hyd), sow, house, mouse — mice show that a similar diphthongization of long i and u has taken place, o in wrote, shone < Ags. d < ai corresponds to the old diphthong, M. H. G. ei as in schein, rei^, etc. Modern German ei therefore goes back to i in ^etrat < hirat ; to ei in fc^eiben < scheiden; at always goes back to ei, ai as in 9)tai, ^aifer. au < u in ^aua < hUs; but < ou in laufen < loufen; ciu (eu) < iu < u by umlaut, in ^aufer < Musir < hits ; but eu < iu (eu) in Seute < liutey l^eulen < hiuLen ; and another eu < 6u umlaut of ou ( < au) in ^reube < woude ( < *frauwida), ^eugen < hougen < lougen ( < ^baugjan, ablauts. II,). a. This is a S.G, feature, especially Bavarian, in which dialect it started about 1200. It spread over East Frankish and Upper Saxon in the 14th and 15th centuries and latest over Suabian. All the other dialects whether L., M. or S. G. do not know this change, " House " is still "Ms " in Bremen and in Bale. The new diphthongs are still kept apart from the old ones in dialect, but the standard spoken language recognizes no difference. 489. The following changes do not affect very many words. They are mostly S. G. features and though quite old, the standard and the common spoken language do not agree upon all words. The former favors e and i, the latter o and it, 1. e, e > in ergii^en (Classics still erge^en), ^otte, Cofirel, 2bwe,jw5tf (stand- ard jipelf), f(!^tt)5ren and a few others. Rarely e, e > o or u after WJ wotten < wellen ; too^I < wela; fomntcn < queman. This is as old as O. H, G., however. 2. i> itin ^itlfe — |)itfc; fprit^en — frrt^ett; witrbtg; n)it§te; ©pric^wort — ©pru(|wort. i < ii in JDtrlen + work and ^iffen, but also still ^itflTen + cushion. 226 HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. [490- 3. a > 0, O^nmac^t, folk-etymology for D^ma(|t < dmaht ; tt)0 < -mj^ ; o^ne < dne; ^Wonat < mdn6t; and 2)o^Ie < tdhele. Compare 2Ba|n and %x^* tt)o|tn. 4. Both S. and M. G. is u >o, u > 6, regularly before modern mm, nn and n + any other cons, but see 125, 1. Ex.: Past part, and pret. subj. of Class III., 2.; SBonne < wunne; fromm < 'Drum; fonber < funber ; umfonft < umhesus ; ©o^n < sun. Compare SSrojtn (poetic), but S3runnen (why u is not clear) ; 9Jion(i> < miinich 5. Before palatal g, c^ e > i. By this -ig and -ic^ have become the only suffixes instead of O. and M. H. G. ec, ae, ech, ach, see 509. Ex.: ^itttd^ < fettach;- ^xm\^ < kranecTi, O. H, G. chranuh; ferttg < vertec; ^onig < honec. 490. B. Consonants. 1. The spread of fc^ for f before I, m, tt, and w. Ex.: fc^ also after r, e.g., ^irfc^ < Ai>^ + hart, ^irfd^e< ^w'^e + cherry, l)errfc^en < hersen. Since fc^p, fc^t are not recognized in the spelling of initial fp, fi, Eng! st, sp, and G. % \p correspond : (Stabt, M. H. G. so had become sch first before the front vowels, then before all the vowels and then before r. sc > sch before a palatal vowel is a phonetic transition called palatalization due to the following vowel and attended by loosening of the contact, and is known in Eng. and the Eomance dialects as well. See Ellis' Early Eng. Pronunciation, p. 1154-. The transition-sound was no doubt the present Westphalian sjh, a double sound. At first only sc > sch in the above order, and not 8 > sch. The links were sk + pal. vowol > skj > sjh > sh. 490] HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. 227 d. Before vowels and r G. fd^ corresponds to Eng. sh, e. g., ©^tff + ship ; ©c^am -f- sliame ; fc^on + sheen ; ©c^rot + shread, shroud ; ©c^rein + shrine. When Eng. sc, sk corresponds to G. fd), ff, there is something wrong, due generally to foreign origin or influence, in one or the other. Compare s, written f, ^, ff, 5. This is a S. G. feature, beginning with final ^ in the 13th century, spreading over M. G. L. G. still like Eng.; notice the cognates. Ex.: n)ai3 < wa^ + what ; au^ < H^ + out ; SBaffer < wa^^er + water ; S3infe < bin^, + bentgrass. Examples very numerous. 