THE GARY SCHOOLS A GENERAL ACCOUNT THE GARY PUBLIC SCHOOLS The results of the study of the Gary Pubhc Schools, undertaken on the invitation of the Super- intendent and the Board of Education of Gary, will be published in eight parts, as follows: The Gary Schools: A General Account By Abraham Flexner and Frank P. Bachman (2$ Cents; Organization and Administration George D. Strayer and Frank P. Bachman (15 Cents) Costs Frank P. Bachman and Ralph Bowman (25 Cents) Industrial Work Charles R. Richards (2; Cents) Household Arts Eva W. White (10 Cents) Physical Training and Play Lee F. Hanmer (10 Cents) Science Teaching Oris W. Caldwell (10 Cents) Measurement of Classroom Products Stuart A. Courtis (30 Cents) Any report will be sent postpaid on receipt of the amount above specified. THE GARY SCHOOLS A GENERAL ACCOUNT BY ABRAHAM FLEXNER AND FRANK P. BACHMAN GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD 61 Broadway New York 1918 LA id 5 FS COPYRIGHT, 19 1 8, BY General Education Board TABLE OF CONTENTS FAGS Preface v I. Gary: Its Industries and Its People 3 II. Plan and Plant 17 III. Organization 30 IV. Administration and Supervision . . 39 V. Course of Study 48 VI. Teaching Staff 63 VII. Classroom Instruction 73 VIII. Classroom Tests 88 IX. Science Teaching 106 X. Industrial Work 122 XL Household Arts 139 XII. Physical Training and Play . . . 152 XIII. Auditorium and Religious Instruction 161 XIV. Enrollment, Attendance, and Pupil Progress 174 XV. Costs 190 XVI. Conclusion 196 XVII. Appendix 209 PREFACE The study of the Gary Schools was undertaken by the General Education Board at the request of the Board of Education and the City Superintendent of Gary. The results of the study will be pubHshed in a series of special reports, dealing with the more characteristic or important aspects of school work at Gary, and the present volume which endeavors to present a general account of the entire system. In the writing of this volume, the separate reports have been summarized in the chapters dealing with their respective subjects. For the remaining chapters of the book and for the general presentation, the authors are alone responsible. The general volume has been issued first, in order that a comprehensive view of the entire situation might be presented. It will be promptly followed by detailed studies of (i) Organization and Administration, (2) Costs, (3) Industrial Work, (4) Household Arts, (5) Physical Training and Play, (6) Science Teaching, and (7) Measurement of Classroom Products. The authors desire to make grateful acknowledgment to the City Superintendent and other school officials of Gary for their cooperation and courtesy, and to their associates in this study for their unfailing patience and vi PREFACE helpfulness. Special thanks are due to Mr. Frank L. Shaw for his services in compiling and arranging statis- tical data, and for his reading and correction of proof; to Miss Edith Holman, who assisted in the statistical work, and to Miss Anna C. Thornblum who in the ca- pacity of secretary has rendered valuable aid at every stage of the undertaking. Mr. Trevor Arnett, of the University of Chicago, Dr. Frederick Cleveland, of Bos- ton, and Dr. Frank E. Spaulding, Superintendent of the Cleveland Schools, read the report on Costs and made important suggestions regarding the arrangement of the tables contained in that volume. Miss Anna M. Cooley, of Teachers College, read the report on Household Arts, Mr. Shattuck O. Hartwell, Superintendent of the Muskegon Schools, the report on Organization and Ad- ministration, and Dr. Frank W. Ballou, Associate Superintendent of the Boston Schools, the report on Measurement of Classroom Products. The whole of the present volume was read by Professor Paul H. Hanus, of Harvard University. To all those who have thus assisted the authors take pleasure in acknowledging their indebt- edness. New York, August i, 19 18. Abraham Flexner, Frank P. Bachman. > Clarke School f West Gary School O Ambridge School U Beveridge School >J Jefferson School ■ • Emerson School h Froebel School X 24th Avenue School « Glen Park School THE GARY SCHOOLS A GENERAL ACCOUNT I: GARY: ITS mDUSTRIES AND ITS PEOPLE THE town of Gary is located twenty seven miles southeast of Chicago, on the southern point of Lake Michigan/ in a region that a bare decade ago was given over entirely to swamp land, sand dunes, and forests of scrub oak. It is one of many industrial centers which in recent years have sprung up, almost over night, on the outer rim of a large city. To provide space for its own plants and those of its subsidiaries, to secure in advance abundant room for future expansion, with necessary terminal, transportation, and housing faciHties, the United States Steel Corporation purchased 14,000 acres of land, with eight miles of unbroken lake frontage. The present investment in site and plants runs well above $100,000,000; the population of the town has reached, perhaps passed, fifty thousand. On the extreme east of the strip, facing the lake, is the plant of the National Tube Company, now under construc- tion; directly south, the Coke By-Products Company, with its hundreds of ovens; westward, across an artificial harbor large enough for great ore vessels, Hes the Indiana Steel Company, with a square mile of furnaces and mills; on its western flank are the American Sheet and Tin Plate ^See frontispiece map. 4 THE GARY SCHOOLS Company, the Kirk Railroad Yards, the proposed site of the American Car and Foundry Company, and the plant of the American Bridge Company, the second largest fabricator of structural steel in the world. Two miles westward, amidst mountains of slag brought from the blast furnaces and used as basic material, is situated the Universal Portland Cement Company, with a daily capacity of 40,000 barrels. South of the Grand Calumet River, and to the extreme east, a site has been reserved for the American Locomotive Company. Near by are two independent organizations — The Gary Bolt and Screw Company and The Union Drawn Steel Company. Together the companies mentioned form an industrial colony of gigantic proportions, already employing be- tween 12,000 and 15,000 men, and likely to require in the near future twice or thrice the number. Gary is thus a steel town. The steel mill workers form the basis and the bulk of the population; there are, be- sides, executives, clerks, shopkeepers, etc., enough to carry on the business of the mills and to sustain the life of the community. Leisure class there is practically none; Gary is a working town. Its occupations center about the production and fabrication of steel, and about such business, trades, and professions as are required to care for a community of, say, fifty thousand people. Complete occupational data are not available, but we know how young men and women between nineteen and twenty, heads of families with children under twenty one, and working mothers — a total of 5,321 — are occu- ra p^ GARY 5 pied.^ The data, while covering the principal occupation groups, are, of course, no index to the total number en- gaged in particular pursuits, and may not show correctly the relative proportions of skilled, semiskilled, and un- skilled workers. However, on the face of the figures, it appears that three fifths of all Gary wage earners are employed in manufacture, and that not more than a fourth of those engaged in gainful pursuits are skilled workmen. The population of the town is predominantly foreign in origin. In 1910, only 27 per cent, were native bom of Figure i CoBiPOSinoN OF Total Population, U. S. Census 1910 *See Table I, Appendix D, page 216. For occupational data on boys and girls between fourteen and eighteen years, see Table XXX, Appen- dix D, page 250. 6 THE GARY SCHOOLS native parentage; 22 per cent, more were natives, but both parents of four fifths of these were foreign born. Thus well nigh two thirds of the total population of Gary in 19 10 m-ay be regarded as of actual or recent foreign stock. (Figure i.) Of the foreign stock, two thirds come from Austria, Hungary, Russia, Italy, and Greece, a fourth from Germany, Great Britain, the Scandinavian countries, and Canada, with scattered representatives from almost every other quarter of the globe. (Figure 2.) A census in April, 19 16, limited to persons under twenty one years of age, makes a similar showing. Of the 12,876 youths Figure 2 Nationality of Total Foreign Born, and of Parents of All Native Born Having Both Parents Foreign GARY 7 about whom we have information/ 77 per cent, are native born (Figure 3), but only 25 per cent, are of native par- ents. Both parents of 45 per cent, and one parent of 7 per Figure 3 Composition of Population Under Twenty One Years of Age in i 9 i 6 cent, were immigrants; 12 per cent, had themselves passed through Ellis Island. Thus, of the youth of Gary, 57 per cent, belong to foreign stock, that is, are either foreign born themselves or are of foreign parentage. Of this foreign stock, sUghtly more than three fourths come from southern and eastern Europe. (Figure 4.) Since the census of 19 10, this contingent has relatively in- 'These data were collected by the Gary authorities in making the school census of 1916; we tabulated them, following the classification of the U. S. Census of 1910. 8 THE GARY SCHOOLS creased; western and northern Europe has contributed relatively less. It may be safely stated that at the present time Figure 4 Nationality of Foreign Born Under Twenty~One Years of Age, AND OF Parents of Native Born Under Twenty-One Years of Age Having Both Parents Foreign two thirds of the population of Gary are either for- eign born or of full foreign parentage. But these foreigners did not all ship direct for Gary; a considerable proportion have gone thither from other American cities, for a canvass of the foreign born heads of famiHes shows that 44 per cent, have been in this country eleven years or more, their immigration thus antedating the founding GARY 9 of Gary.^ A little under half (46 per cent.) of the present heads of famiUes with children under twenty one have been in Gary less than five years, 47 per cent, have been there longer, 7 per cent, are unaccounted for. Two per cent, have been there since the city began, 10 per cent, have been there less than a year. The composition of the population of Gary is an edu- cational factor that needs constantly to be held in mind. All American cities are more or less foreign, but the Gary situation is distinctly more difficult and complex than is usual. The Gary statistics for general population date back, as before stated, to 1910; since then the population has more than trebled and it is practically certain that this increase has taken place more largely on the non- American, than on the native American side. Even so, on the basis of the 1910 figures, 49 per cent, of the Gary white population is foreign born as against Boston's 36 per cent., Detroit's 34 per cent., St. Louis's 18 per cent., and Kansas City's 10 per cent., considering the larger cities; and Akron's 19 per cent., South Bend's 25 per cent., and Hammond's 27 per cent., considering the smaller cities of industrial type.- Thus Gary has an un- usually large proportion of foreigners and continues to receive additional increments with perhaps unprece- dented rapidity. ^Data were collected as to heads of families having children under twenty one years of age, a total of 4,633 — 2,772 foreign born, 1,758 native bom, and 103 unknown. ^See Table II, Appendix D, page 217. 10 THE GARY SCHOOLS A given school organization will undoubtedly accom- plish more satisfactory results with a homogeneous than with a heterogeneous school population recruited largely from culturally backward peoples. Hence, Gary is fairly entitled to a measure of discount on this score. On the other hand, too much should not be made of it, for every American city faces a more or less similar prob- lem, though for the most part on more advantageous terms. We turn now from the people to the conditions under which they live. Through a subsidiary organization called the Gary Land Company, the Steel Corporation was instnmiental in laying out and building that part of the city which lies mainly between the Grand Calumet River, on the north, and the Wabash Railroad, on the south — an area of about nine square miles. Modem methods of city planning were not employed. A checker- board scheme was followed; lots of thirty feet frontage with a depth of one hundred fifty to two hundred feet were marked off; the streets all cross at right angles. Two reservations were made for park purposes — one of twenty acres on the east side, another of ten on the west. The heart of the city lies at the intersection of Broadway, a wide thoroughfare running north and south, and Fifth Avenue, running east and west. Broadway is the main business street; the Carnegie Library, the Young Men's Christian Association, and the federal post office are situated on Fifth Avenue on sites donated by the Gary Land Company. GARY II Most of the dwelling houses in this section of the city were erected by the Gary Land Company and sold on easy terms. Though close together, they are com- fortable, well lighted, sanitary, and attractive. The monotony is somewhat reheved by other structures — churches, apartment houses, and more ambitious resi- dences, and by the well kept lawns characteristic of this part of the town. Here dwell nearly one half of the total population — local corporation officials, skilled steel workers, professional and trades people. There is, however, another side to housing in Gary. One half of Gary, as we have seen, lives in decency and comfort; not so the other half. South of the holdings of the Gary Land Company lay a large tract, which was quickly seized by land speculators who undertook to provide shelter for the vast majority of Gary's unskilled laborers. Hundreds of ramshackle houses, generally wood, occasionally brick or stucco, were thrown to- gether. Some accommodate a single family, others two families; still others are two story structures of indeter- minate capacity, twenty five to thirty feet wide, a hun- dred or more feet long, with a room for a saloon or a small store on the first floor front. For the most part, these structures make little provision for either health or safety. Few of these houses are without boarders, and the boarding houses frequently receive both day and night shifts. Scattered about these subdivisions, but located principally along Broadway, were 178 saloons, numerous cabarets and dance halls. Thus the con- 12 THE GARY SCHOOLS ditions under which Gary's "other half" lives leave much to be desired. The different schools reflect the contrast Just por- trayed. The Emerson and Jeflerson schools serve the Gary Land Company district; of persons under twenty one years of age in the Emerson and Jeffer- son sections of this district, 44 and 54 per cent., respectively, are native white of native parentage. The Froebel school serves the workers' section to the south ;i of the youth from which it is recruited, 87 per cent, are of foreign stock — 69 per cent, come of foreign parents, and 18 per cent, were born under a foreign flag.^ (Figure 5.)^ Of the foreign stock of the Froebel section, 86 per cent, come from Austria, Hungary, Russia, Italy, and Greece, i.e., southeastern Europe, while only 5 per cent, come from western and northern Europe and Cana- da, and 9 per cent, from all other countries. (Figure 6.)^ This concentration of southeastern European peoples in an essentially unrestricted and "wide open" section creates a social — whence an educational — ^problem of great difficulty. ^The Froebel district comprises the principal section south of the Wabash; Emerson and Jefferson are north, the one east and the other west of Broadway. Near the center of these respective districts are the Froebel, Emerson, and Jefferson schools. (See frontispiece map.) ^he school census of 1916 showed, for the entire city, 12,876 youth under twenty one years of age. Of these, exclusive of the colored, 5,854 were in the Froebel, 1,023 in the Emerson, and 2,506 in the Jefferson district. 'See page 13. *See page 14. 13 14 GARY 15 It must be clear now that from the start the Gary schools had to deal with a new, rapidly increasing, and undeveloped population, mostly industrial in occupation, mostly foreign in origin. The field was, however, open for the development of an educational system adapted to local conditions. There were no antiquated school buildings,^ there was no teaching staff with uniform,, fixed habits. The very mobility and rawness of a large part of the population were from this point of view an advantage, for the patrons of the schools were without the educational traditions that might readily have resisted departures from common usage. The Steel Corporation has neither helped nor hindered. Its business relations have been Hmited to the sale by the Gary Land Company of the Jefferson school and sites for other schools; in matters of school policy, it has exer- cised no influence whatsoever. The school authorities thus enjoyed, and, as we shall see, in certain highly important respects took advantage of, the opportunity to break away from estabHshed practices. Thus, while Gary would hardly have been selected de- liberately as the fittest place for a considerable experiment in public education, nevertheless, from one point of view, perhaps no place could have been chosen where there were fewer obstacles and where conditions were more favor- able to innovation. Though the facts about the Gary schools will emerge ^However, two adjacent small towns have been annexed to Gary, and these possessed very meager school buildings, which are still in use. i6 THE GARY SCHOOLS as our study proceeds, it may be worth while to give in advance a brief historical and statistical summary. The Gary school organization began in September, ij>o6, school opening with one teacher, occupying a one room building. In October of the same year, Mr. WilHam A. Wirt, at that time superintendent of the Bluffton (Indiana) schools, was appointed superintend- ent, although he did not take full charge until July, 1907. There are now in the system nine separate build- ings and groups of portables; two of the buildings, Emerson and Froebel — the only permanent ones erected since Mr. Wirt took charge — are large and modern. There were employed during 1915-16 in the regular day schools two assistant superintendents, two medical in- spectors, three supervisors, four principals, 136 teachers, and II shopmen, together instructing a total of 5,654 pupils. The combined total current expenditure for the regular day schools during 1915-16 was $203,682.38. II. THE PLAN AND PLANT^ THE Gary schools can be properly understood only when they are viewed in the Hght of the general educational situation. For years, while the prac- tice of education has in large part continued to follow traditional Unes, the progressive Hterature of the sub- ject has abounded in constructive suggestions of far- reaching significance. Social, poHtical, and industrial changes have forced upon the school responsibilities formerly laid upon the home. Once the school had mainly to teach the elements of knowledge; now it is charged with the physical, mental, and social training of the child as well. To meet these needs, a changed and en- riched curriculum, including, in addition to the common academic branches, community activities, facihties for recreation, shop work, household arts, has been urged on the content side of school work; on the side of meth- od and attitude, the transformation of school methods, discipline, and aims on the basis of modern psychology, ethics and social philosophy has been recommended for similar reasons. No better formulation of this point of view has been made than that by Professor Hanus in his "Modern School": 'For detailed account, see report on Organization and Administration, by George D. Strayer and Frank P. Bachman. 17 i8 THE GARY SCHOOLS "The education demanded by a democratic society to- day is an education that prepares a youth to overcome the inevitable difficulties that stand in the way of his material and spiritual advancement; an education that, from the beginning, promotes his normal physical devel- opment through the most salutary environment and ap- propriate physical training; that opens his mind and lets the world in through every natural power of observation and assimilation; that cultivates hand-power as well as head-power; that inculcates the appreciation of beauty in nature and in art, and insists on the performance of duty to self and to others; an education that in youth and early manhood, while continuing the work already done, enables the youth to discover his own powers and limitations, and that impels him through oft-repeated intellectual conquests or other forms of productive ef- fort to look forward to a life of habitual achievement with his head or his hands, or both; that enables him to analyze for himself the intellectual, economic, and political problems of his time, and that gives the insight, the interest, and the power to deal with them as success- fully as possible for his own advancement and for social service: and, finally, that causes him to realize that the only way to win and to retain the prizes of Ufe, namely, wealth, culture, leisure, honor, is an ever-increasing usefulness and thus makes him feel that a life without growth and without service is not worth living."^ The conception set forth by Professor Hanus makes 'Hanus: The Modem School, pp. 3-4. THE PLAN AND PLANT 19 an instantaneous appeal. We are, however, in some danger of begging the question, when we call a curriculum modern, progressive, or enriched. Obviously, the tradi- tional course of study is expanded or extended, whenever additions are made to it; whether or not it has been en- riched depends on the results obtained as evidenced by a critical examination of school performance. Those who participated in the present study of the Gary schools were all hospitable to modern educational ideas, in the sense that they believe in the importance of developing new types of educational opportunity; but they also believe that every departure must render a satisfactory account of itself. The innovator must give a definite reason for his innovations and the results must bear him out. It is with a constant realization of the experi- mental nature of the imdertaking that the present volume deals with the Gary schools as an effort to embody mod- em educational ideas. Primarily, modernization is a question of the curricu- lum, in the broadest sense of that term. The first step in modernizing the school is to modernize the course of study, by the introduction of new subjects and activities, the elimination of other subjects or parts of subjects, the redistribution of emphasis, the change of school spirit and attitude. The moment, however, that such changes take place, it becomes necessary to make corresponding changes in the school plant and facihties, to provide a daily program of more extensive and complicated char- acter with a different type of school organization, and to 20 THE GARY SCHOOLS procure a specialized stafif competent to administer the richer and more complicated scheme. Most of the pres- ent volume will be devoted to the successive consider- ation of these details, since, given the Gary plan as a con- ception, upon them depends its success in execution. Gary furnishes an admirable example of what expan- sion of the curriculum means. It offers in the elemen- tary school instruction or opportunity of four different t}pes: (i) academic work in the traditional school subjects,* (2) science, industrial training, and domestic arts,- (3) community or group work in the auditorium,^ (4) physical education and play. A given class will every day devote two or three hours to the common school sub- jects, two hours to special work in shop or laboratory, an hour or two to play, and an hour to the auditorium. The school day thus runs seven hours, not counting the luncheon period. Of these seven hours, the ordinary school subjects get on the whole about the same amount of time as is allotted to them in conventional schools, though obviously they lose their exclusive emphasis, while science, drawing, and shop work, the auditorium, and physical training receive at Gary a degree of attention that is quite unprecedented.^ Thus, the Gary curricu- 'I.e., reading, spelling, grammar, writing, arithmetic, geography, and history. ^I.e., drawing, science, sewing, cooking, manual training,'forge, foundry, print shop, etc. 'This type of work is highly developed in only the four largest schools. ^These matters are all discussed more fully in subsequent chapters. THE PLAN AND PLANT 21 lum embodies the modern standpoint as above charac- terized, for it takes explicit account not only of the in- tellectual, but of the physical and social needs and possi- bilities of the child. We have said that the moment the curriculum is modernized, corresponding facilities must be provided. The old-fashioned school, teaching the three R's, needed merely classrooms with Httle or no equipment. The course of study outlined above makes far dif- ferent demands in the way of buildings and equip- ment. The Gary school plant is not indeed by any means of uniform excellence; but every part of it shows even amidst most unfavorable conditions a distinct ef- fort to make possible something in the way of an ex- panded curriculum, while two of the nine schools— the Emerson and the Froebel — belong to the very best type of modern school construction and can hardly be paral- leled outside our largest and richest communities. The Emerson school contains thirty classrooms, seven special rooms used for laboratory or studio purposes, shops,^ rooms for domestic arts,- auditorium, gymnasium and swimming pool, and abundant playground space, well stocked with apparatus. The building contains both elementary and high school, but is mainly devoted to the former, since 64 per cent, of the pupils in attendance belong to the elementary grades. Viewed as an elemen- tary school, the laboratory and shop equipment are 'For details see Chapter X. ^For details see Chapter XI. 22 THE GARY SCHOOLS probably not equaled in any other elementary school in the United States. The Froebel school is in its es- sential features a duplicate of the Emerson, though a different set of shops^ is provided. Of the remaining schools, the Jefferson, erected in 1907, was of conventional type, but has been remodeled so as to offer facilities for a certain amount of laboratory, shop, and auditorium work; the Glen Park and Beveridge schools, built by neighboring communities prior to their annexation to Gary, are inadequate buildings, in which only a few of the features of the Gary plan are at- tempted. The other four schools, situated in outlying districts, are mainly portables, destined before long to be replaced. It is, however, worthy of note that the entire system, including the makeshifts Just mentioned, is characterized in greater or less degree by the effort to fill a lengthened school day with a diversified curricu- lum. The least favored school is in position to carry on, more or less well, nature study, gardening, physical edu- cation, recreation and play, while the schools that may be regarded as permanent parts of the plant are, all the circumstances considered, really notable. This, then, is one side of the Gary plan — the enrich- ment of the curriculum and the provision of necessary faciUties in the form of buildings, grounds, and equip- ment adjusted thereto. These things did not, it is true, originate at Gary, nor are they by any means limited to Gary; every one of them can be found in some form or 'For detaDs, see Chapter X. THE PLAN AND PLANT 23 other somewhere or other. In ahnost every large city in the country efforts have been made, especially in the more recent school plants, to develop some of the features above mentioned. It is none the less true that perhaps nowhere else have the schools so frankly adopted the poHcy in question, and perhaps nowhere else does every school in the system- so plainly endeavor to carry an extended course of study within the limits set by conditions. It is, however, not to be supposed that the plan was applied in precisely its present form at the outset. Far from it. There has been a distinct process of develop- ment at Gary, at times such rapid and unstable develop- ment that our account will in some respects be obsolete before it is printed. When the Emerson school was opened in 1909, the equipment in laboratories, shops, museums, while doubtless superior to what was offered by other towns of the Gary type, could have been matched by what was to be found in the better favored larger towns and cities at the same period. The gym- nasium, for example, was not more than one third its present size; the industrial work was not unprecedented in kind or extent; the boys had woodwork, the girls cooking and sewing. But progress was rapid: painting and printing were added in 1911 ; the foundry, forge, and machine shop in 191 2. The opportunities for girls were enlarged by the addition of the cafeteria in 191 2. The auditorium reached its present extended use as recently as the school year 1913-14. The Froebel school, first oc- 24 THE GARY SCHOOLS cupied in the fall of 191 2, started with facilities similar to those previously introduced piecemeal into the Emerson. On the side of educational opportunities and facilities the present situation represents then the culmination of a de- velopment that has occupied the entire life history of the community. The second characteristic feature of the Gary plan is the administrative arrangement by means of which an effective and economical use of the increased facilities is sought. The organization in question is commonly called the "duplicate " school. The term is really a misnomer, as we shall see, but its tentative use will assist the reader to understand the Gary plan of organization. For the sake of clearness, it will be well to explain the theory of the so-called "dupHcate" school by a simplified imaginary example: Let us suppose that elementary'- school facilities have to be provided for, say, 1,600 children. If each class is to contain a maximum of 40 children, a schoolhouse of 40 classrooms would formerly have been built, with perhaps a few additional rooms, little used, for special activities; except during the recess (12 to i :^o) each reci- tation room would be in practically continuous use in the old line subjects by one and the same class from 9 to 3 130, when school is adjourned till next morning. A school plant of this kind may be represented by Figure 7,^ each square representing a schoolroom, belonging to a par- ticular class. ^See page 25. THE PLAN AND PLANT 25 The "duplicate" school takes care of its 1,600 pupils very differently. Instead of providing 40 classrooms for 40 classes, it provides only 20 classrooms, capable of holding 800 children; but it provides, in addition, play- grounds, laboratories, shops, gardens, gymnasimn, and auditorium, also capable of holding 800 children. If, Figure 7 Represents Old-Fashioned Schoolhouse 40 rooms for 40 classes, of 40 children each, 1. e., facilities for the academic instruction of i,6oo children. A school yard and an extra room or two, little used, for special activities are also usually found. now, 800 children use the classrooms while 800 are using the other facilities, morning and afternoon, the entire plant accommodates 1,600 pupils throughout the school day; and the curriculum is greatly extended for all aUke, since, without taking away anything from their classroom work, all pupils get the other activities also. A school thus equipped