:: .
 
 UCSB LIBRARY 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 By J. B. EDWARDS. 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio: 
 
 AMERICAN AUTOMOBILE DIGEST 
 
 1922
 
 COPYRIGHTED 1921 
 
 AMERICAN AUTOMOBILE DIGEST 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
 
 ... CONTENTS ... 
 
 PACK 
 
 FOREWORD * , iii-iv 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 A Word on the Automobile Engine T 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 The 16- Valve Motor and the Knight Type 18 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Horse-Power: Its Definition and Determination. .. 23 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 The Fuel Feed and the Carburetor 31 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Removing the Query from Carburetor Adjustment. 41 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Operation and Care of Vacuum Tank.- 50 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 How Wear Affects Valve Timing 56 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Giving the "Third Degree" to a Balky Motor 61 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Applying Logic to Difficult Starting 65 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 The System That Is Eliminating the Magneto 74 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 Features and Care of Ignition Systerrts 79 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 The Starter-Lighter System Analyzed. . 87
 
 CONTENTS Continued 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 Operation of Eclipse-Bendix Starter Drive 95 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 Supreme Importance of Battery Care 101 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 Clutch Adjustments 107 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 Functions of Automobile Transmissions Ill 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 Rear Axle Technology 118 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 The Differential 131 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 Care and Adjustment of Brakes 135 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 Lubrication Pointers That Have Merit 154 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 Keeping Up^Appearance of the Car 158 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 Hints on Maintenance and Repairing 161 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 Carbon : Its Source and Elimination 166 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 Little Things That Count in Car Care 174 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 A Few Hints to the Tourist . . .201
 
 FOREWORD. 
 
 THERE are so many angles to the modern 
 automobile, so many distinct systems com- 
 bined to make up the complete perfected 
 car, that he is a broad man indeed, and truly 
 worthy of the title "Automobile Expert" who is 
 perfectly familiar with all of the various phases 
 of motor car construction, care and repair. 
 
 Feeling that this is the case, and realizing that 
 he is not of the broad stock that can grasp fully 
 each of many fine points that have to do with the 
 proper care of the automobile, the editor has in 
 the present work, sought out from the current 
 trade press the most apt of the many special 
 articles on various phases of motor car care, each 
 written by an expert in his one particular branch 
 of the subject. The editor has confined his ef- 
 forts to weaving the assembled matter into a com- 
 posite whole that covers fully the broad subject 
 in hand. 
 
 Not all of these specialists, highly trained as 
 they are, are gifted with the knack of presenting 
 highly technical matter in a manner that is not 
 only perfectly understandable, but at the same 
 time interest impelling, to the average non-tech- 
 nical car owner ; nor were the original articles all 
 handled from the same viewpoint. The editor's 
 work, therefore, has consisted chiefly in redraft- 
 ing the material supplied by these specialists the
 
 2 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 better to suit it for his present needs, and in 
 arranging the matter in some sort of logical 
 coherent shape so that the reader will not feel 
 that he is starting a new book with the beginning 
 of each chapter, 
 
 If, then, the reader finds that the style changes 
 from chapter to chapter; if one subject is treated 
 in a light, almost flippant manner, and the next 
 in a ponderous, deep style, be happy in the knowl- 
 edge that each article is authoritive, represent- 
 ing a deal of forethought by a specialist in his 
 subject. What is lost in literary style is fully 
 compensated for in the truthfulness and reliabil- 
 ity of the subject matter. 
 
 One theorist, perhaps, with a gift for present- 
 ing his theories in readable style, could present a 
 far more readable work; but for real value it 
 never could compare with the efforts of the dozen 
 or more specialists whose combined efforts have 
 resulted in the present work. 
 
 One more word: In this, the third edition 
 of the work, the chief efforts of the revisor 
 have been directed to the task of bringing the 
 volume right up to the minute. He has spared 
 no effort necessary to give his readers first-hand 
 information on the very latest practice infor- 
 mation that is not covered by any other motor 
 book. 
 
 J. B. EDWARDS.
 
 
 
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 'i
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 A WORD ON THE AUTOMOBILE ENGINE. 
 
 Heat the Real Source of Its Energy How the 
 Heat is Generated and Disposed of Various 
 Types of Modern Motors Described and Dis- 
 cussed. 
 
 A MOTOR CAR involves a considerable out- 
 lay of money, and for that reason purchase 
 should be made intelligently. The buyer 
 should know exactly why he makes a particular 
 choice. He should not take the salesman's word 
 alone. On the contrary, he should be able to tell, 
 of his own knowledge, whether the salesman 
 speaks from conviction, or merely from en- 
 thusiasm. 
 
 Of first importance, then, the buyer should 
 understand that an automobile motor is by far 
 the most important part of a motor car, and 
 that the whole question of the car's worth de- 
 pends upjon its motor. Next in importance, the 
 buyer should understand that all automobile 
 motors are heat engines. Regardless of their 
 form of construction, or their number of cylin- 
 ders, all automobile motors are heat engines. 
 By that it is meant that heat is the force which 
 furnishes the power of the motors. To reach an 
 understanding of automobile motors it is first 
 necessary to get this fundamental fact firmly 
 fixed in mind. 
 
 Gasoline is the fuel which supplies the heat. 
 In other words, gasoline is the "raw material" 
 for making the heat, just as cotton is the raw 
 material for making cloth. 
 
 When the gasoline is taken into the carburetor 
 it is mixed with air and vaporized. That is, it 
 is transformed into gas. This gas is then taken 
 into the cylinders, and by means of an electric 
 
 (7)
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 spark it is^burned, or, as we generally say, it is 
 "exploded." Gasoline vapor burns so very 
 quickly that we speak of the transformation as 
 an "explosion." If you could burn a stick of 
 stovewood or a lump of coal as quickly as you 
 can a quantity of gasoline, they, too, would "ex- 
 plode." 
 
 This burning, or "exploding" of the gasoline, 
 creates a very high degree of heat about 2500 
 degrees Fahrenheit. Heat, as everyone knows, 
 expands, thus if we heat a length of metal rod, 
 the rod expands and the amount of expansion 
 depends directly, within certain limits, on the 
 degree of temperature to which the metal is 
 heated. Similarly, if we heat a quantity of air 
 or other gas, it expands according to the amount 
 of heat applied. When, therefore, the charge is 
 exploded in the gas-charged cylinder of the 
 engine^ the gas is expanded considerably and it is 
 the action of this expanding gas against the top 
 of the piston which drives it down ;.\ and the 
 piston being connected to the crankshaft causes 
 that part to rotate and this rotation in turn is 
 transmitted to the road wheels. It is then, after 
 all, nothing but heat which causes the automo- 
 bile to move. 
 
 At the end of the power stroke a considerable 
 portion of the 2500 degrees of heat derived from 
 that charge of gasoline is gone, used up in the 
 effort necessary to drive the piston downward. 
 
 Still more of it was carried out of the cylin- 
 der with the exhaust gases when the exhaust 
 valve was opened at the bottom of the piston 
 stroke and the remainder was lost by radiation 
 through the cylinder walls whence it is carried 
 away by the cooling water. In the typical auto- 
 mobile motor about 25 per cent of the available 
 heat of the fuel is used in driving the piston, the 
 remainder being lost through the exhaust 'and
 
 The Automobile Engine. 9 
 
 the cylinder walls. And of the 25 per cent that 
 is converted into useful work, another fifth is lost 
 through friction in the mechanism itself, so 
 that, roughly, only about 20 per cent of the power 
 actually available in the gasoline is utilized to 
 drive the car forward. 
 
 Valve-in-Head or I-Head Type 
 of Motor. 
 
 "T"-Head Type of Engine. 
 
 When the piston has reached the bottom of 
 its stroke, a valve is opened which permits the 
 spent gases to escape from the cylinder into the 
 muffler and thence to the atmosphere. This 
 valve, which is actuated by a cam mounted on 
 a camshaft which is driven at half the crankshaft 
 speed, is kept open until the piston has again 
 reached the top of its stroke when it closes and 
 another valve, the inlet valve, is opened by an- 
 other cam mounted on the same shaft. This
 
 10 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 second valve opens a passage from the carburetor 
 to the cylinder and is kept open until the piston 
 reaches the bottom of the stroke again, the piston 
 in the meantime sucking in a charge of the va- 
 porized gasoline, much the same as a medical 
 syringe will suck up a quantity of liquid when 
 ,the plunger is pulled out. 
 
 When the bottom of the stroke is again reached 
 the inlet valve is closed and there being no further 
 communication with the air, the gas contained in 
 the cylinder is compressed by the ascending 
 piston, to be ignited by the spark when the piston 
 has nearly reached the top of its stroke. The 
 cycl6 is then repeated and the engine operates so 
 long as gasoline is supplied to the carburetor 
 and a spark is 'produced at the plug points at the 
 proper interval to insure ignition. 
 
 So far, all automobile motors are alike ; for all 
 modern automobile engines operate on the "four- 
 cycle" or Otto cycle principle. Time was when 
 a different type of motor, operating on what is 
 known as the "two-cycle" principle was used by 
 a few manufacturers, but that type never proved 
 wholly satisfactory in motor car service. 
 
 Aside from the number of cylinders, the most 
 distinctive features characterizing modern auto- 
 mobile motors is the valve arrangement. 
 
 For the most part, automobile manufacturers 
 have preferred to stick to the "poppet" valve 
 motor ; that is a motor with valves shaped like a 
 mushroom, with a conical face ground to fit a 
 recessed face formed for the purpose in the com- 
 bustion chamber of the motor. Only one other 
 valve arrangement has made any considerable 
 progress in this country, and that is the Knight 
 motor with the valve operations carried out by 
 a pair of sliding sleeves mounted concentric with 
 the piston and given a vertical movement which 
 causes them to cover and uncover suitable ports
 
 The Automobile Engine. 
 
 11 
 
 in the cylinder walls at the proper time by means 
 of an eccentric carried on a half time shaft. 
 
 The poppet valve motors are divided into four 
 distinct classes, according to the valve arrange- 
 ment, although at the present time only three of 
 these classes are in general use in the automobile 
 field. Of the three, one, the T-head type, is fast 
 losing ground. The four classes are known re- 
 spectively s the T-head type; L-head type; 
 
 "L"-Head Type of Motor. 
 
 I-head or "valve-in-the-head" type and F-head 
 type. 
 
 The T-head type, which when four cylinder 
 motors first began to grow -in popularity, was far 
 and away the most generally used, has the inlet 
 valve of each cylinder mounted on one side of 
 the motor and the exhaust valve on the other 
 side so that the cylinder casting, as can plainly
 
 12 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 be seen in the accompanying diagram, resembles 
 roughly a capital "T." The complication of the 
 arrangement has been the chief cause of its 
 abandonment, for it involves not only the use of 
 two camshafts, one at either side of the motor, 
 but also the use of double valve pockets. Doubling 
 of the pockets entails added complication in the 
 casting of the cylinders, and also affords a greater 
 area of exposed surface in the combustion cham- 
 ber which in turn entails larger heat losses 
 through radiation. It moreover results in a de- 
 sign that does not lend itself readily to cleancut 
 appearance which the modern motorist demands 
 in his car. 
 
 The L-head type of motor, on the other hand, 
 with both valves on the one side of the cylinder 
 so that the cylinder casting resembles the letter 
 "L" avoids the duplication of the camshaft and 
 valve pockets and lends itself readily to full en- 
 closure of the valve mechanism giving rise tc a 
 cleaner cut motor, as to appearance. It has the 
 additional advantage that the cool incoming gases 
 tend to keep the exhaust valve at a moderate 
 temperature and help in a measure, at least, to 
 keep the valves from pitting and burning. It is 
 far and away the simplest of the four arrange- 
 ments and as a matter of course, is the one which 
 is used by the majority of present day manufac- 
 turers. 
 
 The I-head type of motor is without valve 
 pockets, both valves being positioned in the head 
 of the motor as shown by the accompanying illus- 
 tration. This design has certain virtues all of 
 its own; also certain disadvantages, although 
 drawbacks do not offset the advantages accruing 
 to the type. Certain it is that the valve arrange- 
 ment permits of doing away with the pockets, 
 reducing the area through which radiation can 
 take place and making for increased speed of
 
 The Automobile Engine. 13 
 
 flame propagation which spells increased power. 
 On the other hand, the valve mechanism itself is 
 more complicated, involving the use of overhead 
 rockers and long push rods. It is also a hard type 
 to enclose. Much progress has been made by the 
 "valve-in-head" engine over the past five years. 
 Present types are fully enclosed, valve parts well 
 lubricated and comparatively quiet. 
 
 The F-head motor is rarely met with in auto- 
 mobile practice although until lately it has been 
 used almost universally in motorcycle motors. It 
 comprises an inlet valve mounted in a valve 
 pocket directly over the exhaust valve and is a 
 cross between the L-head motor and the "valve- 
 in-the-head" type. Its principal advantage ac- 
 crues from the fact that larger diameter valves 
 can be used than with either the I-head type or 
 the L-head type and a corresponding increase in 
 power can, theoretically, be counted upon for 
 this reason. It is a cool-running type, not over- 
 sensitive to carbon deposit, and is finding wide 
 application on modern cars. 
 
 As has been amply set forth, each type of motor 
 has its own peculiar little advantages so that it 
 is a hard matter even for the expert to decide 
 which type is the best; a great deal depends 
 upon the service to which the car is to be put 
 and the type of man who is to operate it. For the 
 speed-fiend, for instance, or the man who puts 
 gasoline economy above every other feature, the 
 valve-in-the-head motor undoubtedly will not 
 prove disappointing; on the other hand, for the 
 slow careful driver who is looking principally 
 for comfort and lack of complication, the L-head 
 type with its interchangeable valves, easily ad- 
 justed, will be found best suited to his purposes. 
 
 The present eight-cylinder engine is built in 
 what is termed V-form, the cylinders being ar- 
 ranged in two sets of four each, which make an
 
 14 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 angle of 90 degrees to each other and outline 
 the letter V. The V-type engine presents a very 
 moderate length, resulting in a somewhat shorter 
 hood than would be necessary with a six-cylinder 
 engine of the same power, and also a somewhat 
 roomier body with the same wheel base. 
 
 Front View of the Cadillac Eight-Cylinder V Engine. 
 
 Makers of eight-cylinder engines claim that they 
 exceed the six-cylinder in flexibility, uniform- 
 ity of torque and freedom from vibration and 
 even if equalled in power they possess the same 
 economy, easy turning length and light weight 
 as in the light four. Power for power the eight 
 seems to possess quite an advantage over the six
 
 Multi-Cylinder V-Type Engine. 15 
 
 in the above respects. They are very smooth in 
 operation, as there are very little lapses during 
 impulses, eliminating the laboring jerks and jars. 
 In an engine of this type there are eight power 
 strokes in two revolutions, or four in one revolu- 
 tion of the crank shaft, or one explosion every 90 
 degrees of crank shaft movement. Each explo- 
 sion is smaller than in a six-cylinder engine and 
 as the crank shaft is shorter and has fewer arms 
 the annoying crankshaft vibrations are eliminated. 
 
 There is another advantage possessed by this 
 type of engine of which very little has been men- 
 tioned, and this is in respect to self-starting. 
 Roughly speaking, an engine of this type need 
 have but half the piston area of a four of equal 
 stroke and power. Therefore, the starting motor 
 must overcome a compression resistance that is 
 about half that encountered in the four-cylinder 
 engine, tending to reduce the size of and con- 
 sumption of the starting motor and also to reduce 
 those difficulties which pertain to the efficiency 
 of a single unit starting and lighting system. 
 
 Opinions differ as to the best method of at- 
 taching and connecting rods and one finds two 
 methods in vogue. They are either placed 
 side by side or one is forked and the other 
 operates on a bushing within the fork of the 
 former. There are also two camshaft construc- 
 tions, one having eight cams and the other six- 
 teen, while the valves may either be operated 
 direct or through rocker arms. With the con- 
 necting rods placed side by side it is necessary 
 to stagger the cylinders to center them with the 
 connecting rods. 
 
 Lubrication seems to present another problem 
 as this seems to be divided between pressure feed 
 and splash, and combinations of both. Both 
 forced and thermo syphon cooling systems are 
 also used, while with the former opinions also
 
 16 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 vary as to whether one or two pumps should be 
 used. In some cases the intake manifold is water- 
 jacketed, while the manifolds are almost univer- 
 sally placed on the inside of the V. 
 
 So much for the eight-cylinder engine. Its 
 development during the past five years has been 
 most rapid and to date there are no less than a 
 dozen different makes of eight-cylinder engines 
 and a score or more of cars powered with them. 
 Among the best known of the motors are the 
 Buda, Perkins, Ferro, Ross, Herschell-Spillman, 
 Jenks, Davis and Stearns. Of these by far the 
 greater number do not differ materially from 
 Cadillac and King practice, although detail 
 cylinder motor, that there is not at least one cylin- 
 der turning the crankshaft. Before one cylinder 
 is completely out, the next in firing order has 
 fired and carried on the work. 
 
 Just as the eight uses a standard shape of 
 four-cylinder crankshaft, so does the twelve or 
 "twin six" employ the familiar type of six-cylin- 
 der crankshaft with its throws set at angles of 
 120 degrees. This difference in crank angle, how- 
 ever, makes it advisable to set the opposite blocks 
 of cylinders at an angle of 60 degrees, instead of 
 the 90 degrees angle usually found in the eight. 
 The twelve is thus inherently a narrower motor 
 than the eight and this feature presents several 
 interesting points in its favor The sharper an- 
 gle between the cylinder blocks permits the motor 
 accessories, such as the magneto, carburetor, 
 water pump, electric starter and dynamo, to be 
 placed in convenient locations outside of the "V" 
 and thus leaves the space between the cylinder 
 blocks clear for free inspection, adjustment and 
 grinding of the valves. The usual practice with 
 the eight, on the other hand, is to crowd the "V" 
 with these necessary accessories, rendering the 
 valves, when operated from a single camshaft,
 
 Multi-Cylinder F-Type Engine. 17 
 
 quite inaccessible. 
 
 Furthermore, the narrower motor permits of 
 the use of a more accessible steering gear and 
 allows the frame to be narrowed so that the 
 radius required for turning is reduced by a con- 
 siderable amount. And then, because for a given 
 power motor, the cylinders in each block of a 
 twelve motor are smaller than in a six, each im- 
 pulse imparts less strain to the crankshaft, which, 
 therefore, can be made lighter and a single cen- 
 ter bearing is generally found adequate. 
 
 In its structural features, aside from those 
 which have been brought to the attention of the 
 reader, the twelve does not vary materially from 
 the more common eight.
 
 X 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 THE 16-VALVE MOTOR AND THE KNIGHT TYPE. 
 
 NOW comes another valve arrangement an 
 idea, by the way, which the motor car 
 designer has taken from the designer of 
 high speed motorcycles the "duplicate valve 
 motor." That is to say, a motor with two inlet 
 valves and two exhaust valves for each cylinder, 
 so that in the four-cylinder motor there are six- 
 teen valves in all instead of the customary eight 
 valves, and in the six-cylinder engine of duplicate 
 valve design there are, of course, twenty-four 
 valves in all. 
 
 It has long been a recognized fact that the 
 efficiency of any motor depends upon two fea- 
 tures more than any others ^e size of the valve 
 opening and the speed with which the valves 
 close after the intake and exhaust strokes. Us- 
 ing'single intake and exhaust valves, their diam- 
 eters are necessarily restricted by the diameter 
 of the cylinders, and it has been found impossi- 
 ble to fit valves sufficiently large to permit of 
 absolutely free ingress and egress of the gases. 
 Another drawback of the single valve arrange- 
 ment is the fact that increasing the diameter of 
 the valve in order to permit of freer passage of 
 the gases increases the tendency to warp to a 
 marked degree, and to counteract this the valve 
 heads have to be made correspondingly heavy ; 
 a fact which not only makes for increased wear 
 and tear on the whole valve mechanism, but also 
 for sluggish action and noise. 
 
 The adoption of double valves eliminates 
 these difficulties at one sweep. For instance, 
 two inlet and two exhaust valves in the case of 
 a typical 16-valve four-cylinder motor give a 
 valve opening 50 per cent greater than in the 
 
 (18)
 
 The i6-Valve Motor. 19 
 
 case of the single valve arrangement, the valves 
 in the duplicate arrangement each being of 
 moderate diameter and weight. Quite naturally, 
 their light weight springs permit of instantaneous, 
 snappy action, which is one of the characteristics 
 of the sixteen-valve motor. 
 
 leaving, by means of this special valve ar- 
 rangement, done away with much of the throt- 
 tling of the gases common to the more orthodox 
 type, it is logical to expect a more efficient motor, 
 each intake stroke drawing in a full charge of 
 clean, combustible vapor, and each exhaust 
 stroke expelling every last atom of the spent 
 charge from the swept volume, leaving the cylin- 
 ders approximately clean for the next charge. 
 
 The result is a motor as nearly 100 per cent 
 efficient as the ingenuity of man has been able 
 to devise. It exceeds in flexibility the average 
 multi-cylinder motor, and is unequaled in swift 
 acceleration and smooth operation, while at the 
 same time retaining the economy and reliability 
 which have always been the cardinal features 
 of the four-cylinder design. 
 
 It is needless, perhaps, to add that this type 
 of motor has been thoroughly tried out, having 
 run the speed gamut and been found not lacking 
 in the attributes that make for speed as well as 
 stamina and reliability. While, as was before 
 pointed out, the duplicate valve system is in 
 reality an adaptation of the ideas that have made 
 the American motor cycle preeminently the fast- 
 est two-wheeled vehicle in the world, the valve 
 arrangement as applied to the car motor was first 
 seen here on the Peugeot racing machine which 
 came over and took the laurels on practically all 
 of the American speedways a couple of years 
 ago. The development of the type by Stutz, 
 White, Drexel and Fierce-Arrow is directly trace-
 
 20 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 able to the good showing made by the French 
 machines at that time. 
 
 The good old poppet valve motor has stood the 
 test of time and has become so firmly intrenched 
 in the hearts of motorists everywhere that it is 
 doubtful if it ever will be displaced. Three or 
 four years ago, following the successful intro- 
 duction of the Knight sleeve valve motor, there 
 was a veritable flood of motors in which the 
 poppet valve was displaced by valves either of 
 the sleeve, rotary or piston type ; but with the ex- 
 ception of the Knight motor alone, none of these 
 has withstood the test of time. 
 
 In the Knight engine the valve functions are 
 performed by two ported sleeves, one within the 
 other, which are interposed between the piston 
 and the cylinder wall, the clearance between the 
 sleeves, the wall and the piston being very slight. 
 
 These two sleeves, which replace the valves, 
 are reciprocated by means of an eccentric shaft. 
 This shaft, in the case of the four-cylinder mo- 
 tor, carries eight eccentrics, each eccentric oper- 
 ating one of the eight sleeves through the inter- 
 mediary of short connecting rods or links. The 
 detachable head of the cylinder is made of spe- 
 cial design, as is plainly indicated in the cross- 
 sectional view, to permit of the sleeves sliding 
 up past the combustion chamber and effecting 
 an efficient gas seal. 
 
 The movement of the two sleeves, which con- 
 trol the flow of the gases to and from the cylin- 
 der, may be described as follows : Referring to 
 the plate which represents the timing of the 
 Stearns-Knight four-cylinder engine, Position 1 
 shows the inlet starting to open, while No. 2 
 shows the inlet fully open, in this case the outer 
 sleeve has moved downward and the inner sleeve 
 upward until the ports in both coincide with the 
 cylinder port. Position 3 shows the inlet clos-
 
 The i6-Valve Motor. 
 
 21 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 j 
 
 Q 
 
 ta 
 a 
 
 'a 
 
 H
 
 22 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 ing, and 4 the top of the compression stroke. 
 Position 5 shows the end of the power stroke 
 and the exhaust valve beginning to open. Here 
 the sleeves again shift to bring the ports in line, 
 this time, however, on the opposite side of the 
 combustion chamber. 
 
 The claims for the Knight motor are not only 
 absolute silence, due to the absence of tappet 
 and valve action noises, but absolute precision 
 in valve timing, freedom from valve pitting, 
 warping and sticking, and less wear and tear 
 coupled with the absence of valve pockets and 
 consequent greater power for the same bore and 
 stroke.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 HORSE-POWER ITS DEFINITION AND DETERMI- 
 NATION. 
 
 Just What is Meant by the Term as Applied to 
 Any Prime Mover and Why Its Exact Deter- 
 mination is Difficult Modern Testing Practice 
 The Use of Horse-power Formulae. 
 
 WHAT is horse-power? This question, 
 while well understood by engineers in 
 general, is a hard problem for the begin- 
 ner to grasp. Horse-power provides a never 
 failing source of discussion for him. No other 
 term in his vocabulary is so misunderstood, or 
 has so many interpretations, and at the same 
 time it is a subject of vital importance to him, 
 for the reason that it affects his comfort, his 
 pride or his bank account. 
 
 The purpose of this article will be to enlighten 
 him on this subject and at the same time show 
 how the horse-power of an automobile engine 
 can be approximated very closely by the S. A. 
 E. formula, giving an example as well as a table. 
 The table comprises cylinder diameters of 2^^ 
 to 6 and engines having 1, 2, 4, 6 or 8 cylinders. 
 No mathematical data is used, to avoid compli- 
 cations. 
 
 The definition of the word "horse-power" as 
 applied to a motor car engine is not understood 
 by the average automobile owner or driver. There 
 are many laymen who think that by horse-power 
 is meant the average load which a horse can pull 
 in continued service. This is not .true, however, 
 as the pulling power of horses varies and no defi- 
 nite point could be reached in this way. It is 
 evident that a large horse is capable of pulling a 
 
 (23)
 
 24 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 greater load in continued service than a smaller 
 animal. 
 
 The term "horse-power" was first used by 
 James Watt, after numerous tests of the load 
 which the average horse could pull in continued 
 service and a constant derived therefrom, which 
 will be discussed later. 
 
 Horse-power as a technical term has a very 
 definite meaning. It is defined as the rate of 
 doing work. Work, in turn, is the product of a 
 force and the distance it moves. Thus horse- 
 power is force times distance divided by time. 
 It is expressed in units implying these three 
 quantities: pounds, per foot, per minute. One 
 horse-power is? equivalent to 33,000 foot pounds 
 per minute, that is, a power which can lift 33,000 
 pounds one foot in one minute, or 1,000 pounds 
 33 feet in one minute, or 1 pound 33,000 feet in 
 one minute, or 1 pound one foot in 1/550 second. 
 
 In a motor car engine power is developed by 
 the burning and consequent expansion of the 
 gasoline mixture in the combustion chamber. 
 The expansion results in a force exerted on the 
 piston head, the travel of the piston on its stroke 
 gives the distance, and the number of revolutions 
 per minute of the crankshaft adds the time fac- 
 tor. Given the pressure in pounds per square 
 inch on the cylinder, the stroke in feet or inches, 
 and the number of revolutions per minute; the 
 horse-power developed in a gasoline motor can 
 easily be computed. Although the last two quan- 
 tities are easy enough to obtain, the first, unfor- 
 tunately, cannot be had without the use of deli- 
 cate and costly instruments. 
 
 To determine the power actually developed by 
 a motor, numerous methods can be used, but all 
 depend upon the absorption and incidental meas- 
 urement of the power, as by a friction brake, 
 electric generator, a water pump or fan. As the
 
 Horsepower. 25 
 
 earliest and best known of these the friction or 
 prony brake method may be described. Like all 
 others it depends upon the definition of force 
 times distance divided by time. The application 
 is generally quite familiar. A brake band or 
 shoe is applied to the fly-wheel and prevented 
 from rotating with the fly-wheel by weights at- 
 tached to the end of the lever arm attached to 
 the brake band. The weight or the length of 
 the lever arm is adjusted until the weight is in 
 equilibrium, tending neither to rotate with the 
 fly-wheel or to drop under the force of gravity. 
 The weight then gives the force, the length of 
 the arm the distance, and the number of revolu- 
 tions the time factor, necessary for calculating 
 the horse-power. 
 
 In many automobile plants where motors are 
 made in large quantities, the run in test is re- 
 garded as a necessity and it is a simple expedient 
 to attach a fan to the fly-wheel in place of the 
 clutch, and, if the fan is properly devised, it will 
 limit the speed of the motor to that which should 
 obtain in actual service, when the motor is doing 
 its accustomed work. The fan requires no atten- 
 tion; it offers a constant resistance, so long as 
 the speed of the motor is maintained constant, 
 and if the speed changes do creep in they will 
 indicate that some adjustment is necessary to 
 either mixture or ignition system, but there will 
 be no damage done, even if the adjustments are 
 not made. This form of dynamometer is eco- 
 nomical ; it takes up almost no added space, and 
 it is, in first cost, at the bottom of the list. In 
 some instances this fan dynamometer has been 
 fitted with a tachometer or speed indicator, by 
 means of which the power delivered may be 
 noted by ascertaining the speed and comparing 
 it with a chart of power for speed as determined 
 by previous calibration.
 
 26 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 In large automobile factories the balanced elec- 
 tric system seems to have considerable advantage. 
 There may be a number of sets of these ma- 
 chines, and all that is required to satisfy condi- 
 tions is to have the machines in pairs. One 
 machine (of each pair) is driven by an engine 
 as a dynamo, which furnishes current to the 
 other, which as a motor drives the second engine 
 which is getting its "run in" test. The dynamo 
 loads the engine which furnishes the power, 
 which is electrically transmitted to drive the 
 second engine, which is being run in during this 
 period of time. 
 
 There is still another possibility. If the engine 
 to test is connected to a centrifugal pump and 
 the pump in turn by piping to a reservoir, the 
 power required to pump the water to the reser- 
 voir may be adjusted to equal the ability of the 
 motor to be tested and the work done in the 
 process turned to good account. 
 
 It should be understood that the motor testing 
 question has other angles besides the' one which 
 is being considered here; investigations of the 
 internal conditions are also taken into account. 
 
 Obtaining the cylinder pressure in pounds per 
 square inch, that is, the force exerted upon the 
 piston by the expansion of the gas, unfortunately 
 cannot be obtained without the use of delicate 
 and costly instruments, as mentioned above. For 
 this reason a formula was adopted by the So- 
 ciety of Automotive Engineers which is termed 
 the S. A. E. formula, and which was intended 
 to approzimate the horse-power of automobile 
 engines very closely. This formula received 
 such a favorable reception by both manufactur- 
 er and user that its continued use has been 
 assured. Before its appearance there had been 
 a long-felt need of some connecting link between 
 the size and probable capacity of the various
 
 Horsepower. 27 
 
 motors. Most objections to this formula are 
 based upon the idea that it is to determine once 
 and for all the power which a given motor is 
 capable of developing. This is not true, as the 
 horse-power of a gasoline engine cannot be com- 
 puted exactly from its dimensions by any formula 
 whatsoever, no matter how intricate and learned 
 in appearance. 
 
 The principal feature considered in this for- 
 mula is simplicity, and this is an unquestionable 
 advantage. It would be impossible to simplify 
 it any further and still obtain the least approach 
 to the horse-power rating. There is, however, 
 one short cut, which might not appear to the 
 use. For instance, the formula reads : H. P.= -^ 
 
 Z.a 
 
 which in reality is the same and equal to H. P. = 
 .4 D 2 N, as will be explained later. 
 In the formula 
 
 D = Diameter of cylinder in inches. 
 N = Number of cylinders. 
 2.5 is a constant based upon a mean effec- 
 tive pressure of 70 pounds per square in. 
 and a piston speed of 1,000 ft. per min. 
 D 2 is read as the diameter squared, and to 
 square any number is to multiply it by itself; 
 that is to say, the square of 2 is equal to 2X2=4, 
 or 4X416, or 16X16=256. Likewise any 
 number multiplied by itself will give the square 
 of that number. 
 