3. d^ = kh (< old ch, cch and medial h) has become jh after front- vowels and after r, 1, and n. See 375. This transition is not shared by S. G. The Eng. cognates show k or silent gh for I.-E. k: nid^t < niht (= nikht) + not, nought ; SSic^t < mJit + wight. a. &i before s in the same syllable > ks, the same in Eng. as early as Anglo-Saxon. Ex.: 5uc^^ tt)erf, furs, — rau^; fd^ma^en— ©c^mad^. 4. ntb > mm, Eng. still mb: Samm < lamp — lambes + lamb ; Summer < kumber, + to cumber. 5. m — n, Eng. still m. SBefen < besem + besom ; ^aben < fadem + fathom. 6. w < bh, the labio-labial bh has become labiodental v in the standard pronunciation ; it has disappeared after ou, iu (now au, eu) ; in a few cases aw > au ; after 1 and r it became b, beginning in the 14th century. Eng. cognates show a vowel + some silent letter. Ex.: neu < niuwe, + new; fd^aucn < schouwen + show; grau < grd — grdwes, + gray ; t>lau urf, 400. Compare Eng. causeway < O. Fr. ehaucie < L. calciatam {viam) ; country-dance < counter-dance, Fr. contredanse. Hundreds of examples will be found in Andresen and Palmer*8 collections. The words in 494, 494, 1, have never been collected. 496] WOKDl'OBMATION. 231 D. WORDFORMATIOK This chapter does not contain a complete German etymology. It aims merely at giving a brief, practical survey of the derivation of German words for students who know a little English and Latin. A knowledge of the older forms of some Germanic dialects cannot be expected from the student. For practical reasons only, the follow- ing subdivisions of the chapter are made. 495. We may distinguish four ways of forming and deriv- ing words : 1. By ablaut without derivative suffix, see 496, 1, 3. 2. By suffixing some element which was once perhaps an independent word. 3. By prefixing such element. 4. By composition of independent words. 496. The pronouns have roots peculiar to themselves and many adverbs are formed from the pronominal roots. Nouns (that is, substantives and adjectives) and verbs had probably the same roots, though it is customary to speak, in contrast to pronomi- nal roots, only of verbal roots, from which nouns were formed later. We count as primitive all strong verbs and those nouns which have no apparent derivative suflSx. From a 4/b'xnd', in which x represents the vowel that is to appear according to the various ablaut-grades, both nouns and verbs were formed. In G. T this root would be bxnd. It furnished binden, band, gebunden, fca§ 25anb, ber iBunb, bev 93anb, ia§ 93unb (for 93iinbel). Both nouns and verbs had their stem-suffixes, of course. These made them into words. Roots are to the etymologist what x, y, z are to the mathe- matician. They are something unreal and abstracted from the actual phenomena of languages. No one ever spoke in roots. In a word we distinguish the stem and the inflections. The stem minus the stem-sufflx is the root. Of every root, noun and strong verb are not now extant, for instance, (teB, SoB, but weak verbs by means of the suffix 70— >, were formed from the same root, I. E. Vlxub\ G. T. Vixub, e. g., (g)tau6en, loten. x appears as e—i in lieB, SieBc < lioba, *leub- ; as a in (g)IauBett, (er)Iau Ben ; it disappears in 2oB, loBen, the weakest or zero stage of ablaut. See 394. 1. Formed by ablaut alone, we consider strong verbs, nouns of the same roots and nouns from roots that may have no strong verb extant. 2. The stem-suffix may have been ojo, i, w, djd (fern.), etc. We are inclined to look upon the^'o-stems as derivatives because they suff"ered umlaut, e.g., 93urge, (Sef^flfe. There is some reason for this because jo, jd, wo, wd are not primary stem-suffixes, but for our purposes there is no harm in confounding the primary and secondary suffixes. 