and organized may be represented by 26 THE GARY SCHOOLS Figure 8,^ in which A represents 20 classrooms taking care of 40 children each (800 children) and B represents extra facilities, taking care of 800 children. As A and B are in simultaneous operation, 1,600 children are cared for, all being in attendance during the entire school day. Figure 8 Represents the Gary Equipment \ B Twenty classrooms for academic instruction of 20 classes of 40 children each (800 children) in the morning hours and an equal number in the afternoon (1,600 in all daily). Special facilities, taking care of 800 children in the morning hours and an equal number in the afternoon hours (1,600 in all daily). Auditorium Shops Laboratories Playground, gardens, gymnasium and library This method of visualizing the "duplicate" school serves to correct the misconception above mentioned. The plan aims to secure the intensive use of enlarged and diversified school facilities; yet it would be incorrect to say that 20 classrooms, instead of 40, as under the old THE PLAN AND PLANT 27 plan, accommodate 1,600 children. For though the number of classrooms has indeed been reduced from 40 to 20, special faciUties of equal capacity have been added in the form of auditorium, shops, playground, etc. The 20 classrooms apparently saved have been replaced by special faciHties of one kind or another, under an organization that uses both simultaneously. The extended curriculum and the new type of organiza- tion therefore support one another. The social situation requires a scheme of education fairly adequate to the entire scope of the child's activities and possibilities; this cannot be achieved without a longer school day and a more varied school equipment. The "dupHcate" school endeavors to give the longer day, the extended curriculum, and the more varied activities with the lowest possible investment in, and the most intensive use of, the school plant. The so-called "dupHcate" school is thus a single school with two different types of faciHties in more or less constant and simultaneous operation, morning and af- ternoon. Though the point is one to which we shall shortly return for a fuller discussion, it is perhaps worth while to call attention in this connection to the schematic nature of the preceding discussion. We have assumed that the capacity of regular classrooms is exactly equal to the capacity of special facilities and that intensive use means fairly constant and simultaneous use of both types of facilities. We shall discover that this is not strictly the case; that is, if the program is controlled by 28 THE GARY SCHOOLS educational principle rather than administrative con- venience, the two types of facilities are not necessarily exactly equal in capacity, and there is a certain amount of inevitable wastage in the use of the special facili- ties. It is nevertheless true that the Gary plan is economical as respects the use of elaborate faciHties. But the sense in which the word is used requires explanation. Nothing could of course be more economical than the old-fashioned school in which each room is occupied all day long by the same class. That is, from the standpoint of economy, a bookish school, organized by classes, cannot be sur- passed. When, however, the curriculum is expanded so as to include science, shop work, and other activities, the conventional type of school organization is ill adapted. The Gary plan of organization appears, as will be shown, to utilize such facilities with less waste than any other type of organization yet suggested. Though the plan is economical when viewed in the light of the opportunities offered, it sprang from educational considerations, not from considerations of economy or convenience. There was no problem of congestion at Gary; nor was the town seeking to reduce expense. The duplicate organization is simply an intel- ligent attempt to make efficient use of varied facihties — classrooms as well as shops and laboratories. Obviously, the more efficiently facilities can be used, the more pupils a given plant will handle and the lower will be the per capita cost at which each child will enjoy the particular THE PLAN AND PLANT 29 advantages offered to him. But though the plan lends itself to the relief of congestion, and though, as we shall see, equal educational opportunities can probably not be obtained so cheaply on any other basis, the conception itself is in its origin educational — not administrative or financial. As such, it represents a distinct contribution to educational organization. III. ORGANIZATION* WE HAVE pointed out that the Gary plan is characterized by two features: (i) an ex- tended curriculum, mth facilities to correspond, (2) a peculiar t^pe of school organization, devised for the purpose of operating efficiently and economically the more compHcated program. In the present chapter we shall endeavor to show how the extended curriculum is converted into a daily school program and how the new type of organization procures an effective and eco- nomical use of school facilities. The Gary elementary curriculum provides, as has been stated, four distinct t>^es of training: (i) academic work, that is, instruction in the three R's, geography, and history; (2) special work, that is, science, shop work, and domestic arts; (3) physical training and play; (4) auditorium activities, including choral singing, individual performance on violin or piano, dramatic and other group exercises. In subsequent chapters we shall consider the amount and quality of instruction in each field; for the present we are concerned simply with the making and operating of the daily time schedule. 'For detailed account, see report on Organization and Administration, by George D. Strayer and Frank P. Bachman. 30 ORGANIZATION 31 The manner in which the four different types of ac- tivity are combined in a daily class schedule may be illustrated by the program of a primary grade at the Emerson school: 8:15 — 9:15 Language and numbers 9:15 — 10:15 Handwork and nature study 10:1 5 — 1 1:15 Play and physical training 11:15 — 12:15 Luncheon 12:1 5 — 1:15 Handwork and nature study 1:15 — 2:15 Language and numbers 2:15 — 3:15 Auditorium 3:15 — 4:15 Play and physical training The class in question has its school day of seven hours divided as follows: Ordinary academic work, two hours; Special work (science, shop, domestic arts), two hours; Play and physical training, two hours; Auditorium, one hour. At a higher level, the following program of a fourth grade class shows the t^pes of work done in the successive periods : 8:15 — 9:15 Academic work 12:15 — ^'-^5 Academic work 9:15 — 10:15 Special work 1:15 — 2:15 Special work io:is — 11:15 Academic work 2:15 — 3:15 Physical training 11:15 — 12:15 Luncheon 3:15 — 4:15 Auditorium This class has a day made up of three hours of academic work, two hours of special work, one hour each of physi- cal training and auditorium. What is true of the types of work at the Emerson school 32 THE GARY SCHOOLS is true of the Froebel, Jefferson, and Beveridge schools, and in a measure true of the very smallest Gary schools. The following schedule of a primary class at the 24th Avenue school shows this: 8:45 — 9:10 jNIusic I :oo— 1 :4s Play 9:10— 9:30 Literature 1:45-2:05 Nature study 9:30 — 10:15 Play 2:05—2:30 Drawing 10:15—10:45 Numbers 2:30—2:45 Writing 10:45 — 11:00 Phonics 2:45—3:00 Phonics 11:00 — 11:30 Reading 3:00—3:30 Reading 11:30—11:45 Language 3:30—3:45 Spelling 11:45 — 1:00 Luncheon 3:45—4:00 Language The plant of the 24th Avenue school consists of five portables and an old one room rural school building. There are two kindergarten and five first and second grade classes. Yet these primary classes go to three different teachers and have three separate types of work: (i) the usual primary academic instruction; (2) special work, including Hterature, music, drawing, nature study; and (3) play. A moment's consideration of the fourth grade pro- gram above given will indicate the problem and almost inevitably suggest the manner in which it has been solved. The class in question has an hour of academic work with a regular grade teacher the first thing in the morn- ing in, let us say, room 29. The next hour the class has special work, let us say nature study, in the nature study laboratory, for which purpose the class obviously vacates room 29 and leaves the grade teacher with whom it spent ORGANIZATION 33 the previous hour; the third hour is given to academic work of other kinds, for which it goes to another grade teacher in, let us say, room 20; after luncheon it continues its academic work, for which purpose it may go to room 29 or to room 20 — in either case, using only one of the two rooms it has occupied in previous academic periods. Special work — this time presumably in a shop — carries the class somewhere else in the following period; physical training leads next hour to gymnasium or playground; and the final hour is spent in the auditorium. In the course of the day, the class will almost necessarily have occupied two, perhaps three, different academic class- rooms, a laboratory, a shop, the gymnasium, and the auditorium. It is clear that if room 29 and room 20 and the teachers occupying them are required by this class only two or three hours in the day, some other uses must be found for both rooms and teachers during the rest of the day; that is, rooms must be occupied and teachers employed by other classes at other hours, since during these hours the fourth grade class which we are following is busy else- where — in shop or laboratory or playground. In shops and laboratories the same condition prevails — the given class spends an hour in the woodworking shop, another hour in the nature study laboratory; obviously other classes must precede and follow in both, and what is true of the rooms and shops and laboratories and in- structors needed by the class in question is equally true of all other rooms, shops, laboratories, and teachers. 34 THE GARY SCHOOLS What has this fourth grade class actually been doing? Hour after hour it has changed rooms and changed teachers, in order that it may recite or work in rooms specially adapted to the purposes for which they are used under teachers specially qualified to conduct the several exercises. Instruction is, in other words, organ- ized on the departmental basis. Instead of assigning each class to a classroom teacher who conducts instruc- tion in all the branches in one room continuously occupied by the same class, the departmental plan involves the use of several teachers for each class, each of the several teachers being in charge of one subject or related group of subjects; and every class circulates among the rooms, shops, and laboratories in carrying out the details of its day's program. The departmental plan, with rotation of classes, necessarily accompanies expansion of the curriculum, since no single teacher can possibly teach so many diverse subjects and no single room can possibly contain the different kinds of apparatus and equipment required for several kinds of subject or activity. De- partmentalization thus ought to secure more highly specialized teaching and a more nearly continuous use of elaborate school facilities than can be otherwise secured. The device itself is of course not new. In American colleges work is "departmentalized." There is a teacher of Latin, a teacher of mathematics, a teacher of physics, not a separate teacher of each class in all subjects; and classes move from room to room in order to meet their teachers in succession. In recent years departmentaliza- ORGANIZATION 35 tion has spread from the college into the high school, until nowadays well organized high schools and latterly the upper grades of elementary schools are often "de- partmentalized," i.e., organized with special teachers for the several subjects, rather than with one teacher for each grade. The innovation at Gary lies in the extension of the device into the lower grades of the ele- mentary school. If teachers and facilities are to be thus employed, it follows that different classes must pursue their studies and activities in different orders of succession. Instead, therefore, of the fairly uniform order of subjects which obtains in conventional schools, Gary exhibits an ahnost endless variety of combinations. Conventional schools are incHned to start the day with classroom work, to be relieved after an hour or two by play or exercise. At Gary, one class starts its day's work with academic les- sons and ends with play; another completely reverses this order, starting with play and closing with classroom work.^ The arrangement just described is, in popular phrase, said to keep "all school facilities going at full capacity all the time." This is, however, not strictly true. How nearly the scheme can come to attaining continuous and complete use of school facilities is indeed a nice question. First as to capacity: A simple old-fashioned schoolhouse is used to the limit of its capacity if there is a class in ^The table, page 36, exhibits the programs of four classes, all involving different time arrangements. 36 THE GARY SCHOOLS Diversity in Program Sequence SCHOOL A 2D GRADE A 4TH GRADE A 6th GRADE AN 8th GRADE HOURS CLASS CLASS CLASS CLASS 8:15 Physical Academic Auditorium Special training work work 9:15 Auditorium Special work Physical training Special work 10:15 Special work Academic work Special work Academic work 11:15 Academic work Luncheon Special work Luncheon 12:15 Luncheon Academic work Luncheon Academic work 1:15 Physical Special work Academic Academic training work work 2:15 Special work Physical Academic Physical training work training 3:15 Academic work Auditorium Academic work Auditorium each room every hour of the school day. Thus, if the schoolhouse contains forty classrooms, there would be forty classes, each occupying its home room all day long, with an intermission for recess and an occasional period for the boys at manual training and for the girls at cooking and sewing. The capacity of the plant would be the sum of the capacity of the several classrooms, viz., i,6oo pupils, and it would be used to capacity during the entire school day. The real capacity of a complex plant like the Emerson school is not, however, simply the sum of the pupil capacity of the several classrooms, shops, labora- tories, etc., but is highly variable, depending on the pro- gram and the kind of class combinations employed. Thus, for example, the auditorium of the Emerson school has a capacity of 764. If a program is constructed which ORGANIZATION 37 fills the auditorium hourly — and to do this very dissimilar classes would have to be brought together — the Emerson school plant will have a greater capacity than under a pro- gram which brings into the auditorium hourly — or less frequently — smaller, but more homogeneous, groups. The same is true as regards gymnasium, shops, etc. If care is taken to keep gymnasium groups relatively small and homogeneous enough for effective individual as well as group work, the capacity of the gymnasium and with it the capacity of the school shrinks; if gymnasium groups are large and heterogeneous, total plant capacity is increased. If the shops are full every hour, there are rooms available elsewhere, and plant capacity is increased; if younger children assist as helpers, the rooms which they vacate can be used by others, and thus plant ca- pacity is increased; if, on the other hand, children are not employed as helpers, they must be cared for else- where and total capacity is by so much reduced. Obvi- ously, therefore, while an old-fashioned plant has a readily calculable capacity, a complicated plant may ac- commodate a greater or smaller number of pupils, accord- ing as this, that, or the other program is followed. Judg- ment and administrative skill of a high order are required to steer a safe course. A similar situation exists as respects continuity of use. One room in the old-fashioned schoolhouse is used just as long as another ; all rooms are indeed continuously in use all day long, be the day five hours or six. The Gary situation is more complicated, partly because of the 38 THE GARY SCHOOLS new facilities, like the auditorium and the gymnasium, and partly because the school day is seven hours for pu- pils and eight hours for the plant. If we assume six hours as a normal school day for a regular teacher, while the school day for the pupil is seven and for the plant eight hours, classrooms can still be used for the entire plant day if a few extra teachers are employed, even though no teacher works more than six hours a day. But if a labora- tory is to be used for an additional hour or two daily, a second instructor is likely to be needed, a step which would entail disproportionate expense. Practically, there- fore, when the plant day is eight hours, auditorium, shops, laboratories, that is, all special facilities, must be idle at least two hours a day, or one fourth of the time. Equally continuous use of all facilities is therefore prac- tically impossible, if the school day extends beyond six hours; it is difficult to attain even with a school day of six hours, unless there is unusual regularity in the number of classes in the different grades. Nevertheless, the Gary type of organization procures a larger use of modern facilities and of a modern plant than the common type of organization, which requires a room and a teacher for each class and allows regular rooms to be idle when special facilities are in service. IV. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION^ THE management of a system of schools conducted on the Gary plan is obviously a highly complicated affair. Despite the fact that the success of such a system depends very largely on effective management, it is not easy to tell precisely what the administrative and supervisory arrangements of the Gary schools are. At the head stands the superintendent. The superir- tendent of schools in an American city has usually both business and educational duties; directly as well as through assistants he carries out the provisions of the law and the orders of the board of education in respect to aU matters involving business, and, in the same way, both directly and through assistants, exercises general control of educational policies — meeting supervisors and the teaching staff for conference, calling for examinations and reports, and, as occasion offers, visiting classrooms and laboratories, now for the purpose of making an in- spection, again to satisfy himself as to the quality of some special classroom procedure, or the competency of particular individuals. The activities in progress are so many, even in a small system, that no superin- ^For detailed account, see report on Organization and Administration, by George D. Strayer and Frank P. Bachman. 39 40 THE GARY SCHOOLS tendent can possibly keep in constant touch with all; but there is assuredly danger of collapse somewhere un- less the superintendent's hand is distinctly felt In both the main fields of his responsibiUty — business manage- ment and education. In consequence of the repeated and prolonged absences of the superintendent during the year 191 5-16, central control at Gary appeared to be Hmited to general direc- tion, mostly on the business side. Educational super- vision was of a general character only. The superin- tendent gave time and thought to plans connected with building and similar needs, selected and assigned teach- ers, received written and oral reports from the assistant superintendents and school principals, and explained the broad educational aims and policies to the stafif. The execution of educational details did not, however, come directly within his sphere. In other words, of the two important concerns of the ordinary city superintend- ent, the supervisory function did not seem to bulk large. Supervision feU almost altogether to assistants — an as- sistant superintendent who directs the night schools and supervises the higher elementary grades, an assistant superintendent in charge of kindergarten and primary grades, a supervisor or special teacher of handwriting, a supervisor of physical education, who also has teaching duties, a supervisor of the industrial arts, who at the same time has charge of repairs, certain heads of high school departments, who, though teachers, appear to ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 41 have a sort of general responsibility for their several sub- jects throughout the system, and school principals.' The theory of general supervision, which accords with the practice observed, can best be expressed by saying that the assistant superintendents, and all supervisors, for that matter, develop plans and outline ideals in accordance with the Gary plan, and then leave the teaching staff largely to realize these aims in their own way. However, it is not to be inferred from this that the assistant superintendents are not concerned with the efficiency of the schools. They hold teachers' meetings three or four times a year; they visit classes, inspecting the instruction and making suggestions for its improvement, and finally grade the teachers. They give a good deal of attention to the needs of individual pupils, seeing that they are properly classified ; to this end, they assemble reports on children's work, determine whether or not they shall be promoted, and oversee the make-up of their daily programs and the organization of classes. The special supervisors deal with given branches of instruction only — the handwriting supervisor, for ex- ample, with handwriting. This particular special super- visor corresponds, however, more nearly to what is known as a special teacher. He goes from building to building and room to room actually teaching classes, particularly of the upper grades ; at the same time, he counsels teach- ers, gives suggestions about their work, and at long inter- vals brings them together for conference. The super- visor of physical training works in much the same way. 42 THE GARY SCHOOLS The supervisor of the industrial and household arts, as stated before, also looks after repairs for the entire system, and oversees some of the new constructive work. He is in and out of the several shops and even the cook- ing and sewing rooms almost daily and knows in a general way what is going on in every shop. He also meets with the shopmen two or three times a year for an evening's discussion of their problems. The school principal is an executive or administrative, rather than a supervisory, officer. He has, indeed, little to do with the educational side of the school. After organizing his school in consultation with the superin- tendent and assistant superintendents, he looks after the building and grounds, meets parents, handles special at- tendance and discipline cases, orders books and suppUes, and makes reports to the superintendent; he also ar- ranges the programs of teachers and supplies substitutes, holds weekly teachers' meetings after school hours, and occasionally visits classes; but he has no responsibility for the quaHty of the teaching. Records of enrollment, of promotion, and of scholarship come to his office, but the responsibility for what pupils do and for their promotion belongs to the teachers and general supervisors. These supervisory arrangements are hardly calculated to meet the unusual problems that arise in a situation as complicated and novel as that at Gary. Supervision of the kind above described is not likely to determine whether departures from conventional practice do or do not make good, nor is it hkely to overcome the obstacles ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 43 arising from the quality and antecedents of the pupils. In the course of these pages, these statements will be more than once justified. But it is worth while in this connection to record a few instances of administrative and supervisory laxity, such as tend to obscure or defeat the demonstration of some of Gary's innovations. We have referred to the fact that young children are regularly detailed to act as "helpers" or "observers" to older pupils engaged in shop or laboratory work, while older pupils frequently take charge of classes, assist in keeping records, correct papers, etc. This practice is defended on the ground that participation in such re- sponsibilities is educative, since it reproduces an impor- tant human relationship. But does it work? As we shall see in subsequent chapters, our own investiga- tions suggest, in the main, a negative answer. Would it work if efficiently controlled? That, of course, no one can yet say. A striking though not essential character- istic of the Gary system is thus imperiled because its operation has not been carefully watched. Again, we have called attention to the unusual se- quence of studies sometimes followed. We have pointed out that class schedules are so arranged that one class will play in the early morning and do its work in the early afternoon, while another class — or the same class another term — reverses the arrangement. Now, is there any reason why children should not play in the early hours of the morning and do their classroom work in the early hours of the afternoon? Gary assumes and 44 THE GARY SCHOOLS believes that there is no objection. Is there? No one really knows. The question lends itself, however, to experimental inquiry. Given classes might readily be carried for a series of years alternating the former ar- rangement with the latter, while others are carried with the common order of studies. A series of graphs might show whether the level of class work is affected by the factor here under discussion. Or, perhaps some other experiment could be devised for the purpose of deter- mining the question. Similar questions should be asked in reference to the wisdom of extending departmentaliza- tion into the lowest grades. In any event, these are experimental problems to be worked out cooperatively by the teachers and supervising staff; but supervision in this sense^the very t^-pe required by a system rich in novelties and possibilities — has not been instituted. One more illustration may be employed. Diversity of facilities and activities coupled with the unusual length of the school day makes for flexibility of program. Gary indeed believes that its program is more nicely adjusted to the individual child than is the case elsewhere. To what extent and in what sense is this true? The term "flexible" is properly applied to leeway used in order to defer to a particular child's need or opportunity. A child may be backward or unusually capable; a "flex- ible" curriculum places him accordingly. Flexibility has nothing to do with accident, caprice, or instabiHty, all of which are hostile to the formation of good habit. The Gary organization lends itself to individual adjustments, H ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 45 but whether or not they are wisely made depends on administrative supervision. Thus, for instance, a seventh grade class (No. 44) in the Froebel school con- tained many weak pupils in unquestionable need of individual consideration and attention. Its official spring program was as follows : 8:15 G>Tnnasium (play) or library 9:15 Music 10:15 Arithmetic 11:15 English 12:15 Luncheon i:iS Auditorium 2:1s Shop (boys) ; Cooking or sewing (girls) 3--I5 United States history The entire class of 31 pupils recited together in arith- metic at the scheduled time. Only two other subjects, g}Tnnasium and Enghsh, were pursued by all members, but in neither of these branches were they all in the same class. Twenty three took no music, seven no history, and four did not attend the auditorium. On the sur- face, these variations might be interpreted as represent- ing real educational adjustments. In point of fact, they were not adjustments to serve the interests of particular pupils or to secure their regular advancement, but merely chance arrangements, the product of loose administration and supervision. The most surprising variations occur in the 9:15 and 2:15 periods. At 9:15 the class is scheduled for music. At that time, thirteen pupils were in the gymnasium, seven were taking music,one arithmetic, two shop, six cooking or 46 THE GARY SCHOOLS sewing, and two drawing. At 2:15 the boys were sup- posed to be in shop and girls in cooking or sewing. Ac- tually, eight went to g>^mnasium or library, one to music, seven to shop, nine to cooking or sewing, five to drawing, and one to history. Again, the official program calls for only one period a day in each of the several studies; and yet fourteen pupils took two hours of gym- nasium or library and two took three hours. Twelve pupils did double and one treble duty in practical work. All told, there were thus not less than fifty four deviations from the official class program, but only three were to afiford additional academic instruction — one in arithmetic and two in English. All persons concerned — teachers, principal, and children — were questioned about these changes. The principal, whose written endorsement is required, had no recollection of the reasons for them and no record of them. Although the pupil's Program Card reads, "No dropping of class nor change of program will be permitted without the written consent of the assistant superintendent," the children had not consulted that official. A teacher employed to advise with children about their practical work could throw no light on the situation. Register teachers,^ supposed to have on file "Permission to Change Class" slips, had barely a half dozen of them — not one completely executed — and were, therefore, almost wholly unaware of what had happened. The truth is that, in a few instances, the ^Seventeen register teachers kept the records of this one class, each doing a part of the work. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 47 regular teachers, on their own authority, had excused pupils from their classes, but in most instances children had dropped what they did not want and elected what they wanted, provided they could get it, without con- sulting anybody. Prolonged inquiry showed clearly that with five or six exceptions all the changes were the result of childish caprice exercised without restraint. Nor does class 44 stand alone. Out of eleven addi- tional Froebel and Emerson classes similarly tabulated, in six there was not a single pupil taking double work in any of the regular studies, and in the remaining five, not more than a single pupil in any one of them. In no class were there as many deviations from the official program in special work as in class 44. Still, such deviations as there were, were rarely educational adjustments; they were due mostly to the child's own choice, or to accidents of organization at the time. The upshot of our consideration of the Gary plan and the Gary organization may be put into a few words. The Gary plan is as large and intelligent a conception as has yet been reached in respect to the scope and bear- ing of pubHc education. The administrative scheme by which Gary undertakes to carry out the plan is in- genious to the point of originality. The arrangements for controUing and supervising the operation of the scheme are, however, defective; there is, therefore, reason to fear that the execution of the plan will fall short of the conception. V. COURSE OF STUDY IN DESCRIBING the Gary plan and explaining the way in which the daily class programs are con- structed, frequent reference has already been made to the subjects taught and the special activities pur- sued. The present chapter will, however, give a more detailed account of the course of study, with special reference to the ordinary school subjects. The Gary schools — Uke the schools of all other Indiana towns — are guided by the state course of study. They teach the usual school subjects and "such other branches of learning and other languages as the advancement of the pupils may require and the trustees from time to time direct." Fortunately, the ofi&cial course of study is "not intended to limit the teacher's personality or freedom," and teachers are expressly enjoined to adapt their in- struction "to the needs of their particular schools and communities."