 In using the formula, remembering that the 
 power of a motor is in proportion to the square 
 of the cylinder diameter, the formula may be 
 written as follows: 
 
 Horse-power=Diameter of cylinder in inches 
 squared, multiplied by the number of cylinders 
 contained on the engine and divided by the con- 
 stant 2.5; or to transpose the formula. Horse- 
 power .4 times the diameter of cylinder in
 
 28 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 inches squared, multiplied by the number of 
 cylinders. 
 
 Citing, for example, a four-cylinder motor with 
 a cylinder diameter of four inches, and proceed 
 to calculate the horse-power of the engine. 
 
 H. P.= 4 -^=25.6 or .4X4X4X4=25.6 
 For six cylinders, four-inch cylinder diameter 
 
 H. P.= ^f =38.4 or .4X4X4X6=38.4 
 And again for an eight-cylinder engine 
 
 H. P.= 4j r =51.2 or .4X4X4X8=51.2 
 
 A Typical Automobile Motor Testing Stand. 
 
 Using precisely the same method the horse- 
 power of any motor (according to this empirical 
 formula) may be approximated. Still further 
 convenience may be had !% the use of a table 
 such as the accompanying one, especially for 
 fractional values of the bore. This table is in the 
 main self-explanatory, but a few features may 
 be pointed out. The values are given so close to- 
 gether that intermediate values may be found by 
 interpolation. Thus 4Y ls -inch is half-way be-
 
 Horsepower. 
 
 29 
 
 4-03 
 
 /6zo 
 
 &> 
 
 2707 
 
 Jeo 
 
 3364 
 
 0+ 
 
 /2 aff 
 
 36.24 
 
 26.7* 
 
 720 
 
 ffs 
 
 782 
 
 3/28 
 
 46.92 
 
 /&9Z 
 
 4*7 
 
 a/o 
 
 2730 
 
 3 42 
 
 3*63 
 
 29.SS 
 
 3322 
 
 JT27 
 
 3/57 
 
 4Z/6 
 
 63.24 
 
 9*6 
 
 337* 
 
 67^0 
 
 36 JZ 
 
 76.30 
 
 8/60 
 
 72 J 
 
 /*<} 
 
 29too 
 
 S&O0 
 
 & 
 9/ 
 
 8706 
 
 7** 
 
 6/.30 
 
 /93 
 
 d./o 
 
 64.SO 
 
 9720 
 
 8*7 
 
 /007 
 
 /J./Z 
 
 4(340 
 
 000 
 
 0+20 
 
 /ft. 4-0 
 
 // 03 
 
 22/0 
 
 23/7 
 
 9*6$ 
 
 242* 
 
 _70_ 
 
 76. /O 
 
 /o/. 6 a 
 
 *%_ 
 
 ^300
 
 30 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 tween 4 and 4%, and consequently the power of 
 a 4 1 / 16 -inch four-cylinder motor is between that 
 of a 4 and 4%-inch motor. 
 
 For example, we will take these three cylinder 
 diameters in order to show the interpolation is 
 carried out. We must first find the difference 
 between the 4 and 4%-inch motors. Referring 
 to the table, a 414-inch four-cylinder motor is 
 rated at 27.20 H. P., while the 4-inch is rated at 
 25.60 H. P. Now, subtracting this from the for- 
 mer, we get 1.60 H. P. Half of this sum added 
 to the power of the 4-inch motor will give us the 
 power of 4Y 16 -inch motor, thus: 1.60-=-2-f25.60 
 =26.40 H. P. In precisely the same manner any 
 other size in between those listed can be found. 
 
 As horse-power by this formula is proportional 
 to the square of the cylinder diameter, doubling 
 this multiplies by four and halving it divides by 
 four. Applying this to the table, the power of 
 a two-inch 'cylinder will be one- fourth of the 
 power of a four-inch cylinder, and the power 
 of a seven-inch cylinder will be four times that 
 of a 31/2 or 19.60 H. P. 
 
 As a final criticism of the formula, and a warn- 
 ing against its too confident use, it will suffice 
 to mention that it tends to overrate small motors 
 and underrate large motors. This really makes 
 very little difference, for no one is interested in 
 a close comparison of a three-inch and a six-inch 
 motor, as he is of one more nearly the same 
 size and within the variation of an inch or so 
 in the diameter, the formula is reasonably ac- 
 curate. Empirical formula will avail up to a 
 certain point and within certain explored limits. 
 In a motor, for illustration, the formula will work 
 very well indeed if the cylinder diameter is with- 
 in the domain found to conform to the conditions 
 which rendered the formula possible.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE FUEL FEED AND THE CARBURETOR. 
 
 Various Methods of Conducting Gasoline From 
 Tank to Motor Carburetion in Theory and 
 Practice. 
 
 THE office of the carburetor is that of chang- 
 ing liquid gasoline into an explosive mix- 
 ture, and the function of this is to bring 
 a quantity of air in contact with a spray of gaso- 
 line in correct proportion for complete combus- 
 tion. The evaporation of the gasoline as it 
 mixes with the air forms the explosive mixture 
 which is introduced into the cylinders of the 
 motor when the inlet valves open. 
 
 A carburetor, in order to handle a motor 
 properly under all conditions, must supply a 
 uniform mixture at all engine speeds, that is, at 
 all points of the throttle opening. In other 
 words, the carburetor must take raw gasoline 
 and mix it with the proper amount of air under 
 any condition demanded by the motor, and in 
 performing this delicate task the carburetor 
 must, of course, be adjusted carefully to give 
 good results. If the engine were to run at a con- 
 stant speed all the time this would be a very sim- 
 ple problem, providing the load did not vary. 
 
 Gasoline is carried in a tank located either in 
 the body or at the rear end of the chassis. It is 
 supplied to the carburetor by one of four 
 methods in general use: 
 
 1. Gravity feed. 
 
 2. Pressure feed. 
 
 3. Combination of pressure and gravity feed. 
 
 4. Vacuum feed. 
 
 (31)
 
 32 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 Fi. 1. CrifT Fed Gasuline fio's from lank to the Carburetor bjr gravity. 
 
 In the first system (Fig. 1) the tank is 
 mounted considerably above the carburetor so 
 that the gasoline will flow naturally. The tank 
 may either be placed in the cowl of the body 
 or under the front seats, if the carburetor is 
 placed low enough to insure an easy flow. 
 
 In the pressure feed system (Fig. 2} the tank 
 located at the rear of the chassis, and either the 
 pressure of the exhaust or air pressure are used 
 to force the gasoline to the carburetor. 
 
 The third system (Fig. 3) is a combination of 
 the above types, having the tank located at the 
 rear and an auxiliary tank located in the cowl 
 or attached to the engine or dash under the hood. 
 The gasoline is forced under pressure to the 
 small tank from which it flows by gravity to the 
 carburetor. 
 
 Fig. 2. Pressure Fuel Feed System.
 
 The Fuel Feed. 33 
 
 In the vacuum feed system (Fig. 4) the main 
 tank is located at the rear of the chassis, while 
 the suction in the intake pipe is used to draw 
 gasoline into a small tank on the engine, from 
 which it flows by gravity to the carburetor. 
 
 This vaporization of raw gasoline may be ac- 
 complished in two ways, by heat or by vacuum ; 
 vaporization due to pressure reduction is dis- 
 tinguished from vaporization caused by heat. 
 In the vacuum method vaporization is only 
 partly complete, no matter how far the process 
 of pressure reduction is carried, since that part 
 of the fuel which vaporizes does so through the 
 abstraction of heat from the remainder, which 
 becomes constantly colder until finally the tem- 
 perature is so low that vaporization ceases until 
 heat is supplied from some outside source. 
 When vaporization is brought about entirely by 
 heat from an outside source, the degree to 
 which it may be carried depends wholly on the 
 amount of heat supplied, since the temperature 
 of the liquid is being constantly raised to or 
 maintained at the proper point. 
 
 In practice neither of the above principles are 
 carried to the limit, but both act together. 
 
 The reduced pressure due to motor suction 
 causes vaporization with a lowering of the tem- 
 perature, and the heat of the air tends to cause 
 vaporization through the transfer of heat from 
 itself to the liquid. Each of these actions assist 
 the other. The air supplying heat to the liquid 
 as it cools by vaporization under reduced pres- 
 sure and the reduction in temperature due to 
 pressure reduction, facilitating the transfer of 
 heat from the air to the liquid. 
 
 A carburetor consists of two parts, one termed 
 the float chamber, or bowl, and the other the 
 choke tube, or mixing chamber (Fig. 7). Gaso- 
 line from the main tank passes to the float cham-
 
 34 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 her (Fig. 7) through a needle valve and strainer 
 which regulates the amount of gasoline entering 
 the carburetor. The function of this float is to 
 maintain a constant level of gasoline in its own 
 chamber and the chamber in which the nozzle 
 or jet is located. The choke tube accommodates 
 this nozzle and allows a stream of air to pass 
 around it when the piston is traveling downward 
 on the suction stroke. When air rushes up 
 around this nozzle, it draws with it a certain 
 amount of sprayed gasoline, and the mixture of 
 gasoline and air on the sides of the intake mani- 
 fold becomes a gaseous mixture. A small but- 
 terfly valve located near the top of this choke 
 tube and connected with the throttle lever on 
 the steering wheel controls the amount of mix- 
 ture entering the cylinders. 
 
 From what has been mentioned above, the 
 readers should now understand the principle of 
 carburetion and the action of the carburetor. 
 A good portion of the carburetor troubles will 
 be taken up in detail and may be listed in order 
 of importance as follows: 
 
 1. Stoppage of gasoline supply. 
 
 2. Water in the gasoline. 
 
 3. Freezing of the carburetor. 
 
 4. Carburetor flooding. 
 
 5. Nozzle choked. 
 
 6. Excessive air temperature. 
 
 7. Carburetor adjustment. 
 
 The above troubles will be mentioned here to 
 complete this subject. 
 
 1. Stoppage of the gasoline supply. This is 
 due to empty tank, clogged supply pipe, air-bound 
 supply pipe or leak in supply pipe, while in 
 addition to this the flow may be stopped, due 
 to the freezing of the carburetor and a sticking 
 float. As mentioned previously, this can be de-
 
 The Fuel Feed. 35 
 
 tected by trying to flood the carburetor, as some- 
 times this is caused by dirt which obstructs the 
 filter gauge at the inlet to the float valve. If 
 this does eliminate the trouble, be sure to ex- 
 amine the pipe connections and tank, as all leaks 
 in the pressure system will cause a stoppage of 
 gasoline flow, while an air-bound pipe will also 
 do this in the gravity system. See that the filler 
 cap vent hole is not clogged, as this causes the 
 pipe to become air-bound in the gravity system. 
 Leaking air joints in pressure system can be de- 
 tected by putting a light mixture of soap and 
 water over the various connections; if bubbles 
 show, there is a leak. Tighten connections to 
 prevent the escape of pressure. 
 
 2. Water in the gasoline is detected by the 
 motor running and stopping and running in fits 
 and starts. To determine if there is water in the 
 gasoline, draw a small quantity from carburetor 
 or sediment bulb on gasoline tank. Gasoline put 
 into the tank should always be strained through 
 a fine screen, which will separate this water. This 
 fine screen will serve a double purpose, in catch- 
 ing any particles of dirt and excluding all water 
 which the gasoline may contain. 
 
 3. Freezing of the carburetor is due to water 
 settling in the float chamber or supply pipe in 
 cold weather when the motor stands idle any 
 length of time. If the temperature is cold 
 enough, it will freeze. An application of rags 
 saturated with hot water will remedy the trou- 
 ble, after which drain float chamber and sedi- 
 ment chamber in the gasoline tank. 
 
 4. Flooding is caused by dirt, which prevents 
 the float valve from seating, a defect in the 
 float mechanism, which would prevent the float 
 valve from seating, and a saturated cork or 
 punctured metal float. A leaky float valve will 
 also cause the carburetor to flood.
 
 36 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 Dirt under the float valve is perhaps the 
 greatest source of trouble when the carburetor 
 floods, since this valve, through the action of the 
 float, controls the amount of gasoline entering the 
 float chamber. Some times a continued flooding 
 will remove this dirt. However, the best method 
 is to remove the float chamber, so that it can be 
 thoroughly cleaned. In doing this the other 
 things which cause flooding can also be inspected. 
 Some part of the float mechanism may have be- 
 come bent to prevent the valve from closing, 
 while the valve and seat may need renewing. 
 
 The float should also be examined. If this is 
 made of cork it may have become saturated with 
 gasoline, so that it is too heavy to rise and return 
 the valve to its seat. If it has become saturated, 
 it should be thoroughly dried in a warm place 
 for a number of hours, after which give it a 
 thin coat of shellac to prevent resaturation. If 
 it- is made of metal, it may have sprung a leak, 
 so that it becomes filled with gasoline. If this 
 is the case, drill a small hole into it so that the 
 gasoline can be drained out of it; finally solder 
 the leak and the hole. 
 
 5. Nozzle choked. If the float chamber fills 
 with gasoline, the nozzle or jet which is situated 
 directly in the path of the incoming air may 
 have become choked with dirt. However, this 
 would only cause the engine to misfire once or 
 twice, since the obstruction would soon be re- 
 moved by suction of the engine. 
 
 6. Excess air temperature. Some carbure- 
 tors have provisions for heating the fuel with 
 both hot water, which is circulated around the 
 mixing chamber, and hot air, which is taken 
 from around the exhaust manifold and led into 
 the primary air intake. Under ordinary circum- 
 stances these two devices should not be touched. 
 However, in extremely hot climates it may be
 
 The Fuel Feed. 
 
 37
 
 38 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 found desirable to shut off either one or both. 
 An air adjustment is generally provided on the 
 cowl or steering gear to control the warm air, 
 while the hot water system is provided with a 
 petcock so that it can be shut off. 
 
 There are also a few mechanical difficulties 
 which may prevent the motor from starting, and 
 which can be traced to the carburetor. These 
 may be due to some disarrangement of the con- 
 trol rods from the steering gear and the acceler- 
 ator pedal. This can be determined by opening 
 and closing the throttle from the steering wheel, 
 if small lever on the carburetor moves with the 
 control rod, the control is correct. There is 
 a small butterfly valve near the point where the 
 carburetor is bolted to the intake manifold, 
 which is attached to the same shaft that carries 
 the control lever connected to the steering wheel. 
 In some carburetors this butterfly valve is at- 
 tached to the shaft by means of a small screw, 
 and if the screw becomes loose it will be impos- 
 sible to operate the valve, that is, the valve can- 
 not open. If there is any trouble discovered with 
 it, it will be necessary to remove the carburetor 
 to tighten the screw. 
 
 7. Carburetor adjustment. Carburetor ad- 
 justments are necessary for atmospheric condi- 
 tions, and certain conditions of operation. The 
 carburetor adjustment should never be tampered 
 with unless you are absolutely certain it needs 
 attention. However, before making any car- 
 buretor adjustments, be sure that the ignition 
 system is in perfect order, as in most cases this 
 adjustment is changed before the real source of 
 trouble is discovered. Once adjusted, there is 
 very little danger of it getting out of adjustment. 
 Under -ordinary circumstances only an extreme 
 change in weather conditions will make adjust- 
 ments necessary.
 
 The Fuel Feed. 
 
 39 
 
 Faulty operation of the motor will show the 
 following general characteristics: 
 
 If the engine runs spasmodically and stops, the 
 mixture is too lean, that is, it does not contain 
 enough gasoline vapor in proportion to the quan- 
 tity of air passing throug the carburetor. This 
 is also the case if the engine runs with the spark 
 retarded and a quick opening of the throttle, 
 causing popping in the carburetor. This can be 
 remedied by increasing the tension on the aux- 
 iliary air valve spring slowly so that a greater 
 suction is required to open the valve. 
 
 If the mixture contains too great a proportion 
 of gasoline, or, in other words, if it is too rich, 
 the motor will be sluggish in its action and very 
 black smoke will issue from the muffler, back 
 firing through the muffler will also be noticed, 
 due to unused gas passing through the motor and 
 igniting there. 
 
 ensotin ntitr 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 A blue smoke at the muffler indicates too much 
 oil. It is impossible to give a detailed descrip- 
 tion of the method of adjusting the various types 
 of carburetors. However, the above conditions 
 apply to any carburetor, and it is necessary for 
 the motorist to familiarize himself with the vari- 
 ous points at which adjustments are made. It 
 will suffice to say that a carburetor adjustment 
 should never be attempted with motor cold and
 
 40 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 idle. Also get the engine warmed up and make 
 adjustments while it is running and with spark 
 retarded for idling. When this adjustment is 
 completed advance the spark and open throttle 
 gradually and set for high speed.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 REMOVING THE QUERY FROM CARBURETOR 
 ADJUSTMENT. 
 
 An Illuminating Article Based on Actual Ex- 
 perience and Experimentation, Which Points 
 the Way to Certain Means of Telling When 
 the Mixture is Adjusted for Best Possible 
 Results. 
 
 IT is one thing to tell the average car owner 
 or operator that to obtain the best results as 
 
 to power and economy from his motor, his 
 carburetor adjustments must be just right, and 
 quite another to explain on paper in a way that 
 is readily understandable even to the veriest 
 novice the ways and means of ascertaining with 
 sufficient accuracy just when the proper carbu- 
 retor adjustment for ideal operation has been 
 reached. 
 
 The writer has had much to do with many 
 carburetors and the matter of obtaining the 
 proper /adjustment, up until a few weeks ago, 
 has always been more or less of a compromise 
 bluntly a case of guesswork, pure and simple. 
 "This" was adjusted and "that" turned slightly, 
 the motor being put through its paces in the in- 
 tervals until a point was reached where the 
 vaporizing device seemingly gave the best re- 
 sults. If science entered into the process of ad- 
 justment at all, surely it must have been by "ab- 
 sent treatment." 
 
 The feeling of uncertainty growing out of this 
 haphazard method of adjusting the carburetor, 
 however, kind of upsets a fellow who wants to 
 be sure that everything is quite correct. And 
 so about a month ago, when I had another car-
 
 42 Care of ditto-mobiles. 
 
 buretor to adjust, I decided that I would attack 
 the problem in a most scientific manner, and the 
 results of my experience, no doubt, will prove 
 helpful to others who now regard the matter of 
 carburetor adjustment more as a matter of luck 
 than anything else. 
 
 The fact that a motor will run with the mix- 
 ture either far too rich or far too lean is the 
 chief difficulty in the way of effecting a perfect 
 carburetor adjustment. If, for instance, the 
 mixture had to be exactly right at all times for 
 th motor to operate at all, the matter of de- 
 termining the point of proper adjustment would 
 lose all of its uncertainty, although the task 
 might not be facilitated. And incidentally, car- 
 buretor design would be far advanced over its 
 present state. 
 
 Just how far wide of the mark the mixture 
 strength can be and still permit of the motor 
 running is shown by the fact that whereas ex- 
 perimentation and chemical figuring have shown 
 that the proper proportions for ideal working 
 conditions are 15 parts of air to one of gasoline, 
 the motor will operate on a mixture so strong 
 as 8 air to 1 gasoline and so weak as 22 parts of 
 air to 1 gasoline. And, of course, it will work 
 on any gasoline and air proportion in between 
 these two extremes. The difficulty of attaining 
 the exact adjustment to produce the 15 to 1 
 ideal mixture by the rule of thumb method will 
 at once be apparent. 
 
 Before proceeding to the question of suitable 
 methods of observation of mixture strength, etc., 
 it might be of interest to state the most suitable 
 mixtures for different purposes. Thus, for com- 
 plete combustion, which gives the greatest speed 
 of flame travel and very nearly maximum power, 
 the mixture as above stated should be about 15 
 to 1. But ow r ing to dilution of the charge by ex-
 
 Carburetor Adjustment 43 
 
 haust gases due to incomplete scavenging, and 
 one or two other causes of theoretical interest 
 only, it has been found that a somewhat richer 
 mixture strength of about 12 to 1 is desirable 
 for maximum power and acceleration, such as 
 for speed bursts, hill climbs, etc. 
 
 On the other hand, if fuel economy is the chief 
 end sought, a mixture of about 19 or 18 to 1 
 will give the best results ; but this maximum fuel 
 economy, while it will be obtained with 'all around 
 good running conditions aside from easy start- 
 ing in cold weather, will be gained at the ex- 
 pense of a slight falling off in power amounting 
 to from 10 to 15 per cent not a very serious 
 factor where surplus power is provided and 
 speed not the ultimate end m view. 
 
 Mixtures weaker or richer than those men- 
 tioned, while they will permit of the motor oper- 
 ating, will give bad results in the way of carbon 
 deposit, tendency to overheat, flare backs in the 
 carburetor, muffler explosions, etc. 
 
 There are several ways of procedure to de- 
 termine the accuracy or inaccuracy of the mix- 
 ture proportions. The usual method is to make 
 certain changes in the carburetor adjustments 
 and note the results; in laboratories, brake and 
 acceleration tests are indulged in, the color of 
 the explosion flame is noted or the exhaust 
 gases are analyzed. They are all, except the gas 
 analysis, open to the average motorist. 
 
 Take the carburetor method, for instance. As- 
 suming that the motor is running and we desire 
 to know whether the mixture is too weak. It is 
 quite evident that depressing the priming pin on 
 the float chamber will raise the level of the fuel 
 slightly, producing a richer mixture. If under 
 these conditions the motor picks up speed and 
 shows an increase in power without a tendency 
 to overheat, then it can safely be concluded that
 
 44 .Gare of Automobiles. 
 
 the ordinary mixture is too weak and adjust- 
 ments made accordingly. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the flooding gives rise 
 to no speed and power increase, but causes over- 
 heating, irregular running or tendency to choke, 
 the mixture is, or course, normally on the rich 
 side, and this can be verified by closing off the 
 gasoline feed for a few moments and noting 
 whether the engine picks up speed as the level 
 of fuel in the float chamber falls off. Another 
 simple test for too lean a mixture is to partially 
 close off the air supply of the carburetor. If the 
 speed picks up, the mixture normally is too weak 
 and should be corrected. 
 
 Power and acceleration tests for determining 
 the condition of the mixture are not beyond the 
 possibility of application by the motorist by any 
 means, nor is a laboratory necessary. In the 
 laboratory with a brake test, the procedure is 
 usually to note the power output of the engine 
 from the brake readings and to adjust the car- 
 buretor until this, at any working speed, is a 
 maximum. The mixture will then be somewhat 
 richer than is necessary for complete combus- 
 tion, but will be suitable for best power results. 
 
 The same method can be applied to the case 
 of an automobile on the road, either by adjusting 
 the carburetor for a given throttle position and 
 spark advance, so that the greatest speed is at- 
 tained without ill effects or irregular running, or 
 for the greatest power at a set speedometer read- 
 ing such as when hill climbing. 
 
 Acceleration tests are interesting and helpful 
 in indicating the mixture setting. If the engine 
 accelerates much better when the gasoline supply 
 is increased relatively to the air, it is proof that 
 the mixture is normally too weak for the best 
 power results. If, on the other hand, no differ- 
 ence in the acceleration of the car is noticed upon
 
 Carburetor Adjustment. 45 
 
 flooding the jet, or restricting the air supply, the 
 mixture may be normally correct for best power 
 purposes. 
 
 Another practical method is to note the gaso- 
 line consumption with different carburetor alter- 
 ations and to adjust the latter until the best 
 economy in gasoline is shown without being ac- 
 companied with a falling off in power of the 
 motor for the same conditions as to throttle 
 opening and spark advance. These tests can 
 easily be made in the course of an ordinary run 
 over a familiar stretch of road. 
 
 But to proceed to more accurate and definite 
 ways of noting the carburetor conditions, we 
 come to the method of observing the color of the 
 explosion flame a method which gives abso- 
 lutely accurate results and which can readily be 
 employed by anyone. While a measure of suc- 
 cess is met with by the simple expedient of re- 
 moving the exhaust manifold and noting the 
 color of the flame issuing from the exhaust pas- 
 sages, the best plan is to make use of a quartz 
 window so that the gases can be observed di- 
 rectly in the combustion chamber of the motor. 
 
 The window was made from the shell and 
 compression nut of a discarded spark plug, a bit 
 of asbestos packing and a clear glass marble 
 such as the boys use to play with. The marble 
 is of such diameter that it fits within the shell 
 of the plug, but is sufficiently large to get a firm 
 bearing on the shoulder within the shell which 
 normally serves for the retention of the core. 
 A sufficient amount of the packing is placed 
 around the marble and tightly compressed by 
 the nut hold the window firmly in place and 
 still prevent leakage and breakage of the glass 
 due to expansion and contraction. 
 
 An alternative design is shown in another 
 sketch. In place of the marble, a small disc of
 
 46 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 Aibeslar 
 
 llfe^Cbpper Aibesb. 
 g^ Ge*ei- Packi:^ 
 
 
 ^^indow Wndow^ 
 
 Alternative methods of making an observation window. 
 
 quartz glass is used, measuring, roughly, three- 
 fourths of an inch in diameter and three-eighths 
 of an inch in thickness. It is held firmly in place 
 between two copper asbestos washers by the 
 compression screw. The quartz can be obtained 
 from any optician. 
 
 Where window is mounted. 
 
 The observation plug, as we will term it, is 
 screwed home in a valve cap an extra inlet 
 valve cap being obtained for the purpose which 
 is substituted for the solid cap used over the ex- 
 haust valve. This position, directly over the ex- 
 haust valve, is the best place for the window. 
 
 As to its utility make some mixture strength 
 measurements corresponding to different flame 
 colors, and from these it will be shown that 
 mixtures weaker than are required for complete 
 combustion, such as the more economical mix-
 
 Carburetor Adjustment. 47 
 
 tures mentioned earlier, give a very definite 
 whitish blue flame during explosion, whereas the 
 perfect combustion flame is a dazzling light-blue 
 color. 
 
 The mixtures giving the maximum power re- 
 sults but not so great fuel economy are char- 
 acterized by a slight yellowish tinge, while over- 
 rich mixtures are indicated by a dazzling yellow 
 flash which verges on the orange red as the pro- 
 portion of gasoline to air is increased. As a 
 means of giving positive indication as to correct 
 adjustment of the carburetor the window cannot 
 be beat. 
 
 It is a fairly easy matter to fit such an ob- 
 servation window to each cylinder of the motor 
 and to observe the color of the flame while run- 
 ning. It is even feasible to observe, by means 
 of reflectors the flame color while running on the 
 road and to adjust the carburetor accordingly 
 to give the best possible results throughout the 
 entire speed scale. 
 
 Turning finally to the exhaust as an indicator 
 of the carburetor conditions, some observations 
 of its color, smell and sound can be taken as 
 rough indications of the mixture strength. Thus, 
 placing a white background at the muffler orifice, 
 the color of the exhaust gases should show a 
 faint brown tinge when the mixture is about cor- 
 rect, whereas richer mixtures show a distinctly 
 darker color, due to finely graded carbon par- 
 ticles. Again, the pungent odor of the ultra rich 
 mixture exhaust is quite characteristic and dis- 
 tinct from less rich mixtures. 
 
 The actual sound of the exhaust, with a little 
 practice, can be taken as a sure guide to the 
 carburetor's action, for there is no mistaking the 
 healthy note of the proper mixture, compared 
 with the partially muffled and prolonged exhaust 
 beats in the case of over-rich and lean mixtures
 
 48 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 ArHftLLTi.t of CtLrbon 
 
 i miLm Pom<rr Point 
 
 Com-bletp. C 
 
 Pcon,om 
 
 S* 
 
 Chart for determining proper carburetor setting 
 from exhaust gas analysis.
 
 Carburetor Adjustment. 49 
 
 ht 
 
 in any given engine, other conditions remaining 
 the same. 
 
 There remains the method of exhaust gas 
 analysis, which, of course, is beyond .the scope 
 of the average motorist. The accompanying 
 chart, which approximates the conditions obtain- 
 ing where the exhaust gases are analyzed under 
 all conditions as to mixture strength, from the 
 very weakest on which the motor will operate 
 to the very richest. 
 
 It will be seen that on the rich mixture side 
 of the scale there is a constantly increasing pro- 
 portion of the gas "carbon monoxide" present 
 in the exhaust gases, while on the weak mixture 
 side of the scale the same is true of the gas 
 "oxygen." Neither of the gases is present in 
 appreciable quantities at the 15 to 1 point, the 
 condition for complete combustion of the /fuel.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 OPERATION AND CARE OF VACUUM TANK. 
 
 How the Stewart Fuel Feed System Works De- 
 scribed in Detail Some Suggestions for 
 Dodging Trouble and Correcting Faults. 
 
 INDICATIVE of the readiness with which tne 
 L motor car designer takes up a "good thing" 
 
 is the case of the vacuum feed system for in- 
 suring a plentiful supply of gasoline to the car- 
 buretor at all times, regardless of the position or 
 the tank, the inclination of the car or the several 
 other drawbacks that sometimes lead to failure 
 in the case of the gravity and pressure feed sys- 
 tems and modifications or combinations of the 
 two. 
 
 It was only a few years ago in 1913, to be 
 exact that the first vacuum tank made its ap- 
 pearance. Yet a recent canvas of the present 
 automobile offerings reveals the fact that practic- 
 ally all of the cars have adopted the system as 
 standard equipment. 
 
 The Stewart vacuum gasoline feed system, 
 which is the pioneer in the field, smploys a small 
 supplementary gasoline tank under the hood of 
 the car. This tank is connected by copper tub- 
 ing to the intake manifold of the motor, to the 
 inlet into the carburetor float chamber and also 
 to the gasoline supply tank, whether that is lo- 
 cated under the seat or at the rear of the car. 
 Simply explained, its action is as follows : When 
 the motor is turned over, the pumping action of 
 the pistons creates a partial vacuufm in the inlet 
 manifold and this vacuum is utilized to draw the 
 gasoline from the supply tank into the smaller 
 supplementary tank under the dash. The feed 
 
 (50)
 
 Operation of Vacuum Tank. 51 
 
 from the small tank to the carburetor is by 
 gravity. 
 
 The vacuum tank comprises two chambers. 
 The upper one is the filling chamber and the 
 tower one is the emptying chamber of the 
 
 Sectional View Vacuum Tank. 
 
 vacuum tank. Between these two chambers is a 
 partition in which is placed a valve. The suc- 
 tion of the pistons on the intake creates a 
 vacuum in the upper chamber and this suction is 
 sufficient to close the valve between the two 
 chambers and also suck the gasoline from the
 
 52 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 main supply tank into this upper chamber. As 
 the gasoline flows into this upper chamber it 
 raises a float valve. 
 
 When the level of the gasoline has risen to a 
 predetermined point, the float valve comes into 
 play and it shuts off the suction and at the same 
 time opens a vent admitting air through the vent 
 tube. The admission of the outside air soon de- 
 stroys the vacuum within the inner chamber, so 
 that the valve between the two chambers is 
 opened by the pressure of the gasoline, permitting 
 the fuel to pass down into the lower chamber. 
 This chamber is always open to the outside air, 
 so that there never is anything to prevent the 
 flow of the gasoline from this point to the car- 
 buretor. 
 
 When enough of the gasoline has passed to the 
 lower chamber the falling float again opens the 
 suction valve and closes the vent valve so that 
 more gasoline is drawn from the tank. The 
 action is continuous and absolutely automatic, 
 so that there is always a free flow of gasoline to 
 the carburetor, and the fact that there is always 
 enough gasoline held in reserve in the supple- 
 mentary tank insures plenty of gas for starting 
 without the necessity of turning over the motor 
 to draw it from the main tank, or operating any 
 pumps, as was the case with the old pressure 
 feed system. Neither will the flow stop because 
 of the inclination of the car on a hill or for any 
 similar cause. 
 
 It is best to leave the vacuum feed tank alone ; 
 don't tamper with it. It is not very likely that 
 it will ever be necessary to open the tank, but 
 if it is opened, follow these instructions care- 
 fully: Before proceeding to repair the vacuum 
 feed tank, make absolutely sure that the trouble 
 is not due to some other cause. Remember that 
 failure to feed gasoline to the carburetor may
 
 Operation of Vacuum Tank. S3 
 
 be due to causes other than the vacuum system. 
 Therefore, do not blame the vacuum system until 
 you have made certain that the fault does not lie 
 elsewhere. 
 
