Ex Libris C. K. OGDEN A TREATISE ON WINES. GEORGE BELL & SONS LONDON: YORK ST., COVENT GARDEN NEW YORK : 66, FIFTH AVENUE, AND BOMBAY : 53, ESPLANADE ROAD CAMBRIDGE : DEIGHTON, BELL & CO. A TREATISE ON WINES THEIR ORIGIN NATURE AND VARIETIES WITH PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR VITICULTURE AND VINDICATION BY J. L. W. THUDICHUM, M.D. F.R.C.P. LOND. LONDON GEORGE BELL AND SONS 1896 First published December 1893. Reprinted in Bohris Scientific Library 1896. PREFACE. THE publishers of this treatise had intended to arrange a new issue of the work on wines of the late Mr. Cyrus Redding, 1 which had been so well received by the public that it went through several editions. But it was found on approximating the proposition to execution, that not only had time enlarged and altered many parts of the subject, but that as Mr. Redding's work had been written mainly for a political economical object, which had been fully attained by the legislation of 1860, its argument was exhausted and its cycle of life complete. Such a work could not practically be revived by rearrangement to meet the demands of the present time, and the publishers therefore desired me to compose a new and independent treatise of similar dimen- sions. In view of the exhaustive treatise 2 which I had published jointly with Dr. August Dupre*, and of the studies which I had instituted subsequently, and communicated in part in my Cantor Lectures, 3 delivered before the Society of Arts in 1873, I was glad to have an opportunity of treating the subject in an abridged and more accessible form, for the 1 "A History and Description of Modern Wines." Third Edition. London, 1860. 2 " A Treatise on the Origin, Nature, and Varieties of Wine, being a complete Manual of Viticulture and CEnology." London, 1872. 3 " On Wines : their Production, Treatment, and Use." Six Lec- tures. Reprinted from the Journal of the Society. London, 1873. 2000106 vi PREFACE. cognizance of the public as well as the use of traders, of medical practitioners, and of that part of the inhabitants of naturally favoured colonies and other English-speaking countries, who have begun to look to viticulture as a legitimate and permanent branch of agronomy. The work is strictly scientific as far as it reaches, but by the exclusion of ultimate technical details concerning viticultural, or ceno- poetic, or chemical analytical processes, and of statistical accounts of production and trade, it is more adapted for reading than for decisive reference. Savants, traders and other specialists, who desire final information, should consult the treatise quoted above, which it may be confidently asserted rivals any treatise in any language, either as regards fulness and originality of information, or as concerns correct- ness and effect of technical elaboration. The present treatise, within the limits ordained for it, can make a similar claim to confidence, as no accessible means for imparting the utmost value to its contents have been left without con- sideration by the author. In the history of the culture of the most important nations wine takes a significant place, and is eminent over all other beverages, as well in its daily trivial as in its festive and solemn use. It rouses the higher faculties of thought, memory, and imagination, the poetical forms of all phases of the mind ; it increases the zest of life and its duration. Subordinate, but of similar significance in the given cases, are its powers to remove pain and cheer "and strengthen the heart in processes of recovery from fatigue, injury, or illness. Compared to the benefits which wine confers, the harm produced by its misuse is truly insignificant; even its sym- bolic role has protected its physiological mission, and ought to increase and secure that protection for all time to come. In the work of my late father, " Grapes and Wine in the PREFACE. Vll History of Culture," 1 will be found an almost poetical appre- ciation of this part of the history of civilization, clothed in diction reminding of Tacitus by brevity and significance. It presents one of the pleasing aspects of the process of culture, as it does not include the record of any conflict of opinions concerning the practice of past centuries. Sixty- seven authors of antiquity, arranged alphabetically from ^Elian to Xenophon, contribute the materials for this appre- ciation, and sixty-seven modern writers, from Anton to Welles, treat the subject either expressly or passim, and thus accumulate an amount of ethical testimony for which we moderns have to be highly grateful. The technical literature, on the other hand, comprises some hundreds of volumes, of which I have scrutinized all that are of any importance or originality, and those in my possession occupy several yards of shelves. To a number of these works reference will be made in the text, e.g., to the works of Guyot, p. 195 ; of Bronner, ibid. ; to Dr. Batt's, Von Babo's and Metzger's publications. But it is incompatible with the proportions of this treatise that I should give a bibliography, still less an account of the contents of the works alluded to, much as I should like, and well able as I should be to perform the task. I therefore confine myself to a few short indications of the most prominent writings, in order to aid active minds who should like to institute independent inquiries. French cenological literature in general is voluminous, and includes many works of interest and importance. Amongst these are the " Universal Ampelography " of Count Odart, 1 Thudichum, Dr. Georg, " Traube und Wein in der Kultur- gescluchte." Tubingen, 1881. Published after the death of the author as "the last graceful bequest of his always active Muse," by Professor Dr. F. von Thudichum, of Tubingen. viii PREFACE. the " Ampe"lographie Franchise" of Victor Rendu, works which mainly treat of the natural history and cultivation of vines. Amongst the best known works on the art of making wine are those of Count Chaptal, peer and minister under the Bourbon dynasty, who treated the subject from the chemical standpoint. The work of B. A. Lenoir consists of a first viticultural and a second osnopoetic part. The work of M. C. Ladrey (1857), like that of Chaptal, embodies mainly the application of chemical principles and is the best French work of the middle of our century ; it represents the practice of the Bourgogne, in a town of which, Dijon, the author was professor of chemistry : to it is appended a use- ful bibliography. The work of Maumene, " Sur le Travail des Vins," is also chemical, but treats also with great detail of the physical conditions called into play in the production of effervescent wines. The works of Pasteur led to great developments in the knowledge of the nature of the diseases of wine, which were recognized to be the result of the invasion of fungi, and of the means for their destruction by the skil- ful application of heat. The vineyards and wines of the Medoc were described at length by W. Franck, by D'Armailhac, and by Ch. Cocks, re-edited by E. Feret (1868). This latter contains many sketches of habitations called "chateaux," and thereby approaches to an illustrated traveller's guide, for which indeed Cocks had originally in- tended it ; other parts of France have not been so explicitly treated, and on some important areas, e.g., the Moselle valley of Alsace-Lorraine, the French vine-crowned muse has remained silent. Spain counts only few cenological publications; first amongst them is the work of Clemente, "On the Vines of Andalusia." Useful encyclopaedic works are those of Morales, who was formerly secretary to the Spanish Board of Agri- PREFACE. ix culture ; of Tablada, an author of merit, almost the only one who gives original information on Spanish wines in general. A work by Arago opens with an extensive descrip- tion of Spanish vines; to the cenological part is appended a discourse on cider and on beer. Of special monographs one by Barreto, a physician of Madrid, on the wines of Jerez deserves special notice. Of Portuguese works we have to notice a series of exhaus- tive " Reports on the Viticulture and Wines of Lusitania," published by its government in 1867, which fill a large octavo volume, but owing to the want of systematic arrangement and of indices are difficult to peruse. Another Portuguese official publication was ornamented with colour-printed plates representing the principal vines and their fruit in the elegant style of the modern French Duhamel, but the costly enter- prise was not completed. Amongst Portuguese monographs on special subjects, that of Oliveira, jun., " On the Phyl- loxera" (Porto, 1872), is meritorious and well illustrated. Concerning Italian wines the period of the Renaissance had more and better authors than the present time. An authoritative summary description of Italian wines was published in 1869 as a result of their exhibition in Paris. Many British authors have left us works of interest and value. One of the earliest was Sir Edward Barry, a physician at Bath, and afterwards state-physician to the Viceroy of Ireland. Dr. Henderson's " History of Wines " was published in 1824, that of Redding in 1836; the works of M'Culloch ("Commercial Dictionary") and of Busby (" Travels ") gave much useful information. Forrester, " On Port Wine," appeared in 1854, Tovey's work in 1862. The sale of the contents of the cellar of this scientific and accomplished wine merchant, which took place after his death, a few years ago, at Bristol, realised remarkably high X PREFACE. prices. The work of Mr. T. G. Shaw was distinguished by original information, and by the endeavour to lighten what he thought a heavy subject by the buoyancy of much poetry. Sheen's work also was a creditable performance, though, like most authors who attempt to treat didactic scientific subjects in what I may be allowed to call a belletristic manner, its writer rather diluted his essence by the intro- duction of anecdote for the diversion of the reader, as Shaw imported poetry. The late Dr. Druitt's writings were intended to popularize cheap wines, and in this direction they have had a certain amount of success, particularly by making the public better acquainted with the effervescent wines of the valley of the Loire. Sir J. Emerson Tennent's essay, "On Wine, Its Use and Taxation," 1855, was mainly directed against the reduction of the import tax on wine ; it was an able diplomatic and economical memorial, and much of its argument has been borne out by modern developments oi" the wine trade. Wines of Australia were for the first time scientifically described by the Rev. John I. Bleasdale, in one of the so- called "International Exhibition (Melbourne, 1872-73) Essays." Much useful information was at one time collected by the Parliamentary Committee on the Wine Duties, which is embodied in two volumes of Reports of Evidence. The annual reports of our consuls are also valuable sources of information, particularly on statistics of commerce and pro- duction. It is to be hoped that the political movement for the expansion of the wine trade which was begun in 1860 may be continued in the future, and obtain the hygienic results which its promoters endeavoured to secure. The art of making wine must include as an integral part the art and PREFACE. xi science of prwcnting its diseases, those remarkable parasi- tisms by the agency of which great volumes of originally excellent material are ceaselessly and irrecoverably spoiled and lost. When this art and science shall have found systematic application, the present insecurity of viticulturists and traders will disappear, and the public will be able to obtain excellent wines, such as at present are beyond the reach of most people. When wine on its field shall be as good and cheap and accessible as bread now universally is in this country, the striving of politicians and men of science will have been rewarded by the success, which will add another pillar to the great edifice of modern freedom and civilization. CONTENTS. SSCTION PAGE CHAPTER I. ORIGIN, GEOGRAPHY, AND HISTORY OF VINES. 1 . Definition and Etymology of Wine I 2. Origin and Descent of Vines 2 3. Origin of Cultivated Vines 9 4. Fossil Vines and Grapes 10 5. Geographical Distribution of Vines on the Northern Hemisphere I 1 6. Viticulture in England in Mediaeval Times 13 CHAPTER II. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL AND VINES. 7. Mineral Constituents of the Vine and their Relation to those of the Soil 15 8. Influence of the Soil on the Mineral Constituents of the Vine . 18 9. Functions of Mineral Ingredients of the Vine 18 10. Amount of Mineral Matter which Viticulture Abstracts from the Soil . '* 19 11. Organic Ingredients and Chemical Development of the Vine . 20 CHAPTER III. PRINCIPLES OF VITICULTURE, GENERAL AND SPECIAL. 1 2. Soil favourable to Viticulture 23 13. Manuring and Improvement of the Soil in Vineyards ... 24 14. Methods of Propagating and Multiplying the Vine .... 24 15. Propagation by means of Eyes, or Buds 25 1 6. Propagation by means of Cut Canes 25 17. Propagation by means of Layers or Slips 26 18. Grafting of Vines 27 19. General Principles of the Cultivation of the Vine 28 CHAPTER IV. VINES AND VINTAGE. 20. Varieties of Vines to be selected for Cultivation 33 21. Selection of suitable Species of Vines for Wine-Making . . . 36 22. Vintage and Vinification 38 23. Time of Vintage 38 24. Modes of Vintage 40 25. Separation of Stalks 42 26. Mashing and Crushing 43 X ; V CONTENTS. SECTION PAGE CHAPTER V. PRESSING AND VINDICATION. 27. Wine-Presses f|id Pressing 44 28. Fermentation of the Wine- Must 48 29. Various Modes of Correcting the Composition of Must before Fermentation 50 30. Plastering of Wine and Must 52 31. Probable Object of the Practice of Plastering 53 CHAPTER VI. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF WINE. 32. Ethylic Alcohol 54 33. Alcohols homologous to Ethylic or Common Alcohol ... 56 34. Aldehydes 56 35. Acids formed from Alcohols in Wine 56 36. Compound Ethers 57 CHAPTER VII. ANALYSIS OF WINES. 37. Mode of ascertaining the Strength of Wine by the Specific Gravity of the Distillate from it 57 38. Distillation 58 39. Quantation of Alcohol in Wines by Indirect Means .... 59 40. State in which Alcohol is contained in Wine 61 CHAPTER VIII. ACIDS IN WINE. 41. Varieties of Acids in Wine 63 42. Chemical Estimation of the Quantity of Acids in Wine . . 69 43. Estimation of Tartaric Acid and Bitartrate of Potash in Wine 70 CHAPTER IX. ETHERS OR BOUQUET OF WINES. 44. Varieties of Ethers in W 7 ines 72 45. OZnanthic Ether 73 46. Tartaric Ether 74 47. Quantation of Ethers in Wine 74 48. Theory of the Limitation of Ethers in Wine 75 49. Smell, Bouquet or Aroma of Wine 77 CHAPTER X. SUGARS IN GRAPES AND WINE. 50. Varieties of Sugar occurring in Grapes and Wine .... 79 51. Grape-Sugar, Dextrose, or right-turning Glucose .... 80 52. Fruit-Sugar, Levulose or left-turning Glucose 81 53. Invert Sugar 82 54. Inosite or Phaseomannite 82 55. Testing Wines for Sugar 83 CHAPTER XI. COLOURING, ASTRINGENT, EXTRACTIVE AND MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF WINE. 56. Glycerol 86 57. Colouring Matters 87 58. Ammonia 91 59. Albuminous Matters 91 CONTENTS. XV SECTION PAGE 60. Tannin . 92 61. Extractives 93 62. Mineral Constituents 94 63. Total Solid Constituents of Wine 95 CHAPTER XII. WINES OF THE GIRONDE. 64. Divisions of the Gironde 96 65. Vines Cultivated in the Medoc 98 66. Modes of Cultivating the Vine in the Medoc 101 67. Vintage in the Medoc 104 68. Various Qualities of the Wines of the Medoc 107 69. Classified Growths ... 108 70. Consumption of Medoc Wines . . 112 71. The Graves 114 72. Red \Vines of the Graves 116 73. White \Vines of the Graves or Sauternes District . . . . 116 74. Vintage 117 75. Description of the Wines 120 /6. \Vines of the Hill-sides or C6tes of the Gironde 121 CHAPTER XIII. WINES OF ROUSSILLON AND LANGUEDOC. 77. Wines of Roussillon 125 78. Mode of Production of Muscat Sweet Wine 129 79. Mode of Production of Malvoisie and Maccabeo Wines . . 129 80. Vineyard of Perpignan 130 81. Summary of the Wines of Roussillon 130 82. \Vines of Languedoc, or the Midi of France. Topography and Soil 131 83. Vines Cultivated in Languedoc 132 84. Distinguished Growths of the Departments of the Aude and Gard 134 85. Remarkable Growths of the Herault 136 86. Remarkable Muscat Wines 136 87. Manufacture of Spirit distilled from Wine, called " Trois- six" and "Eau-de-Vie," at Montpellier 137 88. Markets for the Sale of Spirits 137 89. Designations of Spirits of various Degrees of Strength . . . 138 CHAPTER XIV. WINES OF THE EAST OF FRANCE. 90. Wines of the East of France . x 139 91. C6te du Rhdne 140 92. Chateau-neuf-du-Papc 141 93. Vineyard of St. Peray, Ardeche . . 142 94. Vineyards of the Ermitage 143 95. Vineyards of the Beaujolais, Maconnais, and the Chalon Cote 145 96. The Beaujolais 145 97. Vines, Vintage, and Classification of the Wines of the Beaujolais 146 xvi CONTENTS. 4SCTION PAGB 98. The Maconnais. General Division of District and Soil . . 146 99. Predominating Vines 147 100. Mode of Cultivation, Vintage and Treatment of Red Wines . 148 101. White Grape-Vines, and Character of their Wine .... 148 102. C6te of Chalon-sur-Saone 149 CHAPTER XV. WINES OF BURGUNDY. 103. General Observations on the Wines of Burgundy . . . . 150 104. Viticultural Districts of Burgundy 151 105. Varieties of Vines planted in Burgundy 152 106. Mode of Cultivation 153 107. Vintage . ^ 155 1 08. Vatting and Fermentation *. 157 CHAPTER XVI. WINES OF THE CHAMPAGNE. 109. Wines of the Champagne 160 no. Wine-producing Part of the Champagne 162 in. Cultivation of the Vine in the Champagne 166 112. Value of the Vineyards 166 113. Varieties of Vines grown in the Champagne 167 114. Vintage in the Champagne 169 115. Pressing, Fermentation, Cellaring, and Fining of the Wine . 171 116. Drawing into Bottles, or Tirage 174 117. Clearing of the Bottles of Yeast, or Disgorging 175 1 1 8. Liqueuring, Corking, and Finishing 175 119. Qualities of Champagne and Quantities produced .... 177 1 20. Historical Note on the Discovery of Champagne .... 178 121. Production and Variation of the Mousse 179 CHAPTER XVII. WINES OF THE VALLEYS OF THE LOIRE AND CHARENTE. 122. Wines and Vines of the Valley of the Loire iSl 123. Mode of Cultivation 182 124. Wines and Brandies of the Charente 183 125. Varieties of Vines producing the Eau-de- Vie of Cognac . . 183 126. Mode of producing the Eau-de- Vie of Cognac 184 CHAPTER XVIII. WINES OF THE UPPER RH;NE AND MAINE VALLEY. 127. Wines of Alsatia 186 128. Wines ofjthe Palatinate, or Rhenish Bavaria 188 129. Mode of Cultivating the Vine 189 130. Prevailing Vines 190 131. Wines of Rhenish Hesse 191 132. Wines of Franconia, or the Upper Maine 197 133. Wines of Baden, Wurtemberg, and Hesse, North of the Maine 194 CONTENTS. xvii SECTION PAGE CHAPTER XIX. WINES OF THE RHEINGAU, OF THE LOWER MAINE, AND OF THE MOSELLF. 134. Wines of the Rheingau. Historical Note 196 135. Topographical and Geological Note 196 136. Varieties of Vines cultivated in the Rheingau 197 137. The Steinberg 198 1 38. Marcobrunn and Johannisberg 200 139. Vineyards of Rudesheim 202 140. Wines of the Lower Maine, or Hochheim 202 141. Wines of the Moselle 203 142. Cultivated Vines and mode of Training 204 143. Peculiarities of Moselle Wines 204 CHAPTER XX. WINES OF AUSTRIA. 144. Wines of Austria 205 145. Red Wine of Voslau, near Vienna 206 146. Wines and Grapes of the Tyrol 207 147. The Tyrolinger, or " Black Hambro " Vine of the Tyrol . 208 148. The Grape-cure at Meran 209 149. Wines of Styria . . 210 150. Viticulturists of Styria 211 151. Varieties of Vines Cultivated 212 152. Vinification, Pressing, and Quality of Wine 213 153. Wines of Croatia 214 154. Wines of Dalmatia 215 155. Varieties of Vines and their Cultivation 216 156. Wines of Istria 217 157. Wines of Gortz 217 158. Wines of Bohemia . 218 CHAPTER XXL WINES OF HUNGARY. 159. General Observations 218 1 60. Viticultural Districts of Hungary . 219 161. Varieties of Soil on which Vines grow in Hungary . . . 220 162. Varieties of Vines and Mode of Cultivation 220 163. Vintage and Vinification 222 164. Classification of Hungarian Wines 223 \6$. Wines of the Banat, Woiwodina, and Syrmia 225 CHAPTER XXII. WINES OF SPAIN. 166. Vineyards of Jerez de la Frontera 226 167. Climate of Jerez 231 1 68. Extent and Position of the Vineyards 231 169. The Balbaina Districts 232 170. New Plantations, Young Vineyards, Majuelos .... 234 1 7 1. Annual Labours in Vineyards 236 172. Productiveness of Vineyards 240 173. Prices of Vineyards 240 b xviii CONTENTS. SECTION PACK 174. Principal Vines most commonly Cultivated and their Distribution in the Pagos 243 175. Pruning of the Vines 247 176. Rarer Varieties of Vines 250 177. Vintage The Lagar Pressing the Grapes Pisa .... 252 178. Further Description of Pagos, their Soils and Vines . . . 258 179. Further Description of Jerez Vines 259 180. Classification of Grapes, in the order of their Quality for Making Wine 262 181. Eastern, Southern, and Western Group of Pagos .... 263 182. Moscatels 269 183. Density of Jerez Mostos 270 184. Sulphuring Azufrado 272 185. Temperatures of Fermenting Musts 274 186. Stages of Wine, and Qualities 276 187. The Criadera. The Solera 277 1 88. Colours of Sherries Arrope, Color or Vino de Color, Dulce 279 189. Evaporation of Wine from Casks. Flor 283 190. Scuddiness, Viscosity, Nube and other Diseases of Wine . 285 191. Finings 286 192. Tinajas. Casks 287 193. Bodegas and Want of Cellars 289 194. Notes on the History of Viticulture and of the Trade in Wine at Jerez 293 195. Vineyards of San Lucar de Barrameda 295 196. The Algaida and its Indigenous Vines 297 197. Vineyards of Rota. Tintilla de Rota 299 198. Wines of the Val de Penas 301 199. Wines of Catalonia 302 200. Wines of Valencia, Benicarlo, Alicante 302 201. Wines of Granada, Malaga 303 202. Wines of Aragon and other provinces of Spain, Majorca, Minorca 304 CHAPTER XXIII. WINES OF PORTUGAL. 203. Vineyards of the Alto Douro 306 204. Vines of the Province Entre Douro e Minho 307 205. Soil of the Alto Douro District 308 206. Topographical Notes 309 207. Modes of Planting and Training the Vine 310 208. Vintage and Modes of Vinification 311 209. The Lagar, the Press, Treading the Grapes, Fermentation . 312 210. Remarks on this Mode of Vinification 313 211. Elderberry and Logwood 314 212. White Varieties of Wines produced in the Alto Douro . . 315 213. Transport of Alto Douro Wines 316 214. Change in the Taste of the Public as regards Port . . . . 319 215. Wine Country of the Bairrada 320 CONTENTS. XIX SECTION PAGR 2 1 6. The Vineyards around and near Lisbon. Vineyards of Collares 322 217. Vineyard of Bucellas 323 218. Wines of Torres Vedras Lavradio 324 219. General Features of Portuguese Wine-Making 324 CHAPTER XXIV. WINES OF THE ATLANTIC ISLANDS, MADEIRA, THE CANARIES, AND THE AZORES. 220. Wines of Madeira 329 221. Varieties of Vines and their Cultivation 329 222. Wines of the Canaries and the Azores 331 CHAPTER XXV. WINES OF ITALY AND OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA. 223. General Observations on Italian Wines 332 224. Wines of Piedmont and the Island of Sardinia 333 225. Wines of Tuscany 333 226. Wines of Lombardy, Venetia, Central and Southern Italy . 334 227. Wines of Sicily 335 228. Wines of the Balkan Peninsula 336 229. Wines of Greece 336 230. Vines cultivated in Greece 337 231. Vinification 338 232. Islands of the Greek Archipelago, Santorin, Ionian Islands, Candia, Rhodes, Cyprus 339 CHAPTER XXVI. WINES OF ASIA. 233. Wines of Caucasia 341 234. Wines of Persia. Shiraz and its Vines 342 CHAPTER XXVII. WINES OF AFRICA. 235. Wines of the Cape of Good Hope. Vines ; Mode of Cultivation 345 236. Qualities of Cape Wines and Importation into England . . 346 237. Principal Viticultural Districts and Estates in the Cape Colony 347 238. The Constantias 348 239. Wines of Madagascar 348 240. Wines of Morocco 349 241. W 7 ines of Algeria 349 242. Wines of the Nile Valley 349 CHAPTER XXVIII. WINES OF AMERICA. 243. General Observations 350 244. Indigenous Vines of North America 350 245. Vines Cultivated in North America 353 246. Rise of Viticulture in America 354 CHAPTER XXIX. WINES OF AUSTRALASIA. 247. General Observations . 355 XX CONTENTS. SECTION PACE CHAPTER XXX. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON WINKS. 248. Rating of the Wines of the World 356 249. Active Ingredients of Wines 361 250. Use of Chemical Analysis of Wine 364 251. Use of Wine to the Healthy and Sick in Youth or Age . . 367 CHAPTER XXXI. DISEASES OF VINES AND OF WINES. 252. Diseases of Vines and their Treatment 370 253. Diseases of Wines, their Prevention and Cure 377 A TREATISE ON WINES. CHAPTER I. ORIGIN, GEOGRAPHY, AND HISTORY OF VINES. i. DEFINITION AND ETYMOLOGY OF WINE. WINE is a beverage obtained from the juice of grapes by fermentation, composed of alcohol, ethers, acids, water, and peculiar agreeably-smelling ingredients, which some term aroma, others, with more reason, bouquet. Fermented beverages are obtained from many other materials besides grape juice, such are the sap of different palms, the Mexican pulqiie^ from the stem of an agave, the sap of the maple, birch, the Homeric lotos, 1 and all kinds of sugar-con- taining fruit and berries, honey, corn, rice, vegetable roots, including manioc. 2 Such drinks have also been termed wine, but generally distinguished by prefixing the name of the vegetable from which their main character was derived, e.g., gooseberry-wine. 3 The name wine comes from the Indo-German orient ; in Hebrew it occurs asjatn, in Ethio- pian as warn, in Greek as oinos, not improbably pronounced woinos in Homeric times, 4 Georgian Caucasian ghwins, Latin, vinum ; this last name is repeated in the Romanic languages with only a modification of the terminal syllable. From these names, which are only a selection out of many, pointed to delusions of intoxication. (Plutarch, " Sympos." vii. 10.) 2 A TREATISE ON WINES. it has been concluded, and with no small degree of certainty, that viticulture and the preparation of wine have been intro- duced to western nations from the orient. The Greek mythos of the migration from India to Hellas of the wine-god Dionysos point to the same conclusion. 2. ORIGIN AND DESCENT OF VINES. The vine is older than all history, and indeed older than humanity itself, as is evident from the occurrence of its fruit and leaves in deposits formed during geologically so-called tertiary times, which are far anterior to any trace of human existence. It grows in a so-called wild or unculti- vated state in many parts of the old and new world, in the valley of the Rhine, of the Danube, as well as that of the Orontes in central Asia, and that of the Amoor at its eastern end, in Italy, Sicily, and Portugal, in central and northern America. Many wild vines bear no fruit at all, others bear uneatable and useless fruit, others again, sour or sweet and eatable berries. 1 The assumption therefore that cultivated vines were derived from one particular species, the vitis Tint/era, and that wild vines were degenerated offsprings of this native of Asia is not tenable. Candolle, 2 who has made such a deep study of the origin and distribution of plants, particularly those which are cultivated by man, does not think it practical to derive a distinction between vines from the fact of their being " cultivated " or " spontaneous," but he declares Armenia to be the land in which the species originated. 3 As a reason for this opinion he adduces the fact that in Armenia the most gigantic vines, with stems of the thickness of the human body and the height and expanse of large trees, produce without cultivation grapes of good taste. 4 But vines of similar size are known to have grown in Campania, on the Caspian Sea, in Cashmir, on the Lebanon, where in the last century there were yet vines 1 Meyen, " Grundr. d. Pflanzengeographie." y Alph. de Candolle, "Geogr. botanique raisonnee," p. 872. 8 "Patrie originaire de 1'espece," /. c. * Cf. Gervinus, " Histor. Schriften," Bd. vii., 177. ORIGIN, GEOGRAPHY, AND HISTORY. 3 with trunks six inches in diameter, bearing bunches of the weight of twelve pounds. 1 Meyen on the other hand believes Cyrenaica to be the fatherland of the vine. In the presence of the theory of evolution it would not be difficult to com- prehend a derivation from one original species, or from several varieties. But the discussion is not likely to be conducted to an acceptable conclusion, as the scientific data for its consideration are too scarce and too imperfect. We find in viticultural literature many allusions to, or even descriptions of, wild vines. Thus Crescentius, who lived in the thirteenth century at Bologna, and wrote a compendium 2 on agriculture, mainly after the ancient Latin authors, Palladitis and Columella, stated that he had met with many varieties of wild vines in Italy, which appeared to him to be peculiar sorts ; and Clemente 3 re- cognized the peculiar character of the wild vines of his country, and believed them to be indigenous to it, and con- sequently to have existed there previous to the introduction or origination of the cultivated species. He expresses him- self as opposed to the limitation of botanists who assume the original existence of only one vitis mnifera and refer all other varieties to a play of nature. He describes different kinds of wild vines, perfectly characterized, as growing in the Algaida,a sandy district near San Lucar de Barrameda, mainly grown over with sea-pines. Of this district and its vines, the so-called garanones, the reader will find a special descrip- tion under the chapter referring to Andalusia, entitled " The Algaida and its Indigenous Vines," in which the author has embodied the results of a special visit made to the locality. In the southern parts of France, in Provence, Languedoc and Guyenne, wild vines are met with on hedges, in jungles, or in woods and forests. According to Duhamel 4 1 Schulz, "Diary of 1754," ed. Volz., "Beitrage zur Kulturgessch," 1852, 52. * Petrus de Crescentiis, "Opus ruralium commodorum," Augsburg, 1471, Louvain, 1474, and many other editions in various languages. 3 Simon Roxas Clemente, Director of the Botanical Garden, Madrid, in his work, " The Vines of Andalusia." * Duhamel de Monceau, " Traite des Arbres fruitiers," p. 212. 4 A TREATISE ON WINES. they differ from the cultivated varieties by their leaves being in general smaller, and more cottony on the surface, and particularly by their fruit being much smaller, and of a less soft and sugary taste. These wild vines, to which the ancients had given the name of Labrusca? are yet known in the present day in the south of France under the name of Lambrusco and Lambresquiero. With Gmelin begins the scientific diagnosis of wild vines. In elaborating the Flora Badensis he observed that the wild vine frequently occurred in the dioic state, that is to say, that some plants were male, and bore no fruit, while others were female, and bore fruit provided they stood in the neighbour- hood of male plants. He described such plants botanically and gave them a separate place in his treatise, under the title of vitis sylvestris. In most botanical works which ap- peared subsequently to Gmelin, the vitis sylvestris is quoted after him, but the discovery is mostly neutralized by the observation that the vitis sylvestris was nothing but a de- generated vitis vinifera. Other botanists, including Reichen- bach, fell into the error of confounding the American vitis labrusca, as accepted by Linne", with the vitis sylvestris. These errors were removed, and the observations of Gmelin were re-established and expanded by the distinguished cenologist, J. P. Bronner, of Wiesloch near Heidelberg. He studied these children of the forest in their natural haunts, the woods which border the marshy shores of the Rhine between Mannheim and Rastadt, where they grow by thousands; he visited them in early summer-time, and selected from innumerable individuals the types of inflores- cence, and multifarious forms of leaves; he marked the places of their abode, and returning in the fall, saw and tasted the grapes, which had then come to maturity. After devoting years to the observation of the several constant varieties, he took cuttings from them and planted them in his garden at Wiesloch, in order to observe their bearing in 1 Linne does not seem to have been acquainted with wild vines of Europe, for he applied this ancient name or adjective of theirs to an American indigenous vine, the first variety which he admitted by the side of the vinifera. ORIGIN, GEOGRAPHY, AND HISTORY. 5 the state of cultivation. (I visited this vineyard in 1866, and examined a considerable number of these children of the Rhine marshes. 1 ) Bronner had thus planted thirty-six varieties, when in the year 1842, a very favourable wine- year, most of his plants bore very perfect fruit, and brought it to the utmost maturity. None of these plants had changed their original character by cultivation. He caused accurate pictorial representations of their fruit to be made. Already, during the time of blossoming, he had obtained faithful portraits of the flowers, leaves, and branches, partly by a kind of nature-printing, and when these were coloured by an artist, the whole formed a complete botanical atlas of the wild vines of the Upper Rhine valley. 2 At the same time Bronner made an accurate botanical diagnosis of, and attributed a suitable Latin name to each variety, and arranged the whole as a special system, based upon the construction of the flowers, and the formation of the fruit. The inflorescence of these wild vines shows three distinct forms. A considerable number of plants exhibit only a male inflorescence without any umbilicus capable of fructification ; in the place where there should be a beginning of a berry there is a yellow receptacle filled with honey. The plants showing this peculiarity produce an enormous number of blossoms, each of which is several inches in length, and with its long yellow stamina and terminal pollen bags resembles a brush such as is used for cleaning bottles. The flowers distribute a most agreeable odour around the plant. 3 A certain number of the other vines have exactly the same inflorescence as the cultivated vines, they are hermaphrodite, with long projecting yellow stamina and pollen bags, and an umbilicus capable of impregnation. The leaves of these vines differ but little from those of the cultivated varieties, but the fruit has a different shape, and a different chemical nature, being often very acid and sometimes quite inedible. 1 Cf. Thudichum and Dupre, /. c., p. 4, footnote. a This atlas is now in the Library and Museum of the CEconomical and Agricultural Society of Baden, at Karlsruhe. 3 Compare with this description the account which Pliny gives of the "CEnanth." A TREATISE ON WINES. But the great majority of individuals as well as species of wild vine have a most peculiar inflorescence, differing con- Fig, i. Inflorescence of hermaphrodite wild and cultivated vines. (Magnified.) Fig. 2. Inflorescence of male or sterile wild vines, with open honey cup in place of fruit. (Magnified.) Fig. 3. Inflorescence of female or fructiferous wild vines, with recurved stamina. siderably from the two forms just described. On close examination of an active blossom of this class it is seen that the ordinary so-called crown or cap, which the cultivated ORIGIN, GEOGRAPHY, AND HISTORY. / vine always sheds completely, is actually detached, but remains hanging upon the flower, while the stamina are bent downwards below the basis of the future fruit. The stamina become, as botanists technically term them, stamina recurvata, and thus greatly differ in appearance from the stamina erecta of the wild unproductive variety above described, and of the hermaphrodite wild and cultivated plants. Bronner surmised that the plants which show the stamina recurvata were unable to fructify themselves, but required the male plants with stamina erecta for impregnation. The transfer of the pollen from the male to the female individuals, which are mostly standing at a distance from each other, is very probably effected by the agency of insects. American vines also occur in the polygamic as well as in the dioic state. Monographers do not admit this to be a characteristic feature, but hold it to be an accident to which any variety of vine may be subject. In some vineyards of the department of the Ain, in France, a variety of vine is cultivated which is termed the mescle. It has long bunches of oval grapes and deeply lobated leaves, mostly with five divisions. Each of these divisions or lobes is provided with a considerable expanse of vegetable membrane on both sides of the principal so- called nerve in every case in which the plant is fertile ; but a leaf with a narrow strip of membrane on both sides of the nerve indicates a sterile plant ; such a leaf resembles that of a Virginia creeper. By these peculiarities the plants can be easily distinguished from each other, even at a distance. The absolutely and always sterile plants of the mescle vine are termed by the vine dressers plants craputs. They grow luxuriant branches, and the apparently crippled cha- racter of their leaves is no indication of any general want of vigour. Their cuttings and pro-vines are as sterile as the parent stocks. The French imperialist viticultural author, Guyot, 1 was as unable to account for these phenomena as were the vine-dressers; but these latter did not dare to 1 " Rapport sur la Viticulture de 1'Ain," pp. 137. 8 A TREATISE ON WINES. totally extirpate the sterile mescle from the vineyard, al- though they abstained from increasing the number of indivi- duals. The sterile mescle is no doubt the male, and the fertile its female variety, with probably hermaphrodite plants intermixed. Bronner classified the hermaphrodite indigenous wild vines of the Rhine valley ; his list comprises twenty-eight varieties, of which the details may be consulted in his original work. 1 Not a single bunch of grapes was met with which could be said to be similar to or identical with any variety of the cultivated grapes of the Rhine valley. The grapes were mostly black, and amongst many thousands of plants only three were found bearing white fruit. Of these latter one had acid, the other moderately sweet fruit; the third bore delicious orange-flavoured grapes. The bunches of the two first white varieties were loose, pendulous, and carried long small berries ; the orange-flavoured vine had bunches with densely placed grapes. Among the black varieties some bore very small bunches, others reached from two to five inches in length ; most common were the black grapes of oval shape. The shapes of the leaves differed greatly. In Upper and Lower Austria, particularly between Vienna and Pressburg, there grow many wild vines on the shores of the Danube, as well as on the islands of the river. 2 Similar vines appear below Buda, and extend to Transylvania. The borders of the Theiss are enlivened by their presence ; the Save, where it issues from Croatia, waters many plants of this kind. On the Adige, in the Tyrol, there are some jungles formed by wild vines creeping over low shrubs of Rhus cotinus and wild fig-trees ; the wild vines accompany the Adige into the low marshy country. From the foregoing it is evident that all those European countries which possess the climatic conditions have in their flora many species of the genus Vitis in a wild state, with such botanical characters as leave no doubt that the plants are indigenous, produced by natural selection from proto- 1 Cf. also Thudichum and Dupre, /. c., pp. 8 and 9. 8 Jaquin in an article in the Austrian "Annals of Agriculture." ORIGIN, GEOGRAPHY, AND HISTORY. 9 types, and not derived from imported cultivated races of vines, or degenerated by the struggle for existence from previously cultivated races, the products of artificial crossing or human selection. 3. ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED VINES. In the appreciation of the nature of the different wines produced in the world, it must be borne in mind that each particular district producing a particular kind of well-charac- terized wine does so by means of particular well-characterized varieties of vines. These vines must be considered as having been either indigenous to these districts, or as having been produced in them by natural or artificial selec- tion from indigenous varieties; for when transplanted to other districts they change their character more or less so as to produce a different wine ; or they lose their peculiarities so completely as to be worthless for making wine ; or they cease to be fructiferous ; or lastly, they do not succeed at all, and pine and die out. The Aramont is a vine commonly grown about Montpellier on account of its extraordinary fertility ; transplanted to the south of Germany it begins to bear in the fourth year and produces many and large bunches of grapes, but year by year its fertility decreases, its originally large berries become smaller, until the viticulturist is obliged to remove the barren plants. Bronner 1 who had become acquainted with the extraordinary fertility of some vines of Upper Austria the Rothgipfler, green Muscateller, the white one of Griming (a village near Vienna) and the red Zierifandler of Voslau planted numerous samples of all four varieties in his vine- yard at Wiesloch. During ten years he did not obtain a single grape from any of them, and after ten further years all the vines had died out. The vines of Europe transplanted to North America do not succeed. Viticulture in that country has hitherto only succeeded with indigenous varieties or their crosses. Even the wine made from the celebrated Catawba is so flavourless 1 Bronner " Die wilden Trauben," etc. p. 32. 10 A TREATISE ON WINES. that the best which we could obtain from St. Louis was strongly flavoured with elder-flower. Invariably American vines which yield yet drinkable wine in the United States, when grown in the Gironde degenerate and yield no drinkable wine. 1 Vines transplanted from more northern to southern lati- tudes do not succeed any better than those which have made the inverse migration. We dismiss as unproved the often repeated statement, that the Portuguese Bucellas wine was made from the "hock-grape;" but we reject as entirely fabulous the statement that the vine called Pedro Ximenes had been brought to Spain from the banks of the Moselle by the man whose name it bears. As a French author 2 wittily said, " If he took any he took all ; for no such vine grows nowadays north of the Pyrenees." The vines of the Alto Douro differ in specific botanical character from all other vines, as port wine differs from other wine. The Gironde produces the peculiar red wines by means of its Carbenet, Carmenere, Malbec, and Verdot. Transplanted to Spain, these vines do not produce claret any longer ; in a climate less moist and less warm, these vines so lose their fertility as to cease to be remunerative objects of agriculture. We might greatly increase the number of data, all pointing to the same conclusion, but those above given are sufficient to prove a general law, namely, that every uniform climatic region has its peculiarly adapted varieties of wild and cultivated vines, which cannot be so successfully cultivated in other regions, or cannot be cultivated at all anywhere else. 4. FOSSIL VINES AND GRAPES. The vine existed certainly in Germany, and perhaps also in Bohemia and Tuscany, 3 during the tertiary and before 1 We learned this from the late M. Boucherot of Carbonnieux near Bordeaux, who planted American vines on a large scale. a Count Odart, ''Traite des Cepages." 3 Cf. Gaudin, " Mem. sur quelques Gisements des Feuilles fossiles dela Toscane." ORIGIN, GEOGRAPHY, AND HISTORY. II the basaltic outbreaks which succeeded the tertiary deposits. In the relative situations there existed jungles close to lakes or morasses, in which latter the decaying vegetation of the neighbourhood became imbedded, and by commixture of clay, preserved. Thus deposits of lignite, or brown-coal were formed, which now supply the neighbourhood with fuel. In this lignite the preserved parts of vines are found in our time. But these deposits have been preserved from ulterior changes, from being washed away by rain, or the combined effects of the agencies which produce what in geology is termed denudation, by having been covered over by basaltic lava, which in the particular case of Salzhausen in Hesse, is no less than 180 feet thick. 1 These lignites contain a great variety of impressions of leaves, such as oak leaves resembling the Mexican evergreen varieties, species of smilax and anona, leaves of a walnut- like tree called carya, and its nuts, the small fruit of a pistachia, and the broad leaves of a fig-tree, with here and there the impression of a half-grown fig. Interspersed with these, or in separate layers, are found the impressions of the leaves of the fossil vine, vitis teutonica? and large quantities of the seeds of its fruit, " regular fossil raisin-stones," in the shape of regular cakes of " murk," or compressed masses oi kernels and membranes, the residues of husks. 5. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF VINES ON THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE. The vine meets with the climatic conditions of its growth,, and the perfection of its fruit, on the northern hemisphere, in a belt of territory which is enclosed between two lines, a northern one on the polar limit and a southern or equatorial 1 For details concerning this deposit cf. Thudichum and DupreV " Treatise," etc., p. 14-16; also Tasche, in the " Transactions of the Imperial Caroline Academy of Sciences." 2 They were formerly believed to be derived from a species of acer, but correctly diagnosed by A. Brown. Cf. F. Unger, " Sylloge Plantarum Fossilium," in the Sitz. Ber. d. K. Acad. d. W. ; Wien,, 1 86 1, vol. xix. 12 A TREATISE ON WINES. limit. Commencing north of the Azores, the polar limit passes through the Channel south of England, excluding that country, enters France in the Bretagne at Vannes, and runs by Mazieres, Alengon and Beauvais. It then takes a more northern turn, includes a portion of Rhenish Prussia, passes to the north of Thuringia, the valley of the Saale, Saxony, and then crosses the Carpathians, to pass through South Russia, almost in a straight line to the northern end of the Caspian Sea. Thence it proceeds to the river Amoor, and somewhat to the north of the southern bend of that river ends in the Pacific Ocean. The equatorial limit passes south of the Canary Islands, including them and all the islands near the African and Spanish coast. It enters Africa about the 3oth degree of northern latitude, and, running near that degree, leaves Africa at the middle of the Isthmus of Suez ; runs across Arabia and the Persian Sea, enters India near the 25th degree of northern latitude, runs down into Hindostan with a loop, nearly parallel to its sea-borders, so that the whole interior of Hindostan is com- prised in it while the whole seaboard is excluded. It then passes again to the north, enters China and forms a loop southwards similar to that in Hindostan, to termi- nate at the eastern end of it, on the 27th degree of northern latitude. These limits are really those of the culture of the vine ; for :some varieties will grow to the north of the limit, though its fruit never ripens unless with the aid of exceptional protec- tion : to the south of the equatorial limit the vine becomes an evergreen on which all stages of growth are represented at the same time ; and under these circumstances it does not mature its fruit with the same perfection as when it is sub- ject to the rotation of the seasons. The vine requires for the ripening of its fruit not a certain high average temperature of the year, but a maximum of summer heat, without which the fruit does not ripen. In accordance with this general law England does not produce wine, for although its average temperature is very high, its maximum summer heat is not high enough, owing to the large masses of water vapour which constantly pervade the ORIGIN, GEOGRAPHY, AND HISTORY. IJ air over Britain, and prevent the sun's rays from influencing the vegetation with the required energy. The cultivation of the vine in America is apparently in- cluded between limits similar to those prevailing in Europe. Even the indigenous American vines cannot be cultivated north of 50 degrees north latitude. The scuppernong does not succeed north of the Potomac, and the indigenous vines apparently do not pass south of the centre of Mexico. On the southern hemisphere, Peru, South Africa (at least the Cape of Good Hope), and Australia produce wine. The extent of the cultivation in these districts is at present not exactly known, but it seems somewhat to increase in Australia. 6. VITICULTURE IN ENGLAND IN MEDIAEVAL TIMES. In apparent contradiction to the foregoing and apparently unexplained, but supported by documentary evidence, stands the assertion that during some centuries, beginning somewhat before the Norman Conquest, wine was grown in many parts of the south of England. We take the following data from Redding's work, 1 premising that in the souitiny of ancient documents a doubt must be allowed, whether the Latin word, which has been read as vinarium, whether it mean a vineyard or a wine-cellar, may not have signified, and therefore must not necessarily be read as vivarium Y meaning a pond in which fish were reared or kept for use in a living state. Doomsday Book proves that wine was made in Essex, six acres producing 160 gallons. Rabelais, who was born in 1483, makes an allusion in his works to wine of Britain not Bretagne, but England. William of Malmesbury, in his book, " De Pontificibus," says that the Vale of Gloucester used to produce, in the twelfth century, as good wine as- many of the provinces of France. Near Tewkesbury is a field still called the " Vineyard." A messuage and land in Twyning were held of the lord of Tewkesbury on certain conditions, one of which was the " finding a man for sixteen 1 L. c. p. 33, et seq. 14 A TREATISE ON WINES. days in digging in the vineyard, and gathering the grapes for three days." Ing. ad. q. d. 39, Ed. III. Fosbr. Glouc., ii. 293. In the counties of Worcester, Hereford, Somerset, Cambridge, and Essex, there are lands which bear the name of vineyards, many of them having been attached to par- ticular church establishments, whose ruins are yet in their vicinity. Raleigh, in Essex, was valued, in the time of King Edward, at ten pounds, propter vinum. In regard to the Vale of Gloucester, William of Malmesbury says, " There is no province in England which has so many and good vine- yards, neither on account of their fertility nor the sweetness of the grape." The tithes of the vines of Lincombe, near Bath, were confirmed to the abbey there in 1150, by Arch- bishop Theobald. The village of Winnal, or Wynall, near Winchester, was so named from a vineyard, and not from any saint, as some pretend. Besides the counties above mentioned, Hertford, Middlesex, Norfolk, Suffolk, Kent, Hants, Dorset, and Wilts, had vine cultivation, as appears from Doomsday Book ; but no county north of Cambridge is said to have borne vines. Hence it may be concluded that the vine did not yield any profit if it grew northward of that place. The etymology of Winnal is said to be the Welsh " gwinllan," a vineyard. Vines are distinguished in old writings as " portantes " or " non portantes." The terms, 41 Vinea nova," " Vinea noviter," and " Nuperrime plantata," occur about the date of the Norman conquest. Six " arpens " of land were then said, if the vines turned out well si bent brocedit to produce, by one author, 160 gallons by another, 120. In seeming opposition to this, it is recorded, in " Memoires pour la Vie de Petrarch," p. 337, tome L, in an extract from one of Petrarch's own letters to a friend, A.D. 1337, that "in England they drink nothing but beer and cyder. The drink of Flanders is hydromel; and as wine cannot be sent to those countries but at great expense, few persons can afford to drink it." Petrarch, however, must have spoken from hearsay alone. More recently, M. Arago, of the French Institute, has commented on the changes in the climate of France. He says that at Macon, in the department of the Saone and Loire ancient Burgundy CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL AND VINES. 1 5 wine, in 1553, was made of the Muscat grape, which it is not now possible to ripen there. The vineyards of Etampes and Beauvais were at one time celebrated. Their wines, if now made, are unworthy of notice. According to a report compiled in 1830, no wine can be made in the whole de- partment of the Somme. M. Arago instances a similar change of climate in England, proved by old chronicles as above quoted, and, inquiring into the causes of this change, thinks that a very marked alteration of climate has taken place both in France and England. " The cause," he says, "is certainly not connected with the sun a proof of which is given in the steadiness of the temperature of Palestine." CHAPTER II. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL AND VINES. 7. MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF THE VINE AND THEIR RELATION TO THOSE OF THE SOIL. AN exact knowledge of the mineral constituents of the vine enables the viticulturist to adapt his soil to the neces- sities of the plant in the most perfect and economical manner, and thus to furnish one of the most important elementary conditions of the greatest possible production of grapes and wine. The mode of obtaining this knowledge is part of the science of analytical chemistry, and as such is without the limits of the present treatise. We therefore deal only with the great features of the results as far as they are necessary to the reader to enable him to appreciate facts and processes which have to be alluded to summarily in the later chapters. The mineral constituents of vines, like those of all or- ganized living beings, are obtained as ashes by the combus- tion of their several parts, A part of the ash is soluble in water, and comprises the alkali metals, potassium and sodium, 16 A TREATISE ON WINES. combined with carbonic and sulphuric acid and chlorine; while another portion is insoluble in water, and consists of calcium, magnesium, iron and manganese, combined with carbonic, phosphoric, and silicic acid. The proportions of alkalies to earths are about equal : and again, the united weight of the bases is about equal to the half of the weight of the entire ash. Different vines yield different proportions of ash, but vines of the same kind and the same period of vegeta- tion yield very similar proportions of ash. The ashes of the various parts of the vine, of leaves, branches, wood, and roots, differ from each other in a very striking manner. 1 The ripe woody canes at the end of the year's growth contain from 2o/ to 2 5% of moisture, and from 2-2%to4'2%of ash. Old wood and roots contain a little more ; capillary roots with 63 % moisture, 6% ash; pith with 86% moisture, 7-5 % ash. These large quantities of moisture in pith and capillary roots explain partly why they are more easily killed by frost. Leaves yield the greatest amount of ash, and ripe grapes the smallest. The less mineral matter a part contains the greater is in its ash the proportion of soluble salts ; inversely with the rise of the total ash falls the proportion of soluble salts, so that the percentage of soluble ash in leaves is the lowest among all specimens of ash examined. Half-ripe grapes contain a very low percentage of ash, and in this the maximum percentage of soluble salts. As canes and grapes are mostly removed from vineyards, while the leaves are left on the ground, it is economically im- portant to consider what kind and amount of ash is removed annually from a vineyard. This inquiry was instituted by the celebrated French philosopher Boussingault at his estate in Alsatia, and led to the following remarkable results. The canes yielded 2*44 /o of a h > the murk after the must had been pressed out, air-dry, 6-65 % ; the wine gave 0*19 % The ash of canes contains less potash and more lime than that of the murk, and the proportion of potash to lime is highest in the wine. Thus we get per cent, of 1 Analytical details, the results of many thousands of analyses, tables showing the per cent, composition of ashes, and references to the litera- ture of the subject are given by Thudichum and Dupre, /. c. pp. 19-30. CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL AND VINES. I/ potash contained in ash of canes 18*0, murk 36*9, wine 45 -o; per cent, of lime contained in ash of canes 27-3, murk 107, wine 4-9. The percentage of magnesia con- tained in the ash of canes is 6'i, murk 2*2, wine 9*2. The wine yields a very small percentage of ash compared to the other parts, and in consequence its percentage of alkalies is smaller than that of any other part of the vine ; but as it has lost much mineral matter during fermentation, the quantity of its ash is not the measure of the quantity of mineral matter removed by it from the soil ; for ascertain- ing this latter amount the murk before fermentation, or must and yeast with accompanying matters, have to be examined. Berthier 1 analysed a fruit-bearing one year's branch, cut from a Camay vine at Nemours, in October, 1850, at the time of the vintage, and the grapes attached to it. The branch and leaves contained nine times as much inorganic matter, four times as much alkaline salts, fourteen times as much earthy salts, and six to seven times as much phos- phates as the grapes. Raisin stones contain about 2 / of ash, and of this quantity one half is phosphate of calcium. The leaves in full vegetation contain about 75 % of water, and 2-i % of ash; therefore, ash in the dry residue 8-4%. Of this ash one half is carbonate of calcium, or 51 %, and J 5'3 % is phosphate of calcium. The soluble potassium salts obtained, as sulphate and carbonate, amount to 15 / of the ash. Leaves at the time of the fall contain only 66 % of moisture and 11-34 % of ash in about 34-02 / of dry residue. In this ash the carbonate of calcium is increased to 62-62 %, the phosphate decreased to 13-27 / > and the soluble potassium salts are diminished to 8-82 % of the ash. The mineral matters of ripe grapes are so distributed that if the stalks contain one part, the murk contains about two parts, and the juice from three to four parts ; an entire bunch of grapes yields from 0-364 to 0-468% ash. 1 See details of analysis in "Treatise," etc., p. 22. C 1 8 A TREATISE ON WINES. Many other analyses by Vergnette, Bouchardat, Crasso, Walz, Hrushauer, Levi, which have yielded results closely corresponding to the foregoing data may be seen in the <: Treatise," pp. 23-26. Of 100 parts of grape bunches, about 4 parts are stalks, 22 parts are murk, i.e. husks and stones and 74 (filtered) juice. 8. INFLUENCE OF THE SOIL ON THE MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF THE VINE. The quantations of the proportions between the bases, or alkalies and alkaline earths in the vine, have taught us that the vine is in this particular respect influenced by the soil on which it is located. Of course it grows best where all the bases are ready at hand in excess, or the necessary quantities for a season's growth ; but when the vine cannot find a particular kind of base which it ordinarily wants for its development, it takes another instead ; it does not take a random and uncertain quantity, but substitutes for the one which it cannot have a chemical equivalent of that which happens to be available, and by this means accomplishes the cycle of its functions. These data have manifested the existence of a law of nature, which has been chemically ex- pressed thus : The ashes of the vine may contain very variable quantities of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia ; but the sum of the quantities of oxygen contained in these bases is always the same, showing that the substitution of one base for another takes place in equivalent proportions. 9. FUNCTIONS OF MINERAL INGREDIENTS OF THE VINE. The ash of the vine is obtained by the combustion of its parts ; during this process the organic matters with which the bases or salts were in combination are destroyed. Instead of malates, tartrates, and tannates, we obtain in the ash carbonates of potash, soda, and lime ; the carbonate of the latter again yields its acid in high temperature and appears as caustic lime. Organic phosphorus compounds, e.g. of seeds, CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL AND VINES. 19 and cell nuclei yield phosphoric acid, which expels some of the more volatile acids. Against this latter emergency no sufficient precaution has hitherto been taken in ash analysis by incineration, and all analyses affected by this error are faulty, and have to be repeated. To appreciate the part which the bases take in the organic life of the vine, we must therefore consider them in their combinations, just as they occur in the natural tissues and juices. In these their main function seems to be the fixing and neutralizing of acid nuclei, which, under the re- ducing influence of light, and in the presence of the elements of vegetable nutrition, water, carbonic acid, ammonia, and nitric acid (from which these nuclei themselves have just been formed) are gradually developed to more complex bodies. If these bases are not present in the soil in an accessible form, the vine cannot grow at all ; if they are present in insufficient amount the growth of the vine is stunted, and its fertility is impaired or suppressed ; if they are present in the soil in false proportions the vine effects a substitution, and is able to accomplish the cycle of its changes. But at the same time this necessity affects, in various ways, its growth, durability, fertility, and the nature of its product ; it is very probable that a large amount of failure in viticulture is engendered by such a disproportion in the necessary mineral constituents of the soil. Lastly, in soils where the vine finds all the mineral ingredients in proper proportion, quantity, and condition, it grows and bears with the greatest perfection. In this argument it is implied that the position, exposure, watering, and mechani- cal conditions of the soil are equal in every case, and that the sole variation refers to the mineral ingredients. 10. AMOUNT OF MINERAL MATTER WHICH VITICULTURE ABSTRACTS FROM THE SOIL. Boussingault obtained from his vineyard, an inclosed property of 170 acres surface, called Schmalzberg, near Lampertsloch, Alsatia. in 1848, 5 5 '05 hectolitres of wine ; the murk weighed, air-dry, 492 kilos., and left, at 6-65 %, 2O A TREATISE ON WINES. 32-72 kilos, of ash. The cutting of the vines in the spring of 1849 yielded 2,624 kilos, of canes, which at 2-44 / left 64-03 % kilos, of ash. A litre of wine left 1-870 gramme of ash, or 102-94 kilos, for the 55-05 hectolitres. Calculated for an hectare all available data seem to show an annual exportation by a crop of mixed canes of more than 40 kilos, of mineral matter, of which 6 are potash, 7-28 phosphoric acid. If during the progress of viticulture green branches with leaves are removed from the vineyards, as is not rarely done in viticultural districts for the purpose of feeding domestic herbivorous animals, greater quantities of mineral matters are exported. Vergnette calculated that on the Cote d'Or an hectare of land supports about 25,700 vines ; these produce annually about 11,462 kilos, of wood, leaves, and grapes, which burnt together would leave 356 kilos, of ash, containing 69-40 kilos, of soluble and 286-60 kilos, of insoluble salts. ii. ORGANIC INGREDIENTS AND CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE VINE. The ingredients of the seed are lignine, which builds up its woody structure, then starch, tannic acid, fatty oil, several albuminous and phosphorised substances, and the mineral salts already referred to. As soon as with the aid of these sub- stances the young plant, consisting of a root with fibrils and spongioles, and a little stalk with leaves, has been con- structed, it becomes independent of the nourishment from the seed, and draws its supplies from earth and air. These it transforms by the elimination of oxygen and the combina- tion of the more carbonized products with the elements of water. Thereby a series of acids are formed, which from the beginning are combined with the bases above described. Carbonic acid is first transformed into oxalic acid ; by the combination of two of its particles, and the substitution of some oxygen by hydrogen, malic acid, the acid contained in apples, berries of the mountain ash, and unripe grapes, is formed. This malic acid, by a small addition of oxygen, is easily transformed into tartaric acid. Tartaric acid again, CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL AND VINES. 21 by the union of three of its particles, and the addition of hydrogen from decomposed water, may easily be trans- formed into grape sugar, or similar carbo-hydrates, just as, inversely, tartaric acid can be obtained by oxydizing agents from carbo-hydrates such as sugar of milk. The various chemical processes in the plant are effected by the vegetable cells, particularly of the leaves, under the influence of the rays of the sun ; and the green colouring matter, or chlorophyll, and the yellow ingredient, hiteine, have an important mediating share in these processes. Three entire seasons are mostly required for the develop- ment of the roots and wood of the plant to such a size as to enable it to produce ripe fruit. During these various stages the following chemical compounds are met with in the various parts and juices of the plant. The Sap. The first fluid which rises in the canes at the beginning of spring is called sap. As it runs in drops from a cut surface of canes it is called " tears," and the act of its effusion is called "weeping" of the vine. It contains 2 '5 per mille of solid matter, being a little acid potassium tartrate, and gum and soluble starch, together 1*9 per mille, while the remaining o - 6 per mille are bases with a trace of phos- phoric acid; it also contains ammonia and nitric acid, but probably not any albuminous matter. The rising of the sap in the vine takes place with an enormous force, which was first measured by Stephen Hales, more than a century ago ; he found it equal to the pressure of a column of mercury 22 inches in height, while the German professor, Mohr, of Bonn, found it to rise to a maximum of i9 T 3 T inches. The young shoots of the vine contain acid tartrate of potash in much larger quantities than the sap ; cellulose and chlorophyll in constantly increasing quantities are deposited within their structure and that of the leaves. The expressed juice of entire branches deposits vegetable Jibrine and chlorophyll as a green sediment ; it contains in solution tannin, recog- nized by its astringent taste, its inky reaction with iron salts, and its precipitate with gelatine ; vegetable albumin is preci- pitated from it by boiling ; acid tartrates of potash and lime 22 A TREATISE ON WINES. can be obtained from it by evaporation and crystallization ; starch is recognizable by its assuming a blue colour with iodine ; gum is precipitated from it by alcohol ; mineral sails remain as ash. The part remaining insoluble consists of lignin or cellulose, the substances of which all wood, young and old, is composed. In the cell-cavities of the wood there is deposited in autumn a quantity of starch, which can be extracted from the rasped wood by boiling water. The tendrils taste like, and have the composition of, unripe fruit. Unripe grapes contain malates and tartrates, mainly of potassium in varying proportions, changing with each period of development. Before the appearance of any sugar, malates prevail ; when the grapes become sugary tartrates prevail, of which a certain portion remains in the fully ripe grapes. The grapes then also contains fibrine, albumin, gum, pectin, tannin, and in largest quantity the sugar peculiar to fruit ; the tannin is not at first in solution in the juice, but deposited in the husks and seeds, and requires maceration for its extraction. The husks of the blue and black grapes contain the blue colouring matter, also deposited in the insoluble state along with the tannin, and extractable only by alcohol and acid, or by wine, and then assuming a red colour in dilute solution. The amount of acid in the grapes increases during their growth, and decreases again during ripening. The proportion of juice to husks, or husks and stalks combined, varies in different vines, and in the same vines in different years ; thus fine white Chasselas grapes contained only 3 % of husks and seeds, with 97 % of must ; black Pineau grapes, from which Champagne and Burgundy are made, yielded juice 94-8 /o, and murk (no stalks) 5-2 %; another sample pressed with stalks, as in the Champagne, gave juice 91 '8 / and murk 8*2 %. Again, black Pineau, which had been allowed to ferment with husks and stalks, as in the preparation of Burgundy wine, gave wine 69-6 % and murk 30*4 % In the " Treatise," pp. 36-45, will be found the records of a number of original observations on the relation of acid and sugar in grapes, grown on the Rhine or in France, made PRINCIPLES OF VITICULTURE. 23 by A. Dupre, Rendu, 1 and Pasteur. 2 They show that, at least as regards black grapes, there are two kinds of ripening, one peculiar to the grape which is not yet black, consisting in an augmentation of sugar ; the other, a process mostly accomplished in the black grape, consisting in a diminution of acidity. CHAPTER III. PRINCIPLES OF VITICULTURE, GENERAL AND SPECIAL. 