^ On the other hand, the state prescribes a uniform series of textbooks for all schools. Though the Gary teachers exercise freedom in using these pre- scribed texts and are liberally supplied with additional material, the fact remains that the legally desig- ^Uniform Course of Study for the Elementary Schools of Indiana, Bulletin No. 17 of the State Department of Education. 48 COURSE OF STUDY 49 nated text may hamper a competent and progressive teacher. At Gary, as elsewhere, it has been impossible, for reasons that must be clear, to provide imiform school facilities. The nine schools therefore differ greatly in size, situation, and equipment.^ The West Gary school, consisting of two portables with an open play- ground, must necessarily offer a course of study quite different from that of the Froebel school, with its modern equipment, gardens, and playgrounds. The West Gary program is therefore made up more largely of the three R's, geography, and history, though a certain amount of music and drawing is given, the last named including nature study and handwork.^ The programs of the Froebel, Emerson, and Jefferson schools^ contain the usual studies — the three R's, geog- iThe different schools in the sj^stem are: SCHOOLS NUMBER OF TEACHERS TOT.\L ENROLLIIEXT 1915-16 A\-ERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE West Garv. Clarke . . Ambridge . 24th Avenue Glen Park. Beveridge . Jefferson . Emerson Froebel . 2 2 3 7 8 14 20 33 58 46 52 146 347 315 683 1,011 967 2,087 30 39 92 254 224 520 728 742 1,503 Total . . . 147 5,654 4,132 -Table III, Appendix D, page 218. ^Table IV, Appendix D, page 2ig. 50 THE GARY SCHOOLS raphy, history, nature study, manual training, house- hold arts, drawing, music, and physical training. Over and above these subjects attention should be directed to the separate courses in botany, zoology, physics, chem- istry, mechanical drawing, and shop work in great variety — the shop work including woodwork, forge, foundry, machine practice, sheet metal, printing, paint- ing, and shoe repairing. Certain unusual terms occur- ring on the program, such as "helpers" and "teachers' assistants," "expression," ''appHcation," and "audito- rium," have already been more or less fully explained. "Helpers" and "teachers' assistants" are pupils distrib- uted in groups of four or five among the shops, labora- tories, and classes in the regular subjects to observe, study, or assist. "Expression" denotes instruction meant to develop power in oral language and taste for good Hterature, as contrasted with "reading," which refers simply to the mechanics of the reading process. "Application" represents a similar division of labor; teachers in the fundamental branches teach the formal or technical phases of their branches, whereas in "ap- plication" children are supposed to be drilled expressly in applying what they have learned. Perhaps the most marked departure from common practice is the "audi- torium," with its hourly assemblage of several classes in a single group for entertainment and general instruction by means of moving pictures, lectures, and other exercises. The studies and activities included in the program above given are grouped in two divisions: (i) "regu- COURSE OF STUDY 51 lar work," pursued continuously by all children and comprising reading, language, spelling, writing, arith- metic, geography, history, "auditorium," and physical training; and (2) "special work," under which are under- stood handwork, freehand and mechanical drawing, na- ture study and science, music, "expression," "apphca- tion," manual training, shop work, and household arts. No class pursues at one time all the "special work" of- fered in its grade or in the course as a whole. For ex- ample, during the spring term 191 5-16, only seven of the twelve first grade classes in the three schools imder dis- cussion had nature study; only two of the ten fifth grade classes had freehand drawing.^ The other classes in these grades may have had these branches during some other term. In theory, all children in the lower grades are supposed to have an equal amount of nature study, handwork and freehand drawing, music, "expression," and "applica- tion"; and all children in the upper grades, an equal amount of drawing, science, and shop work, though the kind of drawing and science studied, and the particular shop entered, may differ with the pupil, the class, and the school. Equahty of opportunity in respect to these special activities in a given school is obtained by rotating children from one special acti\ity to another. By means of properly arranged cycles, pupils are enabled to pur- sue in succession four or even five special activities, ^Table IV, Appendix D, page 219. 52 THE GARY SCHOOLS each for a given number of weeks. For example, in the Jefferson school, 1915-16, the first four elementary grades rotated more or less regularly through nature study, handwork and drawing, music, "expression," and "application"; the upper grades rotated through nature study, drawing, and cooking or sewing for girls, and shop for boys.^ In the Froebel school, the four lower grades were scheduled for manual training, drawing, and nature study one half of the year, and for music or "expres- sion," and "application" the second half; the upper classes rotated through science, drawing, and shop work.- The Gary practice thus concentrates the atten- tion of the pupil on a particular actixdty for a definite period. Instead, for example, of having a certain sub- ject or activity twice a week for a half year, he pursues it every day for a shorter period. The scheme presents no peculiar difficulties in respect to organization; it is advantageous from the standpoint of economy, and edu- cationally, as far as any one knows, may be as effec- tive as any other arrangement. The three large Gary schools, with which we are pri- marily concerned, differ considerably as to the kinds of special acti\aties pro\dded. The science work is prac- tically the same in the Froebel and Emerson schools — both offering nature study and separate courses in zool- ogy, botany, physics, and chemistry. But here the similarity stops; in the practical activities Emerson 'Table V, Appendix D, page 221. ^Table VI, Appendix D, page 222. COURSE OF STUDY 53 offers poultty raising, forge, foundry, machine shop, and printing; Froebel, manual training, cabinet making, shoe repairing, painting, plumbing, sheet metal, and printing. Jefferson, in contrast, has a single shop, where children from the third grade up get a composite of manual and industrial training. These differences in special advan- tages arise from various causes. In the first place, no single school, no single group of school children can possibly exhaust the special acti\aties which possess educational value. While an expanded curriculum en- deavors to make a varied appeal to different t>pes of ef- fort and interest, it cannot make every possible appeal. There is therefore no reason for uniformity. Inasmuch^ also, as the shops serve production and repair as well as education, those shops have been installed which could be made more or less self-supporting, and for this same reason shops have not been duphcated. Shop work, science, and auditorium exercises are of course found elsewhere than at Gary. The Gary pro- gram does not therefore differ from other school pro- grams because Gary offers these activities and the other schools do not.^ Gary differs simply in the prominence which it gives to the activities in question in the ele- mentary school, in the unusual facilities provided for them, and in the emphasis placed upon them. Other schools have auditorium exercises ; but nowhere else does the auditorium play the part it plays at Gary. Other *TabIe VII, Appendix D, page 224. 54 THE GARY SCHOOLS schools teach science in the elementary grades; but where are the elementary schools that give botany, chem- istry, and physics in such admirable laboratories? Other elementary schools provide manual training; but where else in one school is there work in machine shop, forge, foundry, printing, and gardening? It is the number and the excellence of these opportunities that give to the Gary course of study its novelty. One other feature should be included at this point, viz., the library. The Gary plan in its full form con- templates an effort to cultivate in children a discrimi- nating reading taste, and to teach them how to use a library. Conditions are favorable to this effort. The public library maintains branches at the Emerson and Froebel schools; there is also a branch in the Bever- idge school section, and Jefferson is within a short walk of the main library building. All classes of these schools are supposed to have a Hbrary period once a week or once in two weeks, the period being taken from physical train- ing and play. The Hbrary authorities have outlined a simple graded course of eight years, consisting of five lessons a year, on the use of books and the use of the library. In addition, children are introduced to good reading and they are assisted with such reference work as their regular class teachers may have assigned to them. The Jefferson school, however, is the only one that carries out the plan with anything approaching completeness. No other school gives library instruction. At Beveridge the children attend the hbrary regularly, using the hour COURSE OF STUDY SS for reading. At Froebel, although assigned to the library, the children go at irregular intervals, while at Emerson there is no assignment, the Hbrary being used chiefly by high school students as a study room. The precise amount of time given at Gary to each sub- ject — regular or special — is not readily made out. The schools are organized on the basis of sixty minute periods. As the sixty minute period is, in the lower grades, at least, too prolonged for, say, nature study, the teacher may devote part of the hour to the three R's, or to drawing, thus lessening the time nature study actually receives. On the other hand, some kind of music— group, class, or solo singing, the school orchestra, or the victrola — almost invariably makes up a part of the auditorium ex- ercises. Besides the school orchestras of Emerson and Froebel; which meet regularly for practice, pupils who are to take part in the orchestra receive individual lessons on the violin, etc., particularly on Saturdays. Music, therefore, receives at Gary a greater emphasis than the formal time allotment would indicate. Again, the schools do not all schedule the same amount of time for the special activities; there is, also, as will appear later, some discrepancy between the amount of time scheduled and the amount of time given. A similar — and perhaps even more marked — uncer- tainty exists as to the amount of time really devoted to the more common subjects. These subjects are supposed to occupy at least two hours daily in the lower, and not less than three hours in the upper, grades. But teachers 56 THE GARY SCHOOLS are not held to a uniform and exact division of time, with definite periods for reading, spelling, language, writing, arithmetic. They di\'ide a period as in their judgment seems best; and, as their ideas differ, the time actually al- lotted to each of the regular studies varies from teacher to teacher. In consequence of these difficulties, the time table con- structed by us for the Gary schools^ does not represent daily practice as closely as the official schedules of con- ventional systems. Still, the average number of hours ascribed to the several studies and activities indicates — at least, roughly — common Gary practice, and depicts with sufficient exactness for general purposes the central tendencies of the schools, although, as we shall see, there are some marked deviations from these time averages. When studies and activities are serially arranged on the basis of the total number of hours assigned to them by the schedule, general school practice is distinctly chal- lenged.^ Physical training and play, drawing and manual training and the auditorium, or the special sub- jects, all take precedence over the conventional sub- jects. Physical training and play get twice the time assigned to reading and three times the amount assigned to arithmetic; science gets as much time as geography and history combined. In fact, fifty five per cent, of the total time of the elementary school schedule goes to physical 'Table VTII, Appendix D, page 226. n'able IX, Appendix D, page 228. COURSE OF STUDY 57 training, play, shop work, auditorium, music, and Gennan; 35 per cent, to the three R's — reading, language, spelling, and arithmetic. The schedule is, however, not strictly carried out. For example, during 191 5-16, all classes in Jefferson and the first four grades in Froebel and Emerson were scheduled for two hours of physical training and play daily, and, with a few exceptions, all classes from the fifth grade up in Froebel and Emerson were scheduled for one hour. But these assignments^ particularly those in the lower grades — represent op- portunities for physical training and play rather than time actually given to them. In the first place, chil- dren are not held to regular attendance. Frequently, though they are scheduled for two hours of physical training daily, attendance upon one period is optional. This is almost invariably true when the two hours come together at the beginning or at the end of the school day. In the second place, time needed for outside activ- ities, such as library and religious instruction, special home work in music, drawing, or assisting at home, is usually taken from the physical training and play assignment. While it is therefore statistically correct to report the schedule allotment as 2,697 hours to physical training and play, 1,600 hours (one hour daily through- out the elementary school course) approximate more nearly the time given. Even so, the time allowance is decidedly unusual. The Gary schedule does not get this liberal time allowance for special activities by reducing the time 58 THE G.\RY SCHOOLS allotment of the common or fundamental branches; it gets the additional time by lengthening the school day. The usual school day in the fifty cities of the country having a population of 100,000 or more is five hours.^ In the one hundred and twenty cities with a population of 25,000 and less than 50,000 (the population group to which Gary belongs), the average school day is approxi- mately five and a quarter hours; forty seven of the hundred and twenty have a five hour session, fifteen are content with less, and only thirty six exceed the average.^ The ofi&cial school day at Gary, in the three schools under discussion,^ is for children seven hours — from 8:15 to 4:15, with sixty minutes for luncheon/ The lengthened school day provides the additional time needed for the special branches. Meanwhile, the common branches continue on the whole to receive as much time at Gary as elsewhere. Fifty representative cities'^ average 5,388 hours of instruction in the ordinary studies, as compared wdth 5,048 hours at Gary, a total difference of 340 hours spread over eight years. The three R's are allotted 3,904, as against 4,022 in fifty cities. Gary's departure ^Table X, .\ppendix D, page 229. n^'able XI, Appendix D, page 229. 'Beveridge also has a seven hour day, but in the other schools the day is six hours. ^Moreover, the playgrounds at Froebel, Emerson, and Jefferson, and the g>Tnnasiuins and swimming pools at Froebel and Emerson, are open until five o'clock. ^Table XII, Appendix D, page 230. COURSE OF STUDY 59 is thus almost wholly in the field of the special activi- ties; the 2,732 hours gained by lengthening the school day keep the children off the streets and make time for physical training, shop work, drawing, and the audi- torium. The different schools, however, show considerable de- viations from the foregoing rankings and reported time allotments.^ For example, the average allotment to fourth grade reading in Froebel, Emerson, and Jef- ferson during the spring term 1915-16 was 292 minutes per week. All classes in Jefferson had more; all in Emer- son, less ; in Froebel there was one above the average and three below. The minimum assignment, 150 minutes, goes to 4A classes in Emerson and Froebel, and the maxi- mum, 450 minutes, to a Froebel 4C. Relatively greater variations occur in eighth grade geography. One class had more, and four had less, than the average of 91 minutes per week. A Froebel 8A ha\ing the equivalent of a single weekly forty minute period, and an Emerson 8B enjoying five such periods, represent the extremes. The allotments to the other fundamental studies reveal similar differences. So far as these time differences grow out of a conscious effort to adjust instruction to the needs and abihties of different groups of children, they are profitable. But it is clear that not infrequently they arise at Gary — as in other school systems — from lack of proper adjustment or from the caprice of Individ- ual teach ers. ^Table XIII, Appendix D, page 232. 6o THE GARY SCHOOLS We have been occupied up to this point with the ele- mentary course of study. A word will suffice for the high schools. Gary has two high schools, one at the Froebel, the other at the Emerson school, the buildings and equip- ment serving simultaneously elementary school and high school purposes. The attendance totals 547 pupils, of W'hom 331 enrolled at the Emerson, 216 at the Froebel.^ The programs of the two schools follow closely the uni- form state course,^ which does not difTer materially from the ordinary high school course found throughout the country. Emerson offers only seven units of work in excess of the minimium state requirements, of which three units are in foreign languages; Froebel barely reaches the minimum.^ Despite the unusual facilities in the way of shops and laboratories, the high schools do not offer to high school boys or girls more than a single year of well organized instruction in the industrial and 'Official Gary High School Enrollment, 1915-16 SCHOOLS FIRST YEAR SECOND YEAR THIRD \'EAR FOURTH ^-EAR TOTAL GRADUATES JUNE, 1916 Emerson Froebel . 143 130 103 37 51 32 34 17 331 216 31 16 Total . 273 140 83 51 547* 47 *0ur tabulation on the basis of individual record cards (Table XXXI, Appendix D, page 251) varies slightly from this report. ^able XTV, Appendix D, page 234. ^Table XV, Appendix D, page 235. Pm « COURSE OF STUDY 6i household arts. In addition to the conventional work, there is a commercial course, open to both boys and girls. Having students enough to justify a separate high school, does Gary do well to use the same building and equipment for both an elementary school and a high school? Something can be said on both sides of the question. It can hardly be regarded as economical in respect to space or money. High school teachers, seldom having full high school schedules, are assigned to ele- mentary school classes. Equipment essential to high school work is either idle, or is used by young children, even if not to best advantage. Among the compen- sating gains, however, are the democratic spirit developed between elementary and high school pupils, the familiar- ity of elementary pupils with high school opportunities, and the knowledge which high school teachers acquire regarding elementary pupils, their methods of work, and their achievements. On the elementary course of study described in this chapter, one general comment naturally suggests itself. The fear has not infrequently been expressed by devotees of traditional education that modernism in education may signify merely the "practical," "utilitarian," "vo- cational," as opposed to the cultural or ideal. The breadth and variety of the Gary elementary curriculum ought to remove this apprehension ; for it is more broadly and variously cultural in its scope than any merely bookish curriculum can possibly be. It contains the necessary 62 THE GARY SCHOOLS instrumental studies — writing, reading, spelling, and arithmetic — as well as the traditional cultural subjects, geography, history, and literature. Science and indus- try add further opportunities to develop the child and to give him an education that will bring him into contact with life at all its vital points. VI. TEACHING STAFF THE program described in the preceding chapter calls for (i) grade teachers, (2) an unusual num- ber of specialized teachers to take charge of the departmentalized subjects and special activities of the elementary schools, and (3) high school teachers. The total number of teachers employed at Gary increased from 4 in 1906-7 to 147 in 1915-16.^ In selecting elementary teachers, the Gary authorities have endeavored to procure graduates of a standard normal school, but they have not always reached this level. Of the 45 regular elementary teachers in service at the end of the school year 1915-16, 13 fell short in this respect, 20 were normal school graduates, while 9 had attended college without graduating and 3 had finished a full college course.- A majority of the less well 'Number op Teachers Employed NUMBER OF TEACHERS EMPLOYED DURING: 1906-7 L907-8 190&-9 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 1915-16 Men Women 3 1 4 11 8 24 8 40 16 78 16 89 17 84 25 101 30 120 35 112 Total 4 15 32 48 94 105 101 126 150 147* •Includes II shopmen. Table XVI, Appendix D, page 236. 63 64 THE GARY SCHOOLS equipped have entered the staff recently; some of them are local high school graduates, begirming to teach in the elementary schools with little professional prepara- tion. In so far as the staff is trained, the training is that obtainable in ordinary normal schools throughout the country. The 12 kindergartners are a more homo- geneous group ; all have had the equivalent of a standard course, that is, after graduating from high school they have had at least two years of specialized training.^ As has been pointed out, Gary draws no hard and fast line between the elementary school and the high school. The two schools are housed in the same building, and, although regular elementary teachers do not give high school instruction, high school teachers usually instruct some elementary classes; the chemistry teacher takes grade classes in chemistry, the physics teacher, grade classes in physics. Of the 26 regular high school teach- ers, 19 have completed a full four year college course or more. Of the 7 with non-standard credentials, 2 hold degrees from small colleges, 3 have had some college work, 1 is a normal school graduate, and i, although never go- ing beyond the high school, has had a broad business ex- perience.^ A majority of them have also had some pro- fessional training at colleges or schools of education. In addition to kindergarten, regular elementary and high school teachers, Gary employs 50 special teachers. The teachers of handwork and nature study deal only 'Table XVII, Appendix D, page 237. ^able XVI, Appendix D, page 236. TEACHING STAFF 65 with elementary children, principally of the lower grades ; all others — teachers in charge of auditorium work and expression, music, manual training, household arts, free- hand drawing, mechanical drawing, and physical train- ing — instruct, in varying proportions, both elementary and high school pupils. It is needless to discuss in detail the training of these special teachers. Suffice it to say that, with few exceptions, they are well fitted, although there are, as is common elsewhere, surprising differences in the length and the character of the preparation of those giving the same kind and grade of instruction.^ Eleven shopmen, not classified as teachers by the Gary authorities, complete the corps. Engaged on general repair and construction, such as forge, foundry, and plumbing, they were chosen primarily on the basis of trade experience, which ranges from four to twenty five years ;^ practically all are union men. Besides trained teachers, the Gary schools utilize high school pupils as assistants in one way or another. In the year 1915-16, 127 pupils were thus used, chiefly in the three largest schools, Emerson, Froebel, and Jefferson. Their duties, though various, are mainly routine; they grade papers, prepare material for younger children, tell stories, play games, assist pupils over difficulties, keep the class register, and occasionally take charge of a class and give instruction. As a rule, Gary employs not only trained but experi- iTable XVIII, Appendix D, page 238. *Table XIX, Appendix D, page 239. 66 THE GARY SCHOOLS enced teachers. Academic and professional preparation being equal, preference is given to the seasoned instruc- tor. To be sure, beginners are engaged, but probably not in greater numbers than is usual elsewhere, for in most large cities the teaching force — at least, of the kindergarten and elementary school — is recruited di- rectly from the local training school. Of the 132 teach- ers of whom we have record, only 23, or 17 per cent., were without experience when first employed^ and not exceeding 6 of these beginners were engaged in any one year. Together, the 132 had had an average prior experi- ence of five years, a half having had less than four years, and a half having had more. Indeed, if the Gary author- ities have erred, it is on the side of employing teachers with too much classroom experience behind them, for 20 per cent, of the staff had had a service record of ten years or more before coming to Gary. Though Gary teachers are as a body experienced, they are all new to Gary.^ A single decade measures the length of the service of the oldest ; less than half of them have been in Gary four years, and, if we include the 11 who have been there less than a year, the 8 who are completing their first year, and the ^t, who are completing their second year, 40 per cent, may be called newcomers. The unusually large proportion of newcomers is a con- sequence partly of the recent origin and rapid growth of the city, and partly of the frequency of resignations. Ob- 'Table XX, Appendix D, page 240. 'Table XXI, Appendix D, page 241. TEACHING STAFF 67 viously this fact must be taken into account in judging the Gary schools. Teachers so recently brought to- gether from many different sources cannot be rapidly molded into a unified staff. The annual loss is unquestionably heavy, ranging from 14 to 23 per cent, of the entire staff. ^ How this compares with that of school systems in cities similar in size and character we do not know. Whether compara- tively high or low, the causes operating at Gary to this end are apparently the same as elsewhere. Of the losses between 191 2 and 19 16, 30 per cent, were due to mar- riage, 27 per cent, to taking positions in other systems, 5 per cent, to illness, and 17 per cent, to remaining at home, returning to school, and going into business, while 2 1 per cent, are said to have been dropped from the service. Teachers' contracts are drawn on a monthly scale, with ten months of continuous service expected, but not guaranteed.^ For convenience in computing salaries, we use the rate for a ten month year. The principals of the Emerson and Froebel schools receive $2,000 a year, Jefferson pays $1,300, and Beveridge $1,100;^ these salaries include regular week day and Saturday service, but there is extra pay for night and summer work. None of the other schools has a principal, although there is a teacher in each who acts as principal and receives an additional $100 for such service ($90 for the regular day 'Table XXII, Appendix D, page 242. ^In 1913-14 the regular day schools were in session only nine months. •Table XXIII, Appendix D, page 243. 68 THE GARY SCHOOLS school and $io for the Saturday school). This addi- tional compensation is included in the rate at which such teachers are reported to be employed. The kindergartners are at the foot of the salary ladder. The median wage is $750, with salaries varying from $600 to $950. Regular elementary teachers fare better, their median rate being $800. Six receive the minimum salary, $600 a year; only four receive as much as Si, 000. Special teachers are better paid. The median for the group rises to $900, with S600 at the lower and $1,200 at the upper extreme. The annual pay of regular high school teachers is still higher, the median mounting to $1,100, more by $100 than the salary of the best paid elementary teachers. The range is, however, wide, salaries running from $800 to $2,000, with five receiving $1,300 or more. In most cases, shopmen receive union wages. When these are reduced to a ten month rate, the median for the group is Si, 000, which brings them next in salary to the regular high school teachers.^ 'The salary schedule according to which the teachers were paid in 191 5- 1 6 is as follows: grade teachers J FIRST YE.\R SECOND YEAR THIRD YEAR FOURTH YEAR FirTH YEAR PER MO. PES MO. PER MO. PER MO. PER MO. Class A $60.00 Class B 70.00 $7500 S80.00 S85.00 S 90.00 Class C 80.00 85.00 90.00 95-00 100.00 Head grade teachers are paid an additional Sio.oo per month. Spe- cial teachers: Appro.ximately the same as grade teachers. High school teachers: Minimum, S75.00 per month; ma.ximum, $130.00 per month; annual increase, Sio.oo per month; heads of departments, S150.00 per month. Auditorium head teachers: An assistant principal is selected for auditorium work and is paid an additional salary of $10.00 per month. TEACHING STAFF 69 Gary teachers have unusual opportunities to add to their regular day school pay. They may teach Satur- days, receiving one twentieth of their regular monthly wage per day. In the night schools they can earn as much as $3 a night. During the summer most of the shopmen are busy with repairs and construction, and the two months' summer school engages at full pay about one third of the staff. Finally, the Sunday school gives employment to a few. It would be impossible for Gary to carry on these outside activities without calling heavily on regular day school teachers. The pay schedule shows what they may earn in this way. For example, a teacher receiving a regular salary of $600 for day work may earn in a single year as much as $330 more, a $900 teacher may earn in all $1,320, a $1,200 teacher, $1,710, and a $1,500 teacher, $2,100.^ AU but 27 of the force in service at the end of 19 15-16 did work in addition to the regular day school.^ Ninety seven taught also on Saturdays, 79 at night, and 49 in the summer school. The additional work of 27 was confined to Saturdays and of 18 to the night schools. But 30 worked both Saturdays and at night, and 24, Saturdays, at night, and during the summer, while 3 were now and then on Sunday duty besides. The amount of extra service varies. For example, 83 teachers, exclusive of the shopmen, served in the regular ^Table XXIV, Appendix D, page 244. *Table XXV, Appendix D, page 245. 70 THE GARY SCHOOLS day school the full 200 days. Of these, 17 did no addi- tional work.^ The extra service of the remaining 66 ranged from 4 to 132 days, half of them working less and half working more than 19 days. In a word, these 66 teachers were on duty during 19 15-16 the equivalent of not less than eleven months. The pay for this extra service materially increases the total earnings of the teachers. To illustrate: The aver- age regular salary of the 13 high school instructors serv- ing in excess of 200 days was $1,201; their total income averaged $264 higher, or $1,465.