 After lifting the cover from the float of the 
 carburetor and finding no gasoline in the float 
 chamber, you can be certain that the upper 
 chamber in the vacuum tank is not delivering 
 gasoline to the lower chamber. This may be 
 caused by lack of fuel in the main supply tank 
 or the filler cap of the main tank may have the 
 vent hole stopped up. It may also be due to a 
 leak in gasoline line or its connections, the lead 
 to the manifold, or the manifold itself. Or 
 again it may be caused by the fact that the 
 float, which should be air tight, has developed a 
 leak, permitting the entry of gasoline, which pre- 
 vents it rising sufficiently to close the vacuum 
 valve. In this case, the pure gasoline will be 
 drawn into the manifold, choking up the motor. 
 Proper operation depends upon the float being 
 air tight. 
 
 If a leaky float is discovered or suspected, 
 remove the top of the tank to which the float is 
 attached, by taking out the screws around the 
 upper rim and running a dull knife blade around 
 the top between the cover and the body of the 
 tank, so as to separate the gasket without damag- 
 ing it. The gasket is shellaced in order to make 
 an air tight joint. Dip the float into a pan of hot 
 water in order to determine definitely where the 
 leak is. Bubbles will be seen at the point where 
 the leak occurs ; mark this spot. 
 
 Next punch two small holes, one in the top and 
 the other in the bottom of the float, to permit the 
 gasoline to run out; drain the float thoroughly 
 and then solder up these holes and the leak. Test 
 the float in hot water again. In soldering the 
 float be careful not to use more solder than is
 
 54 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 absolutely necessary, for an excess of solder 
 may make the float too heavy for perfect oper- 
 'ation. Be careful, also, not to bend the float 
 guide rod when you are taking out or replacing 
 the float. If it should be bent, it will strike 
 against the guide and retard the float, producing 
 the same effect as a leaky float -and allowing 
 gasoline to enter the inlet manifold. Make cer- 
 tain, also, that the surface of the guide rod is ' 
 perfectly smooth, so that it cannot stick in and be 
 retarded by the guide. 
 
 To overcome the condition of a leaky float 
 when you are on the road, and not handy to a 
 garage or repair shop, remove the plug on top of 
 the tank. Sometimes the suction of the motor 
 will be sufficient to draw up the gasoline from 
 the main tank despite the fact that the plug is 
 removed, and in this case you can proceed with- 
 out difficulty to your destination. This is not 
 always the case, however, so that it will some- 
 times be necessary to close up the plug with the 
 motor running, thus allowing the motor to draw 
 up a tank full of gas. Then open the plug to 
 prevent further action and proceed until the 
 vacuum tank is .empty again. There is enough 
 gas in the tank, when full, to carry you for two 
 or three miles, when the process will have to be 
 repeated until a shop is reached where the leaky 
 float can be repaired. 
 
 Another possible source of trouble is the 
 "flapper valve," which controls the flow of gaso- 
 line between the two chambers within the tank. 
 A small particle of dirt under the valve will 
 prevent perfect seating and render the tank in- 
 operative. In order to recognize this condition, 
 first plug up the air vent; then detach the tub- 
 ing leading from the tank to the carburetor from 
 the bottom of the tank. Start the motor the 
 carburetor bowl being filled with gasoline for
 
 Operation of Vacuum Tank. 55 
 
 the purpose and apply the finger to this open- 
 ing. If suction is felt continuously, then it is 
 evident that there is a leak in the connection be- 
 tween the tank and the main gasoline supply, or 
 else the flapper valve is being held off its seat and 
 is letting air into the tank instead of drawing 
 in gasoline. 
 
 In many cases, this trouble of a sticking valve 
 can be stopped by tapping the outside of the 
 tank, thus dislodging the particle of dirt or lint 
 that is clogging the valve. If this does not prove 
 effective, remove the tank cover, as described 
 above, and lift out the inner tank. The flapper 
 valve will be found screwed into the bottom of 
 the inner tank. 
 
 Other causes of a dry carburetor are a loose 
 manifold connection permitting the entry of air 
 into the manifold and destroying the vacuum or 
 clogging up the one or other of the tubes connect- 
 ing the vacuum tank to the motor and its ap- 
 pendages. All these things should be looked for 
 in turn. But, once again, before taking the tank 
 apart make sure that the main tank is foiled, that 
 the vent in the filler cap not clogged up and that 
 the sediment trap in the main fuel supply line 
 leading into the vacuum tank is not clogged up.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 How WEAR AFFECTS VALVE TIMING. 
 
 Constant Movement of Valve Mechanism Results 
 in "Play" in Parts Which Seriously Affect 
 Power How Faults Can be Corrected and 
 Timing Verified. 
 
 THE opening and closing points of the valves 
 are important factors in the efficient opera- 
 tion of the internal combustion engine. 
 Variation is caused by wear at a number of 
 points such as cams, rollers, tappets, pushrods, 
 etc., as these components are subjected to con- 
 siderable service. Generally the greatest wear 
 occurs in the tappet and on the end of the valve 
 stem, causing the valve to open late and not lift 
 high enough, thus retarding the flow of the mix- 
 ture to the cylinder. 
 
 Generally the opening and closing points of a 
 motor are marked on the periphery of its flywheel 
 by the manufacturer. The figures and letters 
 and their application are understood easily if 
 the motor's cycle of operation be taken into 
 consideration. 
 
 The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, represent the cylinder, 
 while the letter I indicates the intake valve and 
 the letter E the exhaust valve. Thus the com- 
 bination I, O, 1, 3, signifies the opening point of 
 the intake valves of the first and third cylinders. 
 Another set is I, C, 2, 4, which indicates the time 
 the intake closes. Similarly, E. 0, 1, 3, means the 
 opening point of the exhaust valves of the first 
 and third cylinders. E, C, 1, 3, is the closing 
 point. The letter C is generally employed for 
 denoting the top and bottom centres. 
 
 (56)
 
 How Wear Affects Valve Timing. 57 
 
 If it be remembered that the explosions of a 
 four-cylinder, four-cycle motor do not occur in 
 consecutive order, that is, the arrangement of the 
 crankshaft is such that two pistons are up and 
 two down at the same time, as indicated in an 
 accompanying illustration, the timing will be 
 simplified. Referring to the sectional view of a 
 motor, it will be seen that the piston of the first 
 cylinder (that nearest the radiator) has com- 
 pleted the compression stroke, that both valves 
 are closed, and that the mixture is ready to be 
 
 Four types of Tappets illustrating where wear occurs. 
 
 ignited by the spark. The pistons of the second 
 and third cylinders are practically at the bot- 
 tom, these being ready to begin the exhaust and 
 compression stroke respectively, as may be noted 
 in the drawing. 
 
 The firing order of the motor is 1, 3, 4, 2, which 
 means that the charge is ignited in this order. 
 Another firing order is 1, 2, 4, 3. In either case, 
 however, there are four strokes of the piston and 
 two revolutions of the crankshaft to obtain one 
 impulse or firing stroke. By referring to the firing 
 order below the illustration it will be seen that 
 the sequence of the strokes is: Firing, exhaust, 
 compression and suction or intake. By utilizing 
 these tables one may become familiar with the
 
 58 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 order of explosions, and these figures may be 
 utilized in timing where the flywheel is not 
 marked. Where wear has taken place at the 
 tappet or valve stem, and these members are 
 adjustable, the efficiency of the motor can be 
 improved greatly by resetting to conform with 
 the figures on the flywheel, previously mentioned. 
 While some makers advise the use of a business 
 card, inserting it between the valve stem and 
 tappet, the better method is to utilize the fly- 
 wheel marks. 
 
 Illustrating How Valves Are Timed and Tappets Adjusted by 
 Utilizing Markings on the Flywheel. 
 
 Cylinder 1 
 1 Firing 
 2 Exhaust 
 8 Suction 
 4 Compression 
 
 Cylinder 1 
 1 Firing 
 2 Exhaust 
 8 Suction 
 4 Compression 
 
 FIRING ORDER, 1-2-4-3. 
 
 Cylinder 2 Cylinder 8 
 
 Exhaust 
 Suction 
 Compression 
 Firing 
 
 Compression 
 Firing 
 Exhaust 
 Suction 
 
 FIRING ORDER, 1-3-42. 
 Cylinder 2 Cylinder 3 
 
 Exhaust Compression 
 
 Suction Firing 
 
 Compression Exhaust 
 Firing Suction 
 
 Cylinder 4 
 Suction 
 Compression 
 Firing 
 Exhaust 
 
 Cylinder 4 
 Suction 
 Compression 
 Firing 
 Exhaust 
 
 Generally an indicator in the form of an arrow 
 is fitted to the motor and its parts to facilitate 
 the work of the timing, but if the engine be not 
 thus equipped, it will be necessary to make a 
 mark on the cylinder to indicate the centres.
 
 How Wear Affects Valve Timing. 59 
 
 The mark may be checked by placing the piston 
 of the first cylinder at the top of its stroke, or by 
 having the crank throws vertical. 
 
 As has been previously explained, the crank- 
 shaft makes half a revolution to each stroke. 
 Referring again to the drawing, it will be seen 
 that the first cylinder is about to fire and that 
 both valves are closed. The exhaust of the sec- 
 ond is about to open. If the timing be correct 
 the indicating arrow will register with the line 
 on the flywheel marked E, O, 2, 3. If late these 
 figures will pass by the indicator and the tappet 
 of the exhaust valve of the second cylinder 
 should be lengthened until the valve starts to 
 lift with the arrow and line coinciding. 
 
 By moving the flywheel slightly the marks I, 
 O, 4, 1, should appear as the intake valve of the 
 fourth cylinder starts to lift, and if it does not 
 the adjustment of the tappet should be altered. 
 If the flywheel is now given approximately half a 
 turn the markings for the exhaust valves, 1 and 
 4, and intake, 2 and 3, will appear and can be 
 checked. If the closing points are included in 
 the markings on the flywheel, it is advisable to 
 utilize them. 
 
 AYhen the flywheel is not marked the timing 
 will have to be secured from the factory. A. 
 gauge will be useful in the work and one can be 
 made from a strip of brass about 1/16 inch thick 
 and about one-inch wide. The length of the 
 material will depend upon the diameter of the 
 flywheel, and as the general average is about 15 
 inches, a foot and a half of metal will be suffi- 
 cient. T?he fraction of an inch that equals a de- 
 gree is figured out and marked on the brass as 
 indicated in the drawing. This is essential, as 
 generally degrees are utilized. The degree can 
 be calculated esaliy as 360 degrees equal a circle. 
 
 In employing the gauge the top and bottom
 
 60 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 centres of the flywheel are located, and while 
 these may be obtained by inserting a rod through 
 the opening of the compression cock, the better 
 method is to remove the crank case or a baffle 
 plate and make sure that the crank throws are 
 exactly vertical and the piston is at the top of 
 its stroke. In fine timing some allowance should 
 be made for wear of the timing gears, play in 
 the bearings, etc. 
 
 After locating and marking off the centres on 
 the flywheel, and providing an arrow or other 
 indicating mark, the gauge is clamped or secured 
 to the flywheel as shown in the illustration. The 
 degrees in inches are then laid off and the timing 
 may be checked. 
 
 All corrections should be made with the motor 
 warm in order to obtain the best results. The 
 relief cocks should be opened, or better still, the 
 plugs taken out of the cylinders, so that the fly- 
 wheel may be rotated easily. If the compression 
 is not relieved it will be difficult to turn the wheel 
 by hand, as well as maintain it in the position 
 desired. The adjustment of the valve openings 
 is a simple matter and the operation will be facili- 
 tated by studying the accompanying illustration, 
 which was drawn to make clear the valve open- 
 ings and the markings on the flywheel.
 
 GIVING THE "THIRD DEGREE" TO A BALKY 
 MOTOR. 
 
 Just What to Do and How to Go About It When 
 the Engine Refuses to Behave. 
 
 FINDING out the trouble with an automo- 
 bile when it won't run is, according to 
 experts, like running down a crime. It is 
 a process of cool and logical elimination. The 
 motorist, unless he be an expert himself, reading 
 sounds and signs with swift and unfailing ac- 
 curacy as to their cause, should first clear his 
 mind of all prejudices and passion. Every pre- 
 conception should be magnanimously dismissed 
 from his thoughts, no matter how great his haste, 
 how inclement the weather, before, seeking the 
 truth and nothing but the truth, he begins to 
 cross-question the auto by trying one part after 
 the other. 
 
 If the engine stops on the road and pressing 
 the starter pedal refuses to start it, the first thing 
 to do is to get the crank out of the tool kit and 
 crank over the engine. If, with the gears in 
 neutral, the engine cranks over hard, it indicates 
 a lack of lubricating oil or a lack of water, 
 which has allowed the engine to reach a tem- 
 perature where the lubricant fails to perform 
 its work. If the engine turns over fairly easy 
 it is not necessary to look for oil or water trouble. 
 
 The next test is for compression. If the 
 driver is not experienced and is unable to tell 
 simply by the resistance to the starting crank 
 if each cylinder has compression, he should open 
 all petcocks except on one cylinder and turn 
 the crank over two revolutions, noting if there is 
 
 (61)
 
 62 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 a resistance for one-half of a revolution in 
 the two revolutions. Compression occurs only 
 on one stroke of the piston in the four-stroke 
 cycle. Each cylinder should be tested in a 
 similar manner, opening all petcocks except on 
 the cylinder being tested ; see if the compres- 
 sion is practically equal in all cylinders. If one 
 cylinder has very weak or no compression, 
 the trouble will be found usually in the ex- 
 haust valve. First examine the push rod to see 
 if there is clearance between it and the valve 
 when the valve is supposed to be closed ; if there 
 is, the valve must be lifted out and seat inspected 
 for carbon. Sometimes a piece of carbon will 
 lodge on the valve seat and due to the hammer- 
 ing of the valve, will become fastened to valvt 
 or seat. For temporary repair generally it can 
 be scraped off with a knife and the valve be 
 ground in upon reaching the garage. 
 
 If the trouble is not in the exhaust valve, it 
 might be in the inlet valve. In some types of en- 
 gines the valve head may break off and get into 
 the cylinder and when the piston comes up punch 
 a hole in the piston head. A petcock may be 
 loose so that it will jar open sufficiently to affect 
 the compression and so cause the cylinder to miss 
 fire. These troubles usually are confined to one 
 cylinder and not to the whole engine. 
 
 The gasoline is the next to be inspected. Is 
 there any gasoline in the bowl of the carburetor? 
 This may be determined by inspection, opening 
 draincock, or "ticking" flooding. If not, ex- 
 amine gasoline tank and see if there is a supply; 
 then see if the shutoff valve in the line leading 
 to the carburetor is open; if so, drain the bowl 
 of the carburetor to get rid of possible water and 
 dirt. To check the possible clogging of gasoline 
 pipe or carburetor screen, notice if the bowl 
 fills up again in a reasonable time.
 
 Giving the "Third Degree." 63 
 
 Do not adjust the carburetor. If the engine 
 has been running it is practically certain that the 
 carburetor has not become out of adjustment. 
 Inspect the intake pipe, or manifold, to see if it 
 has been loosened by vibration. If the engine 
 still refuses to run, put about a tablespoonful of 
 gasoline in each cylinder and crank over the en- 
 gine. If this runs the engine for a few revolu- 
 tions it indicates that the trouble is in the gaso- 
 line system and leaves but the spray nozzle, 
 which may be stuck, as remaining causes. 
 
 Next inspect the ignition system. The first 
 thing to do is to loosen one of the wires from a 
 spark plug and lay or hold it so the bare end will 
 be one-eighth of an inch from the base of the 
 plug and have some one crank the engine by 
 hand or with the starter. If a spark does not 
 occur, go first to the interrupter points and short 
 circuit the fixed point with a screwdriver or 
 other metal tool and see if there is a spark. Ex- 
 amine the points for dirt and see if they come 
 together and open properly. Then examine the 
 condition of the battery, testing it. Examine 
 the connectors on the battery, which sometimes 
 jar loose; examine the wires leading to the in- 
 terrupter switch; see if they are loose, or broken, 
 or short circuited. This need not be done if the 
 spark shows at the interrupter. 
 
 Examine the distributor for moisture or dirt 
 and see if the wires have become loose. If a 
 magneto only is used, it is a simple matter to see 
 if the interrupter points are making and break- 
 ing properly, and if the distributor is clean and 
 dry. If these appear to be all right the trouble 
 is doubtless in the armature winding or the con- 
 denser and cannot be repaired upon the road. 
 
 The wires to the plugs may be burned or 
 short circuited. If, with an apparently good 
 spark, we have compression and there is a mix-
 
 64 Care of Automobiles 
 
 ture passing into the cylinders, the trouble may 
 be in the spark plug. To test a spark plug it is 
 necessary to remove it. Widen the gap to one- 
 eighth of an inch and lay the plug with wire at- 
 tached upon the cylinder; crank the engine and 
 see if the spark jumps the gap. Widening the 
 gap is necessary, because the spark will not jump 
 so far under pressure as in the open air. If it 
 does not jump, the plug may have a broken in- 
 sulator or need cleaning. An extra set of plugs 
 should te carried to replace those which be- 
 come dirty; cleaning should be done in the 
 garage. If uncertain about condition of plug, 
 exchange it with one in another cylinder that is 
 working properly. 
 
 This covers most of the usual troubles expe- 
 rienced on the road. There are, of course, a 
 great many other possibilities, but if these tests, 
 carefully made, do not disclose the cause of the 
 trouble, it is advisable that the novice send for 
 a garage man. If one or two cylinders miss fire, 
 the trouble is most likely to be caused through 
 lack of compression or short-circuited spark 
 plug. If the engine refuses to run, the trouble 
 is most likely to be due to lack of gasoline or 
 failure of battery or magneto.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 APPLYING LOGIC TO DIFFICULT STARTING. 
 
 Tracing Starting Troubles to Tfair Source by 
 the Process of Elimination and Effecting 
 Cures. 
 
 WE should think logically. That is, after 
 all, the best advice for those who ex- 
 perience difficulty in starting, and are 
 unable to assign a cause. It can be applied to 
 every trouble experienced with a car. There 
 must be a reason. Find that reason and the 
 cause is soon curable. 
 
 Now, when it comes to assigning a cause for 
 an engine that regularly requires a considerable 
 amount of "cranking" before we are rewarded 
 with the syncopated music of its four cylinders, 
 we have, after all, very few factors to consider. 
 We are assuming that in the ordinary way the 
 engine runs evenly and pulls well, as in the ma- 
 jority of cases where the only difficulty is in 
 starting up from cold, and therefore many fac- 
 tors can be left out of consideration. The pro- 
 cess of reasoning, therefore, is this : 
 
 Provided we introduce a volatile inflammable 
 mixture into the combustion chamber and a spark 
 of sufficient intensity to fire the charge, the engine 
 must start. We will, therefore, begin to examine 
 either one or the other of the two conditions to 
 see if they are produced, which is far better than 
 violently flooding the carburetor, opening the 
 throttle lever and furiously "spinning" the mo- 
 tor in heroic but purposeless efforts to induce 
 -the motor to start. 
 
 Let us consider the question of the spark first, 
 because it is usually the prime cause of difficulty 
 
 (65)
 
 66 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 in an engine which otherwise behaves as it 
 should, and is invariably given the least con- 
 sideration. As the quickest means of determin- 
 ing whether the cause of the trouble is to be 
 looked for in this direction, take out one of the 
 spark plugs, with the high tension lead firmly 
 attached, and lay it on top of its cylinder in a 
 position where the points can be seen. 
 
 Moisture condensing on the electrodes is a fre- 
 quent cause of failure to start and the plug 
 should be examined for the presence of water 
 immediately on removal from the cylinder. With 
 
 brush 
 
 -Slip ring 
 
 the plug in position on the cylinder, turn the 
 motor over. If the good fat speark jumps across 
 the points, we can perceive at once that the plug 
 or the spark is not a likely cause of the hard 
 starting, and go on to investigate the carburetor. 
 If, however, there is no spark at all, or one which 
 is a mere pin point of blue flame, we have by far 
 the likeliest cause of difficult starting. The very 
 best mixture will not ignite under thes.e circum- 
 stances. 
 
 It is as well to turn the motor over twice or 
 three times to make sure that the firing point 
 is reached with the plug under test and to ascer- 
 tain also that the magneto is not cut out at the 
 switch. We will presume that there is no spark
 
 Applying Logic to Starting. 67 
 
 at all. The cause must be considered. Either 
 the magneto is not producing the spark or we 
 are disseminating the current generated in other 
 useless ways. Let us adopt the latter assump- 
 tion. 
 
 First, examine the plug. It may be sooted up 
 internally, which is not hard to discern. We 
 can either disconnect the high tension lead and 
 see if a spark can be produced from the termin- 
 al at the plug end almost in contact with the 
 cylinder, or we can connect up the new plug 
 and test it out in this manner. If a satisfactory 
 spark is now produced, we have located the 
 trouble, which can be cured by changing the 
 plugs, or by cleaning the old ones and resetting 
 the spark gaps to the proper opening, about the 
 thickness of a visiting card. 
 
 Perhaps the test reveals that there still is no 
 spark or a very feeble one. We are presuming 
 that the starting crank is given a fairly rapid 
 turn for each test, although it is surprising what 
 an excellent spark can be produced from a mag- 
 neto by merely turning the armature shaft over 
 comparatively slowly, as we can test for our- 
 selves any time the magneto is removed from the 
 power plant. If the motor is very stiff when 
 cold, the thickening of the lubricating oil and 
 the gummy condition of the cylinders and bear- 
 ings are prime causes of hard starting. The 
 remedy is the use of a thinner oil and a more 
 frequent emptying of the oil sump in cold 
 weather. These possibilities being eliminated one 
 by one, let us proceed to the magneto. 
 
 A frequent cause of a weak spark is the dirty 
 condition of the cutout or grounding terminal 
 on the magneto. The current will leak rapidly 
 through oil and grease at this point, although 
 moisture, which will sometimes collect here, is 
 a better conductor and more likely to be the seat
 
 68 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 of the trouble. We should disconnect the wire, 
 clean the terminal thoroughly and try again. 
 Still no success? Well, the magneto itself then 
 is the probable cause. 
 
 First of all, however, disconnect the high ten- 
 sion lead on the test plug, clean the magneto 
 terminal, and attach instead a piece of stiff cop- 
 per wire with which we can short circuit the 
 spark 'back on to some part of the magneto itself 
 or to some part of the chassis. If we now get a 
 
 Eliminate leakage of the high tension lead. 
 
 spark, we establish the fact that the current is 
 leaking through the leads and can cure it by in- 
 stalling new high tension cables and making sure 
 that the terminals are in proper shape. ' After 
 a car has been in service for a few years the 
 cables are quite likely to be found with cracked 
 insulation, which collects moisture and permits 
 the escape of the high tension current from the 
 magneto. 
 
 There still being no result, the trouble must 
 lie in the magneto, and as once the engine starts 
 there is no particular cause for complaint, we
 
 Applying Logic to Starting. 69 
 
 must look for some likely reason which would 
 manifest itself at low speeds, viz., a sticking 
 contact breaker, imperfect carbon brush and slip 
 ring, dirty distributor, or demagnetized mag- 
 nets. Examine the contact breaker, and as the 
 engine is turned over, see that the points open 
 and close. 
 
 Quite often, especially when the motor is cold, 
 the bell crank lever in the circuit breaker sticks 
 on its fibre bearing. It must be taken out, and 
 very lightly trimmed with a rat tail file, smearing 
 a little vaseline on the bearing before replacing, 
 when this trouble will be cured. The platinum 
 points may foe worn or set too wide. Their ad- 
 justment is a simple matter, and they can be filed 
 dead flat with a special magneto file. They 
 should open not more than the thickness of a 
 visiting card. Taking out the carbon brush, it 
 may be found broken, in which case it must be 
 replaced with a new one. The end, provided the 
 brush is found not broken, should be rubbed on 
 a piece of fine sand or emery paper to roughen 
 up and clean the surface. The brass segment 
 of the slip ring may be blackened or streaked 
 with oil, the result of too frequent oiling of the 
 magneto ibearings. It must be cleaned with a 
 piece of rag dipped in gasoline while the arma- 
 ture shaft is rotated. The distributor brush and 
 segments, similarly, must be cleaned. 
 
 If, after attention to these details, we still fail 
 to produce a spark worthy of the name, it is 
 fairly apparent that the magnets require remag- 
 netizing, which is a job beyond the capactiy of 
 the ordinary amateur, and the whole magneto 
 should be sent to a concern specializing in mag- 
 neto repairs or to the nearest service station. 
 The magnets on a first-class magneto should last 
 fully four years without attention. If we were 
 troubled with irregular firing through the entire
 
 70 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 range of motor speeds, and inexplicable engine 
 stops, or the engine had given out altogether, 
 we could look for much more serious trouble 
 with the ignition, but we are assuming that the 
 only trouble is difficult starting, and we are work- 
 ing for a cure on that premise. It is highly 
 probable that long before the test has gone this 
 far the cause or causes of the trouble will have 
 been located. 
 
 J3earts> cfffellcrantr 
 ,/ei/er 
 
 anner 
 
 Examine the contact breaker and platinum points. 
 
 Now we will consider the other prime cause 
 of difficult starting. The mixture is not one that 
 is readily ignited even by a good spark. 
 
 If the application of heat to the carburetor and 
 inlet manifold provides a cure, the trouble is 
 caused by condensation of the mixture, caused 
 by too long an inlet pipe. It can be covered with 
 flannel or some other heat retainer with advant- 
 age, but defective motor design is difficult to 
 cure. Here is a tip, however, that has been 
 found to work wonders. Soak a rag in gasoline 
 and place it over the air intake of the carbure- 
 tor. A few turns of the motor will generally
 
 Applying Logic to Starting. 71 
 
 suffice for starting, and once the motor starts 
 it heats up so readily and will in a few moments 
 be running regularly, when the rag can be re- 
 moved. The rag provides a vapor instead of a 
 liquid vapor, which must be further broken up 
 in the manifold, the vapor being more readily 
 ignited. 
 
 See that all the conditions for easy starting are 
 followed before making further investigation. 
 Advance the spark to the maximum point it will 
 stand without the motor "kicking." See that 
 the switch is on and the gasoline cock opened. 
 Flooding the carburetor until the gasoline runs 
 over freely is a frequent cause of difficult start- 
 ing, because the mixture thus produced is likely 
 to be far too rich. Try the effect when the 
 engine is warm and note the tendency to choke 
 and stop. 
 
 If the throttle is set rather fine for slow run- 
 ning when warm, open it slightly, and when the 
 correct point is found by successful starting, 
 note it forever more ! With nearly every car- 
 buretor, it is difficult to start up on a fully opened 
 throttle, the reason being that the fuller volume 
 of mixture increases the compression in the 
 cylinders and the higher the compression the 
 weaker the spark. As a final try, turn off the 
 switch and spin the motor over a number of times 
 to draw into the cylinders a good fresh charge 
 and then switch on again, giving the engine a 
 good quick turn or "spin" it. 
 
 With every condition favorable for easy 
 starting, and yet with no success, we must look 
 to the carburetor, possible losses of compression 
 and air leaks in the intake system. The last 
 mentioned cause is the most difficult to locate, 
 but it should be possible to counteract its defects 
 by gradually raising the level of the gasoline in 
 the float chamber of the carburetor, opening the
 
 72 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 throttle, and partly, then wholly, cutting off the 
 air supply. 
 
 A loss of compression is easy to determine, 
 but it will almost certainly not exist in a new 
 motor, and when present generally varies on the 
 different cylinders. Thus, if two or three cylin- 
 ders seem to have a fairly good compression, 
 while the third and fourth have practically none, 
 we have a good cause of difficult starting, the 
 remedy for which is an examination of the pis- 
 
 Clean the distributor ring and carbon brush. 
 
 
 
 tons and rings, and valves. Sometimes the steps 
 or slots of the rings are lined up, causing the 
 leakage. A keen car will discover a loss of com- 
 pression when the motor is turned over. 
 
 Look also at the spark plugs and valve caps, 
 where a leakage will usually be determined either 
 by a hissing sound when the motor is running or 
 by the presence of oil. 
 
 We can now look at the carburetor, especially 
 the slow running adjustment or pilot jet, which 
 may be partially choked. Unfortunately, to give 
 instructions for tuning and adjusting each make
 
 Applying Logic to Starting. 73 
 
 would take up a considerable amount of space. 
 Only by constant trial and retrial will the correct 
 adjustment be found. Probably a different set- 
 ting will be necessary for cold and warm weather 
 running. 
 
 With regard to air leaks in the inlet system, 
 you may discover the cause in a carburetor 
 which while being tightly bolted to the motor, 
 when originally installed, had gradually worked 
 loose, giving rise to an infmitesimally small air 
 passage way through the flange, which was 
 sufficient to make difficult starting. 
 
 In an old motor it is best to look for a worn 
 inlet valve guide, which will require rebushing, 
 or a new valve may cure the trouble. If one 
 valve guide is found to be worn, the "other will 
 probably be found in like condition. The valves 
 and valve seats may require regrinding. When- 
 ever there is the possibility of an air leak occur- 
 ing between the carburetor and the cylinders, 
 it must be guarded against, and in so far as ex- 
 ternal connections are concerned, there is noth- 
 ing better than shellac, or tire tape covered with 
 shellac.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE SYSTEM THAT Is ELIMINATING THE 
 MAGNETO. 
 
 Introduction of Dynamo On Starting and Light- 
 ing Systems Has Brought About a New 
 Regime in Automobile Ignition Features of 
 Generator-Battery System. 
 
 WAY back in 1912 when electric starting 
 and lighting systems began to make their 
 appearance, automobile engineers with 
 foresight predicted the abandonment of the mag- 
 neto in time to come for ignition work on cars 
 fitted with the starting and lighting systems. The 
 prediction is coming true as a matter of course, 
 for with simplification the keynote in modern 
 motor car construction the retention of two de- 
 vices, the magneto and the starting and lighting 
 dynamo, both employed for the identical purpose 
 of generating electricity, would be wholly incon- 
 sistent. 
 
 The high tension magneto, it will be under- 
 stood, is being thrown into the discard, insofar 
 as the pleasure car is concerned, not through any 
 failure on its part to perform its allotted func- 
 tion in a most satisfactory manner. Indeed, the 
 performance of the magneto has been so credit- 
 able that until the starting and lighting system 
 came into being it was the universal means of 
 obtaining ignition having entirely superseded the 
 old battery and coil system and even now, in 
 bringing to the attention the merits of the newer 
 generator-battery ignition which is surplanting 
 the magneto. 
 
 A glance at the accompanying diagram will 
 serve to make clear to the reader the fact that 
 
 (74)
 
 Eliminating the Magneto. 75 
 
 to all intents and purposes, the generator-battery 
 system of ignition is identical, as to principles 
 with the magneto system. 
 
 In the magneto system, current is generated at 
 comparatively low voltage in the primary wind- 
 ing of the armature, and "stepped up" to suffi- 
 ciently high tension to jump the spark plug gaps 
 in the secondary coil also placed on the armature. 
 The high tension current thus available is led to 
 a high tension distributor where it is distributed 
 to the various plugs at exactly the proper moment 
 for the ignition of the gases. A cam actuated 
 circuit breaker, providing an exceedingly rapid 
 break is inserted in the primary circuit and serves 
 to provide the necessary rapid drop in voltage to 
 cause the high tension surge in the secondary 
 winding and a condenser is connected across the 
 points to eliminate sparking. 
 
 All this is identical with generator-battery 
 ignition; there is the same primary winding, 
 which with the motor running takes current at 
 low tension from the generator ; there is the finer 
 secondary with its "business end" connected to 
 the high tension distributor; there is the rapid 
 circuit breaking device which breaks the circuit 
 and produces the surge at just the proper in- 
 stant for ignition in each of the cylinders ; there 
 is the spark-preventing condenser; everything 
 identical. The only difference lies in the fact 
 that the transformer coil in which the current is 
 stepped up from low to high tension instead of 
 being mounted on the armature of the magneto 
 is contained in a neat little box which in usual 
 practice is screwed well out of harms way to the 
 dashboard of the car. 
 