12. SOIL FAVOURABLE TO VITICULTURE. THE vine requires a territory which must not be clogged with water, but pervious to it, and admit air at frequent intervals. But at the same time it requires a constant supply of water within easy reach of the roots. Thus in the fertile paludal districts of the Gironde the ground-water is within a few feet of the surface, while the vines of the Medoc are placed upon little hillocks of gravelly soil, and receive rain at frequent intervals from the clouds which come landwards from the Atlantic. The vine grows on chalky, silicious, aluminous, and mag- nesian soil, on granitic mountains, on formations of transition, such as the Devonian slate of the Alto Douro, on tertiary formations such as the hills of Jerez, on volcanic and alluvial territory. In all it requires the presence of decaying matter called humus ; of considerable quantities of chalk and potash and of the other mineral ingredients. Our English gardeners have considerable experience in the production of an empirically prepared soil, in which they grow the vines which 1 " Ampelographie frai^aise," p. 255. a " Maladies du Vin," pp. 202 and 209. 24 A TREATISE ON WINES. produce the beautiful grapes of English conservatories Thomson 1 says that the best is a fibry calcareous loam, taken not more than three inches deep from an old sheep or deer-pasture. Such soil should consist of 65 % of sand, 33 % of clay, and 5 % of chalk, with an abundance of vegetable fibre. This is next mixed with old plaster with hair in it, charred wood and wood-ashes, horse-droppings, broken bone and horn-shavings. Of such soil a full-grown vine under glass requires from 120 to 150 cubic feet, but of an ideal soil it would only require 27 cubic feet. 13. MANURING AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL IN VINEYARDS. Most natural soils admit of being improved in their compo- sition, and for such improvements no general rules can be given. But as all crops remove certain mineral constituents, they exhaust the land more or less rapidly; the material abstracted must therefore be restored to the land, and this is done by manure. Such manure may be of two kinds, stable manure and mineral manure. Of the latter potash salts are the most important ingredient, and amply supplied by the German potash mines. The manuring and improve- ment of the soil of vineyards in all their aspects are fully described in Thudichum and Dupre's "Treatise," &c., pp. 49-5 7, and to this we must refer the reader for further and more detailed data. 14. METHODS OF PROPAGATING AND MULTIPLYING THE VINE. As it takes from five to six years before a seedling vine begins to bear, propagation by seed is not frequently employed. Frequently seedlings do not fulfil the expectation with which they were reared, and have to be torn out. If the viticulturist take care to properly impregnate the flowers from which he wishes to grow seed, beautiful and interesting varieties of vines are produced. But no vine of extended applicability for wine-making has ever been reared in that way. Among 1 "Cultivation of the Grape Vine," 1867, p. 14. PRINCIPLES OF VITICULTURE. 25 noted vines obtained by crossing of races and growing from seed are several American varieties, e.g. Norton's Seedling, and the largest and finest grape which grows in France in the open air, known at Thomery under the name of Chasselas Napoleon. A seedling can be made to bear fruit in the third year by grafting it upon an old stem. 15. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF EYES, OR BUDS. Eyes with the node of wood attached may be cut from vines and planted in open beds and vineyards. Such will, in one season, form a small vine with particularly great de- velopment of roots. A specifically English method of propagating vines, when practised in forcing-houses, yields in one year a strong vine, capable of bearing twelve bunches of grapes the next year. The eyes to be " struck " are cut right across the cane, about half-an-inch above and below the node, and then a slice is taken off the side longitudinally opposite the eye. English viticulturists place these buds or eyes in pots filled with light turfy loam and a small proportion of decayed leaf- mould. These are placed in tan, in vineries or peach-houses, and forced at temperatures between 55 F. at night, and 90 F. in the daytime. At the end of the season each plant is an enormous ripe cane with closely set buds ; each will bear in the next year from eight to twelve bunches of grapes. Whereas by the ordinary method it takes at least six years to bring a vineyard to bearing, by this method a vineyard can be established in two years, and will bring four harvests, amongst them three full ones, before a vineyard planted with cut canes will bring one, and will thereby not only repay the first outlay on the forcing-houses, and the interest of the cost of the land, but also leave a large profit. 1 6. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF CUT CANES. The most common and, as to outlay, cheapest method of multiplying vines is by the planting of cut canes (French, boutures, German, Blindholz). The canes are obtained at the time when the vines are cut, and in bundles of from 25 A TREATISE ON WINES. eighteen inches to two feet in length form an article of trade. During winter-time they are kept deep under ground ; in May they are placed with their lower ends in water, and when the buds have swelled the canes are planted in the ground in the order in which the future vines are to stand. Fig. 4. Mode of propagating vine by layer or buried slip. J, point where the slip is severed, a year after interment, J', growing branch of the new vine. A vineyard planted with such canes will require six years before bearing a crop. 17. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF LAYERS OR SLIPS. A long cane, left in connection with the vine on which it grew, is partly buried in the earth, but allowed to project into the air with its cut end. It forms roots and branches, and PRINCIPLES OF VITICULTURE. 2J then its connection with the parent plant may be severed, and it may be transplanted. Such a layer the French term marcotte, the German, Senkrebe, English slip (fig. 4). Another kind of layer is the reverse (fig. 5), produced by Fig. 5- Mode of propagating vine by inverted slip. K, point where the fruit arch on the left will be severed, K, point where the slip will be severed from stock, K', point where the new vine will develop, after the horizontal slip is suppressed. burying the end of a long cane in the earth. In this case the growth of the cane becomes inversed after separation. 1 8. GRAFTING OF VINES. Of late years grafting has been employed much more frequently than formerly for the following reason. The 28 A TREATISE ON WINES. phylloxera was found to destroy the roots of European vines, while it left those of American vines relatively un- touched. But American vines grown in Europe gave no saleable wine. Viticulturists therefore planted American vines, and, when these had attained a certain size, grafted European vines upon them, and by this means obtained sale- able wines. Grafting of vines may be done by the process of eye or bud-grafting, the same as that commonly used for the propagation of superior roses ; or by simple inarching, a process by which two vines previously distinct are united, and when this has been effected, the foot of the one and the top of the other vine is removed or suppressed ; a somewhat more complicated process is called compound inarching. Grafting in grooi'es is very suitable for use with rootless canes, or one year's vines ; it should be resorted to in all cases in which the top and branches of a vine have perished by frost, or wind, or disease, and the stem and roots are strong and healthy. Grafting may be resorted to in conser- vatories when it is decided to change a vine which yields grapes of undesirable quality for another with preferable fruit. 19. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CULTIVATION OF THE VINE. The soil having been prepared by deep digging and the admixture of any new ingredients deemed necessary, it is to be planted with canes or rooted plants. The latter must be transferred in March, but canes swelled in water may be planted during the period from March to June. All vines should be placed in parallel lines, distant from each other a little more than a yard, and the single vines to be removed from each other by the same interval. The quincunx may be employed where manual labour is relied upon, and short, small vines are reared. The young vine is not cut or interfered with in any way during the first three years, but the ground is freed from all weeds. The vine is pruned for the first time in the fourth year of its growth ; the pruning is then mainly directed to the training of the future stock, PRINCIPLES OF VITICULTURE. 29 and the production of a first harvest must be a subordinate consideration. The particular principles of the many methods of training the vine are generally the same. It is required that every plant should grow every year at least two long branches ; of these, one is to produce fruit in the next year, and no long branches or wood ; while the other is to reproduce the two long branches by means of which fruit and wood are to be reproduced in the following year. Fig. 6. Vine after the fall of the leaves. A B, the year's fruit branch, C D E F, branches to be trimmed for the next season. The branch which has borne fruit is cut off entirely in the spring following the harvest. Suppose the viticulturist has before him the young stock from which everything has been cut away except the two principal canes, he should select the strongest for fruit, and cut it down to a length not exceeding a yard, and not less than half a yard, in direct proportion to the strength of the vine. This fruit-branch he should now attach horizontally, near to the earth, to a stretched wire. 30 A TREATISE OX WINES. or to a couple of stakes ; the other branch he should cut back to a spur of three eyes. When the fruit-branch has formed its shoots, and the buds of flowers are seen, all shoots without flower-buds should be broken off absolutely, while all those with buds should be stopped by pinching off their tops above the sixth leaf. The shoots of the wood spur must never be pinched or cut back under any circumstances j they produce but few grapes, must be kept in a vertical Fig. 7. Vine in spiing, just growing. A B, the fruit-branch, C, grow- ing fruit-branch and spur-branch for the next year, P P P P, points where the new fruit-branches are stopped (cut off or pinched off). position, and tied in a bundle to a stake. This simple vine, consisting, after pruning in spring, of a stem or foot rooted in the ground, a longer cane for fruit-bearing, and a short spur for wood-bearing, may be said to carry one viticultural element. In practice, a single foot may be made to carry several such elements. Thus in the Rhenish so-called basket cultivation a foot carries from three to five such elements that is, older branches on each of which, at the time of cutting, a fruit spur with three buds, and a wood spur, PRINCIPLES OF VITICULTURE. 3! with two buds, or eyes, are left. The Medoc vines have regu- larly two elements, but the spreading large vines on espaliers in the paludal districts of the Gironde, or those grown any- where on walls and in conservatories, may have any number of such elements up to several hundred. The greater the number of elements on a single trunk, the greater must be the region for the development of its roots. It is therefore necessary to give to vines which are to grow on the extension system a greater amount of wood under ground at the time Fig. 8. Vine in bearing, autumn. of planting. The system is, however, not well suited for the growth of the vine in open vineyards, where to ripen grapes they have to be kept near the ground. Every vine with a proper element, or number of elements, and which occupies the required square yard of land, and receives sufficient nourishment, ought to be able, without exhausting itself, and without interfering with the growth of neighbouring vines, to produce sixteen bunches of grapes on the fruit- branch, and four bunches on the wood-branch, altogether twenty bunches, weighing on an average fifty grammes per bunch (of small-graped, small-bunched vines), or one kilo. 32 A TREATISE ON WINES. per vine. Middle and large-sized grapes and their bunches (such as are produced by the vines of Alto Douro, or those of Jerez) attain a greater weight, and a Jerez vine may produce from five to thirty kilos, of grapes. During the growth of the vine all the branches must be tied up and fixed to stakes and wires to maintain the lines. All un- necessary shoots and all weeds must be removed. The soil must be repeatedly loosened by means of the hoe or plough, but deep cultivation is to be reserved for spring and autumn. In vineyards where the oidium has appeared, flowers or dry milk of sulphur must be dusted over the vines, either with bellows or fumigating machines. Manure should be carried to the vineyard in autumn, and never be placed in contact with the vines, but in the earth around them. In dry situations, vines have to be irrigated during the summer months. Where that is not feasible, the soil has to be saturated with water during the rainy season, by collecting it in excavated hollows near each vine, as at Jerez. The foregoing general principles of viticulture have been specially elucidated in Chapter III. of the " Treatise," etc., as regards the Rhenish, and South Spanish, and Portuguese countries from personal experience, and as regards France, on the information of the best French authors. 1 as well as from personal inspection and examination. For the purposes of the present work the manner in which vines are cultivated has been stated under the chapter referring to each particular kind of wine. In this manner the information of interest to particular classes of readers will be kept closer together, and be easier available. 1 Guyot, "Viticulture;" R. Charmeux, "Culture du Chasselas ; " Lenoir, " Traite de la Culture de la Vigne ; " Odart, Comte de, "Ampelographie Universdle ou Traite des Cepages." VINES AND VINTAGE. 33 CHAPTER IV. VINES AND VINTAGE. 20. VARIETIES OF VINES TO BE SELECTED FOR CULTIVATION. EACH variety of vine generally preserves its main characters wherever the climatic conditions allow it to be cultivated so as to produce fruit. Exposure, territory, and climate may make a vine poor or rich, or extinguish it altogether, but it will never transform it into anything else; the Muscat will not become Carbenet, the Pineau will never become Gamay, the Riessling will never become Chardenay or Tokay. But although it is thus unquestionable that the vine dictates the quality of the wine, this fact, that the specificity of the plant governs the nature of the product has always been applied only to the so-called great growths. In these vineyards the races of vines are kept select and pure. Indeed, if the vineyards of Chateau Lafitte were planted with Gamay, or Gouais, they would produce only detestable wine. If the old Pineau vines of the Clos Vougeot were substituted by Gamays, the value of the wine of that vineyard would sink to one-tenth its present figure. Take the Carbenet Sauvignon from the Haut Medoc, or the Franc Pineau from the Bourgogne, and plant it at Madeira, at the Cape, in Spain, or in Algeria, and everywhere you will obtain wines, which will at least recall the wines of the countries from which the plants have been taken. The exposure, the climate, the mode of cultivation of the vine, and the mode of making the wine will of course influence the lightness, richness, taste, and bouquet of the ultimate product ; but the Pineau, wherever grown, will reproduce the main qualities of the Burgundy wine, and the Carbenet, wherever grown will recall that of the Medoc. The Riessling, whether grown on the Rhine, in the Tyrol, in D 34 A TREATISE ON WINES. Croatia, or at the Cape, will always recall the qualities of the wine of the Rhine. But the quality of the transferred vines is not preserved for any very long time, and they either deteriorate, or degenerate and die out. This has been the case absolutely with European vines transplanted to America. In Australia, vines have preserved more of their original character, but it remains to be seen whether this adaptation will be permanent. Not all bad results of new plantations must be placed to the account of the vines, much depends upon the culture of the vine, and upon the vinification. Thus the Duke de la Vittoria, Espartero, caused Bordeaux grape-vines to be planted in his vineyards in Navarre, and they produced a wine resembling Bordeaux, so far as taste and body were concerned, but it had a sour and bad after-taste, found in many Spanish wines from other kinds of grapes, which is not due to the grapes, but is produced by the methods of preparation and keeping adopted throughout Spain. For this reason it ought to be a demand of trade that each wine, no matter from what country it comes, should bear the name or names of the grapes from which it is made. Thus " wine of Burgundy " is an incomplete, deceptive name ; it should be stated whether the wine comes from Pineau or Gamais, or other grapes. Bordeaux wine should always be distinguished as "wine of Carbenet from Bordeaux," or " wine of Verdot." One should speak of " wine of fine plants of Champagne," and not of Champagne simply. In the Bourgogne there are produced, side by side on one and the same slope, excellent wines from good varieties of grapes, and very bad wines from bad varieties of grapes. These varieties are frequently mixed in the vineyard for purposes which may be very justifiable in the eyes of the producer, but are sure to deteriorate the wine by the time that it comes on the table of the consumer. The Germans, in practical recognition of our contention, call their wine made from Riessling grapes " Riessling," that from the Traminer by its name also ; and we may rely upon it that these are pure wines, because their characters are so striking, and an ad- mixture of other grapes would produce so infallible a de- VINES AND VINTAGE. 35 terioration in the quality, that no prudent person would think of effecting such a mixture. All great "growths" were originally produced by intelligent persons who planted favourably-situated vineyards with excellent vines. The excellence of the produce was gradually ascribed to the situation only, and the effect of the particular cultivation and of the species of vine was forgotten. But the great law is, that the variety of the vine governs the quality of the wine, and no inferior vine will ever in the best situation and the best seasons produce wine equal in quality and value to that of the higher class vines. The finest varieties will not give less produce than the coarsest if they are cultivated in a manner adapted to their nature. The ampelographic school of the garden of the Palace of the Luxembourg, at Paris, founded in 1819 by the then Due Decaze, under the direction of M. Hardy failed in exercising any influence on viticulture anywhere : it was the same with the collection of vines made at Baden, and another at Heidelberg, in which Metzger, the botanist, took so distin- guished a part, and which has served as the basis of the monograph on vines by Von Babo, of Weinheim : and another at Gratz made under the direction of the late Arch- duke John, the quondam German Reichsverweser ; another at Kloster Neuburg, which serves as the botanical school of the Agricultural Institute of that convent. All these have augmented the knowledge of vines in general, but vinifica- tion has not thereby been improved in any appreciable manner. The Luxembourg collection was displaced to Algiers under Napoleon III. before 1870, and will there also continue to be an interesting botanical collection; it comprised more than 500 varieties of vines. The " Ampelographie " of Count Odart is a highly in- structive and entertaining work for all those who appreciate the subject of vines in connection with wine. The count had formed an extensive collection of vines from all parts of the world, studied their physiology, and formed vineyards by hundreds of vines of all those which promised a good yield. The collection was near La Hardelliere, Cormery, (Indre-et-Loire), and was left by the count to his gardener, as 36 A TREATISE ON WINES. the departmental council refused to undertake its guardianship, which had been offered to it by the count on liberal terms. In the introduction to his work he proves at length that, contrary to what had been maintained by some authors, e.g., Chaptal, vines transplanted from one country to another, provided they find the required climatic conditions, do not change in character. On p. 37 he gives the interesting information from Auguste Saint-Hilaire, that grapes and all other fruit such as is common and excellent in France, remain of very mediocre quality in Brazil. This is ascribed to the humidity of the climate, and the absence of the cold nights which arrest the circulation of the sap at the end of the vegetative period. He discusses the information and names for vines of the authors, and denies that those vines, which could be recognized from the description, such as \heAminea of Columella, nowPineau, had altered in character since ancient times. When vines or vineyards had degene- rated as it was termed, that is to say become old or barren or exhausted, the vines could always be recalled to their pristine character, either by amelioration of the land, or by transfer of the vine to new land. In the chapter " On Vines reared from Seeds," Odart proves that most allegations of new good varieties of vines having been obtained from seeds, even seeds derived from the best varieties of vines, were fables ; most seedlings which bore fruit stood to their parent vines in the relation of " crabs ; " they generally were made to bear fruit only after ten to fourteen years, and wine, if at all, after twenty years ; and no wine was ever produced from seedlings which has become a staple article or a desirable object of commerce. This experience does not exclude the occasional success of seedlings produced with selected pollen as well as recep- tacles ; but even of such no wine has ever been made. 21. SELECTION OF SUITABLE SPECIES OF VINES FOR WINE-MAKING. How great the problem of the selection of vines may appear when it is considered without reference to locality, VINES AND VINTAGE. 37 will appear from the fact, that in the whole of France no less than thirty-eight principal varieties of vines are cultivated on a large scale. Of these about one-fifth are used for the production of raisins, liqueur-wines, or for the distillation of best brandy, the other four-fifths serve for the production of wine in the true sense of the word. We will first enume- rate the vines best suited to the south and south-east of France. They are, for box-raisins, the Mayorquin, or Bourmen, and the Pauses ; for liqueur- wines, that is to say, grape-must, the fermentation of which has been prevented by the addition of spirit, the Furmint, Grenache, Maccabeo, Malvoisie, Muscat blanc, and Muscat noir. All these are large-berried and large-bunched vines, requiring for the whole of their vegetative period a very hot climate. For good wines are used in the south-east of France the follow- ing vines : Carignane, Clarette, Marsanne, Petite- Schiraz^ Picpoule, Rons sane, Rousselet, Rousette Ugni, Vionnier. In the south-west of France only medium and small-berried small-bunched vines prevail ; these are used for the best wines, the Carbenet, Carbenet gris, and Carmenere, these prevailing in the Medoc : the Cruchinet, Muscadelle, Sauvig- non, Semillon, these latter two yielding the white Sauterne, and the Verdot, yielding the best ordinary Bordeaux wine ; the best brandies in the district of the Charente extending in a circle round the town of Cognac are obtained from a vine called La Folle blanche. In the east, the central, and the western districts, the following vines are grown for good wines : Epinette and Blanc Fume, Fromentes Rose, blanc or gris, Meslier, Pineau blanc, or Chardenay, Pineau gris or Beuret, Pineau of the Loire or Vouvray, Fineau noir or Noirien, Plant Dore, vert or gris, Riessling, or Savagner. We shall have to refer to the vines again, when we shall treat of each particular district of cultivation. Bronner was right when he said that the vine made the wine, and that, e.g., in the must of Carbenet one could taste the full bouquet of fine Medoc wine. 38 A TREATISE ON WINES. 22. VINTAGE AND VINDICATION. The principles of the most common methods of vinifica- tion are easily stated, but the details to be noted are so numerous, depending as they do upon different vines, customs and countries, that they are better reserved for the chapters treating of the viticulture of each cenopoetic district. White grapes are generally crushed and pressed, and the juice, freed from stalks and husks, is put into barrels and allowed to ferment in a cellar or other tempe- rate place. In some districts, however, the juice is allowed to ferment while the husks and stalks are immersed in it, e.g., in the Alto Douro, as regards white wine as well as red. Black grapes which are to yield red wine are crushed and put into vats, not rarely, as in the south, consisting of masonry, and allowed to ferment until the wine has ex- tracted the colouring matter. The wine is then drawn off, the must pressed, and the united products are put into barrels or great vats to complete their fermentation or have it arrested by the addition of brandy. 23. TIME OF VINTAGE. The first condition of the vintage is that the grapes should be ripe. In many parts of the south of Europe it is considered that the grapes should be vintaged when they have attained their greatest volume. But must from such grapes is quite unfit for the production of good natural wine; this can be seen in the product of the vineyard of San Lucar de Barrameda, which owing to its bitterness is called Manzanilla ; but here the early vintage is probably a necessity produced by the climate, which by its early rains in September is liable to deteriorate or destroy the vintage. In the most celebrated districts for the production of white wine the grapes are allowed to hang on the vines until they have attained the maximum of sweetness and maturity, and are commencing to decay on their outside. Thus in the Sauterne district the best berries of every bunch are cut out at intervals and carried to the press. In VINES AND VINTAGE. 39 the finest situations of the Rhinegau the grapes are collected only when rain or frost of the latest autumn necessitate the vintage. At Tokay the best grapes are allowed to passulate, i.e., to become shrivelled to raisins, and are then extracted with must from plump grapes; but the result is here not wine in the true sense of the word, but a sweet liqueur which contains only little alcohol formed in the liquid or added thereto. Black grapes are never allowed to attain the same degree of maturity as white ones, except at a few places such as Rota, in Spain ; for the colour of red wines required by the traders can only be obtained from grapes at a certain stage of maturity, and that stage does not coincide with, but precedes the stage of maximum maturity which the grapes can attain on the vine. Consequently, much of the quality of the wine is abandoned in favour of a conventional dye ; and the unripe wine has to remain years in barrels and bottles before it acquires the qualities which fit it for use. The Champagne grapes, on the other hand, are not permitted to attain the stage of highest maturity, because it is conventional that the effervescent wines of that country shall be as pale as possible, and not have the slightest tint of redness. But whereas the fully ripe Pineau always yields a rosy or partridge-eye coloured juice, the stage of fullest ripeness is not awaited, but the grapes are gathered at the time of their greatest volume, when they yield a perfectly colourless juice and wine. In Burgundy again, where red wines are produced, the same time is chosen, but for another reason : fully ripe Pineau, when fermented with the husks, yields wine which has a tawny red colour, and not the lively bluish red of elder-berry juice; but as traders prefer the latter, the grapes, with few ex- ceptions, are collected at a time when the husks produce the deepest colour. Viticulturists intent upon producing the best wine possible allow their grapes to hang on the vine as long as is com- patible with the safety of the harvest. The proprietors of large vineyards make sample trials from time to time to ascertain the progress of the formation of sugar in the 40 A TREATISE ON WINES. grapes, by pressing samples of grapes and testing the must by special instruments for its specific gravity. Some of these gravimeters or glucometers are so arranged as to indicate by one degree of their scale a quantity of fruit- sugar, which after fermentation would yield a volume (per cent, of the must) of absolute alcohol, or, in other words, each degree would indicate the presence in one hectolitre of must of 1,500 grammes of sugar. Now as must which would only yield from 6 to 8 per cent, of alcohol would give inferior wine, grapes showing only as much sugar as would yield that amount of alcohol should not be harvested ; the harvest should be contemplated only when the samples of must show above 8 per cent, of future alcohol, but it should even then 'be delayed if possible as long as by repeated trials any increase in the quantity of sugar is observable. Even when the sugar has attained its maximum the grapes will still, if the season be favourable, particularly if the soil be dry, undergo beneficial changes by hanging upon the vine. It is an important fact that fully ripe grapes in all viti- cultural districts contain about the same amount of sugar, /'.n champagne is chiefly invert sugar, formed by the action of the acids in the wine on the cane- sugar added in the liqueur. Thus the sugar found in a sample of champagne was found chemically to be 2-935 per cent. ; and the optical test showed it to be almost pure invert sugar. Should cane-sugar be suspected in wine, it may be found by destroying the dextrose and levulose by boiling with caustic alkali, and then transforming the cane-sugar, proved by its right-handed polarization, into invert sugar, by boiling with 10 per cent, of strong hydrochloric acid, and finding in the product the amount of polarization now directed to the left. It is thus proved that neither the optical nor the chemical test can by itself give information on the quality and proportion of the sugars ; the chemical test alone can give the total sugar ; both tests conjointly are alone able to furnish complete qualitative and quantitative results. 86 A TREATISE ON WINES. CHAPTER XI. COLOURING, ASTRINGENT, EXTRACTIVE AND MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF WINE. 56. GLYCEROL. GLYCEROL, C 3 Jf 8 O 3 formerly termed glycerine, but now marked as an alcohol by the terminal syllable, one of the constituents of animal and vegetable fats, and of those peculiar substances contained in the brain known as phos- phorised matters, may be prepared by saponification or decomposition of fats with superheated steam. For our present purpose it is of importance as a product of the fermentation of sugar, and contributes, in a limited manner, to the agreeably sweetish taste of wine. It is a colourless, syrupy, sweet liquid at ordinary temperatures, but crystallizes when subject to temperatures much below the freezing point of water. Owing to its being a tridynamic alcohol it forms three series of ethers and other compounds, and undergoes a variety of interesting chemical transformations. In the process of fermentation 100 parts of cane-sugar, or 105-26 parts of dextrose, yield 3-64 parts of glycerol. It should, therefore, always be present in wine in the pro- portion of about one-fourteenth part of the alcohol, and thus contribute the more sweetness to the taste the richer the wine is in natural alcohol. It is separated from the residue of wine obtained by evaporation by extraction with a mixture of alcohol and ether, but then is always mixed with a little dextrose. But with all care the methods of Pasteur and of Pohl for the quantation of glycerol in wine do not exclude other extractives besides this dextrose, and thus it cannot be said that our means of ascertaining its quantity in wine are very accurate at present. Nevertheless wines are empirically adjusted to taste by the addition of glycerol, and it is as legitimate to add glycerol to wines. COLOURING MATTERS OF WINE. 87 which have been strengthened with alcohol, as to add this alcohol itself. When so added it should always be in the proportion of one part to fourteen parts of alcohol con- sidered as absolute. 57. COLOURING MATTERS. French, German and Spanish wines in their youth are almost colourless, so much so that this state was at one time made a test of genuineness, a colour obtained by age only being easily imparted by art. It is therefore important to be able to distinguish natural from artificial tints, for a good wine matured by age cannot be colourless. Other wines are purely yellow, like old Sauternes. Other wines have all varieties of shade of colour up to dark brown ; the darker shades are all artificially produced by the addition of boiled must, either to the fresh must before the fermenta- tion, or to the made wine before sale. The colour of the boiled must is due to the browned, dehydrated or so-called burnt sugar, technically called caramel, and used in all kitchens for browning soups, sauces, and other accompani- ments of solid productions of culinary art, e.g., custards. In consequence of this knowledge many wine-makers colour their products with culinary caramel, /. nemoralis and ar- bustorum ; most commonly, and in some years forming a veritable plague, the helix aspersa, or escargeot, which may ruin entire vineyards. The vine-beetle (Curculio Bacchus, IO4 A TREATISE ON WINES. should be anti-Bacchus) which pierces green canes and causes them to pine or die, also causes much damage in some years. The cultivated vine lives long, in some places up to seventy years, while in others its vitality is quickly exhausted, so that Margaux and Cantenac have to re-plant every twenty or thirty years. 67. VINTAGE IN THE MDOC. In exceptionally good years the vintage commences in August ; in ordinary years between September 20th, and October ist. Years in which the vintage can only take place in the first fortnight of October are said to be bad. All the other vintages of red wine in the Gironde are a fortnight later than those of the Medoc; the vintage in the whitewine district of Sauternes is a full month later. There is no vintage-ban in the Gironde, and every proprietor harvests whenever he chooses. The vintage is performed by labourers who congregate for the occasion from the south of France ; most of them are given food and shelter, and the women and children receive from fivepence a day to eightpence, men tenpence; the labourers in the press-house, who must possess some little skill, receive a gratuity in addition to the wages and keep. The vintagers are organized in gangs, consisting of women and children who cut the grapes; of a superintendent (rangeur); a basket-emptier (vide-panier\ who puts the grapes from the cutter's basket into a large pail, called baste; when a baste is full, a porter (there are two porters to every eight ranges of vines) carries it to the waggon, when the two attendants, one the driver of the horses or oxen, and the other the attendant of the vat fixed upon the waggon, empty the contents of the baste into the vat (douil or douillat} and stamp them down. A commandant directs the whole of the operation from the cutting and cleaning, including the re- moval of green, rotten, or otherwise spoiled grapes, to the moment when the vat, being full, is drawn to the cuvier, or place where the grapes are converted into wine. This building mostly contains the presses {pressoirs or WINES OF THE GIROXDE. IO5 fouloirs) on the one side, and the vats or cuves on the other ; in the term presses are included platforms on which the grapes are trodden, and apparatus for removing berries from stalks. The true presses, with screws for the application of power to murk, are now mostly made of wood, but there were up to a late date also some presses of stone, e.g., at Lafitte, Galon Segur, and Chateau Margaux. The square press has the advantage that any quantity of grapes, large or small, may be pressed at any time. If the vintager desires to add fresh pulp to the murk already in the press, he need only add a tier of boards all round, and thus raising the height of the receptacle of the press, increase its capacity. On the other hand, as the pulp is being pressed dry, the upper boards may be removed, and thus give free scope to the levers by which the screw-nut is turned. Some of these presses measure three metres a side ; those of smaller dimensions have only one metre a side. They may be fixed, or movable on wheels, so as to be easily trans- portable to each fermentation vat. In one of the largest cuviers of the Gironde we saw two presses which were moved backwards and forwards on railways running in front of the two rows of fermentation vats. Red wine murk is pressed only after fermentation, and requires less power than the murk of white grapes, or of red Champagne grapes which are pressed before fermentation. When the berries are pulled from the stalks by any of the many contrivances invented for that purpose, they are placed on a platform and trodden by men. This process is frequently described in books in a spirit of poetical exaltation ; the sound of music produced by clarionet and violin, to which the vintagers keep time in forms resembling a contredanse, is heard here and there, but this has merely the object and effect of mitigating with the vintagers the sense of fatigue and tedium which is produced by the long- continued daily work; for the vintage must be hurried to bring all the vats into fermentation within as short a compass of time as possible, in order to be able to close the cuvier, and preserve the temperature most favourable to a quick and perfect fermentation. 106 A TREATISE ON WINES. This method of crushing the berries is falling into desue- tude, and at the present time more than half the proprietors in the Me"doc do not crush their grapes at all. The wine produced is of the same quality whether the grapes are crushed or not. The stalks are not cast aside, but put into the fermentation vat either partly or wholly. Many rake them out of the murk, and place them as a thick layer on the top of the murk, where they increase the bulk of the top solids or so-called chapeau (hat) ; this is not rarely weighted with stones, to keep the rising husks 'submerged. The fermentation vats, being thoroughly cleaned and sponged with brandy, are filled with the mixture of juice, stalks, skins, and kernels ; each vat is, if possible, filled in one day, and then left at absolute rest until the wine be formed. The time required for the vinification varies some- what according to the quality of the vintage and the tem- perature of the season ; in good years it is not more than four or five days. If the vatting is continued longer the wine becomes fuller, but loses a little in taste, softness, and delicacy ; these latter qualities are preferred to body in the good parts of the Medoc, where also deep colour is rather avoided. When the must has lost its sweetness, and assumed a vinous flavour, it is drawn off by means of an instrument called a griffon into a large wooden vessel, and is thence transferred by means of cans into the barriques or hogsheads, so that each barrique receives an equal number of cans of each running from the vat, and at the end of the operation all the barriques of the storehouse {chais) contain wine of the same quality. This wine, which runs spontaneously, i.e., without pressure, from the vats, and runs clear, is termed the first wine. In this operation a so-called second wine is not produced by itself, although, curiously enough, there is a third wine made from the contents of the same vat which yields the first, thus : When all the clear first wine has run off, and the run becomes thick, QMS fond the cttvt, or bottoms, which flows yet spontaneously, is put aside ; it is put with the whole of the wine made from grapes which are grown in inferior situations of the estate, and this mixture constitutes the second wine. When all liquid which will spontaneously WINES OF THE GIRONDE. IO/ flow has left the murk, this is put into the press ; a very dark " thick " wine is obtained, which by cautious operators is never mixed with the first wine. It is more commonly used for blending with white wine, whereby it loses much of its hardness and alcoholicity ; for the pulp retains much alcohol by a peculiar affinity, and the wine pressed from it is from 3 to 5 per cent, stronger in alcohol than the first wine. The filling of the hogshead with wine must be completed in three days at the utmost, in order to preserve to the wine all its qualities. The barriques are then closed. During the first month they are ullaged, that is to say, the amount of wine which they have lost by evaporation is supplied every four or five days ; during the second month every eight days ; and subsequently every fortnight : this is always effected with wine of the same quality. In January the wine is drawn from the lees, or racked, a first time ; a second time in June ; and a third time in September. In subsequent years it is racked but twice. It remains in the barriques for four years before it is put into bottles, and may be drunk when six years old. But in these respects each vintage has its peculiarities. Some, like that of 1825, produce wines which require twenty years to allow the wine to reach its full perfection ; that of 1828 required seven or eight years ; the wines of 1831 were late, those of 1839 and 1847 preco- cious. The wines of 1846 were hardly ready ten years later. 68. VARIOUS QUALITIES OF THE WINES OF THE MEDOC. There is no viticultural district in which so many distinc- tions are made between different wines as in the Medoc. The vineyards occupy an area of 20,000 hectares, of which each produces 2 tonneaux, or 18 hectolitres and 24 litres of wine ; on an average, the whole Medoc consequently produces about 40,000 tonneaux. Of these 4,500 are wines of high quality, and termed classified because they are again sub-divided into five classes, or great divisions, or growths (crus), as they are technically termed. Another 4,500 ton- neaux are simply fine wines, and are not, in the trade, classi- fied. Actually, therefore, only about 9,000 tonneaux (or 108 A TREATISE ON WINES. 82,000 hectolitres) out of the 40,000 tonneaux are choice wines, the other 31,000 tonneaux, although sold under the name of Medoc, and frequently more choice names, are of ordinary quality. The 9,000 tonneaux of fine wines of the Medoc, yielding about ten millions of ordinary wine-bottles full of wine (six bottles making a gallon), may be arranged in three categories, (i) The classified wines coming from certain vineyards in the arrondissement of Bordeaux and Lesparre. (2) The "citizen" or bourgeois wines, which are again sub-divided into higher, good, and ordinary citizens, or bourgeois superieur, bon bourgeois and bourgeois ordinaire. (3) The "peasants" or pay sans, or wines of the small proprietors. Whatever the category to which they may belong, all wines of the Medoc are distinguished and recog- nized by certain general characters, which exclude all con- fusion with other wines. They have a certain slight, peculiar roughness, are fine, juicy, marrowy in the mouth, and after having been in bottle for some years they have a very beauti- ful bouquet. They possess the hygienic quality, that they can be drunk in larger quantities than other wines, without, as the French say, " fatiguing " either head or stomach. The Medoc wines also endure transportation better than other French wines, and by long sea voyages are greatly improved. 69. CLASSIFIED GROWTHS. The commercial specialists of Bordeaux recognize as classified the wines from about 200 estates, or small districts. They may be conveniently sub-divided, after M. Frank, the author of a monograph concerning them, into five great divisions or growths. First grouiths. This division includes only three vineyards, called the three first growths (les trois premiers cms) out of the whole classified sixty of the Medoc. They are the follow- ing, their names being derived from the dominating country- house of the district. Chateau Margaux produces annually from 100 to no tonneaux of wine. As at Johannisberg and Steinberg, a great farm is attached to the wine-producing establishments, WINES OF THE GIRONDE. IQp on which a very great number of cattle yield the manure by means of which the vines later on luxuriate. The cuvier or fermenting shed contains eighteen vats, all in one line ; opposite to these are s\\pressoirs, all built in stone,upon which the grapes are separated from the stalks and trodden into pulp. The cJiais or cellar, is an enormous hall of great height, its ceiling supported by eighteen columns. The vinification has been unchanged from time immemorial. The vats are filled up to within a foot of the upper margin, and the con- tents allowed to ferment without covering or limitation of Fig. 19. Normal Cultivation of the Haul Medoc, air. The chapeaii rises, sometimes to the extent of an entire foot, above the margin of the vat, its upper half is always taken off; and no part of it is left that has not a purely vinous smell, without admixture of acetic or putrid odours. No selection of grapes is made, and the whole of the vintage of all the vineyards of the estate furnishes but one quality of wine. Notwithstanding, the wine is nearly always the best of the whole Medoc. In good or great years it is absolutely the best, but in middling years Lafhte and Latour are superior to it. As compared to St. Julien and Pauillac, the wine of Chateau Margaux has more finesse and juiciness, but less IIO A TREATISE ON WINES. body. The vineyards of the Chateau are about 80 hectares in extent. Their soil is a grey-coloured, heavy material (grave), with a substratum of clayey pudding-stone, often containing sand and veins of iron oxide. The principal slopes are towards east and west, but the best part of the vine- yards, the Sampeyre, slopes towards the north and the south, and nevertheless yields the best wine. One half of the entire surface is planted with the Carbenet Sauvignon. Chateau Zafittehas 67 hectares of vine plantation; its soil is very variable, being a strong grave or clay-gravel, with all Fig. 20. Lines of vines, the earth in course of being dressed with the plough. Department of the Haute Garonne. directions of slopes, amongst which those toward the north predominate. The subsoil is very uniformly made of quartzy rolled stones mixed with sand and clay. Five-eighths of the vineyards are planted with the Carbenet Sauvignon, the other parts mostly with the Carbenet gris and the Merlot. The wine of Chateau Lafitte has all the qualities of Chateau Margaux except alone its finesse ; it has, however, more body and a distinguished taste. Chateau Latour is surrounded by 42 hectares of vineyards. The vines are planted in heavy clay-gravel, with a compact subsoil of much rolled stone. The surface is more regular than that of Lafitte, and inclined uniformly one-half towards WINES OF THE GIRONDE. 1 1 I the north, and the other towards the south. Two-thirds of the vines are Carbenet Sauvignon ; there are also Carbenet gris, and Malbec prevails in the low situations. The wine of this Chateau has the most body amongst the three great growths of the Mddoc, but \essjintsse and bouquet. Second^ third, and fourth growths . These comprise about 130 separate properties, half of them, and amongst them compact large areas belonging to the fourth growth. We Fig. 21. Vines in lines on ridges, the earth being thrown up around the stems (chanssees). Department of the Haute Garonne. abstain from giving a detailed list of them, it may be found in Thudichum and Dupre's " Treatise," etc., pp. 329, 330. The yield of the whole of these growths may be estimated to be about five millions of bottles. The excess of 220,000 bottles, which might be calculated from the sum of the numbers of tonneaux raised, would be quite absorbed by filling up, racking, and loss in bottling operations and trans- mission. When these five millions of bottles are distributed amongst the wealthy consumers of the whole world, it becomes apparent how small a quantity each can obtain, 2nd do 1,200 to 1,400 do. 3rd do 4th do 5th do Bourgois supe"rieur . do. ordinaire . Paysans .... 800 to 900 do. 700 to 900 do. 600 to 700 do. 400 to 500 do. 350 to 400 do. 300 to 325 do. 112 A TREATISE ON WINES. particularly if he insists upon having the product of good years only, and how enormous must be the substitutions which the traders of Bordeaux and other places make of unclassed, and, indeed, of any kind of wine, whether from Bordeaux or other parts of France, for Me"doc. From a careful consideration of many data at our disposal concerning the money value of these wines we have derived the following scale of prices for average growths of classified wines of the Medoc : ist class .... 2,000 to 5,000 francs per tonneau. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. The prices of the latter wines are curiously alike in all villages of the Me"doc. As the travelling brokers cross the country, a uniformity of price is established, at least so far as the price demanded is concerned, which astonishes those who do not know the machinery by which it is brought about. These brokers effect most of the sales; they know the districts and all their varieties and accidents ; they visit the cellars, taste the wines, and arrange them in order of value. They sometimes raise or reduce the rank of a certain growth according to the care which has been bestowed upon the cultivation of the vine, and upon vinification. The mer- chants of Bordeaux mostly rely upon the judgment of these brokers, but the growers are often dissatisfied with it. 70. CONSUMPTION OF MDOC WINES. Of the first growths only a very small proportion is con- sumed in France, the bulk goes to foreign parts. England is the principal consumer of the best qualities of Me"doc ; lower classes go to Holland, Russia, and particularly the WINES OF THE GIRONDE. 113 north of Germany. There is a tradition that fine wines destined for exportation to England were mixed with red Hermitage, in order to please better the palates accustomed to ports and other strong alcoholic drinks. Such wines obtained thereby a warmth and spirituosity which is by no means natural to them, and lost much of their juicy softness and finesse. Persons of taste would recognize such wines at once and put them in their proper places. We are, however, assured that at the present time most fine wines are not any Fig. 22. Vines trained upon trees, "goblet-shape," as seen at St. Gaudens near Toulouse. Department of the Haute Garonne. longer mixed with Hermitage. Common sorts of Me"doc wines going to England are sometimes and were formerly more frequently than at present prepared, especially before exportation, by being mixed with wine from the east or centre of France, or with brandy. The amount of mixing carried on at Bordeaux is enormous; for its exports are twelve times as great as the production of the entire Medoc, and one-half of these exports sells as Bordeaux wine, so that it is quite fair to assume that the Gironde wine is multiplied 114 A TREATISE ON WINES. severaRimes by the addition or substitution of other wines of France, the Card furnishing alcohol and colour, the fiat land of the Maconnais, on which formerly wheat was grown, producing the acidity, and all other parts of France the special subordinate needed ingredients. We have ourselves witnessed on the quay at Bordeaux the addition of brandy to red wines of ordinary quality destined for exportation to England. The admixture is by no means uncommon, but is not carried to the same amount as with Portuguese red wines. Bordeaux wines rarely exceed in their alcoholicity the maximum of 10 per cent, while ports have double that amount, namely from 19 to 20 per cent, of absolute alcohol. According to the statements of the exporters the addition of spirit to red wines at Bordeaux is made to suit the English palate, and is by no means required as a preservative of the wine. In Thudichum and Dupre's "Treatise," pp. 334-348 can be seen the statistics of viticultural property and production in the Medoc, according to districts, of which the following are the names : Blanquefort, Ludon, Le Taillan, Le Pian, Parernpuyre, Palus, Arsac, Macau, Labarde, Cantenac, Margaux, Sousans, Avensan, Castelnau, Moulis, Listrac, Arcins, Lamarque, Cussac, St. Julien de Reignac, Pauillac and St. Lambert, St. Estephe, St. Seurin de Cadourne, St. Laurent, St. Sauveur, Cissac, Vertheuil, St. Germain d'Esteuil, St. Christoly et Couqueques, Valeyrac, lau, Lesparre and Uch, Prignac, St. Trelody, Potensac, Blaignan, St. Yzans, Ordonnac, Begadan, Gaillan, Civrac, Queyrac, St. Vivien. 71. THE GRAVES. The district immediately surrounding Bordeaux on the south side of the Garonne is called the Graves, from the territory, which consists of sand and gravel, mixed here and there with more cr less clay and marl. The same soil occurs also at the confluence of the Garonne and Dordogne ; it is based in most places upon limestone, in others, however, it overlies the alios, the peculiar concrete-like siliceous layer, WINES OF THE GIRONDE. 115 which has mostly to be pierced in many places to give to the rainwater access to the subsoil ; if such ditches be not made, the alias causes the land in the hollow parts to be swampy. The red wines grown on the Graves have greater body, deeper colour and a little more spirit than those of the Medoc, and resemble thereby more to the wines of Burgundy, but yet have an altogether particular taste and quality. The bouquet is not great, and they require some as much as six, Fig. 23. 'Normal Cultivation of the Graves. others eight years in barrel before they can usefully be put into bottles. After that they remain of excellent quality. But the production of white wine prevails in the Graves over that of red, because the latter are too unlike the Medoc \vines to be sold with them, while the white ones resemble those of the Sauternes district, and can be sold as such; neither white nor red wines are of sufficiently distinguished quality to make a name for themselves. Many of the white wines have a peculiar taste, called "of tha pebble," which seems to us to arise from bad management. Higher up the Il6 A TREATISE ON WINES. Garonne, in the whole district of Sauternes, the white wines, which should properly be called yellow, prevail, and no red wines are produced. 72. RED WINES OF THE GRAVES. The leading quality, classed immediately after those of the Chateaux Margaux, Lafitte and Latour, is that of Chateau Haut-Brion, distant about six kilometres from Bordeaux, and situated in the community of Pessac. The vineyards have forty-four hectares of surface; the mode of cultivating the vine is peculiar to the district, and differs from that of the Me"doc. The principal vines cultivated here are the Grosse Vidure and the Vidure Sauvignone, together with the Malbec and Cruchinet. The vines stand in rows ; the earth is worked by the plough. Each vine is generally trained upon two arms, and after that upon three branches, of which each is supported by a stake. To each arm there is left a cane of six or seven eyes in length, and a spur of four eyes : the rest of the operations and the vinifi- cation are as in the Medoc. At some distance from Haut-Brion is an estate which was owned by a well-known vinologist, M. Boucherot. This gentleman had a collection of vines from all the world on his estate, amounting to upwards of six hundred varieties. With many of them he had made experiments of plantation and vinification on a large scale. All the American vines failed in these experiments. The German and other European vines gave indifferent results, and it was established that the only vines which succeed well in the district are those which are peculiar to it. We our- selves had the pleasure many years ago of seeing the whole estate and all its varieties of viticulture, and of deriving much information from the kindness of M. Boucherot. 73. WHITE WINES OF THE GRAVES OR SAUTERNES , DISTRICT. This district is situated to the south-east of Bordeaux, on WINES OF THE GIRONDE. Ii; the left bank of the Loire. The centre is Bazas, its eastern termination Captieux. A little west of Podensac, on the Loire, it passes into the Graves of Bordeaux, already described. It consists of a series of easy hills, rising gradually from the Loire towards the south and west, mostly with western exposure, some with all kinds of orientation. They are interspersed with woods and a little cultivated meadow-land. The gravelly soil is easily worked. The vines bear, almost exclusively, white grapes ; they are mainly of two varieties, the Semillon and the Sauvignone, mixed here and there with a little Muscatel. It is calculated that the Semillon occupies two-thirds of the surface, the Fig. 24. Normal Cultivation of the Sauternes District. other third is occupied by the Sauvignone. The soil is worked partly by the plough, partly by hand ; the pruning is done between December and February. The canes are left with three eyes, and the spurs with two eyes only, the Sauvignone generally gets an eye on each cane or spur more than the Semillon. 74. VINTAGE. The vintage in these districts is altogether different from the vintage in any other part of the world ; for the grapes are allowed to hang until they are ripe and begin to decay, and then they are collected berry by berry, only such US A TREATISE ON WINES. berries being taken as fully answer to the description, " ripe and rotten." The definition of "rottenness," however, requires a qualification, which is also well-known on the Rhine, namely, it must be "sweet." The decay applies in reality only to the husk, or a portion of it, while the flesh of the grape remains sound underneath it. We have been present at Chateau Suduiraut on an occasion when the vintagers passed through the vineyard for the tenth time, each time collecting single berries, and it was believed that they would have to pass once or twice more. In general, however, the grapes are collected in three successive harvests. The grapes are crushed and pressed, and the sweet thick must which flows off is put into barriques. When the first must has run off the murk is stirred up and loosened, trodden by the feet of men, and again pressed, and this process is repeated once more; the barrels are then removed to the fermenting shed, or chais, and there allowed to ferment. The vintage of one day is always kept by itself, and not mixed with the vintage of another day. In October we observed in the chais of various great estates, including Chateau Yquem, twenty-one different sets of barriques, each in a different stage of fermentation, representing the results of the vintage pro- tracted during twenty-one days. The first seven or eight days' collection, when many are made, or the first collec- tion when only three are made, are kept apart even after the wine is ripe from those of the second and third seven days, or the second and third collections. The first series of collections give generally what is called the "head wines " vins de tete ; these are the sweetest and headiest. The second collection or series generally gives vins de milieu, or wines of middle quality, which are less heady or alcoholic, and contain less sugar ; and the third class are wines of the tail, or queues, which are the result of the pressing of all the grapes that remain after the other selec- tions have been made. These latter yield the driest wines ; therefore in tasting the white wines of this district one has to taste first the three qualities of head, middle, and tail each by itself, and then a mixture of equal parts of the three, WINES OF THE GIRONDE. 119 ensemble. By means of this particular treatment of the grape a must is obtained which is exquisitely sweet ; this sweetness remains, to a great extent, throughout the whole life of the wine. Indeed, the Sauternes wines, and all white wines of the Gironde which are similarly made, and from similar vines, are now of such a nature that they are not Fig. 25. Vine supported by a Walnut Tree at Celles, Canton of Mont- agries, Arrondissement of Riberac. Department of the Boulogne. preferred in England, France or Germany to fully fer- mented wines. The excessive sweetness is given to them on account of the great demand which exists for sweet Sauternes in Russia. The dry fine wines of Sauternes were once amongst the great favourites of the cenophilists' cellars, but they have now almost entirely disappeared. Indeed Sauternes are now, or will be soon, what Muscat-Lunel and 120 A TREATISE ON WINES. Rivesaltes have been hitherto, but there will be this difference, that the Sauternes never receive any addition of alcohol, whereas the Lunel and Rivesaltes are like the Spanish dulces^ mere sweet grape-juice not fermented, but preserved from fermentation by the addition of brandy. The fermentation of the Sauternes is allowed to proceed in the barrels, and the yeast is not allowed to be cleared out at the bung-hole, but is compelled to sink in the fluid. Thus a maximum of alcohol is obtained to preserve the great quantity of fermented sugar from subsequent secondary fermentation. During four or five years the head wines have a disagreeable flavour, but much alcohol and sweetness, commonly called body. The flavour improves as they become drier. The more liquorous the wine is the longer it must be kept before its strong and peculiar flavour is adjusted to the right medium. The principal growths of the district are the Barsacs, Sauternes, and Bommes. From the heights of Sauternes and from the castle of Yquem a splendid view of the valley of the Loire is obtained, one of the finest landscapes in Europe. 75. DESCRIPTION OF THE WINES. The wines of Barsac have much body, alcohol and a fine bouquet. They are more heady capiteux as it is termed in French and have a more lively taste and a more amber- tinted colour. The first growth of the district of Barsac is that of the Chateau Contet. The wines of Sauternes proper are more marrowy, and fine, more transparent and agree- able. The Chateau Yquem produces the finest of all the Sauternes wines; its prices range from 12,000 to 15,000 francs per tonneau of four barriques. In 1869 we tasted the several vintages, amongst them 1844 and 1865 ; the latter was very attractive, the tete excessively sweet, and when it was mixed with the tail, it sank in it like syrup of high specific gravity. The 1866 was too hot, i.e., too alcoholic. At Chateau la Tour blanche, we found the 1865 very similar in flavour to Rhenish cabinet wines, which WINES OF THE GIRONDE. 121 also remain excessively sweet ; the middles and tails suited our British palates better. At Chateau Suduiraut, distinguished by rich sources of flowing spring water, we observed an amusing little incident illustrative of the view which one may take of the hypocrisy of tasting wines for purposes of business. In tasting, the wine is supposed to be spat out after being rolled about the mouth for a few moments, and the tasters maintain that they are not in the habit of swallowing any, and that they are not obliged to swallow any for the purpose of getting a perfect taste. While we were tasting the 1857 wines the proprietor's little son came near, and his father asked him whether he would have a drink. The boy replied in the affirmative, and then putting the glass to his mouth drank its contents ; but as the company was not supposed to drink but only to taste, the father jocularly admonished the son to " spit a little " crachez tin pen. In reality, of course, no taster could exist if he had to swallow even a quarter of what he puts in his mouth for tasting. The viticultual statistics of the Sauternes district producing white as well as red wines are fully given in Thudichum and Dupre, "Treatise," pp. 357-365. 76. WINES OF THE HILL-SIDES OR COTES OF THE GIRONDE. A chain of hills extending along the right bank of the Garonne from Ambarez to Sainte-Croix-du-Mont yield great quantities of vines termed " of the hill-sides," Vim de Cotes. The northern part of the district produces mainly dark-coloured wines, which are at first hard and rough, but ameliorate with age. These are exported under the name of " wines of the good hill-side." In the southern part only little red wine is made but much white wine of a dry quality, called "wine of the little hill-sides." Under this latter category the traders of Bordeaux include the wines of the right bank of the Dordogne, from Bourg, which is about twenty kilometres north of Bordeaux to Fronsac, which is about twenty-four kilometres north-east of 122 A TREATISE ON WINES. Bordeaux. Among all these wines the most celebrated are those which are grown in the community of St. Emilion, and named after that district; the vineyards occupy 1,041 hectares. The best qualities are obtained on the plateau of the Madeleine and St. Martin, and on the inclines towards the south and west of the St. Emilion hills. The soil on the hill-sides is chalky clay lying upon rock ; in the lower parts the territory becomes sandy, and rests frequently upon ferruginous subsoil. St. Emilion was a stronghold of the Knights Templars, Fig. 26. The Secateur as used for pruning Vines in the Gironde and of their churches and order-houses innumerable ruins exist, interspersed with inhabited houses. The varieties of vines met with in this district are the Noir de Pressac, the Merlot and the Bouchet or Cabernet. The Merlot is one of the vines of the marshes or Palus, and the Cabernet one of the best vines of the Medoc, where however it is designated by the synonym of Carmenet. These vines are represented at St. Emilion in the proportion of one-third of the whole set. To the Cabernet the St. Emilion wine, in our opinion, owes its finesse ; to the Merlot its body and lasting quality ; and to WINES OF THE GIRONDE. 123 the Noir de Pressac its particularly fiery and fresh quality. The mode of cultivation is very similar to the so-called basket cultivation of the Rheingau. The Noir de Pressac is pruned so that only short spurs are left. The Bouchet and the Merlot, however, are cut with long canes. The soil is worked by hoe and plough. The vines are tied to stakes, Fig. 27. The Secateur as used with both hands to cut a thicker branch. which here bear the peculiar name of carasonr.es. A hectare of the best vineyards yields about six barriques or thirteen and a half hectolitres ; the common vineyards yield double that quantity. The vintage takes place at the end of September and beginning of October. Most proprietors crush the grapes and put them by preference into middle- 124 A TREATISE ON WINES. sized vats. The rest of the treatment is the same as that which we have described as prevalent in the Me*doc. St. Emilion of good quality can be put into bottle towards the fourth year, and must, under all circumstances, be bottled by the sixth year. If this period be overstepped and the wine left in barrel beyond it, it loses its fruitiness, freshness, flavour, and colour, and becomes incapable of producing in bottle that fragrance which it would have obtained had it been bottled at the proper time. It follows that St. Emilion wine will be less injured by premature bottling than by undue delay of this operation. It is singular that the St. Emilion wine is not liked in England, although like the best Montpellier it recalls many of the finest Fig. 28. Vines of the Palus (Villenave d'Ornon) pruned for spring growth. qualities of fine port wines, leaving brandy out of the question. Fine wines will sell at 300 to 350 francs the hogshead, and will come to about ;i6 the hogshead in London. Some qualities sell at 75 francs the hogshead. Most of the good St. Emilion at present goes to Belgium, Holland, Denmark and Sweden, the second class St. Emilion is largely imported into Paris. St. Emilion is the centre of a district called the Libour- nais, of which Libourne is the principal town. Towards the north-west the Libournais is marked off by the river Isle. On the other side of the river is the district called Fronsadais, of which the principal town is Fronsac, upon the banks of WINES OF ROUSSILLON AND LANGUEDOC. 1 25 the Dordogne. To the north-east of the Fronsadais is the JBlayais, which has the town of Blaye, a fortress lying on the banks of the Gironde, for its centre. The Blayais, there- fore, lies opposite the Medoc, on the banks of the Gironde. In these districts considerable quantities of red and white wines are produced. None of these are classified, but many are very useful. Large quantities, particularly of white cotes, coloured up with Teinturier of Toulouse, are exported to America. For statistics of these districts see Thudichum and Dupre\ " Treatise," pp. 370-380. CHAPTER XIII. WINES OF ROUSSILLON AND LANGUEDOC. 