^ The increment from extra work averages about 15 per cent., but there are teachers who increase their incomes by as much as 40 to 60 per cent, of their salaries. Nevertheless, in making salary comparisons, these additional earnings should not be regarded as a part of the Gary salary schedule. In most respects the conditions of service that obtain elsewhere in Indiana prevail at Gary. A county or state certificate is required; contracts are made for a single year. The state provides a pension system, which the Gary teachers, however, have not as yet accepted. No allowance is made by the state for sickness or other enforced absence, but Gary teachers can partially re- coup themselves, since they receive the difference between their own salary and the amount paid to a substitute. The only important novelty in the conditions of service at Gary is the length of the school day. In the smaller ^Table XXVI, Appendix D , page 246. ^Table XXVII, Appendix D, page 247. o TEACHING STAFF 71 schools this is six hours, from 9 to 12 and from i to 4. In the four larger schools the day runs from 8:15 to 4:15, less an hour for luncheon. The physical training teach- ers give seven hours daily to instruction, shopmen, eight; all other teachers give six hours and they have in addition a seventh hour, which is supposed to be a.free period, but which is usually devoted to the making of records and reports. Thus a majority of the regular teachers work seven hours a day at school, although approximately a third of them are excused, on request, by the superin- tendent fiom attendance during the seventh hour. Of 120 other cities scattered through the country having, like Gary, a population between 25,000 and 50,000, the average school day is five and a quarter hours. Eight of the 120 have a six hour day; one runs six and three quarter hours.^ It should be remembered, however, that where there is a short school day, teachers as a rule give time after school to records, reports, and outside duties, mak- ing for them approximately a six hour day. It should also be noted that there is a decided movement through- out the country, notably in New York and New Jersey, toward lengthening the school day in cities. Several different problems are involved in the question of the length of the school day; the extended use of the building is one question, the interest of the pupil another question, the strain upon the teacher still another. Financial and social considerations alike recommend that school buildings should be used longer each day 'See Table XI, Aopendix D, page 229. 72 THE GARY SCHOOLS than is now the case. There are equally valid arguments for a lengthened school day for pupils, especially in cities, provided, of course, that, as at Gary, varied activities of a non-bookish character are provided. Whether a seven hour day for teachers is desirable is a different matter. Accurate data bearing on the health and vigor of teachers working seven hours a day are not available. If, however, one may trust daily observation running through several months, one would be inclined to regard the seven hour day, particularly when teachers have additional night work and Saturday work, as of doubt- ful \\'isdom. It leaves too little energy for the outside interests which ought to refresh and invigorate the daily lesson; and it probably tends to a mechanical handling of classroom work. There is, however, no reason why the school building and the pupil should not have longer hours without equally increasing the length of the teach- er's day. In fact, one advantage of the Gary organiza- tion is that the day for the building may be one thing, that for pupils another, and that for teachers still another. Indeed, the teacher's day can be made of any length whatsoever, though, of course, the shorter the teacher's day, the more teachers are required and hence the larger the budget for teachers' salaries, or the smaller the salary per teacher. VII. CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION* WE HAVE now discussed the main factors that determine the content and quality of classroom instruction — organization, supervision, course of study, teaching stafif. We learned that the course of study is, in the first instance, necessarily that outlined by the state; that the members of the teaching staff do not differ essentially in education, training, and ex- perience from the corresponding types of teacher in other systems; finally, that, while the Gary system is devoted to a modern conception of education, supervi- sion has been too uncertain to mold the teaching staff into an effective organ for concerted effort toward its achieve- ment. A moment's consideration will, however, show that under even the most favorable conditions an entire school system can only gradually promote radical reform in the substance and manner of classroom instruction. ^This chapter deals with the teaching of reading, composition, spelling, arithmetic, geography, and history in the elementary schools, and with English, French, German, mathematics, Latin, and history in the high schools; science, shop work, etc., are dealt with in special chapters and special reports. A tabular statement showing the amount of observation of classes on which the present chapter is based is given in Appendix A, page 210. 73 74 THE GARY SCHOOLS The course of study may indeed be expressed in terms so general that large leeway is left to the grade teacher; principal and supervisors may be favorable to innovation ; the fact remains that at this day the conven- tional training of the teachers and the conventional character of available textbooks in most subjects, gen- erally speaking, handicap wide departure by an entire system from established practices. In the case of Gary, certain special factors already mentioned should also be taken into account. The population being foreign, the children come in large numbers from homes where no English or very poor English is spoken; the increase in population is taking place so rapidly that there is a steady infiltration into the schools of new and crude, even though ultimately promising, material; finally, the teaching staff, expanded to meet the pressure described, is composed of teachers of such varied training and experience that unity of purpose is extremely difficult to obtain. One gathers the impression that, carried along by its splendid conception of public education but misled, perhaps, by the ease with which an adequate material embodiment was so swiftly attained in the Froebel and Emerson plants, Gary failed to appreciate the extreme difficulty of converting new educational principles into new educational practice. It would be both unjust and unwise to make too much of this error, for it does not disprove the fundamental soundness of the scheme or destroy its stimulating influence on public education. CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 75 The truth is that anything Hke general success was at the outset impossible, because of the lack of proper tools and proper agents. Had this been clearly perceived, doubtless details would have been more carefully watched and thus a larger measure of practical success would undoubtedly have been attained. In the present and succeeding chapters the actual teaching at Gary will be described in the effort to present an objective account of the instruction offered, as respects both content and quality. In view of the fact, however, that serious defects will be pointed out, the authors drop this word of caution lest the real scope, courage, and intelligence of the Gary vision be obscured by the errors made in the first attempts toward its realization. We have said that thoroughgoing reform can proceed only as a new body of teaching material is developed and teachers of a new type are trained. Fortunately, the situation has in recent years been ameliorated by the dif- fusion among teachers of sounder ideas as to values and methods and by the publication of a large body of supple- mentary school texts in the principal classroom subjects. Even teachers trained in the most cut and dried fashion have in large numbers been aroused to the futility of abstract drill in grammar and arithmetic and to the use- lessness of a mechanical grind in geography and history; and though the textbooks in common use continue to contain much irrelevant, uninteresting, and indigestible detail, the intelligent and resourceful teacher is not usually so strictly and unsympathetically "supervised" 76 THE GARY SCHOOLS that she is kept from supplementing or partly supplant- ing the textbook by utilizing materials and paraphernalia rich in content and in emotional value. While, as we have said, it would be unfair at this stage to expect any school system to organize its classroom instruction on a consistently modern basis, it is entirely fair to demand that the formal methods and sterile material of a past generation should be noticeably relieved by the intro- duction of a fresher spirit and by the use of concrete and fertile subject matter. In so far as classroom instruction is concerned, the Gary schools show the confusion ine\itably incident to transition, but aggravated unquestionably by ineffec- tiveness of central control. The conventional school framework has been shattered; new ends, new activities have been freely introduced; directly and indirectly, the inadequacy or unsoundness of certain common school aims has been emphasized. Self-control, initiative, re- sourcefulness have been very properly set up as essential characteristics of training for life in a democratic so- ciety. Unfortunately, many of the teachers have not been at Gary long enough to catch the spirit; some who sympathize with its spirit have not been effectively as- sisted to abandon or modify their former habits; in con- sequence, despite some excellent work, which we do not overlook, many teachers at Gary are probably not doing so well as they have previously done under other condi- tions. These statements are particularly true of the regular CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 77 primary teachers. They devote two hours daily to work in the three R's, but departmentalization tends in a measure to interfere with the direct use of literature, science, and games as means of making the three R's less formal and more appealing. The danger — never far distant — that the work of the primary teacher will be technical and mechanical is therefore increased at Gary. A teacher might, of course, even under this organization, so familiarize herself with what her pupils are doing in the special branches that she would be able to bring what they have learned in them to bear upon the mastery of the regular studies. Most of those obser- ved were not doing so. Primary instruction too rarely radiated from a central topic, from which were derived the materials for reading, spelling, language, arithmetic, handwork, dramatization, and even science and music, each portion thus reenforcing every other part; it was more apt to be handled in separate compartments, arithmetic, language, reading being more or less inde- pendent of one another, with the result that m.uch of the primary teaching was mechanical and slow. This was not, be it repeated, universally the case; but it was the rule, rather than the exception. Take reading for an example. Some excellent in- struction in beginning classes was observed. Appropri- ate stories about familiar objects were developed by the teachers and written on the blackboard for the children to read; phrase reading and natural expression received attention; the meaning of the new words selected for 78 THE GARY SCHOOLS mastery was conveyed through the use of the children's experiences, real objects, picture cards, and action; and well directed repetition through the use of the black- board and pictiire word cards pressed home the desired word image. Such teaching represents the occasional "high points." More commonly appropriate prepara- tory work was slighted; inadequate emphasis was given to the meaning of new words and to the development of a well chosen reading vocabulary; the children imitated the standard of expression set by the teacher and under such conditions the reading became mere word naming. Of the reading heard in the upper primary grades, some of it was good, but in the main it ranged from ordi- nary to poor. The selections were usually excellent, comprising the best of myths, fairy tales, fables, folk- lore, poems, and descriptive narrations of famous events and characters — that is, the best availacble material had been selected, but the teaching technique was often seri- ously at fault. The pupils of a room were, as a rule, divided into two sections, one reciting, while the other did seat or board work. The section engaged in reading occupied kindergarten chairs about the teacher. The children had seldom made any preparation; seldom did the teacher ask the subject of the lesson or seek to bring out the main theme. She merely directed the children to prepare silently the first sentence or paragraph. On the completion of this task, the pupils raised their hands; thereupon a pupil began. The teacher might ask a ques- tion to introduce the next story or paragraph, but more CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 70 frequently she called upon a child to read on; and there- after the exercises became sight work. If pronuncia- tion became too bad, the teacher might write the words upon the blackboard for drill. Little attention was devoted to meaning or use. Only once in the classes observed were children required to re-tell the story or to summarize the main points of the narration after the reading. Classes were usually dismissed without as- signments, and even when assignments were made the teacher did not regularly give suggestions as to the preparation of the new lesson. The work was too fre- quently characterized by Hstlessness and indifference; after the first few minutes of the period only part of the class appeared to attend to the work in hand. After reading, the time remaining to the regular pri- mary teachers is taken up mostly with spelling, writing, and arithmetic. In spelling, common words chosen by the teacher from the daily Hfe of the children and from their current school work were emphasized, and well selected hsts were also suppHed by the primary super- visor. Patience was exhibited in drilling children in the number combinations and in the fundamental processes. No small part of the drill in these subjects was carried on by helpers — children from the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. By way of creating inter- est in drill, competitive de\'ices were freely employed. For example, a competitive game was thus made of spell- ing: The teacher wrote the words on the blackboard — ■ "snow," "cow," "foreign," etc. After the children had 8o THE GARY SCHOOLS studied these for a moment, the teacher called by turns, from the two sides into which the class had been divided, upon the children, who indicated by raising the hand that they were ready. The pupil signaled took his place before the class, with his back to the blackboard, and endeavored to pronounce and spell each of the words of the lists. The side which had the greater number of successes to its credit won the contest. The difficulty with these competitive devices is that the same aggres- sive children were always in evidence, while the timid and the children who are probably in greatest need of individual attention kept to their seats. Little was done toward using the more recently contrived meth- ods for the teaching of primary spelling or primary arith- metic. In the middle and upper grades some efforts to vitalize arithmetic were observed. To make the topic of stocks and bonds real, an upper grade teacher organized his class into a joint stock company for the time being. There is also displayed in the hall of Emerson some work showing the application of percentage to baseball club standings, and a graph of the temperature of a schoolroom at dif- ferent hours of the day. But for the most part, in these grades, the best teaching of arithmetic seen was of the old-fashioned sort, where children are held rigor- ously to a mastery of processes and to the solution and explanation of problems of every conceivable kind. Few signs of the new arithmetic were noted. For example, two middle grade classes were learning liquid measure. CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 8i In the one, the teacher exhibited a gill, a pint, a quart, a half gallon, and a gallon measure. But there was noth- ing for the children to measure; they merely looked at the measures, observing their relative sizes. In the second class, the table of hquid measures was presented altogether as something to be memorized from the book. There were no measures for the children to handle and compare, nothing to measure, no appeal to experience, no mention of use. In the higher grades a few teachers were doing well in reading. The selections, generally of excellent char- acter, were studied seriously. Interpretive discussion preceded oral reading. Appreciation and taste were conscious objects of the instruction, and the selections were employed to present in concrete form the larger ideals of successful personal and community Hving. But the bulk of the reading in both the middle and upper grades was not of high quahty. As in the primary grades, the pupils were too often listless and indifferent. Periods devoted to history and geography were usually divided equally between so-called study — a form of silent reading — and recitation. There was no supervised study. Lessons were invariably assigned by pages or by general subject, mostly without comment by the teacher. The children read over the assignments chiefly with a view to finding the answers to the questions printed at the end of the section. At the end of the allotted study period, the recitation began. The teacher, with book in hand, put seriatim the above mentioned questions, occasionally add-. 82 THE GARY SCHOOLS ing one or more on her own initiative. For example, if in history -J ' What was Jefferson's purpose in securing the pass- age of the Embargo Act?" "What was the Embargo Act?"etc. Or in geography: " In what part of the United States is New England?" "Name the states." "Which state is largest?" etc. The answers of the children were brief and deficient in detail; this, whether they remembered for the moment what the text contained or whether they read the answers from the open books before them. The teacher usually added very little; there was little or no class discussion, outside reading was seldom re- quired. Some of the seventh and eighth grade geography and history, and almost all that of the middle grades, was indeed little more than a sight reading exercise. As in the primary grades there was usually in the middle and upper grades too little connection between the differ- ent parts of a pupil's daily work. In part, this is due to the fact that in the higher grades the "fundamentals" are sometimes distributed among several teachers. Making clear to children the cross relations existing between studies is nowhere easy, and departmentalization rather increases the difficulty at Gary. But more could be accom- plished than is now attempted. The teach'ng of arith- metic, for example, could take more account of what is going on in the laboratories, the shops, the cooking and sewing rooms; the influence of geography upon history could be more frequently pointed out. The main evi- dences of correlation noted were the effort to bring into the spelling lesson words common to the special and CLASSROOIM INSTRUCTION 83 practical activities; and a similar and sometimes remark- ably successful effort to draw composition themes from the shops, the laboratories, and the gymnasium or play- ground. A really admirable paper on swimming, in which abundant material was systematically organized and clearly presented, is a case in point. The generally meager and formal character of the class- room instruction may be in part due to the assumption that exercises in shops and laboratories, reading in con- nection with science, history, and industry will supply the vital elements which mere drill omits. To what extent this is the case will appear in the chapters dealing with the activities in question, and in the chapter de- scribing the objective tests designed to measure skill in reading, spelling, arithmetic, and composition. In a measure, excessive formality in regular class- room work may arise from the theory that an application teacher is provided, whose special concern it is to assist backward pupils and to place "before the cliildren real problems of the tjpe that the world of industry, busi- ness, and citizenship will place before them when they leave school." Without raising any question as to the wisdom of divorcing the child's learning of fundamental processes from the apphcation of those processes, the facts at Gary do not bear out the theory of a separate application teacher. There were only four application teachers in the system during the spring term 191 6, of whom one gave regular departmental instruction, while the remaining three confined their efforts to the lower 84 THE GARY SCHOOLS middle and primary grades. Observation of the work re- vealed nothing beyond the same kind of formal drill upon elements and processes that was observed in regular classes. Moreover, application teachers are handicapped by not knowing intimately the precise ground covered by the class teacher and the particular difficulties of the children in hand. The same amount of time could certainly be employed to better advantage in regular work of proper type. It is not easy to make out how classroom instruction as a whole is affected by departmentalization. In the earlier grades excessive departmentalization may tend to separate into independent teaching units subjects which at that stage might better be presented by one teacher, constantly solicitous to connect activities one with another. On the other hand, it is doubtful whether in the middle and upper grades departmentalization is complete enough to procure real continuity in the teach- ing of the regular classroom studies. For in these grades pupils change teachers in the fundamental subjects on advancing from the third to the fourth grade, and also on passing from the sixth to the seventh. Unquestion- ably, the Gary t}^e of program requires more depart- mental teaching than the conventional school, but efi&- cient supervision and careful organization can alone secure for the pupil the advantages inherent in it. Of the high school subjects, no departure from conven- tional handling was observed in mathematics. In the Emerson school the teacher of Latin had undertaken f^ m CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 85 to relate the instruction in Latin to English and to every- day life and her efforts unquestionably aroused en- thusiastic interest on the part of her pupils. In both schools, the spoken use of French and German was stressed; and general history was taught with conscious reference to the requirements of citizenship. But much the most important novelty was the work in English composition, already alluded to above. Instead of short daily or weekly themes, an entire term was concentrated upon a single effort. The work was done not hurriedly at home, but deliberately at school. All the steps necessary to successful writing were taken in consultation with and under the direction of the teacher. A practical atmosphere surrounded the work, and it was executed as nearly as possible in the spirit of the professional writer. Free choice of topics was permitted, but these were carefully canvassed in order to decide whether they were of sufficient general interest, timely, and worth while. Pupils were taught how to assemble data, how to observe, how to use refer- ence books and the Ubrary, and how to take, keep, and arrange notes. With the preliminaries out of the way, the original outline was revised for the writing. The first draft was freely made, without too much regard to choice of words, form, or organization. The teacher reviewed this draft with the pupil, leading him to discover for himself its weak places and discussing with him ways to improve them, leaving him to make the needed revi- sions. This procedure was repeated again and again. 86 THE GARY SCHOOLS The outcome was an elaborate essay into which the pupil had put himself and from the doing of which he had de- rived real training. High school teaching was unfavorably affected by the practice of placing in one class pupils of different high school grades — a necessary expedient in the small high school. The tendency was marked in the special studies and activities; somewhat less so in the old line high school disciplines. Commercial classes almost always comprised pupils from each of the four high school years, special students of uncertain preparation, and even eighth grade children. To add to instruc- tional difficulties, this promiscuous group usually pur- sued typewriting, stenography, and bookkeeping, all at the same time, under a single teacher. Mathe- matics classes were frequently made up of pupils from three different high school years; at times all took the same kind and grade of instruction; again each group had different work — for example, arithmetic and solid ge- ometry, first and second term algebra. The same mix- ture of pupils from the different high school years oc- curred in Latin, modern languages, English and history. These promiscuous groupings and combinations are ac- counted for on the grounds of irregularity and economy. The situation at Gary as regards instruction is thus con- fused. The newness of the city and of the enterprise and the ambitious scale on which the schools are projected not only account for some of the defects pointed out, but ought in fairness to be regarded as in some measure extenuating CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 87 them. It is, nevertheless, clear that, so far as the modern school involves the ehmination of obsolete material and the vital handling of all material in the usual classroom sub- jects, Gary's contribution is not considerable. The mod- ern attitude is indeed encountered here and there in almost every subject, but, while heartily encouraged, it is still exceptional and individual rather than character- istic and general. Under existing conditions the absence of efficient supervision cuts both ways. Teachers with ideas — such as the teacher of Enghsh whose work is described above — are not hampered by a supervisor who has different notions; on the other hand, less competent instructors working amidst difficult conditions are also left to their own devices. In the main, therefore, the teaching is of ordinary type, ineffectually controlled. There is nothing in the Gary plan that requires this; there is no reason why a school of the Gary type should not be well organized, well administered, and well super- vised. Indeed, as we have already urged, the enrichment of school life inevitably results in complications which give added importance to good organization, good admin- istration, and good super\dsion. VIII. CLASSROOM TESTS^ THE judgments expressed in the preceding chapter embody the results of prolonged and impartial observation; nevertheless, it is perfectly fair to say of them that, after all, they represent opinion only. Some day, let us hope, it may be possible to replace such observations fully by measurements of an objective char- acter. At the present time, expert opinion based upon inspection is in many respects our only means of estimat- ing the value of educational procedure. In certain of the fundamental subjects^ — e. g., handwriting, spelling, arithmetic, composition, and reading — we are, however, in position to measure performance by means of objec- tive tests; and in these subjects tests were given in the four larger Gary schools — Froebel, Emerson, Jefferson, and Beveridge. In recent years these tests have been widely used. Unfortunately, however, they have not always been apphed with equal care or under exactly the same conditions. In consequence, for purposes of comparison the results obtained cannot usually be taken ipor detailed account, see report on Measurement of Classroom Prod- ucts, by Stuart A. Courtis. ^Practical tests were also given in shop work, household arts, physical training, and the sciences. These are discussed in the chapters dealing with the respective subjects. CLASSROOM TESTS 89 at their face value. Moreover, there is in most subjects as yet no general agreement as to what constitutes satis- factory performance. Comparison should therefore be made with extreme hesitation, except in the simple handwriting, spelling, arithmetic, and reading tests for which something like a standard has been derived from scores made by large numbers of children. The few comparisons employed in this chapter are of this kind. Handwriting may be tested in several ways. A child may be asked to do his "best," with the result that he achieves something quite different from his usual writing; or he may be left free to determine for himself the rate and quality of his writing — i.e., to exercise his "free choice"; or he may be called on to write a dictated pas- sage — in which case the quality of the writing is condi- tioned by the rate at which the passage is dictated. Finally, specimens of handwriting may be secured from papers written for other purposes — a composition or an essay, for example, written by the child without knowl- edge that it may be used as the basis for a judgment on the quality of his handwriting. It is obvious that the various specimens of a single pupil's handwriting thus procured may differ considerably in merit At Gary no effort was made to procure samples of a child's "best " ; but the remaining three methods were employed, i. e., the child wrote a specimen as he pleased, he wrote from dictation, and specimens were obtained from composi- tions. 90 THE GARY SCHOOLS Between the average specimens taken from the compo- sitions of eighth grade pupils and average specimens taken from the " free choice " test, in which children write as they please, there is practically no difference at all. Figure 9 represents this characteristic 8th grade product. That is, of the children in the last year of the elementary schools of Gary, half write as well as or better than the sample given in Figure 9,^ and half write less well than this sample. A comparison of the results obtained in successive grades shows that pupils learn to write faster without learning to write much better as they go forward through the grades. (Figure 10.)- Comparison with the results of similar tests in other cities must, of course, be made with caution, since the methods employed are so new and the factors to be controlled so many that different situations are not strictly comparable. With this quahfication, it is perhaps still worth noting that, on the whole, when compared with those of other cities, Gary results in the free choice writing test are lower in quaUty. (Figure 10.) Apparently, the Gary children write more freely than other children, but pay less attention to the quality of their work. On these points the three different tests practically agree (Figure 11).^ And no clear difference is to be made out as between the quality of the handwriting m the various schools at Gary, that 'See page 91. ^See page 92. 'See page 93. 