 The current supply of the generator-battery 
 ignition system is constant, regardless of the 
 engine speed. The magneto is necessarily limited 
 in its output and can not be increased beyond a
 
 76 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 bo 
 
 EC/1 
 . bo 
 
 fi 
 
 $'3 
 .2 c
 
 Eliminating the Magneto. 77 
 
 certain limit. The storage battery supply is flexi- 
 ble. If the resistance is high, more current can 
 flow from the battery to break it down. If the 
 resistance is low, the current flow is reduced 
 correspondingly. With the source of current 
 absolutely independent of the engine speed, the 
 spark may be advanced or retarded without af- 
 fecting the intensity of the spark. With the 
 hot spark at low speeds, the engine throttles down 
 perfectly under load. 
 
 In any magneto using the common shuttle 
 armature and the fixed pole pieces there are but 
 two positions in each revolution that give the 
 maximum current, and the primary circuit should 
 be broken at one of these positions to give the 
 maximum intensity spark. Obviously, the range 
 of speeds* of the automobile must be great to 
 overcome the road conditions encountered. A 
 fixed spark will limit the range, and the necessity 
 of retarding and advancing the spark arises. 
 Since there is as much as thirty to forty-five 
 degrees variation in the crankshaft position of 
 the occurrence of "the spark throughout the 
 range of advance, the spark can not occur always 
 when the magneto armature is in the position for 
 maximum current, and the spark varies in its 
 intensity. 
 
 The character of the spark is identical in 
 either the magneto or the generator-battery sys- 
 tem. There is but a single spark across the gap 
 of the spark plug in both cases, so that there 
 is no difference between the two systems in re- 
 gard to this feature. The generator-battery sys- 
 tem should not be confused with the vibrator 
 coil system that has been practically abandoned. 
 There is no vibrator in this entire system.
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 FEATURES AND CARE OF IGNITION SYSTEMS. 
 
 Differences Between Open and Closed Circuit 
 Quick Break Types Operation of Atwater 
 Kent Unisparker Made Plain. 
 
 WHILE in their basic principles all of the 
 quick break battery ignition systems 
 fitted to modern cars are quite similar, 
 in their mechanical, as well as their electrical 
 details, there are points of divergence which lend 
 individual merit to the different makes. Broadly, 
 the system is divided into two broad classes 
 the open and the closed circuit types each of 
 which has points of value not discernable in the 
 other class. 
 
 The points of difference between the open and 
 the closed circuit types are made perfectly plain 
 by the accompanying sketches. With the closed 
 circuit type, it will be seen that the spring tends 
 normally to keep the circuit breaker contact 
 points closed, until the cam revolves enough to 
 open the contact points, thus producing the 
 spark to fire the charge. Its big feature is its 
 extreme simplicity and fewness of parts ; it is 
 the type found on most of the low and inter- 
 mediate priced cars. 
 
 On the other hand, with the open circuit sys- 
 tem, the spring tends normally to keep the 
 points apart and the circuit broken; the cam 
 is brought into play in order to bring the points 
 together and establish the circuit. This is done 
 through another spring or a system of levers. 
 It is not quite so simple as the closed circuit 
 system, but the added complication results in a 
 construction which has material advantages over 
 
 (78)
 
 Care of Ignition Systems. 79 
 
 the simpler type. With the latter, for instance, 
 as the speed of the motor increases, the intervals 
 when contact is made decrease in exact ratio 
 with the revolutions of the motor. This means 
 that at a speed of 1,000 r. p. m. there is just 
 twice the time provided for the current flow as 
 at a speed of 2,000 r. p. m. 
 
 
 R.UH WIRE. FROnHR.E. TO SWTCH O*. COIL. 
 
 t 
 
 SPRIHG 
 
 CLOSED CiRcuirTirA:& 
 
 Diagram of closed-circuit system of ignition, with con- 
 tacts in open position. 
 
 In other words, if the adjustment is made so 
 that the contact interval is just proper to pro- 
 vide the maximum spark with minimum current 
 consumption, at say, 2,500 r. p. m., at low 
 
 
 V/IRE 
 TO Srf/TC/4 Of* CO/L 
 
 PIVOT 
 
 CAM 
 
 -= ** GROVHO 
 
 OPEH CIRCUIT 
 
 Diagram of open-circuit system of ignition, with con- 
 tacts in open position.
 
 80 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 speeds, there is a waste of battery current, while 
 at speeds higher than this set point the full ef- 
 fectiveness of the spark cannot be attained. This 
 is so because it takes some slight interval to com- 
 plete the mechanical act of establishing the con- 
 tact, for mechanical appliances cannot act in- 
 stantaneously, while it also takes some slight 
 interval for the voltage or surge of electric cur- 
 rent in the primary winding of the coil to reach 
 its maximum. In other words, there is both a 
 mechanical and an electrical "lag" and the best 
 
 Diagram illustrating principle of all types of battery 
 ignition system. 
 
 results are attained only when the duration of 
 the contact is just right to compensate for both 
 the mechanical and the electrical "lost motion." 
 With the open circuit system^ however, the 
 speed of the motor has no effect on the length 
 of the interval the contacts are held together. 
 Whether the motor is turning over at 500 r. p. 
 m. or at 3,000 the contact interval is the same,
 
 Care of Ignition Systems. 81 
 
 and having been so adjusted at the factory, is 
 always just right to provide the maximum igni- 
 tion effectiveness. Not only is this more eco- 
 nomical of current, but it also results in a better 
 running motor. 
 
 Aside from this slight mechanical variation, 
 however, one quick break battery system is much 
 like the next so that one schematic diagram will 
 serve to make known the basic principles on 
 which all systems of this character operate. By 
 reference to the next figure, we find, for in- 
 stance, that with the exception of the coil, the 
 entire mechanism is built around a single ver- 
 tical shaft which is sometimes built in a -unit 
 with the battery charging generator, but which 
 always is rotated from the timing gear train at 
 one half crankshaft speed. Mountenj. directly 
 on this shaft is the cam, while the breaker con- 
 tacts and the springs and other mechanism which 
 enter into the circuit breaking mechanism as- 
 sembly are carried on a plate enclosed with a 
 Bakelite cover, the plate being held normally 
 stationary, but arranged so that it can be ro- 
 tated through a slight angle in order to provide 
 for advance and retard of the spark. 
 
 The movable member of the contact breaker 
 is usually grounded directly to this plate, while 
 the stationary member, which is adjustable to 
 compensate for wear and burning of the points, 
 is insulated from the plate by means of suitable 
 bushings. To the terminal on the insulated con- 
 tact is connected one of the primary leads from 
 the non-vibrating type of coil which usually is 
 mounted behind the dash of the car, the other 
 primary lead being connected to the battery; the 
 ignition switch is interposed to control the cur- 
 rent as a matter of course. The other or nega- 
 tive terminal of the battery is grounded. It will 
 be seen, now, that when the contact is estab-
 
 82 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 lished, the current flows from the battery 
 through the primary of the ignition coil to the 
 stationary contact of the circuit breaker and 
 thence to the moving member of the breaker to 
 ground and back to the battery. 
 
 Directly over the circuit breaker is the high 
 tension distributor. It comprises a Bakelite arm 
 mounted on top of the rotating shaft and pro- 
 vided with a brass strip which is absolutely in- 
 sulated from the shaft, but which is brought into 
 contact with a carbon brush centrally mounted 
 in the top of the Bakelite cover, by means of a 
 light spring. The brass strip is so arranged that 
 as the arm rotates with the shaft it is brought 
 in close proximity with a series of contacts, 
 mounted in a circle around the Bakelite cover, 
 one contact for each cylinder of the motor. The 
 metal strip does not actually touch these con- 
 tacts, so that there is no wear, but the gap which 
 separates them is so small that even a weak 
 spark has not the slightest trouble in jumping 
 it. There are some systems that have a sliding 
 or positive contact in the distributor head. 
 
 The central brush is connected to one of the 
 secondary leads on the coil, the other lead being 
 grounded. The cables from the other contacts 
 lead each to the spark plug in the proper cylinder 
 as determined by the firing order of the motor. 
 As the shaft rotates, the arm is brought suc- 
 cessively into juxtaposition with each of the con- 
 tacts each time the cam mechanism comes into 
 play making and breaking the circuit. The elec- 
 trical surge which takes place in the secondary 
 of the coil as a result of the making and breaking 
 of the contact in the primary, therefore, is led 
 to the central brush to the distributor arm, 
 jumping the slight gap to the plug contact, 
 through the cable to the spark plug. Here "it
 
 Care of Ignition Systems. 83 
 
 again jumps a gap to ground ground being the 
 metal of the cylinder and back to the grounded 
 terminal of the secondary completing the cir- 
 cuit. The next time the circuit breaker comes 
 into play the arm has moved up and is in a posi- 
 tion to send the spark to the cylinder next in 
 firing order, and so on throughout the whole 
 series of cylinders. 
 
 The operation of the open-circuit type of 
 interrupter for the K3 type of battery ignition 
 system, manufactured by the Atwater Kent Co., 
 in brief, is as follows: Four different positions 
 of the interrupter in one of its cycles of oper- 
 ation are shown in the accompanying sketch. 
 The cam or ratchet, A, has as many notches as 
 there are cylinders to be fired. The ratchet is 
 mounted on the central vertical shaft of the de- 
 vice, which also carries the distributor, and in 
 this combined form is known as a unisparker. 
 
 The ratchet A engages the lifter B and as A 
 rotates, its teeth or notches successively tend to 
 draw B with them against the tension of 'the 
 spring C. In doing so the head of B strikes 
 the swinging lever of hammer D, the motion of 
 which in both directions is limited as shown, 
 and the hammer communicates the blow to the 
 contact spring E, bringing the contact points 
 together momentarily. E is a compound spring, 
 the straight member of which carries the mov- 
 able contact, while the stationary contact F is 
 mounted opposite it. The second member of 
 this compound spring is curved at its end to en- 
 gage the straight member. Ordinarily, the 
 straight spring blade is held under the tension 
 of the curved blade and the contact points are 
 held apart. 
 
 \Yhen the curved blade is struck by the ham- 
 mer D, the points come into contact with each 
 other. The curved blade, however, is thrown
 
 84 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 Diagrams showing operation of Atwater Kent 
 interrupter.
 
 Care of Ignition Systems. 
 
 85 
 
 over further by impact and its hook leaves the 
 straight blade. Upon reaching the limit of its 
 movement, it flies back and strikes the end of 
 the straight blade a blow, causing a very sharp 
 break of circuit. This movement is so extremely 
 rapid that it cannot be detected by the unaided 
 eye, so that its working cannot be tested simply 
 by watching the operation of the contacts, as in 
 the case of a magneto interrupter. The diagram 
 shows the successive movements of the parts 
 
 Location of condenser in Atwater Kent open circuit 
 breaker. 
 
 during a single cycle. In A a notch of the 
 ratchet has engaged B and is drawing-, the lifter 
 against the tension of the spring. 
 
 In the second sketch, B, the hook is just being 
 released. It will be seen that the lifter is so 
 shaped that with the hook in the notch of the 
 ratchet the cam head of the lifter does not touck 
 the hammer so that on the outward movement
 
 86 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 of B no contact is made. In C, the lifter is 
 riding back over the rounded portion of the 
 ratchet and is striking the hammer D, which in 
 turn pushes E for a brief instant against F. The 
 return of B to the position shown in sketch D 
 is so rapid that the eye cannot follow the move- 
 ment of the parts D and E, which, to all ap- 
 pearances, remain stationary. 
 
 Adjustment of the contact points is made by 
 removing one of the three washers from under 
 the head of the contact screw F, and the gap 
 should be .010 to .012 inch, never exceeding the 
 latter. Where more accurate means of deter- 
 mining this distance are not available, it may be 
 gaged with a piece of manilla wrapping paper, 
 which should be perfectly smooth. With the aid 
 of a micrometer, a sheet of paper of the proper 
 thickness can be selected. The contact points 
 are of tungsten, and, as the moving parts all are 
 of glass-hard steel, very accurately machined, 
 the wear is negligible, so that the adjustment is 
 not required oftener than once in, perhaps, 
 10,000 miles, and replacement of contacts after 
 running, perhaps, 50,000 miles. 
 
 In the latest models of this K3 type of ignition 
 system, the condenser is located within the 
 timer-distributor and in very close proximity 
 to the contacts. This location of the condenser 
 is shown in another' diagram. An automatic 
 spark advance mechanism is provided, which 
 operates by centrifugal force, and this automati- 
 cally advances the time at which the contact is 
 made and broken to compensate for the increase 
 in speed of the motor.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 THE STARTER-LIGHTER SYSTEM ANALYZED. 
 
 A Little Study Reveals That the Electric Start- 
 ing, Lighting and Ignition System Is Quite 
 Simple Chart Which Aids in Trouble Trac- 
 ing and Correction. 
 
 PERHAPS taking the car as a whole, there 
 is no one system incidental to its correct 
 functioning that is so little understood as the 
 electric lighting and starting system. To most 
 owners, even to motorists of experience who 
 know what each and every part of the car is for 
 and just how to care for it, the starting and 
 lighting system remains as a closed book. 
 
 Yet the system is simplicity itself, and what 
 appear on the surface to be intricacies, dissolve 
 into thin air once the light of reason is turned on 
 this, the most happy of all conveniences that has 
 been applied to the modern automobile. 
 
 The starting system, taken as a whole, com- 
 prises three units, and no one of the three is 
 more important than the other. Each is essen- 
 tial to the correct functioning of the complete 
 system. The first unit is the dynamo or gen- 
 erator, the purpose of which is to convert some 
 of the power of the engine into electrical energy 
 a portion of which is used to light the lights, 
 some to start the engine, and in some cases a por- 
 tion to furnish the ignition current. As the 
 dynamo is nothing more nor less than an elec- 
 trical "pump" which pumps electricity instead 
 of water or air, and as it receives its necessary 
 power from the engine, it is quite evident that 
 when the engine is not running, the dynamo is 
 worthless as a current producer. 
 
 (87)
 
 88 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 That fact, therefore, necessitates the use of 
 some sort of a device to store up the current 
 generated when the engine is running for use 
 to start the motor", supply the lights and ignition 
 when the engine is inoperative. That function 
 is performed by the "storage battery," which it 
 can be seen is no less important than the current 
 generator itself. 
 
 In order to turn the engine over a sufficient 
 number of times for it to take up its own cycle 
 of operations, a third unit, called a starting 
 motor, is provided. It takes the current that has 
 been stored up in the storage battery and recon- 
 verts it into njechanical energy which is utilized 
 to spin the engine through the intermediary of a 
 train of gears or a silent chain. Without the 
 starting motor, there would be scant use for the 
 other two units. 
 
 As for the dynamo: It comprises a number 
 of coils of wire closely wound upon a slotted 
 soft iron core which is rotated at high speed by 
 the engine in a suitably shaped space between 
 the poles of two electro magnets. Provision is 
 made by means of a commutator, or rotary 
 switch mounted on the shaft, to so connect the 
 coils of wire on the rotating member or "arma- 
 ture" as to turn part of the current generated in 
 them through the coils on the electromagnets or 
 "field coils," thus increasing their strength; the 
 remainder of the current goes to the battery or 
 lamps, as the case may be. As the amount of 
 current generated depends almost directly upon 
 the speed with which the armature is rotated by 
 the engine, provision is made by means of a 
 regulator of one sort or another to cut down the 
 current at high engine speeds and thus keep the 
 output constant so that the lights will not flicker 
 and the charging rate to the battery will not run 
 too high and result in "gassing."
 
 The Starter-Lighter System. 89 
 
 While there are as many different types ot 
 regulators in use as there are makes of auto- 
 mobiles, for the most part regulation is effected 
 by decreasing the amount of current passing 
 through the field coils at high speeds'. In some 
 cases this is accomplished by inserting a variable 
 resistance, or "current brake," in the field cir- 
 cuit so that the higher the rate of speed the 
 harder it is for current to pass through this 
 "brake" and consequently the less that will flow. 
 
 The system that has found most favor in this 
 country employs a vibrating reed, mu.ch like the 
 common "buzzer" which summons the housewife 
 to the kitchen door. This is placed so that when 
 it "buzzes," the parting contacts open the field 
 circuit. The circuit of the operating magnet is 
 connected so that it gets the full benefit of the 
 dynamo current. At low speed, the buzzer does 
 not operate, but at high speed it begins and inter- 
 mittently introduces resistance into the field cir- 
 cuit and cuts down the field circuit. The faster 
 the car goes the faster the buzzer vibrates and the 
 greater the resistance. Hence the current is kept 
 practically constant. 
 
 Another system uses an iron wire coil which 
 heats up when current passes through it. At high 
 temperatures, any further increase enormously 
 increases the resistance of the iron. When the 
 current gets strong enough to heat the iron coil 
 beyond this critical temperature, therefore, it is 
 automatically choked and cut down. 
 
 There is another little device which is of the 
 utmost importance. It is the automatic cutout 
 which is placed in the circuit between the dynamo 
 and the battery and which serves to disconnect the 
 two when the dynamo is not running. This pre- 
 vents the battery current from running back 
 through the dynamo and being wasted. This de- 
 vice consists simply of an electromagnet con-
 
 90 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 netted in the circuit, the armature being normally 
 held away from the magnet by means of a spring. 
 In this position the circuit between the dynamo 
 gets under way, however, at a predetermined 
 point the pull of the magnet due to the current 
 passing through it is sufficient to overcome the 
 opposition of the spring and the armature of the 
 magnet is attracted and closes the circuit. Quite 
 as a matter of course, when the speed falls off 
 and the current strength drops, the spring again 
 pulls the armature away thus opening the circuit 
 The popular idea in connection with a storage 
 battery is that when a current of electricity is 
 passed through the storage battery, that the cur- 
 rent is "stored" in the battery. This is not the 
 case at all. A "fully charged" battery does not 
 contain any electricity. What actually takes 
 place is this when a current is passed through 
 the battery certain elements in the storage battery 
 plates are combined with the solution or elec- 
 trolyte in the battery by a purely chemical pro- 
 cess. This is why the hydrometer reading of the 
 solution in a fully charged battery is much higher 
 than that of a discharged battery, because the 
 solution is heavier, having in it some of the ete- 
 ments which were in the plates of the battery 
 before the charging took place. When the Hattery 
 is discharged the action which takes place is that 
 the chemicals in the solution or electrolyte are 
 again combined with the plates in the storage 
 battery, through another chemical action, and 
 that is the reason why the hydrometer reading on 
 a discharged battery is materially lower than that 
 on a fully charged battery. As mentioned, there 
 is no electrical energy stored up in the storage 
 battery when it is charged. The current which 
 is taken from a fully charged battery is generated 
 through the chemical action described, and is
 
 The Starter-Lighter System. 91 
 
 generated only at the time it is being taken from 
 the battery. 
 
 When a battery is charged certain elements in 
 the solution are constantly striving to again com- 
 bine with the elements in the plates, or to return 
 to the condition which they were in before the 
 battery was charged. This explains the reason 
 for the storage battery gradually discharging it- 
 self when it is not in use. 
 
 On the other hand when a storage battery is 
 discharged, if it is left in that condition it will 
 ruin itself in a short time. This is due to an ac- 
 tion called "sulphating." 
 
 A storage battery will last longer and can be 
 kept in good condition most easily when it is in 
 constant use, that is to say, when it is being 
 charged and used and recharged right along. A 
 writer once described a storage battery very aptly 
 when he said it was "a nervous proposition" and 
 that it needed constant "excitement." This is 
 really the situation in a nutshell. To keep your 
 storage battery in good shape it should be kept 
 in service. 
 
 To all intents and purposes, the starting motor 
 is quite identical in principle to the' dynamo. It 
 comprises a wirewound rotating armature, posi- 
 tioned between the field pieces, and also has a 
 commutator. As a matter of fact, practically any 
 dynamo can be used as a 'motor, or vice versa; 
 but because of their different uses, some slight 
 alterations have been made in the machines which 
 distinguishes the one from the other. The start- 
 ing motor, for instance, is wound with much 
 coarser wire than the automobile dynamo, the 
 reason being that it must develop a great deal 
 of power and to do that needs a whole lot of 
 current. Fine wire would burn out under the 
 strain. The dynamo, on the other hand, goes on
 
 92 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 pumping only a small amount of current and does 
 not need heavy wire. 
 
 In some instances, the function of both dynamo 
 and starting motor are combined in a single in- 
 strument which is then called a motor-generator, 
 and such a system is designated by the automo- 
 bile maker as a "single unit" system as against 
 the "two unit" system wherein dynamo and 
 starting motor are each separate units. 
 
 The following tabulation will be found useful 
 in determining when the electric starting and 
 lighting system is at fault and locating troubles: 
 
 SYMPTOMS OF TROUBLE. 
 
 The Causes of Troubles can be Determined by a 
 
 Study of Symptoms. 
 
 Ammeter does not indicate "Charge" engine 
 speeded up, but indicates "Discharge" when 
 lights are turned on, engine at rest. 
 
 Dynamo or regulator not working properly. 
 Dynamo brushes do not make firm contact with 
 
 commutator. 
 Dynamo belt too loose to drive dynamo at proper 
 
 speed. 
 Car speed too low. 
 
 Ammester does not indicate "Charge" lights off, 
 engine speeded up, and does not indicate "Dis- 
 charge" lights on, engine at rest. 
 
 Open or loose connection in the battery circuit or 
 
 in battery itself. 
 
 Battery terminals not securely connected. 
 Dynamo terminals loose. 
 Ammeter may be at fault. 
 
 Ammeter indicates "Discharge" lights turned 
 off, engine at rest. 
 
 Ammeter pointer bent. 
 
 Insulation on wires injured, permitting contact with 
 
 frame, causing short circuit. 
 Cutout not operating properly.
 
 The Starter-Lighter System. 93 
 
 Ammeter indicates "Charge" engine at rest. 
 Pointer bent. 
 
 Ammeter "Charge" indications below normal. 
 Dynamo speed low. 
 Regulator not functioning properly. 
 Excessive lamp load. 
 Commutator dirty. 
 Generator defective. 
 
 Ammeter "Charge" indications above normal. 
 
 Regulator not functioning properly. 
 
 Short circuit in battery or in charging circuit. 
 
 Ammeter "Discharge" indications above nor- 
 mal, engine at rest. 
 
 Lamp load excessive. 
 
 Lamp wires in contact with frame. 
 
 Regulator cutout points stuck. 
 
 Ammeter pointer jerks intermittently from 
 "Charge" to Neutral while engine is speeded up. 
 
 Short circuit in system. 
 
 Loose connection in dynamo circuit. 
 
 Brushes making poor contact. 
 
 Fuses blow repeatedly. 
 
 Lamp wires in contact with frame. 
 
 Lamps defective. Short circuited. Try new bulb. 
 
 Engine cranking speed very low. 
 
 Battery almost discharged. 
 
 Battery sulphated. 
 
 Engine stiff. 
 
 Starting cable not firmly secured to battery, starting 
 
 switch, and motor. 
 Motor brushes making poor contact. 
 
 Starting motor does not rotate. 
 
 Battery may be discharged. 
 Battery may be sulphated or injured. 
 Starting switch not making good contact. 
 Motor brush may not make contact with commu- 
 tator. 
 Battery terminals may not make firm contact.
 
 94 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 Lamps will not light, but starter cranks engine. 
 
 Lamps burned out or filament broken. Try new 
 
 bulb. 
 
 System short-circuited. 
 System open circuited. 
 
 Lamps seem to burn brightly but fail to illum- 
 inate road sufficiently. 
 
 Lamps out of focus. 
 
 Rays of light directed too far upwards. 
 
 Reflectors tarnished. 
 
 Lamps burn dimly or not at all. 
 Battery weak, discharged. 
 Lamps old, blackened. Try new bulbs. 
 System may be short-circuited. 
 Resistance of circuit high, due to loose or dirty wire 
 
 connections. 
 Lamp bulbs may be of too high voltage., 
 
 Lamps blacken or burn out quickly. 
 
 Lamps not of the proper voltage. 
 
 Dynamo or regulator not working properly. 
 
 Lamps defective, poor grade. 
 
 Loose connection between generator and battery. 
 
 Lamps flicker and ammeter unsteady. 
 
 Loose connection in lamp wires. 
 
 Loose connection between battery and dynamo. 
 
 Loose contact at lamp connector or at lamp bulb. 
 
 Poor contact between fuses and fuse clips; fuse 
 clips must securely clamp fuse ends. 
 
 Exposed wire touching frame intermittently, caus- 
 ing short circuit. 
 
 Lighting switch contacts burned. 
 
 Lamps burn very dimly or not at all when 
 starting pedal is operated. 
 
 Battery very weak, almost discharged. 
 Battery injured, due to lack of water. 
 Battery cables not rigidly connected to battery or 
 motor wiring.
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 OPERATION OF ECLIPSE-BENDIX STARTER DRIVE. 
 
 Simplicity of Important Unit Between Starter 
 Motor and Engine Beclouds Its Action- Has 
 Been Adopted by Most Starter Makers and 
 Does Away With Hand Operated Devices. 
 
 ONE of the most importan^, elements in the 
 operation of any electric starting system is 
 the mechanism which connects the electric 
 starting motor to the engine when the latter is to 
 be started, and disconnects it when the motor has 
 taken up its own cycle of- operations. Such a de- 
 vice is essential, for it is obvious that to drag a 
 heavy starting motor would put an extra load on 
 the engine and detract from its "snap" and pull- 
 ing powers, while at the same time the starting 
 motor, save in rare instances when it is built in a 
 single unit with the dynamo, is not built for con- 
 tinued operation. 
 
 The first starting systems usually were pro- 
 vided with a shifting gear which was meshed with 
 teeth on the periphery of the flywheel through the 
 agency of a hand lever or pedal when the motor 
 was to be started and thrown out of engagement 
 again and when the engine began to fire. Ar- 
 rangements of this sort still persist, but by far the 
 greater number of starter manufacturers have 
 thrown them into the discard and applied the 
 Eclipse-Bendix drive. This little device auto- 
 matically engages and disengages the starting 
 motor at the proper times, without the slightest 
 attention on the part of the operator and its al- 
 most universal application to starting systems 
 makes a complete description of it, together with 
 
 (95)
 
 96 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 a few words on its care, practically a necessity 
 in a work of this kind. 
 
 The design of the Eclipse-Bendix Drive is so 
 simple that at first it is hard to understand how 
 it performs so many automatic movements and 
 functions. 
 
 The device consists of a hollow shaft hav- 
 ing screw threads on the outside, and a hol- 
 low gear having screw threads on the inside; so 
 that the gear screws on the shaft like a nut 
 on a bolt. A circular weight is fastened to the 
 gear, and is slightly out of balance. A coil spring 
 connects the electric motor shaft and the hollow 
 screw shaft. (See Fig. 1.) 
 
 When the electric motor starts it drives 
 through the spring and turns the screw shaft. 
 Because of the weight the gear is too heavy to 
 turn with the screw shaft, and because the gear 
 does not turn it must move along the screw shaft 
 (just the same as if you turned a bolt having a 
 nut on it, and kept holding the nut with your fin- 
 gers to keep it from turning so that it would be 
 screwed along the bolt). After the screw gear 
 has moved along the screw shaft and engages 
 with the flywheel gear, it then keeps moving along 
 until it reaches the stop at the end of the screw 
 shaft. The two gears then are fully meshed, and 
 it is obvious that when the screw gear has reached 
 the stop it can not move any farther, and it then 
 must turn with the screw shaft. (See Fig. 2.) 
 At this particular moment the screw shaft and 
 electric motor are revolving at a great speed, and 
 this great blow and the power of the electric mo- 
 tor are both taken through the coil spring. The 
 spring keeps coiling until all this power has been 
 applied to the flywheel gear and the engine starts 
 turning. 
 
 As soon as the engine starts exploding and runs
 
 Edipse-Bendix Starter Drive. 97 
 
 "IT'S AUTOMATIC" 
 
 Arrows Snow Direct ion or Rotation 
 
 Eclipse I 
 
 ready to be automatically 
 the electric motor ii> started 
 
 .1 and about to crank. The screw 
 minute and stores this terrific 
 fly-wheel and starting the engine. 
 
 Afte
 
 98 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 under its own power, the flywheel, of course, 
 turns much faster than it was cranked by the 
 starter. Because it is now turning so much faster, 
 it increases the speed of the screw gear so that 
 the latter runs faster than the screw shaft on 
 which it is mounted. It is, therefore, plain and 
 easy to understand, that if the screw gear runs 
 faster than the screw shaft, it will be screwed 
 on the threads of the shaft (like a nut on a bolt) 
 until it has been screwed out of mesh with the 
 flywheel gear. 
 
 This demeshing movement is entirely auto- 
 matic, and eliminates the use of an overrunning 
 clutch. And now that the screw gear -is out of 
 mesh, it is natural to suppose, if the electric mo- 
 tor keeps running, that the gear will be automati- 
 cally screwed right back into mesh with the fly- 
 wheel gear. But the "unbalanced weight on the 
 screw gear now performs its automatic function. 
 ,That is, being slightly out of balance, the weight 
 twists or cocks the screw gear so that it clutches 
 and binds on the screw shaft and turns with it. 
 This automatic clutching is all due to the. centri- 
 fugal force of the unbalanced weight. (See 
 Fig. 3.) 
 
 When the electric motor stops running, the 
 screw gear has been fully screwed away from the 
 flywheel gear, and it remains in that retarded po- 
 sition until it is again required to start the en- 
 gine. 
 
 The Eclipse-Bendix Drive should not require 
 any care or attention during the life of a motor 
 car. 
 
 The screw shaft should never be oiled or lubri- 
 cated. It is not necessary in fact, the screw 
 gear works to best advantage when the screw 
 shaft is dry. 
 
 Through accident or otherwise, should the fly- 
 wheel ever be entirely exposed and unprotected,
 
 Eclipse-Bendix Starter Drive. 99 
 
 and the flywheel gear possibly drag in wet mud, 
 a slight inconvenience may result therefrom. But 
 such a condition and operation of a car is, of 
 course, unreasonable. The gear on the screw 
 shaft has an automatic self-cleaning action, but, 
 in any extreme case, it may then be necessary to 
 clean the screw. Therefore, a slight inconve- 
 nience is the only penalty for such careless mis- 
 use of the car, by having it in such an unprotected 
 condition. 
 
 Back fires are unnecessary, because the driver 
 of a car should have the spark lever properly re- 
 tarded, and the gas throttle should not be wide 
 open, but should only be moved over enough for 
 starting. With the spark and throttle levers only 
 slightly advanced, back fires are avoided and the 
 engine starts easiest and quickest. In case of a 
 back fire, the explosive shock is taken through the 
 coil spring, which absorbs most of the destructive 
 blow, and is another automatic feature of the 
 Eclipse-Bendix Drive. As an extra precaution 
 against back fires the drive spring and drive 
 screws are designed with large factors of safety. 
 
 The teeth on the screw gear and flywheel are 
 chamfered or pointed on only one side, to make 
 the meshing natural and easy. However, should 
 the teeth meet end to end, the screw shaft itself 
 is designed to automatically move backwards 
 against and compress the coil spring. This gives 
 the screw gear time enough to turn and enter the 
 flywheel gear. Should sticking of gears ever 
 occur, they can be released by throwing in the 
 clutch and moving the car. Such trouble would 
 be due to incorrect chamfering or inaccurate 
 alignment of the gears. Also it might be due to 
 the. binding of the drive parts and prevent com- 
 pressing and proper functioning. Such defects 
 should be corrected.
 