232 WORDFORMATIOK — SUBSTAN^TIVES. [497- 3. Examples of tlie derivation of verbs and of substantives by ablaut alone. I. ablaut-series: Ui^m, ber S3i§; xnd), ^tih, II.: [(^lic^en, ba^ ©c^lo§, ber ©(^lu§; triefen, ber Zxopf, bie 3:raufe; ba^ ^od), bie Sutfe, III.: fi^wimmcn, ber @c()t»amm, ber ©umpf (?), bie ellen, ber Sc^all, V.: Qthn, bie ®abe (rather gSa), QtU or gak (adj.). VI.: graven, ta^ ®xab, bie ®rube; i<^ mup, ber ^a|n, ba^ ^u^n. To the G. T. a — 6 series : t|un, get^an, bie 3:^at, See 476, 2. Derivation of Substantives 497. Derived by a late ablaut, also directly from a weak verb. Ex.: !Der ©c^unb < f(|inben, = refuse ; ber 23efe^l < befe|len; ber ^anbei < lanbeln ; bo^ D^jfer artie = game, match, company, excursion ; ^^^antafei -f fancy, — 9)^au^ler < ^aua^ Stifc^lcr < %\\^. Implies a sliir, e.g.y 9lec§tler < fHec^t. Comp. Eng. hostler < hostel. 501. em, m, en, see 490, 5. "Ex. : ber S3aum, + beam ; Slraum, + dream ; B^um + team ; anttOi)cranerin. Very numerous. Not extant in Eng. except in vixen, Ags. fyxen. To be translated by " female," " she-," " lady-." 1. -in has become (e)n and is attached to surnames having the force of the more elegant ^rau + surname without suffix, e.g., bie 9)?Mern instead of grau SP'iutter, bie Spann^afen instead of grau ©pann^afe. 505. -nb, ent), (ant), ant), really participial suffix (see 453), + Eng. -end. Ex. : ber ^reunb + friend ; f^einb + fiend ; SBeiganb, champion ; |)eitanb, + Heliand, Saviour ; Sealant, but the cognate ant is foreign and has chief- stress, e.g., ?P?ufifa'nt/ 9)iint|^ra'nt. No participial ending in ber Sl^enb, ber eiefa'nt. 506. -ng, -ing, -ung, < older ing, ung, -f Eng. ing, ng^ weak accent. Ex.: ber |)aritt9 + herring; ber ©emitting + shilling; ba« 5Wefftttg, brass^ Ags. mdsling. 1. n is lost in ^iinig, + king ; ber ^Jfenntg (< pfenninc) + penny. 2. ung forms numerous fem. nouns from verbs. Like Eng. ing they denote mostly action. The suffix is gaining ground. But Eng. nouns in ing are frequently best translated into German by an infinitive. Ex.: bie ©rfa^rung, ©ilbun^f Beitung + tidings, 5lnfertigun(i 4- manufacture; 2Jer^ bampfungf evaporation, etc. Riding + ba^ 9ieiten; building, baS ^auea. 236 WOEDFORMATION — SUBSTANTIVES. [507- 3. ing and mo, + er and en form many patronymics and names of places : Sl^uringeit; SJJeininQen, S^iuiilringeu, 9)?D^rungen, ^ornung, 9?iklungcn, 3)iero»mger, Ba^rlnger, £ot|irmger. For er (see 507, 2). -en is originally dative pi. 507. -er is of various origin s. 1. It denotes the agent, < ere < cere < dri, + Eng. er, or, ary, -|. Lat. -arius. It is attached to both nouns and verbs and is preceded by umlaut as a rule. Ex.: Baubercr, tdmmerer, ©c^uler, fftitttx, ©c^netber, Oleiter, Slanjer. Very numerous. a. Borrowed words not denoting the agent : Bentner, < L. centenarius + centenary, a hundred weight; S^ric^ter < late L. tractarlus (?), funnel. 2. -er denotes origin and home, attached to names of places and countries. Used as an adj. it does not vary. It was originally a Genitive pL, but of the same origin with the preceding: 3:t)uringer, Berliner, SBiener, ©djweiger ^dfe* 3. -er without any particular force, and words with it are looked upon as primitive < /*, ur {ar), ir^ -\- Eng. r, er, re, + I.-E. -ro-. Ex. : Der %dtx, jammer, ©ommer, Conner; Me %Ux, geber, %thx, (Sd)ulter; ta^ %\xiiix, Seter, ^Setter, ©ilber, SBajfer. 4. -ier in foreign words, e. g., ter (£ai)aUer, 33arHer, is iden- tical with er sub 1, but is of Romance form, < L. -arius. For -er as a sign of pi., see 431. 508. Su£ax -ter, t)er. 1. < tar, forms names of relationship + Eng. ter, ther, < I.-E. -t-r. It is unaccented. Ex. ber SJater, ©ruber, bie 9)lutter, Sc^wefler, Soc^ter. 2. < tara, tra, fira + Eng. ter, der. Denotes Instrument. Not numer- ous, unaccented. + L. trum, G. rpov, rpia. Ex.: itlafter, cord; bie Setter + ladder; ba^ ©elacbter + laughter ; Saflcr < lahstar, lastar < lahan, to blame. In the last word -ster is secondary 511] WORDFOEMATION — SUBSTANTIVES. 