91 92 THE GARY SCHOOLS is, there is no certain evidence that one school does better or worse than another. Spelling, like handwriting, was measured in three dif- ferent ways. Carefully selected hsts of words were used to test the pupil's ability to spell disconnected words — much as an old-fashioned spelling lesson was conducted; next, sentences were dictated at a definite rate so as to compel children to write without giving them too much time to think of spelling; finally, their Figure io Comparatrt; Scores in the Free Choice Test HANDWRITING ''"^'■'^^*^''" / AVERAGE 56 AmfiON CITIES so 40 30- 201 10 7iGARY RATC no 120 130 ItTTERa PER niNUTE composition papers were marked as exercises in spelling. The conclusion reached as to the ability of Gary school children as spellers rests thus on three distinct types of objective evidence. CLASSROOM TESTS 93 The list tests are so constructed that the words given, say, to the fifth grade are for that grade approximately as difficult as are the words given to, say, the eighth grade for that grade. Different grades ought, therefore, Figure ii Rate and Quality Scores m the Three Handwriting Tests QUAUTrAYRE5 HANDWRITING 60 50 40 30 ZO 10 COMPOSITIONI ,^pR££ g ,^'i--!^ -^'choice ,^-^ /''DICTATION rate: 10 20 -30 ' 40 JO 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 " ItTTERS PtR nnjuTE The graph shows that the free choice and dictation tests agree closely in both rate and quality; that the composition test was written at a much lower rate and with somewhat higher quality than the other tests. to do equally well on their respective Hsts. Previous studies indicate that, on the average, American school children in each grade, at the time of year the tests were given, may be expected to reach a score of 76 per cent, on the words appropriate to their respective grades. At Gary, the grades, taken all together, averaged 55 per cent. — a difference of 21 per cent. An innovation 94 THE GARY SCHOOLS was, also, tried. The list framed for the eighth grade was given to grades 9, 10, 11, and 12; with the result that by the end of the twelfth grade the words were spelled with 80 per cent, accuracy. It would appear, therefore, that, as thus tested, grade by grade, the Gary children spell less well than the chil- dren of the 84 cities on which the standard of 76 per cent, used above was based ; on the other hand, those who re- main through the twelfth grade reach and sHghtly excel the common eighth grade standard. (Figure 12).^ In order to measure the development of spelling ability from grade to grade, a dictation test was employed. Several sets of sentences of gradually increasing difficulty were used, each set being dictated to several successive grades; thus, Test i was dictated to grades 2, 3, and 4; Test 2, somewhat more difficult, to grades 4, 5, and 6, etc. The change in score noted from class to class thus indi- cates the extent of improvement. In general, the results of the dictation test confirm those of the list tests. The eighth grade score on the easy words for the grade was 69 per cent., on the difficult words, 50 per cent. In grades 2 to 4 the improvement shown in the two year interv' al was 41 per cent. For grades 4 to 6 it was but 34 per cent., from grades 6 to 8, 20 per cent., from grades 8 to 12, 33 per cent. In other words, the results show that improvement from grade to grade is small and relatively decreases as the difficulty of the words increases. This 'See page 95. CLASSROOM TESTS 95 Figure 12 Gary Scores in List Spelling Test Compared with Ayres' Standards SO- 75 45- 30. ts AYRE5 ^TANDAT^D C B 3 b A 4 A C 8 A C B A The scale along the base of the figure represents grades. The scale at the left of the figure shows average per cent, of accuracy of spelling. The solid line represents Gary scores (generalized). The dotted line rep- resents actual grade averages showing variation from grade to grade. The light solid line represents Ayres' standards based upon results secured in eighty four American cities. The portion of the curve to the right of the vertical line represents results in the high school grades in which the same eighth grade words were repeated from grade to grade. fact is shown graphically (Figure 13)^ by the change in the slant of the development curves in the successive grades. As a check upon the formal spelUng tests, misspellings 'See page 96. 96 THE GARY SCHOOLS in papers written in the composition test were tabulated. The errors noted were of two sorts: slips, or trivial mis- takes, such as the omission of "d" in the word "and"; and more serious misspellings, such as "peise" (piece). In the eighth grade papers, 27,610 words were used, and 720 misspellings occurred — or, omitting slips, 5S0. The general accuracy of the spelling was in either case very high — 97 or 98 per cent., according as slips are counted or not — a result that conflicts with that of the two tests already described. Even if the fifty common words, used altogether 14,598 times, are omitted, the percentage of the remainder correctly spelled is still high (96 per cent.). The list thus abbreviated still contains many Figure 13 Results of Dictation Tests 7- 90 60 30- TrsT e, rtsj 3 A-AYRE.5 G'GAT^Y L=W0RD5INL15T5 CBACBACBACBACBACBACBA. GRADES CLASSROOM TESTS 97 short and easy words, but it also contains some of the so-called "spelling demons" — words commonly mis- spelled by children everywhere and in all grades. Hence the meaning of the discrepancy between the list tests and the composition tests must remain a matter of speculation. The products of training in arithmetic are many and of varying complexity. They range from such simple skills as addition and multipHcation to such complex products as abUity to reason in arithmetical terms. Measure- ment of the simple skills is comparatively easy, but Just what constitutes a legitimate thinking or reasoning problem at each stage of school progress has not yet been determined. Accordingly, no reasoning tests were given at Gary. The skills selected for measurement were addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of whole numbers and fractions. These abiUties are at least fundamental for all arithmetical work, both in school and in later life. Measurement of the skill of the Gary children in carry- ing out the four fundamental operations with the Courtis Tests, Series B, shows regular though small gains in both rate of work and in accuracy throughout the elementary grades, a growth that continues also through the high school, except in multiplication, in which little gain in accuracy is made beyond the eighth grade. (Figure 14.)^ In general, the Gary results compare unfavorably with scores elsewhere obtained. Thus, the Gary eighth grade 'Based on Gary results and on results of tests given in small cities, May and June, 1916. 98 THE GARY SCHOOLS Figure 14 Development of Rate and Accuracy in Four Operations^ All scales have beea omitted inorder to bring the four curves together in one figure The reader need only remember that displacement to the right means greater rate, and displacement toward the top'of the diagram means greater accuracy. All circles represent scores in both rate and accuracy. The grades are indicated by the small figures near the circles. The solid line represents Gary scores. The broken line represents results from small cities. children attempt 8.4 problems in addition as against 11. 6 examples, the standard for small cities, and attain an ac- curacy of 57 per cent, as against the standard, 76 per cent.^ Of English composition it may be fairly said at the ^Based on Gary results and on results of tests given in small cities, May and June, 1916. 'A comparison with 1914 standards would be more favorable to Gary. CLASSROOM TESTS 99 outset that American school systems, in general, make a poor showing. At Gary testing was limited to simple narration. Children were asked to write a story of some interesting or exciting experience that they had them- selves passed through. Subjects were suggested, and, for the most part, their selection of a topic conformed to the suggestions made to them. Children wrote freely in the presence of the examiners and were given ample time — fifteen to twenty minutes. The following paper illustrates the average composi- tion ability of the best eighth grade class at Gary (50 Hillegas) : AN ACCIDENT We were out at camp No 133 which is sittua- ted m eri near the banks of Deep River. One of the men that stayed at this camp owned a old duck boat which leaked and if you wanted to ride in it you would have to set a certain way ot it would fill with water and soon sink. My brother saw me paddaling around in it and he decided that he would do it himself. He weighed about twenty-five lbs. more than me I told him the way to set in it but he would not listen but said that one end was as good as the other. He jumped in and sat down on the nearest end which was the wrong end and paddaled out in- to the river. He paddaled down the river for loo THE GARY SCHOOLS some distance and then turned around to come back. By this time the boat was nearly sink- ing and we saw him paddeHng as fast as he could go to get back to the bank. But it was of no use the boat began to sink and he tried to get to the right end but in trying to get to the right end he upset the boat and had to swim with all of his clothes on. The water wasn't very cold and he swam all the way up to the bridge pushing the boat with him. He soon was in dry clothes and was none the worse for the accident. A study of the scores ^ assigned to the eighth grade compositions shows that of the 122 eighth grade pupils tested, but one pupil in three wrote a composition in merit equal to or better than the above sample. It is therefore fair to infer that the elementary school train- ing does not give much power in the selection of sub- ject matter, the organization of material, or the choice of words. The admirable teaching singled out for com- ment in the preceding chapter is thus clearly exceptional and does not reach any considerable number of pupils. Teachers of English hold that there should be in compositions increasing freedom from error from grade to grade, and increasing power both to choose the words best adapted to the expression of a given thought and to organize the words chosen into coherent discourse. Ac- 1 For scores see Table LIII, report on Measurement of Classroom Products. CLASSROOM TESTS loi cordingly, the eighth grade papers were subjected to a series of analyses in order to determine the number and character of the various errors made. Papers were marked for gross errors in capitalization, punctuation, spelling, and grammar. On the average, a Gary eighth grade child makes a total of G^a gross errors in his first draft of an original composition of 214 words. Even more complicated than composition is the sub- ject of reading. WTiat do we mean by the ability to read? Do we mean merely ability to pronounce a given series of words correctly? Or is it impUed that the series of words in question should be read with intelligent expression? Does "reading" involve capacity to re- produce the thought in one's own language, or the ability to answer questions about the contents of the passage read? Is there any difference between reading aloud and reading to oneself — oral reading and silent reading so-called? This is not an exhaustive list, but it serves to show the necessity for careful procedure, and an equally careful interpretation of results. Both oral and silent reading tests were given at Gary. For the former, Gray's scale was employed. This pelds a score based on the difficulty of paragraphs to be pro- nounced, the time taken to read them, and the number of errors made. When so tested, the Gary children, with the possible exception of the second and third grades, read more slowly and make slightly more errors than children of other systems, for example, the children of 23 Illinois cities (Figure 15).^ 1 See page 103. I02 THE GARY SCHOOLS The Kansas Silent Reading tests, among others, were used to measure the silent reading of the Gary children. These consist of short paragraphs, each requiring the child to make some response; the accuracy with which the response is made indicates whether the paragraph has been correctly read and comprehended. The test is therefore not only a reading but an intelligence test, af- fording an index of the degree of development attained in the ability "to read and think about what is read." The results show that Gary children respond to a com- plicated test of this kind about as well as children gen- erally. (Figure i6.)^ The results of the two chapters dealing with instruc- tion may be briefly summarized. The impressions gained through inspection and the results of the tests are not entirely consistent. For example, silent reading makes a distinctly better showing in the tests than one would have expected on the basis of classroom obser\-a- tion. Spelling makes a poor showing on the list test and a very good showing on the composition test. It is not possible to reconcile these divergencies without adducing considerations as to which different opinions could fairly be entertained. Without, however, seeking to ignore the conflict of e\'idence, the authors still feel that the quality of classroom instruction at Gary falls short of what is necessary. We are interested, however, not only in the Gary classroom work as such, but in making out, if possible, ^See page 103. Figure is City Wide Average Scores by Grades — Gray's Oral Reading Scale 100- 2,3 iLUtioLs Ci-tCcs 90. 70 1 ^ ^ ^^ (^ary . 80. 60. ^ 70. So- > ^ 60. 50- 40- 30- 40- 30 ZO- IC- I0-' 10- 10- 10- 10- 10- 20- «0- 0- CBACBAC8ACBACBACBACBA 2S«S 6789 GRADES to a u Figure 16 De\'elopment in Accuracy — K.ansas Silent Reading Tests TELST . TE5T2 .71313 /^\ . . /■"■-- 20- ■ y 0^ ^^ CBACBACBACDACBACBACBA 2345678 9 lOUU, GRADES G-Gary series K-Kansas series 103 I04 THE GARY SCHOOLS whether it has been favorably or unfavorably affected by the so-called duplicate organization and the unpre- cedented development of special activities. From this point of \dew, let us recall certain important differences between the schools. The Froebel and Emerson schools are the only schools completely equipped on the Gary plan; the Jefferson and Beveridge schools, though organ- ized on the dupUcate basis, offer a much simpler pro- gram. Again, the Froebel school, containing 36 per cent, of the entire school population, is more recent in origin and more foreign in composition than the Emerson. Do the results of the tests reflect tliese differences? Is the classroom work of the fully developed Gary schools consistently different in quaUty from that of the less com- plicated Gary schools? The facts are these: In the handwriting tests there is almost no trace of constant differences from school to school; the differ- ences in spelling are slight, but, such as they are, lean in favor of the Jefferson and Beveridge schools; in arith- metic, Beveridge leads, Jefferson comes second, Froebel, despite its handicaps, surpasses Emerson; in composi- tion, the order runs, Jefferson, Emerson, Froebel, Bev- eridge; in oral reading, Emerson is distinctly better than the other three schools; in silent reading, Froebel and Beveridge read more rapidly than Jefferson and Emerson, while in the reproduction test, Jefferson comes first, Emerson second, and Beveridge last. It is clear that in both the more complicated Gary schools the teaching is in some subjects relatively better CLASSROOM TESTS 105 than the teaching in the simpler schools and that in other subjects the reverse is true. The extent to which the Gary plan is carried out is not therefore in itself the decisive factor. We are incHned to believe that low- ness of score is attributable to lack of unity of effort on the part of an ineffectively supervised teaching staff, recruited from many different sources, and to confusion due to the constant infiltration of pupils from other school systems, while the fluctuations from school to school and from subject to subject are probably to be ascribed to local and individual causes. However this may be, it must be recognized that no educational sys- tem can be considered to have completely established itself until, whatever else it achieves, it has also secured the fundamental educational values represented by the essential tools of learning. The results of testing the Gary schools do not invalidate the effort to socialize education, but it is evident that the Gary experiment has not yet successfully solved the problems involved in the socialization of education, in so far as efficient instruction in the necessary common school branches is concerned. IX. SCIENCE TEACHING^ THE teaching of science necessarily plays an im- portant part in an educational scheme constructed with deliberate and adequate reference to the world we live in. This does not mean that place is to be made for science by excising from the curriculum studies and activities that derive their sanction from other, yet equally cogent, considerations — Uterature, for example, and history, music, and art. The various efforts needed in order to touch the pupil at vital points must harmon- ize the conflicting demands upon his time and energy — a problem rendered easier of solution by the lengthened school day, improved school equipment, and the better use of the child's environment. An education of this type will, as we have already pointed out, include the tra- ditional humane studies for their social and aesthetic value; industrial acti\'ities, because they give an addi- tional outlet for constructive impulse, at the same time utilizing important aspects of current life; and, finally, science studies, not only because they give scope and play to senses and judgment, but because through 'For detailed account, see report on Science Teaching, by Otis W. Caldwell. 1 06 SCIENCE TEACHING 107 them alone can the child gain insight into the world of nature. In connection with science and shop work, the mere cultivation of dexterity and the exercise of the senses have, of course, an undeniable value. It is worth a boy's while to be "handy," and certainly worth his while to be observant. Thus even at the sense level, a case can be made out for work of this type. But it takes a deeper and stronger reason to justify the elaborateness of outfit which Gary has installed and the seriousness with which the subject is viewed. This is not far to seek. It is, for intellectual reasons, a sound philosophy of education which insists that the child do things rather than read about them or see them done. But mere doing of concrete tasks — whether artificial tasks from the laboratory manual or real tasks from everyday Hf e — fails to prolong the exer- cise into the intellectual region. To realize large educa- tional value the exercise needs to be carried far enough to bring out expHcitly the intellectual side of processes. The pupil must study and study hard about the factors which he is manipulating; he must think and think hard about the causal and purposeful relations involved in the con- crete processes that he is carrying out. He must eventu- ally be able to express results in generalized form, and to deal in the abstract with laws and relationships. A de- velopment of this kind does not take place sponta- neously, as a result of the pupil's working with metals, a printing press, a dynamo, or a camera. Yet in these ap- pealing tools and objects — camera, dynamo, or lathe — io8 THE GARY SCHOOLS innumerable intellectual values and factors are involved — the origin and history of culture, the properties of materials, the application of laws and principles of wide scope. Only a skillful instructor, pursuing a well thought out and well wrought out plan, requiring interested and protracted effort on the pupil's part, can teach sci- ence in this fashion. But science and shop teaching will not otherwise meet expectations or realize their possi- biHties. Great hopes attended the introduction of science studies into education — hopes that to a considerable ex- tent have thus far been disappointed. If we assume — as we do — that this disappointment does not really imply simply a mistaken enthusiasm on the part of those who believe in the importance of science in the child's educational development, several reasons may be as- signed for it — the lack of sufficient school time, the lack of trained teachers, and the employment of an unsound method. These factors go far to account for the unsat- isfactory outcome of the early efforts to teach science in the elementary and the high school. The subjects usually got only a "stepmotherly" position on the school sched- ule; often the teachers had not been properly trained; finally, the method of presentation was excessively formal and abstract, i. e., the subjects were presented to children in the severe logical fashion appropriate only to mature minds. A method of approach that seeks to remedy these de- fects has often been urged by educational reformers and SCIENCE TEACHING 109 has already in a measure been successfully demonstrated in a few places. Gary has, however, undertaken the ex- periment on a larger scale and with more elaborate facili- ties. The science teaching of the Gary schools falls natur- ally into two divisions, (i) nature study and gardening, carried on in the primary grades, (2) study of the sepa- rate organized sciences, carried on in the upper grades of the elementary school and in the high school. Nature study and gardening are conmion to practically all the schools of the system, while the study of the separate organized sciences in the intermediate and higher grades is practically Limited to the Emerson and Froebel schools. Theoretically, the science work of all schools is viewed as a department under the supervising direction of the teacher of chemistry in the Emerson school, but this organization is only nominal. No gen- eral statement of purposes, no outline or plan of work aiming to secure coherence and progression throughout the system had been prepared. The several schools were left free to define things, each for itself, without careful oversight. In respect to scheduled time allotment in the elementary schools, science exceeds six subjects and is itself exceeded by six subjects; it gets more time than German, music, geography, writing, spelling, or history, less than reading, language, arithmetic, manual training (including drawing), auditorium, or physical training. In this matter, Gary does distinctly better no THE GARY SCHOOLS for science subjects than other systems. While the fifty cities, whose programs were tabulated by Pro- fessor Holmes of Harvard, schedule on the average 331 hours to science in the elementary school, Gary schedules 567 — i. e., 70 per cent. more. Of the total school time, science gets in the fifty cities on the average 4 per cent. ; at Gary, 5 per cent. This, however, be it observed, is the scheduled allowance. At Gary, practice falls short of theory, though we are unable to state how far short. The time set apart for science is not infrequently found to be otherwise occupied. For the nature study work of the primary grades, which is conducted by special teachers except in the very small- est schools, all the schools possess more or less equip- ment. The large resources of the Emerson and Froebel schools easily supply the requisite material. Of the smaller schools, the Jefferson provides a remodeled class- room, containing a plant growing house, animal house, and work place for children, mounted specimens, birds' nests, etc.; the Beveridge school possesses less, the Glen Park school, almost nothing, and the remaining schools, nothing. All the schools, however, with the exception of Ambridge and West Gary, have ample and flourishing gardens.' The work in these early grades is formless and discontinuous in character. Not only is there no general ^It is difficult — and properly so — to draw a sharp line between nature study and botany, especially at the Froebel and Emerson schools, where the teachers of botany are in charge of the school gardens. SCIENCE TEACHING iii program, but no teacher has developed a compre- hensive program of her own. At the Jefferson, for example, one of the earlier grades was at the time of the survey attempting observational work on the pussy- willow. Another class was engaged in developing the subject of climate with particular reference to the cause of winds; at the close of the discussion a home experiment to show how air currents are affected by heat was sug- gested, though the explanation was too vague to guaran- tee a successful result. At the Beveridge school, nature study, which does not go beyond the third grade, was of the same occasional character, consisting of things that seemed to "iit in best" — now a field trip for fruit branches, again a bird lesson, later, an observational study of beans. In the absence aHke of a program, and of appropriate records, it was not easy to ascertain just what had preceded or what was to follow. In the Emerson school, the children were particularly interested in the observation and care of Hving animals. The clearest evidence of interest and activity appeared in certain schools, where the pupils had mounted seeds of the wild plants of the region, birds' nests, pictures of birds, photographs, and landscape drawings. In all the schools, with the exceptions noted above, gardening is the most substantial and regular feature of the nature work. It is, of course, not to be supposed that nature work should be uniform throughout the schools. Much latitude may be wisely allowed, in order to permit the most effective use of varying conditions and oppor- 112 THE GARY SCHOOLS tunities; but, whatever the divergencies, a definite pur- pose should guide the entire system and a certain orderly development ought to be discernible in the successive classes. In the upper grades of the elementary school, where subjects of study become more definite and where more highly organized material can be utilized, science instruc- tion is, as has been stated, practically confined to the Emerson and Froebel schools. The subjects offered include botany and gardening, zoology, physics, and chemistry. The equipment of the two schools, while not uniform, is good and in some respects remarkably so. Thus the Froebel school possesses an excellent botanical laboratory, the Emerson, an unusually attrac- tive zoological laboratory with aquaria, an animal room, incubators, and an extensive out-of-door "zoo"; the physics laboratory of the Emerson contains apparatus needed for regular high school work and a considerable amount of machinery and various mecha- nisms — cameras, automobile engine, etc., that can be utilized in demonstrating applied principles; the chemical laboratories in the two schools do not differ essentially from what is found in the usual modern high school. The courses of study vary in the two schools. In botany, the work of the seventh grade pupils in the Emerson is based primarily on care of the garden, the shrubbery on the school grounds, and the potted plants in the school greenhouse and corridors; an outline had SCIENCE TEACHING 113 been prepared, covering systematically and in detail such subjects as the soil, plant analysis, plant reproduc- tion dangerous plants, farm crops, etc. At the Froebel school, the teacher was making excellent use of out-of- door experiences as well as classroom studies by organ- izing these into definite topics or projects. An extremely interesting project was made of harvesting; other topics of the same character were handled in similar fashion with unmistakable evidence that the pupils were inter- ested and were profiting. With high school classes, the Emerson school used, but did not closely follow, a printed outline of practical botany. There was evidence of considerable use of the microscope. At the Froebel, a regular textbook was employed, but extensive readjust- ments of order and content were made. Coherent se- quence of topics was regarded as of less importance than vitaHty of appeal. Effective use was made in the audito- rium of exercises developed in the laboratory and garden, with unquestionable increase of interest on the part of pupils. In physics, grade work at the Emerson school covers a period of thirteen weeks and is of a topical or project character, closely related either to common experience or shop work. The weight and density of the air, mois- ture, the thermometer are examples of the former; problems derived from the bicycle, automobile, electric, gas, or water meter, of the latter. The instruction ob- served was excellent, the instructor securing the interest and active participation of the class in the development of 114 THE GARY SCHOOLS successive themes. Moreover, the pupils saw through- out the meaning and application of facts eUcited and principles discussed. Less well organized and less effective was the grade work in physics at the Froebel school. In general, the teacher conducted demonstrations, which the pupils followed and at times repeated. The high school work, consisting of a set of laboratory experiments covering the main di^dsions of the subject, did not differ materially from the usual high school courses. More systematic is the Emerson course in zoology, covering forty weeks, made up of two months' work on insects, three or four months' study of the most important animal groups, a month or six weeks of human physiology, the remaining weeks of the year being devoted to collect- ing and studying the zoological materials character- istic of the environment. The course was a happy combination of scientific order with practical interest. The study of insects, for example, involved the use of both textbook and laboratory; but the teacher had an eye for such topics as insects and plants, insects and hu- man disease, beneficial insects, etc. Among the most successful and elaborate projects in operation may be mentioned care of poultry — a subject conscientiously pursued through all its phases from incubator to market — though one would hardly be warranted in placing complete confidence in the records kept by the pupils. The Froebel work in this subject was distinctly inferior. In chemistry similar conditions prevail. The grade SCIENCE TEACHING 115 work is topical in character. At the Emerson school, starch conversions, fermentation, carbon compounds are among the subjects concretely presented to pupils in the upper elementary grades. In both high schools, a year is systematically devoted to the subject. A well known textbook is in use, supplemented, especially at the Emerson school, by illustrations drawn from industrial processes. Thus, for example, the school coal was tested by the teacher and pupils in cooperation. So, again, the dyes used in commercial jeUies were investigated; pupils were also employed at the City Health Depart- ment, assisting in the bacteriological examination of milk. Classroom and garden work in all the sciences is sup- plemented by the use of science materials in the audito- rium, to which, as we shall shortly see, Gary has given a quite unprecedented development. Through a large part of the school day, successive groups of classes assemble there to witness a varied program — now a film, now a dramatic representation, now a class exercise. Science frequently finds a place on the program — one day, a sim- ple piece of nature study offered by httle children, again a really substantial topic carefully prepared by high school pupils. On one occasion each child in a group of seven explained to a large audience how seeds are distributed, under such titles as Why Seeds Travel, Some Little Tramps, Seed Sailboats, etc. ; on another, a high school pupil, under the guidance of the English teacher in cooperation with the teacher of zoology, ex- ii6 THE GARY SCHOOLS hibited two Mallard ducks, which he had himself shot and mounted, and then discussed the entire life history of the ducks in