77. WINES OF ROUSSILLON. THE ancient province of France formerly called Rous- sillon is now merged in the department of the Oriental Pyrenees. Its name has been preserved, at least with foreign nations, by its wines ; and certainly its wines were, and in part are yet, its only or principal wealth. It contains more than 50,000 hectares of vineyards. Three kinds of wine are produced : liqueur wines, or musts preserved with spirit without fermentation ; dry wines by ordinary fermen- tation, and half-fermented wines, which are in such a con- dition that they can be used for the manufacture of any- thing factitious port in particular. It is to the fortified wines, particularly red wines, that Roussillon owes its main success. The most celebrated vineyards of the district are at Banyuls-sur-Mer, Collioure, Port-Vendres, Rivesaltes, and Perpignan. Banyuls-sur-Mer is very near the Spanish frontier, in the warmest part of the eastern Pyrenees, and . its vineyards have an area of about 4,500 hectares; they 126 A TREATISE ON WINES. are mostly on slopes of schistose rock, in the plain on alluvial soil. The vineyards are planted almost exclusively with the Grenache noir and the Carignane. In the whole of the Roussillon district the Grenache is mainly planted on the heights, while the lower parts of the vineyards are popu- lated by the Carignane. The bunch of grapes of the Grenache is large, loose, pyramidal, with uneven berries, and otherwise deformed by accident during blossom time. The bluish-black colour of its thin skin is overlaid by a strong waxy bloom ; in it fine taste, sweetness and perfume prevail, and it ripens early. The Carignane is less fertile and less delicate than the Grenache, and gives dry wine ; its bunch of grapes is long, round, and uneven, blackish-blue, with a strong bloom. It has a thick husk, ripens late, and tastes less sweet than the Grenache. The ordinary Banyuls wines are generally made of two-thirds of Grenache and one-third of Carignane grapes. Two other vines furnish some addition of grapes, one, the Mataro, bearing a blackish, sweet, and early ripe grape; another, thzPtcpoule, which seems useful for bearing quantity ; for this it is grown in the lower Rhone valley, the Herault, and the Gard. -These two adventitious vines, as far as Roussillon is con- cerned, according to Lenoir, yield only mediocre wine. In the accompanying engraving Fig. 29, a view of the vineyards of Banyuls, Port-Vendres, and Collioure is given, which shows the remarkable steepness of the slopes on which the vines are planted. In consequence the labour here is manual, while in the plain the soil is worked with the plough. A hectare on the slopes yields about 15 hecto- litres of wine, while in the plain it gives 25 hectolitres. Plastering of the must is not rarely practised, and helps to make Roussillon wine flat and mawkish, and to deprive it of that refreshing acidity which alone makes sugary wines palatable. The so-called Grenache wine is not really a wine at all, but grape-juice preserved from fermenting by the addition of spirit., sulphurous acid, and frequent racking from any deposits, including any yeast which may grow. The richer 128 A TREATISE ON WINES. in sugar the must is, the less spirit does it require, but the amount of spirit added is never very great ; the main agents in suppressing fermentation are, besides concentration and alcohol, the vapour of burnt sulphur and frequent racking. It is said that the liqueur must remain in cask for fifteen years before it is fit for being drunk. This is, therefore, a preparation resembling in every way to the Spanish dulce, except in this, that it receives less spirit than the dulce, and consequently requires more time for its perfection. The vineyards of Collioure cover 800 hectares, those of Port- Vendres 600 hectares ; they resemble in every respect those of Banyuls, and the treatment of plants and product is the same. The Collioure wines have much colour, body, and what the French call generosity, yet being drier than that of Banyuls. They lose colour after ten years in barrel, and then are thought to be most fit for bottling, but such delay between growth and consumption is nowadays not very practicable. When sold after the first spring racking the wines fetch very low prices, from 15 francs a hectolitre, being a penny-halfpenny for a litre, up to 150 francs, being a franc and a half for a litre. Most of these wines go to the United States, to be there transformed into liqueur wines, and to the Brazils, to be there drunk as dry wines. Cette and Marseilles take considerable quantities to work them up into whatever may be demanded. The vineyards of Rivesaltes cover 10,500 hectares] they yield a fine wine which is qualified to be transformed into effer- vescent wine after the manner of Champagne. In the Collioure vineyards a peculiar vine is grown, the Ctairette, also sometimes improperly called the Blanquette, but only intermixed with the main or prevailing sets above described. The bunches of this vine are pyramidal, with wings, and among the grapes are many oval, half-transparent, golden yellow bloomy ones, having a thick skin and a sugary taste. They ripen late and give a fine wine, which, when young, is sweet, and afterwards becomes dry, and is also qualified for transformation into Mousseux. Rivesaltes produces what are called specialities, which have a limited reputation, such are the Muscat, the Maccabeo, WINES OF ROUSSILLON AND LANGUEDOC. 129 the Malvoisie, the Grenache, and the Rando. All these names are those of vines from which the beverages, mostly liqueurs, are produced ; the Rando alone is named after its age and dryness, and bears a Spanish name, which once indi- cated old wine, but by modern traders is held to be a term implying condemnation. 78. MODE OF PRODUCTION OF MUSCAT SWEET WINE. The grapes are shrunk on the plant, or on trays in the sun, until they are raisin-like shrivelled, but not dry. They are then crushed by any of the several methods, and on pressing yield a must of great density, which is put into barrels and allowed to ferment. The barrels are not entirely filled up, and when fermentation is completed the wine is racked. Owing to its great amount of sugar, this wine, like Tokay or Rota Tent, forms very little alcohol ; in the first year therefore it resembles more to a syrup than a wine, and approaches the thick Sauternes in quality, though these are not artificially condensed, and form more spirit. In the second year the wine becomes clean, acquires finesse* and fire, and that Muscat bouquet to which it owes its repu- tation. It should not be kept very long, for its bouquet is transient, but should be drunk while it is fresh. The Rivesaltes is sold young at about 100 francs the hectolitre. 79. MODE OF PRODUCTION OF MALVOISIE AND MACCABEO WINES. The grapes used for these wines are not dried or concen- trated by the sun, but their expressed juice is somewhat concentrated in a pan over the fire. When the scum has risen and been removed, the liquid is allowed to cool, and put into barrels, together with a certain amount of proof spirit. It is racked once a month for six months, and thereby fermentation is completely prevented. In the making of the Malvoisie the grapes are carried to the press with the utmost care, for if they are at all injured they lose much of their flavour. The must, although mixed with I3O A TREATISE ON WINES. some proof spirit, is allowed to ferment as long as it will. When fermentation has ceased the wine is racked, and a little more spirit is added. Dry Malvoisie is also made with the aid of full fermentation. On the whole, the pro- duction of these sweet wines is very limited as regards quantity, and their prices are very low, on account of the long time during which they must be kept before they are approved of by the consumers. 80. VINEYARD OF PERPIGNAN Of the 5,000 hectares of this vineyard two-thirds are in the plain and of inferior quality to those on the hills, and even these slopes rise but little above the level of the sea. The soil is clay, here and there chalk, and everywhere there are rolled pebbles as in the Medoc. The wine is left in the cuves from twenty-five to thirty-six days ; the lower class wines are always treated with gypsum or plaster of Paris ; the white wines, if sweet, are put in bottle in March. The red wines remain in barrel much longer, but are apt to lose much of their colour. As they preserve it when bottled, they are put in glass early, and decanted from any deposit, and transferred to new bottles seven times in fifteen years. It is doubtful whether the resulting wines are worth the trouble bestowed upon them, and they would not bear the expense if they were not so extraordinarily cheap when newly made. Much of the wine grown here goes to North and South America, to Genoa, Cette and Marseilles, and to a few inland places of France, Lyons among them. In the Canton of Perpignan there is produced a wine called Torre- mila, which comes very near to average Madeira ; at Torremila also a kind of Mousseux is made, which has a cer- tain reputation. 8 1. SUMMARY OF THE WINES OF ROUSSILLON. The most esteemed liqueur wines, whether partly fer- mented or not, and treated as dukes, are the Muscat of Rivesaltes, the Maccabeo, the Grenache, and the Malvoisie. WINES OF ROUSSILLON AND LANGUEDOC. 131 Amongst the dry wines are esteemed those of Banyuls- sur-Mer, of Torremila, of Rivesaltes, and of Terrats ; the Malvoisie and Picpoule are here also made of dry quality. Among the red or commercial liqueur wines those which take the first places are of Banyuls-sur-Mer, Collioures, and Port-Vendres, Corneilla-de-la-Riviere, Pezilla-de-la-Riviere, Tautavel, Montner, and Banyuls-des-Aspres. Among the dry ordinaries are to be mentioned the wines of Espira-de-la-Gly, Rivesaltes, Baixas, Salces, Millas, Saint Andre, and the two Cantons of Perpignan. The barrels in which Roussillon wine is made and sold are of the size of barriques of Bordeaux. The wine is laden into ships directly from the producing district ; but, as the ships cannot come near to the shore in that part, the barrel is rolled out to the beach, and then down the beach into the water, which may be a distance of a mile or two miles. When the barrel begins to float, the man who has rolled it pushes it on towards the ship, at last by swimming. When the cask arrives at the ship, it is lifted on board by a crane, and the man returns to the shore. 82. WINES OF LANGUEDOC, OR THE MIDI OF FRANCE. TOPOGRAPHY AND SOIL. Languedoc is the name of an ancient province of France, and comprises the greater part of what are now the depart- ments of the Aude, of the Herault, and of a portion of the Gard. The wines are mostly red, and the inspectors of the English Board of Customs, who were sent there on an official inquiry, found none which contained above 23-9 per cent, of proof spirit, while many contained less. In a great part of Languedoc viticulture was in a flourishing condition already at the time of the Romans ; and now these wines are the objects of a vast commerce, which is daily increasing owing to the united advantages of climate, soil, and situation, by means of which great quantities of cheap and saleable wines are produced. The surface occupied by vineyards in the three departments mentioned amounts to 258,192 132 A TREATISE ON WINES. hectares, of which the department of the Aude owns 70,982, that of the Herault 179,962, and that of the Card 75,248 hectares. The soil is chalky on the slopes, chalky and clayey in the plains, and silico-calcareous, with many rolled pebbles, on the high plains or plateaux. The same vines are raised throughout the whole of the departments, and the wines which are obtained from them are classified in the same manner throughout the entire province of Languedoc. They go generally under the name of Vins du Midi, which in the eyes of uninformed persons is equivalent to cheap, bad stuff. If they knew the quantities of such wines ex- ported to all parts of France, and mixed with the Burgundies, the Bordeaux, and other varieties of French wine drunk in the country or exported, they would moderate their dislike ; and if they had the enterprise to study the wines of these countries themselves, they would find their quality and cheapness a sufficient recommendation to all consumers of the middle classes. The wines are divided into two cate- gories : wines for the distillery, and wines for commerce. These latter are sub-divided, first, into ordinary red and white wines of commerce; secondly, into the fine red wines ; and thirdly, into the white dry wines, and the white liqueur and Muscat wines. The sales are effected through the agency of brokers, termed courtiers, who formerly were of more importance than nowadays, when their only office is to obtain samples and bring them to the merchants. 83. VINES CULTIVATED IN LANGUEDOC. The vines prevalent in this province are the Carignane, the Terret noir, the Grenache, the Mourastel, the Aspiran, the Oeillade and its variety the Sinsaon, the black Picpoule, the white Picpoule, and the Clairette. These yield the wines of commerce. For the distillery wines only two vines are cultivated, namely, the Aramon and the Terret bourret. These two latter cover the whole of the plains of Herault and of St. Guilhem upon the sea, the plain of Lunel, of Orbe, and of the Aude. The grapes of these vines are WINES OF ROUSSILLON AND LANGUEDOC. 133 their most characteristic parts. The Terret noir has loosely hanging grapes of equal size, oval in shape, of a blackish- red colour, transparent and browned by the sun, with a thick skin of acidulous taste ; the bunch is pyramidal and winged. The grapes of the Terret bourret are of similar shape, but of a light rosy or violet colour ; they have a flat taste, and yield only the lowest wines used in the distilleries. The Aramon has a long exuberant bunch, with round, equal, violet-black bloomy grapes, of a flat taste, and provided with a thick skin. The Oeillade bears a magnificent pyra- midal winged bunch, with voluminous grapes, hanging on Fig. 30. Vine of the Herault, with all its wood as seen in winter. very long green stalks, of blackish blue colour, with brown sun spots, ripening early; their taste is fresh, sugary, and agreeable. The Piran or Aspiran bears a middle-sized bunch with black-bloomed grapes of fine and sugary taste. The white wines are mostly made of Picpoule and Clairette. The vines which are planted on alluvial soil are called Tines of the plain; those on ferruginous soil mixed with pebbles, the result of chalk denudation, are termed vines of the terrain de gres. They give esteemed commercial wines. The slopes, garrigues, yield wines which are fit for exporta- tion, and are distilled only in years of plentiful harvests. In abundant years the distillery keeps up the prices of 134 A TREATISE ON WINES. wines for consumption ; in years of dearth even the wines of the plain, which ordinarily go to the distillery, are mixed with wines of good years and sold to the world. The vines are not very carefully cultivated, the manuring in particular is very negligently performed. The vintage takes place in the middle of September and extends into October. In the rich alluvial plains a hectare may some- times yield 200 hectolitres of distillery wine ; but on the slopes and gravels only from 25 to 30 hectolitres. Good ordinary soils planted with Aramon and Terret bourret yield up to 50 hectolitres. The grapes are crushed as usual, powdered over with Fig. 31. Vines of the Herault pruned and their "feet" uncovered. a. b. a', b'. Stocks with four branches each. plaster of Paris, and put into the vats ; the wine is placed in foudres or large barrels of a capacity varying between 7 and 700 hectolitres. 84. DISTINGUISHED GROWTHS OF THE DEPARTMENTS OF THE AUDE AND GARD. The vineyard of Limoux yields a white wine passing as Blanquette de Limoux ; of this about 3,000 hectolitres are made, which fetch double the price of the red wine \ of the latter 10,000 hectolitres are produced. These wines are termed, after the localities, Le"denon, Langlade, and St. Gilles, all three in the arrondissement of Nismes. The WINES OF ROUSSILLON AND LANGUEDOC. 135 Langlade wine is left only three days in the vat, is light, of rich colour, and less alcoholic than other wines ; as it is so well known, thousands of barrels of other districts pass under its name. The vineyard of St. Gilles, 5,000 hectares in extent, produces wines of brilliant purple colour, soft taste, yet of the quality which the French express by nerve and mordant, for which we might say strength and grip. They are called vins fermes, because they can be used to give colour and strength to wines which do not possess those properties, and hence they are also called vins de remede. The St. Gilles' wines have, however, and always bring into other wines with which they are mixed, a particular taste so-called taste of territory. Considered in their character as dyeing materials for other wines, the products of this district are divided into six classes, and called accordingly the wines of one, three, five, or six colours, according to whether they can, on being mixed with one, three, five, or six times their volume of white wine, produce a well- coloured ordinary table wine. At St. Gilles wine is sold by the barrel, measuring a little more than 50 litres, and cor- responding almost to the Austrian Eimer. The hectolitre may fetch up to fifty-three francs, and in good years sink to three francs. The average price is ten francs the hectolitre. Most of this wine goes to Paris and Holland. In the vinification the care taken to extract all the colour- ing matter from the husks is very great. Before the vintage is mashed it is put into closed spaces, whereby a slight fer- mentation begins in the unbroken berries, through which the skin is predisposed to part with its pigment. The rest is not peculiar, except that little care is taken to avoid the effects of a tainted or acetous top or chapeau. A peculiar process adopted to strengthen wines consists in concentrating entire grapes in cauldrons heated by steam; they shrivel, as if they were in the sun, and become cooked as well ; the hard skin becomes macerated and the pigment loosened. Grapes thus concentrated are put into spirit or into new wine. Mild wines of dark rose colour, from the third day of fermentation, are sent off to Burgundy to serve in what is called the "arrangement" of Burgundy wines; 136 A TREATISE ON WINES. excess of colour and of acidity is thereby corrected and the Burgundy becomes earlier fit for sale. At St. Gilles sweet wine is also made with the aid of sul- phuring and racking, which delay fermentation and allow the wine to become clear ; when fermentation ultimately sets in it is much slower and less energetic than it would have been in the must not sulphured and racked, and leaves a great deal more sugar in the fluid than would otherwise have been left. At St. Gilles is also made a speciality, by a proprietor, Dr. Beaumes, namely, a wine from the true Furmint or Tokay vine, after the manner of the Hungarian Tokay ; it is called Tokay Princesse, and sold in the place at the price of six francs the bottle. 85. REMARKABLE GROWTHS OF THE HERAULT. Amongst the red wines of the province those of St. Georges D'Orques, St. Chrystol, and St. Drezery are best known. The Picardans are white wines, and the Lunels are Muscat wines. The wines of the arrondissement of Montpellier are amongst the finest of the department. The Picardan wines are sweet or dry, and mostly obtained from the Clairette. The grape of this vine must hang into October. The wines obtained from it are similar to Madeira, and are frequently mixed with alcohol, so as to contain from 13 to 15*5 per cent, of absolute alcohol. The wines are also heated in the sun, or in hot chambers as in Madeira. They are mostly cheap, selling at from 12 to 16 francs the hectolitre. 86. REMARKABLE MUSCAT WINES. The mode of their production has been above described. They are mostly made from white, more rarely from black Muscat grapes. At Frontignan from 230 hectares there are annually produced of white Muscat 800 to 900 barrels, containing from 220 to 225 litres each, while of red WINES OF ROUSSILLON AND LANGUEDOC. 137 Muscat only 20 hectolitres are made. The price per barrel varies between 120 and 200 francs. Lunel is rapidly diminishing its production, while Maraussan and Espagnac are not increasing theirs. 87. MANUFACTURE OF SPIRIT DISTILLED FROM WINE, CALLED "TROIS-SIX" AND " EAU-DE-VlE," AT MONT- PELLIER. In the department of the Herault two qualities of brandy, called trois-six, are made from grapes, one of wine and the other of murk. The former ones are called "of good taste " (de bon gout} when the wine from which they have been made was neither spoiled nor sour. The spirit from murk, always called trois-six of murk, is less valuable than that of wine by from 25 to 50 per cent. The trois-six of good taste is obtained by stills, called after their inventor De Rosne, and other more modern ones, which will in twenty-four hours produce up to 30 hectolitres of brandy of 86 per cent, strength. The wines of the plain contain from 7 to ii volumes per cent, of trois-six of 84, in good years up to 12 volumes per cent : a large still can consume daily from 200 to 300 hectolitres of wine. The residues have a very repulsive odour, and when discharged into water-courses infect the air more than sewage. No use for them has as yet been discovered. The strength of the distilled spirit is mostly ascertained by the aid of the alcoholometer of Bories. This is a very ancient instrument, and the manufacturers and producers of Languedcc are as reluctant to give it up as the Germans are with regard to that of Tralles, or the English with regard to that of Sikes. 88. MARKETS FOR THE SALE OF SPIRITS. There are in the department of the Herault four markets of eau-de-vie and alcohol, in the order of their importance : Be'ziers (principal sale day Friday) ; Pdzenas (Saturday) ; Cette (Wednesday) ; and Lunel (Monday). If there are no 138 A TREATISE ON WINES. stipulations made to the contrary, the manufacturers of trois- six are bound to deliver all produce to one or other of these markets, and let it be accompanied with a warranty of its quality. The inspector of the market verifies the analysis, and, if correct, admits ; if incorrect, returns the piece. The inspector states the limpidity, which must be perfect ; he observes that it is free from any colour ; the taste must be pure and free. If a piece is declared of mauvais gout, it will be paid for only as trois-six of murk. All trois-six is paid for in cash. 89. DESIGNATIONS OF SPIRITS OF VARIOUS DEGREES OF STRENGTH. The several designations of spirits of various strengths used in Languedoc and other parts of France are derived as follows : Common eau-de-vie is accepted as the standard, and supposed to show 19 Carder at 12-5 temperature. It then contains a little less than 50 volumes per. cent, of abso- lute alcohol. Trois-six is a spirit of which three volumes added to three volumes of water were supposed to give six volumes of eau-de-vie at 19 Cartier. It is the common alcohol of commerce, marks 33 on the scale of Cartier, and contains consequently 84*4 volumes per cent, of absolute alcohol. Trois-cinq is a spirit of which three volumes added to two volumes of water were supposed to give five volumes of eau-de-vie at 19 Cartier, while trois-sept is an alcohol of which three volumes added to four volumes of water were supposed to give seven volumes of eau-de-vie. It is evident that by the more accurate methods of ascertaining the strengths of spirits these names have lost much of their meaning, the very standard of eau-de-vie, with 50 volumes per cent, alcohol, excluding the possibility of the existence of an alcohol called trois-sept. But whenever these names are used without the definition of the exact strength in volume per cent., or degrees Cartier, we may assume that by 3/7 is meant a spirit of 94 per cent, by volume ; by 3/6 a spirit of about 84 per cent, volume ; by 3/5 a spirit of 78 per cent, volume ; by proof of Holland a spirit of 58 volumes WINES OF THE EAST OF FRANCE. 139 per cent. [Rendu, "Vins du Languedoc," i. p. 71, gives proof of Holland as 52 volumes per cent. ; Payen, "Chimie Industrielle," third edition, p. 712, gives proof of Holland at 587, and proof of London at 58 volumes per cent.; British (or Sikes's) proof spirit at 15-5 contains 57-06 volumes per cent, or 49-24 weight per cent, of absolute alcohol.] Commerce and manufactures demand and produce now only the strongest kind of spirit which can be conveniently produced by mere distillation. While at Montpellier there are now produced annually only 2,000 pieces of eau-de-vie, equal to 6,000 hectolitres of 52, the manufacture of 3/6 rises to 60,000 pieces, equal to 360,000 hectolitres of eau-de-vie ; 60,000 hectares of vineyards of the Herault produce nothing but wine to be used for distilling. The average production of 3/6 in the four departments the eastern Pyrenees, the Herault, the Card, and the Aude has been 500,000, half-a- million hectolitres, or fifty millions of litres. The spirit distilled immediately after the fermentation is the best ; older wine gives inferior brandy. The alcohol from murk is expelled by steam. On an average 13,000 kilogrammes of murk yield 600 litres of spirit The warm murk after expulsion of the alcohol can be used for feeding sheep. The alcohols of the Herault are mostly sold in France to be drunk as eau-de-vie, or to be used for fortifying wine viner les vin$. CHAPTER XIV. WINES OF THE EAST OF FRANCE. 90. WINES OF THE EAST OF FRANCE. THE greater and most reputed part of the wines of the east of France is grown on the right bank of the Rhone in the communes of Laudun, Chuselan, Tavel, Roquemaure, all in the department of the Gard ; in the district which I4O A TREATISE ON WINES. contains St. Pdray, department of Ardeche, and at Condrieu and Cote-rotie, department of the Rhone. On the left bank of the Rhone much less wine is grown than on the right, but it is celebrated by the name of Chateau-neuf-du- Pape, department Vaucluse, and of I'Ermitage, department of the Drome. The vineyards of Croyes, Larnage, and Mer- curol, in the same department, produce wine which in quality follows immediately after Ermitage. The wines of the Card have the character of the Fins du Midi. The white St. Peray has a character of its own, particularly in the effervescent or Mousseux state. The wines of the upper part of the Rhone, Cote-rotie, resemble those of the Beaujolais and the Cote d'Or. The wines of I'Ermitage are distinguished by peculiar qualities, and a pleasing bouquet, coupled with great finesse ; and those of Chateau- neuf-du-Pape by spirituosity and colour, for which qualities they are taken to Burgundy to serve as improvers of lesser qualities. The greater part of the vineyards of the Rhone is on calcareous soil, on the left bank mixed with clay and pebbles ; the upper parts of the borders of the Rhone are formed of granite, the more horizontal land of diluvium of alpine origin. 91. COTE DU RHONE. The name of Cote du Rhone as applied to vineyards is equivalent to vineyards of the Card ; they are about thirty miles long by six miles in width. The black grapes grown here are the Terret, Picpoule, Piran (Aspiran), Camaneze, and Grenache or Alicante. The latter imparts the good qualities to the wine of this region. In some localities the Uni and the Bourboulenque are grown on a small scale with the others. Of the white grapes the Clairette and Calitor form about a fifth part, the others are Uni blanc, Picardan, and several other varieties. The wines produced on the Cote are classified as follows : Red Wines First class ; not iwtted, Tavel. Very dry, light-coloured wines, improve much by age. Annual produce, WINES OF THE EAST OF FRANCE. 14! 3,000 pieces of 280 litres measure, and about 50 francs value each. Lirac. Very dry, firmer than Tavel, of a lively rose- colour. Annual produce, 1,000 pieces of 50 francs value each. Chusdan. Very agreeable liqueur wine. Produce, 2,000 pieces per annum ; value 50 francs each. Second class ; not vatted, Orsan. A tender wine of deep colour. Annual produce, 1,500 pieces, value 45 francs each. St. Genies-de-Comolas. Of this wine, which has analogies with Chusclan, 3,000 pieces are annually produced, of 45 francs average value. Third class. Saint Laurent-des-Arbres. Wine of half a colour so-called, 3,000 pieces annually, average price 45 francs . Roquemaure. The better productions are "of good quality," and valued as dinner wines ; 5,000 pieces, at 45 francs each. Of white wine there is only one staple variety, named Laudun, it is agreeable. The total production is 1,000 pieces per annum, of which 700 pieces remain dry, while 200 pieces are converted into sweet wine. 92. CHATEAU-NEUF-DU-PAPE. The 600 hectares of this vineyard are situated on the left bank of the Rhone, a few kilometres from Orange ; the plantations have mostly a southward inclination ; some, however, are in the plain, and have contributed much to decrease the reputation of this vineyard. The black grapes cultivated here are the Grenache, Picpoule, Tinto, and Terret noir ; of white varieties, the Clairette, Uni and Muscat. The cultivators say that the Grenache gives alcohol and finesse, the Picpoule generosity, Tinto colours, and the Terret quantity. The best vines, the Grenaches, are the latest to bear and the earliest to decay ; a well-kept Grenachiere, as a vineyard planted with Grenaches only is called, produces up to 30 hectolitres of wine per hectare : the average of other varieties is only 20 hectolitres. A 142 A TREATISE ON WINES. piece of wine of 270 litres is sold at the price of from 25 to 50 francs. The red wine sheds its colour after three years in barrel, and preserves it then only when bottled. The most remarkable vineyards in this district are the following : The vineyard of La Nerthe gained its reputation through the practice of the owner, the Marquis of Villefranche, of frequently treating his guests at Paris to old fine Nerthe wine. The product is not now husbanded to the same advantage. The Cru de Condorcet is situated below the Nerthe and measures 20 hectares; its wines fetch only a fifth of the price of Nerthe. The vineyard of Fortia occupied a place similar to that of Nerthe under its former proprietor, the Marquis de Fortia d'Urban ; that of Vaudieu produces light-coloured and less alcoholic wines, several parts of it are planted exclusively with white vines, from the fruit of which a dry wine is made, as well as a sweet one by the addition of spirit to the must. In the commune of Chateau-neuf-du-Pape the land is extremely subdivided, and every owner is a wine-grower. The wines are mostly bought after the harvest by the commission^agents of Roquemaure, who after having averaged, i.e., mixed them, send the greater quantity into Burgundy to be used there as " doctors " to feeble, acid and pale wines of bad years. Bordeaux also receives a quantity of these wines for the same purpose. Jn consequence the wines of Chateau-neuf-du-Pape do not occur in trade in their original condition at all ; when bought for mixing they are already in a mixed state. The principle of vinification is to produce black alcoholic wine, in great volume, and in consequence the ancient reputation of these vineyards is gradually diminishing. 93. VINEYARD OF ST. PERAY, ARDECHE. The vineyard of St. Peray is situated on the right bank of the Rhone in the department of Ardeche; it is 172 hectares in extent and produces only white wine. The dominant vine is the Grosse Roussette (Roussanne of the Ermitage) ; it is mixed with a small proportion of the petite Roussette, but with no other vine. The dry wine is made in the ordinary WINES OF THE EAST OF FRANCE. 143 manner, and is put into bottles in the third or fourth year. The Mousseux is produced in the same manner as Champagne : Grand Mousseux of the best years is sold at two francs a bottle retail ; it is very heady and neither so fine nor so mild as Champagne. The wine in barrel is sold for 50 to 75 francs the hectolitre. 94. VINEYARDS OF THE ERMITAGE. The vineyards of the Ermitage are situated on the left border of the Rhone in the commune of Tain, twenty-eight kilometres from Valence, department of Drome ; have a surface of 1 90 hectares and are distributed over two slopes ; one of these is on granitic soil, the other on alluvial. They are exposed to the south-west in such a manner that the sun strikes them from his rising to his setting. The name is derived from a place of retirement which one Gaspard de Sterimberg, a courtier of Queen Blanche of Castile, built thereabouts for his old age in the year 1225. The vineyards on granitic soil constitute the so-called " Mas de Bessas ; " those on the alluvial the " Mas du Me"al ; " those on alluvial clay the " Mas de Greffieux." The high quality of the Ermitage wines depends upon the combination of these three vineyards, the produce of which is always sold mixed ; and a proprietor in order to have his produce classified as " premier cru " must hold property in the three vineyards. In short, what is called Ermitage, and has any quality, is always a mixture of the grapes of the three " Mas." The vines grown here are the " grosse Sirrah " and " petite Sirrah" for red wine; and the "Roussanne" and "Mar- sanne " for white ; the "grosse Sirrah " is remarkable for its fertility, but produces a common wine ; it is therefore gradually being driven out of the good vineyards and is grown in the plain. Nineteen out of twenty parts of the hill-district cultivate the " petite Sirrah," the rest is planted with white vines. The " petite Sirrah " has a fine elongated winged bunch, bearing slightly oval grapes, which are unequal, closely packed together, of a blackish-violet colour, much browned on the surface, juicy, very sweet and with a 144 A TREATISE ON WINES. thin husk ; they ripen early. The grapes of the Roussanne are white, small, round, unequal, and very much browned under a thick bloom ; the bunch of the Marsanne is not so large as that of the Roussanne ; its berries are unequal and very closely set. As the vines are kept very near to the ground, many of the bunches lie partially on the ground when nearly ripe, and become covered with earth. This entails a special operation in August called "unearthing the grapes." The vintage ordinarily takes place towards the end of September, but in early years it is made before the equinox, as heavy rains are not rarely experienced at that time. A hectare brings about 24 hectolitres of wine ; a vineyard of this surface may be bought, if it produce first growth, for 60,000 francs, second for 48,000 francs, third for 36,000 irancs. The cultivation costs about 900 francs per annum. To make a barrique of so-called straw wine, i.e., sweet liqueur wine, 760 kilogrammes of grapes are required, which with- out drying would have yielded three barriques of wine. The black grapes remain long, sometimes as long as forty days in the vats and are stirred frequently. This seems required by the large amount of sugar contained in the must, of which the last portions are only slowly transformed into the strongly alcoholic liquid. The wine can be bottled after having been in the barrel during four or five years. The best red Ermitage is sold at about 400 francs the barrique of 210 litres. Red Ermitage of the best quality goes to Bordeaux, to be mixed with the colder growths of the Gironde ; anything sold in trade as Ermitage is always second class, if it be Ermitage at all. When genuine it is distinguished by great richness, a lively purple colour, and a special bouquet, and becomes by these united qualities the best wine of the south of France. There are a number of smaller vineyards resembling by their products Ermitage ; these are called of Crozes, Lamage, Mercurol (La Rochegude), La Roliere, Die, Condrieu and Cote-rotie. The wines are mainly red, and ripe for bottle in five or six years. The piece of Ampuis, measuring 240 litres, is sold at about 200 francs. The wines are fiery and heady, but have great finesse and much bouquet WINES OF THE EAST OF FRANCE. 145 When the wine is made from the Vionnier grape mainly, it is lighter and more delicate, and does not lose its colour by age, but when made principally from the Terine, the wine is more harsh, and of darker colour; in bottle it forms a strong crust, loses its purple colour, and becomes of the light red colour of onion peel. In ancient times much of the produce of the Rhone valley was exported to Rome, now it is dispersed over the world, mainly in admixture to less alcoholic wines. 95. VINEYARDS OF THE BEAUJOLAIS, MACONNAIS, AND THE CHALON C6TE. The districts which contain these vineyards are situated in the upper part of the valleys of the French contributories of the Rhone, particularly the Saone. The vineyards are agglomerated, partly on slopes running towards the Saone, partly on rich flat land. The traveller by rail or road enters suddenly upon a viticultural district, continues in it, per- ceiving right and left nothing but vines, and after having travelled some miles he suddenly leaves it, when all viticulture ends and nothing but ordinary agriculture is perceptible. 96. THE BEAUJOLAIS. The Beaujolais is an arrondissement with Villefranche as principal town, and extends from the confines of the Macon- nais to the district of Lyons. It is divided by a chain of hills into the high and low Beaujolais. The high Beau- jolais consists of the cantons of Beaujeu and Belleville, where the best vineyards are met with. The low Beaujolais pro- duces a greater quantity of wine, but of a less distinguished quality. There are now in this district 20,000 hectares of vineyards, stretching over a length of 35 kilometres and a breadth of 6 kilometres. In the soil red quartzy porphyry- predominates ; in other parts a schistose formation comes out, and there are many mixtures of Plutonic and Neptunic formations. In the lower part chalk, with alluvial soil, crops L 146 A TREATISE ON WINES. up. Most of the vineyards, like those of Burgundy, slope towards the east. 97. VINES, VINTAGE, AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE WINES OF THE BEAUJOLAIS. Two vines prevail in the Beaujolais, the Petit Gamay and Camay Nicolas. Their bunches are elongated, conical and winged, and bear loose-hanging, unequal grapes of middle size, ovoid shape, black colour, bloomy surface, with thin skin, liquid juice and particularly sweet taste. Many vine- yards are cultivated by tenant farmers, who occupy from 4 to 5 hectares, reside on the land, and pay as rent half the produce of wine. The hectare in the Haut-Beaujolais yields on an average 20 pieces of wine of 210 litres each; in the Bas-Beaujolais much larger quantities. The vintage takes place in the end of September, and vinification is per- formed in the manner usual in Burgundy. The better wines of the Beaujolais may be arranged under three categories : First, the fine, early maturing and little coloured wines of Che'nas, Fleury, Lancie', St. Etienne- la-Varennes ; secondly, the fine, strong, deep-coloured and long-lasting wines of which Jullie"nas is the representative ; and, thirdly, the semi-fine wines which are esteemed but do not reach the quality of the former. The wines in this district are more delicate than the wines of the south of France. They taste juicy, and frequently are very sour. It is for this reason that they are esteemed in France, where it is usual to mix water with the ordinary wine drunk at table. The wines are not treated with plaster of Paris. The common wines fetch from 80 to 140 francs, the better ones from 130 to 400 francs the piece of 210 litres. The special examination of the crus can be seen in Thudichum and Dupre*'s "Treatise," /. c., p. 418. 98. THE MACONNAIS. GENERAL DIVISION OF DISTRICT AND SOIL. The district is situated round the town of Macon, also in the valley of the Saone, and may be divided into five belts. WINES OF THE EAST OF FRANCE. 147 of which four yield exclusively red wine,, while the fifth gives exclusively white wines. The first belt includes the Thorins and the Romaneche, which yield the finest class of Maconnais wine ; the second belt is represented by the vineyard of St. Amour; the third by that of Davaye"; the fourth belt includes the whole district north of Macon and the canton of Lugny. The wines of the latter are inferior to those of other districts, and remain common, but are abundant. While young they are rough, and become drinkable only after years of keeping. To the north of this district is the vineyard of Tournus, which produces much flat and dark-coloured wine; but this district no longer belongs to the Maconnais. The fifth zone is repre- sented by the vineyard of Pouilly, which gives the typical white wines of the Maconnais. The good vineyards are mostly situated upon slopes, the soil is granitic and schistose, frequently chalky. White wines are mostly grown on chalky soil. The vines on the rich alluvial soil in the valley of the Saone produce only rough common wines, which go to supply the town of Lyons. 99. PREDOMINATING VINES. Formerly the black Burgundy grape called Pineau pre- dominated, under the name of Bourguignon, but this has almost disappeared and given way to the Camay, which is here termed bon plant and plant de la dombe. There are three varieties of this Camay, the Camay Picard, Gamais Nicolas, and the Petit Gamais. These vines have nothing in common with that particular vine called the Gros Camay, the planting and cultivating of which was forbidden by a law passed by Philip le Hardi and the parliaments of Metz and Dijon. The bon plants of the Maconnais bear much fruit, and this produces good wines, but they are never equal to the Pineau. In the vineyards for white wines the Char- denet, or white Pineau, the prevalent white grape of the Bourgogne and Champagne, predominates. 148 A TREATISE ON WINES. 100. MODE OF CULTIVATION, VINTAGE AND TREATMENT OF RED WINES. The vines are kept near the ground, with low stems and short spurs for growing wood. The vintage begins at the end of September and is completed by the middle of Octo- ber. The grapes are vatted, and allowed to ferment during thirty-six hours ; in the lower parts during five days. The wines, when in barrel, are treated like those of the Bourgogne and Gironde. They are fined with white of egg, and bottled in the fourth or fifth year. They are ripe for drinking six months after bottling, and are mostly sold in Paris, Lyons, and Geneva, provided they are cheap. The better Macon wines are sometimes carried into Burgundy to be sold as wines of that country. They are very alcoholic, and very acid at the same time, and if not mixed with water are not an agreeable drink, but excite the heart. It is possible that owing to the great acidity the alcohol remains unper- ceived in the drinking, and incommodes the consumer afterwards. 1 01. WHITE GRAPE-VINES, AND CHARACTER OF THEIR WINE. The typical processes of viticulture and vinification, so far as white wine is concerned, can be studied at Pouilly and Fuisse*. The white vines are trained with long bearing canes, having ten eyes each. At the vintage, towards the end of September, the grapes are all deposited in baignoires and after slight mashing are pressed ; the must is run into barrels, and fermentation proceeds. All the white wines of the Maconnais district go to the town of Macon, and are thence transported to Paris. The Pouilly wine is dry, but too heady ; it is not so transparent as the Chablis, but has a more golden colour, preferred by many consumers. At the end of four years, of which two are spent in bottle, the vinosity and bouquet of the wine are fully developed. The Fuissd is inferior to Pouilly in finesse and generosity ; it is therefore mostly "put under," i.e., mixed with Pouilly. WINES OF THE EAST OF FRANCE. 149 Chaintre' is a pleasing sort of small wine, and of good taste, but inferior to Pouilly. A hectare of the best Pouilly vine- yard yields about 18 hectolitres of wine, each of which, at the vat, is worth 50 francs. The wines of Fuisse" and Solutre" are rarely worth more than 40 francs. 1 02. COTE OF CHALON-SUR-SAONE. The vineyards of the arrondissement of Chalon-sur-Saone are situated along the Cote of Chalon, and produce mainly ordinary wines, more rarely wines analogous to the half-fine wines and great ordinaries of the Cote d'Or, which are sold under the name of the latter. The vineyards are divided into three zones. The lowest is the plain; the next is the half cote; and the third, or upper cote, called coteau. The plain yields only common wines; the half cote wines of ordinary second quality; while the best wines are obtained on the incline which commences north of Chalon, runs through Sivry, and then subsides in the Maconnais. The soil is chalk mixed with clay, silica and ferric oxide ; much of it is alluvial. The best growths of the cote are protected by hills from the north wind, and the sun shines on them from its rising to its setting. The vines which here predominate are the Pineau, the Beurot or grey Pineau, in Germany called Rulander; the Camay, and the Giboudot, which is also called Malain, or " plant of Abraham." In this district also the desire of viticulturists for the production of quantity is increasing daily, and, in consequence, the black Burgundy grape is being diminished in number, while the more plenteous bearer the Camay, is being substituted for it. The grapes of the latter ripen rather late, and as those of the Beurot ripen early, the mixture is harvested before the Camay is quite ripe. The "plant of Abraham" has only one virtue, its enormous fertility. It has large bunches with loose-hanging berries ; these have thick skins, so that with the ordinary mode of vatting they remain sometimes entire. The wine obtained from them is violet red, harsh and sour, and can be drunk only after it has been several years in barrel. The white Camay yields a flat white wine ISO A TREATISE ON WINES. The wines of the Chalonnais are sold in pieces of 228 litres, and mostly go to Paris. The wine of Mercurey has for many years had a great reputation. The merchants of Beaune bought this wine in order to mix it with Volnay, to which it was very similar, and of which it increased the small quantity produced, but with the gradual diminution of its quality Mercurey wine lost even this value. A share in this decay is due to the general want of intelligence and care on the part of the vignerons. It is stated that the renting of vineyards at the rent of half the produce does not answer well in the Chalonnais. CHAPTER XV. WINES OF BURGUNDY. 103. GENERAL OBSERVATION ON THE WINES OF BURGUNDY. BURGUNDY is probably the oldest viticultural country in central Europe, and the art of wine-making migrated thence to many parts of France and Germany. In the Middle Ages Burgundy was the standard wine on the table of great people. When the reputation of Burgundy wine had been established, many proprietors without that district desired to obtain the vine from which this beautiful beverage was produced; and the value of the plant may be estimated from the fact recorded in history, that reigning princes of Burgundy made presents of such vines to other princes whom they befriended. Then the Burgundy vine migrated across the Rhine, up the Maine, into Saxony, Bohemia, and Moravia, and with it the mode of cultivation which we see in Burgundy. The place which Burgundy wine formerly occupied in society is now taken by Champagne, and in those parts,, for example, of Germany where formerly much Burgundy was drunk, now hardly any is met with. But the Nether- WINES OF BURGUNDY. 151 lands and Belgium preserve much of this ancient predilec- tion for Burgundy, and in these countries the best wine of this kind is to be met with. 104. VlTICULTURAL DISTRICTS OF BURGUNDY. That part of Burgundy which produces the best wines of its kind has been called the Cote d'Or, or " golden hillside." This is formed by a series of hills, about thirty-six miles in length, which stretch from Chalon on the Saone to Dijon, their cultivated inclination and exposure being towards the east. They are from 200 to 300 feet high, and consist of a loose chalk mixed with little clay. Towards the east of these hills there expands an enormous fertile plain right to the Jura mountains, which in fine weather can be seen, with the Mont Blanc behind them. Along these thirty miles of declivity an uninterrupted series of vineyards have been planted. They begin on the upper third of the hills, never ascending to the brow, and then stretch down the inclination into the plain, and frequently extend for a mile or two in the plain itself. The good vineyards are all situated about the lower third of the inclines. The property in the good situations is very much divided, so that a vineyard of five hectares is very rarely met with. An exception to this is the Clos de Vougeot, which has about fifty hectares of vine- yard and is surrounded by a wall. The vineyard of the Clos appears to the eye to be almost level. The Clos Romance Conti has only about two and a half hectares, the Cham- bertin four to five hectares. As these celebrated vineyards, and all others approaching them in quality of product, are very flat, it may be said that a vineyard which has an inclination of above ten degrees in the Bourgogne does not belong to the first class. Along the higher regions of the hills many deserted vineyards with old terraces may be discovered. They demonstrate that the vine does not succeed above a certain height along the incline. In the Champagne also the black Burgundy grape does not rise up to the crest of the hill, but at the upper third is replaced by the white Burgundy. Thus nature limited 152 A TREATISE ON WINES. the production of Burgundy on two sides ; on the side of the mountain by spring frosts, and on the side of the plain by want of quality of the produce. 105. VARIETIES OF VINES PLANTED IN BURGUNDY. The vineyards of Burgundy are populated by a mixture of vines termed by the vignerons Passe-tous-grains. The black-graped vine peculiar to, perhaps indigenous of Bur- gundy, the Pineau or Noirien, is the dominating variety along the Cote ; but in the ordinary situations, and in small vineyards, white and red grapes are found among the black. The Pineau is also the dominating grape in the Champagne. But by the side of it there is another variety, the Camay, the dominant grape of the Maconnais and Beaujolais. This latter grape gives a wine of much inferior quality, but the vine bears much more abundantly, for which reason it is preferred by those vignerons who get paid for quantity only. The must of the Noirien is much sweeter than that of the Camay, showing one-eighth more sugar than the latter. The vines themselves are not easily distinguished from each other by external appearance, but more easily by their fruit, that of the Camay being larger in the berries and frequently showing some unripe ones; while the Noirien is always of equal ripeness in all its berries. The Camay is the same vine with that planted at Bolle in Switzerland, and there called La Dole; a great amount of effervescent wine is manufactured from it at VeVais on the Lake of Geneva. Another variety of vine which frequently occurs in Burgundy is one bearing light red, almost grey grapes, called Beurot, known in Germany as Rulander. Of white grape-vines there is the Chardenay or White Burgundy, which is grown in the Champagne in the higher-lying vineyards, but also mixed with the other vines, and prevails in the northern part of Burgundy, yielding among others the celebrated wine of Chablis. WINES OF BURGUNDY. 1 06. MODE OF CULTIVATION. 153 New plantations follow the ordinary general rules ; young plants do not bear before the fifth or sixth year ; they are dressed upon two spurs, kept low on the ground, and sup- ported by stakes. Single vines are replaced by sinkers. Rejuvenescence by sinking all the vines, as is frequently practised in the Champagne, a process which gives to many Fig. 32. Burgundy Vine as it ought to be dressed, according to Guyot. A' B' the bearing or fruit cane. C D 1 the space for growing next year's fruit cane. vineyards of this district the aspect of great youthfulness, is not effected with regularity or extensively. Along the cotes of Beaune we have observed many vineyards with vines at least twenty years old, and having their bearing systems a foot and a half above the ground, a condition preventing excellence in the product ; moreover, the yearly branches are then so high that the stakes cannot carry them any more. Such vines would therefore be advantageously treated by the sinking process usual in the Champagne. Each plant 154 A TREATISE ON WINES. shoots three new canes, which are allowed to grow until the middle of summer. They are then tied together at the top, and when the grapes begin to colour the tops are cut off, excepting those of all canes which it is intended to sink, these are allowed to grow to their full length. As the reproduction of the vine is practised very irregularly, the vineyards of Burgundy do not present that remarkably cultivated, orderly, and youthful appearance of the vineyards of the Champagne. On the contrary, the peculiar sight is one of great inequality, very young vines being mixed with very old ones, and very low ones with very high ones. The soil, moreover, is stony, and is not so well attended to as elsewhere ; many stones are brought to the surface by the sinking of ditches for the laying of canes ; these sinkers affect about one-fifteenth of all the vines every year, so that a vineyard is rejuvenesced gradually once every fifteen years. The vineyards are manured as well as possible; all the labour is done by hand, and there is no ploughing. The vineyards are divided into ouvrees, or areas, which give a day's work to a man; such an ouvrbe has 3,645 square feet. The sinking, up to twenty vines per ouvree, is included in the contract ; a higher number of sinkers has to be paid for beyond the wages. In many parts of Burgundy the old arrangement prevails by which the labourer does all the work in the vineyard, and receives half the harvest as his payment. Such a vigneron generally has from three to four hectares under his charge ; he is aided by his family. He carries all the earth and manure, finds the poles or stakes, performs the vintage, presses the wine, and, in short, does every operation until the wine is in barrel. In parts where the wines are very good and high in price the viticulturist has yet to bear the half of the State taxes and of the com- munal imposts. The proprietor, however, allows him some collateral advantages, in the shape of plots of land for the keeping of animals, and free lodging. This peculiar practice of dividing estates into vintageries or vigneronnages, has been carried into Saxony, particularly into the neighbourhood of Dresden, where the whole wine-producing district is culti- vated upon the pattern of Burgundy. WINES OF BURGUNDY. 1 55 Grafting, In Burgundy also much grafting is practised, the slip, sinker, or sunken cane being grafted with its end into a groove made in the stem which has to be renewed or lowered. The labour of this process is no doubt great, but as grapes can be obtained from grafts sometimes in the first, mostly in the second year, the expense of the labour is sometimes at least partly repaid. 107. VINTAGE. The period of the vintage in Burgundy fluctuates between the latter end of September and first half of October. Early vintages are supposed to prognosticate a better wine, for of course they result from a favourable summer season. In some communes there is yet the vintage ban, a regulation intended to protect the grape-harvest by keeping everybody out of the vineyard from the time the grapes begin to ripen until the time of the vintage. Even the proprietors are not allowed to enter their own vineyards except perhaps once a week, during an interval which is announced by the village bells. When the grapes are ripe a commission is appointed, consisting generally of the mayor, a proprietor, a practical vigneron, and one merchant. This commission, while visiting the vineyard, forms an opinion whether or not the grapes ought to be collected. When they have fixed the time they announce it to the mayor, or the prefect, and it is published by the town-crier or by other means. This peculiar law does, of course, not affect enclosed properties. The Gironde abolished it effectually during the revolution- Burgundy did the same, but the law was re-enacted under the restoration. In the Rhenish provinces of Germany this law was also abolished, at least remained only in a harmless modified form, as a faculty never practised ; but in Wurtem- berg and some of the wine-producing districts east of the Rhine it has been retained, and exercises an impeding influence on the progress of viticulture ; for the vineyards owner whose grapes, owing to situation or variety of vine, ripen early, has to let them hang until the late ripening 156 A TREATISE ON WINES. grapes in the district have attained a tolerable maturity ; and when he comes to his vineyard he finds his crop either eaten by flies and other vermin, or rotten, or overripe, and in any case it yields him a lesser quantity or quality of wine. He who has late ripening grapes, cannot let them hang to ripen, because, from the moment that the vintage is over, he loses the protection of the public custody of the fields. When the grapes are collected, they are put into a large vat, called ballonge, fixed on a waggon ; in this they are trodden down by a man as fast and firmly as possible. When the vat is full the carter dismounts, rubs his feet on the nearest bundle of grass, puts on his boots, drives the cart home, and sees the grapes put into the large vats. The carter then returns with his ballonge, until the whole of the harvest is at home. In this manner the great bulk of the Burgundy grapes are carried home ; but we have also seen instances of better treatment, in which the grapes were cut, cleaned, their stalks were removed, and the murk was fermented by itself. Here, as in the Champagne, many of the grapes are sold while hanging on the vines, and the proprietors collect them according to the prescription of the purchasers. Many wine-merchants buy the whole harvest of a vineyard and collect the grapes themselves. Frequently the grapes are bought by others after they have been collected by the proprietors, and during the vintage an active trade in grapes is carried on along all the roadsides in viticultural Burgundy ; there are the baskets full of grapes, and anyone who likes can come and buy. The grapes are measured by feuillettes, being barrels of 114 litres capacity, being half a piece, or a quarter queue ; the half queue or entire piece in Burgundy therefore contains 228 litres. The feuillettes used for measuring the grapes are provided with two iron handles. The grapes are filled in without pressure, and when the vessel is brimful the grapes are heaped on the top as high as possible. Ten feuillettes full of grapes generally give one queue, or two pieces of must ; or 1,140 litres of grapes give 456 litres of must; or z\ bulks of grapes give one bulk of must; until the wine be made this proportion is again changed, and nearly three WINES OF BURGUNDY. 157 volumes of grapes are requisite to furnish one volume of finished wine, having passed the spring racking. 1 08. VATTING AND FERMENTATION. The grapes are transferred from the ballonges to the vats or cuves by a coarse process in which a kind of hook, called a grappe, is employed. The ripest berries are broken,, but many of the harder ones remain entire and have to be broken by the press. The vats are generally higher than- they are broad, and narrower at the top than at the base. This shape has practical advantages on account of the facility with which the hoops can be kept tight. Their height is between five and six feet ; they are not provided with any opening at the bottom or side for letting off the wine, but throughout Burgundy the wine is drawn from the vats by syphons. The cuves are therefore raised only one foot from the ground, instead of three or four feet as in the Gironde. Every proprietor endeavours to fill a cuve in one day. Some vignerons moisten the inside of the vat with brandy, to take away what they call the taste of the wood ~ r but as they do not afterwards remove the brandy with the woody taste from the cuve, the process results in an addition? of spirit to the wine. The cuve is filled to within a foot from the top. A narrow basket of the height of the cuve is- fixed to the inner side, and serves as a well, or space free from the murk of the grapes, from which the wine is drawn, by the syphon after fermentation. In many parts of Bur- gundy the addition of sugar to the must is very common^ We have witnessed this addition, which in some cases- amounted to twenty pounds to the piece. This increase of the eventual alcoholicity preserves the Burgundy better from secondary fermentations, to which it is so liable. A quick fermentation, completed in about six days, is desirable for Burgundy to effect a complete extraction of the colour and perfect decomposition of the sugar. While the fermentation proceeds the murk rises to the top and forms the hat or chapeau. This being penetrated with or supported by gas, rises above the level of the liquor.. f$8 A TREATISE ON WINES. As long as the chapeau continues to rise or remain sta- tionary, the fermentation must be allowed to proceed. In -case the weather becomes cold, and impedes fermentation, it is .necessary to warm the fermenting room, by means of stoves, up to 80 or 90 F. When the chapeau begins to sink it is -necessary to draw the wine in order to prevent the upper or somewhat spoiled and acetified part from coming into contact with the wine and imparting to it a disagreeable taste. Another criterion of the proper moment for drawing the wine is the specific gravity of the liquor. This is ascer- tained by an areometer so constructed that its zero indicates the point at which the sugar has completely disappeared. The colour of the wine is also ascertained by means of a small vessel called a tasse, embossed with hollows, bumps and ridges, and highly polished, so that the light can be reflected through the wine in all directions. The wine is not often drawn before it is of a sufficiently deep colour. The extraction of the colour is completed by a process of distributing the chapeau in the wine repeatedly. This is done by men who in a state of nudity penetrate the chapeau, sink into the wine, and then mix the chapeau with the wine for half-an-hour or longer. The spoiled parts of the chapeau have been previously taken off. After the lapse of several hours the husks have again risen to the top, and, if not well decolorised, are mixed a second time with the wine by the men. The work is very severe upon the men, for, owing to the large quantities of carbonic acid evolved, they are mostly deadly pale or blue, and pant and hang their heads over the edges of the cuves, gasping for fresh air. We cannot approve this method of effecting the/outage, otherwise so necessary, any more than the dirty proceeding of treading the grapes observable in the Gironde or in Spain. Many more cautious proprietors avoid the spoiling of any portion of the chapeau, either by keeping it submerged by wicker-work loaded with weights, or by closing the vat with a wooden cover, luted by means of loam or clay; the more rustic and poorer vignerons cover the vat with a layer of clay or loam, to which cow dung has been added to give it ^cohesion. No wonder, then, that much of the wine that is WINES OF BURGUNDY. 159 made in Burgundy has a strange, disagreeable taste, and does not keep ; that along the Cote there is made not only the best wine in the world, but also the worst ; that in not a single hotel or inn along the Cote a single bottle of Bur- gundian wine fit to be drunk by any traveller accustomed to fair wine is to be obtained, as we testify from personal expe- rience ; what is set before the traveller is cheap Vin du Midi, and the growth of the vineyard within sight is as good as unknown. We cannot be astonished that Burgundy wine is subject to those many alterations called "diseases," such as bitterness, loss of colour, acetification, etc. After \.\\.Qfoulage the wine is drawn by means of a syphon fixed in the wicker-well already mentioned, and put into barrels or pieces of 228 litres each. The after-fermentation is completed in the cellar, and the wine is racked in February and ready for sale in March. Common wine may be drunk at the end of the first year. The good wines require four years in barrel and several years in bottle before they develop their full qualities ; but during that time they give to the proprietors and the wine-merchants a great amount of trouble, and require very attentive treatment. When the wine is drawn the murk is put upon the press, and the wine thus obtained is added to the wine drawn by the syphon. The pressed murk is then sometimes used to make a second wine, or piquette, which is very much relished by the working vignerons. The presses commonly in use in Burgundy are the long-beam presses, which for- merly prevailed everywhere, and are only gradually disap- pearing. The beams are of oak, from fifteen to thirty feet in length, and exercise their pressure upon a space of twelve feet square as maximum. The beam is weighted at its end by a box of stones, or a millstone, or even several mill- stones. The weights are made to exercise this influence by being raised by an enormous screw passing through the free end of the beam. In some parts presses like those in the Champagne are used. Of course, with the progress of time, the round or square screw presses take the place of these old constructions, which are difficult to manage and consume much time in their application. 160 A TREATISE ON WINES. The wines are mostly drawn into small casks, but on large properties, e.g., the Clos Vougeot, the wine is laid in barrels containing from ten to thirty pieces, and is drawn into single pieces only after it has been sold. While the young wine is in the chais, the barrels are carefully kept full (ouille). The fining of wines is effected by means of white of egg. The wines of Burgundy are sold by \h& piece of 228 litres, the feuillette of 114 litres, the quartant of 57 litres, and the bouteilleGi 75 centilitres or three-quarters of a litre. In the case of great wines the price of the cask is always included in that of the wine. Quotations are mostly loco Beaune, the centre of the trade of the Cote d'Or. An hectare of vineyard planted with Pineaus produces on an average annually fifteen hectolitres of wine, while the common varieties of vines produce from fifty to sixty hecto- litres per hectare. For further details concerning the statistics of viticulture in Burgundy, we refer the reader to the table of the " Comite d'Agriculture de 1'Arrondissement de Beaune." This publi- cation also contains a good map of the Cote. CHAPTER XVI. WINES OF THE CHAMPAGNE. 109. WINES OF THE CHAMPAGNE. THE Champagne is an ancient province of France, spread out under three degrees of latitude, the 47th to the 49th. At the division of France into departments it was cut up into four parts, which, united with other communes, were formed into the departments of the Ardennes, the Marne, the Upper Marne, and the Aube. The celebrated wine called Cham- pagne is obtained only in the department of the Marne, which includes the prefectures of Chalons-sur-Marne, Epernay, Rheims, Saint-Mendhould, and Vitry-sur-Marne. These WINES OF THE CHAMPAGNE. l6l prefectures contain 19,589 hectares of vineyards, which are situated on the territories of 453 communities, and belong to 27,018 proprietors. An average vintage produces about 700,000 hectolitres, of which more than a quarter is drunk by the inhabitants themselves. Good wine is produced only in the prefectures of Rheims and Epernay. The vineyards of the former are situated around the slopes of a wooded moun- tain, which is called the Bois et montagne de Rheims. No vines grow in the plain, and none grow above a certain height on the slopes of the mountain. About one-half of the vineyards lie on the north-eastern slope, and the other half on the southern slope of this little mountain. In the former are situated the celebrated growths of Bouzy, of Verzy, and of Verzenay, and if the tourist who visits the Champagne starts from Bouzy, and walks along the road northward and north- westward, he will gradually pass all these celebrated places one by one, and terminate his tour at Villers, a few miles south of Rheims. The growths situated on the southern slope include Ay, Haut Villers, and a number of others. These latter vineyards extend from the slope of the mountain to very near the border of the Marne, but the plain in which the Marne itself flows is destitute of vines. The second district lies south of the Marne, and its centre is Epernay. It is bordered on the west by the forest of Anguien, the smaller one of Brugny, and in the south by that of Vertus. It is one continuous, splendid vineyard, and besides the growths of Epernay, yields those of Cramant and Avize. The soil of the Champagne is composed of chalk, sand, and clay in varying proportions. The vegetation does not show any particular signs of luxuriance ; the northern district, which slopes toward the north-east, would, on theoretical grounds, be supposed to be very unfavourable to the growth of the vine for wine, for throughout the world we find that the declivities of mountains sloping towards the meridian and exposed to the sun are those which produce the best wine, and that eastern and western exposures are less favourable, and northern declivitits almost unproductive. The explanation is supposed to be this. To the north and east of the Bouzy and Verzenay districts extends a great II 1 62 A TREATISE ON WINES. plain, over which the sun exercises a free influence so as to warm the soil during the daytime to a very high temperature. Much of this land is barren and bears only a few wretched pines. It is termed the "lousy Champagne" (Champagne fouilleuse). Another part is cultivated, but no part of it is so covered by vegetation as to prevent the sun from striking the soil. During the whole of the summer months, from June to September, the prevailing current of the air over this plain is in the direction of the mountain of Rheims ; the air thus passing abstracts heat from the soil, and thus, on reaching the vines, not only adds to the direct effect of the sun upon them, but is an auxiliary to their progress during the evening and throughout the entire night. This phenomenon seems fully sufficient to explain the magnificent development which the vines and grapes attain round the whole of that Cote. no. WINE-PRODUCING PART OF THE CHAMPAGNE. The wine-producing part of the Champagne from its extreme north, namely Rheims, to the southernmost point, Vertus, lias a diameter of about forty-five English miles. The centre of the whole district is Epernay, on the borders of the Marne. The slopes of Verzenay, Verzy, Saint Basle, Villers, Marctnary, and Bouzy are formed on a series of rounded promontories running out from the main mountain, the gentle valleys between which, down to the beginning of the plain, are all covered with vines. But the slopes of Mareuil, Ay, Dizy, and Haut Villers are more rapid. From the heights of Ay, one can see the extent of the whole Cote of the Marne in an easterly as well as westerly direction, and also perceive a great part of the vineyards south of Epernay. The vineyards south of Epernay extend over an undulating plain southward to Vertus. From Pierry to Vertus the territory consists of an irregular accumulation of small chalk hills which slope towards the east. Epernay has 6,000 inhabitants, its only trade being in wine. Rheims has 40,000 inhabitants, and, besides a remarkable trade in wine, has a WINES OF THE CHAMPAGNE. 