237 suffix. It appears also in bcr ^amjler, badger ; tie Sifter, magpie, which are of doubtful origin. 2)a^ ^enjler < Lat. fenestra. t>er (ter) as comparative suffix, see 530. g, i, i^, ^» g and i, Eng. g and k, it is difficult to separate from the rest of the stem. Nouns ending in them must be considered primitive. 509. -id), sometimes spelt -ig, forms a few masc. nouns. It represents M. H. G. -ech and -ich < uh, ah and ih < uh, ak, ik -h Eng. -ock, -k. See 489, 5. Ex.: ber SBottic^ (+ buttock), ber ^aMc^(t) "+ hawk; ^rant(| + crane; %\iM), 2;eppic^; ba^ 0ieiftc^, Oieifig, brushwood; ber Sletttg (-tc^) + radish < L. radic-em; ^o\^ < M. H. G. mol, + mole, but means lizard, ber (Sfftg (ig for ic^), ( + Eng. acid) < L. ac^^ww, through *atecum{f). Oiabt'^c^en is of later importation. Der ^ajtg, ^afid), does not belong here, but < kevje (> kefge) < L. cavea. 1, -td^t = i(^ + tf for which see 512, 2, forms a number of neuter nouns denoting fullness, plenty, frequency. Late suffix of 15th century. 1)a(5 2)tcfic^t, + Eng. thicket (but -et is Romance) ; ba(3 ^i^xx^i, sweepings ; bai3 9lo^ri(^t, reeds. 2)er |)abic^t (see above). 510. -d)en forms the common neuter diminutives and has crowded out -lein in the spoken language. See 493, 4. Compounded of tc^, see above, and n < in, in, see 502, 2. Always produces umlaut. Has weak accent, + Eng. kin. Ex.: \ioyy 513. i, \- is rare, + Eng. s, < is-, es-, Ex.: %h^^ + fiax; Suc^^,+ fox; !8uc^« + lynx (?); bie STdjfe, + axle; bie ^iilfe, pod ; ber ^xtH < crebe^e + crayfish, due to popular etymology, as if *' cray-fish'* ; bie S3remfe, brake; bie ^ormffe+ hornet; bie ©ansJ + goose. 514. f(^ is of various origins, but generally inseparable. < isk- comes the frequent adjective suflfix -f^ + Eng. ish, sh, e.g., ber 2)?enfc^ < O. H. G. mennisko, an adjective ; ber %xoi^ + frog (see Kluge) ; 515] WORDFORMATION— SUBSTANTIVES. 239 aSelfc^ + welsh. In ^irf(S^ + hart, fc^ < s, j. In ttrfd^c + cherry < ^ceresia fc& < s. See 525, 4. a. -fc^c is added to surnames to denote Mrs., but is quite colloquial, bie JHcin^arbtfii^e for grau SReinl^arbt, bie Sanbwe^rfc^e for grau Sonbtt)e:^r. Nouns Derived by Nominal Suffixes, which can be Traced to Independent Words still Extant in the Older Germanic Dialects. For earlier periods of the langiiage this derivation would therefore properly come under the head of wordcomposition, 515. The suffixes are: -^ett, -feit, -rict), -fd)aft, -twm. They all form abstract fern, nouns, chiefly from substantives and adjec- tives, except those in -rid) and -turn, and have secondary accent. 1. -l^eit + Eng. -hood, -head. < O. H. G. heit, Ags. had, meaning char- acter, nature, rank. In a few nouns it means " a hody of," and has collec- tive force. Very frequent : bie Sret^eit ; ©ott^eit + godhead ; ^inb^eit + childhood ; 9)?enf(||eit, mankind ; S^rijlen^eit, Christendom. 2. -feit composed of -^eit and the adjective suffix -ec or ic, to which it was attached in M. H. G. First ec-heit, ic-heit (> echeit, icheit) > ekeit, ikeit > keit, feit. -feit is attached only to adj. in -6ar, -er, -ig, -lic^ and -fam. Very numerous. Ex.: bie 2)anfbarfeit, Sitelfeit, ^eiterfeit, ©ttigfeit, ?5reunbli(^feit, ©infamfeit. The derivation from adjectives in -ig is so common, that -igfeit was looked upon as the suffix and adjectives in -Io<3 and feaft only form nouns in this way : bie ©^rloftsfeitf (Strafloftgfeit, Ciigen^aftigfeit, ^ranf^aftigfeit. In -ig-feit ig has heen restored in many nouns, after it had helped form feit, e. g. , ©u§igfeit < suezekeit; ©wigfeit < ewecheit. See 489, 5. a. Mark the distinction sometimes made between nouns in -igfeit, -feit and -:^eit from the same adj. CDie 5lletntgleit = trifle, bie illein^eit = littleness ; bie 5Keutgfeit = a piece of news ; bie SJeu^eit = newness ; bie 9JeinUc^feit, cleanliness ; bie Dtein^ett, purity, clearness. 