 100 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 If while the engine is running the electric mo- 
 tor should be accidentally started, the screw gear 
 will, of course, screw over against the turning 
 flywheel gear. But instead of the clashing and 
 smashing of gears that might be expected, there 
 is no damage whatever, as the gears simply touch 
 once. This is because the flywheel gear will speed 
 up the screw gear, and thus automatically screw 
 it away. The turning screw gear will then auto- 
 matically clutch and bind on the screw shaft in 
 exactly the same manner as when it is cranking 
 and has been demeshed when the engine starts 
 exploding. 
 
 The Eclipse-Bendix Drive is guaranteed 
 against defective material and workmanship. All 
 parts are made of specially selected steels and 
 properly heat treated. Every care is taken to 
 give complete satisfaction.
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 SUPREME IMPORTANCE OF BATTERY CARE. 
 
 Batteries Will Give No Trouble If Attended to 
 Regularly and Properly Full and Explicit 
 Rules For Battery Care and Upkeep The 
 Rules Are Inflexible. 
 
 A3 for the mechanical elements of the start- 
 ing and lighting system, aside from occa- 
 sional lubrication according to directions 
 furnished by the maker, there is but little for the 
 owner or driver to do, and nothing to worry 
 about. Nor, with the exception of the storage bat- 
 tery, is there anything in the electrical end of the 
 system that needs constant attention. The bat- 
 tery, however, does require a certain amount of 
 attention which, if the best results are to be ob- 
 tained, and freedom from trouble assured, must 
 be done with the regularity of clock work. 
 
 And in speaking of the battery and battery 
 care, there is one little point that must never be 
 forgotten. Most rules and regulations are more 
 or less flexible, but that is not the case with the 
 storage battery instructions. They must be fol- 
 lowed to the letter. A storage battery is an ex- 
 pensive and at the same time a delicate me- 
 chanism, and it does not pay to experiment with 
 it. No one yet, barring accident, had trouble 
 with a battery who was careful to follow the in- 
 structions laid down for its care to the letter. 
 Now for the instructions. 
 
 1. Batteries must be properly installed. 
 
 Keep battery securely fastened in place. 
 
 Battery must be accessible to facilitate regular 
 adding of water, and occasional testing of solu- 
 
 (101)
 
 102 Care oj Automobiles. 
 
 tion. Battery compartments must be ventilated 
 and drained, and all water, oil and dirt kept out. 
 Battery should have free air space on all sides, 
 should rest on cleats rather than on solid bottom 
 and holding devices should grip case or case han- 
 dles. A cover, cleat or bar pressing down on the 
 cells or terminals should not be used. 
 
 2. Keep battery and interior of battery com- 
 partment wiped clean and dry. 
 
 Do not permit an open flame near the battery. 
 
 Keep all small articles, especially of metal, out 
 of and away from the battery. Keep terminals 
 and connections coated with vaseline or grease. 
 If solution has slopped or spilled, wipe off with 
 waste, wet with ammonia water. 
 
 3. Pure zvater must be added to all cells regu- 
 larly and at sufficiently frequent intervals to keep 
 the solution at the proper height. 
 
 The proper height for the solution is usually 
 given on the instruction or name-plate on the bat- 
 tery. In all cases the solution must cover the 
 battery plates. 
 
 The frequency with which water must be 
 added depends largely upon the battery, the sys- 
 tem with which it is used and the conditions of 
 operation. Once every two weeks is recom- 
 mended as good practice in cool weather; once 
 every week in hot weather. 
 
 Plugs must be removed to add water ; then re- 
 placed and screwed home after filling. 
 
 Do not use acid or electrolyte, only pure -water. 
 
 Do not, use any water known to contain even 
 small quantities of salts of any kind. Distilled 
 'water, melted artificial ice or fresh rain water 
 are recommended. 
 
 Use only a clean, non-metallic vessel. 
 
 Add water regularly, although the battery may 
 seem to work all right without it.
 
 Care of Battery. 103 
 
 4. The best way to ascertain the condition of 
 the battery is to test the specific gravity (density) 
 cf the solution in each cell with a hydrometer. 
 
 This should be done regularly. 
 
 A convenient time is at the time of adding 
 water, but the reading should be taken before 
 rather than after, adding the water. 
 
 *-x reliable specific gravity test cannot be made 
 after adding water and before it has been mixed 
 by charging the battery or by running the car. 
 
 A common and convenient form of testing the 
 specific gravity of the electrolyte is with a hydro- 
 meter syringe. To take a reading insert the end 
 of the rubber tube in the cell. Squeeze and then 
 slowly release the rubber bulb, drawing up elec- 
 
 trolyte from the cell until the hydrometer floats. 
 The reading on the graduated stem of the hydro- 
 meter at the point where it emerges from the 
 solution is the specific gravity of the electrolyte. 
 After testing, the electrolyte must always be re- 
 turned to the cell from which it was drawn. 
 
 The gravity reading is expressed in "Points," 
 thus the difference between 1,250 and 1,275 is 
 2f points. 
 
 5. When all cells are in good order the gravity 
 will test about the same (within 25 points) in all. 
 
 Gravity above 1,200 indicates battery more than 
 half charged. 
 
 Gravity below 1,200 but above 1,150 indicates 
 battery less than half charged. 
 
 When battery is found to be half discharged 
 use lamps sparingly until by charging the battery 
 the gravity is restored to at least 1,200. (See 
 section 8.)
 
 104 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 Gravity below 1,100 indicates battery com- 
 pletely discharged or "run down." 
 
 A run down battery should be given a full 
 charge at once. 
 
 A run down battery is always the result of lack 
 of charge or waste of current. If, after having 
 been fully charged the battery soon runs down 
 again there is trouble somewhere else in the sys- 
 tem, which should be located and corrected. 
 
 Putting acid or electrolyte into the cells to 
 bring up specific gravity can do no good and may 
 do great harm. Acid or electrolyte should never 
 be put into the battery except by an experienced 
 battery man. 
 
 6 Gravity in one cell markedly lower than in 
 the other, especially if successive readings show 
 the difference to be increasing, indicates that the 
 cell is not in good order. 
 
 If the cell also regularly requires more water 
 than the others, a leaky jar is indicated. 
 
 Even a slow leak will rob a cell of all of its 
 electrolyte in time, and a leaky jar should be im- 
 mediately replaced with a good one. 
 
 If there is no leak and if the gravity is, or be- 
 comes, 50 to 75 points below that in the other 
 Cells, a partial short circuit or other trouble 
 within the cells is indicated. 
 
 A partial short circuit may, if neglected, seri- 
 ously injure the battery and should receive the 
 prompt attention of a good battery repair man. 
 
 7. A battery charge is complete when, with 
 charging current flowing at the rate given on the 
 instruction plate on the battery, all cells are gas- 
 sing (bubbling) freely and evenly and the gravity 
 of all cells has shown no further rise during one 
 hour. 
 
 The gravity of the solution in cells fully 
 charged as above is 1,275- to 1,300.
 
 V 
 
 Care of Battery. 105 
 
 8. The best results in both starting and light- 
 ing service will be obtained when the system is so 
 designed and adjusted that the battery is normally 
 kept well charged, but without excessive over- 
 charging. 
 
 If, for any reason, an extra charge to maxi- 
 mum specific gravity is needed, it may be accom- 
 plished by running the engine idle, or by using 
 direct current from an outside source. 
 
 In charging from an outside source .use direct 
 current only. Limit the current to the proper 
 rate in amperes by connecting a suitable resist- 
 ance in series with the battery. Incandescent 
 lamps are convenient for this purpose. 
 
 Connect the positive battery terminal (painted 
 red, or marked POS or P or -f-) to the positive 
 charging wire and negative to negative. If re- 
 versed, serious injury may result. Test charging 
 wires for positive and negative with a voltmeter 
 or by dipping the ends in a glass of water con- 
 taining a few drops of electrolyte, when bubbles 
 will form on the negative wire. 
 
 9. A battery which is to stand idle should first 
 be fully charged. 
 
 A battery not in active service may be kept in 
 condition for use by giving it a refreshing charge 
 at least once every month, but should preferably 
 also be given a thorough charge, after an idle 
 period, before it is replaced in service. 
 
 A battery which has stood idle for more than 
 two months should be charged at one-half normal 
 r?.te to maximum gravity before again being 
 phiced into service. 
 
 It is not wise to permit a battery to stand for 
 ti'ore than six months without charging. 
 
 In conclusion, it might be well to point out 
 that with the first flurries of real winter, it is 
 well for motorists to heed the "test your battery" 
 advice. During the summer months the battery
 
 106 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 is kept well charged because owners drive their 
 cars sufficient to keep the battery in good shape, 
 bii~ in the winter months, with consequent less 
 amount of driving, automobile batteries some- 
 times "run low." 
 
 The old adage of "an ounce of prevention is 
 worth a pound of cure" certainly applies to the 
 upkeep of automobiles, and if owners will give 
 their batteries inspection, there is no occasion for 
 it ever "going dead." Most owners are inclined 
 to make necessary inspections, provided it can be 
 easily done, and the car manufacturers have 
 themselves to blame in many cases by having 
 the part that needs inspection placed so that it is 
 difficult to reach. 
 
 With a hydrometer (which can be had at a 
 very nominal price) the owner can very easily 
 test the conditions of each cell of his storage 
 battery every week or so. This instrument merely 
 gives, on an easily-read scale, the specific gravity 
 of the liquid of each cell. The test is easily made, 
 and from the reading of this specific gravity the 
 owner may tell at a glance whether the battery 
 is fully charged or is nearly exhausted. Thus, if 
 he finds the battery is but partially charged, he 
 may know that the lights and starter have been 
 used without sufficient running of the car to re- 
 place the current consumed. This will furnish a 
 hint to him to use the lights and starter sparingly 
 until some extended daylight trip of several miles 
 at a fair, average speed, will serve to restore the 
 electrical reservoir to its normal level. This oc- 
 casional testing of the storage battery, together 
 with the addition of the required amount of dis- 
 tilled water to each cell every week or two, is the 
 only work required of the owner of the average 
 car to keep the heart of his starting and lighting 
 system in proper condition.
 
 CHAPTER XV, 
 CLUTCH ADJUSTMENTS. 
 
 Detailed Directions for Increasing Tension, and 
 Replacing Friction Discs on the Now Almost 
 Universal Dry Disc Clutch. 
 
 THERE are three essential clutch parts: the 
 clutch spring to engage the clutch, the 
 clutch pedal to disengage the clutch, and 
 the friction surfaces whose duty it is to impart 
 the power developed by the motor to the trans- 
 mission. The friction units are the base of the 
 flywheel, two Raybestos rings, the steel friction 
 disc and clutch thrust ring. These are so ar- 
 ranged that there is no metal to metal friction, 
 but a very positive pickup with the Raybestos 
 acting as a cushion. 
 
 While the Raybestos rings are subjected to a 
 great amount of usage, and abuse, in some cases, 
 they wear but slightly. When they do wear, ad- 
 justment can easily be made by loosening the top 
 two screws, which may be seen by removing the 
 clutch cover plate and turning the motor over 
 slowly until they come into view. Adjustment is 
 made by tapping them in a clockwise direction, 
 a half inch or so, and retightening them. When 
 the limit of adjustment for the first setting is 
 reached, you will note that a new hole tapped for 
 a cap screw will appear at the left end of the 
 slot. You can then remove the cap screws, one 
 at a time, and insert them. You will then have 
 another complete range of adjustment.- 
 
 When it is no longer possible to secure ad- 
 justment, new Raybestos rings should be in- 
 stalled and the cap screws replaced in the holes 
 they were in before changing to the second range 
 
 (107)
 
 108 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 of adjustment. This is necessary only after the 
 car has been driven for a good long mileage. 
 New Raybestos rings may be installed by any 
 owner of average mechanical ability by following 
 the complete instruction given below : 
 
 Remove the drive and pedal shaft, then loosen 
 cap screws and drop the transmission, which will 
 
 Section showing 
 working parti 
 of dry discelut 
 
 give you access to the actual mechanism. Slip 
 two pieces of wood, approximately an inch thick, 
 one under each of the projecting lugs, which fit 
 into the shifting yoke ; then loosen the cap screws 
 which hold the clutch cover plate in place. Be 
 very sure to see that the blocks are placed under 
 these lugs before you loosen the cap screws. 
 You can now remove the units which are at-
 
 Clutch Adjustments. 109 
 
 tached to the clutch cover plate and lay them to 
 one side. It is now necessary to pull out the. 
 clutch thrust ring, then take off a plate at the 
 top of the clutch housing and drive out the three 
 dowel pins which fit in the notch cut in the 
 thrust ring, with the aid of a drift punch. To do 
 this, it will be necessary to turn the motor ov.er 
 by hand in order that yeu may have access to 
 each of them. When these are removed, you 
 can take out the first Raybestos ring and the 
 friction disc ; then the second Raybestos ring. 
 You are now ready to insert the first new ring, 
 
 The Clutch Disassembled. 
 
 then the friction disc, which must be absolutely 
 free to move on the shaft, then the remaining 
 Raybestos ring and dowel pins. Next comes the 
 thrust ring, which must be perfectly free to 
 move forward arid backward. If it does not, 
 you will probably find that the dowel pins, which 
 are cut so that the heads will allow freedom of 
 motion, are not properly set. This means that 
 you must turn them until this position is reached. 
 Next take up the clutch cover plate and ex- 
 amine it until you find an "X," which is an in- 
 dication that the holes for cap screws which are 
 spaced closer than the remainder. Next, locate
 
 110 Care oj Automobiles. 
 
 the two close holes in the flange of the flywheel 
 and insert the cap screws which hold clutch 
 cover plate in place, being sure that the clutch 
 crank thrust rollers are so turned that 
 the flat side is against the thrust ring. As the 
 wood blocks under the lugs of shifter collar 
 have probably dropped out, you can now raise 
 the transmission and insert clutch shaft. 
 
 There may be some little difficulty on the part 
 of an inexperienced man in getting -this shaft in 
 proper position, but after a few trials it will be 
 found to shift readily enough into place. With 
 the aid of a pinch bar, force the lug of the 
 shifter collar into the proper position in the 
 clutch and throw out the yoke. Then, with one 
 end of the pinch bar on the flywheel, and ex- 
 tending through opening in clutch housing, pull 
 up, not too hard, and the parts will slip into 
 proper position, which will permit the cap 
 screws, which hold the transmission, to be in- 
 serted properly. 
 
 In case the cover plate has been removed from 
 the adjusting ring, care must be taken to replace 
 it in the proper position. Since the bell crank 
 levers are at thirds and the adjusting screws are 
 at halves, a half turn from the proper position 
 will make adjustment of the clutch impossible. 
 In the cover plate, there is one hole that the cap 
 screws go through to hold it on the flywheel, 
 which is spaced differently from the rest. Be- 
 low this hole will be found the "X" referred to 
 and one of the bell crank thrust rollers must be 
 placed directly opposite this "X." With this 
 properly placed the bell crank thrust rollers will 
 be in contact with a point on the thrust ring at 
 the thinnest point of the ring when the clutch 
 cover plate is placed and bolted to the flywheel.
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 FUNCTIONS OF AUTOMOBILE TRANSMISSIONS. 
 
 Why Some Sort of Speed Reducing Mechanism 
 Is Needed Between Motor and Rear Axle 
 Various Types of Motor Car Transmissions 
 Described and Explained. 
 
 WITH every gasoline engine it is absolutely 
 necessary that some method be used for 
 changing the relation between the speed 
 and power of the car. When a gasoline engine 
 is loaded above a certain limit it slows down, and 
 the intervals between the explosions in each cylin- 
 der become so far apart as to cause the engine to 
 labor and finally stop altogether, unless some 
 means is used to increase the speed of the engine 
 by decreasing th'e load upon it. In considering 
 this subject it must be remembered that when a 
 car is using its maximum power, it may be divi- 
 ded, either into considerable pulling power with 
 slow speed, or high speed with low pulling power. 
 Consequently, when a car is going at high speed 
 and a considerable grade or a stretch of heavy 
 road is encountered, the car will begin to slow 
 down until the speed reaches such a point that 
 t|he engine begins to knock and labor. When this 
 point is reached, it becomes necessary to change 
 to a lower gear, which, for the same speed of 
 the vehicle, gives a considerable larger number 
 of revolutions of the engine with a consequently 
 larger pulling power. 
 
 This pulling power is termed "torque," and if 
 
 gasoline engines could be so designed as to afford 
 
 an increasing torque with decreasing speed all 
 
 would be well and the transmission could be elim- 
 
 (iii)
 
 112 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 inated. As it is, taking into account the power 
 of the motor at several speeds, nothing of this 
 sort can be considered. At very low speeds the 
 torque becomes of greatest importance. 
 
 The use of the transmission is also necessary in 
 starting the vehicle, because, until it reaches a 
 certain momentum, there is a considerable load 
 on the engine, so that a lower gear which allows 
 a higher number of revolutions of the engine must 
 be used. 
 
 It is generally understood that to reverse mo- 
 tion of the automobile motor is to labor under 
 disadvantages in numerous ways. Power will be 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 lost owing to the inferior valve timing relation, 
 which must follow if the camshaft is designed to 
 suit reversing conditions. 
 
 Unless certain complications are introduced in 
 the valve action and since in any case it would 
 be necessary to add to the flexibility of the motor 
 by the use of a transmission, it would seem un- 
 necessary to add to the valve motion anything in 
 the way of complicated devices. An addition to 
 the gear set is less complicated and the end is 
 adequately served.
 
 Automobile Transmissions. 113 
 
 The most popular types of transmissions are 
 the planetary and sliding gear types. The plan- 
 etary with lew exceptions, is only used on the 
 light vehicles, while the sliding gear type is ex- 
 tensively used on all sizes of vehicles. 
 
 The planetary transmission is somewhat 
 cheaper to manufacture than the sliding gear type 
 and also requires much less skill in its operation. 
 There are two types of planetary gears, those 
 comprising internal and external gears and those 
 comprising only spur gears in their make-up. 
 The latter type is the most popular and will be 
 considered in this article. 
 
 Fig. 2 illustrates this type of transmission and 
 its principle of operation may be described as 
 follows : 
 
 The driving shaft "A" carries the driving 
 pinion "B" which meshes with planetary pinions 
 "O." The latter forms part of the sets of three 
 pinions which are formed integral. "D" is the low 
 speed planetary pinion meshing with the low 
 speed gear "E," which is secured to the driven 
 shaft "F." By applying the brake band "G" to 
 the combined pinion carrier and drum "H," the 
 planetary pinions are held stationary in space and 
 act like a back gear. Pinion "B" rotating right- 
 handed turns pinions "C" and "D" on their pin 
 "M" left-handedly, and pinion "D" turns gear 
 "E" and the driven shaft "F" right-handedly, that 
 is, in the same direction as the driving pinion 
 "B." 
 
 For reverse brake band "I" is applied to the 
 brake drum "J" which has the reversing pinion 
 "K" keyed to it, being thus held stationary. When 
 pinion "B" is rotated by the engine, planetary 
 pinion "L" is forced to roll on "K" in a right- 
 handed direction, carrying the pinion pin "M" 
 and pinion carrier "H" with it, thus reversing 
 the direction of the motion of driven shaft "F."
 
 114 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 Direct drive is obtained by engaging the high 
 speed clutch "N," which locks the reversing gear 
 "K" to the driving shaft "A," and since two equal 
 gears "B" and "K" are now secured to the shaft 
 "A," the planetary pinions are locked against 
 axial motion and the whole transmission revolves 
 as a unit. 
 
 The sliding gear type of transmission consists 
 of two parallel shafts mounted on suitable bear- 
 ings in a housing called the transmission case. 
 The first of these shafts is known as the primary 
 or main driving shaft. This shaft is divided into 
 two parts, the forward or driving end, and the 
 rear or driven end, the latter being provided with 
 a bearing at its forward end inside the former. 
 The second of these shafts is known as the sec- 
 ondary or countershaft. The driven part of the 
 'main shaft is either squared or provided with 
 integral keys and carries the sliding gears, whose 
 common hubs have squared holes or keyways to 
 coincide with the driven shaft to make a sliding 
 fit upon it. The driving part of the main shaft is 
 provided with a gear which meshes with a gear 
 on the countershaft and forms a drive for the 
 latter. This countershaft has a number of gears 
 fixed upon it, depending upon the number of 
 speeds. The gears on both shafts are so spaced 
 that shifting the primary set, corresponding gears 
 on the two shafts can be brought into mesh suc- 
 cessively without interference from the other 
 gears. Shifting of the sliding set is accomplished 
 by means of a hand lever located conveniently to 
 the operator and a suitable connecting linkage. 
 The shifter rod carries a fork which is attached 
 to the sliding gears in such a manner as to permit 
 them to rotate with the shaft. 
 
 There are two common, arrangements of shafts. 
 In some cases the countershaft is located below
 
 Automobile Transmissions. 115 
 
 the main shaft, while in others the two shafts 
 are located in a horizontal plane. 
 
 When the shafts are placed vertically the case 
 is generally cast in one piece with a large hand 
 / hole cover plate for inspection purposes. Where 
 the shafts are placed in a horizontal plane, the 
 case may either be cast in one piece or in halves, 
 joined through the centers of the bearings. 
 
 There are three general methods of mounting 
 the transmission. 
 
 1. Combining it with the motor to form a 
 unit power plant. 
 
 2. Individual mounting on a sub frame or 
 cross mtembers. 
 
 3. Combining them in a unit with the jack 
 shaft for chain drive and with the rear axle for 
 shaft drive. 
 
 All of these mountings may be made with a 
 more or less degree of flexibility. Three point 
 support is most generally resorted to, so as to 
 relieve the unit of stresses set up by frame 
 weavings. 
 
 Fig. R depicts a three speed forward and re- 
 verse selective sliding type of transmission. The 
 primary shaft is squared and carries the two 
 sliding gears, which are shifted by independent 
 shifter rods. The countershafts are driven 
 through constant rrftsh gears "A" and "B." In 
 effecting the different speeds, gear "C" is moved 
 forward and meshed with gear "D" for low speed, 
 while for reverse it is moved backward and 
 meshed with the reverse pinion "E," which re- 
 mains in constant mesh with the reverse gear 
 "H" on the countershaft. For second speed the 
 gear "F" is meshed with the gear "G," while for 
 high speed gear "I," which is integral with gear 
 "F," is moved forward and meshed with the in- 
 ternal gear formed integral with the constant
 
 116 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 Fig. R.
 
 Automobile Transmissions. 117 
 
 mesh gear "A." This forms another type of jaw 
 clutch, while the type depicted above may also be 
 used for effecting the high speed. The drive and 
 speed reduction for first and second speed and 
 reverse is through the constant mesh gear and 
 the sliding gears which are meshed, being similar 
 to the progressive type. 
 
 The positive clutch type of transmission is re- 
 lated to the selective sliding type, since it oper- 
 ates on the selective principle. However, the 
 gears remain constantly in mesh, and the gears on 
 the main shaft are normally free to turn thereon, 
 but may be fixed on their shafts by positive 
 clutches. These clutches may either be of the jaw 
 type or internal and external gears as mentioned 
 above. The gears on the main shaft are fixed 
 against axial motion, while the clutches are free 
 to slide upon keys or a squared portion of the 
 shaft. 
 
 In this type, as mentioned, the speed changes 
 are obtained by meshing the clutches, and Fig. 5 
 will serve as an illustration for this type; how- 
 ever, the highspeed is direct, and since the reduc- 
 tion between all gears is different, a provision 
 must be made so that the countershaft can be dis- 
 engaged when high speed is used. 
 
 Transmission gears are usually lubricated by a 
 non-fluid oil. For easy introduction of the lubri- 
 cant, a hole is provided in the cover plate or 
 upper half of the case, while the case or lower 
 half is provided with a drain plug, so that the 
 stated lubricant may be washed out with kerosene 
 or gasoline. The bearing caps are invariably pro- 
 vided with felt washers, while all other parts 
 are provided with paper gaskets to prevent the 
 lubricant from working out of the case.
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 REAR AXLE TECHNOLOGY. 
 
 Sidelights on the Construction of the Most Im- 
 portant Element in the Running Gear which 
 Every Car Owner or Expectant Car Owner 
 Should be Familiar With. 
 
 FROM the standpoint of safety the rear axle 
 is almost as important a part of the motor 
 car as the front axle. From the standpoint 
 of the many things it has to do it is even more 
 important. 
 
 It must support more than half the weight of 
 the car and its load. If it should fail to perform 
 this or any one of its three other functions there 
 would, of course, be no motor car. 
 
 It is the part which gets the least attention and 
 which is least understood by the average owner. 
 Yet it must perform its functions without a hitch 
 every time the car is taken out on the road. 
 
 Owners will get more power f*om their en- 
 gines, more comfort and satisfaction from their 
 driving and will be more secure when they better 
 understand the rear axle and give it more intelli- 
 gent care. 
 
 In the water an article either floats or sinks. 
 And technically speaking, a rear axle is either 
 "floating" or "non-floating." The terms "semi- 
 floating," "three-quarter floating" and "seven- 
 eighths floating" are really misnomers and should 
 not be used. 
 
 In the floating type the housing sustains the 
 load and prevents wobble of the wheels while the 
 axle shafts "float" within the housing and merely 
 transmit the turning power from the differential 
 to the wheels. 
 
 (118)
 
 Rear Axle Technology. 119 
 
 In any but the floating type the axle shafts, 
 beside turning the wheels, play some part in pre- 
 venting wobble and therefore absorb some addi- 
 tional strains. 
 
 Tendency to wobble is caused by side pressure 
 on the wheels. Engineers call this side pressure 
 "skidding force," because the familiar skidding 
 against a car track or curb pictures most clearly 
 
 the side pressure on the wheels that is ever 
 present in degree and is due to uneven pavements, 
 to ruts and to turning corners. Rear axle design 
 would be quite simple if the car always moved 
 straight ahead over perfectly smooth roadways. 
 Mere downward pressure of car and load; mere 
 turning of wheels would require no great en- 
 gineering ability. 
 
 Side pressure or skidding force may on occa- 
 sion be five to ten times as great as vertical force.
 
 120 
 
 Care of Automobiles.
 
 Rear Axle Technology. 121
 
 122 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 (And axle engineers always have to take these 
 occasions into consideration in their designs.) 
 Skidding force is the greatest force to be con- 
 sidered in axle design. 
 
 Now, to understand the essential differences in 
 the various rear axle types, let us consider the 
 combined action of skidding force and downward 
 pressure. For simplicity we can overlook the 
 turning force because it is the same in all axles ; 
 
 and as both halves of the axle are alike we can 
 consider the force in one-half only. 
 
 Note in Figure 1 that the weight of car and 
 passengers is a force pressing down at "H." 
 There is, of course, a reaction of equal force 
 pressing up at the ground "T." These equal 
 forces are called static load. The skidding force 
 acts at "T" in the direction of the arrow or in 
 the exact opposite direction. 
 
 The static pressure tends to spring the axle as
 
 Rear Axle Technology. 123 
 
 shown in Figure 2. The skidding force tends to 
 spring the axle as shown in Figure 3 or Figure 4, 
 depending upon the direction of that force. Bear 
 in mind that the axles do not really spring out of 
 shape as shown in the illustration. The draw- 
 ings merely indicate tendencies which correct 
 engineering design prevents from becoming ac- 
 tualities. Tendencies in engineering parlance are 
 called stresses. 
 
 Thus it is evident that both static force and 
 skidding force create bending tendencies or 
 stresses in the axle. It is the combination of the 
 forces of weight and skidding when acting to- 
 gether to produce the same tendency as in Figure 
 2 plus Figure 4 that determine the maximum 
 stresses engineers must figure in designing a safe 
 rear axle. 
 
 Because "H" is 5 to 10 inches from the center 
 plane of the spokes there is some bending stress 
 set up by the static force. And as there is a con- 
 siderably greater distance (half the diameter of 
 the wheel, i. e., 16 to 19 inches) from the ground 
 "T" to the center line of the axle, there is a much 
 greater bending stress added by the skidding 
 force. 
 
 In the "full floating" type of axle, Figure 5, 
 all the bending stress due to static force and skid- 
 ding force is carried by the housing. The driv- 
 ing shafts turn freely within the housing and 
 bear only the "torque" or stress of turning the 
 wheels. The shafts are said to float within the 
 housing. 
 
 In the "semi-floating" type, more properly 
 called the "fixed hub" type, see Figure 6, the 
 driving shafts turn freely within the housing. At 
 their outer ends they are fixed in the hubs of the 
 wheels and carry the bending stresses as well as 
 the torque. 
 
 In the "three-quarter floating" Figure 7 or bet-
 
 124 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 Fig 5 
 Full Floating 
 
 ter the "flanged shaft" type, the housing extends 
 into the hubs of the wheels as in the "full float- 
 ing" type, but the ends of the driving shafts are 
 connected rigidly by flanges with the wheels so 
 that the shafts take almost all the bending stresses 
 and all the torque. In the flanged shaft axle, 
 
 especially when only one bearing is used under 
 the center of the wheel, the stresses are quite simi- 
 lar to those in the fixed hub type. We will there- 
 fore confine our further study to the full floating 
 and fixed hub types. 
 
 It will be seen by a glance at Figure 5 that the 
 
 preventives of bending in the full floating are 
 the two bearings located fairly close to each other. 
 A glance at Figure 6 will show that the preven- 
 tives of bending in the fixed hub types are the two 
 bearings located nearly half the car's width apart.
 
 Rear Axle Technology. 125 
 
 Everyone knows that when the supports are far 
 apart they offer a much greater resistance to bend- 
 ing stress. 
 
 In the full floating axle the shafts can be more 
 easily removed for repairs. This is an advantage 
 on rare occasions. Either type will give as satis- 
 factory service as the other if each is properly 
 proportioned for its work. But it is necessary to 
 make the full floating somewhat heavier than the 
 fixed hub type for the same capacity. 
 
 Time was, with all axles, when oil from the 
 differential used to work along the live axles, 
 leak out through the hubs and get into the brake- 
 linings. 
 
 Time was, when it stained the wheels, ran 
 down the spokes and injured the tires. 
 
 Then somebody said, "Why not run a sleeve 
 into the central opening in the differential hous- 
 ing, just to make pockets that will retain the oil ?" 
 Why not ? 
 
 And that's what was done. The oil is thrown 
 to one side by centrifugal force when the car 
 rounds a curve. The pocket catches the oil and 
 holds it all of it till the car goes straight and 
 gravity returns it to the differential. Oil doesn't 
 get to the brake-lining ; it stays where it's needed, 
 in the housing. 
 
 It isn't merely the size or rated horse power of 
 the engine that counts. It's the power that gets 
 to the rear wheels which moves the motor car. 
 And all this effective power must go through the 
 more or less intricate mechanism of the rear axle. 
 The slightest deviation of a shaft from the cor- 
 rect line the slightest inaccuracy in the meshing 
 of the gears puts additional strain on the engine ; 
 increases fuel cost; diminishes satisfaction. 
 
 The engine turns the propeller shaft rapidly at 
 right angles to the wheels. In the rear axle this 
 power must turn a corner toward each rear
 
 126 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 wheel; it must be divided so that each wheel 
 gets an equal share no matter if one travels faster 
 that the other when rounding a curve; and the 
 number of revolutions per minute must be re- 
 duced so that the wheels will not revolve as 
 rapidly as the propeller shaft. 
 
 Making the power of the engine turn the dor- 
 ner and reducing the rate of rotation of the wheels 
 are both accomplished by the use of a bevel pinion 
 and bevel ring gear, or of a worm and worm 
 gear. 
 
 Bevel gearing is the commonest means for 
 turning the power and reducing the motion in 
 the gasoline passenger car. The most recent ad- 
 vance in bevel gear construction is the introduc- 
 
 * 
 
 Full floating axle shaft 
 
 Fixed h'.ib axle shaft 
 
 tion of the helical bevel, the teeth of which are 
 curved instead of straight. 
 
 In a straight tooth bevel gear any given tooth 
 goes into or out of mesh at one time along its 
 entire length. In the helical bevel, however, the 
 meshing starts at one end of the given tooth and 
 gradually moves toward the other end. The same 
 is equally true of the demeshing. 
 