163 very important industry in spinning, weaving, and dyeing, particularly of woollen goods. To the east of the Champagne wine district, and almost out of it, lies Chalons-sur-Marne, which has 13,000 inhabitants, and an important trade in wine. This localization of the manufacture of Champagne at Chalons is due almost exclusively to the circumstance that the chalk hills running along both sides of the valley are composed of so favourable a material, that large cellars, which do not require any masonry to support them, can be easily excavated. In consequence, these chalk hills are pierced by cellars like honeycombs, and millions of bottles of Champagne are constantly stored in them and sent out of them to all parts of the world. In coming from Rheims towards Sillery we observed a little plot of vineyards, said to be the celebrated Bruyeres de Mailly, which used to form the pretext for the so-called Sillery wine. The Chateau of Sillery formerly belonged to the widow of Marshal d'Estrees, and as she possessed some of the finest vineyards in Verzy and Verzenay, and caused their products to be treated with particular attention in her cellars at Sillery, this name obtained a notoriety which its ten acres of vineyard actually situated there could never have obtained for it. The chateau afterwards went into the possession of Madame de Stael, and later into that of M. Ruinard de Brimont ; some years ago it was owned by M. Jacqueson, of Chalons. Not very far from this little chateau is the estate of Romont, to which now a great part of the Bruyeres and some of the vineyards at Verzenay belong, which yield the best so-called Sillery. In one of our cenological peregrinations we started from Sillery and walked to Verzenay. The road crosses the great canal repeatedly, then goes along it, and, suddenly turning to the right, tends towards the mountain. From this road a most lovely view of Verzenay is enjoyed. It is a bright village, lying on the high part of the saddle formed by two promontories projecting from the main mountain. Behind it is the green forest of the mountain of Rheims. In front of it are open cultivated plains, and the tops of the two hills which mark its lateral limits are surmounted by two 1 64 A TREATISE ON WINES. enormous windmills, which impart to the beautiful view a kind of animation. The soft verdure of the expanses of vineyards is most pleasing to the eye. Passing through the vineyards and the village we went across the heights towards Verzy and Saint Basle, the character of the country remain- ing much the same ; but, as the promontories ran more to- wards the east, one of these declivities formed a good southern exposure. The best among them were at Contures and Minets. We everywhere perceived that the lower part of the cotes bore the black Burgundy grape, while in the higher parts, toward the forest, the white Burgundy grapes were mostly grown, but in many parts of the vineyards which we visited we saw a few white Burgundy among the black. Having passed Verzy, we found an interruption in the continuity of the vineyards of several miles in length ; continuing our journey southward we came to Bouzy. This is celebrated for its red wine, the so-called still red Champagne; but many of the grapes grown there are also used for making white Champagne. The soil is chalky, ferruginous, and contains many pebbles. A few miles south of Bouzy ends the viticultural district of the cote of Rheims, and the traveller passes ordinary fields towards the Marne to enter upon the southern cote at Mareuil. In wandering through the splendid situations of Mareuil, Ay, Dizy. and Haut Villers,. we saw an uninterrupted, undulating, splendidly green vine- yard, wound like a mantle round the slopes of the Rheims mountain. Below Haut Villers, which, as its name indicates, is situated rather high, and nearly opposite Epernay, the mountain projects more towards the Marne, corresponding to a similar projection northwards of the mountain which runs behind Epernay towards Pierry. By this arrangement a wide kettle-like valley is formed in which Epernay appears as the inhabited centre. Among the hills which form the best situations from Mareuil to Haut Villers, the mountain of Ay is distinguished by its form, inclination and exposure. It has a height of about 200 feet and an inclination of about 20, being exposed towards the south-south-west. Upon its side lies the village of Ay, which in its environs has manv beautiful gardens and villas, giving signs of opulence anj \VIXES OF THE CHAMPAGNE. 1 6$ well-being. Indeed Ay is the most lovely place in the whole Champagne, The cote runs uninterruptedly by Dizy towards Haut Villers, a length of six English miles. Here mostly black Burgundy grapes are grown. Most of the vineyards of Haut Villers lie below the village, so that, seen from a distance, this village seems to crown a mount of vines ; its best situations are called les quartieres and Hataut. From Haut Villers viticulture is continued along the right bank of the Marne to Chatillon. Passing to the south of the Marne, and starting from Epernay to Pierry, we observed that the exposure of the vineyards became south-easterly. In the neighbourhood of Pierry the vegetation is much richer than in other parts of the Champagne. The grapes are larger and blacker, so that one is almost tempted to think they are another kind. In this part the variety called Meunier, or miller vine, is often blended with others. It is recognized by the white felt which covers the dark -green leaves, and particularly the tops of young shoots, and gives them an appearance of having been dusted with flour. The soil is very stony, a fact appa- rently incorporated in the name of the village. On passing over a considerable chalk hill, the traveller finds near Cramont, and more southerly, near Avize, a cote or series of hills having an easterly exposure, and being covered with vines. This cote runs from Cramont, Avize, Ojer, and Le Menil up to Vertus, where the vine cultivation terminates. In this part mostly white grapes are grown, and it is stated that the black grapes do not succeed so well. Avize has from 700 to 800 acres of vineyard, amongst them one with a southern exposure, called Goutte d'Or. This name is very common in France and indicates everywhere a place where a good wine is grown. As the basis of the geological formation of the Champagne is chalk with pebbles, the fructiferous covering of cultivated ground could only have been formed by the superaddition of alluvial masses, and these we find, singularly enough, upon the high points of the mountains. Much clay has been washed down from them by the agency of rain, and enormous quantities of it are annually carried on the backs 1 66 A TREATISE ON WINES. of donkeys or mules, or in waggons and baskets, into the vineyards. One particular kind of clay is termed cendriere (ash soil). We observed this black material in the neighbour- hood of Verzy and Verzenay, where a trade was apparently being carried on in it, there being depositories at frequent intervals along the road, and establishments where it was mixed with manure and other matters, and formed into a kind of compost. We ascertained that it contained gypsum, iron oxide, clay and sand. in. CULTIVATION OF THE VINE IN CHAMPAGNE. The management of the Champagne vineyard differs in some important particulars from that which prevails in other districts. The established wines are every three years sunk into the ground, and one year's wood alone is allowed to project from the ground and to form the new vines. Every vineyard, almost, thus becomes a continuous nursery for the formation of young vines. It is to this circumstance, that no vine which appears above ground has older wood than three years, that the whole of the vineyards of the Champagne owe their juvenile aspect. In the Medoc one sees vines perhaps 150 years old, in the districts of St. Emilion and Sauternes one sees vines which are seventy or eighty years old, but in the Champagne district all that appears above ground is only one, two, or three years old. The method of the Champagne viticulture might therefore be called viti- culture by constant rejuvenescence. The vines are pruned so as to leave to each plant two or three branches, with from two to four eyes each. The soil is worked by manual labour with the hoe, never ploughed, and manured as much as possible. The cultivation of an acre of vineyard costs from 1 60 to 240 francs per annum. 112. VALUE OF THE VINEYARDS. Throughout the Champagne the prices of vineyards are very high, because of the great subdivision of the soil, which allows as many as 27,000 proprietors to participate in the WINES OF THE CHAMPAGNE. l6/ benefit of its cultivation by manual labour. At Verzy an acre of vineyard sells at from 4,000 to 10,000 francs; at Ay for 6,000 francs ; at Epernay, Pierry and Haut Villers the acre frequently sells at from 12,000 to 16,000 francs; at Avize the average price is 4,000 francs, that of the better situations rises up to 8,000 francs. 113. VARIETIES OF VINES GROWN IN THE CHAMPAGNE. The prevailing vine in the Champagne is the one called Plant dore, black-graped, identical with the black-graped vine of Burgundy, there called Noirien or Pineau. The Pineau is sometimes distinguished from the Noirien and called Gros Plant dore. The bunches of the Pineau are less cramped or closely set, while those of the Noirien are more dense and rounded off; but the difference in other properties is so small as to appear irrelevant. The true Plant dore ripens its grapes equally, while the Noirien, here at least, always shows a few green berries among the black ones. The Pineau is the most fructiferous and gives on large bunches strong grapes. We have not been able to ascertain whether these popularly admitted varieties are true varieties or not. We have seen the Plant dore at Pierry with such thick, glistening and black berries that it seemed almost a different vine from the one at Verzy, and yet it was the same. Indeed the black Burgundy grape changes its non-essential properties according to situation, soil or climate, and its development into Pineau, or Plant dore is the effect of accidental circumstances. Next to these black-graped vines, which yield the best white Champagne, there is grown in the neighbourhood of Epernay the Meunier, or miller. This gives a wine of inferior quality, but bears more than the Plant dore. The white Champagne grape, called gros blanc and petit blanc, and also the white of good nature, is identical with the white Burgundy grape, the Chardenay from which, among others, the wine of Chablis is made. About one-third of the whole of the vines in the Champagne are of this white kind. It dominates 1 68 A TREATISE ON WINES. in the upper part of the Champagne, near Avize, Vertus, and Cramant ; in the lower part of the Champagne, from Ay to Rheims, the heights are planted with this vine. The majority of the old vineyards are yet planted half with white and half with black grapes, a mixture which was formerly supposed to be the most suitable to produce great mousse in the wine. At the present time the Champagne makers prefer to keep the varieties separate, and to mix the young wine from white grapes with that from black grapes only in spring, after the nature of their separate fermentation is known. The white vines are more hardy, and less liable to suffer from spring frosts and other calamities. When we visited the Champagne in 1867 we found that the Pineaus had suffered greatly at various periods of the year, and yielded the most indifferent harvests, while the white Burgundy or Champagne vines, which stood mixed with the Pineaus \vhich had suffered, were full of healthy, large and tolerably sweet grapes. Thus, to the cultivator of vineyards, the white Champagne grape is a kind of assurance in bad years ; the Pineau failing, the Chardenay will at least give him his house-drink. Here and there a little Gamai's, the dominant vine of the Maconnais, is met with, but it gives a sour wine unsuitable for the production of Champagne. Another white grape which occurs here and there is the Marmot vert, -identical with the Elbling of the Moselle and the Goix southern frontier is the Banat. Its wines are represented- by the products of Erdod, Bakator, and Menes. The central district is situated between the Danube on the west, and the Theiss on the east ; its northern limit is at Pesth, and in the south it ends at the Woiwodina. The western district is divisible into two parts ; one to the west of the Raab river, which is a continuation of the viti- cultural district of Lower Austria, and is represented by the vineyards of Rust ; the other parts to the east of the Raab, and further enclosed by the Danube and Drave, including in. its centre the regions of the Plattensee. This part is charac- terized by the wines of Ofen, Somlatt, and Weissenburg. The southern district includes the Banat and Woiwodina ; in the former the Werschitz mountain has vineyards on many slopes. 22O A TREATISE ON WINES. 1 6 1. VARIETIES OF SOIL ON WHICH VINES GROW IN HUNGARY. Vines are grown mainly on slopes of hills, but also on plains, and even on marshy lands. The great wines are produced either on plutonic or volcanic land, or chalky soil. Thus the Hegyalja, a promontory of the Carpathians extending and sloping towards the south, consists mainly of porphyry and basalt. The best wines of Fiinfkirchen grow on chalky hills, called the Deindol. The Ofner wine, termed Adlersberger, grows on volcanic soil, which constitutes a part of the series of hills running along the Danube from Pacs-Megyer to Alt-Teteny. The wine of the mountain of Somlyo, or.Somlau, in Veszprim county, near the Plat- tensee, grows on basaltic soil. The wines which grow on the shores of the lake of Neusiedl, and those which grow round the Plattensee, generically termed " lake- wines," are grown on basaltic soil, which slopes from the Badacsonyer mountains southwards towards this lake. All the lake-wine of Gyorkoer grows on soil which is made up of one-third of chalk and two-thirds of clay. The wine of Packsdorf, in the county of Eisenburg, is obtained on strongly ferruginous soil, while the wine of Musai, in Beregh county, comes from a soil which is partly the product of the decay of alum-stone (schist). 162. VARIETIES OF VINES AND MODE OF CULTIVATION. There are two dominant vines peculiar to Hungary the Farming or Tokay, with white grapes, and the Kadarka (Kadarkas) with black grapes. In the county of Baranye there are some extensive plantations of Burgundy Pi/ieau, and round Villary there is much of the Rhenish Riessling, the early Portugese, and the Oporto vine. At Ofen a black-graped vine, Sar feher, occurs intermixed with the Kadarka. There are also other varieties imported from Croatia and Lower Austria, including some degenerate Mus- catels, which have lost the muscat flavour. The Fur mint (in Hungarian lo Formint} syn. White WINES OF HUNGARY. 221 Tokay, Lake-vine, Moseler, Moslavina is a strong vine, with woolly canes and shoots ; the leathery leaves show a thick felt on the underside. The bunch of grapes is large, loose, pendulous, cylindrical, sometimes divided in several lobes. The fruit-stalk is short and thin, and its node does not carry a collateral bunch. The berry-stalks are all long, and the basal enlargement has a brown margin, and fine light green warts. The berries are medium sized, and, when uncom- pressed, round, with strong white bloom ; their juice is sweet, and has a peculiar strong flavour. The grapes ripen early ; the earliest burst and discharge a portion of their juice, which dries up, and forms, with the rest of the berry, a shape- less lump, full of sugar ; these products are called " dry berries," and must not be confounded with the raisins of southern climates. The dry berries are mostly interspersed with fully ripe and plump, not at all passulated, berries. At the vintage these dry berries are separated from the plump ones immediately after the bunch is cut off, and collected in separate vessels, and further treated as will be described lower down. Nearly all the red wines of Hungary are made from the Blue Kadarka. Its berries are oval and of medium size, black, covered with bloom ; the bunches are of medium size. The dark green leaf, which is shiny above, and some- what hirsute on the underside, shows the peculiarity that its two extreme lobes are generally turned or twisted a little upwards. By this twist the Kadarka can be distinguished from other varieties of vines, even at a distance. To get fully ripe, the Kadarka requires the great heat of the Hun- garian summer ; it is the only black-graped vine which yields dry berries like the Furmint, and thus enables the viticultu- rist to produce the sweet wine called by the Germans in Hungary "Ausbruch." The Mode of Cultivation of the vines is that known as small head, or knob ; this keeps the fruit near the ground, and avoids the necessity of stakes for support. Nevertheless,. it does not yield the best quality of wine. 222 A TREATISE ON WINES. 163. VINTAGE AND VINDICATION. At Ofen (Buda) the white grapes are vintaged first, and the black ones afterwards. Both red and white wines are mostly fermented with the husks and stalks, and pressed after the fermentation. 150 eimer of mashed grapes (a quan- tity called a "gatzen") yields 120 eimer of clear wine and 30 eimer of murk. The first drawn wine is called " sweet wine," and amounts to no eimer out of the above 120 ; the remaining 10 eimer are obtained by pressing the murk, and are somewhat harsh. The presses are primseval beam-presses ; the murk is kept together by hoops or boxes. The wine is preserved in large barrels, but for sale is put in barrels of from 162 to 270 litres each. As regards Hungarian wines, we must distinguish between such as are really thoroughly fermented grape juice, and such as are more or less sweetened and alcoholized, so as to be, or to approximate to, liqueurs. What is called " Maszlacz" German " Ausbruch" whether made at Tokay, Rust, or Menes, or other places, consists of must from plump ripe grapes, more or less fortified, thickened and sweetened by means of " dry berries." In consequence, a portion of the harvest is deprived entirely of its dry berries, and this now yields only " ordinary wine" When the dry berries are not removed, and are made into wine together with the entire harvest, and without any addition of dry berries from other vintages, the so-called " natural wine" or " Szamorodni" is obtained. Maszlacz is made of four qualities, called, one-, two-, three-, or four-" buttig" according to the quantity of dry berries added to each cask of must. A cask of wine con- tains ten " batten" and the addition of dry berries to produce the several qualities of Maszlacz, therefore, amounts to one butt, equal to 10 per cent, of the total volume of the murk ; or to two butts, equal to 20 per cent.; three butts, equal to 30 per cent. ; and four butts, equal to 40 per cent, of the total murk. Such wine is always highly alcoholic, and more or less sweet. When five volumes or more of dry berries are added to the must, so that the mixture consists of equal volumes of must and dry berries, or so that the volume of WINES OF HUNGARY. 22J the dry berries preponderates, "Ausbruch " is formed. The finest quality of Ausbruch is that which runs spontaneously from the must-infused dry berries after they have been allowed to macerate a short time, and is called "Essence." 164. CLASSIFICATION OF HUNGARIAN WINES. When Hungarian wines are compared with each other, they can be arranged in a certain series, which indicates their relative value. But it is not intended by this list to attempt a comparison of Hungarian wines with other pro- ducts, either as regards quality, value, or price. A. Wines of the First Class. First Order. Tokay: (i) Essence : very sweet, containing slight amount of alcohol, not exceeding 7 per cent, (should not exceed 4 per cent.), and produced by extremely slow fermen- tation ; must be very old. When fifty years old in bottle will fetch from forty to sixty-six shillings each small Tokay bottle. (2) Ausbruch: sweet, strong in alcohol (added); must be old : not rarely deposits, like the essence, sugar in crystals. (3) Maszlacz : of four different qualities : the quality with 40 per cent, dry berries costs at Tokay from 120 to 1 60 thalers per eimer, or six shillings the ordinary wine-bottle full. (4) Szamorodny, or dry natural Tokay : is fiery and acid, and requires age to develop its qualities, which then are remark- able. (5) Ordinari. The total production of all qualities in twenty-one communes of the Tokay district is about 268,000 eimer per annum, or about 14,500,000 of litres. The Mezes-Male, or Imperial Tokay, grows at Tarczal, a market town, and is never sold in trade. Next in quality are the products of Talya, Mad, Liszka, Kirsfaludy, Zsadany. Third in quality of so-called medium Tokays are the wines of Tokay town, Kerestur, Erdohenye, Toloswa, Nagysaro- patak (all four market towns), and of the villages Ond, Zzanto-Olassi, Ujheli, Sara, Golop, Zzegilong, Zombor, Erdo-Herwathi, Ratka, Kis-Zoronyia. Around these vine- yards of the third rank there is a large circle of twenty-five places producing annually 130,000 eimer, which form the 224 A TREATISE ON WINES. fourth and last quality, and include all that can have the most remote title to be called Tokay-Hegyalja. Second Order. Menes Magyarat, county of Arad. Red and white Ausbruch and natural wines are produced annually in fourteen localities, and amount to 241,000 eimer annually. Vinification as in Tokay district. Third Order. Wines of Rust, Oedenburg county. 69,000 eimer produced annually in nineteen localities ; white, strong, and sweet Ausbruch and natural wines. The vintage is here mostly very late, some grapes being allowed to hang until December. B. Wines of the Second Class. (1) White Wines. Some grow at Somlau, Veszprim county, and are made into table and dessert wines. Badacsony, on the Plattensee, county of Zala : table, dessert, and Ausbruch wines. Neszeliny, county Gran. Ermelleker, county Bihar : strong table and dessert wines. Szeredny, county Unghu. Neograd : table wines. Krasso : dinner and dessert wines. (2) Red Wines. Erlau Visonta, termed Schiller, or Rubinette, Hevesh county. Szegzard, county Zolna : wine of fiery taste and honey-like odour. Villany, county Barany : red wine resembling Burgundy. Ofner Adelsberger : a good strong wine. Krasso. C. Wines of the Third Class. Baranya : good red dinner wines. Pesth, Steinbruch : white dinner wine. Hont : good white dinner wine. Presburg : red and white. Vagh-Ujhelyer : good red dinner wine. Weissenburg : good white dinner. Somogy : red and white. Bakator, Ermelleker, called Bratehwein : white. Eisenberg : good white dinner. Raab : good white dinner. Balaton-Fiired : white. Erdod : red and pale red (Schiller). Funfkirchen : white strong dinner. Miszla, county Zolna : white, acid. Oedenburg : white sweetish table wine. Paulitsch : strong good red. Neusiedl lake- wine : acidulous dinner wine. Simonthurn, county Zolud : strong sweetish red. WINES OF HUNGARY. 225 The rest of the wine-producing places belong to the fourth class, which it is unnecessary to give a list of. Their products are mostly very inferior, and consumed by the population. What we have in the foregoing termed dinner or table wines, can be bought in Hungary in large quan- tities, varying between eighteen and thirty-six shillings per eimer. Clean ordinary wines can be bought at ten to eighteen shillings per eimer. 165. WINES OF THE BANAT, WOIWODINA, AND SYRMIA. The wines of the Banat and the Woiwodina resemble the small wines of Hungary, and are rarely above the third class. The mode of procedure in vineyard and cellar are still more faulty than in Hungary. The Werschetz moun- tain in the Banat yields annually about 400,000 eimer, the rest of the Temeser Banat 939,500 eimer, andSyrmia nearly 1,500,000 eimer. The free town of Werschetz is the centre of the most extensive viticultural district of Austria-Hungary, and produces from 200,000 to 300,000 eimer annually. Of select qualities, 150,000 eimer are constantly in store at Werschetz; of these, 15,000 are red, sweet, and alcholic; 15,000 are second class, also strong and red, but not sweet ; 15,000 eimer are sweet, pale reddish wine of the first class ; about 100,000 eimer generally are dry, spirituous, harsh, schiller-wine of the second class. Of white wine of good quality there are only about 8,000 eimer annually produced ; the rest is a very low-class product. Karlowitz in Syrmia produces red and white Ausbruch wine, and a mediocre dry wine resembling low Burgundy ; it is made mainly from the Magyocka (Magyarika, or early blue Magyar vine). There are other peculiar wines of Karlowitz. At this place are also produced the Vermouth liqueur, and the Slibowitz, or plum brandy, and exported to many parts of the Orient. 226 A. TREATISE ON WINES. CHAPTER XXII. WINES OF SPAIN. 1 66. VINEYARDS OF JEREZ DE LA FRONTERA. 1 Territory and Varieties of Soil of the Vineyards. The territory of Jerez is entirely of the so-called tertiary period. It consists of undulating hills, with gently-inclined sides 1 The topographical descriptions occurring in this chapter are best appreciated with the aid of the excellent map of the Jerez district, pub- lished in 1867 by Don Jorge G. Suter, the English Consul at Jerez, and sold by E. Stanford, Charing Cross. The land measure, termed the aranzada, is equal to 44'72 French ares, and is therefore about one-tenth larger than the English acre, which is equal to 40*47 ares. The measure of length, vara, is equal to 0*843 metres, or 2782 feet English, and is therefore a little shorter than the English yard, which is equal to O'9I4 metres. The bota (butt) of wine or must (mostd) measures thirty arrobas, equal to 106-5 imperial gallons ; one arroba is equal to l6'i33 litres. The real is equal in value to 2\d. English ; four reals, value lod. , are equal to a peseta, the Spanish franc ; its value is five per cent, higher than that of the French franc. The peso is an imaginary unit of value by which wines are bought and sold. It is equal to 15 reals. For the purpose of its topographical consideration and description the district may be divided into nine parts, radial sections of a circle, of which the town forms the natural centre, and the roads which lead to and from it form the natural radii. Many years ago I made each of them the object of a special scientific reconnaissance. They are the following : 1. Balbaina section and group of vineyards, N.\V. of Jerez, S.W. of new road to San Lucar, between it and the road to Rota. 2. Corchuelo section, N.N.W. of Jerez, between old and new carriage- road to San Lucar. 3. Macharaudo section, N. of Jerez, between the old road to San Lucar and the road to Trebujena. 4. Carrascal section, N.N.E. of Jerez, between Trebujena and Lebrija road. 5. Section of the plain, or north-eastern section between Lebrija WINES OF SPAIN. 227 accessible to cultivation over their entire surface, and slightly-excavated valleys between them. The hills consist of a sand and clay pervaded chalk-rock, which crops out at their tops, or is easily reached by digging a few feet some- times only one foot into the disintegrated surface. It is mostly white, here and there coloured by some iron oxide, and contains chalk or carbonate of lime, clay, or silicate of alumina, magnesia, iron, quartz, and gypsum. The lower parts of the inclines of the hills and the flat valleys between them are covered by alluvial formations of different periods. These contain much clay, iron oxide, and sand, and in many parts pass into mere sand, more or less coloured red by iron-ochre, or white by clay and chalk. These chalk-rocks, clays, and sands give rise to the several descriptions of surface-soil distinguished by the Jerezanos under the denomi- nations of albariza, barros, barro-arenas, or arenas, and bugeo. The Albariza, also termed Tierra de Anafes, Tierra bianco. 6 Tosca, is the white soil of the hills, the disintegrated ter- tiary chalk rock According to the analysis of Louis Proust {the French chemist, who lived at Madrid from the time of the first revolution to the Napoleonic invasion of Spain) the soil contains from 60 to 70 per cent, of carbonate of lime, a considerable quantity of clay, a little silica, and some magnesia. When the clay and other ingredients dis- appear or diminish greatly, so that the soil is little more than chalk, it is no longer termed " tosca " by the natives. The coarse mixture of chalk, sand, and clay is more suitable to viticulture than the finer chalk. Its colour is a dead white; its texture fine-grained and rough, with harder nodules, which appear when the mass is left to dis- road and Arcos road. This section I divided in two parts, one N. of the Seville road, the other between Seville road and Arcos road. 6. Eastern section, between Arcos road and Hijuela de Pedro Diaz. 7. Monte Alegre section, S. of Jerez, between the Hijuela of Pedro Diaz and the Carretera to Puerto, traversed by the road to the Cartuja. 8. Torrox section, S.S.W. of Jerez, between the carriage-road to Puerto and the bridle-road to the same place. 9. Carrahola section, W. of Jerez, between the bridle-road to Puerto and carriage-road to Rota. 228 A TREATISE ON WINES. integrate under the influence of sun and water. In that case it breaks up a great deal. When introduced into water it gives out bubbles of air, and falls gradually into a loose pasty mass. When dried again it falls into powder-like particles, and does not cohere in lumps or separate by deep fissures. On the hills it occurs in layers, which have a thickness of several yards, and become thin in other parts, so as almost to disappear. It contains no flints. It is an impure chalk, and reposes upon a sandy formation. The greater part of the vineyards of Jerez, San Lucar, and Tre- bujena, are upon albariza soil. The vineyards of Paxarete contain it in the immediate subsoil. It is here termed "albero." A thousand vines planted on albariza at San Lucar produce about eighty arrobas of mosto; exceptionally in favoured portions of special territory from no to 120. Barros is the name given to quartz sand agglutinated by chalk and clay, and coloured red or yellowish by iron ochre. It forms horizontal layers of great extent along the coast, from the mouth of the Guadalquivir to Conil. These banks are traversed in all directions by fissures, filled with almost pure sand. The barros is never so hard that it cannot be disintegrated with the fingers. It is easily washed away by the tide and by rain, and becomes very slippery when wet ; but continued rain washes out the chalk and clay, and leaves the stones and sand on the surface. Clemente, the author of a celebrated work on the vines of Andalusia, believes the barros of Jerez to be a small portion of the immense formation of sandy chalk and clay which runs in one unin- terrupted course from the shore at San Lucar to Gibraltar. The vines planted upon barros give double the harvests produced by the same number on albariza. Near Jerez, the barros contains many large stones of hard grey chalk, which occur in layers, and are repeated at intervals down to- a depth of eighteen feet. It also contains fossil shells, such as ostrea, cardium, pecten, and others, which becomes so- numerous in some parts, e.g., near the Badalejo, as almost to constitute the bulk of the soil. Barros and sand mixed form the soil of the plain to the north and north-east of Jerez (Tierra barro arenosa). WINES OF SPAIN. 229 Arenas (better, barro-arenas) form the third variety of soil. The pure, nearly white, shifting sand, such as occurs principally near the sea-shore, is only rarely found in the Jerez district, being limited to some localities in the East, towards Cuartillo, and along the road to the Cartuja. . This sand admits of being transformed into fruitful gardens and vineyards, as can be seen at San Lucar and Rota. At the latter place particularly I was surprised to see the work and care bestowed upon this mere sand, which has actually to be protected against the wind by frequent small enclosures, ridges, and deep furrows. These gardens are called nabazos. On such sand the vine produces as much mosto as on the barros, but its quality is as much inferior to that of the ibarros vineyards as the latter is inferior to that coming from the albarizas. The commonest arena mosto in these days is sold at about half the price of the albariza mosto. Bugeo is the greyish black earth which at Jerez and San tucar occupies the dales between, and lowest slopes of, the hills of albariza. It consists of clay mixed with carbonate of lime and fine sand, and a certain quantity of vegetable mould. During the heat of the summer this soil forms enormous fissures, and this is said to be the cause of its in- aptitude for viticulture. But at Jerez, as well at St. Lucar, there are vineyards on bugeo. They are very fertile, bring- ing up to six botas per acre, but the wine is coarse. The albariza vineyards give the finest, cleanest, and strongest mostos, but produce the smallest quantity. The barro-arenoso lands produce twice as much as the albarizas, and are also much easier to work, but their mostos are less fine and thinner. The bugeo vineyards produce as much as the barro arenosas, and give mostos of as much or even more body than the albariza mostos, but they are neither fine or clean ; and the bugeo soil requires much labours because it becomes quickly covered with weeds, and cracks in a manner dangerous to the roots of the vines. In the trade of Jerez wines are sometimes distingushed as .wines of the pagos de arena, wines of the pagos de barro, and wines of the pagos de afuera. The latter term is not a jgeognostic distinction at all, as the pagos de afuera have soils 230 A TREATISE ON WINES. of all descriptions, and is not comparative to the other two terms. It simply means pagos which are out of the circle of the city boundaries, and at such a distance that the labourers from Jerez receive an addition to their wages for distance. There are few vineyards, and hardly any pagos, in which all the vines stand upon uniform soil ; and if a pago is termed of a particular soil, this is to be understood to mean that that soil is the prevailing, not the exclusive soil There are, further, a few special names for particular mixtures of soil. Lustrillo is a mixture of white marl and albariza and red barro-arenosa soil, interspersed here and there with strata of chalk, or gypsum. Another kind of earth, produced by the accumulation of old building rubbish, is termed Tierra de villares, or Almaduras. The names of Balejuela* and Lentejuela, are applied to greatly broken up albariza mixed with a certain material of agricultural improvement or bugeo. Tajon, the earthy vein in the limestone, and toxa, the rough earth, are forms of albariza which occur in. special strata. There are also stony territories which sur- prise the proprietors by a curious phenomenon, namely, that the stones have a tendency to come to the surface, of course by the action of the rain. But the proprietors prefer the mysterious to the evident, and believe that these stones are constantly being formed, or being worked upwards by some mysterious power in the earth. The different soils are planted with varying sets of vines, according to empirical traditions which do not admit of pre- cise exposition. In the albarizas the palomino prevails, and is generally mixed with a certain proportion of perruno, canocazo, albillo, Pedro Jimenez, and mantuo, which are said to impart to the palomino wine superior qualities. In the barro-arenosa territory the mantuo castellano prevails, mixed with much mollar, beba, and other vines in small numbers; on the sand there is a little tintilla, and much beba. The moscatels and Pedro Jimenez grow best in the black earth or bugeo. WINES OF SPAIN. 231 167. CLIMATE OF JEREZ. The climate of Jerez is determined by its geographical position between the 36th and 37th degree of north latitude, and under the 6th degree of longitude west of Greenwich. The summer season is characterized by great heat and long-continued drought, during which most of the vegeta- tion, except vines, olive trees, and pines, comes to a stand- still, and most annuals die off. The arable land, the grassy plains, and the dry swamps then look like arid deserts, and are avoided alike by animals and man. The autumn and winter consist in a rainy season, and frost is never observed. Snow has fallen at Jerez only twice in this century. The first fall occurred in 1819, and no particulars regarding it have come to my knowledge. The second and last fall happened on the gth of December, 1867. The snow lay on the ground for two days, and destroyed many delicate plants. The autumnal rains are copious, not rarely very much so. Thunderstorms of extra- ordinary severity appear now and then. The north wind in summer is dry and hot ; the west wind refreshing and agree- able The east wind (Levante) easily becomes a storm, which may continue for days without intermission, and do much damage to all kinds of crops. It is said that the vines are kept low on the ground on account of the danger to which they would be subjected on the part of the Levante if they were raised higher and fastened to poles. 1 68. EXTENT AND POSITION OF THE VINEYARDS. The vineyards are estimated to have a surface of 14,000 aranzadas, or 6,287 hectares. They are grouped round the town of Jerez in a manner which is best appreciated by inspection of the map. The districts to the N. and N.E. of Jerez are perfect plains, whereas those to the N.W., W., S., and S.E. consist of a series of more or less round hills and hillocks, separated by glens and dales. The hills are mostly covered with vines all over, whereas the glens are mostly not stocked with vines, but with fodder plants, or 232 A TREATISE ON WINES. used for growing the strong reeds (caiias) which are em- ployed for making the stakes for young vines, and the fork- like supports for fruit-laden branches, and give their names to the dales themselves (canadas). Like land everywhere else in Europe, the whole of the cultivated land round Jerez is divided into sections bearing distinctive names, so- called pagos. These pagos, again, consist of several fields or properties; only rarely one entire pago, still more rarely several pagos, also form a single property. The pagos are very unequal in size; many are entirely covered with vineyards. For a list of the Jerez pagos reference may be made to a brochure on the viticulture and trade of Jerez, by D. Diego Parada y Barreto, which appeared in Jerez in 1868. 169. THE BALBAINA DISTRICTS. The district of Balbaina is perhaps the oldest viticultural pago in the neighbourhood of Jerez. It lies in a north-west direction from Jerez, on both sides of the new road to San Lucar, mainly between that road and the road to Rota. It consists of five great divisions, of which three only belong to the community of Jerez, while two owe municipal allegiance to Puerto de Sta. Maria. The Jerez Balbaina, properly so called, lies on the north-west, or right side of the San Lucar road, past San Julian, and includes Cande- lero and the Llano de las Tablas. South-west of it lies the largest part of the district, termed Balbaina alta, to dis- tinguish it from the contiguous Balbaina baja, of the Puerto vineyards. Farther to the north-west, also on the left of the road to San Lucar, is the pago of los Cuadrados, with the contiguous Balbaina of Puerto, properly so called. Balbaina, with Balbaina alta, and including the Puerto Balbainas, comprises more than twelve hundred aranzadas of vineyards. Its soil is albariza and bugeo ; its vines are palomino, perruno, canocazo, albillo, Pedro Jimenez, and mantuo, and its mostos are held in great esteem. The most reputed vineyards are the Canas, la Campanilla, del Arcon, and del Sargento mayor. Jerez monasteries once WINES OF SPAIN. 233 held a great part of this district, and a particular plantation they termed the vineyard of God. Candelero, which is contiguous to Balbaina towards San Julian, is a pago of about eighty aranzadas, in the valley which bears its name. The soil is for the greater part bugeo, and its vines are palo- minos. A special vineyard in the pago also bears its name. North-west of Balbaina, and bordering upon the Canas, is the Llano de las Tablas, a pago of forty aranzadas, border- ing in the north upon Marihernandez. Just across the San Lucar road is Balbaina alta, a vast expanse of green hills and dales. The first sub-pago nearest to Jerez is Sida, a pago of forty aranzadas, with albariza soil, planted with palomino and Pedro Jimenez. Noted vineyard, la Miranda. Sida derives its name from that of an old Jerez family. Farther on is the Canada de Huerta, a pago with bugeo soil, and palomino vines. It borders upon the Gallega group of pagos, and upon the Rincones, a pago with albariza, bugeo, and lustrillo soil, and palomino stock. At the southern end of Balbaina alta, and close to and at the right of the road to Rota, is the pago Cruz de Husillo. At the north-west end of Balbaina alta, and opposite los Cuadrados, we find the pago of Plantalina, forty aranzadas of bugeo and lustrillo soil, with palomino prevailing. Far to the north-west is the pago of los Cuadrados, two hundred aranzadas, with albariza and bugeo soil. The palomino reigns. A noted vineyard is la Soledad. Close by is the pago of las Peonias, with a good vineyard of the same name. In this neighbourhood I observed a beautiful plantation of albillos. These vines are not ordinarily kept on separate plots of ground, like the palominos, or Pedro Jimenezes, but grown interspersed in uncertain numbers with the prevailing varieties. The Albillo castellano ought to be particularly good for wine making, as will appear from the following description. It is a slender vine, with many canes, lying on the ground, of a silver-grey reddish colour, small palmate leaves, with heart-shaped sinuses, green, but a little reddish when first developed, falling late; the bunches are pyramidal, 234 A TREATISE ON WINES. of middle size ; no side bunch ; stalk very short ; does not shed unripe berries. The ripe berries are very sweet and juicy, and are easily emptied of their contents. The juiciness of the grapes is their most striking characteristic. Clemente says that each bunch may be considered as a bagful of mosto. The ants are great friends of these grapes. Mosto weighed ii and 12 B. on September i5th and igih. It readily passes into wine of the quality called fino, but is less good for olorosos, and rarely produces amontillados. There are two other varieties of albillo, which are less frequently planted in the Jerez vineyards than the former, they are : Albillo pardo, also termed Uva pardilla, has leaves which are more rough than those of the other varieties of albillo, its grapes are of a yellowish-green, light colour, less mild, and taste more sour, than that of the other albillos, but capable of yielding finos. Albillo negro. Not frequently planted. Differs from the white albillo by the black colour of its grapes, its thinner husks, and larger bunches. Its canes are also lighter, and the leaves less incised and almost entire. I also observed some Jaenes, vines which may be supposed to bear their names from a more northern province of Spain. Jaen negro. Stock of middling size, with many short, greyish-red canes, small leaves of lively yellowish-green colour. They bear many dense bunches of medium size, round, blackish-red grapes, with hard skins, though fleshy. Mosto weighs eleven to twelve B. Jaen bianco, also termed Garilla, is analogous to the former, but its grapes are white. v 170. NEW PLANTATIONS, YOUNG VINEYARDS, MAJUELOS Modes of working established Vineyards. The soil is mostly prepared by deep digging, trenches being drawn, and the top earth filled in while the deep soil is brought up. These turnings are more than a vara in depth. They are generally effected in July or August, and if the soil turned up be lumpy, it is left to the atmosphere for a year without any plantation. Th* young vines are produced mostly from WINES OF SPAIN. 235 canes, rarely from rooted vines prepared in a nursery. Their distance from each other is from a vara and a half to two varas in every sense, so that each vine has a surface of four square varas allotted to it. This large extent of surface is necessitated by the peculiar mode of turning and working the earth, to be described hereafter. The canes to be planted are a vara in length, and are sunk into the ground in three different methods. Either a hole a vara in depth is dug for each, and after insertion of the cane, filled up {plantation par hoyes); or the vineyard is traversed by ditches, which, after the canes have been laid in, are filled up (plantacion por cajones). The last form is that which employs iron bars for making narrow holes in the ground, in which the canes are inserted (plantation por barras). During the early years the young vines are kept surrounded by hollows so as to catch all available water. In the second and third year they receive a support in the shape of a cana or strong reed, and begin to show fruit. They are then cut in a manner to establish the permanent four-armed stocks, and in the eighth year they begin to bear rich harvests. But it is not until the fifteenth or twentieth year of their growth that they produce the best wines. Up to that time these plantations are termed majuelos, only with the eighteenth to twentieth year they reach their majority, and then are termed vinas. The growth of young vines is very vigorous indeed, particularly in rainy seasons. The first shoots are very long and thick. In dry seasons they come to an early standstill, and many die. Such partial losses in young, and also in old vineyards, are mostly replaced ^ by layers, slips so-called mugrones. A single layer or slip is made in the ordinary manner,, described in the seventeenth section of this Treatise, if the object is to produce a single new vine from an old one. The burying is very deep, and the point of the cane projects in the bottom of a deep excavation, intended to collect as much water as possible, and to allow the new cane to be gradually covered up by earth, so that it may have a deep footing. 236 A TREATISE OX WIXES. But when several layers or slips are required from one vine, the latter is buried in a pyramidal hill of earth, termed voga. Its four arms are allowed to project, and to grow from the four inclined sides of this hill, and all fruit is suppressed. The canes now grow much more vigorously, because they are fed by the stock itself, as well as by the numerous new roots which they develop in the voga. They may therefore be laid down in the winter following their growth, and in that case are only detached from the mother-stock in the winter following their growth ; or they, or some of them, may be detached entirely in the first winter and used as Fig, 36. The "Yoga," pyramidal hill of earth, for multiplying a vine fourfold. rooted plants. After the largest have been detached, the vine is disinterred, and again puts out new branches. 171. ANNUAL LABOURS IN VINEYARDS. The labours are all performed by men, and on no single occasion have I observed women or children to be employed, even in vintage time and for light work. The working day, which during vintage time lasts from sun-rise to sun-set, is interrupted by two periods allotted for meals and repose. For breakfast, one hour is given ; and for dinner and siesta, two hours. The labourers are paid for the day, practically of nine hours, and I have not learned that there are any who work by piece and contract. They receive the wages WINES OF SPAIN. 237- mentioned below, and five cigarettes a-day. During the time of active labour, particularly poda, chata, cava bien, and vintage, the men stay in the vineyards; they mess together, and their food, consisting mainly of arranque, is prepared for them by the common cook or housekeeper \casero). In cold weather they sit, during the time of meals and repose, around a great bonfire of vine and reed canes, which is lighted in a pit of masonry specially arranged for that purpose in one of the sheds of the vineyard. The smoke escapes through a long slit in the highest part of the roof. The labours which are performed upon the vines and vineyards in the course of the year, are the following : Poda. The pruning, or cutting back of the vine, to main- tain its shape and fertility, is performed during October r November, and December. Some viticulturists work the earth before, some after, the poda. Alumbra, or Chata, consists in digging and dressing the land in such a manner that there is a large square basin round each vine, which may catch the rain-water. As the vines are from 1-5 to r8 metres apart, in every sense these basins are more than a square metre in width, and one-third of a metre deep. This work begins in October. When the digging is not so much a formation of basins, in case the rains were early and copious, as a stirring, it is termed chata^ Hechar Mugrones is the work of making layers or slips. Resposicion de Marras is the replacement of dead vines. Deserpia is the removal of suckers projected by the roots. Desbragar (desbarbar) is the taking off of the highest roots, day or dew roots, which, particularly in young plants,, become exposed by the chata. Cava bien is the great digging and refilling of the holes- (cierra) made by the chata. This is performed in February, after the rains are over, and before the new growth starts. Castra is the operation of taking off all superfluous shoots- and buds previous to and immediately after blossom-time. Golpe lleiio is a digging of the ground after the grape is- formed, and before the branches of the vines have become entangled with each other, sometimes even as early as the end of April or beginning of May. 238 A TREATISE ON WINES. Levantar varas is the operation of supporting branches after the grapes have begun to get heavy, by little forks made of canes or wood. These supports are not higher than the stocks of the vine, and, consequently, the branches are kept in a horizontal position. Vina is a light digging of the surface of the land, per- formed in the latter part of June, to destroy the weeds. Recastra is the second removal of superfluous shoots. Revina is another hoeing at the end of July, to remove weeds (also termed aschalado). In August the vineyards become covered with the corre- guela, or running weed, a kind of convolvulus, whose roots grow very deep in the ground, and run quickly through great distances, reproducing the plant at the surface with great rapidity. Another common weed is the castanucla, a kind of cyperus. The removal of these weeds in August is termed agostar. The vineyard from this time is merely protected by watch- men until the vintage. Vendimia, the vintage, begins on the yth or 8th of Sep- tember, mostly with great regularity, in the best situations. It lasts until the i8th or 2oth when regular, when interrupted by rain it may last till the end of the month. Generally it is a most rapid operation. The vintagers (vendimiadores) receive three pesetas a day in money, and have a sleeping room, and mats of rushes .(enea) provided for them. The pressers (pisadores) receive also three pesetas per day, and, in addition, for each bota of mosto pressed one peseta and half a bottle of wine; once during the entire vendimia each pisador gets a basketful of :grapes (un capache de uvas) or five reals instead. The removal of the mosto, or wine, from the vineyard to the bodega in Jerez costs for each bota about thirty reals for all distances below and up to one league. Above one league the cost is forty reals per bota. When the removal is by mules the vehicles used are carros, when by oxen, carretas. I have also seen mules laden with a bota full of mosto each, and believe the practice to be cruel and .dangerous, and happily rare. WINES OF SPAIN. 239 The day's work of a man is called peonada. The price paid for the peonada of each kind varies according to years, weather, and the labour market. In bad years and during bad weather, the day's labour is less valuable, and therefore paid less highly than in good years and fine weather. I witnessed a strike for higher wages in a vineyard at an ap- proaching rain. The capataz defied the men, and the rain passed off. In 1865 labour was so dear that the chata, which ordinarily costs 14 reals per day per man, actually had to be paid as high as 38 reals. A proprietor of a large well-kept albariza vineyard calcu- lated the cost of his labour per annum, including vintage, to be from ^15 to ^16 per aranzada, or on the whole one- twelfth of the amount of capital sunk in the vineyard. A generally accepted estimate brings the cost of labour to one real per vine per year. Manuring is never employed, partly because it is not frequently necessary, partly because the proprietors believe it to be injurious to the grapes. It is difficult to understand this, but the fact remains, that in albariza vineyards, which have been uninterruptedly planted with vines for 300 years, as shown by documents of tenure, no manure is ever em- ployed. In such vineyards there are, however, barren and bald places, which baffle all attempts to replant the vine. They may possibly be chemically exhausted, and here manure should be tried. It is probable that the system of catching the rain-water may act as chemical manuring, for it cannot be doubted that the heavy rains of winter bring much of the constituents of sea-water from the near Atlantic, and in this a portion at least of the salts required by the vine. Nowhere in this district have I seen vineyards cultivated by the plough, but all labours were done by the arms of men. On the whole, the labours upon the ground are the most serious of any which I have witnessed anywhere. But they seemed out of proportion to the amount of care be- stowed upon the vine, and the ripening grape in particular seemed to me mostly neglected in an unaccountable man- ner. The consideration occurred to me that the bounty of 24O A TREATISE ON WINES. nature is here so great that man has no necessity for hus- banding the produce, but if he loses a considerable part of it he can, with the remainder, still make up a profitable account. 172. PRODUCTIVENESS OF VINEYARDS. Albariza legitima is believed to produce, on an average, from i to 2 botas per arranzada. The dark and arenas soils produce much more, namely, four or five botas, but the must is coarse. This depends mainly upon the quality of the vines, which, for the lower lands, are chosen from the richest bearers. It was stated to me that the arenas grapes commanded a uniform low price, and that therefore an agriculturist would do better to grow quantity rather than to grow fine vines, unless indeed he did not sell his grapes but his wine. The best parts of a Balbaina vineyard give from ten to eleven botas per aranzada. Other pieces give only a half to one butt, and some parts give nothing. Competent estimates bring the average production on all kinds of soil to three botas per aranzada, or ninety arrobas for every 2,000 vines. If we assume the entire area of the vineyards of Jerez as 14,000 aranzadas, and of these 12,000 to be in bearing, there would be an average annual pro- duction of 36,000 botas, or 1,080,000 arrobas of mosto. The average price of mosto maybe assumed as 75 pesos, or 1,100 reals per bota, and the value of all the vintages is therefore about 40 millions of reals. Now, as the 14,000 aranzadas all require labour at the rate above detailed (though only 12,000 return at the time), and as the wages for this labour, paid to a population of more than 10,000 men, amount to between 20 and 30 millions of reals, the interest and profit annually reaped by the proprietors of the Jerez vineyards amount to from 10 to 20 millions of reals. 173. PRICES OF VINEYARDS. The usual price for average good vineyards is from 15,000 to 1-8,000 reals say 150 to 180 guineas per aranzada. If WINES OF SPAIN. 241 the albariza were less absolute, and the vineyard were to enclose places with dark earth, its price would be less. Old vineyards fetch higher prices than young plantations. Young vineyards do not reach first-class value before the twentieth year. The grapes of young vineyards are mostly worked up into vino de color, or into dulce. While some vineyards increase in price (an example which cost 7,000 reals per aranzada in 1833, in 1871 had a value of 37,000 reals) others remain stationary, some lose in value; thus a large vineyard of 80 aranzadas was a few years ago sold for about ;i 6,000 ; it had been established only about twelve years, and is believed to have been sold at a loss, although by otherwise firm hands. Most vineyard property around Jerez about 1860 had risen to very high prices, but the later years have depressed all prices greatly. This is due to political circumstances, and also to the fact that proprietors have ceased to take personal interest in their vineyards. Consequently returns diminish, and the satisfaction of per- sonal success disappears. While twenty or thirty years ago every proprietor (not always resident in his vineyard) would go to the vineyard during the entire vintage time ; now-a- days none superintend their vintages, and the consequence is everywhere visible in dilapidation, deterioration, and neglect. Second-class vineyards are sold at 8,000 reals per aran- daza. The total value of the vineyards of Jerez is estimated at 210 millions of reals. In 1819 the barro-arena vineyards were held in greater value than the albarizas. An aranzada of vineyard in the pagos of Carrascal or Macharnudo, which have the greatest fame now a-days, was then not much more than from 3,000 to 4,000 reals, while an aranzada of vineyard in Toleze, San Antonio, or Peliron, fetched 7,000 reals and more. A care- ful consideration of all the conditions of the Jerez districts will show that the barro-arenas soil is economically the most suitable for viticulture. The albariza is being exhausted beyond redemption, unless the proprietors resolve to bring, at least, mineral manure into their vineyards. In fact, the albarizas are dear because fashionable ; but if the barro- R 242 A TREATISE ON WINES. arenas were planted with the same select stock, they would produce the same quality, and much more quantity, than the albarizas, and therefore obtain a ready market. The pagos of the Corchuelo and Afiina group are situated to the north-west of Jerez, beginning at a distance of about three kilometres, and extending for about five kilometres over the entire space between the old and new roads to San Lucar. They are conveniently reached by either of these roads, or by a field-road running between them direct from Jerez to Corchuelo (the Camino de las Vinas). Close to the town are the vineyard pagos of Picaduena and Miraflores, the latter remarkable for containing on its commanding height the splendid reservoir of the waterworks which sup- ply Jerez with water from the distant mountains (deposito de las Aguas de Tempul). These pagos include about eighty aranzadas of barro-arena soil, and are planted with mollares, mantuos, and the uva calona, the fruit of which is mainly used in the shape of verdeo, that is to say, eaten fresh. Close to them is a third small pago, Serrana, on the right of . the road del Calvario, which separates it from Miraflores ; it belongs to the barro-arena class. The pago las Salinillas is an albariza hill stocked with palomino, and surrounded by swampy territory impregnated with salt, furnishing the name to the pago, next to Mari- cuerda. The soil is partly albariza, partly bugeo ; its. vines mainly palomino. Its surface is from fifteen to twenty aranzadas. In the direction of Corchuelo is the pago of Rui Diaz, of one hundred aranzadas, with the noted vine- yard la Lebrijana. To the south lies the pago of Corta- dedo, bordering upon Obregon and Rui Diaz. Its extent is ninety aranzadas, with bugeo, albariza, and lustrillo soil, planted with palomino. The pago, el Corchuelo, is circumscribed by the pagos of Rui Diaz, Cortadedo, Obregon, and Cantarranas, and the lane of Afiina. It comprises three hundred aranzadas, and its soil is what is termed lustrillo, being rocky and lumpy albariza, bugeo, and barro-arena mixed, just the same as is found in the pagos of Cuartillo and Majada alta and some others. Prevailing vines are the palominos, with perunno, WINES OF SPAIN. 243 Pedro Jimenez, mantuo, canocazo, and albillo. Its products vary in quality. Noted vineyards are la Recobera, los Desaboridos, and others. The name of the pago is some- times connected with corcho (cork), and corchuelo may have signified a plantation of cork trees (alcornbques) . The word also signifies blockhead. Close to Corchuelo is the pago of Cantarranas, which borders to the west upon San Julian, and comprises two hundred aranzadas. Its higher parts have albariza, its lower ones bugeo soil. r lhe predominating vine is palomino. 174. PRINCIPAL VINES MOST COMMONLY CULTIVATED AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN THE PAGOS. The principal vines which are most commonly cultivated in the albariza and bugeo districts are the following : Pedro Xitnems. This vine gives mostos of all kinds, but is mainly reputed for the sweet liqueurs, conventionally called wines, which are made by mixing the juice of its sun- dried grapes with spirit. This dulce is also used for sweetening the ordinary sherries. The stock is large ; the canes are the most erect amongst all varieties of vines in the district. When weighted with a full harvest they sink to the ground, but after the vintage become again upright. The leaves are quite smooth, and not woolly or hairy ; medium to small, lobed or irregularly incised, and possess reddish greenish yellow nerves. By the erect position of the canes, and the yellowish colour of the foliage, a stock or vineyard full of this vine can be easily recognized at a distance. The grapes are not very large, greenish white, and bloomy, the sweetest of all grapes ; the bunches not very large, but yet of southern dimensions. The mostos are from 12 to 15 B., without assoleo, but rise to 22 B. after about ten days' exposure to the sun. The legend that this vine had been brought by one Pedro Ximenes from the Canary Islands and Madeira to the Rhine, and had thence been transplanted to Spain, was first published by the German author F. J. Sachs ("Ampelo- 244 A TREATISE ON WINES. graphia," Lipsiae, 1661, 8vo). It has since made the round of literature, and is an established, but nevertheless coYn- pletely erroneous tradition. Odart says characteristically, that this story might flatter a German, but could make a Frenchman only smile. For if Pedro Ximenes had taken away any of this vine from the Rhine, he must have taken all. The vine is not found on the Rhine. It is a large- graped vine, which would never ripen in any German vine- yard. The fallacy ought therefore to be discarded. A less frequent variety of the foregoing vine is the Pedro Ximenes Loco a. name reminding us of the French la folle blanche. It is also termed soplona, the tale-bearer, informer ; names for which the reasons are not assigned. Stock strong ; canes horizontal ; leaves not provided with reddish nerves ; bunches and grapes large, and of slightly rough taste. The most esteemed of all the vines of the Jerez district is the Palomino, also named Palomino bianco, Listan commun, Tempranilla, Orgazuela, Alban, and Ojo de liebre. The ^tock is strong, the canes are thin and long, and numerous, reddish grey, or \vhitish red ; leaves medium-sized, equal, dark green on the upper, woolly on the lower face. The blossoms come early, and develop into large bunches. The grapes are of medium size, of a greenish waxy colour and bloomy appearance, becoming very much bronzed when struck by the sun, which spoils their quality; they give mostos of 14 and 15 B. The wine obtained from it develops mostly into fino, but not into oloroso. This vine is the most common on the albariza soil of the Jerez district. A very delicate variety of the foregoing vine is the Palomino negro, also termed Centella. Similar to foregoing, but with black grapes ; very fine taste ; little grown ; used for vino de color. Perruno. Strong stock, with many erect, straight reddish grey canes, irregular shining leaves, many large bunches, with small, round, translucent grapes, of bronze yellow colour. They are very late and hard, not too sweet, and have astringent husks. The mostos have 12 B., and are good for olorosos of high flavour. WINES OF SPAIN. 245 Perruno ne^ra differs from the former mainly by its black grapes : it is not utilized for the production of wine at Jerez. The Anina road separates the pagos of Marianez, Cerfate, Orbaneja, Anina, Cerro, del Marmol, and Montana on the northern, from Marihernandez, Montana, San Julian, and Zarzuelo on the southern side of the group. Marianez is a pago of twenty aranzadas, between Anina and Corchuelo, and bordering upon Cantarranas, Cerfate, and Marmol. Its heights are albariza, its lower parts bugeo. Cerfate is situated at the entrance of the pago of Anina, close to the Cerro de Orbaneja. It has fifty aranzadas, and its soil and plantations are like those of Anina. Close to the old San Lucar road, and separated from it by the opposite pago of Amarguillo, which I shall describe in connection with the Macharnudo group, is the Cerro de Orbaneja. The Cerro borders upon Anina, Cerfate, and Marianez, is 150 aranzadas in extent, its soil is albariza and bugeo, and other earth in the lower parts, and its principal vine is palo- mino. On the right of my road lay Anina, stretching towards the San Lucar road, bordering upon Orbaneja, Cerfate, and Marihernandez in the west. Its territories are partly bugeo, partly albariza, and partly villares, that is to say, soil formed by the destruction of ancient habi- tations. Its area is one thousand aranzadas, on which the ubiquitous palomino predominates. Prominent vineyards are del Aljive, del Alamo, del Caribe. Close to Anina is the Cerro del Marmol, twenty to thirty aranzadas in extent, with a rocky subsoil, whence its name is derived. The most north-western end of the Anina group is formed by the pago of Montana, two hundred and fifty aranzadas in extent, with soil varying between bugeo and albariza. In the south-west it borders upon the pago of Marihernandez, which in the east touches San Julian, and in the south abuts upon Balbaina. It has eighty aranzadas, and bugeo prevails on its surface, although the summits are albariza. I returned by the Hijuela de Candelero, keeping on my left the pagos of San Julian and Zarzuela. The latter lies between Cande- lero and Cantarranas, and has lustrillo, bugeo, and albariza soil. Its vines are palominos, mantuos, and albillos, San 246 A TREATISE ON WINES. Julian has 300 aranzadas, and stretches from Zarzuela to the new road to San Lucar. Its soil is good albariza, its wines are mainly palominos, with interspersed perrunos, albillos, canocazos, mantuos, and Pedro Jimenez. It yields wines of the first quality. Passing out of the Candelero road into the old San Lucar road, the topographist passes the last pago of this group, completing the list, namely, the Cerro de Obregon, eighty- five aranzadas in extent, a plantation of albariza and bugeo soil. Along San Julian and Balbaina this road exhibits to the eye some good long and deep sections of the albariza territory, the white hard rock, softer surface, and overlying white or coloured bugeo earth. The Cerro de Santiago is a pago of more than 200 aran- zadas, bordered to the west by the old San Lucar road, and in the north passing directly into Macharnudo bajo. Its soil is albariza, and it contains the noted vineyards del Capitan and de la Trinidad. In a north-west direction is the pago of Dona Juana, bordering upon the bye-road del Alferez Tuerto, the low arable lands between Macharnudo bajo and the pago of Amarguillo. The name of this latter is derived from a spring of bitter water in proximity to the pago. Its vineyards are divided into two patches, situated on the right or eastern side of the old road to San Lucar, which road separates them from the pagos of Anina and Orbaneja. In the north, Amarguillo passes into Valcargado, Pelado, and Tizon. Its soil is, for the greater part, bugeo, its vines are palominos and moscatels. From a height one sees the pago of Puerto escondido, isolated between Amar- guillo and the Cerro del Pelado. Its extent is seventy aran- zadas of lustrillo soil, its vines are palomino, perruno, Pedro Jimenez, moscatel, albillo, and mantuo. On the right of the San Lucar road, past Amarguillo and Puerto escondidc between Tocina, Tizon, and Valcargado, one sees the Cerrc del Pelado, with albariza heights, bugeo in the lower pai and palomino prevailing on its ninety aranzadas. Farther the north-west, close to the Cerro del Pelado, is the of Tizon, with 200 aranzadas of albariza and bugeo soil and planted with palominos. Between Tizon and Amar- WINES OF SPAIN. 