3. -ric^ + Eng. -ric, -ry < 0. H. G. rich + L. rex, regis, forms a number of proper names. Denotes ■" powerful," " commanding." Ex.: aBiiterid), blood-thirsty person, tyrant ; i^riebric^ + Frederic ; ^einrid) + Henry ; 2Be^ geridi, a plantain, lit. " ruler of the way." a. -xx6) appears in the names for certain male birds. The oldest is Gntcric^ + drake < endrake. This is certainly not identical with the above -rich ; it may have been shaped after it on account of antreche, O. H. G. antrahho, which cannot go back to -rich-. 240 WORDFORMATIOK — SUBSTANTIVES. [616- ©anferii^ + gander, StauBerid^, cock-pigeon, are N. H. G. forms after (Snteri(^, < ©anfer, 2au6er < Oang, SauBe. %h\)nvi^, ensign, < older G. venre, faneri, has -ic^ by analogy, ga^nbric^ may be due to D. mndric (Wiegand) < %a^m, flag. By folk-etymology bet ^iimii), from L. hederacea. -reic^ comes under composition. 4. -[(i)aft -i- Eng. -ship, shape <0. H. G. scaft, meaning character, being, creature ; itself a derivative by t < G. T. Vskap, from which to shape, f(|affen. Forms mostly fem. abstract nouns and a few collectives. Ex.: bie greunbfc^aft + friendship ; ©raffc^aft, county ; Canbfc^aft + Ags. landscipe, -f Eng. landscape (scape due to D. and Norse influence) ; bie ®e^ fanbfd^aft, embassy ; 9)riefierf(i^aft, priesthood ; 3Jertt)anbf(^aft, relationship ; ©efefffc^aft, company. 5. -turn -f- Eng. -dom < O. H. G. tiu}7n, M. and I^. ; Ags. ddm ilf. + Eng. doom = judgment, law, dominion, power. It forms neuter nouns from nouns, but neuters and masculines from adjectives. The nouns are abstract, but many denote domain and place. Ex. : ba^ ^crjogtum + dukedom ; ^onigtum, + kingdom ; ^eibentum, -f- heathendom ; ^etligtum, sanctuary ; ber 3rrtum, error, SRetc^tum -i- riches. a. Mark a difference in meaning between nouns derived by means of t)cit, fc^aft, -turn from the same stem: bie (Sigen^^eit, stubbornness, peculiarity ; bie (Sigenj^aft, quality; bag (Sigentum, property ; bie S^riften^eit = Christendom ; ba§ S^rtftentum = Christianity ; bie 93urgerf(^aft, all the citizens ; baS 33urgertum, citizenship ; bie 2Bei6^ett + wisdom ; bo§ SEeiStum, statute. Derivation op Nouns by Means of Inseparable Prefixes. 516. The composition of nouns by means of independent parts of speech, such as prepositions and adverbs, will not be treated here except the composition by means of those prefixes, such as bet, Ur, etc., which re- tained the strong form under the noun-accent, but wore down to a weaker form in the verb acxientuation and thus became " inseparable.*' For the principle of accent, see 421. Whenever the prefix of a noun is unac- cented and has weak form, the noun is not old, but it is late and derived from the verb, except in one case, viz. , the prefix ge-, g-. This is really composition, but we treat of the subject here for convenience. 1. 91 b e r- has the force, 1) of o&er- uBer, from Dutch = excessive. It is rare. 3)er Stberglaube, superstition, bie Slkrac^t; *' proscriptio superior" STbcrwi^, conceit, presumption, imbecility, is M. H. G. dbermtze, dbewUze, in which aber = abe, ah. 0. H. G. dwizzi. 516] WORDFORMATIOIT— SUBSTANTIVES. 241 3) The force of again toward, against. It is depreciative : ber 5lbcr^ wanbel, forfeit, back-sliding ; Slbername, nick-name ; bie 5l^erfaat, second-sow- ing; ber 5lberfatfer=®egenfatfer, rival emperor. In this sense = after and both probably < «/, ab -i — ar and -tar respectively. 2. 31 f t e r-+ Eng. after : not the first, not genuine, second, retro-, false .- 3)a<3 SlfterMatt, stipule (in botany) ; bte 5lfterrau[e, false muse ; bie 9(fterfritif, false, second-hand criticism ; 5lftertt)ett = ^ix&iXOiXi, posterity ; 3tftermiete, subletting. 3. 