 On account of this action at least two helical 
 teeth are in partial mesh all the time. It is this 
 feature of gradually entering and leaving mesh 
 that insures no pound, click or chatter of gears 
 as they revolve in the axle. 
 
 And the principle works as well when the gear 
 and pinion are old and somewhat worn after 
 thousands of miles of hard service as when they
 
 Rear Axle Technology. 
 
 127 
 
 are first assembled. Accurate tests show that the 
 helical bevel is fully as efficient under all condi- 
 tions as the straight bevel. 
 
 Inside the big driving-gear is the differential. 
 The object of the differential is to so divide the 
 power received from a single source (the driving- 
 gear) that it will apply at all times with equal 
 force to the two rear wheels and yet allow one 
 wheel to rotate faster than the other as required 
 when turning a corner. 
 
 From the differential the power is carried to 
 the wheels by the axle shafts. They must be 
 
 The inner sleeve keeps the oil from reaching the brake-lining.
 
 128 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 strong strong enough to resist the greatest pos- 
 sible torsion under any conditions of travel. Yet 
 they should be as light as is consistent with per- 
 fect safety. Where the shaft enters the differ- 
 ential it is enlarged, the end is splined and steel 
 is left back of the spline a very important mat- 
 ter. At its wheel end the shaft of the floating 
 axle is enlarged to form an integral disc or "driv- 
 ing dog" which fits into the driving plate of the 
 hub and turns the wheel. 
 
 Because the shaft of the fixed hub type axle 
 takes both torque and bending stress it is not of 
 uniform diarrfeter throughout the entire length. 
 It is made thickest where stresses are greatest and 
 one diameter tapers gradually to another diameter 
 to avoid shoulders which would concentrate the 
 stress. 
 
 The flanged portion of the brake-drum rotates 
 between two brake-bands, and when the levers 
 are pulled they contract the external band or ex- 
 pand the internal one, as the case may be. 
 
 The surfaces of a brake-drum are accurately 
 finished in order that the brake bands or "shoes" 
 may take hold with equal force at every point. 
 Even the brake-lining itself is inspected and tested 
 and must not vary in its dimensions more than a 
 thousandth of an inch. 
 
 TORQUE AND DRIVING STRESSES. The rotation 
 of the pinion at the axle-end of the propeller- 
 shaft causes the driving-gear with which it meshes 
 and the differential axle-shafts and wheels to 
 revolve, thereby moving the car. 
 
 At Jthe moment of starting, the inertia of the 
 car and the traction of the wheels on the ground 
 tend to prevent these parts from rotating. This 
 produces a great pressure between the parts, and 
 that pressure comes full force between the teeth 
 of the driving pinion and those of the driving 
 gear.
 
 Rear Axle Technology. 129 
 
 In starting the car forward, since the driving 
 gear is momentarily stationary, die driving-pinion 
 tends to climb up on the gear and in climbing to 
 carry with it the propeller-shaft and the forward 
 part of the housing through which it projects. 
 
 In short, the entire housing tends through this 
 pressure to rotate in a direction exactly opposite 
 to that in which the wheels are turning. 
 
 While this tendency to rotate the housing is 
 
 Timken Toggle Brake. 
 
 perhaps greatest at the time of starting the car 
 it is also present at all times when the car is in 
 motion, particularly when the wheels meet extra 
 resistance as in sand or mud and when obstacles 
 are struck. 
 
 It is necessary to prevent the housing from ro- 
 tating and to absorb the stress caused by the ten- 
 dency to rotate, which stress is called "torque." 
 
 Rotation of the wheels against the ground 
 forces the axle forward. This "driving force" 
 must be transmitted from the axle to the chassis. 
 
 It is becoming more and more the general prac-
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 tice to take both the torque and the "drive" 
 through the springs, particularly in the lighter 
 cars. With properly designed springs this plan 
 is entirely practicable, simplifies the construction 
 and lowers its cost somewhat. It gives greater 
 resiliency and consequently is easier on both the 
 rear axle and the chassis as a whole. 
 
 Some car makers prefer to "drive" by means 
 of radius rods extending from the rear axle to 
 
 Timken Cam Brake, 
 
 the frame of the car. Several makers take the 
 "torque" through torque rods fastened to a cross 
 member of the frame near the transmission and 
 extending to the rear-axle housing. 
 
 The torque rods prevent the housing from 
 turning, as their action is the same as that in- 
 volved when a boy holds a broom-handle at its 
 ends and a strong man takes hold at its center 
 and tries to turn it. The increased leverage 
 due to the boy's hands being far apart enables 
 him to overcome the greater strength of the 
 man.
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 THE DIFFERENTIAL. 
 
 What It Is and What It Does An Automatic 
 Gear Which Compensates for Erratic Rear 
 Wheel Movement. 
 
 THE differential comes into actual service in 
 the center of a big bevel ring gear in the 
 rear axle of a motor car. Here, as we have 
 seen in our opening paragraph, it divides the 
 power from the engine and transmits it to the 
 rear wheels, so that one may revolve faster than 
 the other when necessary. To illustrate the prin- 
 ciple, the following brief description of the char- 
 acter and functions of a differential is inserted 
 for the benefit of those readers who may be un- 
 familiar with this important part of the motor 
 car. 
 
 The differential consists of a set of bevel gears 
 located at the center of the rear axle. Its pur- 
 pose is to divide the power transmitted from the 
 engine equally between the two wheels, and to 
 do this in such a way that one wheel may re- 
 volve faster than the other when necessary. 
 
 In a wagon the rear wheels are mounted on a 
 dead axle and revolve independently of each 
 other. There is, therefore, no need for a dif- 
 ferential. In a power driven vehicle the rear 
 wheels must still revolve independently and yet 
 each must receive one-half of ihe power trans- 
 mitted through the rear axle. 
 
 To illustrate the principle in as simple a man- 
 ner as possible w show in Fig. 1 an experi- 
 mental apparatus in which A A' are the two 
 live axle shafts to whose outer ends are fastened 
 the wheels W W. 
 
 (131)
 
 132 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 w 
 
 Mounted on the inner ends of the shafts A A' 
 are the bevel gears G G'. Surrounding these 
 gears and concentric with them is a belt-driven 
 pully B. 
 
 It will be clear that if we connect the two gears 
 solidly by the rods R R', which in turn are 
 securely fastened in the web of the pulley B, 
 movement of pulley B will cause both the gears 
 G G' to revolve at the same speed in the same 
 direction ; and, since the wheels W W are, like
 
 The Differential. 
 
 133 
 
 the gears G G,' secured to the shafts A A', the 
 wheels will also revolve at the same speed in 
 the same direction. 
 
 Now, to allow the wheels W W, and, there- 
 fore, the gears G G', to revolve at different 
 speeds, we remove the rods R R' binding the 
 two gears together and substitute for these rods 
 the pinions shown in Fig. 2. These pinions rotate 
 
 freely on the web of pulley B and their teeth are 
 in mesh with the teeth of the bevel gears G G'. 
 
 It is clear that when the pulley B revolves, its 
 motion is transmitted through the pinions to the 
 gears G G' and on through the axles A A' to 
 the wheels W W just as it was transmitted in 
 the apparatus shown in Fig. 1, but with this im- 
 portant difference if wheel W is now prevented 
 from revolving, the pinions will rotate on the web
 
 134 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 and thus allow the gear G' to revolve, carrying 
 with it axle A' and wheel W. 
 
 If gear G revolves slowly, gear G' can revolve 
 rapidly, or vice versa, because the difference in 
 their motion is compensated for by the rotations 
 of pinion P P'. 
 
 It will also be clear that in all cases, the pres- 
 sure transmitted from the pulley B through the 
 pinions P P' to the teeth of the gear G and 
 the gear G' will be equal, because the distances 
 between the centers of the pinions and the teeth 
 of both gears are always equal. 
 
 In the simplest language possible, when gear 
 G remains stationary, gear G' and the pinions 
 roll around as it were, on gear G, the teeth of the 
 pinions pressing forward on the teeth of gears 
 G and G' with equal pressure. 
 
 Referring now to Fig. 3, we see the differential 
 as actually used in the rear axle. In place of 
 pulley B in Figs. 1 and 2, we have the driving 
 gear D, and instead of two pinions there are now 
 four, but the action is the same as that described 
 in Fig. 2. 
 
 The driving gear D receives the power from a 
 beveled gear known as the driving pinion, the 
 latter being at the rear end of a "pinion shaft" 
 coupled with the main propeller shaft which 
 transmits the power from the engine.
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 CARE AND ADJUSTMENT OF BRAKES. 
 
 Most Important Unit in Car From Safety Stand- 
 point, Yet Brakes Receive Scant Attention 
 What to Do and How to Do It. 
 
 MOTOR car brakes are a vitally important 
 detail and, strange as it may seem, there 
 is no other unit or system that receives 
 so little attention from the motorist. Various 
 reasons are often advanced for the lack of atten- 
 tion given the brakes; however, the majority do 
 not realize the importance of a properly adjusted 
 brake system. When a motorist takes the re- 
 sponsibility of operating a car, he places himself 
 and those who may be with him in a very un- 
 pleasant and sometimes death-defying position, 
 unless he had absolute confidence in the brakes 
 of his vehicle, which can only be gained from 
 frequent inspection and adjustment. It is wrong 
 to suppose that because the brakes worked prop- 
 erly on a previous application that the same de- 
 gree of service will go on indefinitely. Neglected 
 brakes usually fail to perform their work at the 
 most critical times, and no doubt many motorists 
 recall just such instances; perhaps the result was 
 not serious, but might have been very disastrous. 
 It is not unusual to see a car on the streets in 
 the congested traffic of the large cities collide 
 with another vehicle, due to inefficient brakes. 
 To arrest motion is equally, if not more im- 
 portant than to create motion, so it would seem 
 that while considerable attention is being paid 
 to maintaining good acceleration, the same at- 
 tention should be paid to provide equally, if not 
 better, retarding force. It is true that the brakes 
 may not be up to the standard of other parts, 
 
 (196)
 
 136 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 but this should not be an excuse for not main- 
 taining them at their maximum efficiency. With 
 some the brakes are a pet hobby, and occasionally 
 one finds brakes which are harsh, due to im- 
 proper adjustment. In this case the brakes cre- 
 ate considerable resistance to the turning move- 
 ment of the wheels. 
 
 It is not expected that every one should know 
 the amount of strain in actual pounds that the 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 brake mechanism has to bear when one applies 
 the brakes for stopping the car. That the 
 amount is enormous is all the more reason why 
 the brakes should be adjusted properly more than 
 once or twice every year. 
 
 All the prominent types of brakes are illus- 
 trated herewith, and the various adjustments will 
 be explained in terms which can readily be 
 grasped by the lay mind. The illustrations cover 
 both rear wheel and transmission brakes and 
 apply to both hand and foot operated types. 
 
 The various types of brakes illustrated are not
 
 Adjustment of Brakes. 
 
 137 
 
 necessarily used in the above combinations, as 
 there is no reason why any of the many possible 
 combinations should not be used. The arrange- 
 ments here were made simply to show the vari- 
 ous forms that are in general use. There are 
 other types, but the principle of adjustment is 
 practically the same and the following advice 
 may be applied. 
 
 The brakes illustrated in Figures 1 to 9, in- 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 elusive, have some means of adjustment, and it 
 will be noted that some types have a means for 
 complete adjustment of the brake band or in- 
 ternal brake shoe, while there are also types 
 which are not themselves adjustable and in which 
 all the wear must be taken up by shortening the 
 brake rods. Equalizers are generally being de- 
 pended upon to absorb any unevenness of wear. 
 Figures 1, 2 and 3 illustrate types which are 
 provided with a complete adjustment for both 
 internal and external brakes; that is, adjustment
 
 138 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 is provided for the points of control and the an- 
 chors. Figures 4, 5 and 6 illustrate types in 
 which complete adjustment only is provided for 
 the external brakes and no adjustment is pro- 
 vided for the internal brakes. Figure 7 depicts 
 a set of brakes in which the conditions are just 
 reversed, adjustment for both anchor and con- 
 trol being provided for the internal brakes only. 
 The arrangement shown in Figure 8 does not 
 provide adjustment for either internal or ex- 
 ternal brake. Figure 9 shows a transmission, 
 brake and its adjustment, while Figures 10 and 
 11 illustrate adjustments sometimes provided for 
 in the control of cam operated internal brakes. 
 
 In making thorough adjustments a general in- 
 spection should be made of all parts of the entire 
 brake system in order to determine that all parts 
 are in serviceable condition. It is important that 
 the brakes be evenly adjusted so that when either 
 set is applied there is the same braking effect 
 on both wheels. In order to accomplish this it 
 will be necessary to disconnect the rods from the 
 foot pedal and hand lever and allow the 
 mechanism to release as far as possible. It is 
 a good plan to oil or grease all connections at this 
 time, since it will be possible to work the lubri- 
 cant into the bearings and joints. Then jack up 
 the rear wheels so as to be able to turn them 
 and block the front wheels so the car cannot 
 move. 
 
 In order to give a more comprehensive idea 
 of the method of adjusting brakes, the writer 
 will describe each type rather than a general de- 
 scription of all types. Referring to Figure 1, 
 which represents one type of Timken brake used 
 on several models of the Cadillac cars and vari- 
 . ous others, the method of adjusting the external 
 brake is as follows: 
 
 Turn the anchor adjusting screw "S," until
 
 Adjustment of Brakes. 
 
 139 
 
 that part of the band opposite the screw is 
 brought as close as possible to the brake drum 
 without touching it. Adjust the two nuts, "T," 
 on the eye-bolt until the lower part of the brake 
 lining just clears the drum. Next adjust rmt 
 "V" on the upper end of the eye-bolt to bring 
 low "W" to the position shown in the illustration 
 when the brake is applied. 
 
 When the brake is released, if the upper part 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 of the brake lining clears the drum more than 
 1/32 of an inch, the clearance should be reduced 
 by the scr'ew "X" in the rocker lever "Z." When 
 the adjustment has been completed be sure to 
 lock all adjusting nuts. 
 
 With the outer brake on one wheel completed, 
 proceed to the other wheel, using the same 
 methods there to adjust that brake. When this is 
 done, connect the rod to the pedal again. In 
 most cases it will be necessary to lengthen the 
 rod, which can be done with the adjustable yoke 
 end. It should be lengthened just enough so
 
 140 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 that it will be necessary to pull with one hand on 
 the rod to make the holes match. 
 
 With the rod connected one person should ap- 
 ply the brake while another turns the wheels, to 
 determine whether both brakes are working 
 evenly. Depress the pedal slightly and hold in 
 this position until 'both wheels have been tested. 
 Continue this operation until it is found that 
 the brakes are in even adjustment or that a 
 change is needed. 
 
 Such a change may be made by lengthening 
 
 SCffWCf BffAtff B4HD 
 UNIHG , 
 
 Ofi KCTA/NCff 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 the rod leading to the brake, which is the tighter 
 of the two. This will compensate for the uneven 
 wear of the brakes which existed before the ad- 
 justment was made. 
 
 To adjust an internal brake is not near so easy 
 as the external ; but as this is so little used it does 
 not require frequent adjustment, unless condi- 
 tions are reversed and the internal is used for 
 the service or foot brake. The brake illustrated 
 in Figure 1 is so arranged that it can be adjusted 
 without removing the wheel. Remove cover "A" 
 from the opening in the brake drum by unscrew-
 
 Adjustment of Brakes. 
 
 141 
 
 ing the lock nut "B" and turning the bolt to the 
 left about one-quarter turn until the clamping 
 bar "D" is released. Now turn the wheel until 
 the opening gives access to the adjusting screw 
 "E," and turn this screw until that part of the 1 
 brake band lining in line with said screw is 
 brought as/rlose to the inner surface of the dyim 
 as possible without touching it. Then turn the 
 wheel until it gives access to the six locking nuts 
 "N" and loosen these screws. Turn adjusting 
 screws "F" and "F," which have right-hand 
 threads on one side and left hand threads on the 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 other, until the center of the pin "C" stands 
 about three-quarters of an 'inch back of an 
 imaginary center line drawn through the two 
 pins "H" and "H" when the brake is applied. 
 With the brake released adjust screw "I" in the 
 lever "J" and the stop screws "K"-"K" until 
 the lower and upper parts of the brake lining 
 clear the drum 1/32 of an inch. After making 
 the adjustments, be sure to lock each one of the 
 locking screws "N." Also replace and fasten 
 securely the cover of the opening in the drum. 
 
 The method of testing and adjusting rods is 
 the same as for the foot brakes.
 
 142 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 In some constructions it is necessary to remove 
 the rear wheel, and the proper adjustment can 
 usually be obtained>by using as a guide the outer 
 edge of the circular plate that forms a guard 
 for the protection of the brake. However, it is 
 much better to use a little more time by replacing 
 the wheel and trying the brakes for both clear- 
 an<?e and holding power. It may be necessary 
 to do this two or three times. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 The brake assembly shown in Figure 2 has 
 an external brake similar to the one shown in 
 Figure 1, and may be adjusted as follows: The 
 jam nuts "D" should be lowered so that the top 
 of the brake band will have at least 1/64 of an 
 inch clearance, and the wing nut "E" is adjusted 
 until the proper clearance is obtained on the 
 lower part of the band. The adjusting screw 
 "F" in the anchor is used to hold the band 1/64 
 of an inch away from the drum and should be 
 so adjusted. The internal brake is of a type 
 used by several car makers and also on some
 
 Adjustment of Brakes. 143 
 
 Timken rear axles. To adjust this it is necessary 
 to remove the rear wheel, which. should be done 
 by following the instruction given in the instruc- 
 tion book. Loosen binder screws "A'* and ad- 
 just each half separately by cam plates "B," 
 which have right-hand threads, a few turns, and 
 replace binder screws "A." The adjusting 
 screw "C" is used to provide the proper clear- 
 ance at the anchor of the brake. Some makers 
 advise using a dummy or skeleton drum, that is, 
 one with the outer flat surface cut away, to give 
 ready access to the interior. Garage men who 
 have enough of such work to warrant it, usu- 
 ally have, or can obtain one, as it is a great time 
 saver. 
 
 Figure 3 illustrates a set of 'brakes designed 
 for heavy trucks, representing the practice of the 
 Clark Equipment Company, builders of internal 
 gear-drive axles, used by several truck builders. 
 The outer brake has the adjusting screw "A" at 
 the anchor for adjusting the clearance at this 
 point of the drum. The upper and lower por- 
 tions of the band at the opposite ends are ad- 
 justed by the screws "B," which are retained in 
 stops attached to the brake spider and securely 
 locked by nuts. These should be loosened and 
 the screws "B" adjusted until the proper clear- 
 ance is obtained. The two ends of the brake 
 are connected by clevis rods and a turn buckle 
 "C," which permits adjusting the position of the 
 brake lever "D," and this in some cases will 
 eliminate rod adjustments. 
 
 It is necesary to remove the wheel in order to 
 adjust the inner brake, which does not have an 
 anchor adjustment, but instead is provided with 
 four supports equally spaced around its inner 
 circumference and provided with adjusting 
 screws "E," locked by nuts "F." These four 
 nuts must be released and the screws adjusted
 
 144 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 until the proper clearance is provided at the four 
 points around the inner circumference of the 
 drum. The internal brake is also provided with 
 hardened steel cam plates, "G," which can be 
 replaced when worn. 
 
 The brakes shown in Figure 4 are used on the 
 Buick and all other vehicles equipped with Wes- 
 ton-Mott axles. The usual adjustment outlined 
 above is used on the toggle lever of the external 
 brake, while a spring is relied on to provide 
 proper clearance at the anchor. As previously 
 mentioned, this adjustment brings the ends of the 
 lining close to the proper point of clearance on 
 the drum. 
 
 The internal brakes are of the non-adjustable 
 type and compensation for wear can only be 
 made through the brake operating rod. The 
 method of procedure will be explained later. 
 
 The brake used on the Fierce-Arrow, six- 
 cylinder cars are shown in Figure 5. The in- 
 ternal brake being of the non-adjustable type, 
 and these are used for the foot brake instead of 
 the outside, as in the conventional arrangement. 
 These are of the steel shoe type with bronze lin- 
 ings. Adjustment is possible only through the 
 brake rods. 
 
 The external brakes are used for emergency 
 purposes and are also of the steel shoe type with 
 bronze linings; however, an adjustment is pro- 
 vided. These shoes are hinged at one end, which 
 forms the anchor, and these ends may be drawn 
 together by means of the toggle arrangement 
 shown. The toggle joint of the brake is made 
 adjustable, while the two ends of the brake may 
 also be drawn together for proper clearance by 
 a turn buckle and set screw. 
 
 Another type of hinged shoe brake lined with 
 friction fabric is shown in Figure 6 ; the internal 
 brake being non-adjustable, while the external
 
 Adjustment of Brakes. 145 
 
 brake is provided with an adjustment on the tog- 
 gle turn. The method of adjustment has been 
 explained above. 
 
 Figure 7 depicts another Timken construction 
 used on some vehicles. The external brake is 
 of the semi-adjustable type, since the customary 
 adjusting arrangement is made in the toggle con- 
 necting the upper and lower ends, and a spring 
 is used to provide proper clearance at the anchor. 
 The internal brake has a wedge expanding mech- 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 anism acting against rollers in the ends of the 
 brake band. The usual set screw arrangement 
 for adjusting the clearance at the anchor is pro- 
 vided, while the ends of the band can be adjusted 
 by removing the brake spring and the band ex- 
 panded so that the wedge can be adjusted in or 
 out to provide proper band clearance at this 
 point. 
 
 As previously mentioned, the brakes shown in 
 Figure 8 are of the non-adjustable type, and all
 
 146 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 adjustment for wear must be taken up in the 
 operating rods. Brakes of this type are usually 
 found on popular priced cars of light weight, 
 and consequently the amount of work performed 
 by the brakes is comparatively small. In this 
 case the usual procedure of jacking up the 
 wheels is followed and the pedal and hand lever 
 are released as far as possible and a trial made 
 by applying the brakes in order to approximately 
 ascertain how much the rods must be shortened. 
 In some cases the rod leading to the foot pedal 
 and brake lever can be shortened sufficiently to 
 take up the wear, while in others it may be neces- 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 sary to shorten the rods leading to the rear axle. 
 The brake rods should always have a slight ten- 
 sion, as mentioned above. In some cases wing 
 nuts are provided either at the foot pedal, hand 
 lever or the equalizers which can be drawn up 
 to shorten the rods and the labor of disconnect- 
 ing these eliminated. 
 
 The usual type of transmision brake is shown 
 in Figure 9, which may either be connected with 
 pedal and used as a service brake, as shown, 
 or connected with the hand lever and used as an 
 emergency brake. A single adjustment is usu- 
 ally provided, which serves as a complete take- 
 up for wear and consists of a knurled screw, 
 "A," connected with the toggle lever, which can 
 be drawn up to provide the proper clearance ar
 
 Adjustment of Brakes. 
 
 147 
 
 the ends of the band similar to the method de- 
 scribed in connection with rear wheel brakes. 
 This adjustment, like the ones for the external 
 brakes in Figures 1, 2 and 6, is locked by a V-- 
 shaped tongue fitting in a groove, held in contact 
 by a coiled wire spring. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 In some cases the brake levers on the wheels 
 are provided with adjusting sectors which pro- 
 vide a greater range of adjustment that the brake 
 rods. Two such sectors are shown in Figures 
 10 and 11. Figure 10 being a construction used 
 on a prominent make of internal gear drive axle 
 for motor trucks, and consists of a sector keyed 
 to the brakeshaft and provided with a number
 
 148 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 of holes. The brake lever is free on the shaft 
 and connected to the sector by a bolt and nut. 
 In this construction the adjustment is made by 
 removing the bolt and bringing the cam to proper 
 position for band clearance and then attaching 
 the lever by inserting the bolt through the holes 
 which communicate. The construction shown in 
 Figure 11 is used on the Overland and several 
 other cars and differs from the above in that a 
 slot is provided in the sector and the connection 
 made by the teeth on it and the lever and held 
 in engagement by a bolt. 
 
 THE CARE OF BRAKES. 
 
 In addition to adjustment, brakes require at- 
 tention on the part of the operator. Here the 
 question of lubrication arises again, for, no mat- 
 ter how perfect the adjustment, they cannot be 
 evenly applied unless all joints in the linkage are 
 free. A drop of oil on the various joints of rod 
 and lever and in the bearings will prevent rust- 
 ing and squeaking. 
 
 Most all brake bands are lined with a special 
 lining, and occasionally this will fail to function 
 properly, due to oil, grease and soft mud, and in 
 this condition they are less effective than when 
 in proper condition, hence more care should be 
 exercised when driving under such conditions. 
 If oil, grease or mud collects on the friction sur- 
 faces, it may be removed with gasoline, after 
 which the parts should be wiped dry. Should 
 such a condition exist on tours it can be reme- 
 died by introducing a little Fuller's earth care- 
 fully between the band and the drums. This 
 will absorb the oil or grease and make the bands 
 hold. Brakes should never be permitted to drag 
 or bind, as this causes them to wear rapidly and 
 also places an additional resistance on the en-
 
 Adjustment of Brakes. 
 
 149 
 
 gine. A gripping brake can be eased by applying 
 a little oil and graphite mixed. 
 
 When brakes fail to hold it does not neces- 
 sarily mean that they need adjustment. Before 
 jumping at the conclusion that they require ad- 
 justment or relining, the car should be jacked up 
 and the frictional surfaces and bearings care- 
 fully examined. Failure of the brakes to hold 
 may be due to the insufficient travel of the rods 
 connecting the brakes with the foot pedal or 
 hand lever. In jacking up the car, care should 
 always be taken to put the jack under a substan- 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 tial part of the axle, never against a truss-rod. 
 If it is necessary to remove the wheels to inspect 
 the brakes, be sure to properly adjust the wheel 
 bearings when replacing the wheel. 
 
 RELINING BRAKES. 
 
 Due to long service the brake lining will lose 
 its usefulness, and it then becomes necessary to 
 reline the bands with a new fabric, or metal shoe 
 if they are metal to. metal. This is quite a diffi- 
 cult problem for the average layman, and the 
 majority of motorists usually place this work in 
 the hands of a repairman ; however, the method 
 of applying these linings will no doubt interest 
 our readers, for some enjoy doing their own
 
 150 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 work which they feel can be undertaken with- 
 out too great a risk. 
 
 The first step is to obtain the correct measure- 
 ment of the lining for thickness, width and 
 length. The width of the lining should corre- 
 spond with the width of the internal and external 
 bands, while the length can be obtained with a 
 tapeline around the external brake band, allow- 
 ing approximately one-half inch overlap at the 
 band opening. The internal brake will work out 
 about an inch shorter. Two lengths of each are 
 required for each set of brakes. After the car 
 has been jacked up from the ground and before 
 removing the wheels, it is by far the safest to 
 place the axle on good, strong horses. However, 
 if these are not available, block the front wheels 
 in both directions with wood blocks and nail 
 these to the floor, if possible, with small wood 
 strips. In removing the rear wheels always con- 
 sult the instruction book and follow instructions 
 carefully. When the wheels have been removed, 
 the band can easily be disassembled by removing 
 cotter pins, clevis pins, etc., adjusting screws and 
 springs at both ends. In doing this, be careful to 
 observe how the various parts are assembled. 
 A good plan to follow is to use small boxes for 
 the parts of each brake individually. While do- 
 ing this also clean all parts and the grease which 
 may have accumulated on the axle and brake 
 drum. 
 
 The most tedious part of the entire job is the 
 removal and replacement of the lining. A sim- 
 ple method to remove the rivets is to clamp the 
 band in a bench vise, and chipping off the heads 
 of the rivets, they can then be driven out with a 
 small punch. If the old lining is in such condi- 
 tion that it can be used as a template, the length 
 and location of the holes can be obtained from 
 it. However, as a general rule this is not the
 
 Adjustment of Brakes. 
 
 151 
 
 case and some other method must be followed. 
 Perhaps the safest one is to use the brake drum 
 on the wheel as a fixture. Place the band around 
 the drum and insert the lining between these, 
 allowing the end of the lining to overlap one end 
 of the band about a quarter of an inch. Now 
 clamp the ends of the band together so that the 
 effect of the on position is obtained. If a clamp 
 is not available, wire or good heavy cord can be 
 used. Be careful to work the lining snugly 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 around the drum and then cut it off one-quarter 
 inch larger so that an overlap of one-quarter inch 
 on each side is obtained. In this position the 
 holes can be marked with a short pointed instru- 
 ment, pencil or soapstone. Release the band and 
 punch the holes with, a belt or harness punch. 
 After the holes have been punched the lining can 
 be attached to the band with a few small bolts at 
 intervals around its inner circumference and the 
 holes countersunk slightly for the heads of the 
 rivets. This must be done so that the heads will 
 set slightly below the surfaces of the lining.
 
 152 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 The countersinking can be done with a wood 
 countersinking tool and a hand 'brace. Be sure 
 to have the tool sharp so that it will not tear the 
 lining. 
 
 In order to make a neat job of riveting it is 
 almost necessary to have a vise, unless there 
 are two people, one holding the work while the 
 other is doing the riveting. An old belt can be 
 
 t- //VX/V . 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 used to rest the rivet head on so that it can be 
 seated properly in the lining and also as a rest 
 for riveting. The rivet should be drawn snug 
 with a rivet set; however, if this is not available, 
 a piece of pipe can be used. Now set the rivet 
 head with three or four blows of the hammer; 
 do not attempt to draw the rivet too much, as 
 it will tend to draw through the fabric. The 
 rivet should not extend more than 3/16 of an 
 inch beyond the band for forming the head. A
 
 Adjustment of Brakes. 153 
 
 light, sharp blow with the hammer is much bet- 
 ter than a heavy one, as it will spend its force at 
 the desired point. In riveting, be sure to have 
 the lining fit the band snugly at all points, and 
 do not remove the temporary holding bolts until 
 necessary. The inner band is treated in the same 
 manner; however, this is much simpler, as the 
 material is being drawn over an outside surface 
 instead of the inside of the band. Perhaps the 
 only difference lies in marking the holes for in- 
 ternal lining. This may be done by first allowing 
 the proper overlap at the end and marking the 
 first two holes; punch these and insert the tem- 
 porary bolts. Then stretch the lining around the 
 band and mark the holes. If shoes are used 
 instead of a complete band, it will be necessary 
 to follow this method for each shoe. Figure 12 
 illustrates the various features mentioned above. 
 In reassembling the brakes, be careful to place 
 every part in its proper position, and it will be 
 necessary to make a complete readjustment as 
 outlined above. In replacing the wheels, be sure 
 to follow the instructions given in the instruction 
 book which is supplied with each machine. If 
 you have misplaced this, a copy can be secured 
 gratis from the maker of your car.
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 LUBRICATION POINTERS THAT HAVE MERIT. 
 
 Application of Oil Should not Cease When 
 Motor Has Been Properly Lubricated Entire 
 Car Should Be Gone Over Systematically A 
 Worth While System to Follow. 
 
 IT is the driver who runs his car just as long 
 as it will hold together before making adjust- 
 ments that is usually the one most dissatisfied 
 with it. The automobile is not different from 
 any other piece of machinery, except that it 
 must work under a greater disadvantage. Ad- 
 justments must be made from time to time if the 
 machine is to last any appreciable period. A 
 loose bearing may be tightened as soon" as ob- 
 served and no harm done, but if the car is con- 
 tinually driven with that bearing pounding itself 
 out, a new bearing is the only remedy. 
 
 Noise is a positive indication of wear and tear. 
 Noise is the outward sign that parts are being 
 worn away and that expenses are piling up. It is 
 a matter of economy to make all adjustments 
 promptly. At the same time tinkering with any 
 of the adjustments should not be tolerated. Noises 
 are difficult to locate at times, but no attempt to 
 change a single adjustment should be made until 
 the trouble is positively located. Tinkering wears 
 out as many cars as does the normal driving. 
 