247 guillo, close to the latter, is the pago of the Tocina, 100 aranzadas in extent, with soil varying between lustrillo of albariza, bugeo and barro-arena. Its vines are palominos and mantuos, and of its vineyards the most noted is the one del Garrotal, also named del Canonigo. East of Tizon, north from our point of view, and stretching towards Mach- arnudo, we see the pago of Valcargado, with a surface of i oo aranzadas, bugeo and albariza soil, and palomino vines. East of Valcargado and bordering upon Macharnudo bajo is the pago of Tabajete, of sixty aranzadas, with albariza and bugeo soil planted with palomino. We take the road which borders this pago to the east and divides it from Machar- nudo bajo, termed Hijuela de Tabajete, and then turning towards the east take the Hijuela alta, which separates Macharnudo bajo in its entire length from the isonymous high pago. Thus we are in the midst of what is termed comprehensively Macharnudo, perhaps the greatest pago of Jerez, having more than 1,500 aranzadas of vineyards. In the east it abuts for several kilometres upon the Trebujena road. Its soil is mostly white plastic albariza, with interspersed low-lying bugeo districts. Its vines are palomino, perruno, Pedro Jimenez, albillo, moscatel, canocazo, and mantuo ; palomino forms half the set. It yields excellent wines. Noted vineyards are those of la Compania, and Domecq's, originally planted by Haurie, 400 aranzadas in extent. 175. PRUNING OF THE VINES. The cutting instrument used for pruning is termed hoz de poda. The long part, boca, bears the oblique cutting edge with which the canes are cut downwards. The peto is a kind of light hatchet, and used as such upon trunks and dry old wood. In cold weather this hoz not rarely breaks the branches, particularly of young vines, therefore upon such advanced viticulturists now perform the poda by means of the secateur. Each established vine is generally so trained that it carries four anns on a low trunk. Ideally these arms should be at right angles to each other, but 248 A TREATISE ON WINES. as the vines have no supports, and the branches are heavily dragged down by the fruit, they are mostly wonderfully con- torted. Long fruit-branches may bear from ten to twelve eyes. The three remaining arms are mere stumps of old wood, which, if any, have but one or two eyes left to them. There is here a curious mode of cutting through the node of the cane without considering the eye close by. When the fruit- branch has been borne by one arm during one year, it is in the following established on the next arm to the left, and the arm with the obsolete fruit-branch is cut down to a stump. In this manner the fruit-branch travels round the vine like a game of cards, from right to left, once in four years. This cycle is observed in the whole land of Sherry. Fig. 37. The " Hoz de Poda," or pruning knife and hatchet. After the pruning, the vines look so mutilated and stumpy, compared to their former richness in branches, that the uninitiated can scarcely comprehend the manner of their recovering the autumnal appearance. This was strongly felt by an English visitor, who expressed his fear of what might happen if the pruned vines should take it into their heads not to grow again, and caused him to ex- claim anxiously, " Y si no mete? " The pruning is always effected with the intention of causing the branches to grow towards the ground ; therefore, stumps which are directed towards the earth are preferred to those which are turned upwards. When old wood is so situated that its cutting off might endanger the fruit-branch, it is left. This is the result of the use of the coarse instru- WINES OF SPAIN. 249 ment, the hoz, above described. I have not heard of the use of saws, which in the Gironde now everywhere accom- pany the use of the secateurs. In old vineyards young vines are practically all produced by slips. In new plantations the vines are produced by canes, or by rooted plants trained in a.plantera, or nursery. The new stocks are always planted in a deep hollow, which is gradually filled up. When the plant has obtained a good Fig. 38. Vine pruned for spring growth. size, and consists of a good strong cane, it is cut for estab- lishing the foot, that is to say, whereas before it was cut close to the ground, now it is cut at a height of one foot from the ground. Two eyes only are left to it at the top, from which two canes grow. These two canes are in the next autumn cut so as to leave two spurs of two eyes each. Out of each eye a new cane is produced, and these-four canes furnish the four permanent arms of the vine. At the top of the primary stem a little dead wood is left to indicate the spot at which the primary cane was cut from the establish- ment of the foot. This little stump is. curiously enough, 250 A TREATISE ON WINES. never removed by the vine-dresser. Here I also noticed some striking cases of the diseases affecting the vine in Xeres ; the most remarkable of them is the agena the insolation, or sun-stroke of the leaves, which causes them to die in part or entirely. Many leaves in 187 1 showed this effect in the shape of black or brown patches of dead tissue. This agena also affected the grapes, and gave to many of them a nice golden brown face, a feature considered a prime quality in the chaselas of France, and termed dore (gilt). But the grapes so affected at Jerez are always inferior, and Fig- 39- Vine in the second, third, and fourth year. never attain either the sweetness or aroma of pale greenish grapes which have ripened in complete shade of the leaves. The agena affects young vines more than old ones, and causes great havoc in nurseries (planteras). 176. RARER VARIETIES OF VINES. The Abejera derives it name from the preference shown to it by the bees (abejas). It has a thick foot, with many canes, of silver-grey, yellowish colour, partly hanging, partly standing erect. The canes have many laterals. The leaves are entire, or nearly so, somewhat rugose, and of a pale green colour on their surface, and woolly on the underside. The branches are pyramidal, the grapes green, juicy, and WINES OF SPAIN. 25! sweet, less cloying than those of the albillo castellano, which, in other respects, it much resembles. It occurs in Espera as the exclusive stock of vineyards or patches. The Agracera, distinguished by the agraz, or acid taste of its grapes, which is said to make it useless for the production of wine. It is a late-ripening vine, forms flowers until the end of the spring, and ripens some of its fruit only in November. Its grapes are very large, black or violet ; the bunches are mostly small, and poorly provided with grapes. Sometimes, however, when the vine is planted in good soil, they become large and close grained. It is almost ex- clusively grown in espaliers. The stock is slight, the canes are numerous, and have many branches ; their colour is greenish-white, and sometimes reddish. The leaves are small, shining, dark green, and almost smooth. They remain long on the vine. The Agracera de soto is a variation of the foregoing. Its grapes are less black and less acid, and ripen earlier than those of the ordinary agracera. It also resembles a little to the melonera. It is more suitable for wine (say the Jerezanos) than the other two varieties, because it is less acid. The pago el Almocaden lies along the right side of the Trebujena road, opposite high Macharnudo. The road is here also termed the cross-road or thoroughfare of Almocaden, as if this pago were situated on both sides of the road. Its soil is albariza, with palomino mainly, mixed with some mantuos, moscatels, and others. The principal vineyard is that of Matamoros. The name of Almocaden is Moorish, and signifies captain or chief of troops guarding the fields. To the right is the pago of Cuadros, fifteen to twenty aranzadas of vineyards upon the rivulet of the same name, abutting on the road to Trebujena, between it and that of Carrascal. The soil is bugeo, with some albariza, mainly planted with palomino. Carrascal is a pago of seven hundred aranzadas, enjoying great reputation. Carrascal means a forest or plantation of evergreen oaks ; it may, therefore, be assumed that these preceded the vines in this pago. The soil on the heights is albariza, in the lower parts 252 A TREATISE ON WINES. bugeo. Its predominant vine is palomino, with some canocazo, Pedro Jimenez, and albillo. It yields fine mostos and superior dulces. It forms the centre of the group of pagos which lie between the road to Trebujena and that to Lebrija. It contains large vineyards, and amongst them that of Amoroso and that of the Corregidor. Amoroso lies on a lower hill, surrounded by a circle of higher ones, and therefore well protected from inclement winds, particularly the dreaded levante. It produces the amoroso sherry, which is well known and frequently imitated. Some time ago, I saw an advertisement of a London wine merchant, stating that he had fine amoroso, that he did not know why it should be called so, but it was much liked, and therefore, etc. He and his customers will perhaps thank me for the information, that Amoroso was the name of the original proprietor and planter of this vineyard, who lived at the beginning of this century, and is remembered as a contributor to the work of Clemente. But for this reason the name might be considered objectionable, particularly as the Italians play much with the root of amor in the names which they give to many of their vinous pro- ductions, such as amorino, amoroso, amoretto, and others, all of which occur not unfrequently on labels. The vineyard contains some palomino negro, which is generally used for dulce, or vino de color. The vineyard of Romano is to be noted, because it used to be ornamented with a great growth of Marvels of Peru (Suspiros), with white, red, yellow, and violet flowers. Some yellow flowers were piebald, one-eighth of their entire petal being red. 177. VINTAGE THE LAGAR PRESSING THE GRAPES PISA. The gatherers, or vintagers, all men, select the best grapes for dulce, to be dried on the platform. Each has a box (tineta\ with a strap of esparto fixed on one side, by which the box is hung over arm or shoulder. The full tinetas are taken to the platform, and their con- tents emptied on mats. The next operation is the removal WINES OF SPAIN. 253 of the main stalks, which is effected by cutting the side- branches of the bunches away from the stalks by means of knives. This is done for dulce only, and not for other wine. The buildings are, by their size and convenience, well adapted Fig. 40. The "Lagar,' er platform for treading and pressing grapes. for vino-poetic purposes. In a large hall are the sleeping mats of the labourers, the pit for their nightly bonfire, and the copper for boiling the must. In a large shed behind this are the lagares, in number adapted to the size of the estate,, and a hydraulic press. 254 A TREATISE ON WINES. The lagar used in Andalusia is a large square wooden trough, in which the grapes are trodden and pressed, but never fermented. It differs, therefore, greatly from the Portuguese lagar, which is mostly of stone, and serves for treading and pressing as well as fermenting the mosto, at least during the initial most stormy period. The platform or even bottom of the Jerez lagar is a square of about three yards on each side. The sides of the trough are from eighteen inches to two feet high, and slope inwards towards the bottom. The top of the trough measures, therefore, about three and a half yards in each direction. In the centre of the platform a wooden or iron screw is fixed perpendicu- larly. This is about seven feet long ; it carries a heavy nut, to which strong levers are attached, this entire piece from end to end being about two yards in length, The necessity of getting this piece out of the way of the workmen, when they are treading and manipulating the grapes, causes the enormous length of the screw for while only the lower half or third of the screw is actually used for pressing grapes, the upper half or two-thirds serves to screw up the nut and levers to a height above the heads of the workmen. The lagar is raised above the ground about a yard or more, and slightly inclined in the direction of the side, where there is a spout for the juice to flow off. Sometimes the lagar is raised sufficiently high to allow a bota to be placed under the spout and receive the juice directly. But more commonly the spout delivers the juice into a tub, even when the lagar is high enough to allow the bota to be placed directly under its spout. Of such lagares there are generally a number kept ready in the building attached to each vineyard. In some vineyards, of which I knew the dimensions, I counted that one lagar was kept for every eight or ten aranzadas of vine- yard, so that on each lagar there would be made from thirty to forty botas of mosto during each vintage. The grapes are spread on the lagar, and immediately dusted over with burned plaster of Paris ( Yeso). Perhaps from twenty to thirty pounds of plaster are thus employed, enough in any case to precipitate all tartaric acid and leave a large excess of sulphate. Two men (pisadores\ lightly WINES OF SPAIN. 255 clad in short breeches, wearing leather shoes, the entire soles of which are covered with heavy iron nails, now tread the "grapes in the lagar. The treading proceeds first in one direction, and then at right angles to it, over the entire lagar. The juice does not run from the lagar while the trodden grapes are lying spread, but begins to flow when they are heaped up in one corner and patted with the shovel. New grapes are now spread over the lagar, and trodden, and Fig. 41. The murk bandaged with esparto band, previous to pressing. shovelled aside; and this is repeated until a sufficient quantity has been treated to give a bota of mosto and a quantity of murk sufficient for a pressing, and for leaving a dry cake of sufficient size. The trodden murk is now heaped up around the screw, which stands in the centre of the lagar, and is with great labour and difficulty worked up into a high conical heap. The lagar is swept, and all is carefully collected. To see the pisadores building this pie with the shovel, and ever and anon patting it with the hands, cutting, bending, and adjusting it, and then see the murk bulge out 256 A TREATISE ON WINES. here and yonder, and require a new effort on the part of the pisadores, reminded me greatly of the efforts of boys to con- struct a snow man in thawy weather. At last, however, the column stands, and is now ready for being bandaged. A long band, made of esparto grass, three to four inches broad, is wound round the cone of murk from below upwards in a spiral direction ; both ends are fastened by being clenched between two rounds of the band itself. Frequently the Fig. 42. Pressing of the bandaged murk with the screw. Juice flowing. windings are not uniform, so that no spiral result is obtained. When well built, the structure resembles much the representa- tion of the tower of Babel in Merian's picture Bible. About fifteen rounds of the band are required to cover a cone about a yard in height. The top of the murk is covered with a plate, over this passes the nut of the screw to which the levers are fastened, and the murk is now compressed by turn- ing the nut downwards. As this proceeds the murk gives out juice, and the spiral circles of the esparto bands are pressed, the upper ones behind or inwards of the lower ones* WINES OF SPAIN. 257 At last the labour of turning the screw becomes severe. To overcome the friction of the plate, the men have to jerk their bodies violently, and as they might thereby lose the grasp of the levers and fall, they tie their hands to the levers. When the murk is compressed so that the two men jerking simultaneously at the levers can no longer move the screw, the pressing is complete. The cake is allowed to remain in this compressed state for a time and is then removed. Some now subject the entire murk, distributed on mats, to a second compression in hydraulic presses ; others remove the stalks by working the murk on sieves, treat the murk with water and then compress between mats, others, again, simply pour water on the murk and press it between mats. The product is not put with the must or used for wine, but kept and fermented by itself and ultimately taken to the distillery. The juice which runs from the most inclined part of the lagar through a spout passes through an iron-wire sieve, of the shape of an oval basin, hung over the end of the spout to retain pips and husks, and then flows into a tub (fina), whence it is ladled by flat spoons resembling bankers' money shovels, into jugs, and from them poured through a finer sieve, placed inside a wide funnel (embudo), into the butts. This mode of pressing is highly laborious, and yet does not yield a dry cake of murk. Its only advantage is that it is not strong enough to press juice out of the stalks ; but, as no care is taken to exclude the last portions of juice from the husks, which are always harsh, from the mosto, this feebleness is only a partial protection against the coarse elements of the murk. We can judge of this process better by comparing it with the method of pressing used in the Champagne. Here the must is collected in four or five different stages and mixed consciously only, i.e. after trial of each portion by gustation, with the distinct object of obtaining the finest and purest juice and excluding acerbity. Compare also with the Jerez mode of pressing, that which is used in Styria and Dalmatia, and the description of good wine-presses as used in the Gironde. 2$8 A TREATISE ON WINES. 178. FURTHER DESCRIPTION OF PAGOS, THEIR SOILS AND VINES. The pago nearest to Jerez reaching from the Lebrija road to the Sevilla chausee is the Cruz de las Caballeras. Thirty aranzadas of barro-arena are here planted with man- tuos and mollares. United to this is the Pie de Rey, a pago of eight or ten aranzadas. Farther N.N.E. lies Bogar, (or Bogas), a baro-arena pago of ninety aranzadas, extending from the Ducha to the Sevilla road. About one and a half kilometres from Bogar, in the direc- tion toward Ducha, on both sides of the Ducha road, and looking towards Carascal on the west, and Val de Pajuela on the east, is the pago of Dona Rosa, barro-arena with some albariza, about thirty aranzadas in extent. Its vines are mantuos and mollares. The most extreme pago in this section on the Sevilla road, and stretching on its eastern side to the railway, bordered on the N.E. by the Canada ancha is Val de Pajuela, a barro-arena pago of one hundred aran- zadas. On it mantuo predominates. The second section of the north-east district lies between the Sevilla road and the Arcos road. The pagos nearest to Jerez are Jarreta, pago of barro-arena near cemetery, between the road de la Zanja and the carriage road to Arcos. Here also lies Membrillar, close to the rivulet of the same name ; its extent is about forty aranzadas. Laguna del Jabonero is a pago which may have been a swamp in which soda-plants, yielding ash fit for soap-making, grew. A part is occupied by the cemetery. Close to it and the cemetery is the Peral del Cangrejo, a pago of barro-arena, and close to this, bor- dering upon Jarretta, is Peliron, barro-arena, forty aranzadas in extent. Close to the Peral del Cangrejo is the pago of Cuatro Novias, barro-arena, thirty aranzadas. It borders upon the suburbs of Jerez. On the right side of the Sevilla road, between this and the road De la Zanja, below Valdepajuela, lies the la Zanja, and a side-road called of Largalo, lies the barro-pago of Santo Fe, barro-arena, twenty aranzadas in extent. Between the long narrow lane which runs almost parallel with the Sevilla WINES OF SPAIN. 259 road, called Callejon de arena pago of Largalo, with a surface of 200 aranzadas. Close to this, and in the direction of Las Abiertas, is Pelona, a barro-arena pago. Here also is Per- ceba, a barro-arena pago of twenty aranzadas, planted with mantuos and mollares. The most eastern pago, situated close to the high-road to Arcos, between the olive-groves of Alcantara and land be- longing to the Cortijo de la Penuela, is the pago of Alcantara. It gave its name to the Marquisate of that name, which was bestowed in the seventeenth century upon the Jerezano D. Agustin Villavicencio. Its soil is albariza, its surface one hundred aranzadas the palomino predominates upon it. Its most notable vineyard is that called of the Cartuja, for- merly the property of the monastery of that name on the Guadalete. The last pagos of this group to be described are the Abiertas de Caulina vineyards, in the plain of Caulina, forming the extreme E.N.E. end of the group, and bordering upon the Llanos de Caulina. They extend from the Arcos road to the Callejon de la Zanja, and are traversed by the railway. On the north they are bounded by Santa Fe, on the south by El Pinar. Their soil is barro-arena, their vines are mantuos and mollares, and their surface is one hundred and forty aranzadas. 179. FURTHER DESCRIPTION OF JEREZ VINES. The vines most commonly grown in this and the following district are the mantuos, mollares, the ferral and beba. I subjoin a short description of them and of their subordinate varieties : Mantuo Castellano. This vine occupies one-half of the Jerez vineyards. Its stock is strong; its canes are nu- merous and large; at the thick end they are greyish red, towards the point whitish red; the leaves are yellowish green, and reddish when they are shed ; they are of medium size, entire, and woolly on the lower face. The numerous bunches are large ; the grapes large, equal, of good taste, and ripen a fortnight later than those of the palomino ; they rot easily in rainy weather. They are peculiarly consistent, 260 A TREATISE ON WINES. without being hard, as if the juice was shut up in many small receptacles. Many dark stones make the grape dis- agreeable to eat. Its mosto is very heavy, ranging from 9*7 to 14 B, and developes into wines termed finos. Mantuo de Pila. The canes are somewhat irregular ; the grapes hard ; sweet, but late ; this lateness necessitates that they should hang on the vines beyond the time of the general vintage, which causes them to be inconvenient grapes for wine-making, if not kept by themselves. Its name is derived from Pila, the town in the province of Seville. Manluo morado. Similar to the other mantuos, but differing by the violet colour of its grapes. Mantuo Cordovi. Whitish strong canes ; leaves yellowish green ; grapes large, bronzed, and translucent. Mantuo lacren, ladrenado, or layren. Name derived from the Arabic, of problematical meaning. Similar to the former ; its grapes are less translucent and later ripe ; its bunches more pyramidal. Canocazo. Arabic name, signifying soft mild grape. Is also termed mollar bianco. The stock is strong, its canes are numerous and straggling, some being upright, others on the ground, hanging in all directions ; they are thick, and of a greyish red colour, with some yellow admixed. The large leaves are almost entire, yellowish green ; the branches are large, with many grapes, and giving a mosto of from 11 to 12 B, which produces high-flavoured olorosos. When well dried in the sun it may be advantageously com- bined with Pedro Jimenez for duke. Mollar negro, also termed Seirillano. Stock middling; canes numerous, hanging, greyish red ; with large and almost round leaves of yellowish green colour, which become red before the fall. The bunches are large and numerous, the grapes black. Very commonly grown in Jerez, and used for verdeo. Mosto weighs from 9 to 14 B. Ferrar, also ferral. Stock strong, with few short, thick, erect canes, of a greyish red colour. Leaves yellowish green ; bunches large ; grapes nearly black, large and very late. In unfavourable years and conditions the husks WINES OF SPAIN. 26l remain violet, even green, though the contents are quite sweet. It should be grown on espaliers in protected places, upon the so-called extension system, with many branches, like the so-called Hambro' vine of English conservatories, the Tyrol grape, to which it has much resemblance. It is. supposed that from the richness in branches (when it is grown on espaliers) the Arabic nameferrar is derived. Its mosto is not very heavy, Clemente finding it 8-5 B. I have observed it at 14 B, from very ripe ferrars. Clemente says that its must was not good for wine, as it was too acid. This has been so often repeated, that it is now generally believed ; but it is an error. The nonsuitability for wine of the ferrar arises from its liability to form scud immediately after fermentation, and to shed its colour and lose quality. As regards acidity, it must not be forgotten that what in Andalusia is acidulous, would be very sweet indeed even in the Gironde. The last of the favourite vines in this district is the Beba. Its stock is of middling size, with canes which are red, and have the silver-grey hue; they sink to the ground. The leaves are large, and appear whitish, owing to a downy covering ; in shape irregular, palmate, lobed, and of uneven surface. The bunches are pyramidal, and dense, and the grapes are large and hard, and frequently bronzed. They are late, and therefore are suitable for being hung up for later use, or for being transformed into raisins. Large quantities are sold as verdeo. As I have repeatedly used, and shall have again to use this expression, I give some explanation of its meaning. Verdear is the selling of fruit for the purpose of its being eaten fresh, or transformed into other products. Thus it is said that the inhabitants of Velez transport to Malaga, in the month of July, "para verdear," or " para verdeo," 250 mule loads of sugarcane. The grapes which are sold as such at Jerez are termed "verdea," but it does not follow that they are all eaten. A portion, no doubt, is made into wine, although produced and sold, in the first instance, as verdeo. (See Clemente, p. 136, footnote i.) Calona. This vine has a medium-sized stock, and few 262 A TREATISE ON WINES. straight and erect canes. The leaves are almost entire, unequally punctured, and of a yellowish green colour. The bunches are large, the grapes large and white, tasty, but sour ; this is indeed indicated by its name, which is Arabic and indicates acid or vinegar. It is an early grape and used for eating. Its black brother, the Calona negra, also termed Carchuna, has yellower leaves than the former, and large thick black grapes. They are sweeter and earlier than the white ones, and liked for eating. The Uva de Loja belongs to the class of datileras, has numerous straggling canes, and small and light yellowish leaves. The grapes are large and frequently two-winged ; when single they are conical ; the berries have thin husks, and are good for raisins and for eating. The name is derived from the town of Loja. A kind of vine, not frequently grown here, and possibly identical with the Malvasia of Greece, is the Malvasia. Canes erect, short, whitish red. Leaves large, irregularly lobed or palmate ; grapes transparent, white, very delicate to eat, sweet, and early, but with a thick skin. Comes from Cataluna. Another interesting vine is the Vigiriega cominun. Middling-sized stock, many canes, and yellowish leaves, of middling size, almost entire and round. Bunches few; grapes almost round, greenish white, and very sweet, being good for mosto and for eating. A variety of it is the still more rare Vigiriega negra, black, and much less sweet than the former. 1 80. CLASSIFICATION OF GRAPES, IN THE ORDER OF THEIR QUALITY FOR MAKING WINE. Pedro Jimenez the finest grape, little grown in Jerez, mostly used for dulce ; sweetest grape. Palomino the dominating vine ; produces finos and amontillados ; made pure. Perruno produces high-flavoured olorosos. Mantuo castellano solid fleshy grape. Mantuo de Pila late grape. The foregoing alone form sets in vineyards. WINES OF SPAIN. 263 The following never form sets, and are not prized for wine : Beba esteemed for eating. Cafiocazo scarce ; produces high-flavoured olorosos. Ferral, Mollard, and Palomino Negro are used by pro- prietors for making vino de color, as if from white grapes, not red. The ferral and mollar are rejected by the pur- chasers of partidos. Almufiecar and Albillo the most juicy or fluid of grapes. The proportion in which any of these vines are reared in vineyards may be seen under the description of each district. For common vineyards no proportion can be stated. I inspected some crops while they were being emptied on the lagares (September 15, 1871), and found them to consist of a mixture of the following grapes, enumerated in the order of their apparent frequency : Beba, Mantuo Castellano, Palo- mino, Albillo, and Mollar. 181. EASTERN, SOUTHERN, AND WESTERN GROUP OF PAGOS. The eastern group comprises the section between the Arcos road and the Hijuela de Pedro Diaz. The first pago out of Jerez by the Arcos road is that of San Antonio, situated close to the town, upon the drain or sewer de los Alunados, between the carriage-road to Arcos, or footpath del Badelejo on the one and the footpath of the Cana- leja on the other side. Its extent is thirty to forty aran- zadas ; its soil is barro-arena, its vines are mantuos and mollares. On the south-east of, and close to the former pago, is that of the Pozo de Ramos, twelve aranzadas in extent. It is close to Jerez, and approached by the long narrow lane La Manga del Toril. Its soil is barro-arena ; its vines are mantuos and mollares. East of San Antonio, and bordering upon the road of Badalejo, is the mantuo- bearing pago of Barbadillo. Between this, the Arcos road and the pago El Pina, is that of Cabrestera, forty aranzadas in extent. In this group also lies Garrido, a pago of about twenty aranzadas, and Piedra del Mirabel, ot thirty aran- 264 A TREATISE ON WINES. zadas. Continuing by the Badalejo road, we meet on the left the large pago of El Pinar, which bears its name from a plantation of pines contained in it, and includes one hundred aranzadas. On its north side this pago is bordered in its whole length by the Arcos road, in the east it borders upon the Caulina plain and Badalejo. South of El Pinar, and on the right of the Badalejo road, is situated the long pago of Canalejo, confined on its south side by the road of the same name, with fifty aranzadas of vineyard, The name is probably derived from criadero de canas, Canaveral, or more probably from canaleja, a drinking trough. The soil of all the foregoing pagos, when not differently characterized, may be assumed to be barro-arena, and to be planted with mantuos and mollares. East of the Canaleja is the small barro-arena pago of Catalana, forming a compact mass of vineyards, with the larger pago of Badalejo. This is situated where the Canaleja and Badalejo roads join, and, branching off from the road to Cuartillos, make a semicircular loop towards the Arcos road, winding round the eastern end of El Pinar, already described. The pago lies close to the rivulet of the same name, which flows in a southern direction towards the Guadalete, and joins its waters, profuse in the rainy season, almost nil in dry summertime, with those of the Guadalete, at a point between the Cartuja and the bridge close by. The name of pago and river is spelt by Suter in his map " Albaladejo," so that we have here an Arabic article pre- fixed, and some letters transposed. The spelling which I adopt seems justified by the probable derivation from the Arabic guadalec or guadalejo, derived itself from guada,. fiver. The soil of this pago is barro-arena, with much chalk, containing great numbers of fossil marine shells of the tertiary period. The mantuos prevail, and their products are esteemed. The total area of the vineyards amounts to forty aranzadas. To the south-east of the pago and rivulet of Badalejo is the isolated pago of Culebra, with twenty-five aranzadas of barro-arena soil, planted with mantuos and mollares. Due east of Jerez, and about ten kilometres distant, is WINES OF SPAIN. 265 Cuartillos, forming, with Majada, an isolated group of im- portant vineyards. It comprises about four hundred aran- zadas of lustrillo soil. Its vines are palominos, perrunos, albillos, mantuos, and bebas. The most noted vineyard is that de las Animas. Majada, also termed M. Alta, measures twenty aranzadas, and resembles Cuartillos in soil and plantation. Returning to Jerez from a visit to the plain round Cule- bras, I passed the pago, which from a neighbouring flowing spring is called Fuente de la Teja. It is situated at the eastern end of the group of vineyards which are enclosed be- tween the road of the Canaleja and that of Pedro Diaz. It passes westward into the pago of Pedro Diaz, thirty aran- zadas of barro-areno soil, and is also blessed with a living spring of the same name. From this pago all the way to Jerez the vineyards lying along the Hijuela de Pedro Diaz, belong to the pago of San Jose, barro-arena vineyards of forty aranzadas surface, with the mantuos and mollares usual in this district. The plains all round this eastern district are, if not barren, at least mainly uncultivated. Their soil is clay and sand, and suffers from stagnation of water in winter and drought in the summer. They are covered by groups of palmitos, and were adorned, when I first saw them, with numberless squills in full bloom. Herds of cattle were roaming over them. I was informed that before the Revolution 0^1833 these lands were the property of the commune of Jerez. In consequence of the revolution a plan was started in Jerez to cure the poverty of the labouring population by giving them lands. The public lands were divided, and somehow dis- tributed amongst the citizens. The plots were large enough for separate settlements, or the establishment of small farms. But not a single one of the new proprietors was found to settle on, or even work, the newly acquired land. Some sold it on the evening of the day on which they had received the boon, for more or less of wine or money, an arrobe of wine being no uncommon price for an entire lot of several aranzadas. A few monied persons and land- owners in the neigbourhood acquired the whole ot what had 266 A TREATISE ON WINES. been the common land, for a ridiculously inadequate price ; and thus the community was not only cheated of its pro- perty, but the mass of its poor inhabitants were deprived of the greater part of the common land on which their animals had, during a great part of each year, found their sub- sistence. The first pago close to the south side of Jerez, bordering upon the plain of San Telmo, is that of Mancebia, a small vineyard, of one aranzada, in bugeo soil. Where the road to Monte Allegre branches off that to the Cartuja there is situated the pago of Pozillos, fourteen aranzadas in extent, with barro-arena soil, and planted with mantuos and mol- lares. In the angle formed by the Monte Allegre and Cartuja road is situated the barro-arena pago of Barrial. Not far off is the farm of Vallesequillo, on barro-arena soil, with orchards and vineyards. In this part the soil is remarkably red when freshly worked, paler when long ex- posed ; some parts are almost reddish brown, and the colour changes frequently with the situation. To the east of the pagos just mentioned, between the Hijuela de Monte Alegre and that of Pedro Diaz, lies the pago of Manjon, or Majon, twenty aranzadas in extent, with barro-arena soil, and the vines appropriate to it. Contiguous to this is the Llano del Moral, a barro-arena pago, of from fifteen to twenty aranzadas. To the south-east of these pagos, and occupy- ing almost the entire space between the road to the Cartuja and that of Pedro Dias, is the important pago of Monte Allegre, of about four hundred aranzadas. It is divided in its middle by a road bearing its name. Its soil is in one part barro-arena, in another portion plastic albariza. The dominant vines are mantuos with interposed bebas, mollares, and palominos. The point of Monte Alegre close to the Cartuja is termed Cabeza de la Azena, and contains twenty aranzadas of barro-arena soil. To the south of the road to the Cartuja, between it and that to the Granja, lies the pago of Buena Vista, which de- rives its name from certain high hills in its midst, whence a fine view of the old monastery, and of the valley of the Guadelete is obtained. It comprises about sixty aranzadas; WINES OF SPAIN. 267 its soil is barro-arena, with some chalky underground ; the prevailing vines are mantuos. More towards Jerez, and ta the west of Buena Vista, we see the ten aranzadas of the pago of Flamenco, traversed by the three roads of the Car- tuja, la Granja and Solete. The Cartuja road separates it from the Moral, and the Granja road from the pago of Geraldino. This pago is, in its turn, circumscribed by the road to the Granja and that to the Solete. It contains twenty aranzadas of barro-arena, and is planted with man- tuos. The name is said to have been selected in honour of a Jerez naval man, who fought with unsuccessful glory at the naval battle of Cape St. Vincent. At the southern extremity of Buena Vista, and close to the Guadalete, we find the pago of la Granja, with a farm of the same name, to which its main vineyard belongs. The road which leads to it bears the name of Camino de la Granja. It is thirty aranzadas in extent ; its soil is barro-arena, and its vines are mantuos, mollares, and others. West of la Granja, and between it and Solete, is the barro-arena pago of Lazo. It is a long strip of land, with twenty aranzadas of vineyards, abutting in the north upoa the Granja-road, in the south upon that of del Rio viejo. The last of the large pagos of this district is that of Solete,, due south of Jerez. It borders in the west upon the Car- retera del Puerto, in the east upon the pagos of Lazo and Geraldino, and is traversed by a road which bears its name, and farther west by the railway to Cadiz, running parallel with the road. Its soil is barro-arena, and its vines are mantuos and mollares. On the outskirts of the district above described are yet a few small pagos, which may be conveniently here enume- rated. S.S.E. of Jerez, and at three leagues' distance from- it, is the pago Torre de la Cera, of forty-two aranzadas, with albariza soil. In the same direction from Jerez, but at a distance of five leagues, near the ex-convent del Valle,. is the pago of Parrilla, of forty aranzadas. The road to the Cartuja is a quagmire of sand and dust, with here and there a fragment of macadamized road. a remnant of a better past. 263 A TREATISE ON WINES. The Toirox group of vineyards, sometimes also called group of las Anaferas, is situated S.S.W. of Jerez, in a pentagonal space, bordered to the N.N.W. by the Trocha de Jerez al Puerto, on the W.S.W. by the Canada del Carillo, and the northern slopes of the Sierra de San Cristobal. On the N.E. it is skirted by the carretera del Puerto a Jerez, the railroad from Cadiz to Sevilla and the Rio Guadelete, three roads which run close together at the former port of Jerez, el Portal. The entire group is within five kilometres from Jerez, and is easily reached by the Puerto roads mentioned, or by either of two field- roads, the Hijuela of Torrox or that of las Anaferas. The pago of Torrox is S.S.W. from Jerez, in the place where formerly was a laguna of that name, abutting upon Gibalcon, and giving its Moorish name to the entire group. Its extent is two hundred aranzadas, its soil albariza, with bugeo in the lower parts. The vines are palomino, mantuo, Pedro Jimenez. To the east of this, and due south of Jerez, lies Gibalcon, a pago with an Arabic name, and fronting towards the cerro del Fruto and San Telmo. Extent, ninety aranzadas; soil, albariza; vines, palomino and mantuo. Next to the former two pagos, and almost in the centre of the group, lies the pago of Cibullo, being albariza with some bugeo, fifty aranzadas in extent, and mainly planted with palomino. The pago nearest the river and railway is that of Parpa- lana, one hundred and sixty aranzadas in extent. Its soil is white plastic earth, with bugeo in the lower parts. Vines : polomino and Pedro Jimenez intermixed with peruno, cano- cazo, albillo, and mantuo. Noted vineyards : Nuestra Senra de la Merced, Perla de Parpalana, borders upon la Calderera and Bonaina. The former is an albariza pago, with sixty aranzadas of palomino, but Bonaina has more bugeo soil, fifty aranzadas in extent, and is also stocked with palomino. To this district also belongs the pago de Galera, a strip of land lying between the river Guadalete and the carriage road to Puerto, extending from the Portal to the olive-grove del Duque. Its soil, of which only half an aranzada is as yet planted with vines, is exclusively bugeo. WINES OF SPAIN. 269 The pago o. this group, which is third in importance and most distant from Jerez, is las Anaferas. It borders upon the Canada (brook lined with reeds) del Carillo, and the pagos of Cibullo and Torrox. Its soil is white albariza, of so plastic a nature that it can be carved with a knife, like soap, and is in that state worked into portable little stoves for charcoal, over which the common people cook their dinners. From these stoves the pago derives its name. The palomino predominates on its ninety aranzadas. Bordering upon las Anaferas is the pago termed after the brook Canada del Carrillo, fifty aranzadas, with albariza in the high and bugeo in the low portions. On the outskirts of the group we have yet to notice the pago of Colores, situated on the right of the bridle-road from Jerez to Puerto. It measures twenty aranzadas, with bugeo soil and some albariza. Its stock consists of mantuos and palominos. Close to it, on the left or south side of the same road, is the pago of Matacardillo, about fifty aranzadas in extent. South of las Anaferas and of the Canada del Carillo is the pago of the Sierra de San Cristobal. The vineyard is situated on the northern slope of this mountain. Its soil is bugeo, some albariza, and arena, products of the disintegra- tion of the sand and chalk-rock which forms the mass of the hill. The soil on the whole is therefore lustrillo. Extent,, fifty aranzadas ; vines, mantuos and palominos. 182. MOSCATELS. Close to el Portal is the Vega del Moscatel. It forms about six aranzadas of vineyards in bugeo soil, on which choice varities of moscatels are cultivated, amongst them the following : Moscatel gordo bianco, also termed romano and flamenco. The stock is strong, the canes are yellowish, like those of reeds, the leaves small and entire, or almost so, and the grapes are large, and have the peculiar flavour. Moscatel gordo morado, similar to foregoing in shape, but its grape is violet, and the canes somewhat greyish-red. Moscatel meniido bianco, also termed morisco andyfw, is a 270 A TREATISE ON WINES. more delicate plant than the former ; its canes are intensely greyish-red. The grapes are small and very sweet, and give the best moscatel wine, or rather, sweet liqueur. Moscatels require dark territory ; even in this warm climate their flowers set very imperfectly, but the grapes which become developed at all attain a high degree of perfection. Farther towards Jerez, to the east of Gibalcon, bordering upon the side-road of las Coles, and the carriage-road to Puerto, are yet two small pagos, the Cerro de Paez, a single vineyard of from six to seven aranzadas, with barro-arena .soil, and pago de Palmosa, a small vineyard with bugeo soil. 183. DENSITY OF JEREZ MOSTOS. Many a sherry-drinker has heard the oft-repeated tale, that in the south the grapes are so sweet, so highly charged with sugar, that the mosto made from them is unable to consume the whole of it, and remains sweet, to some extent, even after fermentation has produced the ordinary quantity of alcohol. This tale is often made to justify or explain the sweet taste of sherry, and the large amount of distilled spirits which is added to it. In the "Treatise on Wine," of Thudichum and Dupre", p. 638 et seg., a special chapter is devoted to the comparison of the density of Jerez must with the specific gravity of must produced from different wines in various countries and years. This comparison led us to the conclusion that sherry is not naturally stronger than the principal wines of France and Germany ; that it Is able to consume the whole of its saccharine matter by natural fermentation, and become natural wine, and, if properly treated, does not require either plastering, or the addition of brandy, spirit, or boiled must. I have been able to confirm this conclusion by many observations made at Jerez upon mostos.as they came from the lagars, and subsequently fermented in the bodegas. WINES OF SPAIN. 2/1 Out of 103 mostos, at the average temperature of 70 Fahr. : i showed specific gravity 10-75 Baume'. 1 1 -oo n'25 1 1 '33 6 z 24 16 12 4 14 6 4 7 12 OO I2'IO 12-25 12-50 12-75 13-00 14-00 All these mostos came from the mantuo castellano grapes (grown in barro-arena soil) and transported to the bodegas on mules' backs during the time from September 2oth to October and, that is to say, very late in a very hot Jerez season. The grapes had, indeed, been subjected to such a heat that many were shrivelled, and others transformed into dry raisins. These latter do not influence the specific gravity of mostos made on the lagar, but are mostly lost to the wine-makers. When the dry murk is subsequently cast into the roads, or carried to the dung-heaps or fields, one can see numbers of poor children rummaging it, and picking out these raisins. I state this in order to show that the mostos above described were really highly concentrated liquids, which is indeed also shown by the specific gravities themselves, to all those who know that Spanish musts fluctuate between specific gravity 9 and 14 as extremes, and are more frequently near the lower than the higher figure. I next observed eight mostos which were made from . assoleated grapes, and showed specific gravity 13-3 ; 13-5 ; four= 14; two = i4'25. Each bota received six arrobas of brandy of 40 Cartier, whereby the soecific gravity was de- 2/2 A TREATISE ON WINES. pressed by six or seven degrees. Of mostos made on October 2nd, from long-dried mantuo de pila, two showed 15, one 1 6, and one 17 Baume. The heaviest mosto I observed at all at Jerez had 22 B, and came from Pedro Jimenez grapes exposed to the sun during ten days, from September 5th to i5th. All these heavy mostos were ex- pressly prepared for dulce, and were not allowed to ferment at all, but had their fermentation prevented by the addition of one-fifth of their volume of alcohol. I found the best palomino mosto from albariza soil, on many samples, weighed between September nth and soth, to have a specific gravity of 13 B. All these mostos, as well as the mostos of mantuo castellano from barro-arena soil, fermented readily and rapidly, and in the space of ten days or so, had completely lost all sugar, and were new, dry, thoroughly fermented wines. Thus it is shown, by overwhelming evidence, that the assertion so frequently made to screen the true nature of sugared and brandied wines is untrue. Sherry wine is never sweet, except when it is expressly and intentionally sweetened by makers and exporters. Sherry is so sweetened, and coloured, and brandied, in order to cover the natural defects of the taste ; and no sherry of any claim to quality is ever sugared or coloured, because the makers know very well that pale, dry wine, with the least possible amount of alcohol, is far more valuable than the cooked and drugged, coloured sweet and hot liquids. 184. SULPHURING AZUFRADO. The wines in Jerez are all plastered. But the common wines are not only plastered, but sulphured in addition. For this purpose a complicated apparatus is employed, con- sisting of the following parts. A vat, closed on all sides, of the size of a bota, is raised upon a stand, so that its bottom is about breast-high ; to the side of this is attached a little furnace in which the sulphur matches are burned. The fumes of the sulphurous acid are conducted by a tube to the top of the vat, and then diffuse in its cavity. The WINES OF SPAIN. 2/3 mosto is kept in a reservoir under the vat, mostly buried in the ground, and is repeatedly raised to the top of the vat by means of a pump. It is spread out in the vat in the form of a fine shower by means of a rose, or sieve-like dis- tributor, and in falling becomes impregnated with the sulphurous acid. The matches which are burned are made of broad cotton bands, and the products of the imperfect combustion of these bands are, of course, also admixed with the must. The quantity of sulphur thus burned to im- pregnate each bota amounts to one-third of a pound, or more than five ounces, and this will yield more than ten ounces of the sulphurous acid gas, and ultimately nearly a pound of sulphuric acid. As the plastering introduces several pounds of sulphuric acid into each bota, it is now explained why some descriptions of sherry contain from three to five pounds of sulphuric acid. The acid introduced with the plaster is in a combined state, but that introduced by sulphuring is ultimately contained in the free state. The sulphuring process has the effect of somewhat retard- ing fermentation, in warm weather one, in cooler weather two days. The process also lasts a little longer than in must not sulphured. The freshly fermented wine has an awful smell and taste of brimstone and rotten eggs, and contains considerable quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen and other products of the reduction of sulphurous acid. The object of sulphuring is said to be to prevent the wine from running into the acetous fermentation. We believe, however, that the main effect of sulphuring the mosto is the destruction, partial or entire suffocation, of the fungus of scud or viscosity, as it is called in wine, a fungus which, when it invades fresh sweet must, destroys the sugar, and prevents true alcoholic fermentation. Incidentally the free acid of the wine is increased in quantity, and thus approaches more to the condition of unplastered mosto. It seems also that sulphured wine becomes clear more quickly than unsulphured. In return for this advantage, the sulphured wine remains in the objectionable state of contamination with sulphuretted hydrogen for a very long time; and after oxydation of this remains turbid from 2/4 A TREATISE ON WINES. finely-divided sulphur, which is removed with difficulty ouly. The sulphuring deteriorates the taste of the wine, even after complete oxidation of the sulphur to sulphuric acid, and for this reason producers and extractors never sulphur the better classes of wine, but only the low common quali- ties. 185. TEMPERATURES OF FERMENTING MUSTS. On September zist, when the temperature of the outer air was 76-5 Fahr., I ascertained the temperature of fer- menting palomino mostos to be 90 Fahr. When the casks lay in a warmer place, their temperature rose to 92 and 93 ; when in a cooler, it fell to 85. Thoroughly fermented mostos about twelve days old showed 74-5. When the casks were laid up in rows three high, called andanas, I found that the lower rows quickly assumed an even tem- perature of about 75, while the temperatures of the middle rows was about 80. The third or top rows varied between 81 and 92. The highest temperatures were found near open windows. I have no doubt that, although these botas completed their noisy fermentation on the even ground, they carried a portion of the heat acquired by fermentation up to the andana, and that the entire heat cannot be placed to the account of position. But a certain portion of the heat is, no doubt, communicated by the hotter air in the upper strata, which in the day-time rose to 97, and at night fell to 74. Now, here is the easy explanation of the obser- vation, that so much wine at Jerez and in other parts of the south passes immediately from the vinous fermentation into the acetous. The temperatures of the casks of one of the top rows observed were the following: 87, 90, 87-5, 88, 90, 88, 90, 92, 9 1 -3, 76. All these casks had just com- pleted their fermentation, and were turbid, but beginning to deposit their yeast. They were lying in warm places, and following in a certain measure the lead of external changes of temperature, and kept near their actual tempera- ture by the heat of the air in the day-time, which at this period (the middle of September) was excessive, that is to WINES OF SPAIN. 2/5 say, much higher than in ordinary years. All the casks were with vacua, that is to say, not filled by a least one-sixth of their capacity. Under these circumstances, it is, in my opinion, impossible that they should not directly suffer at least some acetous fermentation ; indeed, the wonder is, not that they form vinegar, but rather that any escape from this contamination, and remain sound wine. This stage is, indeed, the most dangerous one for Jerez wines, namely, the time from cessation of the fermentation, at which the wine has a temperature of 90 to 96 Fahr., and is turbid, to that time at which the wine has reached 75 and less, and, not being disturbed by external fluctuation of temperature, has desposited its yeast and become clear. The danger is generally diminished by the addition of spirit. But it is well known that much spirit hinders the development of wines, and has, therefore, to be avoided. Now, as by the exclusion of air in hot seasons the acetification of wine can be prevented, a great part of the necessity for adding so much spirit to wine is done away with. Consequently, the wine is in a position to become more quickly developed, and, being developed, it may be either left in its natural state or brandied for the taste of consumers desiring to have it thus treated. The fermented wine remains stacked in the andanas of the bodega until it is pretty clear of floating yeast, which is mostly in January or February. It is then racked (desliado), and some brandy is added to it. Finos receive half an arrobe per bota. Common wines receive from one to one and a-half arrobes, of 40 Cartier. On the whole it may be said that the better the wine, the less brandy is added to it. Those botas which have become bad are sent to the still, and those which are retained are marked, if they have de- veloped any specific qualities, or left unmarked if they remain doubtful and on trial. If a wine goes wrong in any of several ways, the only remedy applied to it is brandy, never any change in its other chemical or in its physical conditions. 2/6 A TREATISE ON WINES. 1 86. STAGES OF WINE, AND QUALITIES. Mosto is not only the freshly pressed juice of the grapes, but the name is retained for all fermented wine up to the time of the first spring racking. Vino d'un anno is wine which approaches or has passed the age of one year. Quantities of wine of this quality are generally termed anadas. A regular heavy Jerez wine from albariza soil remains, as a rule, in an unripe state for several years, and then gradually becomes fino. It remains so from the 5th to the 8th year, and then may pass into amontillado ; when continued in open casks, and allowed to develope, it re- mains in this state from the Qth to the i4th year, and then passes into oloroso ; this condition lasts from the i5th to the 2oth year, whereupon the wine becomes secco ; this is, properly speaking, a passed wine, all its qualities are ex- hausted and gone : it is more properly termed passado. In other parts of Spain very old secco is sometimes called rancio, but in Jerez this word is not used in the same sense, but signifies a rancid, bad, sour, and mousy wine. From stout fino all subsequent qualities may be obtained directly by accidental development. The wine, as it were, skips a stage or two, and becomes either oloroso or secco, without having been in the amontillado stage at all. When distinguished according to quality simply, wines give rise to the following names : Palma. The fine, dry, wines in the second and third year are thus called. They may yield amontillado in time. Some extractors say that- the amontillado obtainable from palma is thin, and never becomes oloroso. Others mark the amontillado by the sign of the palma. Double palma signifies the same general qualities as the former, but more general and ripe. Treble palma is the highest intensity of this modification, essence of amontillado. Palo cortado, the broken stick, or cut stick, the mysterious sign for oloroso. Double palo cortado> a better wine than the former. WINES OF SPAIN. 2?/ Treble palo, the highest perfection of oloroso, " Oloroso muy viejo." Some place the oloroso before the palma as to quality. Probably the palma speaks more to the taste, the palo cor- tado to the nose. Out of a large number of butts of wine from the same vintage and vineyard, only a small number develope into any of the above qualities. The largest quantity remains Raya, or rayea, the third quality of wine. This in its natural state is sound and dry, but without prominent qualities. Perhaps three-quarters of all albariza sherry is raya. It is the bulk of the sherries exported to and drunk in England. This quality (raya pnmera) resembles in colour and dryness, but does not equal in merit, old secco. Dos rayas is a common wine, not clean, but affected with some fault or other. Tres rayas signify wine which nobody will buy refuse. Thus it will be seen that with raya the multiplication of the sign goes along with the increase of badness, while with palma and palo cortado the multiplication signifies increase of good qualities. Vinagre, wine which is more or less affected by acetous fermentation. The sign of a grating signifies wine destined for the distillery. The foregoing distinctions yield nine different qualities of wine. Of all wine produced in Jerez only a small propor- tion reaches the highest quality, and it was the opinion of one of the first extractors that there were not 200 butts oi treble palo in Jerez at the time of my visit. These signs and distinctions are mainly used by the extractors for their guidance in buying, and during maturing, and are not generally applied to wines as shipped. 187. THE CRIADERA. THE SOLERA. This name signifies a kind of nursery, in which wines are placed which have already arrived at a certain quality in the partido. The partido is the entire " parcel ; " that is 2/8 A TREATISE ON WINES. to say, the total number of casks of one vintage from one particular vineyard. When this partido has been dissolved into its separate qualities, either by the proprietor or pur- chaser, these qualities are now added to other quantities of similar quality, or are simply laid by their side to undergo their probation. We will assume a hundred botas of palma to have been selected from ten different partidos. The hundred casks may all develop equally, or all unequally, or only a number may take the normal development ; the others may go back before having their character perma- nently determined. This result is attained and observed in tfie criadera. The name is derived from the idea that the wine while thus situated grows. The extractors say that they grow the wine, which has to be interpreted, that they stand by while the wine undergoes its changes for better or for worse, and observe and register these changes from time to time. If the wine shows signs of an unfavourable kind it is treated with some spirits, but no other application or regimen is applied to it. When wine in the criadera has attained certain desired qualities it is either arrested in its career and prevented from changing any further by receiving its full complement of spirits, or it is taken to the soleras. A number of botas, which are kept together, and as far as possible supplied with wine of similar character, are termed a solera. This institution has for its object to enable the extractor to supply constantly good wine of the same general quality, or, at all events, wine which differs no more in the variation of years and seasons than can be disguised by careful mixing. If, therefore, a solera, say of amontillado, consists of sixty butts, and the sales of the extractor have diminished their contents to one-half, then he has to supply thirty butts to make up his solera. These he must obtain either from his own criadera or from that of others. Now suppose that in the criadera of a hundred butts of palma assumed in the previous paragraph, thirty had turned into amontillado, then the extractor would probably dis- tribute these thirty butts over his solera of sixty butts, and have it complete; but if he obtained only ten butts of amontillado in his criadera he would distribute these ten WINES OF SPAIN. 2/9 over his entire solera, and the butts of the solera would contain a void of one-third of their capacity. On the con- trary, if the extractor were to sell thirty botas of his solera, consisting of sixty, he would not sell half the number of his casks ; but he would draw from each of the casks half a bota, arrobe by arrobe, and distribute them equally over the botas about to be sold. The criadera, therefore, and, still more, the solera, in one sense, destroys all individuality of wine as to origin and year. When large soleras have to be made up from numerous small partidos, they represent, of course, a mixture of an infinite variety of wines ; and old soleras represent a mixture of small residues from a great number of years, the latest addition being probably the largest in quantity. All the deposits which the wine forms while in the soleras are, in the practice of some extractors, left in the butts. I was informed by an extractor that he once bought the entire and only solera, consisting of 1,000 butts, of an old Cadiz house, who made only one quality of wine. Each cask contained about four gallons of black deposit, which was carefully moved with the wine when it was taken to Jerez. These deposits must not be of yeast, or they will be injurious. Later deposits are said to im- prove the wine, and the stirring up of olfl deposits in soleras, e.g., during the addition of wine from the criadera, has a tendency to clear the wine. So say some extractors. Others have no belief in these deposits; they mostly consist of drowned mycoderma vini, and their significance as such must be nil, because they are dead, and unable to effect the change ascribed to the living ferment. 1 88. COLOURS OF SHERRIES ARROPE, COLOR OR VINO DE COLOR, DULCE. All young sherry wines which are produced from sound grapes are very slightly coloured greenish-yellow. With advancing age they get a little more yellow, but the fines and amontillados are, on the whole, pale, and it is only the olorosos which become as dark as amber. The seccos are amber to brownish. I assume all such wines to be genuine 280 A TREATISE ON WINES. dry, free from sugar and boiled mosto. Now, as colour in good wine is an undoubted sign of age (colour in young wine indicates that there were rotten grapes employed amongst others), and as many people believe that age is the highest quality to be desired in wine, the greater part of the occupation of the Jerez wine trade consists in imparting to young common wines a sham colour, by means of which it may pass as aged. But as, happily, the finos, amontillados, and olorosos are highly valued in the pure state, they are scarcely ever coloured by extractors who understand their business. The Englishman of position drinks raya, of ten or twelve years of age, and it is to the imitation of this that many efforts are directed. In this process the following agents are employed. The plastered must, as it runs from the press, is boiled in a large copper, which is mostly fixed in a building in the vineyard. While boiling it is constantly skimmed, and the impurities and syrup adhering are thrown with the refuse, to be fermented and distilled. Seventy-six arrobas of mosto, fresh from the press, yield ultimately, by evaporation, seven and a half arrobas of skimmings, and fifteen arrobas of arrope. When five butts have been reduced to one, which takes from fou teerf to eighteen hours, the mass is constantly kept stirred to prevent burning at the bottom of the copper, and promote evaporation. It is now a dark brown or reddish syrup, in thin layers. The colour is due to caramel, produced by the united action of heat and acid. Its taste is partially aromatic, partially bitter and nasty, owing to the concentrated mass of sulphate of potash which it contains, as the result of plastering. It is sometimes so acrid as to blister the tongue of delicate persons who taste it. The arrope is not used by itself without preparation, but is always transformed into a dilute menstruum. To one bota of common wine about eleven gallons of arrope and a quantity of spirit are added and dissolved by agitation. By adding varying quantities of this colour to other wine the shades are produced. Brown sherry receives about 25 gallons of this vino de color to the bota. The pale brown (sometimes also termed pale) receives about WINES OF SPAIN. 28 1 20 gallons. A butt of golden sherry requires 15 to 17 gallons of vino de color ; and the least coloured, called pale (i.e., golden), receives 7 gallons of colour. It is perhaps due to this large addition of colour and of boiled matter in the shape of vino de color, that this " golden " sherry can be shipped with about 34 per cent, of proof spirits, while " pale " sherry, with the smallest amount of colour, is said to require 40 per cent, to 42 per cent, proof spirit. In exceptional cases vino de color is made by boiling mosto down to one-third, and adding spirit to the coloured liquid. All vino de color, and wine made with its aid, fluoresces green. This is easily observed when the wine is exposed to the direct rays of the sun in an otherwise dark place. Natural wine never fluoresces in this manner, but requires a cone of concentrated sunlight for showing fluorescence ; then it is pale green, nearly white, whereas that of color is green. Natural good wine has a mild sweetish taste, without containing sugar. But common wines have no such taste, and are therefore mixed with sugar. The most genuine sweetening material is mosto preserved in spirit, termed dulce. To produce the best dulce, either Pedro Ximenes, the sweetest of grapes, or palomino, is selected. The grapes are exposed to the sun until they begin to shrivel, and then they are trodden and pressed. I examined a mosto made from palomino assoleadas, that is grapes which had been strongly passulated in the sun, and found its specific gravity to be 22 Baume. The first and later runnings, when the grapes had been more crushed, had the same specific gravity, although the men working the press believed that the many raisins contained in the grapes would make the mostos heavier. The sugar of true raisins is never extracted by mosto in the short time during which this is in contact with them. Therefore, unless raisins are picked out from amongst the plump grapes, and treated separately, they are lost in the murk. Murk from which mosto for dulce has been pressed, is treated with water and pressed in an 282 A TREATISE ON WINES. hydraulic press, and then yields a mosto of full 15 B. But this is not of good taste, and goes to the refuse vats to be distilled after fermentation. The sweet thick mosto to be made into dulce is mixed with one-fifth of its bulk of spirit of 40 Cartier strength, so that a bota of dulce consists of 24 arrobas of mosto and 6 arrobas of spirit. According to my observation it has then from 8-5 to 9 B. specific gravity. It is not subject to fermentation, but forms a deposit ; and when decanted from this becomes clear, amalgamated, and a little darker by age. Old dulce (dulce muy viejo) is frequently drunk as a liqueur, and the working men take a glass of it the first thing in the morning, a practice which they call tomar la manana. By the addition of such dulce, the various kinds of mixed sherry receive their sweetness. No sherry of any kind contains a sufficient amount of sugar to have a sweet taste of itself. In fact, all wine in Jerez which has fermented is perfectly dry and free from sugary taste. Grapes not passulated by assolation yield always a mosto, which fer- ments perfectly, and never any sweet wine. Mostos of as much as 22 B. require twenty per cent, of strongest alcohol to be protected from fermentation. The ordinary sherries receive of such dulce as much as may be required by the taste of the customer. It is found by chemical analysis that the sugar thus imparted to wine amounts to from one to four per cent, of the total weight of the wine. In some bodegas the common dulces are kept in closed casks in the open air, in order to let them be heated by the sun. Much colouring and sweetening material is now made from cane-sugar, and is preferable to the arrope, as it is not saturated with sulphate of potash. The sugar, when mixed with wine, is quickly transformed into grape-sugar, and the caramel is identical with that of the arrope. I here summarize once more what I have already partly discussed in connection with mosto, namely, the obser- vation on the vacua in botas as affecting wines. The casks containing the wine are at no time filled up to their bung- hole, but there is always an empty space left, to which the air has free access. This space is called vacio. The wine WINES OF SPAIN. 