51 n t- + Eng. an-, a-, am- in answer, acknowledge, am-bassador, + L. ante-, Gr. " avTi." Force : against, opposite, in return, removal. Ex.: bie 5lnttt>ort, 4- answer ; ba^ 3lntli^f face ; ber Slntlapf absolution ; ba^ %m\, office, court < 0. H. G. ambaht. Go. andbaMi, and + ba7ito, a servant, Eng. ambassador, embassy < Romance forms < Low L. amhasta < 0. H. G. ambaht. Unaccented it became etlt (see 541). Slnt- has in some really old nouns given place to the ent- of verbs, e.g., ber ©m^fa'ng for older dntvanc. 4. S3 e i-, 6- rare as old prefix, but common in modern compounds, con- sisting of preposition + noun, + Eng. by ; in verbs ht, + Eng. by-, be- < M, be ; see Kluge. Perhaps related to Gr. dfx(j)t, L. arribi. Ex.: ba^ S3eifptel, example < bispel; bie S3eic^te, confession < Mhte < bigihte < bi + jehen ; ber S3eif(^laf, cohabitation ; ber S3eifa§, -f- settler, un- naturalized comer ; S3eifu§, wormwood. The weak unaccented form Bc- is very common in late derivatives from verbs. In M. H. G. appear the doublets Utraht — S3etra'c^t ; bigraft — begraft ; biziht — beziht. 5. ^ it r- occurs only in one old noun, %m\'^xt^, mediator, attorney. In the 18th century fur and »or were used indiscriminately and a great many compounds now have SJor- only. Unaccented fQtx- sub 11. 6. (£rj-, -f- Eng. arch-, means chief, original, great- < V. L. arci- < Gr. dpXL-. Ex.: ber ®rjMf(^of-i- archbishop ; ©rjliigner, a great liar; ©rjnarr, arrant fool ; Srjfpieler, professional gambler. 7. ®e-, %-, the traces of its accent are difficult to find even in the oldest stages of the Germanic dialects, though there are some in Ags. (found by Kluge) and in Go. There are none left in German. It is always unac- cented. < O. H. G. ga, gi. Its connection with L. cum, con, is generally asserted, but is difficult to prove. Has intensive, generally collective 242 WORDFORMATIO]^— COMPOUKD NOUNS. [517- force. Nouns of the form ®e— e, < ga—jo are almost all neuter and very numerous. * Ex.: ber ®lau6c + belief ; ber ©efette; bag ®Ueb, bic ©ebulb, bic ®nabe; bic ®cfa:|r; bag®eMube; ©etreibe; ©efc^meibe; ®en)erk; ©eMrge; ®e^olse. ®- appears before I, x, n. 8. Wl'x'^- + Eng. mis-. Force : negative, false, failure. For its origin see 453, 1. In M. H. G. still an adjective, now inseparable, always accented prefix. Only one compound with its derivatives retains misse-, viz., ?Wif== fetl^at + misdeed. Ex : Very numerous : ber SKiphaucS^, bic SWipcmte, ber SKi^flang, ber 9)?tp^ mut, ber SWipgriff. 9. U r + Eng. or- only in " ordeal " and " ort," < older us, ur. Force : origin, great age, great-. Weak, unaccented form = er- in verbs and their derivatives, u always long except in Urteil. bag Urteil + ordeal ; ber Urfprung, bieUrfunbc; ber Urlau:^, ber Urgrogyater ; bie Urfad^e ; ber UrqueU. 10. Un + Eng. un-, of like force, privative, + L. in-, Gr. av-, a-. Ex. : bte Unart, ber Unban!, bie Ungunf!, ber UnwtHe. In ungefal^r un- stands for o^n-, < dn gevcere, but in D^nma(|t, o^n stands for Di^mac^t < dmaht, containing the obsolete a privative. 11. 35 er-, fr- always in this weak form and unaccented like ®e-. Traces of early accent upon it very rare, none now, + Eng. for-. Rare in older nouns, very common in later nouns derived from verbs, see 516, < O. H. Q. far, fir. Ex.: ber 25erlu|l, bte SJernunft, Sre^el + Ags. frcBfele ; ^rap — freffen; Srad)t + fraught, freight (see Kluge's Diet.). 12. 3 e r occurs only in nouns derived from verbs. See therefore 546. Ex.: bie Berj^reuung, Berflorung. a. For brittel, wiertel, see 532, 2. Sungfcr, maiden oc^jeit; ber Sangkin, ber 9)?itt(e)n)oc6 ; bie SRittfaften; bie Sungfrau, bie ©elifuc^t, bie ^urjweil; ber ®ro§mauI; ber S3ofe^ wid^t. 1. In many compounds the adjective is used as noun and is then in- flected, generally in the weak Q. pL: bie S3linben^, bie 3;aubfiummenanjlalt, ba^ ^ranfett|au§. 2. There is a small group of compounds in which the union of the elements is not intimate and the adjective is inflected, e.