 The proper lubrication of the entire motor car 
 is, perhaps, the best insurance of freedom from 
 trouble. Lubrication charts are furnished with 
 the car, but it is far better to learn the amount 
 and frequency of lubrication required by actual 
 observation than it is to rely entirely upon such a 
 chart. Weather and road conditions and the 
 
 (154)
 
 Lubrication Pointers. 155 
 
 method of driving the car have as great an influ- 
 ence as the actual mileage traveled. Heavy roads 
 mean more power with greater bearing pressures, 
 and consequently more oil. 
 
 It is a good policy to go over the entire car at 
 least once or twice during the year and clean out 
 all oil cups and supply reservoirs. After an oil 
 has been used for a considerable length of time 
 in the motor it becomes black and thin and sedi- 
 ment collects in the base. The greater percent- 
 age of the lubricating qualities have been lost. 
 Drain the crank case oil reservoir, and flush it 
 out with kerosene. See that the oil line screens 
 are not clogged up with the heavy residue that 
 often collects. Fill the reservoir with a fresh sup- 
 ply of oil. It is wonderful how an entire new 
 supply of oil refreshes a motor. It is economy 
 in the end measured in dollars and cents. The 
 transmission and differential gears must transmit 
 all of the power from the motor. The grease for 
 these parts must be heavy enough to cushion the 
 teeth, but light enough to prevent the loss of 
 power that would be required for stirring up a 
 heavy viscous grease. 
 
 Lubrication of the universal joints is as essen- 
 tial as is that of the motor. The universal joint 
 is for the purpose of transmitting power around 
 the corner of the drive shaft as the shaft bends 
 with each vibration. The universal joint parts 
 must be fitted closely if they transmit {he power 
 smoothly. Unless a film of oil is maintained be- 
 tween these closely fitting parts undue friction, 
 and hence wearing of the parts must arise with 
 loss of power at the rear wheels, or lost motion 
 accompanied by creaks and groans. Flush out 
 the universal joint housings and use a new sup- 
 ply of clean grease. 
 
 Flake graphite can be used to very good advan- 
 tage in all greases, even in the motor, providing
 
 156 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 that the splash system of lubrication is employed. 
 Flake graphite is in itself a good lubricant. When 
 used mixed with oils it forms a perfect coating on 
 the bearing surfaces so that all wear comes be- 
 tween the two coats of graphite instead of be- 
 tween the metallic surfaces. A teaspoonful of 
 graphite to each gallon of oil is ample. 
 
 Neglect is one of the prime factors in the 
 numerous kicks which automobile men are con- 
 stantly confronted with. 
 
 If an automobile owner will map out a simple, 
 regular system for oiling and greasing his car 
 his satisfaction will reach the maximum and his 
 troubles the minimum. His car will be 99 per 
 cent efficient and his worries decreased to a con- 
 siderable extent. 
 
 The front spring bolts and shackles should be 
 well greased once to every 300 or 400 miles of 
 travel. Neglect of these parts will soon produce 
 noise. The same attention should be given to the 
 rear spring joints. The rear axle gear-set and 
 transmission gears should be inspected and lu- 
 bricated at least once to each 2,000 miles of travel. 
 In this connection attention should be paid to the 
 proper selection of materials. 
 
 The clutch shifting parts and brake joints 
 should be kept well oiled at all times. In oiling 
 the magneto or other ignition devices one should 
 bear in mind the functions which these parts 
 perform. 
 
 Too liberal a use 'of oil at these points will 
 often cause trouble and in some cases put the 
 ignition out of commission. Two or three drops 
 of oil once in every 2,000 miles will be sufficient. 
 This rule may also be applied to the care of the 
 starter. 
 
 Motors having water pumps should be given at- 
 tention at this point. The grease cups should be 
 kept filled with hard grease and given a turn
 
 Lubrication Pointers. 157 
 
 every day or two providing the car is in con- 
 stant use. In oiling the motor itself great care 
 should be exercised in using oils of the proper 
 weight. It is a very good idea to keep a close 
 tab on the oil gauge and the oil feeders. Often- 
 times the feeders become clogged, or they may 
 run too freely. This is a waste on the one hand 
 and a serious neglect on the other. 
 
 All moving joints exposed to the dust and dirt 
 should receive constant care as to oiling. Dry 
 spring leaves can be lubricated by separating the 
 leaves and allowing a mixture of graphite and 
 oil to run between them. 
 
 Wheel bearings should be packed with hard oil 
 at .least once in every 3,000 miles. Much care 
 should be used in greasing the steering gear and 
 all connecting parts. A fairly soft grease should 
 be used on the steering knuckles, as any binding 
 here will make steering difficult.
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 KEEPING UP APPEARANCE OF THE CAR. 
 
 Some Sidelights on the Proper Treatment to 
 Keep the Finish, Upholstery and Top in Pre- 
 sentable Shape What Not to do When Wash- 
 ing the Car. 
 
 WHENEVER the car is to stand for some 
 time, it is well to jack up the car and 
 allow the axle to rest on supports. Re- 
 moving the weight from the tires does not de- 
 crease the air pressure to any degree measurable 
 by the ordinary tire pressure ga age. The damage 
 is done to the tires by allowing them to remain 
 in one position with the flat spot of contact until 
 the tire takes a permanent set. 
 
 The fabric is creased and the rubber is stretched 
 permanently, so that a weak spot is developed. 
 Keep the tire rims free from rust by sand-paper- 
 ing and painting .with graphite. 
 
 No machine can remain in permanent adjust- 
 ment with constant running when it has a coat- 
 ing of mud and sand dried and baked onto it. 
 Yet many automobile owners continue to drive 
 their cars day after day with no thought of re- 
 moving the dust and mud that accumulates with 
 each drive. The tiny particles of grit work into 
 the smallest joints about the moving parts and 
 produce their cutting effects like so much powd- 
 ered emery. The result is slow but inevitable. 
 Bearings are ground out, knocks develop, and the 
 car is ready for the repair man. 
 
 Never wash the car in the bright sunlight. The 
 water dries rapidly and streaks are left. The 
 man who does not have water available under 
 pressure often uses such a condition as an excuse 
 
 (158)
 
 Keeping Up Appearances. 159 
 
 for allowing the car to become encrusted with 
 mud. As a matter of fact, it is best that a hose 
 never be used on the finish of a car. The pail and 
 sponge used intelligently produce the best re- 
 sults. 
 
 The cleaning of the car should become a regu- 
 lar and systematic duty. Use two pails and two 
 sponges. One pail and one sponge should be 
 preserved for the final rinsing of the varnished 
 parts. Start on the top and work down. Never 
 use gasoline or kerosene in cleaning the top. 
 
 Most top materials contain rubber. Castile 
 soap and water will remove the grease spots. Fill 
 the sponge full of water and dash the water on 
 the body gently, so that the dirt particles may flow 
 off without leaving ^cratches. Never attempt to 
 rub the dirt off. The sooner the car is washed 
 after being on the road the easier will be the 
 process of cleaning and the longer will be the life 
 of the finish. Should the car be new, frequent 
 applications of clear water will tend to harden the 
 varnish and preserve the lustre. The varnish 
 may be damaged, however, should the cold water 
 be used on the car when the surrounding tem- 
 perature is near freezing. 
 
 Keep the motor clean by all means. Kerosene 
 applied with a brush is very effective, in re- 
 moving accumulations of grease and dirt. Use a 
 mixture of common washing soda and water to 
 wash out the radiator and cylinder jackets at 
 least once or twice during the year, to loosen up 
 all scale and sediment. Do not let this solution 
 get on any painted surface. Thoroughly rinse the 
 cooling system with clear water after this process. 
 Keep the outside of the radiator clean and see 
 that the air passages at the bottom do not become 
 clogged with mud. 
 
 It is the little care given regularly that counts 
 and keeps the car running smoothly. A few
 
 160 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 minutes attention each day will save many hours 
 later. There is no machine built that stands up 
 under the continued abuse that the ordinary auto- 
 mobile receives.
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 HINTS ON MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRING. 
 
 Suggestions for Removing and Replacing Anti- 
 Friction Bearings of the Ball Type Tools for 
 Facilitating the Work Bearing Regrinding 
 as a Means to Economy. 
 
 MANY anti-friction bearings are damaged in 
 the removal or during application when 
 repairing mechanism in which they are 
 mounted, but this results more from ignorance 
 of their nature than deliberate intent to damage 
 them. A common cause of bearing failure is 
 noted when they are driven in place by blows 
 from an ordinary machinist's hammer applied 
 directly to the bearing face or through the me- 
 dium of a steel drift or blunt cold chisel. Ball- 
 bearings should never be driven in place or re- 
 moved by the use of steel or other hard metal 
 tools, because the race members may be perma- 
 nently sprung or deformed by this treatment. 
 
 Whenever the construction permits, bearings 
 should be removed by direct application of pres- 
 sure to the part that is tightly fitted. When a 
 bearing is 'mounted in a wheel hub, as indicated 
 at Fig. 2, a simple form of wheel puller can be 
 employed to advantage. This is a substantial 
 casting of malleable iron or bronze made approx- 
 imately the same shape as the hub cap, threaded 
 inside to fit the hub and having a substantial set 
 screw at least .75 inch in diameter passing 
 through the threaded boss at the centre. The 
 screw should be long enough to pull the wheel 
 and bearing entirely off the spindle or axle tube. 
 A shouldered plug of steel with a depression 
 drilled therein to locate the screw point may be 
 
 (161)
 
 162 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 pushed in the hollow tube to centralize the screw 
 pressure. In use, the wheel puller casting or 
 wheel is kept from turning and, as the screw 
 advances, it pulls off the wheel and the bearing 
 it contains. 
 
 A modified form of puller having two arms 
 and a cross-beam that can be used when a bear- 
 ing cone must be removed from an axle or spindle 
 is outlined in Fig. 1. An attachment to permit it 
 to remove a bearing of the unit type, such as a 
 single or double row annular, without exerting 
 any pressure on the balls or outer race is clearly 
 
 Wheel Puller 
 .Body Caatira 
 
 Oolrt Presbure collar 
 &eo.-K>~fi\D& kror EaceCmy 
 
 Fig. 1 Modified Form of Wheel 
 Puller Having Two Arms 
 and Cross Beam for Dis- 
 placing a Bearing Cone. 
 
 Fig. 2 Hub Wheel Puller for 
 Removing Wheel and Bearing 
 from Shaft or Axle Tube. 
 
 depicted in Fig. 3. This consists of a 'split cast- 
 ing adapted to be clamped loosely around the 
 shaft back of the bearing inner race, and any 
 pressure exerted to remove the bearing is applied 
 directly against the member which is a force fit 
 on the shaft. When any form of hub or bear- 
 ing puller fails to start the member to which it 
 is applied by direct pull, its action may be accel- 
 erated after the screw has been tightened suffi- 
 ciently to place the parts under a certain initial 
 tension by a few sharp, well-directed hammer 
 blows on the beam or main body of the device. 
 In all cases where possible the pressure applied
 
 Hints on Repairing. 
 
 163 
 
 to remove a bearing or part should be exerted 
 'directly against the portion that is a tight fit on 
 the shaft or in the housing. In most cases it is 
 the inner member of the bearing that is a force 
 or press fit on the shaft; the outer race member 
 is usually a push fit in the housing and may be 
 easily removed. If it is necessary to force the 
 bearing off with a series of blows, always use a 
 brass or hard babbitt metal bar or drift between 
 the bearing and hammer, or even a piece of hard 
 maple, hemlock or oak. Do not direct all the 
 blows at any one point on the bearing, as this 
 
 Cont 
 
 Fig. 3 Construction for Remov- 
 ing Single or Double-Row 
 Annular Bearings Without Ex- 
 erting Stresses on the Balls. 
 
 Fig. 4 Illustrating Proper 
 Method of Driving Bearings 
 in Place with Yoke -Member 
 of Soft Metal. 
 
 tends to cramp it and will make it harder to drive 
 off. Distribute them evenly around the entire cir- 
 cumference, always having successive blows at 
 points diametrically opposite. When driving bear- 
 ings in place it is always best to use some form 
 of soft metal yoke member, as shown in Fig. 4, 
 or tubular section piece as shown in Fig. 5. With 
 either the yoke or the other, tubular form, the 
 hamrper blows are distributed evenly, and the 
 bearing is driven in place without injury to either 
 shaft or bearing components. When a double 
 fork member is used one end can be made to 
 drive against the inner race member while the 
 other can be spread enough to fit the outer race 
 if desired.
 
 164 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 Ball-bearings do not require the continual appli- 
 cation of lubricants that is called for by plain 
 bushings, and, to a lesser degree, by roller bear- 
 ings, but this does not mean that lubrication can 
 be neglected or done carelessly. 
 
 The important point to observe is that none 
 but pure mineral oils or grease be used, as any 
 that show traces of acid or alkali, or that may 
 become rancid from oxidization, will cause etch- 
 ing and roughing of the highly finished surfaces 
 of the balls and races. 
 
 It has been the cus- 
 tom of motorists in 
 the years past to dis- 
 card ball bearings 
 when they have be- 
 came worn. The 
 supposition prevailed 
 that worn-out bear- 
 ings and bearing 
 housings were merely 
 "metal," and it is only 
 in the past few years 
 that the motor world has become acquainted with 
 the fact that worn bearings are not useless and 
 can be restored. When it is understood that a re- 
 ground bearing is absolutely as good as a new and 
 that the rejuvenation is accomplished at one-fifth 
 the expense of what new ones cost, it will be ap- 
 preciated that a real economy has been wished 
 upon the motor world. 
 
 Lubricants best adapted range from light ma- 
 chinery oils used in small high-speed bearings, 
 such as fitted in magnetos, lighting generators or 
 starting motors, to the viscous grease utilized in 
 those subjected to heavy loads and revolving at 
 low speeds, as wheel or differential bearings. 
 Whenever the bearing can be immersed in a bath 
 of oil and properly protected from water and 
 
 Fig. 5 Showing How the 
 Blows of Hammer May Be 
 Distributed Evenly with 
 Tubular Tool.
 
 Hints on Repairing. 165 
 
 grit a lighter oil can be used, but when bearings 
 are housed where dirt or water may get in, then 
 the use of ample quantities of viscous lubricant, 
 such as vaseline or other mineral grease that is 
 free from acid, prevents the foreign matter work- 
 ing in between the balls and races. I 
 
 Regrinding a bearing entails very careful and 
 precise work. In fact, so accurate does it have 
 to be that the outside diameter will not have been 
 changed to the extent of one-thousandth of an 
 inch. 
 
 In putting a bearing in "as good as new" con- 
 dition, every reliable grinder must regrind the 
 raceways so that the proper fitting can be made 
 and the bearing allowed to perform its duties 
 without a "hitch," which often is the case when 
 not properly ground. New balls must be inserted 
 and new retainers used where necessary. If all 
 these things are properly and correctly done, the 
 bearing should be returned to the owner not only 
 as good as new, but should perform all the duties, 
 and at the same time give to the owner of the 
 machinery, or, rather, automobile, as much serv- 
 ice as a new bearing.
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 CARBON, ITS SOURCE AND ELIMINATION. 
 
 Ptor Oil the Chief Cause of Carbon Deposit 
 How It Affects the Motor Running and In- 
 creases Wear Various Methods of Effecting 
 Carbon Removal. 
 
 WHEN a sample of fresh oil is entirely 
 boiled away, it leaves a black layer of 
 carbon on the interior of the vessel in 
 which the boiling takes place. This deposit is 
 called residual carbon. 
 
 Mineral lubricating oils are hydro-carbons; 
 that is, they consist of a chemical combination, 
 in various quantities, of the element carbon and 
 the element hydrogen. It is evident, therefore, 
 that there can be no such thing as a "non-carbon" 
 oil. 
 
 All oils when boiled or distilled to the end will 
 leave a carbon residue, the quantity varying from 
 a trace with highly filtered oils to a veritable 
 incrustation with inferior oils. No oil exists from 
 which carbon will not be produced when it is 
 exposed to high temperatures. The amount of 
 this carbon deposit depends largely upon the 
 grade of the crude petroleum from which the 
 lubricating oil is made, and the care and thor- 
 oughness exercised in the process of refining. 
 
 For the proper lubrication of piston, piston 
 rings and cylinder walls, a film of oil must at all 
 times cover their contact surfaces. Unfor- 
 tunately, the piston, driven forward by the ex- 
 ploding gases, exposes the protecting film of oil 
 on the cylinder walls directly to the intense heat 
 of the explosion (between 2000 and 3000 
 
 (166)
 
 Carbon. 167 
 
 Fahr.) This temperature is far above the flash 
 point of any known oil. As a consequence, part 
 of the oil film is flashed off and escapes with the 
 exhaust gases. On the up-stroke of the piston 
 a small portion of the partly burned oil film is 
 carried into the combustion chamber, where it 
 spreads over the walls and is further consumed 
 by the heat of succeeding explosions. A continu- 
 ous feed of oil to the cylinder walls renews the 
 depleted protective film. From a consideration 
 of these facts, therefore, it is obvious that the 
 operating condition existing in the explosion 
 chamber and upon the cylinder walls of an in- 
 ternal combustion motor, is one of uninterrupted 
 distillation to the end, and the carbon deposit 
 left behind is residual carbon. 
 
 CARBONIZATION. Rapid carbonization of a 
 motor invariably results from the use of a poorly 
 refined oil of inferior quality. Hot carbon and 
 the sulphur compounds freed by the combustion 
 of poor oil passing between valves and valve 
 seats, erode and pit both, necessitating frequent 
 regrinding. The carbonization of the explosion 
 chamber, valves and top of piston is also caused 
 by the use of an oil of incorrect body, too light 
 or too heavy, too high an oil level in crankcase, 
 or by the presence of mechanical defects in the 
 motor. 
 
 Figure 1 illustrates one of the most serious of 
 mechanical defects contributing to the immediate 
 carbonization of any motor in which it exists, 
 namely, piston ring leakage. The effect of this 
 leakage is the destruction of the oil seal between 
 piston and cylinder with attendant loss of com- 
 pression and power. A surplus of oil is drawn 
 into the cylinder during each inlet stroke, and the 
 highly heated gases escape past piston rings and 
 piston into the crankcase during each expansion 
 stroke. This breaks or "splits" the oil there and
 
 168 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 destroys its lubricating properties within a short 
 time. 
 
 Since carbon on the walls of the combustion 
 chamber takes up an appreciable amount of 
 space and proportionately decreases its volume, 
 the compression pressure increases to a dangerous 
 point, where premature or spontaneous ignition 
 occurs. The low heat conductivity of carbon, 
 evidenced by incandescent points (Fig. 2), only 
 
 aggravates this situation. These glowing points 
 ignite the explosive charge before the piston 
 reaches top dead center, thus giving rise to 
 terrific blows upon the bearings, and to unneces- 
 sary wear. All noise and knocks mean loss of 
 power. 
 
 A troublesome carbon deposit and heavy ex- 
 haust smoke usually attend the use of too light 
 an oil in the majority of motors. The consump- 
 tion of a light oil is much greater than that of 
 other grades, and for this reason a larger quan- 
 tity is fed. Due to its light body, such an oil is 
 copiously sucked past piston rings into the ex-
 
 Carbon. 169 
 
 plosion chamber. Compression losses result be- 
 cause of the poor gas seal afforded by light oil. 
 If an attempt is then made to decrease carboniza- 
 tion and smoke by cutting down the oil feed, 
 insufficient lubrication of the upper portion of 
 cylinder walls and destructive scoring end the 
 story. (See Fig. 3.) 
 
 Buying a cheap grade of oil because of the low 
 price is not true economy, but will eventually 
 prove to be a very expensive practice. The 
 principal lubricating mediums commonly used are 
 fluid oil and semi-fluid oils and greases derived 
 from both mineral and animal sources. Graphite, 
 one of the most important lubricants known, is 
 a form of crystalline carbon. The mediums best 
 adapted differ with the nature of the work the 
 parts are to perform. An oil that is suitable for 
 one portion of the automobile mechanism may 
 prove actually injurious to other parts. 
 
 By adding about one teaspoonful of ground 
 flake graphite to every gallon of cylinder oil, it 
 is possible to carry to all surfaces a material that 
 is finer than the most minute pores of the metal 
 and which will gradually cover the metal with a 
 film which heat cannot easily destroy. The bene- 
 fits derived from the use of graphite in oil are 
 accumulative, for which continued use all the 
 bearings, cylinder walls and piston rings are pro- 
 tected by a lubricant which impregnates the metal. 
 All graphite is not lubricating graphite, however, 
 nor is all lubricating graphite suitable for use in 
 cylinder oil. Care must be exercised and only 
 finely ground flake graphite of the best quality 
 should be used. 
 
 Cylinder oil should be derived from a crude 
 petroleum base, because oils of this nature are 
 inorganic and are not liable to decompose by 
 exposure to the air or by heat as are the organic
 
 170 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 lubricants derived from animal fats or vegetable 
 sources. 
 
 The best cylinder oils are obtained in three 
 grades: light, which has a consistency slightly 
 greater than machine oil ; medium, which is some- 
 what heavier than the light, and is an inter- 
 mediate grade between that and the heavy-bodied 
 oil which has the consistency of warm molasses. 
 The medium grade is best suited for use in sum- 
 mer, and the light grade in winter. 
 
 The removal from time to time of carbon de- 
 posits which accumulate in the combustion cham- 
 ber and on the tops of the pistons is necessary 
 on all gasoline engines. This carbon deposit is 
 always a source of difficulty to an owner or driver 
 and its presence tells so adversely upon the run- 
 ning of the engine. The frequency of the carbon 
 removing operation depends entirely upon the 
 severity of the service and the quality and quan- 
 tity of the lubricating oil. This carbon is a resi- 
 due product of oils and its presence is indicated
 
 i Carbon. 171 
 
 by a tendency to knock when climbing a hill, 
 unless the spark is unduly retarded, and also by 
 the overheating of the engine. 
 
 This carbon is a deposit of heat decomposition 
 of the fuel or lubricant, or both, under pressure 
 and in the presence of too little air for combus- 
 tion. Too rich a mixture almost invariably re- 
 sults in the formation of carbon, which also fol- 
 lows upon the use of oils that do not stand high 
 enough temperatures, or that are otherwise of 
 poor quality. It may also be caused by delaying 
 the opening of either intake or exhaust valve, so 
 that not enough time is provided for the opening 
 of the exhaust. 
 
 When this carbon is present in lumns, it will 
 tend to become red-hot and cause pre-ignition. 
 Small particles may lodge on the valve seats, pre- 
 venting them from closing, as well as lodging in 
 the piston rings, so that compression and conse- 
 quently power is lost. 
 
 There are several ways of removing carbon, 
 which depend upon the facilities at hand. It may 
 be removed with denatured alcohol, scraping or 
 by burning it out with oxygen. 
 
 Denatured alcohol has also been found to be 
 a good decarbonizer. It should be introduced 
 into the cylinders while hot and allowed to re- 
 main there over night. It will then loosen the 
 scale on the cylinder walls and pass out through 
 the exhaust. 
 
 In using decarbonizers on a four or six cylin- 
 der motor, two, cylinders must be treated at a 
 time, as it is best to bring the pistons in the 
 cylinders into which the decarbonizer is intro- 
 duced into the topmost position with all valves 
 closed. 
 
 When denatured alcohol is used an ounce or 
 so shall be used for each cylinder and should 
 be squirted up against the top of the inside of
 
 172 Care oj Automobiles. , 
 
 the cylinder head through a spark plug hole with 
 a long curved spout oil can. Also put a little 
 in spark plug and screw it in place again. 
 
 The necessity for scraping may be minimized 
 by injecting a tablespoonful or two of kerosene 
 into the cylinders after the day's run while the 
 engine is still hot. Kerosene when used in this 
 way has a solvent action, which may be utilized 
 more fully by turning the motor over a few revo- 
 lutions, with the ignition off, so that the kerosene 
 will work over the entire cylinder surface. 
 
 When it becomes necessary to scrape the cylin- 
 ders, intake valve and exhaust valve port plugs 
 should be removed and the engine^ turned over 
 until the piston reaches its top center. The car- 
 bon deposits can then be removed by carbon 
 scrapers. These are sharp tools of different 
 shapes, bent so as to reach the piston head and 
 top of the cylinder. All carbon removed should 
 be scraped toward the exhaust valve, and when 
 the scraping is completed the motor should be 
 turned over until the exhaust valve has opened. 
 Then scrape the carbon past the valve into the 
 exhaust passage, whence it will be blown out. 
 Now brush the surfaces clean and be sure that no 
 carbon remains between the valve and its seat. 
 Finally, wash with kerosene. A small electric 
 light can generally be placed in one valve port 
 plug hole and the condition of the surface noted 
 through the other one. 
 
 In order to remove carbon from the walls of 
 the piston and rings, it becomes necessary to dis- 
 mantle the motor. Either operation is a long 
 and tiresome job at best, but the improvement 
 in the power and running of an engine afterward 
 will more than compensate for the work expended 
 by the owner. 
 
 Oxygen can also be used for removing carbon 
 by burning it out ; however, this method is mostly
 
 Carbon. 173 
 
 used by large repair shops and may harm the 
 engine if the work is not properly understood. 
 The object of this process is to burn the carbon 
 out so that flames will not be directed to any 
 particular spot any length of time. 
 
 A good plan to follow when scraping carbon 
 is to grind the valves after it has been removed, 
 but do not disturb them until the scraping has 
 been completed.
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 LITTLE THINGS THAT COUNT IN CAR CARE. 
 
 A. Compilation of Useful Information, Short 
 Cuts and Kinks That Will Prove Helpful to 
 the Motorist Simple Ways of Accomplishing 
 Complex Operations. 
 
 CLEANING THE WHOLE CAR. 
 
 THE greatest advantage of any motor vehicle, 
 whether it be intended for pleasure or com- 
 mercial use, is its appearance. This is usu- 
 ally given considerable study when the car is 
 purchased; however, the value of appearance is 
 soon lost sight of, and in six to eight months the 
 car is ready for another painting or rennishing. 
 Considerable attention is generally directed to the 
 adjusting of the mechanism, but very little atten- 
 tion is paid to the finish. Reference is not only 
 made to the body, but also to the motor, radiator, 
 the chassis in general, upholstering and top. 
 
 The clean cut motor of the present day with 
 all working parts enclosed requires but a few min- 
 utes a week with a little waste and kerosene or 
 gasoline. Applying the waste, saturated with 
 either of these will remove all oil, grease and dirt. 
 The oil and grease soon become covered with 
 dust and will cake and harden. 
 
 The mud pan should be thoroughly cleansed, 
 so that all oil and gasoline are removed, as this is 
 the cause of a considerable number of fires, when 
 the motor backfires through the carburetor, and 
 especially when it is mounted low so that the 
 flame shoots under the motor. The inner side of 
 the hood should also be cleansed regularly, as this 
 usually catches oil thrown off the motor. 
 
 The radiator air spaces are often clogged with 
 
 (174)
 
 Little Things That Count. 175 
 
 mud from the road, which should be washed off. 
 If it is permitted to remain it will eventually 
 reduce the efficiency of the cooling system, by re- 
 tarding the air circulation through the radiator. 
 The transmission, inner side of the frame, brack- 
 ets, control levers, pedals, etc., should be kept 
 clean, as grit and sand in these bearings will 
 cause wear to appear rapidly. 
 
 Kerosene is frequently used for cleaning out the 
 disc, clutch and lower half of the crank case. 
 This should be saved, as it lends itself well to 
 the cleaning of all metal parts. After cleaning, 
 all metal parts should be rubbed dry and all 
 bright parts should be polished. 
 
 Spare rims and tires should be kept clean and 
 covered, so that they can be handled quickly and 
 comfortably. 
 
 The fenders add considerable to the appear- 
 ance of the car and should always be kept in 
 proper condition. Mud should never be removed 
 with tools after it has become hard. If it is too 
 heavy to wash off a wood mallet faced with 
 about twenty- four thicknesses of flannel should 
 be used, so that the finish will not be marred by 
 blows from the mallet. 
 
 Mud contains substances undergoing chemical 
 action that tends to corrode and dull the enamel 
 or varnish when allowed to remain for any con- 
 siderable length of time. 
 
 Turning now to the body, which, perhaps, gets 
 some attention, it may be well to enlighten the 
 lay man on the care necessary in preserving the 
 luster. Among the necessities for successfully 
 accomplishing this are two sets of each, pails, 
 sponges, chamois and, in fact, everything con- 
 nected with the washing of a car. The above 
 articles for the first washing should be kept sepa- 
 rate from those used for the second washing. A 
 further suggestion would be to use separate
 
 176 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 sponges and chamois for the chassis and wheels, 
 as more or less grease and oil collects on these 
 parts, which should not reach the body. Oil gives 
 the body a cloudy and smeared appearance, while 
 mud which hardens leaves a spotted surface, 
 which can only be remedied by rermishing. Never 
 allow any one to rub their hands on any of the 
 varnished parts of the car, as the fine particles of 
 dust under the fingers will scratch the varnish li;-- 
 emery. 
 
 The water should be applied to the body with a 
 hose, using it without a nozzle or a soft wool 
 sponge. When the mud has caked very hard allow 
 it to soak a little by playing the stream on it. 
 An easy flow of water through the hose will 
 soften the heavy coating, which is all that is neces- 
 sary. Don't squirt the water from a nozzle of the 
 hose against the car, but rather let it run freely 
 with a slight pressure, thus washing it away as 
 freely as possible. 
 
 Following this a solution of soap dissolved in 
 lukewarm water should be used to remove the 
 remaining dirt with a soft sponge. Care should 
 be taken to keep the sponge clean, removing the 
 sand and grit frequently, as it will accumulate 
 very rapidly and scratch the surface. A good 
 soap is of considerable assistance, but be careful 
 that it is strictly neutral, as a soap which con- 
 tains an excess of alkali or oil is injurious to 
 the varnish. The surface should be thoroughly 
 cleansed, leaving no trace of mud or grit. Then 
 rinse off the soap solution with a soft sponge and 
 a good quantity of fresh water before it has had 
 time to dry. The next step is to dry the surface 
 with a chamois skin, rubbing it only lightly. It 
 should be wiped lightly over the surface, leaving 
 a thin vapor on the body, which drys quickly, 
 leaving the surface clean and sparkling. Rinse 
 the chamois frequently and wring dry.
 
 Little Things That Count. 177 
 
 In washing the car always be careful not to let 
 water reach the batteries, spark coil, or any unit 
 of ignition, starting and lighting units. Particular 
 attention should be given to the corners and 
 crevices, and water which may lodge there should 
 be soaked up with a sponge and well dried. 
 
 Gasoline or turpentine should not be used in 
 cleaning paint work on the car ; while bright sun- 
 light will not only crack the varnish, but will 
 deaden the gloss of the best finish. In dusting 
 varnished surfaces always use a soft woolen 
 duster rather than one made of feathers. 
 
 The leather upholstering can be cleansed by 
 washing with lukewarm water and castile soap, 
 then rinsing with clear water, using a sponge in 
 both operations. The surface then should be 
 wiped dry with a piece of soft woolen cloth after 
 which a good leather dressing can be applied. 
 Don't attempt to clean leather trimmings with 
 gasoline, stick to the soap and water. 
 
 Glass fronts and windows can be cleaned by 
 first wetting them over with a soft piece of sponge 
 moistened slightly with denatured alcohol diluted 
 to about one-third its original strength in water 
 and dipped slightly into pumice, stone flour. Allow 
 this mixture to dry, then wipe off with dry cloth 
 and polish with tissue paper. 
 
 Perhaps the most neglected part of a motor car 
 is the top. This plays an important part in the 
 economy of the car and should receive it's share 
 of attention. 
 
 The top should be cleaned by first putting a 
 little castile soap in a bucket of tepid water until 
 a good suds is obtained; then wet a soft wool 
 sponge in this solution and wash the top, using 
 water plentiful enough to start the dirt. Then go 
 over the top with clean, soft water to catch up 
 the traces of alkali, finishing up with a chamois 
 skin to dry off. Now apply sparingly any selected
 
 178 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 top dressing of reliable quality. Never fold the 
 top back until thoroughly dry. 
 