question, how they mate, nest, breed, their enemies, their haunts, uses, migration, etc. The various stages of the extended poultry project, noted above, lent themselves admirably to auditorium presentation from time to time. It should be observed also that the use of the auditorium brings about cooperation between science, shop, and English instructors. In science classes, as in the shops and kitchens, Gary makes considerable use of "helpers," younger children assigned to work with a more advanced class. Adults who in childhood attended ungraded schools occasion- ally testify to the stimulus derived by them from listen- ing to older pupils. The sharp classifications of our highly organized schools undoubtedly involve a loss in this respect. On the other hand, the "helper" situation is stimulating only if there is some real participation, intellectual or otherwise, on the part of the younger pupils. No educational advantage comes to them from sitting idly by, without interest or responsibility. In the science classes at Gary, as in the shops, one feels at times that assignment as helpers is a device resorted to in order to relieve the schedule rather than profitably to employ pupils. The plan should not be discarded, but it should be less freely and more discriminatingly used. The foregoing account makes it clear just what Gary has done to cure the defects of science teaching. We SCIENCE TEACHING 117 stated at the outset that science is still in, most schools grudgingly treated in the way of time and facilities, and that science materials, largely because they lack con- creteness, make too feeble an appeal to children. Gary has been comparatively generous in gi\ing time and pro- viding equipment, and has thus explicitly stamped the subject as important. It is, however, quite impossible to characterize the instruction in general tenns. Here and there — notably in the high school grades of the Emerson school — it was good, that is, the instructor pursued an orderly plan in choosing and arranging material and constantly sought to show the way in which science principles are nowadays applied in the common mechanisms of modern society. The pupils were interested, but they were more than interested — they were being trained. So, also, the teaching of botany at the Froebel school was in a high degree intelligent and effective; it was not deficient in scientific order, but nevertheless kept in close contact with the facts of life. Elsewhere, however, the instruction was too frequently formless and aimless. It had too often abandoned the safe though usually dispiriting support of the textbook, without finding other safe anchorage. In science, as in shop work and household arts, practical tests were given. The difficulties encountered are obvious. There are as yet no standardized tests in these practical activities, hence Gary results cannot be com- pared with results elsewhere. Again, in the absence of ii8 THE GARY SCHOOLS previous efforts to test the pupils and of definite records of what ground the several classes had covered, it is not possible to say to what extent the results of the tests are to be ascribed to the instruction received. Despite these drawbacks, it was felt that a precedent should be set, in order that teachers of science might be stimulated to define their purposes and to set about the preparation of objective tests of their teaching. Nine tests were given to all eighth grade classes, to the seventh grade of the Beveridge school,^ and to the high school classes in the Emerson and Froebel schools. Three types of abihty were tested — ^first, ability to observe and to discriminate objects placed before the pupils; next, ability to recall past experiences and apply their out- come to tiew, but similar, experiences; and lastly, ability to interpret and explain phenomena which undergo changes in the pupil's presence. To test ability to ob- serve and discriminate, children were asked to note what they saw when an oak leaf and an elm leaf were placed before them, or when colored pictures of birds strikingly alike or strikingly different were submitted to them. Abihty to recall was tested by asking the pupil to name birds or insects which he had seen or studied. Abihty to interpret changing phenomena was tested by performing in the pupil's presence experiments involving gravity, the properties of air, and air currents due to variations in temperature. The results showed beyond all question that in vary- 'Where there is no eighth grade. SCIENCE TEACHING 119 ing degrees the Gary pupils can observe, discriminate, recall, and reason about phenomena, though individual variations within the several classes are very marked. The Beveridge school, where science teaching is Limited, makes an unfavorable showing as compared with the Emerson, Froebel, and Jefferson schools, though of course there are individual exceptions. Despite the fact that its opportunities are inferior to those of Emerson and Froebel, the Jefferson school makes, in general, the best showing of all, partly, perhaps, because the school is more homogeneous in composition, partly, beyond all doubt, because the school program is better organized and better supervised. On the whole, however, the results cannot be regarded as satisfactory. The performance is too uneven and excellence is too infrequent. This unsatisfactory showing would seem primarily attributable to lack of continuity and design. Even sci- ence teaching of conventional type cannot run itself; still less so, science teaching which abandons the beaten path. Supervision and staff organization, necessary under ordinary circumstances, need to be more efficient, more intelligent, even if also more flexible, under the con- ditions that obtain at Gary. But Gary's science super- vision is nominal and its staff conferences far too rare to answer their purpose. In such circumstances, con- ventional teaching would be unlikely to be good of its kind; a large experimental undertaking is foredoomed to an unsatisfactory result, I20 THE GARY SCHOOLS Gary has, however, shown courage and resourceful- ness in trying to deprive science teaching of its remote and abstract character, in trying to bring it into touch with the child's experience and to relate it to his other school work. Teachers of English and teachers of science occasionally attack a large problem together; the shop and the laboratories are at times brought to bear on identical problems. This is excellent as far as it goes, and contains the germ from which a rational course in school science may ultimately be worked out. But it is not enough merely to break away from the formal, cut and dried type of science teaching represented by most text- books and to introduce concrete problems from time to time. Chaos supervenes unless aims have been sharply defined and the orderly development of laws and princi- ples assured through intelligent and forceful guidance. Beyond a general, and, be it admitted, a sound predilection for the concrete as embodied in the environment and experience of the child, it is impossible to discern at Gary a principle of organization or progression in science teaching. Unquestionably, the children are interested in their science work and derive pleasure from it. But science fulfills its educational mission, not simply by arousing interest in a disconnected series of phenom- ena or giving pleasure through a disconnected series of experiences, but by cultivating the child's capacity to deal intelligently and vigorously with problems. This ought indeed to be both an interesting and a pleasurable task; but unless it involves order, persistence, SCIENCE TEACHING 121 and hard work, its educative effect is probably of minor importance only. Unless so presented, science is likely to be a transient diversion rather than a profoundly formative and disciplinary influence in the child's development. X. INDUSTRIAL WORK^ WE HAVE stated in a previous chapter that the Gary scheme springs from a thorough analysis of the existing social situation. The truth of this statement is particularly evidenced by the pro- visions made for industrial work for boys, household arts for girls, and recreation for all. As contrasted with children brought up in the country, urban children usually find Httle in their environment that places upon them any real responsibility or tends to develop manual skill. The city home has practically ceased to carry on productive tasks; the operations fun- damental to industry and transportation are so remote and so intricate that we quickly become their passive beneficiaries without participation or even understanding. The growing child's experience has thus been distinctly impoverished, while the leisure and energy once produc- tively and cooperatively erJisted in the home find nowadays too easy an outlet in demoralizing amuse- ments. The special activities, to the consideration of which we now pass — the shops, kitchens, sewing rooms, and ^For detailed account, see report on Industrial Work, by Charles R. Richards. INDUSTRIAL WORK 123 recreational facilities — are thus justified by a variety of considerations. They are physically helpful, for they contribute to a complete development of muscles and senses. They are socially wholesome, for they break down the false scholastic distinction between intellectual and manual tasks; they are in the stricter educational sense important, because they supplement the printed word with actual experiences, which, intelligently handled, give new and real meanings to formal school exercises, enlarge the child's range of vision, and disclose otherwise unsuspected needs and aptitudes. Industrial equipment and opportunities vary greatly in the different Gary schools. They are most highly developed in the Emerson school, where provision is made for machine work, foundry, forge, and printing, and in the Froebel, where carpentry, plumbing, sheet metal work, painting, printing, pottery, and cobbling are pro- vided. Printing is the only industrial opportunity com- mon to both schools. In Jefferson, a single combina- tion shop offers carpentry and a limited opportunity in metal work, and there is a single woodworking shop at Glen Park and at Beveridge; the remaining schools have no special shop equipment. The industrial facili- ties of the Emerson and the Froebel schools are, as has already been stated, exceptionally diversified and ex- tensive. The amount of time given to industrial instruction varies considerably. At the Emerson, where the school year consists of three terms of thirteen weeks each, 124 THE GARY SCHOOLS grades 4 to 8 devote approximately two hours daily for one term to science, two hours daily for a second term to shop work, and divide two hours daUy of the third term between drawing (one hour a week) and an elective— which may be shop work, if the boy so desires. At the Froebel, where the year consists of four terms, each ten weeks in length, pupils in the fourth and fifth grades work at printing, plumbing, and painting; pupils in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades are scheduled to spend two hours a week for a term each in drawing, shop work, science, and as teachers' assistants. These theoretical schedules hold fairly well for the several classes of a school, as before pointed out, but are only loosely followed in actual practice by the different members of a class. Individuals were by no means in- frequently found who had spent an entire year, instead of a single term, in this or that shop; pupils were found who had had several shop terms, but no training in mechanical dra\\'ing. Of 20 cases in which special rec- ords were obtained at the Emerson school, 1 1 had taken some form of shop work in each of the three terms of 19 1 5-16; 7 had done shop work during two terms, and only 2 had had a single term of shop work and one term of mechanical drawing. The record of these pupils in pre- \dous years was much the same ; in many instances every term for three years, sometimes every term for four years had included shop work. Similar conditions prevail at the Froebel school. Of the elementary pupils enrolled in all Froebel shops INDUSTRIAL WORK 125 during the four terms, 603 worked one hour, 225 worked two hours, and 5 worked three hours. Of 28 pupils whose records were obtained, 5 had had shop work in each of the four terms of 19 15-16; 4 had had three terms of shop work and one term as store attendant; 4 others had had three terms of shop and one of mechanical draw- ing; 6 had had three terms of shop work; 2, two terms of shop and one of mechanical drawing; 6, two terms of shop work; only i pupil had had but a single term of shop work during the year. For previous years, the records of the same pupils were similar. Whether the frequent departures from schedule are to be interpreted as indicative of flexibility or laxity must depend to some extent on the care taken by the school to ensure intelligent choice. It would be absurd to hold all pupils to the same formula; it does not follow, how- ever, that it is wise to allow children to do what they choose or as they please. A flexible curriculum is not a curriculum subject to unaccountable and irresponsible modification; it is, as we have already urged, a curricu- lum adjustable on the basis of carefully considered in- dividual needs, capacities, difficulties, and opportunities. Thus viewed, the Gary administration of shop instruction is lax rather than flexible. The uncontrolled preference of the pupil appeared frequently to be the main determining factor in regard to the disposition and extent of the shop periods. At the Emerson school, pupils assigned to shop work are designated to particular shops by a clerk in the shop supervisor's office. No discrimination appears 126 THE GARY SCHOOLS to be exercised, no counsel to be given. Questions ad- dressed to the pupils showed that a shop choice is often a matter of accident. Conditions were but little better at the Froebel school, where the distribution of pupils to the various shops was made by an instructor, who, however, during the period of the survey gave very little attention to serious counsel with children as to their shop elections. The children in earlier grades (fourth and fifth, ages ten to twelve) participate in shop, science, and art work not as regular pupils, but as "helpers." The school is viewed "as a large family, wherein the younger chil- dren learn consciously and unconsciously from the older children, while the latter learn to assume responsibility and to take the initiative," The younger pupils, it is held, learn more by working with older pupils than they can be taught in separate classes by themselves. On the strictly educational side, the " helper" system in the shops might be defended on the ground that a more or less unsystematic experience forms an excellent basis for more systematic effort at a later stage. Once more, practice and theory do not fully agree. Observation in the Gary shops indicates that the younger children do not really "help" their elders, but themselves con- stitute groups to which separate and definite tasks are assigned, groups to which instructors give time and at- tention in the same manner, though not always to the same extent, as to older pupils. For example, in the forge and foundry of the Emerson school there were INDUSTRIAL WORK 127 classes made up of 9 to 16 boys from the third, fourth, and fifth grades, with only one or two older boys; obvi- ously, a dozen children cannot "help" two older pupils. Again, from 12 to 16 fourth grade pupils constituted a group in which there were no older boys at all. Never- theless, in all the instances, the tliird, fourth, and fifth grade pupils are called "helpers" on the program. So at the Froebel school, the majority of regular assign- ments on the program of February i, 19 16, in the print- ing, plumbing, and painting shops consist of fourth and fifth grade pupils without admixture of older pupils. The word "helper" was not used to designate these groups, though they were composed entirely of pupils of the "helper" grades. Of how much educational value is such experience? Something would depend on the alternatives open. If the child were not in a shop, where would he be and what would he be doing? In so far as the direct value of the experience itself is concerned, it may perhaps be fairly said that tliird grade children — found in considerable numbers despite the schedule — have too Httle power of sustained attention, too little mental development, and for certain shops not enough physical strength to gain much direct advantage. The situation in respect to the fourth and fifth grades is less definite and varies with the shops. In the forge shop, they potter away ineffectually at work beyond their strength and skill. In the foundry, however, barring the lifting of the loaded flasks, they can not only appreciate the common pro- 128 THE GARY SCHOOLS cesses, but they can master the simpler operations. In printing, the exacting work of typesetting requires more care and patience than boys and girls of this age are usu- ally capable of. In woodworking, simple work can be satisfactorily accomplished, and this is to a small extent perhaps true of elementary tinsmi thing. The work of cutting and threading pipe in the plumbing shop requires more strength and muscular coordination than boys of this age can bring to bear. In painting, very simple work can probably be accomplished, but it is doubtful whether sustained effort can be counted on for a two hour period. In the shoe shop, substantial though somewhat rough work can be done by these pupils. In general, it would seem true that the presence of these children in the forge, printing, and plumbing shops results in little that is of value and that the only shops for which any argument can be made are woodworking, painting, shoe repairing, and to some extent the foun- dry. Even with this assumption, it still remains an open question whether work in special shops by pupils from these grades returns an educational value propor- tionate to its cost. Primarily, the industrial training offered at Gary aims simply at the enrichment of the child's school ex- perience. To some extent and in a limited number of cases, it may serve a useful prevocational purpose, that is, the future artisan may be assisted by his school experi- ence to select his vocation intelligently. But for voca- tional training itself the experience gained is too slight INDUSTRIAL WORK 129 to be as such of real importance. It is justified not be- cause it introduces boys to vocations, but because it gives their constructive instincts and abilities something to do and because it brings them into sympathetic touch with the modern industrial world. The realization of this aim, in so far as concerns the Emerson and Froebel schools, is sought through main- tenance and repair jobs. The pupils are not set to do tasks devised to meet definitely conceived educational ends; rather, the educational end is a by-product. The instructors are journeymen mechanics, who receive the regular union scale of wages. Care has been taken to choose men who are intelligent, kindly, and inter- ested in boys; the instructors are patient, helpful, and industrious; but, as might be expected, they vary greatly in respect to skill as teachers. They are not apt to extract the intellectual elements from a given situation — that is, to bring out the reasons for a particu- lar method of work or to pursue inquiries beyond the execution of the task in hand. Again, the tasks them- selves are determined not by simple educational consid- erations, not by selection on educational grounds from the large mass of jobs that need attention, but by prac- tical daily need in the school system or the home. Pu- pils engaged in painting actually assist the school painter, who is also school instructor, in a painting job required somewhere in the school system; pupils working in tin make buckets or pails for which there is or will be a use; pupils engaged in cobbUng mend their own shoes; and 'i3o THE GARY SCHOOLS the boy's task is not cut oflf when the educational purpose might be judged to have been served, but is likely to continue until the practical need has been met. The character and extent of the productive and repair work carried on in the various shops may be gathered from the following items taken ahnost at random. At the Emerson, the machine shop turned out drilUng pipes for soap retainers, lock castings, woodworkers' bench vises, printing chases, and made repairs to arc lamp, seats, emery grinder, and a model locomotive; the forge shop produced damper rods for furnaces, iron brackets, stencil knives, stairway railings; the foundry turned out castings for playground equipment, for automatic locks, for lathes, and for pump valves; from the printing shop came report and record blanks, program schedules, trans- fer cards, excuse blanks, deposit slips, letterheads, en- velopes, etc. At the Froebel, the cabinet making shop carried on much repair work, and made, besides, window brackets, building blocks, Montessori sets, and thirty teachers' desks; in sheet metal work, dustpans, desk trays, water buckets, paper trays, mail boxes, and Hght reflectors are reported; the productive and repair work in plumbing included the installation of sinks, basins, and shower baths, the repairing of drains, faucets, sinks, etc. ; the painting shop was busy in refurbishing outside sashes and frames, repainting classrooms, shellacking building blocks, oiling gymnasium floor, etc. In the shoe shop any child may repair his own shoes or shoes belonging to a member of his family. The child may furnish material INDUSTRIAL WORK 131 or buy it at the school. In general, the work turned out is creditable, but it is of course manifestly impossible to determine the degree to which the instructor has par- ticipated. Somewhat elaborate practical and written tests were given in order to provide an objective basis for judgment as to what is achieved by the system of industrial instruc- tion just described. For example, in order to test the work done in the machine shop of the Emerson school, the seven high school students who had had the longest experience in this shop were provided with a piece of soft rolled steel, which they were required to manipulate in accordance with the outline of a blueprint furnished to them. Subsequently the boys took a written test de- signed to ascertain how far they comprehended the rea- sons for what they had done and also whether they had been led to see the wider uses and implications of the machines and processes that they had been employing. On the whole, the boys displayed confidence, familiarity, and a fair degree of skill in dealing with common machine shop operations, but oral as well as written questions showed that their grasp did not penetrate below the sur- face. They gave little evidence of knowing the mechan- ism of the various tools, the nature of the materials used, or the place that the machine shop occupies in the indus- trial world. To boys working in the foundry a test in the use of patterns was given. On the whole, their work was well done ; they attacked the task with readiness and confidence, and carried it through in a businesslike way, 132 THE GARY SCHOOLS with little loss of time through mistakes or hesitation. A written examination and oral questions showed, how- ever, that only limited attempts had been made to form a background of ideas and knowledge drawn from this and related industries. Little attention, for example, had been paid to illustration, study, or even enumeration of the products of the great mills that are the reason for the city's existence. Again, in the sheet metal shop, of seven pupils asked to make a galvanized iron pail, four acquitted themselves creditably; but the written tests disclosed a poverty of information and thought, though the replies of eighth grade pupils were noticeably more intelligent and better informed than those of seventh grade pupils. In general, it is fair to say that, while dis- playing considerable practical competence, pupils had not been led to reflect and had, in consequence, extracted little of intellectual value from their shop work. The discussion up to this point has been concerned entirely with the Froebel and Emerson schools. At the Jefferson school, a single combination shop is provided, the equipment of which consists of several woodworking benches, a hand drill, a vise for holding iron pipe, cutting and threading tools for the same, and a few simple tools for sheet metal work. At one end is a stock room in charge of a pupil during class hours, and at the other a steam engine which supplies power for the electric light plant. The work carried on differs radically in principle from that of the two schools already considered. The INDUSTRIAL WORK 133 Froebel and Emerson shops endeavor to procure educa- tional results from maintenance and repair activities; the Jefferson shop defines its objects in terms of the conventional manual training philosophy. Practical construction cuts Uttle figure; repairs and equipment are attempted only on a very inconsiderable scale; the bulk of the work takes the form of projects for home or personal use. The instructor is not an artisan, but a school trained man of enthusiasm and devotion; the building engineer serves as his assistant. The schedule of the Jefferson school provides drawing and bench work, one hour daily for twenty weeks, for children from the first to the lower fifth grade; from the upper fifth to the eighth grade the schedule calls for twenty weeks of shop work in one hour periods and for half as much drawing. The major part of the time goes to woodworking; exercises are used, followed by individ- ual or school projects; the pupils built the tool room, shop cupboards, and bookcases for the school. A small amount of metal work has also been turned out. At intervals of three weeks, two boys are assigned to assist in running the heating and power plant. In this connection a word should be said about draw- ing and handwork. In the first three grades, for example, of the Emerson and Froebel schools a daily period is scheduled for such work. While there are no uniformly planned courses, the teaching is carried along the usual lines with considerable ability. Above the third grade pupils choose between mechanical 134 THE GARY SCHOOLS and freehand drawing — the boys commonly electing the former, the girls, the latter. In mechanical draw- ing, the children below the sixth grade are occupied with drawing wooden objects or copying and modifying, according to directions, a series of blueprints — an expedi- ent which keeps the children busy, not altogether un- profitably, without requiring much attention from the instructor. The three upper elementary grades and the high school offer practical instruction, including archi- tectural drawing, well adapted to the interests and capacities of the pupils. The work is carefully planned and the results obtained are excellent. Freehand draw- ing in the elementary grades includes practice with water color, crayon, and design. In the high school design is especially emphasized; the pupils had achieved some good work in book covers, metal, and costumes, and in still Ufe with pencil and crayon. It is not easy to express a definite judgment on the type of industrial work carried on in the two large schools. Unquestionably, the reality, the genuineness of shop instruction based on maintenance work makes an effec- tive appeal to the boy. He is interested in his shop work; he enjoys it. "One gains a strong impression," writes Professor Richards, "that at Gary school is not a second- ary thing in the boy's life, but that it is the big thing. To this attitude of mind the shop work contributes an important element. The shops themselves, although conducted with considerable freedom, generally reflect an atmosphere of real work, and the pupils are often INDUSTRIAL WORK 135 found successfully carrying on operations and achieving results ordinarily judged quite beyond the capacity of boys of their age. The relations between the boys and the instructors are for the most part satisfactory and commendable. The instructors as a rule show much patience in directing the boys, helping them out of difficulties, and answering their many questions. In some of the shops there is much true comradeship between the boys and the instructors built on mutual confidence and respect. Furthermore, the pupils un- doubtedly gain a first hand contact with many real phases of industry, and a healthy stimulation of interest through dealing w'th real problems and real quantities. All this means a vitality and educative influence far superior to the conventional manual training." On the other hand, the work is narrow in scope, empir- ical in method. Urgent demands to make this or that repair block instruction; the execution of orders may leave Uttle time for discussion of principles involved or of the methods by which similar tasks are d'sposed of in current industrial and commercial practice. In some shops, indeed, the artisan-instructor is at times called away and the pupils left for the time without guidance. The limitations pointed out do not, however, affect all shops equally. Plumbing suffers most seriously; in the forge shop, foundry, sheet metal, and par- ticularly in the printing shop, where the entire class is often at work on one job or several similar jobs, group or individual instruction is feasible. 