^., bie So^ngewe'ile, i^a'ngwei'le ; ^o'^erprie'fter, ber ^o'^e^rie'jler; ©el^eimerrat, ein ©e^einierrat (but also uninflected ber, ein ©e^eintrat). SWi'ttemac^t is a secondary compound for the older mitnaht + midnight. For their accent, see 422, 1. 520. 1. NuMEKAL + Noun. Ex.: ber 2)reifu§, ba^ SJierecf, bie ©inBeere, ber 3»eifam))f, ber Bwtektf, bag Btt)ielid)t + twilight, bag ©ieiengejlirn, bie ©rfige&urt. 2. Adverb + Noun. Many of them are formed from compound verbs. Ex.: bie SBo^If^at, bie ^erlunft, ber ^ingang, bie SBoIIujl, bie 5Iu§entt)elt, bie ^Ric^tanerfennung (= non-), bie ^Hxt, ber %^ott, ber ©ingang. 3. Preposition + Noun. The majority are formed from compound verbs. But not a small number are made directly of preposition + noun. Ex.: bie Slnjai)!, ber 5lmI)op, bie Slnfprac^e, ber 5(ufgang, ber Seiname, ber 33ei=' trag, bie 'Dm^fal^xt, ber 2)ur(^'6ru^, ber ^^itrwi^ or 3Jort»i^, bie ©egengabe, bie ^interlijl, ber Snkgrif, ber 9)?itmcnf(^f ber ^a^kmmi, bag 9?ebcngebaube, bie 9?ie^ berlagc, bag D^bbad), ber Dberfellncr, bie Dkr^anb, bie U6ermad>t, ber Umfrcig, ber Unterfa^, bie Unterwelt, bie 5Jorh)ett, ber 23iberwiKe, ber Buname, \)a^ 3»)ifc^enfpiel 522] WORDFORMATIOK— ADJECTIVES. 245 4. Verb + Noun. Very numerous. A few with the connecting vowel -e, which repre- sents the suflBx- vowel of weak verbs, older 6, e. . Ex.: ber (S^ur^unb, ber (Sing^ogel, bie ©c^reibfeber, ba<3 Cefebuc^, ber 2ebe=* mann, bie 9teifeluft, ber Seitj^ern. (See below.) a. Ostlioff (see his Verbum in der Nominal Composition) has proved that these com- pounds are not primitive in the I. E. languages, but that they are originally com- ponnded of noun + noun, in which the first noun was felt to be, on account of its stem- suffix, a verb-stem, and this led to the formation of many compounds, in the Germanic, Greek, Slavic and Romance languages, by analogy. Thus Seitftern, + lode-star, does not come from leitcn and ©tent, though meaning ^leitenber ©tern," but »o'rIaut. furlte'b does not belong here, fiir = as, «al^^ al^ lieb anne|men> anfe^en. Compare jufrie'ben, at peace, content. Derivation of Numerals. 529. 3tt)et is probably an old dual. Btt)ecn< zwme has the distributive suffix ni,+ Eng. twain, twin, + L. hini. With jTOo fern., < older zwd, zwo, compare M. Eng. twa, two, also feminine. The numerals, as far as 10 inch, can be easily compared with the cognates of other languages accord- ing to Grimm's and Verner's Laws, elf and jjvelf contain perhaps a stem lik, ten, that appears in Slavic. They come from older einlif, zuelif. etlf is archaic. As to jwolf for jlpelf, common in N, H. G., see 489, 1. 1. The ending -jig, < zug + Eng. -ty, differs originally from je^n in accent, je'&tt < I.-E. ^dekm, L. decern. See Verner's Law. 3. ^unbert, + hundred, is compounded of hund + rath-; the latter from the same stem as 9iebe, Go. rathjan, to count. Jmnd alone means 100, compare L. centum, Gr. kKarov according to Verner's Law. See further Kluge's Diet. S^aufenb < older tusunt, a fern. noun. It is not an I.-E. numeral like all the others. Root doubtful. 530. The suffixes for the ordinals are really the superlative suffixes -to, -sto. Only German and Icelandic use -sto. jiweit- only sprang up in the 15th century. Instead of it was used, as in all Germanic dialects, anbcr -f other, a comparative in -ter. Comp. L. alter, anber has not quite died out. Comp. jum tx\ttn, jum anbern unb jum britten ^alt, still used at auction. 3l(^ ®oU ! n)ie bo(| mein erfler \oax, ftnb^ t(^ m(^t leit^t auf biefer 2Belt ben anbern, F. 3992-8. anbert^alt>=one and a half ; felbanber=lit. himself the second. 633] WORDFORMATIOK — JS^UMERALS. 251 i.e., two of them, of us. britt- has the short vowel of the stem " thriu" still in the neuter O. and M. H. G. driu. tt < dd < dj as in Go. ihridja, Ags. thridda, + L. ter-ti-us. ber ^unbertjle was in O. H. G. zeTmmogdsto, zehanzug being the other word for 100 ; really " ten tens." For er|!» h^i, %vx% see 439, 2. Numeral Derivatives and Compounds. 