283 is allowed to ferment in seasoned botas, of from 37 to 38 arrobes, and in these a vacio of from 5 to 6 arrobes is customary, so that after two gallons of lees are abstracted and a little brandy added, a full bota of clear wine may be obtained after the first racking. In butts of 30 arrobes the vacio amounts to from 3 to 4^ arrobes. This empty space causes the wine to offer a great surface to the action of the air ; the surface favours all kind of change, the best and the worst, according to the external temperature. In warm weather, the mycoderma vini is quickly developed, also the mycoderma aceti> and the wine changes with great rapidity from fino to vinegar, to mousetaste, to basto, or amon- tillado. All these varieties are observed side by side, or one above the other, in the same lot of originally identical qualities of wine. This vacio, together with the changeable temperature of the bodegas, is the great danger of Jerez wines. No doubt by its means these wines mature quicker in a low temperature, though even here it is dangerous, as we know, from the Arbois vaults. But in hot weather the wines go quickly to their ruin if not suffocated by and pickled in brandy. It would, therefore, probably be advisable that the practice of the vacio, at least in summer time, should be abolished, and only be adopted during the time from October to March. 189. EVAPORATION OF WINE FROM CASKS. FLOR. All wines kept in wooden casks diminish in quantity by evaporation, partly through the wood, partly through the corks and the bunghole. Young wines lose less than old ones. The former are estimated to diminish by 2^ per cent, the latter by 3 per cent, per annum. Some extractors maintain that all wines become stronger in alcohol by- keeping, but I am not aware that this has been proved by reliable experiment. With'the expression Flor the extractors signalize the whitish fungus which grows on the surface of wine; the Germans term it Kahn ; botanists give it the name of Mycoderma vini. In November, 1871, all the wine of that year which 284 A TREATISE ON WINES. I examined (and I examined many hundreds of botas) was covered with this mould. On expressing my astonishment to the extractors that they allowed their wines to lie with a vacio and to be covered with this mould, they admitted that it was an unfavourable feature if the flor appeared on mosto or young wine yet on the first lees ; but they said they liked the flor on wine after the first racking, or on the anadas, or wine in criaderas and soleras. They said that wine, other- wise sound and growing flor, developed best. It is not easy to understand why, or how the fungus should be unfavourable at one and advantageous at another time. Flor is most commonly associated with the amontillado development, rarely with the oloroso stage. But I have also seen it together with mouse and other nasty tastes, and spoiled wine. But this might be defined as a case of mixed ferments ; the effect of the flor was spoiled or neutralized by collateral objectionable ferments. The German wine- makers consider kahn their greatest enemy, and carefully prevent its formation. All countries producing red wines avoid its formation on these wines, as it completely spoils their purity and high taste. Only at Arbois, in the Jura, is wine allowed to be covered with mycoderma vini, as we know from Pasteur's description. This chemist also made it probable that the flor absorbed oxygen from the air, and gave it to the wine, but not so as to form vinegar. This latter function he attributes to the vinegar plant, or mycoderma aceti, which he found frequently mixed with the wine-plant, and observed also that it displaced and drowned the wine-fungus. At Arbois the wine is kept in cold, deep cellars, with vacios in the casks, which are never filled up. The moulds are never removed. Many casks of wine perish by becoming vinegar ; some, however, assume an admirable development. This quality is said to stand in a direct proportion to the development of flor. But here the proof of the flor causing the good development is also wanting. On the whole this subject requires a scientific investigation. WINES OF SPAIN. 285 190. SCUDDINESS, VISCOSITY, NUBE AND OTHER DISEASES OF WINE. - A white pertinacious turbidity of wine is called scuddinesSy. and the matter causing the appearance, scud. It is not necessary that the matter should be in the shape of clouds (nube) when the liquid is moved in a glass ; but this kind of scud is the most unfavourable. Most of these turbid con- ditions of sherry cannot be removed except after the addition of large quantities of brandy. Indeed, scud is the main cause of the brandying of wine. No other wines being sub- ject to such pertinacious turbidity as sherry, I made a special study of this matter, and found that the extractors comprise under the one name scud a considerable variety of con- ditions of turbidity. I distinguished the following varieties : The albuminous scud. This is due to suspended albuminous matter in a fine state of division, and occurs after fining with white of egg. Removable by Spanish earth. The bacteria and vibriones scud. This arises in new wine of feeble alcoholicity, and is counteracted by sulphuring. This is the most dangerous scud, as it leaves indelible traces of its presence in the wine, and is itself difficult to remove. The tartrate of calcium scud. This is the whitest scud, and deposits gradually as a white deposit, but a cask of wine affected with it would perhaps not become entirely clear before some years. The sulphide of potassium scud. This is caused by the sulphate becoming reduced in the wine in the absence of oxygen, and the production of peculiar sulphur compounds. The reduced sulphur scud. This is caused by the reduc- tion of sulphurous acid in sulphured wines. Sulphuretted hydrogen is first formed, and causes the wine to stink horri- bly ; then this gas is gradually oxidized and deposits finely- divided sulphur, which is one of the most difficult turbidities- to remove. This scud is regularly found in all Portuguese white (and not rarely red) wines during their first year, and sometimes does not disappear until the third year, or some time after all the sulphuretted hydrogen has been oxidized,. 286 A TREATISE ON WINES. and all sulphurous acid has been oxidized or otherwise decomposed. While the albuminous and vibrionic scuddiness are re- movable by ordinary reasonable treatment and fining, the tartrate of calcium and sulphate of potassium scuds are the result of plastering, and most difficult to remove without brandy. The reduced sulphur scud, and the stinking quali- ties of wines, are the products of the sulphuring which some wine-makers adopt to protect their wine from acetification, or to give it more acidity, if that should be required. 191. FININGS. Animal Charcoal. Much turbid and putrid evil smelling wine is treated at Jerez with animal charcoal. There are, indeed, extractors who use charcoal as the sovereign remedy for all evils. Putrid and evil smells can be removed from spoiled wines by charcoal, but the clearing such wines is only a temporary success. The wine dissolves phosphate of calcium out of the charcoal, and this is deposited from the wine subsequently in minute quantities and reproduces the turbidity. Much wine is fined with blood, which is put warm into the bota. The albumen precipitated by the alcohol causes the turbidity to be enveloped, and drags it to the ground. Jullien's powder consists of dried blood. Blood mostly leaves a little hematin in the wine, and makes it darker. It also leaves some acid albumen and the salts in the wine, not rarely also the particular smell which is peculiar to the blood of all animals. Meat is also used for fining wines; slices of steak are merely hung up in the wine, and their albumen is extracted, and causes a precipitate. Most commonly albumen from eggs is used for fining the brandied wines. Fifteen to twenty whites, together with a quantity of common salt, are put into a bota and stirred. After that a quantity of Spanish earth, in the condition of a smooth thin paste, is added and stirred. The mixture is -allowed to stand, and the wine becomes clear. In this case, WINES OF SPAIN. 287 also, the formation of a heavier and copious precipitate drags down the lighter slight impurity called scud. Milk, so fre- quently used in this country for clarifying sherry, is not used at Jerez. In general, the difficulty of clarifying Jerez wines per- manently is very great, and is said to be the principal reason for the addition of so much brandy to wine as we observe in it. 192. TINAJAS. CASKS. The wines of all southern provinces of Spain, particularly those of Montilla, used formerly to be made and kept in tinajas^ buried in the ground of the bodega. The tinajas were either large earthenware vessels, containing about a hogshead each, or they were constructed of bricks and cement. I have seen both forms in the Jerez district, and believe them to have been here also the general receptacles. In a vineyard I saw a large tinaja used as a dog-kennel ; and in a shed at San Lucar I saw several tinajas of brick and cement, holding six botas each, in a disused but hardly dilapidated state. The dangers of these vessels are well represented in the legend about Don 's Sheep. Don was a celebrated producer or extractor of wine at Montilla. His reputation grew, it is said, out of one par- ticular tinaja, and the beginning of the rise was marked by the disappearance of a family sheep, a merino ram. After the lapse of years the celebrated tinaja which had made the fortune of the house, had at last to be cleared out, and in its muddy deposit were found the fleece and skeleton of the unlucky carnero. It is said that, in imitation of this remark- able event (a discovery without intention), the montillanos to this day are in the habit of putting the entrails of sheep into their wine. But whether this is true or not I cannot say from my own experience ; I know, however, that sheep's blood, and that in a warm state, is often put into these wines. We are now in a position to appreciate why botas and bodegas do not fit one another. In olden times wines were 1 288 A TREATISE ON WINES. kept in tinajas, underground, which, in a covered space, is virtually in a cellar. When tinajas were discarded and botas adopted, burying was discontinued. The necessity of providing for export and transport antiquated tinajas; but the bota exposed wine more to the influence of heat and air. It is curious to speculate what anxiety this change must have given to the producers. But the enormous con- venience of the wooden cask conquered the tinajas and their security. Now, the necessity for security must send the botas underground, and they will therefore have to go, not into the bare earth, where the tinajas were, but into vaults, to remain accessible and movable. Jerez casks are mostly made of Memel oak staves, and of Canadian oak staves. One bota now costs 9 dols., equal to 36*. ; but in productive years the price sometimes rises to 15 dols. and 16 dols. i cask 5 dols. = 2os. 1 3 = 12* T 2 ii - 8j. barrille (^arrobas) 8s. 2 arrobas 55-. i arroba $s. The practice as regards the treatment of new casks differs greatly. Some cause the casks to be burned inside when the staves are being bent, but do not steam the casks. Some extractors, possessed of steam-boilers and every neces- sary apparatus, have abandoned the practice of steaming casks, as either unnecessary or hurtful to the wood. Other extractors do not burn, but steam the casks. A third series of houses both burn and steam their casks. All these gentlemen, however, agree in soaking the inside of their casks with water for a very long time, and frequently re- newing this water, until it remains both colourless and taste- less. The new wine, of good quality, is here mostly fermented in old casks, which are retained in the bodega and never sold. But the rich proprietors lend new casks to less for- tunate producers, to ferment their wine in ; after the spring WINES OF SPAIN. 289 racking and sale the seasoned casks go back to the pro- prietors. ' 193. BODEGAS AND WANT OF CELLARS. A cellar is an apartment underground, so constructed as to withdraw its atmosphere from the fluctuations of tem- perature of the external air. The necessity for such apart- ments is felt more by the inhabitants of rigorous climates, with severe winter frosts, than by those of southern countries with mild winters. Accordingly the knowledge and practice of building cellars is more developed in the north than in the south of Europe. Cellars have been most developed in their application to beer and effervescent wines, so that the best are met with in Bavaria and the Champagne. In Bavaria they fulfil a twofold purpose. The beer is fermented as well as preserved in them after fermentation. Owing to the low temperature the fermentation is slow ; it need not be quick, as exposure to the air does not injure the beer at that low temperature. But the exposure to air has the advantage of ripening the beer by oxidizing and precipitating the dissolved albuminous matters. For these reasons the thin or light Bava- rian beer keeps better than stronger beer prepared by ordinary hot fermentation, when both are similarly exposed to air and heat. The cellars of the Champagne country are not so much used for fermenting the must as for fermenting the wine a second time after it is drawn into bottles to give it the mousse. This fermentation might take place in any apart- ment above ground, and for it the cellar is not absolutely requisite. But the equable temperature of the cellar is re- quired for the deposition of the yeast formed in the bottles ; in other words for the perfect clearing of the effervescent wine. In Jerez, and generally in the south of Spain and Portugal, there are no cellars such as I have defined above. The wines are always made, fermented, and kept in buildings above ground constructed for the purpose, and termed bodegas in Portuguese, adegas. These structures are fre- quently of very large size and rather lofty, but they have 2pO . A TREATISE ON WINES. many windows and doors, and their roofs are made of two layers of tiles, resting upon wooden rafters. The tiles next to the wood are flat, like large bricks ; the tiles facing the sky, however, are corrugated, and so laid as to form parallel ridges and furrows. The two layers are fixed upon each other with mortar. Now, this roof conducts the heat of the sun with great facility, and radiates it easily into the space of the bodega. The bodegas, therefore, are very hot indeed ; during the daytime their oppressive condition is only miti- gated a little by draughts of air. In the night they become cool again. The wines in the botas follow all these changes within certain limits. They become cool at night, warm in the day though they never reach the extremes of the air. The botas which lie highest on the andana which may form the third or fourth tier from the ground, are the most affected : those in the second tier less, and so on to those on the ground, which are the steadiest in their temperature. Those botas also which lie near apertures and windows are liable to great changes of temperature. Accordingly, it is often found that the upper tiers contain the greatest and the lower tiers the smallest proportion of spoiled wine. Botas near windows are frequently spoiled, and all this is just as it ought to be. Scud, mousetaste, and vinegar threaten constantly every bota. With anxious mien the capataz tastes the wines and marks the changes. This basto of to-day was new amontillado a week ago ; these fines are all in danger of becoming vinegar. He snakes his head while observing all, and cannot alter it ; he does not know the reasons for these ruinous changes ; he consoles himself with the few palmas which he can inscribe here and there, puts brandy over the heads of the naughty children, and condemns the worst of them to the still. But he has no power over the changes of his wines, either for good or evil, simply because he cannot regulate their relation to air and temperature, and such regulation he cannot possibly effect because he has no cellar. It is unquestionable that the great mass of Jerez wines is greatly deteriorated, some even ruined, owing to the absence of cellars. I need hardly include in this category of ruined wines, those which require and receive brandy for WINES OF SPAIN. 291 being preserved from Rectification and fermentation, in order to prove my proposition, but everybody admits that brandy deteriorates wines, more particularly those of good quality, and therefore the fact of wine having been brandied is sup- pressed and disguised by every possible means. How different would be the case if the Jerezanos were possessed of proper underground cellars, where their products might be maintained at the average temperature of the earth in that region. I ascertained what that temperature is in the usual manner, by taking on October 3rd the temperature of three deep wells : Pozo in a cooperage 64073 F. Ditto en casa de Don N. ' 64033 F. Ditto en casa de Don M 64 33 F. Consequently a good underground cellar in Jerez ought to have the average temperature of 645, with a very light increase in summer, owing to the heat radiated into it by windows and doors. But never would the temperature reach 70, or fluctuate between 70 and 85, as I have observed it to fluctuate in bodegas in September. The temperature in those buildings must be very high in summer, but had never been ascertained by the thermometer. In such cellars the Jerez wine would undergo a perfectly normal developement. It would ferment thoroughly, would not be liable to the acetous or mousy change, and would be- come clean in a short time. It might be left to develop with the vacio, for at the low temperature the contact with air would be hardly dangerous, probably beneficial. It would probably be always beneficial, for as all betas would be under identical conditions, they could not fail of producing iden- tical results. In any case, I am conviced that with cellars the Jerezanos would produce 90 per cent, of fine wine, where now they produce 10 per cent. To this some of the ex- tractors have objected that if they were to change their style of growing the wine ("growing" is here used as an active verb by the extractors, who also speak of " rearing " and "edu- cating," whereas their only action consists in standing by and seeing the wine behave and misbehave, " kick," and mark the 2Q2 A TREATISE ON WINES. result with chalk upon the barrel), they ran the risk of failing to> produce any of those very fine qualities which constituted their reputation and main profit, and of depressing their wines to one common low level. To this the answer was that the mass of their wines was at a very low level indeed, that half their wine had to be exported at ^15 per bota, and that ^30 per bota was a high average to assume for the total export, and that of fine wine at^ioo, about which so much boast was made, not two hundred betas were annually exported from Jerez. That the loss of these very high wines, if it were a necessary consequence, which I by no means admitted, of a change of vinification, would be very small compared to the loss the enormous loss inflicted upon the average wines by the faulty condition of the bodegas ; for as an example it was notorious in the fortnight following the harvest of 1871 all wines suffered an immense depreciation owing to the great heat, which caused them, yet hot from an active fermentation, to pass at once into the acetous fermen- tation, (the loss in money value which the Jerezanos suffered during that fortnight was something like a quarter of a million of pounds sterling). If these wines had fermented in cellars, or had been put into cellars after their fermentation, this deterioration could not have occured, and the cellars would in one fortnight have repaid the cost of their construction. This is a matter entirely apart from the question of the vacio. To prevent misunderstanding, I point out that I am quite convinced that wines ripen quicker with the aid of the vacio than without that wines ripen quicker in warm air than in cooler air. But warm air and vacio together force the wine to go wrong, and compel the addition of brandy. Warmth without the vacio does not easily spoil wine, and vacio without warmth is a safe condition for Jerez wine. Therefore, the Jerezanos, by transferring their wines to cellars, would only insure themselves from loss, although their wines, if left altogether in the cellars, would ripen a little more slowly than in the bodegas. But what would compel them to leave their wines always in the cellars ? Having got them clear and cool, having timed them over the dangers of great autumnal and summer heat, what WINES OF SPAIN. 293 would prevent them from placing the wines in the bodegas for the temperate months of the year, October to April ? Why should they not in this respect do as the Champagne makers do, transport their wines to that cave which is most suitable to their then condition ? Surely, to introduce the conditions of certainty into these operations is a desirable thing, and not an innovation to be dreaded, and it can by no means alter the character of their wine except for the better, and, therefore, can affect their trade only in the sense of expansion. 194. NOTES ON THE HISTORY OF VITICULTURE AND OF THE TRADE IN WINE AT JEREZ. It is probable that viticulture in Jerez is not of very great antiquity. In Roman times no wine seems to have been made there, while the provinces of Catalonia and Valencia produced plenty. The first reliable historic evidence of the existence of vineyards at Jerez dates from the year 1268, when Alonzo el Sabio, after having defeated the Moors, rewarded forty of his knights by giving to each of them vineyards in bearing, as the document of donation preserved in the archives of the municipality at Jerez has it "sex aranzadas de vina" and land on which they might plant vines " sex aranzadas de tierra para majuelo." It does not appear in which district these vineyards were situated, but an Arabic document, a diary of the field operations of the Moorish army, published by the Royal Academy of History, recites that in 1285, when General Jusuf laid siege to Jerez, he encamped the body of his army between the river Guadalete and the town, in vineyards and gardens. This is the place where up to this day we find the greater number of Jerez gardens, and a great number of vineyards. The army was ordered to cut down the vines in the vine- yard during the fourth, fifth, and sixth days of May, in order to clear the fields for the encampment, from which we may conclude that the vineyards had considerable extension. The vineyards presented to the knights in 1268 amounted to 240 aranzadas, and if they had planted their fields, might 2Q4 A TREATISE ON WINES. have risen in 1285 to double that number. Probably there were other proprietors besides these knights. The vines which the Moorish general ordered to be destroyed were in the shape of cepas, the low stocks at present in use, and parras, or vines nailed up to walls and espaliers, with which the properties were surrounded. From those times dates a Castilian proverb, which is said to have originated as follows : Diego Perez de Vargas was pruning his vines,, when the King Alonzo el Sabio happened to come by, and entering the vineyard began to collect the cut-off branches. On Vargas expressing his astonishment, the King is said to have replied, "a tal podador, tal sarmenta- dor," meaning that the labourer was by no means too good for the bricklayer, in this case. In the fourteenth century, the Jerez vineyards seem to have been neglected, mainly in consequence of epidemics of pestilence ; in 1402, Enrique III. expressly forbade their destruction by the proprietors. But after that the cultivation of the vine took a fresh start, and in 1431, when the inhabitants of Jerez and Puerto de Sa Maria agreed upon the boundaries of their relative communes, and recorded them in documents, they men- tioned the enclosures of the vineyards of Barbaina and of La Gallega. In the fifteenth century vineyards were also fully esta- blished at San Lucar, and in a manuscript from that period, preserved in Madrid, it is related that they were dug round in March. The Jerez wine of the fifteenth century, which was the most esteemed, was red wine ; for on September i3th, 1410, the town council of Jerez, desirous of making an important present (un presente grande) to Alonzo Nunez de Villavi- cencio, the Alcade Mayor of Jerez, who was then assisting at the siege of Antiquera, sent him ten arrobas of the best red wine. In 1456, the town council, in expectation of the visit of Enrique IV. to their town, ordered that all persons who had wine to sell, should sell the best of red, as well as white, at the price of six maravedis the azumbre. Nowadays, says a modern writer, " the mode of making red wine is no longer known at Jerez ; and the wants of its population and WINES OF SPAIN. 295 its traders are supplied by the viticulturists of Valencia, Catalufia, and La Mancha. The maravedi of the fifteenth century is supposed to be equivalent to fifteen maravedis in the present day ; consequently the arroba of wine was fixed in 1456, at a little more than 21 reals; the bota of 30 arrobas, therefore, at 42 pesos (a peso being the imaginary unit by which all wine in Jerez is bought and sold, equal to 15 reals). This price is almost the same as in the present day. In 1479 tne harvest failed, owing to rains in May and continuous Levantes and great heat, and the azumbre of wine rose to 40 maravedis, which is equal to more than 141 reals the arroba, and 282 pesos the bota. Such prices were, in subsequent years, only realized once, namely in 1863, when all extractors believed the Millennium had begun. 195. VINEYARDS OF SAN LUCAR DE BARRAMEDA. The situation and extent of the vineyards of San Lucar is best appreciated by an inspection of the map of Consul Suter. They are mainly situated upon albariza hills, and are worked upon the same principles as the Jerez vineyards. But at San Lucar all vineyard labours throughout the year are performed a fortnight earlier than at Jerez. The vintage is in the beginning of September, when the grapes are in a much less ripe state than that in which a fortnight later they are harvested at Jerez. This is probably caused by the proximity of the sea, which in September brings rains and winds, both of which are destructive of ripe and over- ripe grapes. The wines are mostly " listanes," the same as those which at Jerez are termed palominos. Vinification is the same as at Jerez ; plastering, vino de color, dulce, and brandy are used to make up the semblance of sherry. But there is a speciality produced at San Lucar, which may be termed the parallel to the Jerez amontillado, namely, the so-called manzanilla de San Lucar. This wine has a particularly nice, though thin flavour, while young; with age it becomes very dry, and somewhat bitter. It has the character of all wines made from somewhat under-ripe 296 A TREATISE ON WINES. grapes, and becomes fassado at less than one-third of the age of genuine sherries. It should always be termed "manzanilla de San Lucar" in full, to distinguish it from the wines of Manzanilla, an important viticultural district not far from Seville. The production and trade of San Lucar are in the hands of growers or cosecheros, holders, or almacenistas, and extractores, or shippers, as at Jerez. In the viticultural pagos of El Merino on the east, and La Malaya on the west of the new road from Jerez the vine- yard labours begin immediately after the harvest. The vines are kept even lower on the ground than at Jerez. Close to San Lucar are orange-groves of great beauty. In San Lucar I visited several bodegas, among others that of an old gentleman who was supposed to possess the oldest wine in the place. I heard him relate that in 1804 he had in his bodega three botas of vino de color, which were, to his knowledge, at least twenty years old. These three botas had since then, by simple evaporation, become concentrated to one. It was sold in my presence for ninety pounds sterling. I looked upon this so-called wine as merely a pickle of sulphate of potash, caramel, and spirit, from which the soul of wine had fled ages ago. In the same old bodega in which this relic was kept I also observed some of the underground tinajas of 130 arrobas, or six botas capacity each, executed in brickwork, which in former ages used to receive the wine. They had evidently been disused for generations, and now served as the playground of a nu- merous colony of rats. Fine Manzanilla de San Lucar, ten years old, will obtain a price in. loco of 300 pesos, equal to ^45 per bota. Good wine, three years old, will sell at 140 pesos, or ^21, per butt. On the whole, the San Lucar wines on an average command less than half the average price of Jerez wines. The wines in the bodegas are not highly brandied, but they do not come to England in that state. They are always suffocated in spirit before shipment. WINES OF SPAIN. 297 196. THE ALGAIDA AND ITS INDIGENOUS VINES. The Algaida is a forest of about 9,000 aranzadas in ex- tent, on the south bank of the Guadalquivir, to the east of San Lucar. It is reached by a long journey, along the sandy and marshy banks of the river, through fields and forests, and over uncultivated plains of vast extent. It is surrounded by swamps (tnarismas) and during the rainy season is itself inundated to a great extent. The soil consists partly of clay, partly of sand, and in many parts it contains deserts of pure sand. It is planted mainly with the sea-pine (Pinus maritima), but contains also groups of the silvery elm, and large tracts are covered with shrubs of lentiscus. Almost its entire border, and many large and small open spaces in its interior, are lined with the wild vines, first described by Clemente, which were the principal object of my excursion to the spot. I was accompanied by some friends, and we engaged two foresters to guide and guard us, all being well armed. There are no roads whatever, and paths, beaten by the herds of goats of the distant villages, exist only round the circum- ference and in the shrubby parts. In walking along I soon perceived some wild vines covering an oleander bush ; further on, wild fig-bushes and trees in numbers. Then more vines, much pulled about by men and beasts. When, after a long walk, I arrived in a part where white silver-elms form a large continuous group, I found vines covering the whole of large fir-trees ; there were at the same time brambles and sarsa- parilla in blossom, creeping up shrubs and trees. From a formidable rampart of brambles, covered with vines, one of my companions fetched some vine branches upon which were (on October i3th) eight bunches of blossoms. By this means I was enabled immediately to diagnose and to demonstrate, that these garanonas, as the Spaniards term the wild vines, are really indigenous wild plants, and not stray children of vineyards; for all the flowers had the stamina recurvata, which we know to be the characteristic of the female type of the dioecic wild vine, and no erect stamina; and the recurvation was so strong and typical 298 A TREATISE ON WINES. that I observed several stamina which had grasped the little cap ordinarily pushed off the bud, and kept it closely pressed to the flower-stem. As often as I bent it back so as to cover the umbilicus, the stamen returned again with the cap, and showed its nature. Such flowers are represented in figs, i, 2, and 3, p. 6, of this treatise, and the account there given of the indigenous vines of European countries is confirmed in all essential particulars by the foregoing observation in the Algaida. Some vine leaves were red, indicating black grapes. The shepherds and goats had not left a single berry on this side of the forest. We were informed by the foresters that the shep- herds not only eat these wild grapes, but make wine from them. After a long struggle through miles of forest, brush- wood, and brambles, through sand and difficulties of every kind, I at last came to the place described by Clemente : " In this place the vines form impenetrable thickets, mag- nificent banquetting halls, most graceful pavilions, grottoes, places, covered walks, winding footpaths, crossed walks, labyrinths, walls, arches, pillars, and a thousand other original and indescribable caprices." This description, which dates from the year 1803, is literally true in the present day. From a large tree I took a vine branch fifty feet in length. Many other canes of the same size were hanging down, and forming a perfect screen, in the shade of which I rested for some time to admire the phenomenon. We then passed miles upon miles of vines ; at last we struck across the sandy interior of the side of the forest on which flows the Guadalquivir. A march of two hours through loose sand brought me to a part where all the forms of wild vines were found, round a swamp, in their most in- tense concentration. A wild fig-tree was covered with a wild vine full of grapes. They were small and black, acidu- lous, but good to eat. The vine was much affected by the oidium. The swamp gave me a good idea of the circum- stances under which the fossil vines described in the Treatise, pp. 14-15, were living. At Salzhausen, the fossil vine leaves are found together with the leaves of a fig-tree. The vines are growing in such masses in this forest, that the foresters WINES OF SPAIN. 299 estimated the quantity of wine which could be made, if all the grapes could be collected, at a hundred botas. It is probable that these garanonas have, by cultivation, yielded the black palomino, also called tempranillo of the south, identical with the graciano of the Ebro valley. The doctrine which I advocated some years ago, in a paper printed in vol. xviii., p. 109 of the "Journal of the Society of Arts,'" namely, that the peculiar wines of the great viticultural dis- tricts of Europe were derived from wild vines indigenous to these districts, and not imported into them by the agency of man, has thus obtained an important confirmation. 197. VINEYARDS OF ROTA. TINTILLA DE ROTA. *The soil of the Rota district is almost pure sand. All the celebrated Rota vegetables and fruit, as well as the tintilla, are indeed grown upon sand thrown upon the shore by the sea. The parcels of land are all surrounded by sand- walls, and these latter are fixed by stockades of reeds, the well-known canas. The parcels are mostly small, or, if large, are frequently subdivided by such reed-palings, to break the force of the wind and keep the sand in its place. The wines in the bodegas of Rota I found to be of three very different qualities. The first quality, the principal product of the vineyards of Rota, is the tintilla. This is not wine in the ordinary significance of the term, but more of a syrup, made from passulated grapes or raisins by a peculiar process. The black grapes of the tintilla vine are dried in the sun, taken off the stalks, and put into upright barrels open at the upper end. Must, which has been evaporated to the con- sistence of a fluid syrup, arrope, is now put over the raisins, and the mixture is allowed to stand and macerate, the tops of the casks being covered with mats. The raisins now become disintegrated, until the mass is like a jam. More arrope is added from time to time ; in January the mass is trodden on the lagar and pressed. The resulting thick,, dark, reddish brown liquid is the tintilla. No spirit, as I was informed, is added to it at any time, and therefore the finished tintilla, which is said not to ferment, ought not ta 300 A TREATISE ON WINES. contain any alcohol. But on tasting the product of 1870, in one of the bodegas, I found it to be in a slightly effer- vescent state, producing the well-known prickly sensation on the sides of the tongue. And on subjecting a quantity of old solera tintilla to distillation I obtained 5-89 percent, by weight of alcohol, or 12 '87 per cent, of proof spirit. Another specimen of tintilla from another bodega contained .5-6 per cent, by weight of alcohol, equal to 12 per cent, of proof spirit. It is therefore certain that the tintilla of Rota contains alcohol, and that this is probably the product of a very slow fermentation. But some vendors in this country add spirit to the tintilla and thus transform it into a brandied counter- feit. On subjecting a quantity to distillation with oxalic acid it yielded 0-228 per cent, of acetic acid, another specimen o - 2 per cent., which, considering the process by which the wine is obtained, is not excessive and not hurtful. Distilled with some caustic potash the tintilla yielded an alkaline distillate, containing ammonia and compound -ammonias, easily recognized by the peculiar and disagree- able smell. The existence of these ammonias is accounted for by the long maceration which the albuminous matters of the raisins undergo in the casks while moistened with arrope. Although the tintilla is made from black grapes, it does not contain the red or blue colouring matter of their husks, for this would require much alcohol and acid for their extraction ; as the alcohol is not added and is not produced until after the juice is separated from the husks, the colouring matter remains behind. The great amount of .sweetness and the flavour of dried grapes, together with the mass of extractives and the little alcohol in juxtaposition to the free acidity, make the tintilla an article of the class of agreeable, drinkable sweets. A bota full of the best quality costs at Rota about ^40, but the current price of the great bulk of the produce is about 20 to 24. per bota. The second product of importance of Rota is vino de color. The tinto grapes are plastered, pressed, and the white must is allowed to ferment. Another quantity of the .same white must is evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, and is added to the fermenting natural must, and the WINES OF SPAIN. 30 1 mixture completes its fermentation. Then spirit is added in larger or smaller quantities. This vino de color has a horrible taste, and is, in fact, undrinkable. Its principal, perhaps only use, is for mixing with pale country wines, to give them the external falsified resemblance to the similarly prepared brown, pale, and golden sherries. The third quality of Rota product, and the one which approaches nearest to wine, is the tinto, or tent of English authors. It is made by fermenting the juice with the husks, and thus becomes a truly red wine. I have tasted tinto thoroughly fermented, dry, free from sugar and adventitious spirit, which was really delicious, and showed what tinto- might be if properly prepared and left alone. But such is not to be, for it is not to the taste of the wine merchants, who want Rota tent with burning spirit and lots of sweet. This treatment completely ruins the peculiar fine flavour of this wine. The tinto grape of Rota therefore fares like the same grape of Tarragona. It is misused for the production- of imitations of port wine and sold to the British public as- Spanish Port. The inmates of hospitals and other charitable institutions are its principal consumers. The prices of this wine at Rota varied formerly between ^4 and ^9 per butt. As Catalonia can undersell Rota in this particular article, the manufacture of Rota has had to endure great competition, and may, perhaps, cease entirely. 198. WINES OF THE VAL DE PENAS. The wines produced in this district, mostly red, were, up to a late period of this century, preserved in hides as of old. But some enterprising wine-merchants brought casks and coopers to the Mancha, and now its wines go by rail to Cadiz, and thence come to this country. The white varieties have all been treated with gypsum, the red ones mostly, but some escape it. These wines are commendable for their generally good quality and low price. 302 A TREATISE ON WINES. 199. WINES OF CATALONIA. Catalonia yields annually 20,000 butts of wine, which is mostly red, and shipped to England as a cheap drink for the general public. The plain of Ampurdan is covered with vines, and of many other parts of this province four- fifths of all cultivated land is occupied by viticulture. Catalan wine is shipped largely also to America. 200. WINES OF VALENCIA, BENICARLO, ALICANTE. Valencia wines are perishable, and therefore have no great reputation. They are mostly grown in the plain, only small quantities on suitable hill-sides. The bulk of these wines, stated to amount to 100,000 butts annually, a figure which is probably in excess of reality, is distilled for brandy, of which 600,000 cantares, or 2, 130,000 gallons, are annually produced. Owing to the perishable nature of the wine, stocks are not kept longer than a twelvemonth. In the district of Benicarlo, a town situated about sixty miles to the north-east of Valencia, and Vinaroz, near the mouth of the Ebro, wine is made in the ordinary way, but is fortified, less for home use than for exportation. Here, also, little stock is kept, each year's produce being generally sold for exportation before the new wine is made, so that the emissary of the English Board of Trade, in 1861, could not obtain samples of natural wine from former vintages. The wine for export is brandied twice as strongly as that used in the country, namely up to thirty-two per cent, proof spirit. At Alicante, a town about ninety English miles south of Valencia, much wine is produced, both on hill sides and in the plain, from a kind of vine which occurs in a black and a white variety, and passes under the name of Alicante in the outer world, but at Alicante is termed Tintilla. It has a large loose bunch, hanging by a long stalk, which forms the axis and does not form wings or strong branches. The berries are fleshy and juicy and provided with a thin skin, and resemble much those of the black Hambro', the Tyrol vine so well known in this country. The black Alicante is immensely fertile, steady in blossom, but ripens late, so WINES OF SPAIN. 303 that it yields good wine only in the best situations even in its home. The black Alicante, and its paler variety, the red, are the vines the juice of which forms the basis of most Spanish wines. It is largely cultivated in the south of France. In the Dordogne it is termed Benicarlo; in Pro- vence, Mourvede ; on the east side of the Pyrenees, Mataro ; in some other places, Tintillo ; at Malaga, Alicante ; and at Jerez and Rota, Tintilla. The reader may find the argument for these synonyms in Odart's " Traite des Cdpages," pp. 513 and 531. The white Alicante ripens earlier than the blue, but is much less cultivated. Alicante wines also are fortified to at least thirty-two per cent, before exportation. The wines of Valencia, Benicarlo, and Alicante, being rich in colour, are made up to imitate port wine, and even the casks are made up to resemble port-pipes in size and appearance. A very large proportion of these wines finds its way to France, for the purpose of being blended with other wines which are themselves deficient in strength and colour. 201. WINES OF GRANADA, MALAGA. The wines of Granada are better known under the name of wines of Malaga, the centre of the renowned viticultural district called Axarquia. The hills bearing the vineyards consist of clay and schist, superposed on limestone. The more solid schist is termed " herizza" that which easily disintegrates " lantejuela " or "pizdrra ;" the latter forms the most suitable soil for viticulture. The climate of the district is so favourable, that the vine almost becomes a perennial evergreen, and bears three crops of grapes every year. The first harvest takes place in June, and is transformed into raisins exclusively. The second harvest takes place in Sep- tember, and yields a dry wine somewhat resembling sherry. The last vintage takes place in October and November, and gives the particular wines known as Malagas. Of Malaga wines the following varieties are distinguished, i. Pedro Ximenes, in reality a dulce. 2. Colour-wines, i.e. solutions in wine of must boiled down to brown syrup : these are used 304 A TREATISE ON WINES. to impart the amber-colour, the Pedro Ximenes to give sweetness to the Malaga wine of trade. 3. Muscatel, also a dulce, i.e., must preserved in spirit ; of this two varieties are distinguished, Malaga- Muscat, and "drip" or " tear" Mus- cat. 4. Dry wines resembling sherries, which are made up into "Malaga" as just related. 5. Malvoisie, resembling Madeira. 6. Tintos, coloured, mostly very dark, sweet and alcoholic wines. 7. Cherry wines, being liqueurs made with the juice of acid cherries, so-called morellas. The dry wine is brandied up to 37-5 per cent of proof spirit ; the sweet wines do not much surmount 30 per cent. The amount of wine annually produced in the Malaga district is 80,000 arrobas, or 2,666 butts. Of these the greater part is exported, mainly to America. Much, also, goes to England, and the wine for both countries is prepared in the same manner. 202, WINES OF ARAGON AND OTHER PROVINCES OF SPAIN, MAJORCA, MINORCA. Aragon produces dark-coloured, strong-bodied wines of good taste and flavour, from the celebrated vines, the Grenache of Sabayes and the Carinena and delivers them up to the trade of Saragossa. Navarra does not admit of much viticulture; the vineyard of Roncesvalles alone supplies a local want. Galicia produces a little good wine for exportation at Ribadavia and Tuy. In Biscaya much wine is produced for the people, but is quite unfit for exportation. New Castile, with the Mancha, produces be- sides the lightest and least-coloured but most agreeable wines of Spain, already mentioned above under Val de Penas and the muscat of luencaral, near Madrid. Near to these are the wines of the Spanish Tagus, from Arganda del Rey above Madrid to Talavera de la Reyna. Murtia produces thick rough wines, of which those of Cartagena sometimes come up to common sorts of Alicante. The island of Majorca produces a Malvasia wine, which is exported by way of Palma: and Minorca produces a dark red wine round Alcyor, which is not exported, as on WINES OF SPAIN. 305 sea it spoils in bottles and casks ; while the " alba flora," a light white wine with some bouquet, bears keeping and exportation. The wines of Spain are, on the whole, of good quality, but are easily and quickly spoiled in part by unskilful and unscientific treatment. They are subject to many accidents, caused by fungi, so-called diseases, which destroy their value; and to counteract these or their results, the pro- ducers use plaster, sulphurous acid, boiled plastered must, brandy and sweet must preserved in alcohol, so-called dulce. These admixtures, however necessary some of them may be in default of better means of preservation, are deteriorating the naturally excellent qualities of the wine. As regards plastering, some Spanish oenologists have strongly protested against the practice, and termed it an adulteration and a fraud. However this may be, the wine is deteriorated thereby, while the practice is so universal that it must have some deep reason at present unknown. It is not unlikely that it was discovered by the practice of keeping wine in underground cisterns of masonry, of which the binding and lining material is plaster of Paris. Of course the plaster itself does not dissolve in the wine, but it removes the tartaric acid, and substitutes sulphuric for it ; the sulphate of potash thus produced remains in the wine and gives it a bitter taste. When this can be once avoided by improved modes of vinification, the wines of Spain will be much better and much more valuable than they at present are. 306 A TREATISE ON WINES. CHAPTER XXIII. WINES OF PORTUGAL. 203. VINEYARDS OF THE ALTO DOURO. THE vineyards of Jerez are so beautiful and productive that they might well be termed the vineyards of Venus. Undu- lating hills, easily accessible from all sides, are covered with a luxurious growth of vines, which every September finds heavily laden with an enormous mass of luscious fruit. A poetical enthusiast might call these hills the very breasts of nature. Very different is the aspect and condition of the vineyards of the Alto Douro. Here all is rock, gorge, almost inaccessible mountain, precipice, and torrent, while over, or along, all these rude features of nature are drawn countless lines of stone walls by which man makes or sup- ports the soil in which the vines find their subsistence. When opposite Tua, I had counted 150 stone-built terraces, one above the other, covering the rock which rises almost out of the waters of the Douro, I thought that if Jerez was the vineyard of Venus, this Alto Douro vineyard must be termed the vineyard of Hercules. The vineyards of the Alto Douro may be visited from Oporto. It is convenient to travel in a hired carriage, particularly when the traveller desires to make cenological studies by the road-side. In former times when the great exodus of British merchants to the vineyards took place, the hire of a carriage and pair was, as a rule, eight pounds sterling for the single journey. This journey was often described after the manner in which the Phoenicians related the dangers of their sea-voyages ; along it were supposed to be found defiles like those of Scylla and Charybdis. My surprise was therefore agreeable when I drove to the very foot of the vineyards on a beautifully constructed macada- WINES OF PORTUGAL. 307 mized road, while the scenery during the whole journey surpassed in beauty many of the reputed great sights of Europe. Indeed, the rise from the side of Amaranthe up to the watershed of the Douro valley is not surpassed by anything I have seen in Switzerland, the Pyrenees, or the mountains in central and southern Spain. The ascent should be made on horseback, while the carriage is being drawn up by the steady bullocks, which take half the labour from the carriage-horses. 204. VINES OF THE PROVINCE ENTRE DOURO E MINHO. During the entire journey up to the water-shed the observer sees no vineyards, properly so-called, but he sees all round the houses and villages, along the roads, along the margins of woods, vines creeping up trees, and competing with their foliage for air and sunshine. I observed only black grapes on these vines, and all those which I tasted were very acid and astringent. From them is made the beverage called " green wine " (vinho verde), from its resem- blance to wine made from unripe fruit. The fruit is, in fact, unripe, and, moreover, never becomes ripe in any year, owing to its being grown high up in the air. I have not been able to ascertain what kind of grapes and wine these vines would yield if they were cultivated in good situations and low on the ground. On the whole, what I saw gave me the impression that these nondescript vines, which I also observed in forests and in woody valleys, covering shrubs and brambles, were like the vines of the Algaida, described in a former chapter, true children of the soil, indigenous plants, which, with a minimum of help on the part of man in the shape of pruning, produce an enormous quantity of harsh fruit, having the same relation in taste to the wine- berry as a crab-apple has to a fine French pippin. The vinho verde is only produced in this province of Entre Douro e Minho, and no other wine, particularly none of the quality produced in the Alto Douro, termed " vinho maduro," ripe wine, is here grown. 308 A TREATISE ON WINES. 205. SOIL OF THE ALTO DOURO DISTRICT. The river Douro, in Portugal, flows through a valley with precipitous sides, mainly formed of a clay-schist for- mation. This reposes upon or alternates with granite, and Fig- 43- Vines ascending a tree, such as produce the vinho verde in Entre Douro e Minho. the latter rock not rarely appears on the heights form- ing the water-sheds. The clay-schist forms the viticultural soil, for many reasons. It is easily broken into parallel slabs, with which terraces can be built, so-called dry walls, requiring no mortar or other binding material ; it is easily disintegrated by the atmosphere, and forms a clay soil. WINES OF PORTUGAL. 309 which retains the water with pertinacity, and allows it to sink deep into the fissures of the schist, where also the roots of the vines are able to follow to great depths. The granite, on the other hand, lacks most of these properties ; it does not easily break up, and becomes very dry in summer, and then is generally situated so high above the level of the sea that the vine becomes excluded from it by the coldness of the climate resulting from the elevation. A great part of the soil of the wine districts could not be planted with any other crops ; the valleys bear a few strips of land used in maize cultivation ; here and there are some olives. Corn, and a few fodder plants are grown on the mountains above the wine region. It is the vine, and the vine alone, which has made the rocks of the Alto Douro a cultivated part of the earth's surface. 206. TOPOGRAPHICAL NOTES. The topography of the Alto Douro is best understood with the aid of the maps which have been elaborated by the late Baron Forrester. The largest and most beautiful of them has, I believe, never been published for sale, but only printed for private distribution by the baron. A useful copy, on a reduced scale, was published by Parliament in 1852, in the Report of the Committee on Import Duties on Wines. The limits of the cultivation of the vine are on this map marked by a red line, which includes what was formerly the district under the surveillance of the so- called Agricultural Company. The cultivation of the vine is most extended, and as regards the production of a par- ticular class of wine, most successful, on both sides of the river Corgo, a tributary of the Douro, coming from the north. The district west of the Corgo, usually called the Lower Corgo, has the most ancient cultivation. This begins at a distance of about forty-two miles English above Oporto, and occupies the triangular space between the Douro and Corgo. The part east of the Corgo, ending near the river Taah, is termed the Upper Corgo. On the south of the Douro there is also a strip of mountainous territory planted 3IO A TREATISE ON WINES. exclusively with vines, but it is much narrower than the district on the north bank. On the whole it may be said that the vineyards of the Alto Douro extend over a piece of mountainous country thirty English miles in length from east to west, and ten miles in width from north to south. The part of the district above Tua, which contains several excellent though relatively new vineyards, is now frequently termed the Douro Superior, as distinguished from the Alto Douro. 207. MODES OF PLANTING AND TRAINING THE VINE. In the Alto Douro one can see nearly all the varieties of culture side by side, but the prevailing mode is a rational low cultivation. Near and below Regoa there are yet many espaliers, forming covered walks, about two yards high, over which the vines are trained ; all these give bad grapes and bad wine. Above Regoa they disappear entirely, and the vines are trained low on the ground, but the pruning is not so methodical as at Jerez, and consequently with the age of the vine its bearing part rises higher, sometimes a yard above the ground. Grapes grown at that height mostly remain sour, and, particularly in dry years, form acid raisins, which spoil the wine from the lower fully ripe grapes. The viticulturists renew such vines by forming layers or slips, bending the highest branch towards the ground, draw- ing it through a trench, and allowing it to project at a distance. The young vine is never separated from the old stock, and the old stock is never allowed to grow branches ; such old loop-shaped vine-trunks, projecting from the earth, and destitute of leaves, are seen in great numbers, particu- larly in old vineyards. There are vines trained to stakes, as in France and Germany, and vines trained without them ; in some vineyards the vines were planted through holes in the perpendicular walls; but it appeared that many so planted had died from drought and heat. The operations on the soil are not so methodical as at Jerez. There is an excavation made round every vine in autumn to catch the rain-water; at the same time the vine WINES OF PORTUGAL. 311 is pruned. Each of the two or three, or more, main branches of the vine is allowed two or three eyes for the bearing branches, and a spur of one eye with the subsidiary small eye for the growing of wood. All the vineyards are kept carefully free from weeds, so that the sun has free play in heating the soil. The Douro vines have this peculiarity in common, that their fruit is not large-sized like the grapes of Andulasia, nor small-sized like the grapes of Burgundy or the Rhine, but medium-sized like those of the paludal vines of the Gironde. 208. VINTAGE AND MODES OF VINDICATION. The Vintage in the Alto Douro begins at the earliest on the 2oth of September, and ends about the loth of October. The vineyards in low situations, close upon the Douro, are the earliest to harvest, and even then the grapes are some- times over-ripe, so as to be partially passulated ; the latest vintages are in the third or top region of the slopes. The vintage is executed by men and women, all from Gallicia, hence termed Gallegos. These also do all the other labours on the ground required throughout the year ; the settled population of Portuguese is too small in numbers, and too sickly for heavy work ; for the entire district is extremely unhealthy. The Gallegos receive on an average seven pence per day in money, and food, which, however, does not include bread. The daily food consists of a pound of salted dry cod, of which large quantities are imported into Portugal from Newfoundland, and of a quart of a kind of soup, consisting of cabbage leaves, beans and lard, boiled in water. The Gallegos of each vineyard not only mess together, but also sleep together in the same shed, and any attempt to separate the sexes is immediately followed by protests, and, if these are unheeded, by an exodus. The women assist in the collection of the grapes only, but the disintegration of the grapes, their pruning, &c., is all done by men. 312 A TREATISE ON WINES. 209. THE LAGAR, THE PRESS, TREADING THE GRAPES, FERMENTATION. The receptacle in which the grapes are collected while the vintage is proceeding, in which the grapes are mashed, ex- tracted, and pressed, is termed a lagar. It is always built of stone, generally granite, more rarely slate or masonry. In size it varies, so that it may hold the grapes for only a few pipes of wine, or for many up to 10 and 16. In the large vineyards there are, therefore, lagars of several sizes, so that they are immediately adapted for large and small harvests. The shape of the lagar is mostly square or oblong, its depth about 2 feet, or a little more, and its sides vary in length between 3 yards and 8 or 10 yards. Over and across each lagar is fixed one of the old- fashioned lever or beam presses, of which the sketch gives an idea. Such presses do yet occur in Wiirtemberg, but they are not any longer in use on the Rhine. After the lagar has received its full complement of grapes, or as much as it can conveniently hold during the entire operations of vinification, a number of Gallegos, with their legs bared to the upper thighs, go on to the lagar and tread the grapes into pulp. This operation lasts from twenty-four to forty-eight hours without interruption, the men being changed from time to time for refreshment and rest. During or after this ' operation fermentation begins, and proceeds, according to temperature, quicker or slower, but it is hardly ever very tumultuous ; more frequently it falls below the necessary energy, owing to the stone walls of the lagar abstracting too much heat. In that case, as many men as can stand in the lagar are put on to it, and they are kept slowly stirring the mass with their feet until they have com- municated so much heat that the fermentation can again proceed alone. When the fermentation has so far pro- gressed that the amount of alcohol formed counter-balances the specific gravity of the remaining sugar so far as to bring the glucometer to the zero point, the fermenting mass is again trodden by the Gallegos, this time in order to extract the colouring matter from the husks. When the wine is as WINES OF PORTUGAL. 313 dark as may be desired, and a sample runs over a white plate so as to leave streaks of thick, dark red dye behind, fermentation is considered complete. The wine is now drawn off by a pump, syphon, or tap, or through a hole in the bottom of the lagar, the exit being guarded by some sort of strainer, and run into a large wooden cask, which may hold from five to thirty pipes, and is termed a "tonnel." From four to eight volumes of brandy, of about 40 Cartier, are added to every hundred volumes of wine, and the mixture is left to clarify itself by gravity. Fig. 44. Beam or Lever Press, as used iu the Allo Douro. 210. REMARKS ON THIS MODE OF VINDICATION. The mode of making port wine is extremely unclean, and the proceedings are very crude and elementary ; neverthe- less, so good a product is obtained that its faults are, as it were, drowned in its good qualities. The great object of the wine makers must be to produce good and durable wine with only so much alcohol as shall not be injurious to the wine drinker. This cannot be said to be the case with the ordinary thick, heavy, so-called loaded ports of 40 to 42 of 3 H A TREATISE ON WINES. proof spirit, and for this reason whole classes of society in Britain have ceased to drink any port wine whatever. Yet good port wine is one of the most wonderful productions of the earth ; and I am sure, when vinification in all its branches and variations shall be once fully understood on the Alto Douro, it will produce such excellent red wines as hitherto have not been exported from the Peninsula. 211. ELDERBERRY AND LOGWOOD. It is said that port wine is coloured with elderberries and other dyes, and sweetened with jeropiga and treacle, besides being dosed with brandy; but I have been unable to find any evidence of this, at least as regards Alto Douro wines. Elder trees are very scarce in the Alto Douro, and I can in this respect fully confirm the statement of Mr. Consul Crawford. Moreover, the Alto Douro wine, of a good year at least, is so deeply coloured, in fact, so excessively loaded with colouring matter, that it cannot by any means require any addition of colour; the elderberries exported from Oporto are really used for colouring other wines than port wine, particularly the Spanish ports, Mountain ports, Cape ports, and Sicilian red wines which are carried to England, and thence exported to countries where people buy wine rather by the name it bears than by any quality it possesses. It is also not rarely stated, upon the evidence of Mr. Cyrus Field, in the report of the Parliamentary Committee of 1852, that port wine is now and then coloured red by means of Brasilwood, commonly called logwood ; but this is a great error, as it is quite impossible to dye wine of any kind with logwood for the colour of logwood is purple only in alkaline solution, and not in acid, in which it is only tawny. Moreover, it is very astringent, a quality which almost all port wine possesses in excess. Logwood is never used in trade for dyeing anything purple, and the large quantities of logwood shipped to Europe are nearly entirely consumed in the production, by means of iron mordants, of firm black colours on many kinds of tissues ; and, although it may occur that particular artists in mixing and counterfeiting, WINES OF PORTUGAL. 315 dye some pipes of white wine with elderberries, and give them astringency with logwood, nevertheless I believe that such products would commercially not pay the cost and trouble of their production, and are, at all events, only an exceedingly small fraction of the wines which constitute the bulk of the exports from Oporto. I am, therefore, of opinion that the sooner we dismiss these prejudices and errors regarding elderberry and logwood in port wine, the better. 212. WHITE VARIETIES OF WINES PRODUCED IN THE ALTO DOURO. Many thousand pipes of white wine are annually made in the Alto Douro, and exported mainly to Russia and Ireland very little goes to England. These wines are not distin- guished either by the grapes from which they are made, or by the qualities which they obtain in the course of their de- velopment. The great qualities of Jerez wines are dependent upon a few dominant species of vines, sweet wines are de- rived from the Pedro Jimenez ; high-flavoured amontillados and finos, from palomino ; oloroso qualities from mantuo castellano ; Rota wines owe their important characteristics to one vine, the tintilla. In a similar manner the wines of Burgundy come from one kind of grape, that of the pineau; and Rhine-wine is characterized by the Riessling. But the Alto Douro white wines are not thus characterized ; they are not produced from any dominant vine, or vines, but are the product of the commixture of a great variety of fruit from frequently heterogeneous varieties of vines, amongst them the arinto, boal, verdelho, codega, malvasia fina, estreito, or rabo de ovelha, carnal, Donna Branca, gouveio estimado, moscatel. Of these the rich bearers, yielding coarse musts, termed castas grossas, are most favoured by the growers, and the result appears in the wines. The white grapes are not grown in the best situation, but only in second and third- rate vineyards. The Alto Douro wine districts, as a whole, may be considered as consisting of hills only, without any valley-bottoms between them ; the declivities of the hills, all 3l6 A TREATISE ON WINES. supported by numerous terraces, as described, may be con- veniently divided into three zones. The lowest zones, nearest to the river and its tributaries, produce the first class of red wines ; the second zones, occupying the middle of the slopes, produce the second-class; and the upper zones, situated near the top of the hill, or covering the tops of the lower hills, are mainly planted with white vines. These latter are also planted on the lower zones of the higher lying valleys away from the Douro. The white grapes are, like the red ones, fermented with the husks and stalks, and in this particular the vinification differs from that of most ojher wine countries; for in these, white musts are generally pressed out of husks and stalks before fermentation. In consequence of this practice the Alto Douro white wines acquire an astringency frequently amounting to harshness. This may make them more firm and less liable to spoil, but it greatly prolongs the time necessary for their maturation. They are also arrested in their fermentation by the addition of brandy, and, not being so sweet or so fully ripe as the red musts, require more frequent admixture of artificial saccha- rine ingredients, such as arobe, jeropiga, or sugar. In con- sequence of this they acquire no very high vinous character, even when kept long in bottle. On the contrary, they fre- quently develop in bottle a heavy disagreeable odour, termed bottle-stink, which can only partially be removed before the wine is placed on the table by decanting the wine and ven- tilating it, so that the air may influence the wine, and dispel or oxidize the bad smell. This is also a fault of many of the red ports, which they acquire by being bottled at im- proper periods and while in an improper condition ; the cleaner the wines are when bottled the less they develop of this bottle-stink, and perfect Alto Douro wines have not, and ought not to have, any of it. 213. TRANSPORT OF ALTO DOURO WINES. Many of the vineyards are so situated that no animal can be led to them, and their produce has therefore to be carried to the lagares on the backs of men. Many of the lagares, WINES OF PORTUGAL. 