136 THE GARY SCHOOLS To instruction on the basis of maintenance and repair, there is the further objection that the opportunities which are thus developed are not necessarily those that are of the highest educational value. Moreover, there may prove to be a lack of sufficient material and of suf- ficient variety, unless the school system grows steadil>- and the shops are confined to two or three central schools. If, for example, the school system should come to consist wholly of buildings of the Froebel and Emerson type, each with a full complement of shops, maintenance and repair might fall short of providing educative tasks enough to keep the shops throughout the schools effec- tively occupied. The shop men are themselves doubtless under the im- pression that they are constantly giving instruction, be- cause they are continuously called on for directions and explanations. But the truth is that instruction in a large sense has not been a part of the serious business of the department. The pupils take no notes; no tests of shop or industrial information have been made; no practical correlations of shop experience with mathe- matics or science work were observed; no charts or sketches on the blackboard are employed; trade cata- logues, abounding in illustrative matter, have been used only to a very limited extent. In some cases, it is hardly an overstatement to say that the shop work represents a maximum of acti\'ity with a minimum of thought as to the thing done. In part, these defects are ascribable to the employment of artisan teachers; but they could un- INDUSTRIAL WORK 137 doubtedly be more or less fully remedied by adequate supervision. As an offset to the defects of the maintenance and repair system, it may be urged that it is after all the only system available under the financial conditions that ob- tain at Gary. This argument, however, relies on the assumption that the shops are self-supporting. Were this the case, it might well be asked whether a school system unable to afford shops organized on educational principles does not do well to organize them on the main- tenance basis. The situation, however, is neither so simple, nor so favorable to the maintenance type of or- ganization. It will appear, when we come to the discus- sion of school costs, that, when credit is allowed for labor and material cost of production, even the shops which are operated primarily on the maintenance basis are only 69 per cent, self-supporting. The question is therefore whether the sum needed to make up the deficit could not be put to more effective use. A positive an- swer can hardly be given at this time. Moreover, before it is attempted, the Gary shops should be given a chance to show how far the defects and objections urged in this chapter can be overcome by effective supervision, and a further chance to determine experimentally how far the maintenance plan can, without perhaps greatly increas- ing the expense, be so qualified as to meet the objections which we have urged. It remains to be emphasized that the shop work at Gary is not primarily a preparation for earning a liveli- 138 THE GARY SCHOOLS hood as a mechanic or artisan. In the long run, the importance of the work depends on its general educa- tional value — on what it does to develop the child's senses, to broaden his vision, and to furnish an outlet for abilities that might otherwise go uncultivated. On the other hand, it is only fair to add that the training received by some pupils in some of the shops proves of direct vocational value when they enter certain of the industries on which the prosperity of the city is based. XI. HOUSEHOLD ARTS» IN THE preceding chapter, the point was made that the industrial work for boys is not vocational in aim. The shop activities are not meant to make carpenters, painters, and plumbers, but to furnish growing boys with concrete opportunities for the development of senses and muscles, and concrete experiences which will enable them to participate intelligently in a social order in which industry bulks large. The same holds of the practical work for girls; it is not primarily intended to make expert seamstresses or teachers of cooking. How- ever, instruction in cooking and sewing is not on pre- cisely the same footing as instruction in foundry work or carpentry; for, in addition to their educative value, the household arts carry for girls in general a large pros- pect of actual application. Cooking is taught regularly in the elementary school in the seventh and eighth grades, with pupils from the lower grades acting as helpers. The instruction is con- densed into courses from ten to thirteen weeks in length one or two hours daily. Pupils must enroll for at least one course one hour daily, and may take more. While ipor detailed account, see report on Household Arts, by Eva W. White. 139 140 THE GARY SCHOOLS cooking is thus compulsory for elementary pupils, it is optional for high school girls, and may be elected by them in the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades at the Emerson and Froebel schools, which alone have high school students. In point of fact, few high school students pursue the subject. It is difficult to determine definitely the content of the cooking instruction in either the elementary schools or the high schools, since there was no systematic course of study for either all schools or any one school. More- over, the year of the survey chanced to be one of unusual disorganization. The teacher at Froebel had been in the system only since September and was preparing to leave, as was also the instructor at Emerson. Teachers changed at Jefferson during the spring, and at Glen Park all cooking gave way in April to gardening, while at Beveridge nothing more than the preparation of the school luncheon has ever been attempted. However, effort was being made — at least at the Emerson, Froebel, Jefferson, and Glen Park schools — to meet the minimum elementary, and at Emerson and Froebel the minimum high school, requirements of the State Department of Pubhc Instruction. Beyond these minimum require- ments, each teacher is free to plan and to execute such daily tasks as in her judgment are calculated to meet local and individual needs. The preparation of food for the cafeteria forms the basis of the Gary work whether of elementary or high school grade. There are no cooking laboratories other p^ HOUSEHOLD ARTS 141 than those employed in the preparation of the noon luncheon. The same equipment is used by both ele- mentary and high school students and the same instruc- tor directs both groups. The children help to prepare the food, set the tables, and do the serving, the older pupils being held responsible for the more difficult tasks. Under these conditions, the content of the cooking instruction can be best inferred from typical menus : MONDAY Cream of tomato soup Boiled ham Baked potatoes Tuna fish salad Tomato salad Cup cake Peach dumplings TUESDAY Roast pork Sweet potatoes Stewed tomatoes Cabbage salad Brown betty Chocolate cream WEDXESDAY Lima bean soup Roast beef Boiled potatoes Banana salad Washington pie Stewed prunes THURSDAY Hot roast beef sandwiches Scalloped meat Steamed cabbage Ham sandwich Orange salad Marble cake Steamed pudding Lemon cookies It is possible to cover the field by means of varied menus quite as thoroughly as by means of definitely organized courses, provided the teacher keeps track of what the pupils have done and what remains for them to do. Unfortunately, however, except in one school 142 THE GARY SCHOOLS there were no such records, so that between the absence of records and the frequent change of teachers, there was danger of repetition without progress. The classes in cooking are always small, never con- taining over twenty and averaging from twelve to fifteen. This would be admirable, if the group were homogeneous ; unfortunately, a class in cooking is seldom made up of pupils from one grade and not always from closely related grades. Not infrequently a class com- prises pupils from the third to the ninth grades. To be sure, the younger children, the so-called "helpers," are supposed to assist the older; but their presence renders difficult concentration of attention upon the needs of the advanced pupils. The time allowance for cooking is unusually liberal. On the basis of 2 hours per day for 5 days a week for 13 weeks, 130 hours are offered as compared with 2 hours per week for 40 weeks in the average school system. On the basis of the minimum of i hour per day for 10 weeks, 50 hours are devoted to this subject. But the allowance does not work out in practice. Term lengths vary in the different schools; the instruction periods are sometimes one hour, sometimes two. More- over, the groups are in continuous flux. Pupils are withdrawn in the course of a term; new pupils are ad- mitted irregularly. Thus, for example, eighth grade pupils at Emerson had one hour of cooking daily in the first term of 1915-16, while those who took cooking in the second term had twice as much. At Froebel, on the HOUSEHOLD ARTS 143 other hand, the eighth grade pupils were enrolled for two hours during the first and second terms, but in the other terms for a single period. Again, the helper system extends at Emerson as low as the third grade, but at Froebel not below the fourth. The teachers fall into three groups. Emerson, Froe- bel, and Jefferson have professionally trained instructors. Their salaries range from $600 to $1,000. At Glen Park a regular teacher with slight special preparation guides the work, and at Beveridge a practical housekeeper, with no professional training, is in charge. Practical house- keepers receive from $40 to $65 a month. As stated before, the work in cooking centers about the school luncheon. Many of the children go home at the noon recess; many get their entire luncheon at school, while others bring a luncheon from home, supplementing it with hot soup, cocoa, or dessert. The lunch rooms are open from 11:15 to 1:15. During 1915-16 Emerson served 44,582 persons, including teachers and guests; Froebel, 17,842; and Jefferson, 7,889. The quaHty of the food is good, the prices are reasonable. The average luncheon charge per person at Emerson was 13.9 cents; at Froebel, 14.2 cents; and at Jefferson, 15 cents. The entire operating expenses of the cooking depart- ments, with the exception of fuel and the salaries of the instructors at Emerson and Froebel and half the salary of the teacher at Jefferson, were met from the proceeds of the cafeteria. The experience of these schools thus demonstrates that cooking departments of the Gary 144 THE GARY SCHOOLS type may be operated, after the original capital outlay, without cost to the system, other than for minor items and for the salaries of professionally trained teachers, and may even be made to pay a part of these expenses. A single or simple verdict on the instruction in cooking at Gary is impossible, for there are two sides to almost every one of its characteristic features. For example, the introduction of domestic arts into the lower grades through the helper system revives in a measure the wholesome participation of the child in the activities of the home — an order now all too rapidly passing away. But the helper system, as has been pointed out in other connections, is not free from dangers and drawbacks. Children cannot really gain unless they are helping older persons who fully understand what they are engaged in doing. Too often the older girls do not measure up to this standard. The instructors labor therefore at a threefold task — they guide the older girls, their proper task, keep the helpers out of mischief, and must have the school luncheon ready at the stroke of eleven. Under this burden the capable instructor becomes discouraged; the weak instructor solves the problem by turning over to the practical cook the preparation of the important dishes. So also the cafeteria. Much is to be said in its favor. Pupils learn to work with proper regard for time, to handle quantities, to consider money values, to contrive dietetic combinations. Thus the cafeteria not only supplies the school lunch, but enlarges the scope of school work in HOUSEHOLD ARTS 145 cooking and gives practical point to the child's effort and interest. But danger lurks in the division of responsi- bility. One and the same individual at one and the same time teaches cooking and conducts a commercial enterprise; few persons are equally interested and equally effective in both fields. When, for example, the instruc- tor's attention inclines to the commercial side, the pupil suffers. Little or no risk can be taken with the food, for the quantities are large and the hour approaches. The practical cook therefore scarcely realizes how often she prompts the pupUs or does things for them ; nor does the teacher realize how small a part of the responsibility for the menu is borne by the children. The theory that children must learn to cook by cooking is sound. But, in practice, the importance of the interests at stake seri- ously infringes on educational independence. In the main, the exigencies of the situation tie the pupils to recipes — paid helpers and instructors constantly aiding even when recipes are followed. So wedded are the pupils to recipes that they are well nigh helpless without them. Practical and written individual tests were given to pupils in the higher elementary grades in order to ascer- tain what they could do and with what degree of intelli- gence. They were asked, for example, to cook potatoes, to bake a cake, to prepare a salad or dessert. In a majority of cases, the results were satisfactory, except for the fact that all the pupils used recipes, failures occurring even under these conditions. Written ques- tions requiring the pupils to explain some of the funda- 146 THE GARY SCHOOLS mental principles of good housekeeping — i. e., what are the essentials of a good meal, what are the main classifica- tions of food, what determines the kinds of food needed — were for the most part meagerly answered. Evidently little effort had been made to explain the bearing or draw out the implication of the practical work carried on in the cafeteria. In this respect the same defects were revealed as were remarked by Professor Richards in the industrial work. Obviously, the mere doing of concrete tasks does not carry the pupil far enough to answer legitimate edu- cational requirements. It must be frankly admitted, therefore, that the prac- tical outcome of the cooking instruction at Gary is disap- pointing. It must also be frankly admitted that home making in its well rounded aspects has not been devel- oped, and cannot be so long as cooking is confined almost entirely to the cafeteria. What now of the sewing? Instruction in sewing at Gary centers around the practical needs of the children. Accordingly, no course of study is mapped out. Pupils work on what they want or need to make, or on garments suggested by parents. For example, a younger sister needs a dress, which at once becomes a project, even though the elder sister, who is expected to make it, does not know how. In such a case the instructor cuts the dress, while the pupil looks on. In the making, all the elementary stitches are explained and tried before the child proceeds. Over-refinement of execution is, of course, not emphasized, as the child would become bored HOUSEHOLD ARTS 147 and the mother impatient at the delay in finishing the article. Thus, no time is lost on preparatory stitches or on samplers; the children work from the beginning on real things. Parents provide the necessary materials, or teachers buy them at wholesale and sell them to the pupils at cost. While sewing is optional for high school girls, elemen- tary pupils are required to take a minimum of fifty hours in either the seventh or eighth grade. As in cooking, most of the elementary pupils choose to take more. It was also found that greater numbers were enrolled in the sewing classes than in cooking and at a much younger age. The courses run from ten to thirteen weeks in length, varying with the school. Although the majority of the pupils in the sewing classes come from the fifth and upper grades, pupils as young as those of the third grade are found engaged in class work. They are usually enrolled as helpers, but handled as students. In fact, the helper system is not so conspicuous in the sewing as in the cooking department. Only in rare instances is it employed, in which event, as a rule, the helpers are seated in groups at the side or in the corner of the room. The instructors give them a certain amount of attention, teaching them crocheting stitches, how to knit, or how to put an article of underwear to- gether. They apparently enjoy the sewing room, and seemingly do not annoy or hinder the work of the older pupUs, who have no responsibility for them. At Emerson, sewing is in charge of an academically 148 THE GARY SCHOOLS trained teacher, who also teaches geography and history. At Froebel, the domestic science instructor directs the work. In each school there is a practical woman assist- ant, and these assistants do most of the teaching. This arrangement should bring about an admirable balance. The practical woman learns approved methods of instruc- tion and comes to appreciate the step-by-step explana- tion necessary in guiding pupils, while the professionally trained teacher learns the "short cuts" of trade work. It would be difficult to find a harder working corps of trade assistants than those in the sewing departments of Emerson and Froebel. They teach seven hours a day and are constantly on the alert. The teaching is highly individualized, and, although the pupils are assembled in classes, no two members are likely to be at work on the same kind of article, or to be at the same point even if making the same thing. Each step is taught to the in- dividual child as it comes up. There is no doubt that sewing instruction in the past has erred by too close application to the A, B, C's of technique, and by devoting too much time to drill on valueless objects. Gary has done well to break away from this lock step procedure. But in attempting to construct a course in sewing around personal and family needs, it is quite possible that Gary has gone to the other extreme. The Gary work in sewing assumes that the reality of the task assures the child's interest and that, as compared with this, logical sequence in the tasks set is of inferior tin HOUSEHOLD ARTS 149 importance. The proposition cannot, however, be ac- cepted in this simple form. While the older model exer- cises have been rightly banished, some form of regular progress is unquestionably indispensable. It is the teacher's business to advance the child more or less regularly through the main steps of plain sewing, dress- making, and millinery, with constant regard at each step for what is possible. Ability to do things and to do them well is desirable, but it is also important that children give attention to the kind and character of the garments required for different purposes, to the worth and quality of different fabrics, to dyes, and to a multitude of other matters essential to the proper clothing of a modern family. Owing to the lack of appropriate records, it was im- possible to determine the amount of sewing the children had had or to judge their accomplishments in the light of the amount of time given to their training. Observa- tions of the classroom work and inspection of garments yielded a few vivid impressions. In the first place, the standard of accomplishment is by no means high. In the lower grades this may be due to the fact that pupils with little or no prior experience often begin at once to make garments. Under these con- ditions a finished product of high quality could not be ex- pected. Much of the work of the advanced pupils is also below standard. While it is true that trade work and school instruction differ, still, in so far as the processes are common, the home making standard should equal the ISO THE GARY SCHOOLS trade standard. Gary certainly judges its products more leniently than does the trade. Again, the instruction is hardly calculated to result in capacity to do independent work. Obviously, not much can be expected at the outset of children who begin their school work in sewing with garment making. The dif- ficulty is that throughout the course the teachers are apt to do so much of the thinking that it is doubtful whether many pupils can, on completing their course, put a dress together by themselves. There are, to be sure, excep- tions and for these the system is entitled to full credit. On the whole, however, it remains true that sufficient drill is not given in the principles of garment making, nor is the power to think, as applied to sewing and gar- ment construction, satisfactorily developed. Two written tests were given high school students to ascertain whether the explanatory and supplementary instruction was sufficient to make the practical work intelligible. Such questions as these were asked: Ex- plain a French seam. Give an example of its use. How do you test a pattern? What points should be remem- bered in sewing a sleeve into a garment? The pupils did reasonably well with questions calling for facts and for information related closely to their experiences, but they were weak when the questions called for general information or reasoned answers. In justice to them, however, it should be said that there is practically no class discussion. And in justice to the teachers, it should be remembered that only a small number of pupils were HOUSEHOLD ARTS 151 tested, that the courses in sewing are narrow, and there is no leeway for related work. Though the teachers recognize the value of supplementary comment and in- struction, the opportunities for them are very limited. In the household arts as in the industrial work, Gary's experience shows that mere practical occupation is not alone broadly educative. There are indeed physical, social, and intellectual values in these practical activities ; but the values do not spontaneously and necessarily ac- crue to the individual workers. Rather they require to be developed, and therein Hes the opportunity for the trained teacher and supervisor. XII. PHYSICAL TRAINING AND PLAY^ THE Gary authorities take a broad view of the place of physical education in modern education, giving to it an emphasis double that of the average American city. In the three largest schools, the first four grades ordinarily have two hours of physical train- ing and play daily, and all upper grades at least one hour. Even the very smallest schools give some time to daily exercise and physical recreation. The facilities for carrying out this program are un- usually extensive. Of the nine schools, all except two have gymnasiums, ranging from 600 square feet at 24th Avenue to 7,956 at Froebel. Two schools — Emerson and Froebel — have swimming pools. All have play- grounds, ranging from 5,300 square feet at the two room 24th Avenue school to 84,496 at Emerson. Three — Emerson, Froebel, and Jefferson — possess athletic fields,^ the smallest, at Jefferson, containing 32,130 square feet, and the largest, at Emerson, 173,602. Thus, however small the school and humble the plant, there are out- side provisions for play. 'For detailed account, see report on Physical Training and Play, by Lee F. Hanmer. ^Those of Emerson and Froebel are owned by the city, but operated by the board of education. IS2 PHYSICAL TRAINING AND PLAY 153 Fifteen physical training teachers, as a whole well equipped, have charge of the "play" activities. They receive from $600 to $1,000 per year and average $859; by assisting in special activities outside of the regular day schools they bring their average annual compensa- tion up to $998, The entire amount paid to them for regular day school services amounted in 19 15-16 to $11,825.25, making the per pupil cost for teachers alone $2.09 on total enrollment, or $2.86 on average daily attendance. There is also a supervisor, who, in addition to regular teaching duties, has general jurisdiction over all. His supervisory duties are, however, ill defined, and he has neither the time nor the authority to organi2e and stand- ardize the instruction, with the result that teachers work more or less independently of each other. The staff thus made up covers everything done in physical training. Classroom teachers are not required to give any attention whatever to the subject. There is no marching to and from classes, there are no "setting up" or breathing exercises given in the classrooms, and regular teachers do not concern them- selves about posture. Only in the small schools on the outskirts of the city do the teachers in charge attend to the physical training. It is possible that here and there a classroom teacher, prompted by personal interest in good posture and right physical development, may give some drill in proper walking, standing, and sitting, but no teacher is expected or required to do so. The 154 THE GARY SCHOOLS physical education of the children, therefore, centers almost exclusively in the gymnasium, swimming pool, and playground. The department prefers out of door work, but in prac- tice the gymnasiums are used more than the playgrounds. These are open for classes six hours daily, also for play during the two hour luncheon period and for an hour after school, that is, they are open from 8:15 to 5 o'clock. Accordingly, the physical training teachers have a seven hour day. They teach six hours, look after the gymna-" slums during the two hour luncheon period, and also have charge of the after school play activities. Their burdens are further increased by the large classes which they are frequently called upon to handle. Thus a teacher at Jefferson has six groups a day, in all close to 700 pupils. The separate hourly divisions, varying from 76 to 147, contain boys of all school ages and from the first to the eighth grades. Occasionally, groups of a single class of from 12 to 15 pupils are found, but the larger groups are more common. However, the attendance often falls be- low the scheduled number, because pupils may be excused from play in order to go to the library, to attend relig- ious instruction, or to assist at home, and, further, be- cause one hour of physical training is optional whenever two hours are assigned. Under these conditions, exercises and games suited to each of the different age and grade groups cannot be given. Consequently, "free play" predominates, dan- gerously near to the exclusion of everything else. This PHYSICAL TRAINING AND PLAY 155 "free play" is of an aimless, running about, and "fool- ing" character that has little value except as a means of "letting off steam" and stimulating blood circulation — both of which are desirable, but may be secured inciden- tally in connection with a more constructive use of play time. Even in the brief periods of calisthenic exercises it is not unusual to see several pupils standing idly in their places or taking the exercises Ustlessly and incor- rectly. Snappy, vigorous work is not insisted upon. Hence, much of the physical value of the exercise is lost and the habit of doing work in a slipshod manner is formed. The general aspect of playground and gym- nasium suggests, indeed, not school training, aiming to bring about definite results, but rather the more or less unorganized, though in itself wholesome, play appropri- ate to public playgrounds. Nor can it be said that proper oversight is employed in checking up the work, for the roll is not regularly called and careful records are not available. Physical examina- tions are not systematically made and no record of physi- cal development is kept. Several instances were found of late comers in the high school who were to be graduated without having had any physical training or any atten- tion whatever given to their physical development. The physician in charge of medical inspection has recently undertaken, with some volunteer assistance from local hospital nurses, to make physical examinations and keep records of the physical progress of the children. His chief tasks, however, are to guard against the spread of iS6 THE GARY SCHOOLS communicable diseases, examine for defects of eyes, ears, and throat, and exercise general oversight of heating, lighting, ventilation, and sanitation. The most systematic work seems to be done in the swimming pools, to which all classes go at regular inter- vals. The children are taught to swim and dive, and tests of skill and speed add zest and interest to this branch of the work. Life saving and first aid are also taught and well mastered by drill. Very little use is made of group leaders, although much might be done in this way in handling the large numbers. At times efforts are made to correlate the activities of the play periods with the academic work. For instance, drill in numbers is secured by the use of games which re- quire the players to keep their individual or team scores; points are added, penalties subtracted, totals divided to get averages, etc. The pupil who cannot do this is at such a disadvantage, it is claimed, that he feels the necessity of improving his number work. It also gives him a practical demonstration of the value and applica- tion of his classroom studies. Much playground appara- tus has been made in the school shops and installed by the children under the direction of the physical training teacher. Equipment thus secured seems to be more highly appreciated, and added interest is undoubtedly given to the shop work. For some years certain physical tests for elementary and secondary school boys have been used quite gener- ally throughout the United States. They are known as PHYSICAL TRAINING AND PLAY 157 the athletic badge tests. These are not a complete meas- urement of physical efficiency, but serve as a fair indica- tion of heart, lung, and general muscular development. The tests consist of a run, a jump, and a pull-up. Any normally developed boy ten to thirteen years of age should be able to run 60 yards in 8f seconds, do a stand- ing broad jump of 5 feet 9 inches, and pull up four times. Boys of the next group — those having the development of normal thirteen year old boys and older — are expected to do the run in 8 seconds, to jump 6 feet, and to pull up six times. These tests have been accepted and used so generally that the Playground and Recreation Associ- ation of America has prepared bronze badges to be awarded to boys who pass all three tests in either group, in order to encourage boys to bring themselves up to a fair standard of physical development. The special emphasis given to play in the Gary schools has afforded abundant opportunity for the boys to run and jump, and the bars, ladders, and rings on their playgrounds pro\'ide the means for developing the arm, shoulder, back, and chest muscles that function in the pull-up. As a basis of comparison the scores of 1,100 boys in other cities have been taken. These tests were made in New Orleans, Seattle, Buffalo, and New York City. The conditions under which the testing was done were practically the same as at Gary — that is, the boys were taken in groups from the classroom and all were tested . In the pull-up and sixty yard dash, the Gary boys were in every age group inferior to boys from other school 158 THE GARY SCHOOLS systems; in the standing broad jump, Gary boys of thir- teen and fifteen years of age surpass boys of the same age from other schools. Thus, in twenty one possible comparisons the Gary boys excel in only two instances. How far this poor showing may be due to the presence of newcomers, we do not know. The ability to jump, run, and pull up are not, however, absolutely conclusive indices of general health conditions and all around bodily vigor. Other ways of reaching conclusions on this phase of the Gary school product were sought. The children were observed at their play and in their athletics to determine the effect of strenuous and prolonged activity. It was plainly evident that they were not easily fatigued. Both boys and girls were able to compete in such vigorous and lengthy events as potato races, obstacle races, sack races, basketball and volley ball, without undue exhaustion and with well sustained vigor. This conclusion was borne out by the scores in basketball games with teams from other cities. Prac- tically without exception the scores for Gary mounted up rapidly in the last haK of the playing period, indi- cating comparatively strong power of endurance. Also when "time out" was called and the visiting players would drop to the floor or the benches for a bit of rest, the Gary team would invariably practise passing the ball and shooting baskets. Comparatively low markings in the tests with simul- taneous evidence of a high degree of bodily vigor are not the results that would naturally be expected. But the iM PHYSICAL TRAINING AND PLAY 159 freedom allowed the children and the absence of require- ments of exactitude and finish in their work, coupled with the generous amount of time allotted to play and other forms of physical activity, may easily account for these apparently conflicting results. Which is the more im- portant and whether it is not possible to secure both pro- ficiency and all around bodily vigor are questions open to debate. Certain it is that habits of inexactness and lack of finish in doing work are a serious handicap and that health and strong power of endurance are most valuable assets. The events in the girls' tests are comparatively new, having recently been adopted for general use. There are, therefore, no accumulated records with which to com- pare them. It seemed desirable, however, to make the tests. The girls measured up no more nearly to the standard requirements than did the boys. Yet, like the boys, in the events requiring sustained effort, such as running and catching, the girls gave evidence of unusual power of endurance. Both the merits and the defects of the Gary work in physical training lie on the surface. The time