531. From cardinals. 1. MULTIPLICATIVES : Suflaxes -fac^, -falttg, e. g., breifad^, »ierfac^, i)telfa(J^. In O. H. G. -fa(^ is only noun, -fac^ expresses a certain number of parts, divisions, = tt%0i6)ix*" -fait,- faltig, faltig + -fold, expresses also variety besides quantity. It comes from the same stem as the verb fatten + fold, and is quite old. -fait is archaic now. bo)3pelt + double, is < French, t is "excrescent" ; in compounds t does not appear : 1)o^})elabler, S^o^^pelganger, jlDie- in jwiefad), jwiefaltig, comes from older zwi, + Gr. di-^ L. U-, 2. Iteratives : -mal, rare -i^unb, ei'nmal, jt»ei'mal, brei'mal, ntan^mal ; ciitma'l, " once upon a time." -mal is the noun ?Dta^l + meal, O. H. G. mal. Notice wakr" mal(<5)", once more, adverb «akr" = "again;" ein(mal) fur allemaL wcin^" + " once," is seemingly the neuter N. or Ace., but it is a Gen. < older " eines," form which einjl with excrescent t, + once, "onst." „t\X[^" is now rare and so is wfhtnb." Uhland has waHjlu'nb" = all the time. (Stunb and bal& are isolated now ; mal is plnral, being neuter (see 176). i JX) i e r, now rare, comes from older zwiro, zwiror (r < ?) 632. From the ordinals : 1. Adverbs like erflens^, peitens^, etc., see 665, 2. 2. Fractions by -tel < 3;eil, S)rittel, SJiertel, ^itnftel, one t is lost in writing, Bwattjigllel. They are neuter, of course. «2)ritteil", the full form is now archaic. nSvoiikl" has not come up on account of the late origin of „sWeite/' «anbert^alb" is used, see 530. Notice ber 3weitle^te, next to the last ; ber 2)rittle^te, third from the end. See also syntax, 226-229. 533. Variatives are formed by -let < M. H. G. leie, fem. meaning *' kind," probably < Romance. The numeral preceding it is inflected like an adjective, man^erlei (G.), i^ielerlei; »iererlei, four kinds, etc. But the com- pomid is invariable. 252 WORDFOEMATION — VERBS. [534- Derivation and Composition of Verbs. 534. As primitive are regarded all strong verbs except pveifen, fd^reiBen, which are foreign, and a large number of weak verbs, which are either very old, such as ^abcn, frogcii, or they are those whose origin is obscure or whose stem no longer appears in other primitive parts of speech, e. g., ^olen, I^offen. All other weak verbs are derivatives except the originally strong that have become weak, e. g., walten, tnal^Iejt, Befcen (see Kl.). They are derived from other parts of speech by means of e, the connecting vowel representing older i, 6, ^, which unites the verbal inflections with the root or with those words from which the verb is derived. (This e may drop out.) The con- necting vowel i or j ( < jo) produced umlaut, which, since the j class was by far the largest of the three classes of weak verbs, was soon used through analogy as a com- mon means of deriving verbs after umlaut had ceased to work. Besides the vowel e, there occur certain secondary suffixes, some of which have a peculiar force. 535. 1. Derivation with umlaut due, a, either to an old i or, b, to analogy, or, c, to the fact that there was an umlaut already in the noun-stem. a. A large number from strong verbs of the II., Ill, IV., V., VI. ab- laut-series with the strong ablaut, i.e., with the vowel of the pret. sing., and from the reduplicating verbs with the vowel of the infinitive, e.g., flinlen < flicpen, \[q^, geftoffen ?i + lay, V.; fu^ren < fa^ren, fu'^r, 9efa:^ren < vueren < fuorjan, VI., to cause to go, to lead ; fatten < fatten, fiel, gefatten, < M. H. G. fellen < ^falljan, to cause to fall, + fell ; fiirc^ten < %uxd)t ; lawmen aff ! ; raumen < fRaum ; ijffnen < ojfen. c. grunen < grun ; tritJen < triiBc. Bern. 1. If the strong verb is intransitive then the derivative is transitive or causative ; if transitive, then the derivative is intensive or iterative, e.g., id)ircmmen< fdjiuimmen, to cause to swim: fe^en