317 again, cannot be reached with vehicles, and the wines made on them have therefore to be transported downhill on the backs of animals ; and as it would be impossible to use casks for that purpose, the wines are carried in bags made of the skins of animals. These wine skins are called " odres." An odre is made from a goat-skin, and is taken from the dead animal in such a manner as to injure it in the least possible degree. The hair is only shortened, not removed, and the hairy side is turned inwards. This is done in order to leave the epidermis or scarf-skin intact on the surface of the thick, strong, leathery skin ; for this scarf-skin is very impenetrable to moisture, whereas mere leather would be very penetrable. The skin is made more impenetrable and imputrescible by being covered over the entire inside with semifluid pitch, or wood tar. I have seen thousands of these bags in use in the Alto Douro. Some merchants in this country seem to think that these odres are a matter which must be kept a secret from the lovers of port wine ; and it happened to me, at a meeting of the Committee on Wines, of the International Exhibition, in Kensington, that, when speaking about these odres, I was flatly contradicted by a port wine merchant, and told that there was no such thing used in the Alto Douro. And yet I had, but a month before, seen strings of horses, mules, and donkeys, each carrying two of these odres full of wine, in the establishment of the partner of this very wine-merchant who so vehemently contradicted me, and had seen the wine from the odres poured into the tonels of the partner, whence no doubt it found its way to Oporto in due course. The odres are also used in Spain, as is popularly known from the romance of " Don Quixote," by Cervantes. A tourist who, during vintage time, travels in Italy, Spain, or Portugal, may frequently see a number of these skins, mostly distended with air, hanging up, either to be prepared for use, or to be washed after use. They frequently impart a pitchy taste to the wine, which is never got rid of; when made from the skin of he-goats, they also communicate the goat-flavour. In Spain odres are frequently made from pig-skins. When the wine is collected in the tonels in the adegas 318 A TREATISE ON WINES. attached to the farms, it is ready for the travellers of the mercantile houses, who now taste, select, and buy. The wine is left in the adegas, until, in winter time, the water inj the river Douro is high enough to admit of loaded barges travelling to Oporto. The wine-merchants from Oporto then send up their wine-casks, some filled with brandy (I! have seen many casks of Berlin shape, with Berlin brands in' the adegas of the Alto Douro, and therefore believe that much Berlin spirit is put into port-wine), the brandy andi wine are mixed, put into the casks, returned to the river,! and shipped to Oporto. The manner in which the wine- casks, all of the size called pipes, holding 116 gallons, are brought down the hills to the river, is very remarkable. They are brought on strong carts, each laden with one pipe only at a time, and drawn by two oxen. The carts are of the rudest but most solid construction, and the oxen are of the finest breed, large and very powerful. The labour which these oxen perform in bringing such a pipe of wine down the stony, rocky, horrible mountain roads, is really a most astonishing performance of muscular work. The wheels of the carts are fixed to the axle-tree on which the top of the cart rides by two forks. This arrangement causes much friction, by which a creaking noise is produced, which can be heard at great distances, particularly at night. The more noise an axle-tree makes the higher it is valued, and the peasants vie with each other for the possession of the cart which makes the greatest noise. At last the wine in the pipes arrives at the river-side, and is shipped in boats to Oporto. The manner in which these boats are loaded and steered is well represented on the map of Forrester. Arrived in Oporto, the wine is carted to the sheds, called lodges, and stored. The treatment which it receives there mainly consists in the addition of brandy from time to time ; the brandy is kept as low as possible, in order not to increase the expense more than is necessary. The last and principal dosing with brandy is only inflicted justi before the wine is shipped. If the wine is not sweet enough, a quantity of jeropica is added; this, when legitimate, con- sists of sweet must preserved by the addition of one-fifth ofi WINES OF PORTUGAL 319 its volume of brandy of 40 Cartier, and therefore corre- sponds to the Jerez dulce. If in bad years, or from any other cause, the colour of the wine is not so deep as may be wished, some deep-coloured wine is added ; and some elderberry may be used now and then, but, as already stated, this is not frequently used in making up Alto Douro wine. Those wines which are not mixed with anything except brandy, not even with other wines of similar quality, but of different origin, are called vintage wines, and are kept by themselves. Their date is preserved, and they are made much of by the merchants. Those wines which are not kept by themselves, but are mixed with other qualities, the product of different zones and different years, are termed factory-ports, and con- stitute the great mass of the wines exported. 214. CHANGE IN THE TASTE OF THE PUBLIC AS REGARDS PORT. Much has been written and said regarding the injurious character of strongly-brandied port wine, and in consequence the more polite classes of society have almost entirely turned from port wine, and do not drink it any longer. I have been present at dinners to which ten or twelve gentlemen sat down, and not one took port when it was brought round. An Oporto merchant in London gave a dinner party to twenty gentlemen, and not one of these was found to drink even a single glass of the merchant's own best vintage wine. If this antipathy should continue, it might, perhaps, aid in the reduction of the brandy in port wine to below delirium tremens point. (This disease is common among spirit drinkers, and those who consume much strong port; it cannot be produced by drinking natural wines with less than twenty-six degrees of proof spirit, even in large quan- tity.) I have no doubt that when the objection, namely, excess of brandy, shall have vanished, many cenophilists and persons of good taste will return to port, the natural, full-flavoured, fine-coloured, invigorating, and wholesome wine, which, as regards bouquet, body, vigour, and lasting qualities, and as regards its wonderfully exhilarating effect 32O A TREATISE ON WINES. upon body and mind, is not surpassed by the red wines of any other land. But, it must be observed that, although some classes in England have ceased drinking port, others have taken to it, and in consequence the trade in port wine has not at all diminished, but has rather increased. The fact is, the port which was formerly generally bought by gentlemen, clergymen, noblemen, etc., and laid down in their cellars to mature for years, is now mainly bought by publicans, tapped, and sold in glasses at 4^. each. This is the case, not only in this country, but in America, and even in Newfoundland. The fishermen there, a great proportion of whose fish is consumed in Portugal, in return get a quantity of this port wine, and ease the difficulties of their climate and situation by enjoying this most delicious drink. The price of port wine in the district varies between fourteen and fifteen milreis per pipe of 636 litres. In Oporto, ^15 to 20 is an average price of good factory port. Fine wines and old wines rise to ^80 per pipe. 215. WINE COUNTRY OF THE BAIRRADA. This is a very new wine country, but probably in the course of time it will develop into something of impor- tance. The Bairrada lies between Oporto and Lisbon, rather to the south of Coimbra. The Portuguese Railway runs through the middle of it. The wine grown in the middle of the district, which includes both red and white varieties, is called vinho de embarque, or that which may be exported, whilst that grown in the outer belt, and its prolongation towards the north and the south, which is not fit for exportation, but is used in the country, or distilled for brandy, is called consumo. The soil there is chalky, of the so-called lias formation. The wines of that country are frequently taken to Oporto, and there made up into common class port wines by a small admixture of Alto Douro wine. They are brought to London mainly for the purpose of being re-exported to the colonies, and many butts of them go to Russia and to America. The wines are peculiar in this, that though dark coloured when young, they quickly WINES OF PORTUGAL. $21 lose their colour, and in four or five years, if not assisted by other means, they get so pale as to resemble old port. But they also lose their quality, and therefore they cannot be advantageously reared and kept by themselves. That arises again from the want of consideration for the principles of cenopoesis; and because there is in the Bairrada no dominant grape, but the peasants who grow these vines mix up every sort of grape they can lay hold of, and the conse- quence is a want of character and firmness in the product. The grape mainly grown there is the baga, which means berry. It is a small-berried, dark-coloured grape. There is also grown a little of the souzao and a little of the bastardo, which gives some flavour, but there are no coloured grapes like the mourisco or tinta, or tinta Francisca. There is also a white wine, made, as in the Alto Douro, from the boat and ten other vines ; and the jeropiga, or sweet juice made by mixing spirit with sweet must, is largely produced, and further abafado, or must stopped in the middle of its fer- mentation by spirit, etc. Must is sometimes boiled down, and to the syrup is added brandy. Then there is also made arobe, which is the juice of the grape itself boiled down to a thick syrup, either alone or in company with a quantity of quinces, apples, and other fruit. I quote from the Government report of Portugal, where it is stated the arobe can be of two kinds, viz., simple and compound. The first is the concentrated must produced by the action of heat; the second, or compound arobe, is made with sugar and quinces, apples, and other fruits. I have been very careful to lay before my readers accurate information, to eliminate that which is erroneous, and to know and state only that which is true. Now these practices are not at all done with the purpose of imposing upon the customer. They are the results of dire necessities and difficulties in the vinification, such as it would really require the highest skill and science to obviate; for the poor peasant has no means and no scientific guidance, but simply the help of a copper and a little brandy. 322 A TREATISE ON WINES. 2 1 6. THE VINEYARDS AROUND AND NEAR LISBON. VINEYARDS OF COLLARES. There is a quantity of wine grown round Lisbon. It is called termo, from being grown within the bounds of Lisbon, but there is not much of it, and it does not constitute an article of commerce, and therefore need not further detain our attention. Along the Tagus, south-west from Lisbon, there is that beautiful village Carcavellos, which once had a very flourishing production of from 1,300 to 1,500 pipes a year, and still enjoys a reputation, though the production is now entirely destroyed. It was one of the first fields invaded, by the oidium, and some years ago the whole pro- duction did not amount to five pipes, for most of the vine- yards had died out. Going along the shore of the Tagus, and turning north- wards round the mountain of Cintra, we come to the celebrated vineyards of Collares. They can also be reached by coming down the valley from Cintra, and perhaps that is the most agreeable way of getting there. The vineyards of Jerez are situated on undulating hills of chalk. Those of the Alto Doui;o are rocky, but those of Collares are situated on sand, thrown up by the billows of the Atlantic. Owing to the shifting nature of this land, the peasant proprietor is obliged to adopt some device to keep his vineyards and his wine too. The vineyard is divided into a number of small parcels, of the size of an ordinary sitting-room, each of which is surrounded by a hedge of green reeds or canas. The doors which lead from one to the other are also formed of these living reeds, so that when you pass from one depart- ment to another you bend the reeds asunder with the hands, and walk through, and -the curtain of reeds closes of itself behind you. In spite of this precaution, when after a windy night the owner of the vineyard comes to look at his vineyard, he often finds his vines covered up with sand, and he is obliged to dig them out. But this apparently barren and unpropitious soil yields a very excellent product. The soil is constantly moist, the heat of the sun strikes it all day long, and the vines lie on the ground, in immediate proximity to WINES OF PORTUGAL. 323 pure sand. The result is the excellent wine of Collates. Some of the red wine is made from a grape called the ramisco, and from that only. The qualities of this wine are based upon one dominant vine, and it is for that reason that it has such good substance. It quickly matures, is uniform, greatly improves in bottle, and will keep, although its alcoholicity is one of the lowest, being only between eight and ten per cent. It is a very firm wine also, as it requires no spirit to be added to it. It has a flavour of its own which cannot be compared with any other, derived entirely from the ramisco grape. It is a most agreeable and wholesome wine. About 1,500 pipes are made in the district, and the whole is consumed at Lisbon, 217. VINEYARD OF BUCELLAS. Passing from Collares to Cintra, and thence inland, we come to the vineyard of Bucellas. It is said that the Bucellas wine is made from the hock grape, alleged to have been transplanted there by the Marquis of Pombal. All over Portugal the Marquis of Pombal is remembered as a viti- culturist, and a man who took great interest in the promotion of viticulture and wine making. I have gone through pretty well all the vineyards there, and have asked many experienced persons, but have not been able to find any hock grapes there whatever. The only grape grown there, from which the genuine Bucellas is made, is the Arinto. At first sight the Arinto has a little similarity to the hock grape called Riess- ling, as it is small-berried, but it is dissimilar in other respects, particularly by its possessing a large bunch. It reminds me of the grapes on the south slopes of the Alps, and has nowhere the small size of the grapes indigenous to the Rhenish countries. Its wine somewhat resembles hock in preserving a little sweetness in good years, and, on the other hand, in being excessively sour in bad years. The Lisbon wine-store keepers add sugar and brandy to the Bucellas, and transform it into the semblance of a low-class sherry. They add boiled must to it just before bottling it, and the consequence is that a thick brown crust deposits on 324 A TREATISE ON WINES. one side of the bottle. This artificial product has no trace of the original high flavour, refreshing, acidulous, wholesome nature, of true Bucellas wine. 218. WINES OF TORRES VEDRAS LAVRADIO. Torres Vedras is a celebrated name in the history of the British army. A good many thousand pipes of wine are grown there, but owing to the disregard of the principles I have mentioned, and owing to the fact of the wine being made from mixed grapes, it acquires no particular quality, and, though apparently good to drink in the first year or two, in the third year it falls off and loses its quality, although it does not spoil. Wines of Lavradio. Of the many names for which Por- tugal had a reputation in the vitilogical world, there remains yet to be mentioned Lavradio, which lies on the Tagus, nearly opposite Lisbon, and produces a mild, though some- what sweetish, but to some people very agreeable wine. It requires very careful keeping for several years, but after- wards acquires all the fine properties of the natural and finer Alto Douro wines. If it were more scientifically treated, and if there were more of it, the Lavradio would soon acquire a high reputation. 219. GENERAL FEATURES OF PORTUGUESE WINE MAKING. In the Alto Douro, as well as in the Bairrada, and everywhere else in Portugal, all the wine is made in the lagars, peculiar troughs, made of stone mostly, but sometimes of wood, in which the wines ferment. They are very large, about six yards square, and, though in good years that entails no disadvantage, in years when the heat of the season is excessive, or when the harvest is interrupted by rains, the lagar entails every disadvantage which injuriously affects the wine. Sometimes the lagar is partly filled, a quantity of grapes being heaped in one corner; then rainy weather comes, and the grapes are allowed to lie in the corner for a week ; then, perhaps, WINES OF PORTUGAL. 325 the vintage is continued, and new grapes perhaps more rotten than the first are thrown in, and the lagar is filled up. During that time, if the grapes were ripe, a partial fermentation would set in. If the mass were heated, a portion would ferment, and the air having access, it would produce a process of decomposition. Then when the wine is made it has to be sulphured, not only for the purpose of preventing the acetification, which has begun already under these unfavourable circumstances, but to destroy those fungi which in every Portuguese white wine declare them- selves almost from the moment it is made, producing scud and viscosity. The wines when made are not put into cellars, but are all kept above ground, in large casks or tonels, and these are never full. In a good year they may be three parts full, whereas in a bad year they may be only one-third or a quarter full, and there is always a greater or a smaller surface of wine exposed to the air. Then if in these sheds the temperature rises very high, the surface being covered by mould, a quick acetification takes place. At Bucellas, I was in the shed of a poor woman, whose only property consisted of a vineyard, and of a shed and tonel of wine, worth, perhaps, ^60. She had not tasted it for a long time, and when I tasted it, I told her it was vinegar. I shall never forget the face of the poor woman when she tasted her wine, and she said, " Yes, it is vinegar." So throughout the place, owing to the absence of under- ground cellars, where the wine can be kept away from the excessive heat in the summer, and owing to the omission of proper precautions in the making of the wine owing, further, to the poverty of the people, who can only afford to buy one great vessel in which they keep their wine, being unable to buy new casks of a smaller size, which they could fill to the bung, and thereby prevent the air getting at the wine when hot and in a dangerous state owing to these disadvantages, and to the peculiar climate, there are produced masses of fungi in all Portuguese wines, just as there are in the Jerez wines. These are called nube, and when these small microscopic fungi, visible only by the microscope magnifying 600 diameters, grow more numerous, 326 A TREATISE ON WINES. the wine becomes at last thick and viscous, and is called gordo. Then the wine acquires this horrid mouse taste, which is the destroyer of many of the most beautiful Jerez wines. The finest Jerez wines are liable to have this horrible mouse taste, and the merchants will tell you that if wine gets a mouse taste, it will become a good wine ; but that is rather a paradoxical assertion. Out of 100 butts of wine having mouse taste, perhaps about ten good ones are obtained, but a vast quantity never recover, and these the extractors send to the still. At Bucellas I saw in the sheds of a marquis twenty large tonels full of thick, horrid tasting, sulphury, abominable liquid, which nobody could ever guess would in the course of a year or two transform itself into potable wine. When the wine merchant gets this wine he treats it according to his science, for it need not be wholly lost, but can be purified by chemical means. It is simply a process for taking out the dirt, bad colour, and fungi ; although it is very unpromising at first, by means of a little chemical operation a perfectly nice, clean-tasting fluid is produced, and all the mouse taste is gone. The power of these fungi is so great that in some Portu- guese vintages not only a portion of the must is concentrated to increase the sweetness, but the producer is actually obliged to put the whole of his must into the copper, and give it a boiling up, in order to kill the fungi. He does, in fact, on a large scale with his must that which M. Pasteur at Paris has proposed as a general principle for the purpose of pre- serving wines, namely, heat the wine so as to kill the spores, and thereby set up a healthy fermentation, whereas otherwise there would have been a diseased fermentation, and conse- quently a very bad product. Wine fungi. Plants live on carbonic acid, water, and ammonia and salts, and fungi are no exception to that rule. It is frequently said that fungi do absorb compound materials that they are not dependent upon the carbonic acid in the atmosphere, as other plants, but that they do, as it were, like animals, devour compound food. That may be the case with regard to some which live in the air, but those which WINES OF PORTUGAL. 327 live in fluid do not do so, for when the carbonic acid is with- drawn by other means than heat the fungi cease to live, sink to the bottom, and are inert : that is to say, they are killed or suffocated, and do not live much longer, and consequently it is proved that the nube fungi require for their existence the presence of carbonic acid. And it is for this reason evidently that they are present in the largest quantities in the youngest wine. The younger the wine the more nube, and the older the wine the less carbonic acic it produces and the quicker the nube goes down. Every Jerez merchant will tell you that any wine which succeeds at all cures itself. It requires no particular process for getting rid of the nube. The flor also cures itself, provided the wine has at least twenty- nine degrees of proof spirit. This flor is a fungus on the top of the wine, which requires a large quantity of carbonic acid in order to live. Remove the carbonic acid, and the fungus dies. That has not been understood, but the practice has been based strictly on that plan. If the wine containing this nube be strongly shaken, the fungi condense, and sink to the bottom. The evolution of the carbonic acid escapes attention ; however, if the wine, after having been shaken, be analyzed, it is found that a large quantity of carbonic acid has been evolved. If the wine be put under the air-pump, the carbonic acid be exhausted, and air excluded, the wine will in a short time be clear and sound. The communications of the highest importance offered by M. Pasteur will make the producer of wine independent of all these accidents. There is a peculiar affection now and then incident to the wines of the Alto Douro, called the agredcce, or sweet-sour; the Viscount De Villa Maior, in his work on wines, mentions the vinagre disease ; the amargo, or bitterness ; the gordura (which, according to my opinion, is only a continuation of the nube disease) ; and then he gives the agredoce, which, he states, is a form of disease different from the first four, which spoils port wine. The agredoce is not always a particular disease, it is a transformation of a part of the alcohol into vinegar in such port wine only as contains from two to three per cent, of sugar which was not previously fermented ; thus a wine is obtained which tastes on the one side of 328 A TREATISE ON WINES. vinegar and on the other side of sugar, in fact, a compound which, if it was a little sweeter, one might very well drink as people do raspberry vinegar. It is not at all like the bitter- ness of Burgundy wines, which arises from a totally different cause. This is one form of agredoce ; another arises from the production in sweet wine of lactic acid ; this latter is less de- trimental to the taste of the wine, as lactic acid tastes purely acid or sour without any special flavour. Portugal in itself, poor, yet climatically highly endowed, is capable of producing a variety of the most beautiful grapes, and a variety of wines, which, if properly made, would not be surpassed by those of any other country. The people are good-natured, industrious, and hard-working, and they have what is very agreeable to a person who comes from this country, a great regard for an Englishman. If these good people would continue to plant their vineyards with particular sorts of grapes, such as have been proved in the great Alto Douro districts, in Bucellas, or Collares, to be so excellent ; if they were to abandon that horrid practice of making sweet and cooked wines ; if they were to study the conditions by means of which they might avoid the natural climatic diffi- culties which produce fungi and acidity ; if they introduced more cleanliness into their sheds, and if they were to have their cellars underground ; if they were to avoid large tonels and adopt small casks, I have no doubt Portugal, one of the most essential English vineyards, would produce other wines besides port, which would be of the greatest use hygienically and socially to this country. We have a great trade with Portugal in other respects, taking there our manufactures, and bringing away in return large quantities of produce, cattle, grapes, figs, apples, and a variety of other articles too numerous to mention ; and an improved quality of wine would find in this country a very ready and grateful market. WINES OF THE ATLANTIC ISLANDS. 329 CHAPTER XXIV. WINES OF THE ATLANTIC ISLANDS, MADEIRA, THE CANARIES, AND THE AZORES. 220. WINES OF MADEIRA. WHEN the Portuguese had discovered Madeira in 1418, they forthwith set about to destroy the forest with which the island was covered. The settlers were occupied seven years in the destruction of the trees on the south side of the island round the bay, now called "of Funchal." In their place they planted, inter alia, vines imported from Cyprus and Candia. Soil. Madeira is a relatively new production amongst islands; it consists of a basis of tertiary chalk, whereby it is demonstrated to have been part of a larger island or continent now submerged ; even this base would also have been submerged and destroyed had it not been overlaid, and, so to say, preserved, by vast masses and countless layers of eruptive products of a now dead volcano, the ruins of which, some 6,000 feet in height, pass under the name of the Pic Ruivo. The basalts, trachytes, tufas, and different later lavas form mounts and hills with steep slopes, many and deep ravines; these rocks disintegrate under the in- fluence of rain and sun, and become a soft stone (pedra mo//a), which is now easily transformed into a gritty soil, in which all kinds of plants grow readily. The territory slips easily, and requires much support for access and cultiva- tion. 221. VARIETIES OF VINES AND THEIR CULTIVATION. The Malvasia, said to have been brought from Candia and Cyprus, is supposed to yield the best Madeira wine, so 33O A TREATISE ON WINES. called, but it is cultivated less frequently than the Vidogna, a vine resembling the Chasselas, and yielding dry wine. In smaller proportion are grown the Bagoual, the Sercial or Escanagao, the Muscatel, and the Alicante. These bear white grapes ; but the following produce black grapes, which, with the exception of the Tinta, are all used for making white wine : the Batardo, the Negramal (perhaps the same as Tinta), and the Ferral. The latter is a grape quite unfit for wine making. The vines are mostly fastened to espaliers of wood and reeds, from three to six feet in height ; some- times trained in arbours, with grapes hanging overhead; in other parts the vines are trained on pollards ; all these elevated trainings produce mediocre grapes. Vinification is effected as in Portugal, lagars, presses, transport, etc., all being the same. The must, carried in barrels or bags of goat-skins, is carried to the cellar of the wine maker and there fermented in barrels. Must is called vinho in mosto, meaning wine as yet in the state of must, while after the first fermentation and settlement of the yeast it is called vinho in limpo, wine in a clear state. The must receives some-addition of brandy at once, as it is rather watery, and would not keep by itself; after racking the wine receives more spirit; a month later it is again racked and receives a third addition of spirit. During the process of preparation the wine is placed in magazines, which can be heated, and are called stoves (estitfas), and left there for some weeks or months. This process assists the forma- tion of ether and softens the wine by oxidation, but it has the probably much more important effect of destroying any fungi which are capable of making the wine scuddy, or of otherwise changing it unfavourably by viscosity, bitterness, or acetification. The maturation also succeeds well, if the wine be sound, by the aid of heat and motion, as imparted to it by a sea voyage as merchandise to the West Indies, Hindostan, Java, or China. Wine which has thus been made to travel was termed, technically, East India Madeira. Madeira Wine is a more or less amber-coloured liquid of a peculiar, agreeable, though weak flavour ; in it lives the genius of the Malvasia and Vidogna grapes. The Sercial WINES OF THE ATLANTIC ISLANDS. 331 also contributes its particular qualities, namely, astringency r and with this some lasting powers ; but the roughness im- parted thereby retards its maturation. Most Madeira is dry, i.e. free from sugar, and is therefore suitable for being pre- served with less brandy than sweet wines. The best qualities improve in barrel during ten years, and in bottle during another ten ; but these periods are now shortened by art and the estufa. The red wines of Madeira are not distin- guished by quality, and their production is small. The best vineyards of the south side are the property of the royal family of Portugal, and their products do not occur in commerce. The district yielding the best salable wine is the Pago de Pereira. Vineyards of the second class are Calheta, Porto da Sol, Ribeira Brava, Cama de Lobos,. Estreto, Santo Martinho, and Santo Antonio. The wines- on the northern side of the island are used mainly for dis- tilling brandy from them. The most notable vineyards in. this part are those of Porto da Cruz, Santo Jorge, Ponta del Gada, Portomoniz, Santo Vincente, and Seycal da Norte.. Before 1852 Madeira produced annually about 20,000 pipes of wine, and in good years 30,000 ; but then the vine-fungus, the oidium, destroyed the entire harvests, and subsequently, the vineyards. No wine was made up to 1857, a calamity which involved an annual loss of a quarter of a million- sterling. Since 1860 the vine has gradually been replanted,, and the oidium repressed. The territorial law of Madeira is one of great complication, which makes the purchase and sale of land, if not impossible, at least very difficult. This, is is alleged as another of the causes which have mad? Madeira sink to the present low economical condition. 222. WINES OF THE CANARIES AND THE AZORES. These volcanic islands, comprising TenerifTe, Canaria,. Lanzerote, Fuerteventura, Gomero, and Ferro, produce wine from the Malvasia and Vidogna grapes. The wines from, the latter are dry, and similar but inferior to Madeira,. The Malvasia is a sweet liqueur wine, and, like Madeira, tastes of pineapple, a perfume probably derived from that 332 A TREATISE ON WINES. fruit. Canary sack of former times was the sweet white wine of these islands, "vino secco" or "seccato," so called because it was made from grapes which had been dried and passulated to a certain extent before vinification. Before 1852 most Canary wine was sold as Madeira ; at the present day it is transmuted into " sherry " by being vatted with small quantities of wine of the Palomino grape. The Azores formerly produced much wine, the island of Pico alone 5,000 pipes annually; the sweet Malvasia was called vino passado, the Vidogna secco. Most of these wines were sold to North and Central America and to Brazil. The islands suffered the fate of Madeira, and now produce less wine, but many other exportable products of agriculture. CHAPTER XXV. WINES OF ITALY AND OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA. 223. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON ITALIAN WINES. ITALY is very active just now in promoting its agriculture; there are many viticultural societies throughout the penin- sula, and they organize exhibitions and lotteries to sell the produce which is brought to them ; but all these efforts will avail but little before viticulture, as a whole, is placed upon a more rational basis, and grapes are grown near to the soil, instead of, as now, high in the air. Italian wines, including those of Sicily, are singularly destitute of flavour, and in those which have any it is too often artificial, and in the white varieties produced by aromatic resins or gums. This artificial flavour I have, however, never found in the -sweet and brandied wines of Sicily. The Marsalas, though brandied up to 36 proof-spirit, and sweetened with raisins WINES OF ITALY AND BALKAN PENINSULA. 333; or condensed must, are ordinarily not plastered, and appa- rently not provided with extraneous flavours. Lately, some new kinds of Sicilian wines have been introduced into England which deserve commendation. 224. WINES OF PIEDMONT AND THE ISLAND OF SARDINIA. Of these wines those of Asti and Chaumont have acquired a reputation. Only second to these are the wines of Alba and Montferrat. We found some Piedmontese wine, which we obtained directly from Turin, inferior and dear. The effervescent wine (spumante) mostly had fungi in the bottles-, the red were all in a state of fermentation, frisky (Italian fresco] and turbid ; some retained a peculiar biting taste after complete clearance. A number of red wines are made from the Grignoli grape, and named Grignolinos ; the better qualities of these have great merit. The Grignoli vine is closely related to the Carmenet of the Gironde on. the one, and to the Kadarka of Hungary on the other. At many places of the island of Sardinia Malvasia wines are produced ; at Sorso, Posa, Alghiere, and Naxo ; those produced at Caunonas, Monai, and Garnaccia are exported. The wine of Giro resembles the Tinto of Alicante. 225. WINES OF TUSCANY. The best Italian wines are produced in Tuscany, not only because the climate favours viticulture, bat because the former government, and many intelligent members of the nobility, paid attention to the improvement of the vine- yards and of vinification.'- At Monte Pulciano, between Sienna and Rome, the Aleatico, or red Muscat vine, is extensively grown, and furnishes the liqueur wine known under that name ; similar wine is made at Monte Catini, in the Val de Rievole, and at Ponte a Moriano. The wine is purple in colour, sweet, and slightly astringent. A good red wine is made at 334 A TREATISE ON WINES. Chianti, near Sienna, from a peculiar grape At Arcetri, near Florence, was prepared the best Verdea, or green wine, so-called from its colour : it is reported that Frederick the Great favoured it by his patronage. The Trebbiano is a golden-coloured syrup, produced from grapes passulated on the vine by torsion of the stalk. The vine is termed Treb- The nobles of Florence, like those of Vienna, sell their wines By retail from the cellars in their palaces, in fiascos, or flasks, of the well-known Florentine pattern, containing about three quarts each. The wine is not corked, but covered with a small quantity of olive-oil, which is either flung out, or soaked out with tow previous to the pouring out of the wine. 226. WINES OF LOMBARDY, VENETIA, CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN ITALY. In these provinces the vines are grown on trees, mutilated for the purpose, on the margins of cultivated pieces of land, or in rows intersecting them. The grapes consequently grow high in the air, and although they look picturesque make very bad wine. The wine which one can get to drink in the plain of Venetia is always very poor; it is not dark red, owing to the imperfect ripening of the grapes, it has a very .astringent taste, contains very little extractive, little alcohol, much acid, and is destitute of any vinous flavour. It is an exceedingly cheap drink to quench the thirst in summer and winter. The indolence which has laid hold of the popu- lation of the peninsula, the result of centuries of oppression, misrule and superstition, favoured by the ease with which life can be carried on, affects viticulture here as throughout Italy, and proves the truth of the sorrowful but hardly hyperbolic words of Matteucci : " Este in Italia ni studio . ni lavore." In the former papal state are produced the wines of Orvieto, and the Muscat of Albano and Montefiascone. At Naples a wine called Lachrymse Christi is produced at the /oot of Vesuvius. Although reported to be the strongest WINES OF ITALY AND BALKAN PENINSULA. 335 wine produced in the district, a sample obtained from a grower contained only 18*9 per cent, of proof spirit. The wines of Gallipoli and Taranto are produced in the province of Puglia or Terra d'Otranto. These wines receive mostly an addition of spirit, but we have had perfectly natural Taranto ; it was sold at first at a reasonable price, but this was raised and the wine went out of the market. 227. WINES OF SICILY. ... The light amber of brown Sicilian wine exported in large quantities passes under the name of the exporting town of Marsala. This place is situated near the western termina- tion of the northern coast of Sicily. The vineyards extend along the coast towards the east and west in a band of upwards of twenty miles in length and twelve broad. The soil is a mixture of chalk and clay, coloured yellow or reddish- brown by oxide of iron. The varieties of vines are not scientifically defined, so that Odart does not mention any. To conclude from the nature of the wine they must be many, and are cultivated mainly for the production of quantity. All the wine shipped from Marsala is strongly brandied, but it is generally not plastered. Much of it is sold as such, but large volumes are mixed with a little sherry and sold as "Amontillado." Red wines are also grown in the island, and being of low price, are exported to other parts of Italy and to America. Faro, grown in the neighbourhood of Messina, contains from 1 8 to 23 per cent, proof spirit. Near Mount Etna is made the wine of Terre Forte, in vineyards formerly held by Benedictine monks; this is mostly brandied up to 30 per cent, proof spirit, and, according to Redding, has a taint of pitch. The total quantity of wine produced in Sicily has been stated to be 200,000 pipes, which is probably greatly exag- gerated. Probably the one-fifth of this quantity believed to be fit for exportation represents the quantity of marketable wine actually produced much nearer than the larger figure. The Marsala pipe contains 93 gallons. There are less than 336 A TREATISE ON WINES. 300,000 gallons of Marsala consumed annually in England ; its consumption has increased by one-fifth beyond the quantity, which was imported before the reduction of the duties nearly thirty years ago. 228. WINES OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA. The productions of these countries are not suited for the use of western Europeans, as they are impregnated with tar, as a means of their preservation. On Mount Athos (Hagion Oros) German monks have introduced some better mode of vinification. Wines which pass into commerce are produced in Macedonia in the following places : Chatista, Fiorina, Kuprio, Castoria ; in the district surrounding the lake of Ochrida ; in the plain of Serres ; at Piliori, Crotova, and in the valley of Resne. In Thessaly : at Larissa, Cachia and Arta. Much simmered wine for the use of Mahommedans is made in the village of Galistas, on the slope of Mount Bernos. Albania produces much red and white wine, which keeps without the assistance of pitch. 229. WINES OF GREECE. A mountainous country composed of schistose, chalky and volcanic ranges, with slopes in countless valleys, with a climate tempered by the neighbourhood of the sea, and engendering the most beautiful seasons, would seem to be an ideal territory for the culture of the vine. But these advantages were counterpoised by the liability to the occur- rence of terrible earthquakes ; by meteoric influences which denuded the mountain-sides of cultivable earth; by exhaus- tion of the soil in consequence of the ceaseless export of its produce to foreign lands; by the absence of labour, live stock, and manure ; and the want of security from brigandage, which kept the population in terror and uncertainty. In consequence of these deplorable conditions, which have been only partially remedied during the last thirty years, the production of wine in Greece, which was WINES OF GREECE AND GREEK ISLANDS. 337 considerable at the time of the supremacy of the Venetians, has sunk to a relatively insignificant amount. But the production of currants is still a highly important branch of Greek agriculture. 230. VINES CULTIVATED IN GREECE. The currant-vine Vitis Corinthiaca, also called Apyrena y the stoneless, and from its product, in Italian, uva passa, is mostly grown as a shrub, on a strong stem, without support. The bunches of its grapes are long, loose and pendulous, and carry small unequal berries ; the berry stalks themselves are long and thin. The berries are the smallest of all grapes, have a thin husk and contain no stones. The several varieties of the plant are recognized by the colour of the grapes. The commonest is yellowish-green with a strong grey bloom. Odart, however, believes the black variety to be more commonly cultivated for commerce j a third variety is violet. This vine is also much cultivated in Italy and Asia Minor. The raisins termed currants are produced by twisting the stalks of the ripe bunches, and letting the grapes dry in the sun. Another Greek vine is the Greco, so termed by the Italians, the red variety of which is also grown in Corsica, where it is called Barbirono (Odart, I.e., p. 553). A third is the Cipro, the vine peculiar to Cyprus. Its berries are large, and while unripe are round at the insertion of the stalk, and pointed towards the umbilicus ; but when ripe they have the shape of acorns, and are dark blue with few points. The bunch is large, long, and has mostly short branches. The white and black Moscada of Greece are identical with the Muscatels of Frontignan. The Malvasia exists in several varieties, not yet well diagnosed from each other. The Sultana is cultivated for its stoneless raisins, but not on so large a scale as in Asia Minor. The most important vine for the small islands seems to be the Assyr- ticon, which prevails in Santorin. Besides these there are cultivated in Greece about sixty varieties of vines, of which names and descriptions are not yet accessible. z 338 A TREATISE ON WINES. 231. VINDICATION. Vinification in Greece is very imperfect, so that the wines contain more volatile, i.e., acetic acid, than any others. Many wines last only through the winter, and in summer turn to vinegar. To avoid this result the proprietors still adopt all the objectionable preservatives of antiquity : smok- ing with wood smoke, or vapour of resins, such as mastic, olibanum, cloves, Rhodus wood, Bucharis-Tagh, and lab- danum ; the Commendaria (Cyprus) wine is said to get its flavour from those resins, gums, and spices, which are sus- pended in the wine, enclosed in a bag ; pitching the barrels ; adding turpentine and pine-cones; addition of gypsum, chalk, salt, and of tannin, particularly in the form of hypericum per- foratum, a resino-tannous plant, which is said to conserve and to colour wine yellow. Most wine has also the taste and smell of the goats, in the hides of which it is kept or transported. In Cyprus and other parts, jars, pitched in- side, are still in use, but in Santorin and other islands, barrels are becoming more frequent. The several parts of Greece produce, according to the "Journal des Travaux de la Societe franchise de Statistique universelle," the following kinds and qualities of wines : Akarnania produces wine at Arta, Limni and Komboti. Ancient Greece proper, Livadia, has its principal vineyards near Lepanto, Chseronea, Megara, and on the slopes of Mount Poligouna ; second-class vine- yards are near Koskina, and in one of the valleys of Mount Helikon. Not far from Athens is Mount Hymettus, known by its bees and honey ; the wine bearing its name is grown in the plain surrounding the mount. Near Megara, twenty- seven miles west of Athens, upon the frontiers of Livadia and Morea is the port of Cendura, from which much wine, and large quantities of currants are exported. Upon the isthmus is situated what remains of Korinth, the ancient town known by games and currants, often destroyed by earthquakes. The northern part of the peninsula of Morea, Achaia, has extensive vineyards near Patras, Blattero, Voltizza, and Kalavrito. Near the latter town is the monastery of Megas- WINES OF GREECE AND GREEK ISLANDS. 339 pileon, where the monks make and keep wine in large quantities, some of their tonnels holding from 7,000 to 15,000 litres. In the county of Elis, circle of Gartonin, much red and white wine is made; the best wine of the Morea is made near Pergos, and amounts to 100,000 barrels annually. Red and white astringent wines are produced near Barbacena and Budschaka, on the left bank of the Alpheus. Schiron, near Palacropolis, produces currants and wine of 280,000 piastres annual value. Argolis, east of Achaia, has vineyards near Argos, and in the valley of St. Giorgio, twelve miles from Argos ; Nauplia, or Napoli di Malvasia, the place whence Malvasia wines derived their name, was nearly destroyed during the Greek wars of inde- pendence, and produces but little wine in the present day. Arcadia, in the centre of the Morea, produces annually 15,000 barils of wine, value 150,000 piastres. The largest vineyards are in the valley of Phokia, 18 miles north of Tripolizza. The district of the latter town, known as Tripolis, produces 15,000 barils of wine. A similar quantity is produced in the vineyards near Androuna and Nisi, to- gether with 600 barils of brandy. The promontory of Modon, west of Koron, produces 2,000 barils, value 20,000 piastres. The south-east of the Morea, Lakonia, makes much Malvasia, particularly at Misitra. The wines are mostly only third class, and much below. 232. ISLANDS OF THE GREEK ARCHIPELAGO, SANTORIN, IONIAN ISLANDS, CANDIA, RHODES, CYPRUS. The Islands of the Greek Archipelago producing wines or raisins are in this order from north to south : Scopolo, Sciati, Skyro, Negroponte, Andros, Tine, Zia, Myconi, Thermina, Naxos, Amorgo, and Santorini. Near Skyro (Syra), a red wine, Como, is grown, and Scio (formerly Chios) produced more wine formerly; the "nectar" of Merta is bitter and astringent. Samos exports grapes, raisins and wines, amongst the latter a Muscat. Zea, or Zia, is ancient Cos. Of Tenedos the only production and trade is in wine, and it sends annually 100,000 barils to Constantinople, Smyrna, 340 A TREATISE ON WINES. and the Euxine for Russia; all table wine in the East, wherever wine is drunk, is called Tenedos. Santorin, ancient Thera, a series of islands, consisting of fragments of a volcanic ring, and its centre craters, produces much wine. There are sixty varieties of vines cultivated, but the dominant vine is the Assyrticon. Some of the vines are large-bunched. The quantity produced is said to amount to 9,000 pipes ; it is principally exported to the Black Sea, and supplies the wants of the interior of Russia. The wines of these islands were for a time much spoken of in this country, probably as the result of the accounts of enthusiastic travellers, but their eastern course has not thereby been diverted. Ionian Islands. The red wines of Corfu, of which 33,000 barils are annually produced, are light; a liqueur from raisins produced here is called Rosolio. Cephalonia produces upwards of 40,000 barils of red wines of the fifth class. Zante produces dry and sweet wines, amongst the latter a liqueur, made from currant grapes, called Jenerodis. Thiaki (Ithaca) produces 6,000 barils of currants, and Sta. Maura 50,000 annually. All wines made in the Ionian Islands are plastered. Candia ancient Crete, produced formerly a kind of Malvasia wine, stated by A. Baccius (" Naturalis Vinorum Historia," Romse, 1696, fol., p. 331) to have amounted to 200,000 barils annually. But this production is now much reduced, and of the viticulture, e.g., of the monastery of Arcadi, now in ruins, there remains only the monument of the fine vaulted cellars, now disused. The best vineyards are near Kanea, Kisamos, Spacchia and Kandia. Rhodes produces sweet luscious wine from large grapes. Here, as in Malaga, three harvests can be annually obtained. Cyprus. The vineyards of Cyprus are on the slopes of hills, covered with flinty stones and blackish ochreous earth. The prevailing vine is the Cipro, already alluded to above. The wines produced are of three classes. The first class consists of the wines of the Commandery of the Knights Templars, and is made in the vineyards near Paphos, in the district of Orni. It is fermented and matured in about WINES OF ASIA. 34! 40,000 earthenware vessels, oi the ancient shape of amphorae, of which each holds from ten to twelve litres. The wine is of a dull red colour, and becomes tawny by age, or of a golden yellow, a little sweet, with an astringent by-taste, fiery, of great and peculiar flavour and bouquet, supposed to be imparted to it by the introduction of resins and spices sus- pended in bags in the amphorae. The second-class wines are sweet Muscats, made mainly at Arnodos. The third class are common red wines, which speedily shed their colour. Two centuries ago this island exported 365,000 cuses (or guzes) of wine ; sixty years ago the export had fallen to 65,000 cuses. Cyprus wines are shipped mainly from Larnaka, the southern port of Cyprus, to Venice and Livorno. At Venice much Cyprus wine is still drunk. The Cyprus wine measures are the cass, equal to i^ English gallons, or 4-73 litres; and the carica, equal to 10-414 litres. The baril repeatedly mentioned in the foregoing, is the Venetian barilla, equal to 64 boccalis (beakers), or 64-3859 litres, or 1 4-171 12 English imperial gallons. CHAPTER XXVI. WINES OF ASIA. 233. WINES OF CAUCASIA. THE production of wine in Cachetia amounts to 2,000,000 of eimer annually ; the price of good red is one abass (seven- pence) for one tunga (five bottles) ; common wine is sold at from five to six kopecs, or twopence per tunga. The natives keep the wine in skins of buffaloes and goats, with the hair turned inside, and pitched with black naphtha or asphalt ; better class proprietors keep the wine in earthenware vases, of the size of hogsheads, which are buried in the ground. The vines are being improved by new varieties introduced from the Russian plantations in the Crimea. 342 A TREATISE ON WINES. Georgia produces wines at Tiflis, Signack, Elizabethopol, Gandjea, Mokozange, Vachery and Tscheniedaly. At Tiflis the vines peculiar to Shiraz are grown, and viticulture is mainly in the hands of vintners from Suabia or their descendants. Mingrelia, Imeritia, Armenia, and Shirwan also produce wine; the best Mingrelian is that of Odischi, In many parts German colonists are settled, who produce wine in casks, and realize good prices. The produce is estimated to amount to 7,500,000 bottles. The Caucasian wines are mostly colourless, like water : the red ones are only pale red, and lose their colour while assuming a bitterness, thus resembling some Burgundies and their diseases. Much of the Caucasian wine is distilled for brandy, of which Cachetia alone produces 20,000 hogs- heads annually. A society " for the manufacture of Cham- pagne from indigenous grapes," carries on a considerable trade in such wine throughout Russia up to St. Petersburg. The marine, wine and general trade of Caucasia, which formerly was considerable, has been completely destroyed by the Russian blockade, which was kept up for more than a generation, for the purpose of aiding in the subjection of the Circassian people. This conquest has now been effected, but the trade of the east of the Euxine has not been restored. 234. WINES OF PERSIA. SHIRAZ AND ITS VINES. The ancient traveller Strabo relates that in the district of tne coast of the gulf of Persia called Makine, the vine grew in swamps, and was cultivated in these morasses by people who placed baskets of earth into the water, in which the vines were planted. The vines in these baskets were as detached from the land as flower-pots in a conservatory, and were now and then carried out of reach from the shore by floods or winds. In such a case the cultivators replaced them again to their former positions by long poles. Such paludal cultivation of the vine can also be seen in Egypt. In Persian legends frequent references are made to King Dchemshid as having raised the accidental discovery ot WINES OF ASIA. 343 wine to a method of making and keeping it. As he was fond of eating grapes he caused great vessels full to be collected in order to enjoy them beyond the season. But they ran into juice, and boiled so suspiciously that it was believed a new poison had been discovered, and the liquid was put aside for appropriate use. Gulnare, the beautiful, one of Dchemshid's seven hundred wives, grew melan- choly and resolved to take her own life. She selected the new poison as the means for self-destruction, and drank a long draught, which became a deep one when she found that the supposed poison, contrary to expectation, tasted very nice. The poison soon acted, however, and Gulnare sank on her couch and fell asleep. Awaking to despair, she doubled the draught, sought destruction in vain, but found happiness in frequent small sips of the suspected liquid. Shah Dchemshid discovered the effect of the condemned grape juice upon his mistress, tried a draught, approved, and henceforth was the patron of wine. The wines of Persia most renowned in ancient times were those of Ariana (Iran), Bactriana (Turan), Hyrcania, (Ma- zanderan), and Margiana (Chorassan). Their reputation survived for some time the introduction of the Islam. All the fertile parts south of the Caspian still produce wines, but their reputation is now overshadowed by that of the wines of Shiraz, in Ferdistan. The vineyards of this celebrated place are situated on the lower ranges of the Zagros mountain, which runs from the gulf of Persia to the Caspi Lake ; the best of these are situated at the foot of the mountain to the north-west of the town. The vines are mostly trained low on the ground, and are rarely tied to stakes ; some are trained over stone walls, up on the one side and down on the other, the latter being drawn down by stones tied to the ends of the canes. At Casvin the vine-growers irrigate the vineyards annually, twenty days after the feast of Nokooz, or about April loth, and the clayey soil thus treated retains sufficient moisture to last throughout the period of vegetation, which is rainless. There are twelve principal varieties of vines. The Kishmish, Sultanieh of the Turks, carries a beautiful 344 A TREATISE ON WINES. large bunch of white grapes ; the berries are oval, of medium size, have a tender, thin husk, no kernels, and are of an agreeable acidulous taste ; they serve for the table, and the production of raisins and of wine. The Damas yields a black grape, from which the finest full-bodied and durable red wine is made. The Samarkand occurs in several varieties, some of which bear bunches up to twelve pounds in weight. The Richbaba (Rish baba), the principal or dominant vine, has large berries, without seeds ; according to Pallas, the name was derived from the cylindrical form of the bunch, and the compressed state of the berries. The Askery has small berries. The Imperial of Tauris is juicy and delicate. Besides these a great number of variously and strikingly coloured grapes are grown, of which the names are given by Odart (I.e. p. 584, et set?.), after a communication made by a Persian ambassa- dor to a Due Decaze. They have been described by many travellers, e.g., Pallas, Chardin, Olivier, Ker Porter. Odart does not mention either the Damas or the Imperial of Tauris, and we apprehend that these names were introduced in the Russian vineyards in the Crimea, and are not Persian. The wfne of Shiraz is fermented in large egg-shaped vases of earthenware, four feet high, and holding 250 to 300 litres, or more than a hogshead. The vases are glazed inside and out, covered with purified mutton tallow, and are kept buried in the earth in cool cellars. The made wine is bottled in glass flasks holding from four to five (old Paris) pints; the bottles are stoppered with hard-pressed cotton, covered^ with wax, enclosed in matting, and packed in boxes holding ten. It is a little harsh on first gustation, but gains upon the palate by habitual use; this refers to wine as drunk in Persia. The red Shiraz now and then brought to this country has always been fortified with spirit, and perfumed with peculiar resinous matters, which at first suit the European palate as little as does the rose-flavoured confectionery of Turkey. There are also white liqueur wines, with peculiar perfumes, made at Shiraz. The wines of Shiraz are sold in Persia by weight. A popular proverb considers them as essential to happiness : " Who will live WINES OF AFRICA. 345 merrily should take his wine from Shiraz, his bread from Yesdecast, and a rosy wife from Yest." Next to Shiraz as wine-producing places are Teheran, the capital of the Shah, Yezd, (Yest), Shamaki, Gilan, Casvin, Tabriz and Ispahan. All these places are situated on the slopes of mountains. The wines of Persia are mostly consumed in the country, and only a portion is exported to Hindostan, China and Japan. Through the influences of Mahometanism, the consumption and production of wine in Persia has much decreased ; nevertheless wine and spirit drinking are done in secret, and with the usual result of the Sunday drinking of intolerant populations. The Persian of to-day buys his wine from the Gueber, Jewish or Armenian grower, who is licensed upon payment of a tax. The wine is frequently mixed with raki and saffron, or the extract of hemp, which is added to make small quantities more intoxicating. In the East the idea prevails yet, that the use of wine legitimately terminates in intoxication, a fallacy which was yet prevalent with us a few generations ago. We may therefore hope to see it superseded by that amelioration of customs, which ha*s changed the ethics of Western banquets. CHAPTER XXVII. WINES OF AFRICA. 235. WINES OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. VINES ; MODE OF CULTIVATION. AT the southern cape of Africa, originally called by its discoverer "The Stormy Cape," but renamed by his King "of Good Hope," vines were first planted by Dutch settlers under the governorship of Jan van Riebeck in 1650. Their knowledge of viticulture being deficient, they omitted to select the most suitable situation, and this error has operated 34-6 A TREATISE OX WINES. against the wines of the Cape for almost two centuries. Governor Riebeck is related to have imported vines from the Rhine, France, Spain, Greece, Madeira and Shiraz. In the best situations the muscat of Frontignac prevails, and is kept pure, its grapes serving for liqueur wines only. Most expanded are perhaps the German Riessling giving white, and the Burgundy grape giving red wine. Two not otherwise defined vines pass under Dutch names, the Groene-druyf, (green grape) and the Steen-druyf (stone-grape) : probably the former is the Sylvaner, and the latter synonymous with Riessling; for Odart, (I.e. p. 593), says, that they both came from the Rhine. The Haenapop (has no pip) is easily recognised as the Persian Sultanieh, which yields the stone- less raisins. Odart gives a mistaken derivation of this name, from hanap, meaning a large pot or crock. The modes of cultivation are those usual in the countries from which the vines are derived. During the dry season the vines must be irrigated, or they drop their fruit. The vineyards of Constantia are regularly irrigated. The vine- yard proprietors have to combat many enemies, Kaffirs being the worst thieves; the grapes are devoured by wild dogs, Cape badgers, monkeys, and sometimes enormous flights of birds, which do not only devour, but damage and defile what they do not eat. The ordinary agricultural boer takes little care in vinification ; but he is also in a difficult situation : he must import foreign casks, because Cape wood of any kind is unsuitable for wine-barrels ; to carelessness he adds absurd practices, such as hanging up freshly killed meat in the fermented wine, or adding spirit in the shape of indigenous brandy called Cape-smoke, from its being contaminated with the flavour of the smoke from the fire by which it is distilled, like Scotch Whiskey. Only when the wine has passed into the hands of the exporter begins its transformation into Cape-brands. 236. QUALITIES OF CAPE WINES AND IMPORTATION INTO ENGLAND. The sweet pale-red Constantias are liqueur wines of the second class ; they soon lose the muscat flavour, but gain WINES OF AFRICA. 347 ripeness instead. A simmered wine called Kokwyn, made from muscat grapes, resembles Malaga, and belongs to the third class. The red wines called dry Pontac and Burgundy, made from the relative grapes, sometimes become wines of the .third class, but mostly remain below the fifth class. The Cape Hock of the village of Paarl in the valley of Drakenstein is a very characteristic wine, which belongs to the fourth, sometimes the third rank of white wines. The unnamed wines of South Africa are also red and white, the latter being dry. When properly prepared they have none of the so-called earthy or slaty taste so often complained of; it is probable that these and other faults are the result of their being made in too many instances by the unaided efforts of ignorant Kaffirs or other negroes. In 1859 the importation of Cape wine into England had, owing to the favour shown to the Colonies by the mother country in the imposing a much lower import duty upon it than upon European wines, risen to 781,581 gallons. After the reduction of the wine-duties in 1860, the importation fell in 1862 to 182,282 gallons, or from io'84 per cent, of the whole imports of wine in 1859 to i'8 per cent, of the imports in 1862. This wine was not consumed as such, but worked up into the similitude of sherry and port and sold to whoever would buy it. There is no reason, however, why the Cape should not produce and bring to Europe good 237. PRINCIPAL VITICULTURAL DISTRICTS AND ESTATES IN THE CAPE COLONY. Stellenbosh, a considerable wine district north of False Bay, received its name from a former governor, Van der Stell, who acquired large portions of territory in that locality, then covered by bush, and constructed a reservoir in the mountains to irrigate his farms and vineyards during the dry season, and to grind his corn in a mill by the side of the wine stores. Drakenstein, a settlement north-east of Stellenbosh, was founded by a colony of French refugees after the revocation 34^ A TREATISE ON WINES. of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Land more suited for the growing of corn was planted by them with vines. The Dutch farmer imitated the example, but the produce ac- quired no reputation. On the western side of the valley of Drakenstein stands the village of Paarl, surrounded by a fertile tract of land, and especially distinguished by a curious mass of granite surmounted by a number of large pebbly stones like the pearls of a necklace, to which it owes its name. Here the best white wines of the Cape Colony, so- called Cape Hocks, are produced. 238. THE CONSTANTIAS. The Dutch governor Van der Stell, made three planta- tions of vines at the Cape, and named them after his wife Constantia, with distinguishing adjectives High Constantia, Great Constantia, and Little Constantia. The vineyards are situated at the eastern base of Table Mountain, about eight miles from Cape town, and midway between False and Table Bays, all upon very gentle slopes, just sufficiently inclined to admit of the distribution of water by irrigation channels. The dominant vine is the red muscat of Fron- tignan, which gives to all Constantia wines their peculiar character. There are also a few other varieties of vines grown here, but with the exception of the Rhenish Riessling they yield no characteristic products. The vineyards have a surface of about 250 acres, or 101 hectares, and produce annually from 700 to 800 hectolitres of wine. The product is treated as at Frontignan, and owing to its good quality and limited quantity, its price is well maintained. Another notable estate near Constantia, is Witteboom, which also produces red muscats. Seal Island in Table Bay also pro- duces some good wines. 239. WINES OF MADAGASCAR. This island possesses an indigenous vine, which the natives declare to bear a poisonous fruit; probably the effect of this grape is similar to that of an American vine, WINES OF AFRICA. 349 the husk of the berries of which inflames the lips; ripe Riessling also causes the lips to burn. Some Frenchmen made wine of that grape, and found it quite innocuous, so that the irritating matter, like that of the manioc, disappears in the preparation of the product. The inhabitants of Isle de France and Bourbon cultivated the vine only as an orna- mental shrub in the garden, and did not multiply it in vine- yards, as they found vinification to be impracticable. 240. WINES OF MOROCCO. In the north-west of Africa the vine is cultivated down to 33 lat. The grapes grow larger and sweeter, and are mainly reared on espaliers in the air, to produce shaded walks ; what business viticulture there is resembles that of Andalusia, including the hedges of agave and of prickly pear cactus. There are seven varieties of vines, one with very large berries, called " hen's eggs," supposed to be identical with the Spanish teta de vaca. Wine is made by Jews only, is light and acidulous, kept in large earthenware jars and in skins, and does 'not keep beyond one year. The best and largest amount of wine is made at Uadnum, Tarodante, and Tangiers. 241. WINES OF ALGERIA. In 1860 there were only about 220 hectares of vineyards in Algiers, but in 1870 their area in Oran alone had risen to 3,200 hectares. The wines resemble the small wines of Languedoc. Viticulture has been somewhat extended since, particularly after the collection of vines made by Chaptal was transferred from the garden of the Luxembourg at Paris to Algiers. 242. WINES OF THE NILE VALLEY. In ancient times the valley of the Nile produced the wines of Arsinoe, Mendes, Koptos, and Mareotis; its Delta the liqueur wine of Sebenytus, of which latter large quantities were exported to Rome; since the spread of Islam only grapes and raisins are produced. 350 A TREATISE ON WINES. CHAPTER XXVIII. WINES OF AMERICA. 243. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. WITH regard to viticulture in America we have to record this remarkable fact, that vines from Europe do not succeed in that country, and that long continued and often repeated experience shows, that to produce grapes and wine in America of any quality, recourse must be had to indigenous vines. In California, European vines seem to grow, and bear fruit, but it lacks the essential quality of specificity ; the wines made on the west coast have no flavour. Viticulture has of late years not progressed much in America even on the Ohio, which was termed the Rhine of North America, and where there were some 1,550 acres of vineyards under cultivation. At St. Louis some very good effervescent wine was made and even brought to London. But the supply was soon exhausted, and none of it has been seen since the American Exhibition. 244. INDIGENOUS VINES OF NORTH AMERICA. In 1830 Prince counted more than eighty -eight varieties of American wild vines, but of these only a few were culti- vated either for making wine or for eating as fruit. The vines were also described in a monograph by Durand, translated into French by M. des Moulins. In consequence of the ravages of the oidium and the phylloxera French viticulturists turned their attention to American vines, which were said not to be liable to the attacks of these vegetable animal parasites. But no good wine could be obtained from any of them, and the only way of utilizing the immunity of their roots from the phylloxera was to graft European vines upon American stems. This was, however, so costly and slow a process, that it could be only rarely adopted. WINES OF AMERICA. 