allotted affords ample opportunity for orderly exercises of a cor- rective, body building character, as well as for recreative games ?,nd free play. The facilities and equipment are generous; the teachers, on the whole, well trained and enthusiastic. However, the number of pupils in the in- struction groups is frequently so large that it is impos- sible to give attention to individual needs and to use i6o THE GARY SCHOOLS exercises suited to the widely varying stages of phys- ical development. The result is an excessive use of free play, which too often is hardly more than an aimless running about and scuffling, without definite aim or re- sults. This type of recreation cannot be fully justified on the theory that the schools treat the gymnasiums and playgrounds as public play spaces, although it is true that the long school day includes some of the time chil- dren usually have for free play. Such an attitude is well enough for out of school hours, when, undoubtedly, unorganized play on the school grounds is far better for the child than running the streets. But this is not a sound reason for making a similar use of all school time. Satis- factory bodily training and the cure of individual physi- cal defects cannot be obtained in that way. XIII. AUDITORIUM AND RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION THE modern school, we have been saying, holds itself responsible for the proper development of the entire child. It undertakes to train him thoroughly and well in the fundamental school subjects; to stimulate the development of such special abilities as he may possess; to bring him into intelligent relation with the physical and social world in which he lives; to care for his physical well being. These various purposes are met in different ways. Classroom instruction ac- complishes one set of ends; shops and laboratories, an- other; the playground and gymnasium, still another. As one — not, be it noted, the only — ^method of developing initiative, creating a social spirit and exposing children to a rich variety of stimulating experiences, Gary makes unprecedentedly liberal use of the auditorium. Most large modern schools possess an auditorium where the entire school assembles for a brief period, some- times daily, sometimes not oftener than once or twice a week. The assembly promotes school self-consciousness; exercises are held, announcments are made, occasionally a performance is given. At Gary, however, the audito- rium in the larger schools is, as a regular and active factor in school work, in fairly continuous use during the day i6i i62 THE GARY SCHOOLS by groups of classes; it is as much a feature of the regular school day as the shops, the gymnasium, or the labora- tory. On the educational side, the theory underlying the extended use of the auditorium may be stated as follows: The child is eager for constructive and creative oppor- tunities; he grows in power, in self-control, in interest, in ability to cooperate through doing things with, for, and in the presence of his fellows. The auditorium gives him an incentive to organize and practise activities of every conceivable kind. On one occasion he may, with or without the assistance of his classmates, present to an audience of his fellows the result of his efforts to master a regular classroom task; on another, a program — literary, musical, or dramatic— deliberately put together for the purpose; or again, the entire group may be assem- bled to listen to a lectuFe or demonstration by a com- petent outsider. From this point of view the extended use of the auditorium is based on the proposition that large groups of children at approximately the same stage of development can advantageously be brought to- gether to participate systematically in activities of cer- tain types. There is also another consideration to be kept in mind. The child's development is compounded of positive and definite increases in knowledge or skill plus the enlarging but unorganized volume of contacts, associations and interests which constitute what may be called his mental or spiritual background. If these contacts are varied AUDITORIUM AND RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION 163 and significant, one's general intellectual life is corres- pondingly full or rich; if they are few and weak, one's general intellectual life is meager. Environments vary enormously in the value and suggestiveness of what they thus offer to growing children, just as individuals vary enormously in their absorptive capacity. Generally speaking, a new country is deficient in cultural stimulus; new communities, by reason of their composition, their brief existence, and their pressing practical needs, are likewise lacking in background. The school may, under such circumstances, try to relieve the unfavorable en- vironment by giving the child informally a wide range of insights and experiences. The auditorium at Gary is employed for this purpose. To children whose daily lives pass in the unattractive setting of a new industrial community, the auditorium affords from time to time glimpses of natural wonders, of foreign cities, of ancient ruins. It ministers to the child's vagrant interests and to his appreciative needs. The classroom is not, of course, expected to ignore these interests; but the audi- torium can deal with situations difficult, if not impossible, in the classroom. If, in a word, it is good for children to attend concerts, to go on excursions, to visit factories, to listen to lectures, to take part in plays — even though the precise benefit cannot be measured — then the audi- torium exercise representative of such activities and in- terests has a value, especially in the case of children whose opportunities for enjoyment and enlargement of horizon are meager. This, then, is the second point made in i64 THE GARY SCHOOLS favor of Gary's larger use of the auditorium — that certain types of activity there developed are calculated to enrich the child's experience and to stimulate the imagination. It must be admitted that of all the features of the Gary schools, use of the auditorium on the present scale is the most highly experimental. Of the nine schools, the Froe- bel, the Emerson, and perhaps one may add the Jefferson, each contain a well built auditorium; at Beveridge and Glen Park, a former classroom is used in order to provide a more or less tolerable makeshift; the four small schools have neither auditorium nor regular auditorium exercises. The Emerson auditorium seats 764; the Froe- bel, 833 ; the Jefferson, 234. The acoustics of the Froebel and Jefferson are good, of the Emerson, unsatisfactory, although said to have been recently improved. The problems connected with the management of the auditorium reduce to three: (i) proper grouping of pupils, so that the group in attendance is fairly homo- geneous; (2) management; (3) content of programs. We shall discuss these problems in order. An auditorium group to which a film, a lecture, a con- cert, or an organized performance of some sort is pre- sented need not, obviously, be as homogeneous as a class formed to receive specific instruction. On the other hand, it is not practicable to ofifer intellectual entertainment to a wholly miscellaneous assemblage. Theoretically, the Gary auditorium brings together at any one period groups made up of classes not too widely disparate. The kindergarten and beginning classes do AUDITORIUM AND RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION 165 not usually participate at all. The remaining classes are divided into four groups, grades i to 3 forming one group, grades 4 to 6, a second, grades 7 to 9, a third, and grades 10 to 12, a fourth. This alignment is, however, frequently disturbed, as the auditorium programs of Emerson and Froebel show.^ For example, at Emerson, for the 3:15 period, the group includes classes from the fourth to the eighth grade. Similarly, at Froebel, the 9:15 group comprises classes from the first to the fourth grade, and the 3:15 period, from the third to the sixth grade. However, in the larger schools when lower grade children are listed for audito- rium with upper classes — for example, a fourth grade with an eighth grade — the smaller children do not go to the main auditorium, but report to the expression teacher for half of the period and to the music teacher for the other half. Even with this precaution, the grouping is not always fortunate. The groups vary considerably in size. They range in Emerson from two classes, with an enrollment of 85, to five classes, with a membership of 157; and in Froebel, from five to nine classes, with from 135 to 276 children. These differences do not spring from theory; they are rather the natural outcome of difficulties en- countered in making up the program for the entire school. When pupils provide the entertainment — report on a visit to the city bakeries or on experiments illustrative of class work — the size of the groups may prove a serious 'See page 166. i66 THE GARY SCHOOLS 11 P3 « 3:15 TO 4:15 00 ooS S ■^ CO m -< 2:15 TO 3:15 00 "•^ 00 -t-i U 00^2 T-H i-H o tSoS i«2 ri H " Tj<(M O U5CC rH IM t-H -u rH< a> 50 ^ la T! Or4 ■^ l-S i en ivs • !2 O. . « CU • Ji 3 . CO 3 . «-.«« a «-,.« CI O O c3 O O rt a< . CU M (-1 OQ >- >-< !n 4> W3WCO^HCO«0^tOC^05NC Q "rt p% V5 ^V-^§ >>*D (J APPENDIX 211 and shopmen, is one hundred and twenty one. We ob- served the work of one hundred of these, as follows : SCHOOLS NUMBER OF TEACHERS OBSERVED HOURS (60 min- utes) observed NUMBER OF TEACHERS OBSERVED GIVEN NITMBER OF HOURS 1 2 3 4 Emerson Froebel Jeflferson Beveridge Glen Park . 24th Avenue Ambridge Clarke . . West Gary 23 35 14 9 7 5 3 2 2 57 58 22 11 13 1 2 2 3 17 7 8 1 2 3 2 2 7 13 6 6 3 12 5 1 1 1 Total . . 100 176 45 35 19 1 In addition to spending one hour in the classroom with forty five per cent, of these teachers, two hours with thirty five per cent., and three hours with nineteen per cent., probably an equal amount of time was devoted to talking with the several teachers about their work. B School Records and Reports From the beginning Gary has had a rather complete system of records, covering most of the essential items. It centers about the so-called register teacher, who is supposed to take the school census, to keep all records, and to make all reports for children coming to school from a particular section or division of the city, irre- 212 APPENDIX spective of whether she has any of them in her classes. Current as well as permanent records are stored in the rooms of the register teachers. The principal seldom has in his office more than a list of pupils in school and the register sheets of those who have dropped out. Such reports as the register teacher makes concern her dis- trict; they are almost never summarized by classes, by schools, or for the system as a whole. Without published reports for the system and without summaries for the several schools, except on enrollment and attendance, we were thrown back for the needed educational data on the original records of the register teachers, and such reports as could be procured through regular class teachers. The task of collecting the needed data, most of them from pupil record sheets, was a pro- digious one, often complicated by the incompleteness of the records and by differences which had to be reconciled. For example, different reports on class enrollment did not agree; the age and grade of pupils as given by the register teacher and by the class teacher were often at variance; similarly with reports on the length of time children had been in the Gary schools. Methods of Computing Over Age and Differences IN Results There are a number of recognized methods of com- puting age-grade status, notably those developed and APPENDIX 213 employed by Ayres,* Strayer,^ and Bachman.^ Inas- much as these methods yield different results, all three were employed in computing the age-grade status of the Gary children. The age-grade status of the Gary children according to these methods is as follows : METHOD PER CENT. UNDER AGE PER CENT. NORMAL AGE PER CENT. OVER AGE Ayres^ .... Strayer^ Bachman^ 42 8 22 33 67 40 25 25 38 iThe ages of the children were taken as of June 23, and the status determined before promotion. 2For details, see Table XXXVH, Appendix D, page 2S4A. The fact that the reported age-grade status of chil- dren differs according to the method of computation employed would not be so important if there were at hand for each method an abundance of reliable compara- ble data. Unfortunately, such data are exceedingly meager. For example, Ayres computed in 191 1 the age-grade status of the children in twenty nine American cities.^ When first published, these data were excellent for com- parative purposes, but they are now largely antiquated. To illustrate, Ayres reported in 191 1 48 per cent, of over ^The Identification of the Misfit Child. Russell Sage Foundation, 1911. *Age and Grade Census of Schools and Colleges. Bulletin of the U. S. Bureau of Education, No. 5, igii. 'Elementary School Administration. World Book. Co., 1915. eo ^ -^ «o C<1 CO 00 1-i c-^ ^ t-^ CO CO CO CC (M (M (M ;d 5£> «o t> 00 c- ;o co n 0«0 -^ 05 U3 00 CO 10 ;0 !£> C- 1X1 C- Z < w E3 oj eo c CO CO '-H t- 05 CO CO CO t- CO eg --I laiaiac^i oTt-To eg Tjt CO "-I CO 00 W3 5 tn ^ . ..-2 ^ .ti *j nl bO S «Uo'2 S.S S ■u >» -(r! rt — J C hc «S rt « >- ,«5 rt rt > 2l6 APPENDIX < < Q H I— I « H S z c«DOi o t-H CO T-H Til Tl< CO I— 1 eg o e^C^co GIRL 9 and YEAB U3t-I O ICC^-^ \a T-\ I-l T-H lO -^ -^ '- 5000 t~ C£> -"^.T^io \a> p <-l Oi CO »— ( "^ ,-1 U5 CO CO 00 Oi c OrfOi tH ^ C:}<■<* i-H .-( (M T-^oo \a t-i— it~ .-H Z Cq t-rHCDOiOO •>* OTl* 1 ^^ o ■ d • ■ ■ I- c e C . O . .'C en 'S en OJ rs orke 1 Sei ce. Pe peci 1 ;ulture . ufacture: illed Workei miskiUed W borers . . sportation e . . . ic Service . ;ssional and sional Servi estic and rvice cal Service, pationnots 8 "rt o ,o H <;^ hh(i^ph o oo APPENDIX 217 o z Z Ee) OCO?CU5t-(i-((M l|(M.-l(Mr-( ||.-ICJ(M ^ en S 2: W W <^ £i « S W P M > < cr H .. 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" u § 3 £S "^ ^ ^ is f ° i| 224 APPENDIX > ooc-coO'^OTjfaj eo c 00t-rl<0005ai0i ■ 00005 oocoioos NO eow eo > oooo5ociio-^i coos eo s oooaio«0(MOiOi coos eo " oo5a5CT50»-iiot-3< eg CO 00 CO eo . 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OF TOTAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TIME Rank of Different Subjects I Physical Training and Play . . a Drawing and Manual Training 3 Auditorium 4 Reading 5 Arithmetic 2,697 1,605 1,600 1,323 958 798 567 496 339 329 238 188 62 24 14 14 12 9 6 Language 7 Science 8 Spelling 9 History 10 Writing 1 1 Geography 1 2 Music 13 German 7 5 4 3 3 2 2 1 Rank of Conventional Groups Special Subjects: German Music Auditorium Drawing and Manual Training Physical Training and Play . . . 62 188 1,600 1,605 2,697 1 2 14 14 24 Total 6,152 55 The Fundamentals: The Three R's Geography History Science 3,904 238 339 567 35 2 3 5 Total 5,048 45 The Three R's: Reading Language Spelling Writing Arithmetic 1,323 798 496 329 958 12 7 4 3 9 Total 3,904 35 Total 11,200 100 APPENDIX 229 TABLE X Length of School Day est Cities Having Population of 100,000 OR More HOURS IN SCHOOL DAY NUMBER OF CITIES 4i 1 4^ 2 4f 3 5 31 5i 7 61 3 5f 2 6 1 Total 50 The length of the school day reported is that for the upper grades; the common tendency to shorten the school day in the primary grades bj^ a quarter to a half hour is ignored. TABLE XI Length of School Day in Cities Having Population Between 25,000 AND 50,000 HOURS IN school DAY NUMBER OF CITLES 4i 8 4f 7 5 47 5i 22 5i 22 5f 5 6 8 61 1 Total 120 The length of the school day reported is that for the upper grades; the common tendency to shorten the school day by a quarter to a half hour in the primary grades is ignored. 230 APPENDIX Pi o a 2 a a Pi w uj y < ^ S 9 z w ^ lOOCDlOCJ C^ t-rfCOOS OOtDOOOOO CJ00'«1 O CO CO CD as WCOU5 Pi ' ^ c i; -r .ti ?=p^ oj 5^ APPENDIX 231 Ttfi-HOi- H « ) 1— 1 1— 1 r- < a ' s r-iC^'*'*'^ i ir > I— ( 1— 1 Cv 1 ir > 1—1 t~aj t- 1^ c > 00 «D 05 00 (N oc to CO 00 00 o- c ) Tl<^ cc 00" ca 00 u5 1> rt rt hS ^M -r; S C §^ c3 bi pj ^1 < en C U ■p'c , H In i^H c -§. .3 u H O) 1 So^S' .2^*^ H-S^^ ■§12 - 3 !J ■^ 3 " ^ ,A-0 "> CC/2 S-^ •::•= ty, ■the grad e for Sx, > •* ■J .>J M MOO i£.2j= 2 > >;.-s ^ J3 =« S 'C.U 4j CJ °-it ^g£^ -a^>-'5 ■"■7; > Ilarvari ational 1 each nd not = &.S -/Z-= 1 ta S 11 -^ J3 ^ u ^.^ Set; S-C = K. gi-9 ^ 0) 1> •— 2 ^ « 1) bO * t;-a enry W earbook erage all ities tea CIS S tg^l a2"3.c i>H a J3 ca "^E-a -a ^£5^ c-^ S om t! the 5 the r bra V tj-a t; C-- ca i-1 —.a gtl .-a-- !« l-a " ?i >• >>-S3 °U>-5 **-*r! rt ta ".n were ntatr ragi t to a '■" P.S £ c lii •= K^ 1 i •r; & u c 5 cI3 tative 1 s in Re : report le assig they al esen rade: ment grad a o-s c g|l cC-S MO S'S^ fty re sand ge alli avera ether ^|5 « 2 on the fi Subjecti he avera nt is the ve of wh e data ition of on. T allotme i^i >s u (J rt 1= SI'S ■s; = t; u 11 232 APPENDIX AVld QNV OKUaVHi IVOISAHd S2 CO oooo oooo wnraouonv s CO oooo oooo CO CO CO CO oisasi in o o 1— I Q ONuovax TvajWH ONV ONIAiVHa CO oooo ooo-^o 1-H«>C^CO O < aDN3I0S o o CO o 14 W id AIOISIE W AHJVHOOaO CO 2 3I13KHiiaV o U5000 t- liO lO lO CO >-H »-( I-l otaira.vi CO OU0OU3 lO t-l0t- OfanadS 1— t lO lO lO T— 1 T— ( aovnoNVT CD 1— I OOICO T-H UO CO lO OMOvaa iniooo oomcoio K ti oi CO ^ rC o 3 -o rt rt ti C Uh ^^ < (jj ^ ^ ^ ^^ APPENDIX 233 10 I— 1 00 coco 1—1 1—1 U5 t- 00 00 000 000 CO 00 00 COCO 00 00 coco ec CO 000 000 CO CO CO CO 00 00 coco 00 00 coco CO 000 Oi (Ji Si mo (NO U3 00 00 «5?D iO T-t to 00 00 1—1 00 00 1— I 00 U3 COCO 010 OCO i-ICO g T-t 10 10 CO CO 1—1 as 00 OU3 00 T— 1 1— 1 uo mu3 (M< ^ Q -* a « fa 2 f^ ° S ^'^^ o '^ ObH >> o c c o .an >% t« cj „. !^ § ^" M 4) rt C (" C ••5 236 APPENDIX £ W 1— I i-H r-H a o o o CO T-l to 2 t- O >-. *^ -c '^ -n o b o u ^ . Oca; .2 3 APPENDIX 237 TABLE XVII Preparation of Ejndergarten Teachers' 'Exclusive of i not reporting. PREPARATION NUMBERS Standard High School 2 years' additional special work 3 " " " " . . 7 4 3 Standard Normal School 2 No additional special work 2 Part College 2 2 years' additional special work 3 " " " " . . 1 1 Standard College. . . 1 No additional special work 1 Total 12 238 APPENDIX H S TVIOI K-l - 1£ 'HOllrt ifl om-< t^-rN.-< = t^M'-i 5 ONIMIVSl TVDISAIU oi'uTj- '^i'^::: '"'^i - ;- ; M -N • ■* Aonxs aiuuvN — ; MM • • M OISflK - ; - N ■ -rt '^ - - - ;- ; in ONlMVaa TVDIKVHDaH -- : : --- : : CM ONINIVaX TVQJWH -- : MM ; \ . _ . CO SXHV oiOHasaoH ^^ -- ; ; — \ \ COM ; ; HSOMONVH : ': : --;;;; •^•O' \ - :- : - \ \" t>. ONiMvaa ONVHSaiU : : : "^ : : :'^ : N -^ M'^ CM NoissaacDca ONV Karaoiicmv •> r 1 ■f ir ■c 1 a ir CO ■r. O M °=^ 1 X. E c t 11 No additional special work 2 years' additional si)€cial work . . . 3 " •' •• "... 6 " " " "... 8 " " " "... 1 If \ k c ] i: c S.2 tr, o 1 i ! t ir H o-o > o>. 1 1 < I 1 s o- li 1.1 ;'S2= 1 < APPENDIX 239 TABLE XIX Prep.^ration of Shopmen prepar.\tion Elementary School 25 j-ears' trade experience 17 " " " 14 " " " 4 " " " '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.. Part High School _ 17 years' trade experience 12 " " " 5 " " " Standard High School 25 years' trade experience 16 " " " 10 " " " Total 11 240 APPENDIX ONiMnnu IVDISAHd WM-HCOM ONIAiVHa oMVHas&i N0ISS3HdX3 pmiHoiionv Nairvoaaaxix 100H0S AHVXKaKaaa avxaoaH O . — . .^^c-i- • — w M --I r: w . aOOHDS HOIH M ■rjMM -^HNi-ieONOO avxioaa ; sTVdiDierad .HU a 111 < rt -^ M M ■<<' in «D t^ X o zaiuvN M « oisnH - -:-::--:::'- in ONiAvvaa TVOIXVHOaK : i M ;- ;- ; i ej OKINTVal TvaxvH — : i i : M i CO sxxv aioHasaoH M -:::-::::- saojiojcra ;-< j-^^ ; ■'-•-< jri f^ APPENDIX 241 ^ t-l & ^ u 2 a; H Oi >-l m < H B OOTNIVSI Slav aiOHasnoH HHOMONVH ONi.ttvaa ONVHaaai N0iss3Hjxa ONV Koiaoxiaxiv KaiHvoaaoNix lOOHOS AHViNiRaia avinoaa lOOHDS HOIH aviQosra 7VX0X sivaiDNraj o 3 X ■ -H CO in rt M -H xanis aaaxvN - - ;- : J M DISilK M ;-- : ; ;- in ONIAlVHa IVDMVHOaW - -^ : : : M •MM -^ --H -H^CM ■ --^M ■*- N CO CM -H-O —1 X CO CO CJ C^ -* ^ «3 -^ — I N •-I COM-Hr-I,-! — 242 APPENDIX ill M^ 1 CO t^ f~ >-iC-l-<^ LO LO I — g^i ^^ 1 -, LO LT £ o Hi •^^ri 1 (CXt^CO CO O 3 fl M « 6 h ^ Cq-HM CO 00Z,$ n LOIM .-H -- 039$ -■ -- CM 009$ N Ot>.-H CO CO LO B' .2-^ 92 < a ■C c; .5 c Sg S<£wK22Sz£ lo «t« 244 APPENDIX « g 1 1 ^ ^ (Weak) (Average 1 ^ o ooo ooo 8 to o in ITS o o m LO o ia ccccoo oocioi tH g '-t 1 r-l T— 1 T— I 1 rl r-( tH ^f g €«■ 1 1 M O 1 OOO 1 OOO O 1 (TJ IC -* 1 t^ C£> 05 rH » C <>_ eo CO -^ 1 T}< lo U3 t-_^ T" -T 1-4 r-TT-H 1 T-l TH tH 1— ( ««■ 1 1 W ' 2 C 3 OOC > ooo C 5 05 lO a 3 Tl< t~ CO IM c ^ OiO^C ^„ '~1.'~1.'H co_ ■i rH 1—1 i-T e/ 9- c > OOC > OOO c 3 CO lOC- ] ^ CO t- CO c: 5 CO t~ t- 00 t-00 05 e/ 3- ^^ u; i lOU5> U) C rt rt tc rt 'C TT C t- t- ' — " — c C/5 ^ ^ CJ to rt rt > _c cccr. H ■5 OOo (MC 3 3 c^ X oot- o t~t> i> O ■^ (MCD-^ tO^'* •^ 2 "5 O ' 'a-c-a 'O'^-C 'T3 H c c a c c c ^^■c. i-l rt rt rt rt rt rt i; ^H rt 2 o ceo o c o -~ p> o o c o ooo t; u ^ js-a rC 3 s "^ o --^ u Ti T! ~ ■*-' m cntTjin cTv (/: CAJ OJ rt >t u, U I-. ti U Ua u ^^ 3 7i rt rt rj J2 J5 J3 rt 2 ,0 3 3 3 3 "3 "3 "3 *3 C^l 8 t£ tC t£ M w tu; tc to O K O 000 « « »:; p< P^«P< P< 1 APPENDIX 245 TOOHDS AVQNnS 'xHOiN 'Avoranxvs ONV 'xHOiM 'Avcraaxvs 1—1 1—1 1-1 CO iH CO t- O >H rt t^ >^ Ij M'C PQ bO .s bC ^ .S 2 ' 03 y S ^ u d tj « r; ii; " u. " - j3 ii ^ "S X 3 5^ C 3 ni o bO looHOS aaiviuns "^ .■^<>i .'.'. '.■r-^ '.'.'.'.'. ' QNV IHOLM lOOHDS aaHMilS ONV Avcranxvs COOJvn) • • (M • • 1—1 • • CO 1—1 -lOOHDS XHOIK aNV Avcraxixvs "^lO cqi-ico -(M I— 1 tH • 00 00 CO 10 lOOHDS ; (M (M rH :::.;:;;; : aartPins TOOHOS XHOIK ■(MOJ -t-Hi-KMt-I ■ ■ i—t ■ 1—1 00 1-1 lOOHDS AVcranxvs •IOCS t~ • • (M ■ • 1-1 ■(Mi-I IVNOIXiaOV OM • -* 00 10 to ■ ■ rH • 1-1 ■ • 24^ APPENDIX «)«50l0^^c^M^3^J■>tNX f->n -NCMi-i ^3 M M •3 : c -.2 C/3 ■ s School entary nd Exp ! 61 in C B tu c 1 J! £ d cj 2 ^•=" •^•,3 t. I. ti-S S g S — 'S ^J3 S = 2i~ 2 rt u 2i J Kind Audi c 11 1 ^ 3 2 1 ^ H APPENDIX 247 M 2 s ^ M « w w f^ p^ H 2 w w < g ^ m o ^ „ < t, < pi i^ o S < ^ s ^ « Q 2 s 1— ( 1— I CO Tjl r-l 1— I T-l l/3COCOt-(M'— lt-|iX>00O5'<*00 cDco-^iMoasTHt^cot-oas T-T T-Tr-T i-rT-ri-ri-Tr-r T-iaioooioooot-iooi oiooiOiniooiooasiMio (MoooooioooosO'-iasoooo COOiU3c>0C t^fi •= S M •r ♦J a u ^u to S[85 S «g^ ]5 .c3 > 3 CO-H 3 ^ '.a •^ oJ S ■^010 ifl 2Sca = rt5 I Id •TN il 5^ If U £3 M N|f2 S w — in MM M oot^-^ in <02t- g3S« -9 •J < •^M Jh 1^ gs R ^ i a: ^ as-' 1 « ■•5 £ •1- ^ gsie ?? N(»M H to-* T-l •^1 5 C-, gjtOtO to ?:]=^ tS •6 c si D CO ocnci to XWM ^ rt ■3 11 -- LI t~ N I-M ■•»• L. U t^in rH Si t^ tONt- r--rto .s§ >.] r'^'i^ M w-i-r u u t^LO i-H >> o3 1 ■" CS 2 to ''^jpp a ^t^Oi CO 00 in t-iinr^ c:*5 •2 u °-- F-'S J2 c • c ci • rt — ^ •^1| .2? fc^ •c c 1 0(1 in Public S toil in Public (0(1 in Priva oliDols rtod in Priva ■ C-S ■/. ,- V il S u .2 > 11 i II i4 r ■^^5^^ ;§ 3 — \, 1,.^ -x 2-0 « - *- ?? UTS. 1=^5 eg 1) -, 01 E 1 lie II - "g Q. APPENDIX 249 S < ■<* 5 t- ?i «c ^ Ci^t- CO i-l rH ^ T-T CO (NOOCOOOOOOt}io tr- io «o i-i CO «o CO IM 'A CO (M CO ■"tt-o^tocoooco^ Oi i-i CO C5 lO CO C3 < eO'-H iM lO -<#-^«MtH-^0000t-ICD tH U5 00 10 ci .;- > '-' •SAh ^ cJ Public, n Publi Work . t Work. Home, t Home ated d in tedi d at ed a d at ed a fied ified >-!Ui_aj*jTt tj uiUie>-i-'-'i-*Ji-i*J OSJ^OCOJClUC 3 1-4 Ah ^ i 3 ^ 1 1 25© APPENDIX o fp ^ 1 < U5U5 ■ OOIOtH moo 1-1 oi t>> H CO ■ in coco 1— t O 1—1 CO H a o 00 iHcom ■ t- < >< a T-t 1— I • CO(M • t^ t- CO«D • -COtJ* ■ cocom ■ o rH • • 1-1 ■ COr-( • 00 13 « ;£) i-l«0 ■ •■<* t- • iHOi-iCO CO o »— 1 T-t • • 1-1 • CO 1-1 00 ■ U3 • t- • ■ Oi-H • CO com in i-l • • • 1-1 •(N in ■ eO(NU3 C< n o T— 1 T^ CO CO rH Oi t- «D ■ CO CO in t- 1-1 t- T-l (N in 1—1 CO rH T-l CO t- (M CO Tt< (M iHOit-CO 00 pq CO 1-1 00 00 O M NN • -M ■--I'^rHi-l-* • ■ ■ • 00 CO ' « d w Jgsg ■^ CTi in OC O O T« [>■ M ^H 1— ( ^H cqcoooooc^. co>-icociin— I'* t^»C0O-*N-*Ol0lrt-*0)OCqtD o ^ c^ ■* (o ;o LO Tt< m^r-ii-i i-H -is oi m ^o ■* Ti> CO CO th "S o """""^ . g.a *« o ll ^ 5 ^- w .S S ^ of . ^ , ■ . -■ o-=-c J o $£ _. 4 o -^ ^- t*" ° o c.s c — K *:; O f' c '^ rt'S c:_.2_n " E " 1 1 1; 0_r3 o 5— g -J i-' C) § yi 9 '^ ■^ - c-3 .S -5.- " O ~ ^ . 4J .w— o >>— •- i^l Ifilil o Ttj'S ^ c t -• !3 <^ mC.£j3— «•= S 30 o d g D w " ov2 ~E 0-5 o o ^ :S ^ u 7; '^ _b "-^ G =; ~ cJi 2 3 9 o ^ S 5!'"^ M^ 5-0 g £ «i c ° a^-'lS^ 5gSBi||g^ =^o_«°g^^j| 3 So c w g— u :: "u o^ E = 5:?v5 ° .5 p-ii 3 ^-i; ^ " o *J " S c S-^~ — '"^ ^IS&iIIeI o^.s c_ C-- ^j - 2 rt-, 3 ^0 pS' »S- 3 S^ 4) H S c.S c^ c>s c^ 252 APPENDIX H S n^cioo^oo'^Cf^'^n^'-KOyr -?5 N r.^ N t-i T -? M -r 1-1 ^ gSS|8 o-. — o«o-*«oaix-■ PO n i-l r-l NO)Nr^p-^'-'int~ot-tOM O00O0000O00OlrtNM00Nt^eM00O«D CM ,H r-l i-lrlWrCNMr-CNCOinCO ^1 K^ 50inOOONt^Nt^'*CTlin0500>--< CO to -T -a-T CO CO irt c^tOr^f-iLr)fOoO'<3't COTCCCi— it-Ot--^— 'OCOOOtOlN c ■^fiirtLO'i'^coMroc^r-i T ■2^t 2d to 8tii Grades for School Ye\r 1915-16 BY Days NLTIBER PER CENT. CLTJULATRTE DAYS OF PUPILS OF TOTAL PER CENT. enrolled ENROLLED ENROLLMENT ENROLLMENT 200 2,214 82.5 82.5 190 up to 200 30 1.1 83.6 180 up to 190 45 1.7 85.3 170 up to 180 19 0.7 86 160 up to 170 23 0.9 86.9 150 up to 160 22 0.8 87.7 140 up to 150 31 1.2 88.9 130 up to 140 17 0.6 89.5 120 up to 130 36 1.3 90.8 110 up to 120 15 0.6 91.4 100 up to 110 32 1.2 92.6 90 up to 100 9 0.3 92.9 80 up to 90 25 0.9 93.8 70 up to 80 15 0.6 94.4 60 up to 70 49 1.8 96.2 50 up to 60 14 0.5 96.7 40 up to 50 33 1.2 97.9 80 up to 40 22 0.8 98.7 20 up to 30 24 0.9 99.6 10 up to 20 7 0.3 99.9 1 up to 10 2 0.1 100 Total. . . . 2,684 100 100 ^Enrollment includes all pupils on register in grades 2 to 8 at the end of the year, except 40 of unknown length of enrollment. The first grade was excluded because in some cases, where pupih were promoted from the kindergarten, the record of enrollment included the days h)Oth for the kindergarten and the higher grade, but quite as frequently account was taken only of the days in the first grade. Eight hundred and eighty -eight first graie pupils were thus eliminated; the cards showed, however, that 573 were enrolled the entire year of 200 days. Withdrawals were excluded because there was no way of telling, in most cases, whether they entered early or late. TABLE XXXV Attendance by Periods of Enrollment' Days Attended Total Enrolled Given Number OF Days Per Cent. OP Attendance FOR Each Lnterval OF Enrollment Davs Enrolled 200 190 OTTO 200 180' "19™ 170 160 UP 10 170 160 160 140 150 130 140 120 130 110 120 100 110 90 100 80 90 70 80 60 70 60 60 40 UP TO 50 30 40 20 UP TO 30 10 20 1 10 200 190 up to 200 180 up to 190 170 up to 180 160 up to 170 160 up to 160 140 up to 160 130 up to 140 120 up to 130 110 up to 120 100 up to 110 90 up to 100 80 up to 90 70 up to 80 60 up to 70 50 up to 60 40 up to 60 30 up to 40 20 up to 30 10 up to 20 1 up to 10 79 8 i4 6 613 7 3 348 2 16 1 141 7 4 8 3 7 3 7 6 8 3 36 ■9 3 3 9 1 1 5 2 3 6' 7 5 2 2 1 11 7 3 7 1 2 i 3 3 16 7 6 16 3 3 "i' 1 20 5 i' i' 1 1 3 3 3 4 "6' 1 18 5 .... 1 8 16 2 29 3 "1' "2 10 13 1 14 9 "2 6 11 21 3 6 1 2 2,214 30 45 19 23 22 31 17 36 15 32 9 26 16 49 14 33 22 24 7 2 92 85 87 90 87 91 90 88 90 89 90 92 93 92 93 90 87 87 91 94 100 Total attending given number of days 79 890 623 367 163 104 60 49 31 40 36 27 19 29 29 34 26 24 40 11 3 2,684 92 iFor children included in this table, si o Table XXXW. The per c t hy the sum of the total days enrolled. AOES TABLE XXXVn AND Grades of Eleuentaby Childken 1 1 GUDE Ages by Years and Months 5:4 OTTO 6;8 OT^TO 6 6:4 6:4 ^:8° 6:8 7 7 UP TO 7:4 7:4 OTTO 7:8 7:8 OTTO 8 8 OTTO 8:4 8:4 UP TO 8:8 8:8 OTTO 9 9 OTTO 9:4 9:4 9:8 9:8 10 10 To™ 10:4 OTTO 10:8 10:8 11 11 11:4 11:4 11:8 11:8 12 12 12:4 12:4 T2™ 12:8 13 otto otto 13 13:4 13:4 OTTO 13:8 13:8 OTTO 14 14 OTTO 14:4 14:4 OTTO 14:8 14:8 16 15 15:4 15:4 15:8 15:8 OTTO 16 16 T6™ 16:4 UP- TO 16:8 16:8 17 17 17.4 17:4 Total IC IB lA .2C 2B 2A 8C SB 3A 4C 4B 4A 6C 6B 5A 6C 6B «A 7C 7B 7A 8C 8B 8A Graduates r s 1 ' 2 16 57 61 17 35 43 10 20 17 2 10 27 5 1 13 39 4 6 18 23 19 3 5 8 19 14 11 2 6 11 10 8 13 19 1 2 4 6 IZ 6 16 20 "5 1 2 2 8 19 13 1 1 3 2 3 6 8 14 24 "2 2 3 7 4 6 . 6 17 21 1 1 3 6 6 4 9 "l 3 7 14 10 10 15 1 2 3 ■"4 6 2 4 11 11 18 3 "1 "l "i a 2 7 6 6 11 6 14 "1 "2 6 2 6 7 'I \l 8 9 10 "2 3 3 14 2 4 14 3 ■ 2 3 4 11 2 2 8 6 16 "1 "2 14 '4 9 4 8 "i 1 "i 1 "5' "6 3 9 7 10 "i' "i' 1 "2 1 4 6 2 6 7 ? "i' "i' 1 1 4 3 2 4 4 2 ' i' "i' "i' "i' 1 .... "i 2 a .... 1 "i' "i' ■2' "i' 5 .... .... "2 T "1" 4 1 ■ "2 r T i 147 Id 6 4 41 31 68 ■■ 12 10 2 2 i 28 46 41 58 I 1 3i> 25 14 ^33' 9 4 5 336 21 10 6 1 2 22 19 45 178 12 7 10 2 1 14 26 24 114 21 34 200 ll 7 10 3 "1 11 17 38 178 IS lo ■'2 1 2 la 21 16 149 10 6 5 1 23 12 5 4 3 1 i 2 1 ■ 6' "2 2 5 6 3 5 6 11 ) 212 9 11 7 2 S 17 27 129 18 6 3 2 14 20 7 1 2 "2 "i 4 3 2 3 7 138 2o 3 12 2 1 1 2 "i' 8 4 5 7 E27 7 6 6 6 "2 1 S 15 15 58 12 11 3 "1 13 114 l7 10 5 1 2 1 1 1 12 10 4 IS 9 3 4 2 i 1 139 9 4 3 4 1 5 82 10 4 6 2 ' 1 11 10 4 8 10 1 1 4 96 8 10 5 " 10 107 6 6 9 1 1 12 7 76 18 71 17 1 2 8 " 18 9 2 ft 119 1 1 6 1 3 18 15 4 10 9 9 39 8 6 95 Total. . 1 11 35 145 163 170 184 168 182 166 186 164 150 129 141 136 118 125 125 117 120 91 104 97 89 69 60 66 31 29 11 15 9 3 2 1 3,413 Theeleine thoKforoitaii Inasystcn Wcuccoiudou Qtatysc igthegr having • oithc * 1 enroll] eesub-1 htcm jade if di vt Tabl ons.li Atbis. ba uoft lasli be > voidab the scbool year, exclusive o£ 70 defectives, 93 colored cbildren. a? pupils o( unknown CTade. and 9 of unknown age. The axes of the children are as of August r, roi6. and the grades as after pronation ia June, that is, as of the beginning of the school year 1916-17. The age.grade standards are ge limit for completing the elemenuiy course, thus making the normal age for entering the iC grade 6 up to 7. d< PQ < ii eoo-^trxM 00 (Ncofoiaco CO H U 1- NioeoTjtia o ^* ^ ^* CO ^* ■Nt- 1-1 «OCO«D«0 00 1-1 M iH 1-1 1-1 «0 tH eo^ i-T (d hJ □ < r, uscoTf ci«ci t- s a H OS O T-i CJ lO CO WCsKMCOC^ co_ i-T M w a .-l-*«0'*0 lO Q O lO l-H T-H C-) jz o o o .• UD o d C M M >j merso everid roebel utlvin < 1 h: "»r^ pqfi O APPENDIX 2S7 r^ ^^ t-0i'<*00O000irJ<(N i-H o o TH CiOCiOOi'^O^^Cs :5 S K i-H W rH N r-( rH co^ g t/2 2 ■^ r-l ■»!<'* lO 1— I as 1—1 1-1 < "* § en 1 §"* < |g U5lO(M-^OU3 1—1 "*. z T-l CO c^ g ^[^5 D ^ w h-) CO l-l s CJ Qco >< ^ ►, Pi < ** § eoooeo?oot-OT-4iH 05 1-1 z 1-1 C U3 Tjt CO CO (M -H 3 ^ Z Tl'i-IOO'-UDC-Oi'^Tt Oi ClOC0i- 00 o 1-1 1-1 7-1 1—1 t- «£> >A t/ M a. >-! ■t-j a < a !? r-i 0^ n -^ *^ aovao Hig aaaaxKa :COa5 lOCDCOCOCgcgCJi-l cg eg 3T aaas aAoay ssovaQ LX3 OHAV aasKiix OU5Ot^C£>C0«Di0O ioeou5oooc5-^oo T-l 1-1 eg CTfcoio TliO-<4<-<*C0Cg'-l e^ co" u 1-1 eg CO ■<* io «o t- 00 3 c u APPENDIX 259 w < C H >< S CAJ o S !=' o 5 O , « w § « S '^ u< u >< H M Z H fcj < 1 g 00 « pi< H ^ H < 2 « H f-i ot-00(Mi-IOO (N H (MC0CC!t-WiMiyD (^ hH ,-HIMT-l,-(r-(WCOCO t-- 00 r! O APPENDIX 261 ^1 Hi O o s CO O H < d H W ft H < « ft H 00 03 t-?D(M'<*>-(00O00U3 U5-^TiiC0O300 rt o 262 APPENDIX TABLE XLIV Agj:-Grade and Progress of All Elementary Pupils^ Progress Age for Grade PER cent. RAPID PER CENT. NORMAL PER CENT. SLOW Now Under Age Now Normal Age Now Over Age 51 12 9 34 36 18 15 52 73 Total Per Cent 19 29 52 «For basis of this table see note to Table XXXVII and to XLV. APPENDIX 263 s pq H 2 2 f^ a CD CO t-00 ■^co iraco >> o O -M c ■33-^ ° 2 3g 264 APPENDIX TABLE XLVI Total Terms Enrolled and Total Terms' Credit, All Chlldren, BY Grades 1 Grade Total Terms Enrolled Total Terms' Credit Net Terms Per Cent, or gained lost gain loss 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Graduates 1,273 2,603 3,608 3,854 4,025 3,537 3,089 2,206 1,392 522 1,950 2,971 3,497 3,566 3,349 3,016 2,264 1,464 ■'58" 72 751 653 637 357 459 188 73 I 5 59 25 18 9 11 5 2 Total. 25,587 22,599 2,988 12 APPENDIX 265 eo(Mco05C* w '5l< N ao ^^ eo«o->*coTi< -i-H • 1— 1 0^ (M g -<<< < ^05 t~-^kO(M-<*eocoeo y-k in"^ CO w CO W < hJ U f-"Tl< -=t (M CO 00 i-H (M IM • t> ow 1—1 CO w ^ T-t !i-i •^ 00 CS ^ C