351 The American vines are either polygamic or dioic. In Thudichura and Dupre's " Treatise" a full description of ten varieties will be found : of which the following are the more important ones, (i.) Vitis Labrusca L. termed in America fox-grape or northern fox-grape. The berries are large, purple- black in colour, and have nearly the same taste and flavour or odour as black currants ; they ripen at the end of August or beginning of September. In the wilderness it is a very handsome climber, and rises to the tops of the highest trees. Under cultivation its berries become round and large, even of the size of damsons ; but the pulp always remains tena- cious and does not easily melt in the mouth ; on pressure it slips as an entire lump out of the hard thin skin and has to be crushed expressly. It is assumed that from this V. labrusca a variety of hybrid vines have been produced, namely the Isabella, Catawba, Schuylkill, Alexander, Eland's grape and others. The Labrusca is not subject to the oidium, even when its branches intertwine with those of ordinary vines covered with the fungus. (2.) Vitis cestivalis, (Michaux) Summer grape, Chicken grape, Little grape. There are two varieties of which one goes by the adjective of the genuine, the other by that of the sinuated. The former has berries of a saturated sky-blue colour, smaller than that of the Labrusca. Although it is called summer-grape for reasons unknown, it ripens only in October. It is found in the Atlantic region, on the Mississippi and beyond. The sinu- ated variety has small sky-blue berries of an agreeable but austere taste. It is found in the South Atlantic region up to Louisiana, where it is called Pine-wood grape. It does not climb so well as the Labrusca. From it the Delaware grape is derived. The Vitis Caribaa was named by Decandolle. It has large, purple-black, little juicy, sour berries, and is very common in the Antilles ; it also thrives in Florida, South Arkansas, and Mexico. (4.) The Vitis Candicans (Engel- mann) is the Mustang grape of New Mexico, Texas and Arkansas. The grapes are purple-black, the husks contain a very red and extremely acid juice, the pulp however has a softer, not burning taste, and is eatable. The vine, as a 352 A TREATISE ON WINES. parasitic climber, is a great plague of the countries in which it lives, as it destroys the greatest trees in forests and planta- tions. It is a great bearer; a plant of eight years yielded fifty- four gallons of juice ; the must is, however, so acid, that each gallon requires the addition of three pounds of sugar, and the made wine requires the addition of some spirit to make it keep. The wine thus obtained is good, strong-bodied, agreeable to drink, and nicely coloured. Of this vine, several varieties are known, some of which have a red pulp, others a white pulp, all having purple-black husks. The wild plants are dioic, the males bear no fruit ; they acquire an enormous size, stemstwo feet in circumference, and extend their branches over five or six trees, seventy to eighty feet high. In Texas it reaches such a great size that stems of eighteen to twenty inches in diameter have been cut down. When the grapes are ripe, they seem to cover all the foliage as a black mass ; their taste is detestable, owing to an acrid principle contained in the husks, which inflames the lips and the mucous membrane of the mouth. When this husk is peeled off, the pulp, which remains as a solid lump, may be eaten without evil effects (5.) The Vitis Calif ornica has small black berries of agreeable taste ; it is common in California, Sonora, and the eastern part 'of New Mexico. The five varieties of vines described in the foregoing have leaves which on their underside are woolly, or felted, as if with a spider's web. The following varieties have leaves which are either quite smooth on both sides, or slightly downy on the underside. (6.) Vitis Cordifolia, so called from the heart shape of its leaves (Michaux), inhabits the whole of the Atlantic region ; it occurs in two varieties, the genuine, and the one which lives on the banks of rivers. The former is also termed fox-grape, winter and frost-grape ; it forms long bunches not very full of berries, which latter are small, black and late, have thin husks, and are of an acid taste like that of black currants. The vines overgrow entire trees, and while they were plentiful, flights of wild turkeys frequently settled upon them to eat their fruit. The second variety, the riparia, by French immigrants into Texas termed Vigne des Battures, is a sweet-scented grape, WINES OF AMERICA. 353 more acid to the taste, with blood-red juice; it becomes softer in taste after having been frozen, as do sloes ; each grape contains only one seed. It blossoms in May, and its flowers have the odour of mignonette ; the male plant used to be termed Vitis odoratissima while it was believed to be an independent species. (7.) Vitis rotundifolia (Michaux) termed by Americans Bullace, Bullet grape, Scuppernong, southern fox-grape. Its small leaves have a shape some- what between a kidney and a heart ; its bunches are small, the berries have a great odour, a purple, sometimes amber colour, a hard skin, and an agreeable taste. It is cultivated for the table, and for wine-making in Virginia, Florida, Texas and North Mexico, passing everywhere under the name of Scuppernong. To the north of the Potomac it remains sterile, and is frequently destroyed by the frost. A third section of American vines are characterized by erect or decumbent shoots, without the climbing faculty. (8.) Vitis mpestris (Scheele) commonly termed mountain grape, has heart-kidney shaped leaves, small purple-black berries, which ripen early and have an agreeable taste. Grows in chalky soil on the banks of rivers in Texas and Arkansas. (9.) The Vitis monticola (Buckley) has also short branches, compound strong bunches, with large, closely set, white or amber-coloured berries. It is said to have the most agreeable taste of all American grapes ; it grows in Texas. (10.) The Vitis Lincecumii (Buckley) passes in Texas under the name of post-oak grape, or pinewood-grape : its berries are purple- black, sometimes amber coloured ; they have an agreeable odour and ripen in August. It grows in Western Louisiana, Arkansas and Texas, and its name was given by Buckley in honour of the Texas doctor Lincecum. 245. VINES CULTIVATED IN NORTH-AMERICA. Viticulture in America is probably not yet typical, though adapted to local conditions ; it has certainly hitherto not been very extensive. The vines cultivated are hybrids of native with foreign vines, and several are of excellent quality. We quote the Catawba, found wild along the Arkansas, cultivated 354 A TREATISE ON WINES. since 1802, first by a major Adlum; nineteen-twentieths of all the vines of Ohio are Catawbas. The wine made from it is good, it can be produced effervescent. Such as we have obtained in England, directly from St. Louis, was strongly flavoured with, apparently, elder flower. Longfellow wrote an enthusiastic poem in praise of Catawba wine. (2). The Cape grape, also termed Alexander or Schuylkill Muscadel, is indigenous to the environs of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; its must always requires an addition of sugar. (3). The Isa- bella is indigenous to South Carolina. In Ohio it is fre- quently injured by frost, while on the shores of lake Erie and in the neighbourhood of New York it bears amply and ripens well ; it is cultivated for the table only, as it requires sugar to acquire a sufficient alcoholicity in its wine. The wine resembles light Madeira. (4). Bland 1 s Madeira gives a good grape for eating, but the vine is too delicate for cultivation even in Ohio. (5). The Ohio or Cigar-box vine yields a hand- some, black, soft, melting grape, with small berries ; its wine is dark red, and has little perfume when young, but acquires some by age. (6). Lenoir yields a sweet and well-flavoured, melting, black grape. (7). Missouri the same, but is more suitable for wine-production than the former. (8). Norton's seedling has a small soft berry, but its wine is of inferior quality. (9). Herbemonfs Madeira has small black berries, to which, as to No. 9, the name is by no means appropriate ; the wine, though of a rosy colour, resembles Manzanilla in taste. (10), Minor's seedling is a muscat, useless for wine, (n). White Catawba is much inferior to the red; it has not been tried for wine. (12). The Mammoth Catawba is a large variety of No. i. (13). The Saippernong does not succeed north of the 35 lat. 246. RISE OF VITICULTURE IN AMERICA. The name of Longworth is associated with the history of the development of viticulture in America; he it was who made extensive experiments with European vines, and found them unsuitable, even the indigenous vines were found to de- generate quickly, and not to obtain any very high age. The WINES OF AUSTRALASIA. 355 vineyards were mostly cultivated by Germans from the Rhine-country; many were farmed by the viticulturists at the rent of half the vintage. At Cincinnati an acre of good land could be made to yield a profit of from 50 to 100 dollars. It will thus be seen that viticulture in America has to contend with many difficulties. We studied the subject in detail some years ago, but have not to report any great progress since. The Chicago exhibition will have afforded a good opportunity for summarizing the present condition of viticultural affairs. CHAPTER XXIX. WINES OF AUSTRALASIA. 247. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. THE founder of viticulture in Australia was an early colonist of New South Wales, of the name of Busby ; he obtained 574 varieties of European vines, from France, and secured the grant of an experimental garden from the go- vernment at Sydney. Other enterprising men then took up the subject, e.g., James Macarthur, and Patrick Auld. They were followed by many gentlemen of property, who were de- sirous rather of producing fine and creditable wines, than of obtaining large or immediate profits. Many cultivated the art as an interesting scientific experiment. Thus viticulture ex- panded in Australia and gradually assumed large dimensions. The generally favourable climate of Australia is' not invariably favourable to the vine, on account of the severe droughts and heavy rains to which it is alternately exposed, and which destroy other crops as well as vines. In December the growers desire some rain, which they term vintage rain ; but when rain falls upon the nearly perfected 3 $6 A TREATISE ON WINES. grapes in February, that makes them swell and burst, lose their juice, causes them to rot, and destroys much of the harvest in a short time. The condition of viticulture in Australia is most fully and correctly represented in the annual reports of the several Vineyard Associations. We would ask our readers to consult these rather than those reports which have no authentication at all. Products from a new country must be judged not only absolutely by reference to established standards, but also relatively with reference to their capability for improvement, if faulty or imperfect. We have said long ago, that by ap- plying this principle to Australian wines, we had come to the result, that many good qualities had already been ob- tained ; that, if the process of vinification were better, these qualities would be greatly enhanced j that many wines, evi- dently made from excellent grapes, are spoiled by faulty preparation, or by want of proper nursing during maturation. To prove these points, we gave vouchers from Australian literature, mercantile, journalistic, and private, from official reports on Australian exhibitions, etc. Time has fully borne out these notes, and their continued correctness can be proved any day by the comparison of mercantile articles with well-established models. CHAPTER XXX. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON WINES. 248. RATING OF THE WINES OF THE WORLD. THE most important practical distinctions of wines are marked by their relative prices. According to these, wines become beverages or luxuries for use on festive occasions. It has been proposed to call table wines all those which can be sold in this country at prices varying from twelve to thirty GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON WINES. 357 shillings per dozen bottles. Wines at prices varying between thirty and sixty shillings per dozen we will, in accordance with commercial custom, term fine wines, and those at prices above sixty shillings cabinet wines. The fine and cabinet wines are so limited in quantity, and so much sought after, that they can never have a wide area of useful- ness. But amongst the table wines there are excellent qualities fulfilling all the hygienic and gustatory conditions demanded for comfortable and wholesome living. The great bulk of all the wines of Jerez, Oporto, Lisbon, Bar- celona, Valencia, Alicante, Cette, Bordeaux, of the Rhine, of Austria and Hungary, etc., are, commercially speaking, cheap wines. We may read of high prices in the lists ot sherry exporters, such as ^1,000 per butt ; but these par- take of the nature of romance, as the objects, if there were any of such an ascertained value, never change hands. The great mass of sherry is exported at 15 per butt, and the average value of all sherry exported is ^28 per butt. The same applies to Oporto. The mass of port wine is exported at a price somewhere between 22 and ^25 per pipe, and the finer wines at ^"50 to 80 are few and far between. And so it is with all the places mentioned. The great bulk of their exports consists of cheap wines. There are exporters who pretend not to sell cheap wines, but they sell them in fact in large volumes, while omitting to place their names amongst the brands on the barrels in which they sell them. It was upon the importation into England of low-priced natural wines that the attention of the legislature was directed when the duty was reduced in 1860; to this object the attention of enterprising wine-merchants was directed, who have thereby opened a new era in the English wine trade, and broken the aristocratic pretensions with which the dealing in wines was formerly surrounded. Wines of all qualities can now be had from one shilling per bottle upwards, and the agitation carried on for so many years in the interest of temperance and free trade has resulted in great public benefit, the full extent of which has however to be obtained by further exertions. A classification of wines is always a process of the utmost 358 A TREATISE ON WINES. difficulty because opinions are liable to be governed unduly by the element of taste, and not by all the elements from which a valuation has to be elaborated. It might be said that prices were a sufficient classification of wines, but this is not really so, as prices are inflated by many fallacious elements, including past reputations. What can be more disproportionate than the prices and the qualities of the so- called dry champagnes, the prices enhanced by an abnormal impost, which disarranged the settlement of 1860. With the import duty increased the nastiness of many of the products of the Marne as well as the lower priced ones of the Loire. Another objection to any kind of classification, on however broad a basis of recognized distinction, is the fact that it is liable to cause much displeasure to the owners or vendors of qualities not rated at cabinet value. We have observed this vivacity of sentiment particularly on the part of foreign and colonial exhibitors, whose products we had to report upon. Further, a classification of wine would have to specialize so many places and years in districts which are liable to great variations in their products, that the result would be unintelligible. There are years in which the products of vineyards ordinarily passing as first growths are of the sixth and seventh class, and out of such accidents no average can be constructed. We would place sherry at the head of all wines, had we not to admit that it is. deteriorated by plaster, brandy, colour and dulce, Jerez wines and their congeners have the greatest future, on account of their equability and in- trinsic vinous quality. They only wait for another reform like that to which a Scotchman treated them when he sub- stituted pale and dry for the brown and sweet concoctions ; when he discovered and purified the amontillado flavour. Let us hope that another reformer may succeed in turning aside the plaster and brandy which now denaturalizes this splendid product of viticulure. We would claim only a second place for wines of the Alto Douro or port wines so- called, were they not much deteriorated by the quantities of brandy with which they are mixed. No doubt port has properties which make it a peculiar product ; it is full GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON WINES. 359 of extractive, apart from the fruit sugar, and therefore requires treatment differing in some respects from that which will mature the thinner wines with less extractive. Nevertheless it is much denaturalized by the large quantities of brandy which it receives, and which disqualify it for use for so long a time as to cause its cost to exceed its value. The wines of the Gironde are superior to the former two classes, by the absence of brandy and other admixtures ; but they are inferior in body, that is to say, in extractives apart from alcohol and vinosity, and are not rarely very acid. With these rank Champagnes of the better years, white Burgundies and wines of the Rheingau ; now follow the red wines of Burgundy, Macon and Beaujolais ; then the white wines of the Palatinate. Now follow Greek, Austrian, and Hungarian wines, Tokay excepted, of which the sweet, thick varieties take a place by themselves, as not being wines in the sense here defined ; but the szamorodnies are comparable, and take a place after those previously mentioned. Any rating of wines has to be based upon the absolute qualities, total quantities of product, prices, average success in years, absence of variability and of faults, in short, upon the average result of a consideration of all the factors which make a wine of the greatest use to the greatest number at the least cost. It is a general experience that the stronger wines are preferred in winter, while the natural wines are sought after in summer, when the others are avoided. This is caused by the excessive stimulating qualities of the alcohol, popu- larly termed heating, which are not very useful at any time, but bearable in cold weather. Similarly it is found that delicate persons cannot bear brandied wines, but are able to digest and to be benefitted by natural wines. All these conditions have been so ably put forth by many members of the medical profession, that we need not dwell upon them at length, but can leave to the public the care for still more softening the rough drinking habits which past generations left over to us. All wine imported into the United Kingdom, pays a customs' duty, which for natural unfortified wine, and for 360 A TREATISE ON WINES. wine fortified up to 30 per cent, of proof spirit, has been fixed by Parliament as is. per gallon. The law has most liberally defined as natural wine all wine which contains less than 26 per cent, of proof spirit, equal to 12 per cent, of abso- lute alcohol by weight, and 14-6 per cent.of absolute alcohol by volume. All wine which contains more than that propor- tion of spirit, or alcohol, is assumed to have received an addi- tion of distilled spirit, or of wine containing distilled spirit, and was charged with a customs' duty of zs. 6d. if it did not sur- mount in its alcoholic strength 42 per cent, of proof spirit. But this arrangement was altered some years ago to this ex- tent, that the 26 per cent, limit was raised to 30 per cent., so that 4 per cent, of proof spirit in wine may come into the country duty free. But the advantage concerns only a small proportion of the wine imported. For no one would think of raising Bordeaux, Burgundy, Champagne, Hock, and other natural wines to anything like 30 per cent, proof spirit, and on the other hand, this strength is insufficient for any sherry, port, Madeira, or other southern wine of their kind. And this was the main reason for which the anomaly was acceded to. The relaxation is abused mainly in this way, that Spanish white wines are imported at a strength just below 30 per cent, of proof spirit, and afterwards mixed with wines imported at the highest alcohol strength, compatible with the zs. 6d. duty, so that a wine of 36 per cent, proof spirit, supposing equal parts of the weak and strong to be mixed, will have paid only is, gd. import tax instead of zs. 6d., equal to a gain of more than ^4 sterling per butt. All alcohol above 42 per cent, of proof spirit is charged the same duty per degree as distilled spirit, i.e. IDS. 6d. per gallon of proof spirit. Another anomaly was inflicted upon the system of wine taxation adopted in 1860, namely, the increase to 5*. a dozen of the import tax on sparkling wines ; this raised the price of sparkling wines very much beyond the addition of the 5-f. per dozen bottles ; and acted as an almost for- bidding increase of the price of the cheap effervescent wines from the Loire, which are imported at prices, in the River Thames, beginning at ijs. per dozen, and rising to 28^. Upon protest being raised on behalf of these -wines, the GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON WINES. 361 impost upon them was limited to 35. per dozen. Of course, the actual price also rose, and the quality deteriorated, and the policy of Mr. Goschen has produced only disadvantage to the community, and a very trifling increase to the takings of the customs. 249. ACTIVE INGREDIENTS OF WINE. The great uniform power in wine, as in all so-called intoxi- cating liquids, is of course alcohol ; and the main effect upon the body is produced by alcohol, and in direct proportion to its quantity. Equal amounts of alcohol, whether taken in strong or dilute admixture, will cause nearly equal effects, but dilute beverages will produce the effect quicker than strong; for these latter require more time for their absorp- tion. Alcohol is, however, by no means the only active ingredient of wine ; were it so, mere alcohol would by this time have superseded wine altogether. Pure alcohol, in- deed, in a state of drinkable dilution, is not a desirable beverage at all. It acquires its highest attractiveness by the presence of that union of flavours produced by the fer- mentation of grape juice, called vinosity, and represented mainly by the ananthic ether, the wine-flower or bouquet ether, described in an earlier chapter. A number of other ethers no doubt contribute to the sum of the effects, but the cenanthic ether is the specific one, without which wine has no existence. This ether, and its helpmates, have a very remarkable effect upon the organs of taste and smell, which results in pleasure, and a desire to drink the liquid exhaling the odour; and again when drunk, the ethers produce an effect of a pleasureable kind besides, and independent of the effect of the mere alcohol. It is for these ethers, and their combination as bouquet, that the high prices are paid for fine wine. Brandied wines never can rise to the quality, in re- spect of bouquet, of the natural wines, for although they contain the cenanthic and other ethers, their olfactory effect is overcome by that of the newly added brandy. It is for this reason that few persons accustomed to sherry and port ever scrutinize their wines with the nose for the pleasure of the 362 A TREATISE ON WINES. bouquet, as all connoisseurs unfailingly do with Burgundy and Hock, or Claret ; but rely upon broad gustation for the satisfaction of the taste and upon alcoholicity for effect. Amongst the evil effects of wines, and spirituous drinks made with distilled spirit, several have been ascribed to the undue admixture with the beverages of alcohols of a more complicated composition than common or ethylic alcohol. Thus amylic alcohol, or the oil obtained by the distillation of dregs, called fusel oil by the Germans, is believed to cause great excitement and to aggravate to madness the evil effects of the habitual use of distilled spirit. Apart from the fact that fusel oil can be removed from any spirit by charcoal, as Dobereiner showed early in this century, and that the art of distillation is so far advanced as to admit of and mostly re- sult in the production of almost chemically pure alcohol, which, owing to the absence of any kind of flavour, is termed silent spirit, it must be remembered that the production of fusel oil in wines occurs only under circumstances of the lowest uncleanliness, and, as regards natural wine in general, is not a question of practical importance. But as regards wine to which spirit is added, if the spirit be produced from potatoes, and not carefully purified, the introduction of some fusel oil might be possible. We believe, however, that the mere interest of the trader would prevent such an impurity from being introduced, for it would infallibly diminish the value of the wine by a greater sum than that which would be saved by the difference between a pure and an impure spirit. There are effects of wines upon the nervous system which are as yet unexplained. Thus, to some men otherwise accus- tomed to the use of various wines, the higher kinds of white Burgundies do cause excitement of the heart ; the modern Champagnes also cause palpitation to many who formerly enjoyed the natural Champagnes, and used them to advantage; this arises from the fact that their alcoholicity is high out of proportion to the amount of their extractives. Champagne as now drunk in England is mostly a brandied liquid. Burgun- dies are liable to be a little brandied, even as regards the higher qualities, but the higher qualities of Hocks, or Bor- GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON WINES. 363 deaux wines are never brandied; and this circumstance makes these wines particularly valuable for hygienic use as- well as medicinal purposes. Red wines contain an astringent element, which is a useful agent in hypercatharsis, and, on the contrary, is the cause of persons of slow peristaltic habit being obliged to avoid them. The astringency may act as a tonic upon some ; it is the more likely to do so if it be combined with that peculiar colouring matter of red wine which contains iron as an element of its chemical constitution. But even of this only little is assimilated, and most of it is found in the detritus as dark sulphide of iron. Red wines are liable to cause a feeling of acidity in the stomach to some persons ; we have known such idiosyncrasy to appear and disappear at varying ages of the persons who manifested it ; white wine suits such persons better. Again, we have known both white and red wine to become obnoxious to certain conditions of life, and in such cases diluted distilled spirits were the most suitable substitute for the dis- continued wine. Beer disagrees with such persons still more, for reasons no doubt connected with the peculiar action of hops, and the fact that beer is a far more suitable medium for the propagation of many kinds of fermenting bacteria than wine, and wine more so than dilute spirit Wine with excess of natural acidity surmounting five pro mille expressed as tartaric acid, is neither pleasing to the taste nor agreeable to the digestion. That such acidity can be removed by plaster of Paris, without making the wine absolutely flat, has no doubt contributed to the use of gypsum, as well as chalk. Wines treated with gypsum have a slightly cathartic action upon delicate persons, and there- fore this effect must be noticed in given cases of intestinal disturbance. We have never known port wine to be plastered ; sherry always is ; and the wines of the Mediterranean countries, even the natural red and white ones, certain sort& of Marsala excepted, generally are plastered. The extractive matters of wine, apart from sugar and glycerol no doubt have a distinct stimulating action upon the nervous svstem^ analogous to the extractive agents con- 364 A TREATISE ON WINES. tained in meat, milk, and vegetable juices. Their quantity is greatest in wines of the best years, and these are the most potent and wholesome. In old wines extractive matters have accumulated by concentration, and this circumstance is the main cause of the value of age in wine. The philosophy of the use of wine as illustrated in history is a subject so large and important that it would occupy a separate treatise of the size of the present one. Its intimate connection with the life of most nations is demonstrated by the frequent symbolic use in religious observances. This can only be explained by the long-continued observation of its beneficial effects, as derived from its active ingredients ; and for this reason antiquity sought after good wine as much as do modern nations. 250. USE OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WINE. The use of chemical analysis of wine for the purpose of sale and barter may be said not to exist. Wines have been made for ages, and developed to their present high state without any application of chemistry; they have been bought and sold by the test of mere gustation. Even now producers and sellers of wine do not use or employ chemical analysis for ascertaining any quality of the object of their trade, except with regard to alcoholicity, for this governs the amount of import duty they have to pay in several countries. Nevertheless chemistry could be of great value to wine producers if it were properly applied at the suitable con- juncture, particularly with reference to the remedial measures required by the accidents of faulty seasons and abnormal fermentations. We will take excess of natural acidity of the must as an example of a case in which chemistry might be useful. The amount of acid having been accurately ascer- tained, the amount of anti-acid required to be added to the must, in the shape of potash, would be given by a chemical equation. Or the chemical data would furnish the basis for the application of the process of Gall to must of excessive acidity. But while such an adjustment of the elementary properties of the raw material to be fermented has been GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON WINES. 365, developed to a high state of perfection in the brewing Oi beer a process which is now literally in the hands and under the absolute direction of chemists in the production of wine such interference is looked upon as akin to adulteration and denounced with sycophantic ardour, We hope that this erroneous conception of the role of chemistry in vinification may be discarded, particularly in view of the many empirical remedies which are applied to wine to correct faults which are the result of the neglect of chemical rules at the earlier stages of preparation. One of the empirical processes most frequently employed in the making of wines in districts round the Mediterranean is the addition of plaster of Paris or gypsum to the must. We will now assume it not to be a mere adulteration intended to remove acidity from wine, and improve its colour to the standard cochineal red. We will also admit that it may be a question whether the removal of all tartaric acid, which is the main effect of plastering, may not be equivalent to the removal of a material from which certain fungi can produce compounds injurious to the quality of the wine ; or, putting it quite generally, whether the removal of the tartaric acid may not protect the wine from a possible deterioration, greater than that which the abstraction of the acid inflicts on its part. Now it has been ascertained that when this danger is over, and the wine is made, its taste is greatly deteriorated, as compared to natural wine containing the tartar, by the presence of the free sulphate of potash, and it has a bitter and metallic taste. It has therefore been attempted to remove from such wine the sulphuric acid, and substitute instead the tartaric acid, which it naturally contained ; in other words, to restore to the wine its natural composition. The removal of the sulphuric acid is easily effected by baryta, but as that might be objected to on account of some remotely possible toxic effects, the sulphuric acid should be taken out by strontia, which is absolutely innocuous, and at the same time the potash should be re-combined with tartaric acid. A deposition of the excess of tartar then would clarify the wine, and after a short repose the product would be fit for use. In this process 366 A TREATISE ON WINES. chemistry proves its usefulness, but it also proves the necessity for great caution. For it was found by experiment that some wines do contain not only sulphate of potash, as the result of the plastering, but, in addition, sulphate of soda, which was no doubt added as such, and these wines, when treated as just stated, do not only deposit tartar, but retain tartrate of sodium in solution, and are at least not improved by the process, for while bi-tartrate of potash is precipitated by alcohol, bi-tartrate of soda is not so precipitated. Chemical analysis might inform the wine maker of the amount of extractive in his wine, upon which the ultimate development and durability to a large extent depend. It might inform him more precisely than mere taste of the presence of fermentable sugar and of its quantity, and thereby aid him to put his wine in a state of preservation from the risk arising therefrom in the shape of secondary fermenta- tion after the bottling. But at present chemistry is mainly applied to wine for the sorry purpose of what, owing to its exaggeration, we cannot help comparing to sycophancy. The discovery of the addition -to must of any kind of sugar has attracted the highest ingenuity of food analysts so-called, who strain gnats out of their scientific solutions while allowing camels to pass through their filters. It would be preferable if so much ingenuity and work were applied to the enlargement of general scientific knowledge rather than to the tracing of petty remedies which a poor producer applies to his inferior products in order to give them a chance of being sold at any price. We have always been surprised that analysts who denounce a little salicylic acid as an adulteration never apply themselves to the plastered sherries ; that they do not even discover the wines the acetic acid of which has been neutralized by chalk, or the sweet wines the lactic acid of which has been neutralized in the same or some other way. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON WINES. 367 251. USE OF WINE TO THE HEALTHY AND SICK IN YOUTH OR AGE. There are some classical phrases to denote superfluous attempts, such as "carrying owls to Athens" or "coals to Newcastle." We would consider it equally redundant were we to say anything in praise of wine and its effects in general. A late professor of hygiene made a series of elaborate experi- ments upon a healthy guardsman, from which it seemed to follow that the use of wine was of no appreciable advantage to him. Some disciples of this professor went further, and endeavoured to prove that alcohol did not only not raise the temperature of the body but lowered it. Now warming a body does not include the raising of its natural temperature, and it is certain that wine does not produce fever heat. But wine can warm a body which feels, or is what is popularly termed cold, by stimulating the heart to action, and the mind to vivacity. It may not make him think better, but it will make him think quicker j it will exhilarate the healthy, as it will allay pain and spasms of the sick, and reinforce the wounded or exhausted. The experiments in which alcohol was made to lower the temperature were performed on corpora vilia truly so-called, old, hardened drinkers, who were allowed to soak ad libitum, and then had their temperature measured. Of course it was depressed by the paralytic action of the toxic excess, but not very considerably. The effect was in fact known as necessary before the experiment, which proved only once more that when alcohol is made to act as a poison by excess, even upon persons habituated to excess, it still produces toxic effects. Such experiments also are " coals to Newcastle," for classic antiquity knew as much, and then the knowledge is of no use to anyone whatever. However interesting by its external precision, it is liable to serve as a basis for false inductions. The foregoing experiment was not made with wine at all, not even with such as contains more than double the amount of spirit which wine can naturally attain, but with distilled alcohol, mere brandy. It therefore does, in reality, not illustrate 368 A TREATISE ON WINES. the question which we are considering in any direct manner, though it does' so indirectly. We believe that with natural wine, with an alcoholicity of less than 20 per cent, of proof spirit, the effect exhibited by these old topers would not be obtained at all. For there are certain peculiarities by which even the evil effects of wine are limited to its comparative advantage. Thus we have never known of an authentic case of delirium tremens produced by the drinking in whatever excess of natural wine. It was indeed this well-known immunity of wine drinkers, on the one hand, from, and liability of spirit drinkers, on the other hand, to the tremor cum delirio potatorum, which induced, in countries where wine is a daily popular beverage, the belief that the alcohol of dis- tilled spirits was different from that of wine, or was mixed with a poison not present in wine, which many identified with the amylic alcohol, or fusel oil. Further, the habitual con- sumers of natural wine enjoy a remarkable immunity from gout, gravel and calculous diseases arising from the uric acid diathesis. Such immunity does not accompany the use or abuse of fortified wines, and goes the farther out of sight the greater is the amount of added alcohol. We therefore meet with men who present all the symptoms of chronic alcoholic intoxication, whose only beverage is sherry, and gravely maintain the mysterious nature of their complaint by assuring the physician that they never touched distilled spirits, not knowing or forgetting that the full half, or more than half, of the alcohol contained in their wine consists of distilled spirit. The great physiological question of the use of alcohol in the body has in years gone by engaged my attention, and I endeavoured to answer it by serious experiment. A number of young men, engaged in athletic exercise in the open air, consumed a certain amount of wine of known strength, at reasonable intervals, with the precaution of avoiding all excess and any and every symptom of intoxication. It was ascertained by physiological analysis that 99 per cent, of alcohol were oxydized in the body, while about half a per cent, was exhaled by lungs and skin, another half per cent, re-appearing in the renal emunction. This proved therefore GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON WINES. 369 that the teaching of animal chemistry, according to which al- cohol in the body was oxydized and produced power, was cor- rect ; the then teaching being faulty only in this respect, that it was supposed that the power produced was limited to heat ; the theory caused the non-nitrogenous substances like fat, starch, sugar and alcohol to be called heat givers ; but more extensive research showed that the power which they yielded was more general, and that while a portion might be heat, another undoubtedly was mechanical energy, and another, again, nervous. These experiments, which I was the first to institute, have been repeated since by others, always with the same result, and it is now generally admitted that alcohol is food in the true sense of the word. Beer has an effect upon the body which is distinctly diffe- rent from that of wine ; it is no doubt an alcoholic liquid produced by fermentation, but it contains, at the same time, a principle of great sedative power nearly related to that of opium, namely hops. There is therefore between the alcohol on the one, and the lupulous principles on the other, a kind of antagonism, which, perhaps, neutralizes a portion of the effect of each in the first instance. As the composition of beer so is its effect upon the digestive organs more complicated than that of wine. It contains more extractive matter, in the shape of dextrine, sugar and salts, than wine, and by this means affords a material for the more copious development of bacteria in the intestinal canal, which wine, if at all, offers only in a much lower degree. The extract of hops is as powerful a sedative as that of poppy, particularly for the pro- duction of drowsiness and sleep, but it has not the anaesthe- tical effect of the latter. Its sedative effect shows itself in the lowering of all the higher nervous energies long before the arrival of alcoholic effects ; wine has sedative effects by its alcoholic effects alone, and by these only at the later period of its action. Distilled spirits have this danger in their use, that, in the case of insufficient dilution, they can be drunk in a more concen- trated form than is good for the body. On the other hand, they develop the effects of alcohol in its purest form. Rum formerly possessed this advantage over other distilled spirit, 370 A TREATISE ON WINES. that if unmixed with whiskey it was certainly free from amylic alcohol, so-called fusel oil. The progress in the art of distillation has imparted this quality to other spirits as well. Brandy from French cheap wines not rarely contains fusel oil to this day, and French chloroform made from such spirit is highly impure, from the admixture of chlorinated amylic products. But the finest French brandy, Cognac, made from the wine of ihe/otte blanche is the most ideal, the finest perfumed, and most wholesome of distilled spirits. CHAPTER XXXI. DISEASES OF VINES AND OF WINES. 252. DISEASES OF VINES AND THEIR TREATMENT. MOST of the abnormal conditions, so-called diseases of plants? particularly of vines, of which we have any precise knowledge, are of a parasitical nature, that is to say, caused by the settlement of living organisms of the nature of plants or animals upon the surface or in the tissues of the plant ; drawing their nutriment out of the tissues of the vine, crippling or destroying them, and leading eventually to the death of the entire plant. Thus a fungus of the mushroom type, an agaricits, the mycelium of which settles upon the roots of many forest and cultivated trees, and while its cycle of life was little understood, was called rhizomorpha, in some years infests many vines, and either makes them permanently sick and atrophic, or destroys them entirely. The French vignerons term it Blanc des Racines ; it has been observed also in the Vaudois, on the lake of Constance, and on the Rhine. 1 The reader who may desire concise information on the Diseases of Plants should consult the author's " Cantor Lectures " on that subject, delivered before the Society of Arts in January and February, 1887. DISEASES OF VINES. 371 Chestnut and apple-trees not rarely fall victims to the rhizoctonia, or root-killer. Of the mildew fungi or blights, the Erysiphes (Hedw.) a division of the Pyrenomycetes, comprising at least seven genera, and in these more than thirty species, the best known and most terrible is the oidium of the vine, known after its discoverer, the Gravesend gardener Tucker, as Oidium Tuckeri. It lives on the outside of the green parts of the vine, sends suckers, so-called haustoria, into their tissues, and Fig. 45. Vine-leaf, covered and crippled by the oidium. thus gradually destroys them. The leaves shrivel, crumble up and die ; the young shoots become atrophic and cease to grow ; the young grapes cease to grow, or shrivel and die, the larger grapes burst, lose their contents, or rot and die. These changes are represented by the accompanying sketches after Du Breuil. Most viticultural countries were visited by this plague during several decades of the present century. The wine production of Madeira, for example, was for years entirely destroyed; in that island 10,000 butts of wine were at one 372 A TREATISE ON WINES. time produced annually ; a few years after the invasion of the oidium no wine at all was produced. In Portugal I have seen the vines of entire districts, such as Carcavellos, Bucellas, and others destroyed by that calamity. It has been found that the presence of sulphur in a finely divided state is fatal to the oidium, and by the use of such sulphur only have the wine-producing lands been liberated from this plague. Du Breuil's work contains many illustrations of the manner in which the sulphur may be distributed over Fig. 46. A piece of vine- shoot covered with patches of oidium. Fig. 47. A bunch of grapes, dwarfed or fissured and burst through the agency of the oidium. the vines, but they are all more or less laborious or imper- fect. The genius of a French gardener invented a machine for sulphuring which is at once cheap, convenient, and efficient. It consists of an inner retort filled with water, and an outer retort filled with sulphur, both fixed in a portable little stove heated with charcoal. The coal fuses the sulphur and causes it to distill; the sulphur vapour causes the water to boil, and the steam carries the sulphur DISEASES OF VINES. 3/3 vapour with violence out of the cauldron. A man walking with this apparatus along the vines as quickly as he can, and keeping about a yard away from them, will cover the plants in all their finest details with an exceedingly fine Fig. 48. Wingless female phylloxera, yellow, spotted, greatly mag- nified ; dorsal aspect. layer of condensed steam and sulphur. The process is beautiful and safe, and one application is always effectual. Of animal parasites affecting vines the most celebrated and dreaded is the Phylloxera vastatrix (Planch.), (the devastating leaf- dryer), an insect belonging to the aphidia, e;enus of green-fly, producing galls on leaves and roots; 374 A TREATISE ON WINES. but damaging the vine only by the infliction upon the roots. This insect was discovered to be the cause of the most destructive vine disease by Planchon, in 1868, after it had ravaged many vineyards since 1863. Asa Fitch had previously discovered an insect which produces galls on the leaves of the vine, and which is now known to be reared out of the early egg of the winged female of the phylloxera, which does not hybernate. The life history of the phylloxera, if we start from the golden yellow, wingless female, the large spotted creature repre- sented in Fig. 48, is the following. This female, sitting on Figs. 49 and 50. Phylloxera of the roots : left specimen presents dorsal, right one ventral, side. The stinging organ is well seen. the root, lays thirty to forty eggs, out of which the young creep in about eight days. Each of these now begins to multiply by parthenogenesis, and may produce up to eight generations in one summer. One female may therefore have a parthenogenetic progeny of thirty millions of indi- viduals in one summer. They all remain on the roots on which they have been produced, and by stinging them and sucking their juices they produce galls and nodosities. The last brood at the end of summer, termed nymphs, or puflas, have beginnings of wings. These creep out of the earth, shed their skin several times, and become fully winged individuals. Their wings are four in number, large, and when the animals are at repose, lie flat on the body, as DISEASES OF VINES. 375 represented in Fig. 51. (The figures are after Oliveira, junior, of Oporto.) These winged nymphs now fly, and deposit eggs upon the leaves of vines; the eggs are four in number, and of different sizes ; the larger eggs develop into wingless females, the smaller eggs into wingless males. This development ensues in little galls formed on the under- side of the vine-leaf, as represented in Fig. 52. When the Fig. 51. Winged female Phylloxera, presenting ventral side. wingless animals are mature, they copulate, whereupon each impregnated female puts down one large winter egg in a crevice of the bark of the vine. In spring this egg develops to a wingless female, which descends to the roots, and pro- pagates on them within the earth by parthenogenesis as above described. The destruction effected by this parasite can be estimated by the fact that, while during the four years from 1875 to 1878, included, the average yield of the French vintage was 1,275 million gallons, the three vintages 376 A TREATISE ON WINES. from 1882 to 1885 decreased at a greater rate than 100 million gallons a year, so that the production of wine in France fell to little more than half of what it was before the spread of the phylloxera. The animals are most certainly destroyed by inundation ; when that is impossible, sulphide of carbon Fig. 52. Vine-leaf, from underside, with galls of phylloxera. is forced into the earth by an injector, and is said to produce the death of the parasites. Of the shield lice, or coccina, a variety of which is the Coccus cacti, or cochineal insect, a species, called vine louse, or vine bug, Coccus vitis, is common in England on vines grown in conservatories ; it settles on old wood, covered with loose bark ; to prevent its existence and multi- plication, the vine trunks have to be scraped clean of the DISEASES OF WINES. 377 bark and to be painted with milk of lime and tobacco infusion. There are some higher insects which effect local damages, but are never epidemic One of these is the Ettmolpus, a beetle a third of an inch in length, the larvae of which eat the vine-leaves. Another beetle of similar size, but pro- vided with a strong, stinging organ on its head, is the Attelabe ; the female fixes its eggs on a vine-leaf, and by stinging it in many places, causes it to roll up spirally and house the egg; it also stings thick green branches, and causes them to shrivel and die. A third beetle noxious to vines is the Altica oleracea (Geoffrey), altise of the French, which gnaws buds and grape-stalks. The larva of a small moth, French Pyrale, eats young leaves and grape-stalks at blossom-time, enveloping them in a fine veil of netting ; it appears a second time when the grapes are nearly ripe, covers them again with its silk, bites stalks, and eats into the grapes. This animal is much dreaded by French viticulturists. But compared to oidium and phylloxera, all other parasites of the vine are of rela- tively small significance. 253. DISEASES OF WINES, THEIR PREVENTION AND CURE. Wines are liable to be spoilt by many natural causes, all being the result of the action of fungi which live in must or wine as their material of nutrition and medium of propagation and multiplication. They were recognized and described both as to their life-history and effects mainly by Pasteur. Some are the result of the occasional failure of human in- terference, such as sulphuring, plastering, and fining with albumen, as described already on p. 285. The acetous jerment transforms alcohol into acetic acid, wine into vinegar; for the development of its full action it requires much air, as its effect is the result of oxydation. Wine must, therefore, be protected from the access of the acetous fungi not only, but also from extensive contact with 37^ A TREATISE ON WINES. air. Even a small proportion of acetic acid will spoil the flavour of wine. The scud or viscosity ferment multiplies with terrific energy in must, transforms it into a milky-white tasteless liquid, destroys all sugar, and completely crowds out the torula of alcoholic fermentation. It seems that sulphurous acid is the best preventive of this destructive change ; the acid does not kill the fungus or spores, but paralyses them, and allows time for the true alcohol yeast to develop and trans- form the sugar into spirit. This is antagonistic to the scud fungus, but does not kill or prevent its development on a minor scale. When the scud or viscosity fungus attacks wine in barrel or bottle it forms in long threads, which cotton together, and give to the wine the appearance of jelly. It also develops some acetic acid, and wine which is once invaded by it, does but rarely recover. It is this dangerous ferment, mainly, which requires the addition of brandy to southern wines to preserve them. It is also not improbable that the removal of tartaric acid from wine by gypsum acts as a hindrance to the development of this fungus. But the plastering neither destroys the fungus, nor prevents its development entirely ; it only modifies the growth and prevents the appearance of a little acetic acid as a decomposition product, in this case not of alcohol, but of tartaric acid. Common, low qualities of must in Spain and France require sulphurous acid, plaster and brandy, to be protected from the principal ravages of this dangerous fungus. The bacillus muris, or mouse taste ferment, produces a peculiarly disagreeable flavour in wine, which is closely resembling to the smell of a residence of mice. It may spoil the best wines, but its ravages are mitigated by the fact that, with time and ripening, the fault may disappear in the main. But the affection always retards the usability of the wine by two years. The fungus of bitterness attacks red wines more than white ; it also causes them to shed their colour. Burgundies are most liable to its development ; of white wines the Manza- nillas of St. Lucar sometimes show its traces. DISEASES OF WINES. 379 The mycoderma vini is a fungus which grows on the surface of wine and destroys its ethers in so remarkable a manner as to make the best wine flat to taste in a short time. By keeping the barrels always quite full, and allowing no ullage, the formation of this fungus is entirely prevented. JFlor, or mycoderma montillanum, is a ferment which, like the mycoderma aceti, requires to float on the surface of wine, and to have plenty of air for its existence ; the wine must also be of a certain alcoholicity to exclude the vinegar plant, which can "crowd out," i.e., overwhelm by greater numbers, the Montilla plant. When grown on the surface of good wine, as a pure cultivation, the mycoderma montillanum pro- duces the flavour known as Amontillado, formerly rejected, but now considered as a very high development of white Spanish wines. Agredoce is a disease of South French and Portuguese sweet red wines. It is of two kinds, one in which the acidity accompanying the sweetness is caused by acetic acid, and another in which it is caused by lactic acid. The latter is the most incurable, as it continues to act in the presence of sugar, a certain amount of alcoholicity notwithstanding. This disorder also afflicts many white wines of the Gironde, of Barsac and Sauternes. The prevention of these so-called diseases is entirely in the hands of the wine makers ; it is also in their power if they would only apply the teaching of science. This teach- ing affords the means of arresting these parasitic changes wherever they may show themselves. INDEX. ACETIC acid, occurrence and for- mation, 56, 66. Acid, butyric, 68 ; caproic, 68 ; formic, 57, 68 ; malic, 65 ; oenanthic, 69 ; propionic, 68 ; propylic, 57 ; racemic, 64 ; succinic, 65 ; tartaric, 64 ; va- lerianic, 68. Acidity of must, regulation, 50. Acids, estimation of, 69 ; fatty, separation of, 68 ; in wine, 63 ; from alcohols, 56. Africa, wines of, 345. Albariza, white soil of Jerez, 227. Albuelis, Elbling vine, 204. Albumen, quantation of, used for fining, 91. Albuminous matters, presence in wine, 91. Alcohol, amylic, 56 ; butylic, 56 ; caprylic, 56 ; estimation of, 59 ; ethylic, 54 ; formation of, 54 ; physical characters, 55 > P r< > pylic, 54 ; state of, in wine, 61. Alcoholometry, 57 ; by dilato- meter, 61 ; by distillation, 57, 58 ; by ebullioscope, 60 ; by Tabarie's method, 59 ; by va- porimeter, 60. Aldehydes, acetic, 56 ; in wine, 57 ; in spirits, 63. Algaida, indigenous vines of, 297. Algeria, wines of, 349. Alicante, wines of, 302 ; grape- vine, varieties of, 303. Alsatia, wines of, classification, 186 ; vines cultivated in, 186. Alto Douro, description, 308; lagar, 313 ; vines cultivated in, 310 ; wines of, 314 ; wine presses of, 313. America, general observations, 350; cultivation of vines in, 353 ; foreign vines in, 354 ; varieties cultivated in, 354 ; wild or indigenous vines of, 350. Ammonia, estimation of, 91 ; in sap, 21 ; in wine, 91. Analysis of wines, 57. Aragon, wines of, 304. Archipelago, Greek, wines of, 339. Armenia, wines of, 342. Aroma of wine, 77. Aroph (aroma philosophorum), 78. Ash of wine, 94. Asia, wines of, 341. Assmannshausen, vineyard, 197 ; vines cultivated at, 198. Atlantic islands, wines of, 329. Australia, climate of, 355 ; general remarks on, 356 ; history of viticulture in, 355. Austria, Lower, wines of, 205. Azores, wines from the, 331. BADEN, wines of, 194 ; govern- ment of, 195 ; viticulture as described by G. Bronner, 195 Balkan peninsula, wines of, 336. Banat, wines of, 225. Beaujolais, classification of wines and topography of, 145 ; train- ing of vines, 146 ; vines, and vintage of, 146. 382 A TREATISE ON WINES. Beer, comparison of with wine, 369. Benicarlo, wine of, 302. Berthelot, theory and estimation of ethers, 75. Bitartrate, estimation of, 70. Black Hambro vine, 208. Blayais, viticulture of, 125. Bodega, definition of, 289 ; treat- ment of wines in, 291. Bohemia, wines of, 218. Bouquet of wine, 77. Brandy, varieties, 184 ; produc- tion, 185. Bucellas, village anJ vineyard, 323; wine, 323. Bugeo, clay soil in Jerez, 229. Burgundy, 150 ; cultivation of vines in, 153 ; presses and press- ing, 159; topography, 151; treatment of wine, 159; vatting and fermentation, 157 ; vines of, 152, vintage in, 155. CACHETIA, wines of, 331. Canary sack (secco), 332. Candia (Crete), wines of, 340. Canes, propagation of vines by, 2 5- Cape of Good Hope, districts of, 345 ; historical notes on, 348 ; vines, vintage and vinification, 346; wines of, 347. Carbonic acid, absorption of in champagne, 1 79 ; production by fermentation, 48. Carmenere vine, 100. Catalan, called Spanish port, 302. Caucasia, wines of, 341. Chalon-sur-Saone, Cote de, 149 ; vines and wines of, 149. Chalons -sur-Marne, champagne vaults of, 163. Chambertin, wine of, 151. Champagne, carbonic acid in, 179; adjustment of acid and alcohol in, 1 73 ; breakage or casse, 1 74 ; cellaring and fining wine in, 172 ; corking and finishing, 175 ; cultivation of vines in, 1 66; disgorging of bottles, 175; drawing into bottles, tirage, 174; fermentation in bottles, 174; fining, 173; history of discovery of, 178; liqueuring, 175; mousse of, 179; pressing and fermentation, 171 ; pressure in bottles, 179; provining, 166; -> soil of, 161 ; topography of, 160; treatment of claret in, 173 ; vines of, 167 ; vineyards of, 163 ; vintage in, 169 ; spark- ling, 177; varieties of, 177; cremant, 177; grand mousseux, 177 ; mousseux, 177 ; non-mous- seux, 177 ; sparkling ceil de perdrix, 177 ; still, 177. Charente, department of, 183 ; brandies, eau-de-vie, of, 184 ; wines of, 183. Chateau-neuf-du-pape, 141 ; vines of, 141 ; vineyard and wines of, 142. Chateau, Lafitte, 1 10 ; Latour, no; Margaux, 108 ; Yquein, 120. Coccus vitis, vine-bug, 376. Cognac, brandy, 184; mode of manufacture at, 184 ; vines used in making, 183. Collares, vineyards and vines of, 322. Colouring matters of wine, 87. Constantias, wines from the, 348. Consumo, Portuguese wine, 320. Cotes, or hillsides of the Gironde 121. Crete (Candia), wines of, 340. Crimea', wines of, 341. Croatia, cultivation of vines in 214 ; wines of, exhibited a Agram, 215. Cruchinet vine, 100. Crushing of grapes, 43. Cutting or pruning of vines, 28. Cyprus, wines of, 340. INDEX. 333 DALMATIA, cultivation of vines in, 215; maraschino, cherry- liqueur, 216 ; vintage and vini- fication, 216; wines of, 216. Densities of musts of Jerez, 271. Dextro-tartaric acid, 64. Diseases of vines, 370 ; wines, 377- Distillation of wine for quantation of alcohol, 57. EAU-DE-VIE of Cognac, 184. Ebullioscope, 60. Elbling vine, 204. Elder-tree on the Douro, 314; flower, flavour of, in wine, 204 ; berry, for colouring wine, 314. Ellfeld, or Eltville, 198. Entre-deux-mers, viticulture of, 124. Ermitage, vines cultivated, 143 ; vineyard of, 143. Estimation (quantation) of acids, 63 ; albumen, 91 ; alcohol, 59 ; alkalies, 94 ; ammonia, 91 ; ash, 94 ; bitartrate, 70 ; chlorine, 94 ; ethers, 74 ; extractives, 93 ; glycerol, 86 ; malic acid, 71 ; mineral constituents, 94 ; phos- phoric acid, 71 ; succinic acid, 71 ; sugar, chemical, 83 ; sugar, optical, 83 ; sulphuric acid, 95 ; tannin, 92 ; tartaric acid, 70 ; total residue (solids), 94. Ether acetic, or aceto-ethylic, 72 ; aceto - propylic, 73 ; butyro- ethylic, 73 ; cenanthic, 73 ; tar- taric, 65, 74. Ethers, compound, 57 ; compound, in wine, 72 ; fixed, 72 ; volatile, 72. Ethylic alcohol, 54. Eumolpus, parasitic beetle on vines, 376. Extractives in wine, 93. Eyes (buds), grafting of, 28 ; pro- pagation by, 25. FERMENTATION of must, 48 ; of wine in bottles, 174. Ferments of disease, or fungi, 377. Fossil vines and grapes, 10. France, wines of, 96. Franconia, cultivation in, 192 ; Leiste, the, 193 ; Stein, the, 194 ; topography of, 192 ; viti- culture near Wurtzburg, 194. Frankenthal grape, 208. Frontignac wine, 136. Fungi of vines and wines causing disease, 326. Furmint, vine of Tokay, 220. Fusel oil, or amylic alcohol, 56 ; effects upon the body, 362. CAMAY, vine, 147 ; Nicholas, vine, 146 ; petit, vine, 146 ; Picard, 147. Card, department, wines of, 131. Geisler's vaporimeter, 60. Geographical distribution of vines, n. Georgia, wines of, 342. Germany, wines of, 186. Gironde, wines of the, 96 ; wines of the hillsides or cotes of, 121. Glycerol (glycerine) in wine, 86. Goertz, wines of, 217. Graefenberg vineyard, 198. Grafting, compound inarching, 27 ; by eyes, 28 ; in grooves, 28 ; simple inarching, 28. Granada, wines of, 303. Grape-cure at Meran, 209. Grape-mill for crushing, 43. Grapes, 22 ; acid and sugar in, during ripening, 22 ; chemical constituents of, 22 ; fossil, 10 ; mashing of, 43. Graves, in the Gironde, 114; clas- sification of vines of the, 115 J cultivation in the, 115 ; fermen- tation in, 118; red wines of, 116; topography, 114; vines cultivated in, 117; vintage in, 117; white wines of the, 1 16, 12O, 384 A TREATISE ON WINES. Greece, general remarks on, 336 ; quantity of wine, 338 ; vines, viticulture etc. , 337 ; wines of, varieties, 336. Greek Archipelago, islands of, 339- Grenache noir, vine, 126. HAMBRO black grape, 208. Hesse, north of Maine, 195. Hesse, Rhenish, 191 ; Rhenish, area of vineyards, 191 ; Lieb- fraumilch, 192 ; Niersteiner, 192. Hochheim, topography of, 202 ; vines planted at, 202 ; vinifica- tion at, 203. Holy Ghost wine, 194. Hungary, classification of wines of, 223 ; cultivation in, 220 ; Kadarka, blue grape, 220 ; soil of, 220 ; topography of, 218 ; vines, varieties of, 220 ; vintage and vinification in, 220 ; white Tokay vine (Furmint), 220. IMERITIA, wines of, 342. Inarching, compound and simple, 27, 28. Indigenous vines of the Algaida, 297 ; of America, 350 ; of Eu- rope, 4; of the Rhine valley, 4,. 5- Inosite, a sugar in wine, 217. Italy, wines of, 332. JEREZ, vineyards and wines of, 226. Jeropiga, of Portugal, 321. Johannisberg, description and his- tory, 200; vines and produce, 201. KADARKA, blue grape of Hun- gary, 220. LANG UEDOC, or Midi, 131; brandy (trois-six) of, 137; muscat wines of, 136: remarkable growths of, 134 ; topography of, 131 ; train- ing of vines, vinification, etc., 132. Lavradio, wines of, 324. Layers or slips, propagation by, 26. Lisbon wine, 322. Loire, valley of, 181; cultivation in, 182 ; vines and wines of, 181. Lombardy, wines of, 334. MACEDONIA, wines of, 336. Macon, town of, 146. Maconnais, the, 146 ; classification of growths of the, 148 ; cultiva- tion in, 147 ; production and soil of, 147 ; varieties of wines of, 148. Madeira, island of, 329 ; wines of, 33- Maine, lower. See Hochheim, 202. Majorca, wines of, 304. Malaga, wines of, 303. Malic acid in wine, 65. Manuring of vines, methods of, 24. Manzanilla, de San Lucar, wine, 2 95- Maraschino, grape-vine, 216 ; cherry-brandy, 216. Marcobrunn, vineyard, 200. Marsala in Sicily, 335 ; vineyards and wines of, 335. Marshes of the Gironde, 124. Mashing of grapes, 43. Measures, various Spanish, 226 ; of capacity, Rhenish ; English ; French ; Portuguese ; Spanish. Medoc, classified growths of, 108 ; consumption of wines of, 112; cultivation in, loi ; general sta- tistics of, 97 ; methods of sale in, 112; prices of wines of, 112; topography of, 97 ; vines and viticulture, 98 ; vintage and vi- nification, 104. Meran, grape-cure at, 209. Merlot, grapevine, 99. Mescle,the fertile and the sterile, 7. Meunier or miller grape vine, 182. INDEX. 385 Mineral constituents of wine, 15, 18; matter abstracted from land by vines, 19. Mingrelia, wines of, 342. Minorca, wines of, 304. Montpelier brandy (trois-six), 137. Morea, vines of, 338. Morocco, wines of, 349. Moselle, river, vineyards of, 203 ; area of, 205 ; sparkling, 204 ; topography, 203 ; vines and wines of, 204. Must, acidity of, adjusted, 50 ; density of, from various grapes of Jerez, 271; plastering, 52; sugar of, adjusted, 50. Mustang, American grape-vine, 35 1 - Mycoderma aceti, 66. NAPLES, wines of, 334. Nassau, vineyards of, 196. Nile Valley, wines of, 349. OI'DIUM TUCKERI, 372. PALATINATE, area of vineyards, 1 88; kammerbau training, 189; mixture of vines in the, 190 ; to- pography, 188 ; vines and wines, 190. Parasites, animal of vines, 372. Paratartaric acid, 64. Pedro Ximenes vine, 243. Persia, vines and wines of, 342. Petiot's process of vinification, 51. Phylloxera vastatrix, 372. Piedmont, wines of, 333. Pinching of vine-shoots, 31. Pineau or Noirien vine, 152. Plastering of must, 52; of wine, 52, 365 ; probable objects of, 53. Port, Spanish, 302. Port wine = Oporto wine, produc- tion and qualities, of, 316 ; transport, 316 ; value, 320 ; vinification and vintage, 311; white, 315 ; varieties of, 319. Portugal, wines of, 306 ; Alto Douro wine, 308 ; Bairrada dis- trict, 320 ; brandy, addition to wine, 318 ; Bucellas wine, 323; Consumo wine, 320 ; cultivation of vine in, 310 ; Jeropiga added to wine, 322 ; wages in, 311 ; wines of, other than port, 315. Presses and pressing, 44. RACEMIC acid in wine and grapes, 64. Rauenthal, vineyards of, 198. Rheingau, general description, 196; history of wine in, 196 ; Riessling vine in, 197 ; varieties of vines in, 197 ; vinification in, 197. Rhenish Hesse, wines of, 191. Rhenish measures of capacity, 203. Rhenish Prussia, 203. See Moselle. Rhodes, wines of, 340. Rhone, cote du, wines of, 140 ; valley, topography of, 140. Riessling, grape-vine, 197. Rota, Tintilla de, 299. Rothe Berg, Rheingau vineyard, 198. Roumanian wines, 336. Roussillon, cultivation in, 126; Maccabeo, wines of, 129; Mai- voisie, wines of, 129 ; Muscat, wines of, 129; shipments from, 131 ; vines and wines of, 125, Riidesheim, vineyards and wines, 202. SACCHAROMETRY, chemical, 83 ; optical, 83. San Lucar de Barrameda, vine- yards, 295. Santorin, wines of, 340. Sap of vines, 21 ; force of rising, 21. Sardinia, wines of, 333. Sauternes district, viticult. statis- tics, 116; vines and wines, 116. Sauvignone, grape-vine, 116. 386 A TREATISE ON WINES. Schirwan, wines of, 342. Scud fungus in wine, 377. Secateur, for pruning, 122. Seed, propagation of vines by, 24. Semillon, grape-vine, 116. Shiraz, topography, 342 ; vines, vinification, 343. Sherry, colour of, 279 ; densities of musts of, 270 ; fashions in, and history of, 193 ; modes of making, 276 ; plastering, 52 ; districts of growth of, 226 ; stages of, 276 ; sugaring and boiling must, 279 ; sulphuring, 272 ; treatment in bodegas, 274 ; varieties of, 276. Sicily, wines of, 335. Smell, or bouquet of wine, 77 Soil for viticulture, 23. Solera wines, 277. Solid constituents of wine, 95. Spain, area of Sherry vineyards, 226 ; density of musts, 270 ; Port wines, so-called Spanish, 302 ; wines of its provinces, 226 __ to 302. Spirit, silent, 62. Spumantes, Italian effervescent wines, 333. Stalks of grapes, separation of, 42. St. Emilion, district and vineyards, 122. St. Peray, Ardeche, vineyards and vines, 142. Steinberg vineyard, 198 ; annual sale of wines, 200 ; cabinet, 200. Styria, vines and wines, 211 10213; social condition, 211 ; Wild- bacher blue grape-vine, 212. Sugar of cane, 82 ; estimation of, 83 ; fruit, or levulose, 81 ; grape or dextrose, 80 ; invert, 82. Sulphuring of must and wine, 272. Syrmia, wines of, 225. TABARIE'S method of alcohol quantation, 59. Tannin in grapes and wine, 93. Tartaric acid, 64 ; dextro, and levorotatory, 64 ; estimation of, 69 ; para (tartaric acid), 64. Teinturier (Dyer) grape-vine, 88. Temperature of fermenting musts, 274. Teneriffe, wine from, 331. Tent, or Rota Tent, Tintilla de Rota, wine, 229. Tessa, areometer of, 184. Thera, wine of (Santorin), 340. Thessaly, wine of, 336. Tokay, white wine of, 219. Torres Vedras, wines of, 324. Traminer vines, 190. Turkish islands, wines of, 340. Tuscany, wines of, 333. Tyrol, black grape of (Hambro), 207 ; cultivation of vines, 207, 208. Tyrolinger, black Hambro vine, 208. VAL DE PENAS, wines of, 301. Valencia, wines of, 302. Venetia, wines of, 334. Verdot, grape-vine, ioo. Vine, organic chemical ingredi- ents, 2O ; cultivation, general principles of, 28 ; cultivated, origin of, 9 ; cutting or pruning, 29 ; fossil, 10 ; geographical distribution, II ; ditto, as influ- enced by soil, 1 8 ; propagation, methods of, 24, 25 ; pruning of, 29 ; sap of, 21 ; support of, 30, 31 ; training after Guyot, 28, 32; treatment during vegetation, 30. Vines, classification of wild, 8 ; cultivated in France, 37 ; indi- genous of Europe, 4; ditto, of America, 350 ; inflorescence of wild, 6 ; origin and descent, 2 ; selection of varieties, 33, 36; wild, 4. Vineyards, improving of, 24. INDEX. 3S7 Vintage, general course of, 38 ; modes of, 40. Viscosity fungus in wine, 377. Viticulture, effects on soil, 19 ; general principles of, 23 ; in England in Mediaeval times, 13. Vitis aestivalis (vine), 351 ; cali- fornica, 352 ; candicans (mus- tang), 351 ; caribsea, 351 ; cor- difolia, 352; labrusca, 4, 351; Lincecumii, 353 ; monticola, 353 J rupestris, 353 ; teutonica (fossil), II ; vinifera, 2, 3. Voslau (Austria), red wines of, 206. WENDS, viticulturists (Weinzettel), 211. Wildbacher, grape-vine, 212. Wine fungi, in diseases of wines, 326. Wine making, Gall's process, 51 ; Petiot's,5i ; presses; 44; French, 45 ; Spanish, 46 ; Portuguese, 48 ; The'nard's process, 51 ; use of at various ages, 367. Wines, of Atlantic isles, 329; Aus- tralasia, 355 ; Austria, 205 ; Cape of Good Hope, 345 ; France, 96 et seq. ; Germany, 1 86 et seq. ; Greece, 336 ; Hungary, 218; Portugal, 306; Sicily, 335 ; Spain, 226 ; active ingre- dients of, 361 ; classification of, 357 ; rating of the world's, 356 ; red, 363 ; taxation of, 359 ; white, 362 ; plastering of, 365. Woiwodina, wines of, 225. Wiirtemberg, wines o r , 194. Wurtzburg castle, cellars of, 193. 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