 GRINDING THE VALVES. 
 
 There is a right and a wrong way of perform- 
 ing so simple an operation as grinding valves, 
 and often mortorists make a muss of their engine 
 because they fail in performing this simple opera- 
 tion. Very few think of examining the valve 
 stem while they have the valves out of the cylin- 
 der, as the chances are that their stems are coated 
 with dirt and carbonized oil and possibly the stem 
 has been binding in its guide. If it is allowed to 
 go back in this condition, one of two things will 
 happen. Either the stem will grind out the valve 
 guide or it will bind up and cause a broken timing 
 gear. While the valve is out it should be thor- 
 oughly examined and all grit and carbon removed, 
 while it should also be tested for trueness in the 
 stem, as it may have been burnt. Often one will 
 diligently grind a badly pitted valve for an hour 
 or so, and replace it without verifying its clear- 
 ance over the tappet. Always verify this clear- 
 ance in replacing the valve. Also be sure to ex- 
 amine the valve and its stem for cracks or de- 
 fect^, as a broken valve is very apt to cause seri- 
 ous damage. 
 
 After a careful examination of each valve we 
 can proceed to grind in the valves. First plug 
 the opening into the valve with some waste or 
 wadding so that no grinding compound can get 
 into the cylinder. If these abrasives do get into 
 the cylinder, they will grind the piston, cylinder, 
 and score parts which are supposed to have had 
 all the grinding they need before they left their 
 birthplace. Next in order is to use the finest 
 grinding compound that it is possible to secure, 
 known as carborundum. Mix this with a little oil 
 to form a paste and rub it on the valve seat, not
 
 Little Things That Count. 179 
 
 too thickly. A brace and "screwdriver bit makes 
 a handy tool ; however, a screwdriver will suffice 
 if the former is not at hand. 
 
 Now, don't spin the valve around as though 
 you were out for a record of revolutions, but 
 rather give it about a half-dozen turns under 
 pressure and then lift it up and turn the valve 
 around, to avoid ringing. If you do not change 
 the position of the valve on its seat it will make 
 a bright appearance all around on the valve, but 
 generally leaves the seat in poor condition. 
 
 A light spring if. placed under the valve will 
 raise it from its seat as soon as the pressure is re- 
 leased. Another good method is to use a screw- 
 driver or brace and an oscillating movement to 
 grind the valve; that is, turn first in one direc- 
 tion, say for four or five revolutions, then lift 
 the valve from its seat and repeat the operation 
 in the opposite direction. Keep this up until the 
 whole contact surface of the valve \nd its seat 
 are polished silver-bright; no black spots should 
 be permitted, as these points will permit gas to 
 escape. Both valve and seat should show a bright 
 circle about 1/16-in. wide around the conical sur- 
 faces. It is not necessary to have a wide seat, 
 since this is of no more benefit than a narrow 
 one which is ground properly. 
 
 Another important job comes at the finish, as 
 every particle of grinding compound must be re- 
 moved from the valve chamber, valve parts and 
 valve guide, as this compound will easily score 
 the cylinder and other parts. 
 
 Wash it out thoroughly with gasoline or kero- 
 sene and reassemble engine; while doing this it 
 is a good idea to check over the valve timing of 
 the engine.
 
 180 Care oj Automobiles. 
 
 VIBRATION AND RADIATORS. 
 
 It is not an uncommon occurrence after taking 
 a leaky radiator to the expert for repairs that 
 after replacing it on the car it develops another 
 leak. Generally the motorist conies to the con- 
 clusion that the workman was at fault. This is 
 not always true, for it is not the repaired leaks 
 that give trouble, but the new ones developed. 
 Much of the reported radiator troubles are due 
 to the method of suspension. 
 
 The more recent types of cars have the radia- 
 tors so mounted that frame stresses are not trans- 
 mitted to the radiator, and provision is also made 
 for eliminating vibration. On old cars the road 
 shocks are transmitted to the radiator, which 
 with the frame stresses impair it's efficiency. Be- 
 fore replacing an old radiator, and especially if 
 it rests on a cross member of the frame, fit a 
 strip of rubber or similar material to provide a 
 cushion and to absorb shocks. 
 
 CURE FOR RATTLING DOORS. 
 Rattling doors are very annoying and this 
 trouble is not always confined to the low-priced 
 motor car. A simple remedy is to pad out the 
 hinges or catches with thin rubber sheeting. If 
 the doors jam, graphite their engaging faces or 
 file down the high spots. The cause of the doors 
 seizing is generally due to the body settling. 
 
 NUT LOCKING METHODS. 
 A lock nut or washer is generally employed to 
 maintain the tightness of a nut or bolt but fre- 
 quently there is not room for these members. 
 Moistening the nut and screw and allowing the 
 parts to rust will render the nut secure, or a 
 coat of quick-drying paint will often serve the 
 same purpose.
 
 Little Things That Count. 181 
 
 CLEANING THE MUFFLER. 
 A dirty or clogged muffler will materially af- 
 fect the output of the motor, as considerable 
 back pressure will be developed. A simple 
 method of cleaning the muffler without removing 
 =md disassembling it, is to take a wooden mallet 
 and tap the exterior smartly. This will loosen 
 the greater part of the deposits, which will be 
 blown out when the motor is started. It will be 
 surprising the amount of soot that can be re- 
 moved from a muffler. 
 
 HINTS. 
 
 Let it not be forgotten that kerosene is one of 
 the best agents obtainable for cleaning the metal 
 parts of the car, as it cuts the grease even better 
 than gasoline, and is not so likely to ignite if ex- 
 posed to the flame of a blow torch or a carelessly- 
 handled match. It is best to dry the kerosene off 
 the metal after it is clean, and this should be ac- 
 complished by a careful wiping with a cloth or 
 bit of waste. 
 
 By cutting out a square in the floor of the ton- 
 neau . and attaching a proper sized box under- 
 neath, you can have a very convenient carrying 
 receptacle in space that is not otherwise taken 
 up. It makes a good place to put a carbon foot- 
 warmer in winter, and may be used for tools 
 and jack at other times. 
 
 Remember that new tires carried on the car, 
 if not protected from the sunlight, will quickly 
 oxidize, crack and become quite worthless. A 
 new tire should preferably be put into service 
 a little while now and then. It will not then 
 deteriorate near so quickly. It is better, how- 
 ever, to have a cover for extra tires.
 
 182 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 GASOLINE PIPE REPAIRS. 
 
 It is always well to carry a section of rubber 
 tubing with which to make a temporary repair 
 should a pipe break on the road. If the gasoline 
 pipe breaks off short at the union a gas-tight re- 
 pair can be made by riling the end of the pipe 
 to a cone shape, so that it may be forced into 
 the seating. Next slip over it a piece of rubber 
 tubing, and when the union nut is tightened it 
 expands, the rubber inside the union into a form 
 of washer, which will make a perfectly tight tem- 
 porary job. An additional precaution may be 
 taken by applying a touch of soap around the 
 union at the place where the pipe enters and 
 also on the thread. 
 
 FLY-WHEEL KNOCK. 
 
 It sometimes^happens that the bolts securing the 
 fly-wheel to the flange on the crank shaft work a 
 trifle loose, and, as a result, there comes an irreg- 
 ular knock, hard to distinguish from a loose con- 
 necting rod big end. This fly-wheel knock will be 
 more noticeable at slow motor speeds, or when the 
 engine is being accelerated or retarded. This is 
 worth remembering when an obscure knock puz- 
 zles you to diagnose. 
 
 CAREFUL OF NEW CAR. 
 
 It requires some self-restraint to forego the 
 pleasure of operating a new car as soon as re- 
 ceived, but this should not be done unless the 
 machine has been driven from a responsible agent 
 who guarantees that it is ready for the road. Even 
 then the wise motorist takes a careful look over 
 the car, paying particular attention to the oiling 
 system, the amount of water in the radiator and 
 gasoline in the tank and the adjustment of the 
 brakes. Frequently such an inspection will dis- 
 close a lack of oil, water or a slipping brake that 
 might result seriously on the road.
 
 Little Things That Count. 183 
 
 CARE OF GARAGE FLOORS. 
 Concrete floors in garages should be painted 
 with a preparation giving them a smooth surface 
 which is easily cleaned and saves the concrete 
 from wear and gritty dust from rising. The floors 
 should be pitched slightly 'from the center line 
 down to the side walls, both ways, with gutters 
 formed in the concrete along the walls so that 
 washing may be done, if necessary, without mov- 
 ing the cars. 
 
 STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLE. 
 Derangements in a storage battery may be 
 caused through the electrolyte becoming low, com- 
 pletely or partially destroyed or not of proper 
 specific gravity ; the plates may be sulphated, there 
 may be sediment in . the bottom causing short 
 circuits of the plates, terminals may be corroded, 
 or there may be loose wires or connectors. It is 
 often wise to look at the wiring, as there may be 
 defective insulation, wire broken inside of outer 
 coverings, oil soaked or chafed insulation which 
 always cause short circuiting wherever the wire 
 comes in contact with metal. 
 
 REPLACING SPARK PLUG NUT. 
 To render easier the replacement of the tiny 
 nuts that hold ignition cables to spark plugs, it is 
 a good plan to remove the top three or four threads 
 with a file ; if this is done, the nuts can be put on, 
 even with gloves, merely by dropping them in place 
 and giving them a twirl. Do not tighten too 
 tight as you may turn the wire through the 
 porcelain and change the spark gap. 
 
 Loss OF MOTOR POWER ITS CAUSE. 
 
 When there is loss of power and yet the engine 
 is firing regularly but weak, look for loss of com-
 
 184 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 pression at either valves or spark plugs. Of 
 course, this may also be due to the trembler on 
 the coil vibrating too slowly, and this can be ob- 
 viated by readjusting and trimming the platinum 
 points. Then, again t it may be due to too rich a 
 mixture or flooding of the carburetor. Sometimes 
 the extra air valve on the carburetor refuses to 
 work, and again it may be caused by faulty lubri- 
 cation. Look for weak springs on the inlet valves, 
 the lift of the exhaust may be reduced or the si- 
 lencer outlets choaked with dirt carbon or charred 
 oil. 
 
 CAUSES OF IGNITION TROUBLE. 
 
 Ignition trouble in a car fitted with a high ten- 
 sion magneto may be due to dirty oil, metallic 
 particles or carbon in the distributor ; the brushes 
 may not be in contact or the breaker points out 
 of adjustment, worn, dirty or pitted. There may 
 be defective winding, the field magnets weak, the 
 magneto driving gear loose or the magneto out 
 of time. 
 
 Bright headlights are absolutely necessary for 
 safe driving at night, but when two cars meet in 
 the night on a narrow road, with headlights daz- 
 zling each driver's eyes, great care should be used. 
 There is danger from obstacles on the sides of 
 the roadway and danger from wrong estimate of 
 distance between the cars. To be safe slow down 
 and dim your lights before meeting the ap- 
 proaching car. 
 
 The filler cap should be replaced and care taken 
 that the small hole in the center of the cap is 
 open so that air may be admitted as the fuel is 
 used. This prevents the pressure within the tank 
 becoming less than that of the atmosphere.
 
 Little Things That Count. 185 
 
 CARE OF RADIATOR. 
 
 The radiator should be filled with clean water. 
 As with the fuel, the same care should be taken 
 with the water, to see that it is free from any 
 foreign matter; the latter may clog the restricted 
 passages of the radiator and impair its efficiency. 
 
 Because an electric motor or dynamo is com- 
 pletely enclosed, so that it is impossible for 
 dust and dirt to work in from the outside, it 
 does not follow that the interior will be free from 
 dust. On the contrary, the gradual wear of the 
 brushes and the slower wear of the commutator 
 produce a dust that is more or less abrasive and 
 also is a good conductor of electricity. 
 
 Spark plug adjustment will clear up magneto 
 troubles, nine times out of ten. If the points on 
 the plugs are adjusted right the gap will be such 
 that the current can readily jump the gaps and 
 ignite the charge. Often the car will run all right 
 on the battery and yet when switched onto the 
 magneto there is trouble, and the blame is laid 
 onto the magneto, when a mere changing of the 
 spark plug gap is all that is needed. Some mag- 
 neto manufacturers provide a fine gauge for spark 
 plug gaps, while others advise a gap varying from 
 one-fortieth to a sixty-fourth of an inch. Many 
 use a worn thin ten-cent piece as a gauge, but the 
 best way is to experiment around these figures 
 until the proper gap has been effected, and then 
 always keep the gaps at this figure. It is im- 
 portant, however, to make sure that the gap on 
 all four plugs is uniform, otherwise the motor 
 will work with a jerk. 
 
 It often happens that the enamel on the hood 
 becomes blistered from the exhaust pipe. An 
 asbestos shield fitted inside the hood and about 
 an inch from it, will prevent this most unsightly
 
 186 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 trouble. Two arms should be secured onto the 
 inside of the hood at the strategic position and 
 to these a sheet of asbestos is attached. A similar 
 attachment will prevent the exhaust pipe char- 
 ring the woodwork of the dash. 
 
 After filling the radiator it is advisable to turn 
 the engine over several times to allow the water 
 to circulate through the cooling system and any 
 air pockets that may have formed; this will be 
 indicated by a lowering of the water level in the 
 radiator', in which case more water should be 
 added. If the car be driven in winter, a good non- 
 freezing solution should be used. 
 
 It is often necessary for the motor car owner 
 who does his own repairing to hammer a polished 
 surface, which would be absolutely ruined by a 
 steel or wooden hammer. Rubber mallets can be 
 bought for just this sort of work at almost any 
 supply store, or at a pinch a pad may be made 
 from several thicknesses of old rubber, which will 
 prevent marring the polished surface. 
 
 When preparing for a long run the gaso- 
 line, oil and water shovild be tested. The amount 
 of fuel and water in the tanks and radia- 
 tors may be determined in some automobiles by 
 glass gauge tubes fixed to the fuel and water 
 tanks showing the level of the liquids at a glance. 
 In others it is a simple matter to test the level by 
 inserting a stick in the filling hole and noting the 
 height to which the liquid rises on it ; the fuel 
 level may be tested in this way if the stick be with- 
 drawn quickly and examined before evaporation 
 takes place. 
 
 Gasoline should be strained to guard against the 
 carburetor passages becoming clogged by foreign 
 matter that may be contained in the fuel. A cham- 
 ois skin or wire netting having a very fine mesh 
 may be used as a filter.
 
 Little Things That Count. 187 
 
 RACING THE MOTOR. 
 
 While there is reason in abundance for run- 
 ning a motor, without load, at reasonably high 
 speed for the purpose of making carburetor 
 adjustments and the like, there is no excuse 
 for "opening her up wide" and letting "her" 
 turn up to the last limit of speed. Under no 
 conceivable practical conditions could the motor 
 run in such a way in service, and there is little 
 sense in forcing a motor to do things that are 
 absolutely useless merely for the purpose of mak 
 ing a fearful noise which is the most obviour 
 result. Further, excessive racing must be pro 
 ductive of a certain amount of wear and tear am 
 no small unnecessary strain due to the tremendom- 
 centrifugal force exerted by the rotating parts 
 and it is to the interest of the car owner to avoid 
 whatever is unnecessary of this sort. Tuning a 
 carburetor so that it will carry the motor at 
 3,000 revolutions per minute when it cannot pull 
 the car when running over 1,700 revolutions is 
 nothing short of foolishness, though it often goes 
 to the extent of being a nuisance. 
 
 FAN BELT. 
 
 During the hot months the motor requires all 
 the cooling available. The fan-belt is an impor- 
 tant part of the cooling system, and attention in 
 the shape of examining same to see that it is not 
 slipping is advisable. If the belt is removed and 
 thoroughly cleaned with gasoline, then allowed to 
 soak a few hours in castor oil, this will refresh its 
 gripping powers and will make the oldest belt new. 
 
 LEAKY SPARK PLUGS. 
 
 Leaky plugs can cause a lot of trouble that ii 
 very difficult to trace. They will make a motor 
 miss at high speed or on heavy pulls, but will per-
 
 188 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 mit it to run quite properly, to all intents and 
 purposes, under ordinary conditions. The prin- 
 cipal trouble is cracked or porous porcelains, 
 which allow the high-tension current to ground 
 without jumping the spark gaps. The only remedy 
 is to fit new plugs that are known to be in good 
 condition, and to be careful not to crack the porce- 
 lain in tightening them in the cylinders. Never 
 screw a cold plug tightly into a hot cylinder. 
 
 VALVES. 
 
 Anything that tends to push a valve to one side, 
 or lift it by applying force in any way except 
 centrally, is likely to cause unequal and abnormal 
 wear of both stem and seating. For this reason 
 the end of the stem and the top of the lifter 
 or tappet should be true and square and make 
 perfectly even contact, which cannot be done if 
 either is unevenly worn. This is a matter that 
 often has made trouble and it has been ascribed 
 to other causes. 
 
 BATTERY. 
 
 The positive pole of batteries are usually 
 marked ( + ). It may also be determined by the 
 chocolate color of the plate. The negative pole is 
 often recognized by mark ( ). When a battery 
 is to remain idle it should either be charged and 
 filled with water or charged and recharged at least 
 once a month. By standing it will deteriorate. 
 
 CLEANING BALL CHECK VALVES IN OIL PUMP. 
 The ball check valves which control the move- 
 ment of oil through the pump where pressure feed 
 lubrication is adhered to, should be cleaned oc- 
 casionally to insure proper working. 
 
 POLISHING VALVES. 
 
 A practice that is said by some repair men to 
 be beneficial is that of putting a sort of final polish
 
 Little Things That Count. 189 
 
 on valves, after grinding, with graphite. After 
 the grinding has been completed and all the oi' 
 and grinding compound thoroughly washed off 
 the valve seat is sprinkled well with dry graphite 
 and the valve is worked on its seat just as in 
 grinding. The result is said to be that the sur- 
 faces resist wear longer and retain their tightness 
 better than without the graphite finish. 
 
 THE CARE OF RIMS. 
 
 The care of rims is important. They should 
 be kept free of rust by the liberal use of sand- 
 paper, and it is well to remove the tire and paint 
 them with graphite occasionally. Ordinary stove 
 polish is an excellent rim preserver. If the rims 
 are bent or roughened, rim-cutting will result. 
 These conditions should be remedied at once. 
 The bolts or rivets fastening the rim to felloe 
 sometimes work loose and project sufficiently to 
 injure the tube. This can be corrected with a 
 file. 
 
 COMPRESSION LEAKAGE. 
 
 Compression leakage past the valves of a motor 
 may be due to a great variety of causes. The 
 valves may warp, due to the use of inferior ma- 
 terial in their manufacture, or to faulty cooling 
 of the valve chamber. ' This latter may be brought 
 about suddenly by an obstruction in the jacket 
 around the valve. Excessive grinding of the valve 
 will reduce the clearances between the stem and 
 cam, so that the member cannot close completely. 
 This will be noticed immediately after grinding, 
 and the remedy is to take enough off the stem to 
 obtain the proper clearance. Deposits of carbon 
 on the valve seat will also hold the valve off it 
 and allow the compression to escape.
 
 190 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 LEAKY INNER TUBE. 
 
 There is nothing much more mysterious or baf- 
 fling than a tire which gradually loses its air, 
 though it is positively known that the tube does 
 not leak and that the valve is in good shape. But 
 there is always a reason for such things, and one 
 reason for loss of air may be that the pin in the 
 tire valve is a trifle too long, so that when the 
 cap is screwed on it makes contact with the pin 
 and pushes the valve off its seat. Filing a little 
 off the end of the pin is all th^t is necessary to 
 end the loss of air. 
 
 HEATING, VENTILATING, A -f DURING CAR. 
 
 A touring car may be warmed in winter with 
 very little trouble, if it be fitted with storm cur- 
 tains that can be drawn sufficiently tight to ex- 
 clude most of the outside air. If this is the case, 
 fit a large ventilator in the dash to allow the warm 
 air from the motor and radiator to enter. A pipe 
 may be tapped into the exhaust manifold and led 
 through the radiator in the tonneau, exhausting 
 into the open air. 
 
 LAMP REFLECTORS. 
 
 In order to prevent the silvering of lamp reflec- 
 tors from tarnishing when not in use, it is a good 
 scheme to give the surfaces a light coating of 
 alcohol in which a little collodion has been dis- 
 solved. This will form an excellent protection, 
 and is easily washed off with warm water. Of 
 course, any polished metal surface can be pro- 
 tected in the same way. 
 
 ENGINE USED As BRAKE. 
 
 When using the engine as a brake in descend- 
 ing nills with the ignition cut off, open the 
 throttle. This will materially cool and clean the
 
 Little Things That Count. 191 
 
 cylinders, while if the throttle be closed a certain 
 amount of oil will be sucked into the cylinders 
 from the crank case. 
 
 BALL BEARINGS. 
 
 Worn or broken ball bearings should be re- 
 placed with an entirely new set, as one or two 
 new balls will always be just a trifle larger than 
 the worn ones thus taking the load. 
 
 HAND MOTOR PRIMERS. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the motor has to be 
 primed on the road, and there is nothing at hand 
 with which to take the necessary gasoline from 
 the tank. 
 
 A good way is to take a tire valve dust cap 
 and lower it into the tank by means of a piece, 
 of string. One capful to each cylinder should 
 be about the right quantity of gasoline to use. 
 
 OIL ON THE MOTOR. 
 
 Oil on a motor is a most prolific dirt catcher, 
 and dirt has no place about the automobile. If 
 it hangs in masses outside, it is apt to get inside 
 on the slightest opportunity, as in fitting- in a new 
 spark plug. Besides, it does not look well. Oc- 
 casionally a driver will find one side of the motor 
 dripping with oil; mysteriously appearing from 
 nowhere, and especially plentiful after a hard run. 
 The oil probably has been splashed up through 
 the crank case breather. If the case has not been 
 filled too full of oil, a brass tube carrying three 
 baffle plates should be fitted inside the breather. 
 This will stop the splashing out. 
 
 CARRYING EXTRA TUBES AND CASINGS. 
 
 Extra tubes sTiould be folded and wrapped in 
 
 cloth or put in a cloth bag. If left in the original 
 
 cartons or thrown loosely under the seat they 
 
 will chafe at points of contact. Never put them
 
 192 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 in the tool box or where they will come in con- 
 tact with chains, tools or grease. 
 
 Spare cases should be provided with covers. 
 The wind and sun dry them out and damp get- 
 ting inside rots the fabric. Interchange your tires 
 occasionally, for rubber deteriorates faster out of 
 use than in. Remember it is no economy to carry 
 retreaded or repaired cases as extras. Having 
 been through a second heat of vulcanization they 
 are liable to more rapid deterioration than new 
 cases, but if put in service immediately, you will 
 get full service out of them before this can have 
 much effect. 
 
 CARBON. 
 
 Carbon trouble is one of the recurring annoy- 
 ances of automobile motors which never has been 
 entirely removed. The heat of combustion is so 
 high that even the best of oils leave some deposit. 
 This may be so small that it is not noticeable 
 after an entire season's use, but, on the other 
 hand, it might be so great that the motor refuses 
 to function as it should. When going over the 
 car it would be best to thoroughly clean the cylin- 
 ders of all traces of carbon. 
 
 How To HOLD STEERING WHEEL. 
 
 To properly hold the steering wheel, let the right 
 hand firmly grasp the rim just below the hori- 
 zontal center with the forearm describing a right 
 angle; the left hand should be just below the 
 right in the same sectional space. The method 
 is employed by racing drivers. 
 
 BRICKS AND ROCKS. 
 
 On hills drivers of heavy vehicles often use large 
 stones, bricks, etc., for holding their vehicle when 
 they are forced to halt because of the steep in- 
 cline. When they start off they invariably leave
 
 Little Things That Count. 193 
 
 such stones, rocks, etc., lay on the highway. Many 
 springs are broken, tires either blown out or caus- 
 ing the beginning of a blowout from driving over 
 such bricks, etc. Watch for these obstructions 
 on hills. 
 
 How TO MAKE A FIRE EXTINGUISHER. 
 An automatic fire extinguisher may be made 
 by dissolving three pounds of salt and one-half 
 pound of sal ammoniac in one gallon of water. 
 Suspend over a gasoline tank by a string and in 
 a bottle that will break readily. Bottle must be 
 high enough to break in the falling. When gaso- 
 line catches fire, the string will burn and the bot- 
 tle will fall and break. 
 
 INTERCHANGEABLE TIRES. 
 If your tires habitually give low mileage, try 
 an oversize. These will increase the cross-sec- 
 tion of your air cushion, as well as giving a 
 heavier and more wear-resisting tread, and if 
 your tires have been overloaded, will overcome 
 the trouble. Besides, there will be added com- 
 fort in riding and less wear and tear on the en- 
 gine, by reason of decreased shock and vibration. 
 
 PISTON RING. 
 
 Should a piston ring be worn to the extent thai 
 it would cause loss of compression you can tem- 
 porarily restore compression and its expanding 
 properties by placing a small piece of clock spring 
 behind the defective ring. Place the clock spring 
 in the groove and be cautious that it is of the 
 proper size to fit in the groove. 
 
 ADJUSTMENT FOR A NEW SPARK PLUG, 
 Don't fail to slightly tighten up all the parts of 
 the spark plug after it has been used for the first 
 time. Most manufacturers ship plugs with the 
 sliffhtlv loose to allow for the ex-
 
 194 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 pansion of the metal parts from heat. This elim- 
 inates the possibility of cracking the porcelain 
 when the plug is fir.^t used. 
 
 MAGNETO COVER. 
 
 It is important that magnetos be protected with 
 a cover against dust as well as moisture. A cer- 
 tain amount of dust is always entering through the 
 radiator and with the assistance of the fan is 
 blown around the motor. The dust clinging to 
 certain parts of the magneto will retain moisture 
 and impair the ignition. 
 
 EMERGENCY REPAIRS. 
 
 An invaluable accessory is an Inside Protec- 
 tion Patch and outside Emergency Band. These 
 can be separately used, but should always be used 
 together if possible, as otherwise the original in- 
 jury will spread and make an ultimate repair 
 either impossible or more costly. 
 
 TIRES HEATING. 
 
 The heating of the tire is the first direct result 
 of the frictional action between the outer shoe 
 and the inner tube. This can to a certain degree 
 be avoided by rubbing French chalk over the 
 inner tube before inserting it. 
 
 RULE OF THE ROAD. 
 
 Remember the rule of the road and don't drive 
 on the wrong sid.e. Should an accident occur 
 while driving on the wrong side, whosoever was 
 on the wrong side must pay the damages. It is 
 a violation of the law. 
 
 LOCATING SQUEAKS. 
 
 Squeaks are sometimes a hazardous undertak- 
 ing to locate. A body resting on the frame un- 
 evenly will in most instances cause a cracking 
 sound. By placing strips of leather between body
 
 Little Things That Count. 195 
 
 and frame (preferably where body bolts pass 
 through frame) this often overcomes this noise. 
 A rubbing or rattling noise can most frequently 
 be attributed to the edges of doors rubbing against 
 their frames. This is often the result of the body 
 sagging in the center and can be remedied by 
 placing a shim of the required thickness under 
 body bolt on the side where the door rattles. It 
 sometimes happens that a door will bind or stick; 
 this is due from practically the same cause. In 
 the latter instance, however, the body may be 
 shimed too high on either side, and by removing 
 a certain amount of shiming it may overcome the 
 trouble. 
 
 Another annoying noise which often occurs is 
 a sharp, dry squeak coming from spring shackle 
 bolts, brake rod, cleves, pins, steering cross tube 
 connections, etc. Many owners and drivers be- 
 come discouraged in their attempts to obliterate 
 such squeaks. Examine oilers or grease cups 
 attached to spring bolts, etc., to determine that 
 same have free passage. Probably some of the 
 above connections are too tight or paint may be 
 keeping the lubricant from reaching the vital 
 points. Squirt a superfluous amount of oil around 
 all moving parts. See that brakes are released 
 completely and free from dragging. 
 
 HARD RUBBER REPAIRS, ETC. 
 The hard rubber in storage battery jars is of 
 excellent quality, and pieces from broken jars 
 therefore are frequently of use in making repairs 
 or doing work in which good, strong insulating 
 material is needed.' 
 
 DRY CELL BOLTS. 
 
 It is a common scene to notice many of the 
 little brass bolts used on dry cells lying around 
 garages, etc. They should be saved, as they often
 
 196 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 make useful fastenings for many places where 
 rivets and screws are used. 
 
 Encourage your car's ability by careful hand- 
 ling. 
 
 A thin coat of ordinary grease applied between 
 the body and frame will remedy certain body 
 squeaks. 
 
 An examination of all steering connections oc- 
 casionally is time well spent. 
 
 Expenses can be greatly reduced by regular oil- 
 ing and examination of parts. 
 
 MARKING FRONT GEARS. 
 
 While most all factories adopt a standard scale 
 of marking the front gears (consisting chiefly of 
 crank shaft and cam shaft gears), it occurs some- 
 times where it is necessary to move a gear ahead 
 or behind one or more teeth to attain the proper 
 timing. Should you remove any such gears and 
 do not understand thoroughly the method of tim- 
 ing a motor it would result in improper timing 
 and possible loss of power or cause the motor to 
 knock. You can avoid such difficulties when dis- 
 assembling any of the front gears by marking the 
 gear and shaft with a center punch ; also mark the 
 gears where they mesh while in the same position. 
 In assembling note that your marks correspond, 
 which will be the same setting previous to remov- 
 ing the gears. 
 
 SHORT CIRCUITING, WIRE BREAKS. 
 
 Ignition derangements are often due to the 
 insulation of the spark plugs being cracked or 
 oil soaked. Then again there may be carbon 
 or oil deposits or the points too close together or 
 too far apart. The electrodes may be broken 
 through using too much force and too heavy a 
 wrench. Look over the plug carefully and test
 
 Little Things That Count. 197 
 \ 
 
 for all these things. Incidentally, don't forget to 
 take a peek at the timer. The contacts may be 
 worn or pitted, there may be dirty oil or particles 
 of metallic matter, shoulders on the segments, 
 worn bearings, loose or broken wires causing a 
 short circuit. When your engine stops suddenly 
 on the .road it may be due to a score of things, 
 and it will always pay to look after the following 
 first. It is generally due to lack of gasoline. If 
 not, you will find some failure of the ignition 
 service, failure on the spark, electric circuit dis- 
 connected, broken or loose wire, terminal loose 
 on the coil, storage battery, contact maker, switch 
 or spark plug, break or chafe on the wiring 
 under the insulation, or some magneto defect. 
 
 Sometimes, among other unheard of things, a 
 wire breaks inside of its insulation and gives no 
 exterior sign of the break. This may cause all 
 sorts of trouble and very often the blame is laid 
 at the door of the ignition department. Spark 
 plugs are changed and magnetos pulled down, so 
 that it is a good thing before taking everything 
 else to pieces to make sure that there are no in- 
 terior breaks in the insulation cable. 
 
 ELECTRIC LAMP BULBS. 
 
 If the electric lamp in your head, dash, or tail 
 light burns with reddish color instead of the pure 
 white that it did when you first put it in, it is 
 played out, and it is time to replace it with a new 
 bulb. This should be done, not only to give a 
 better light, but to save money, as the lamp is 
 consuming more electric current and giving less 
 light. Unless the lamp is one of the Tungsten 
 or Tantalum types, you must not expect more 
 than 600 hours' service out of it. This will sur- 
 prise a good many people who think an electric
 
 198 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 light bulb is good for a lifetime. The filaments 
 of the electric lamp are like the wick of a kero- 
 sene lamp, they become charred and finally burn 
 away, and must be replaced, but, of course, after 
 a much. longer use. So if you want good lights 
 with a moderate amount of current consumed, 
 watch your lamps carefully and replace when the 
 red color appears and be sure your lattery is 
 fully charged. 
 
 How TO DISTINGUISH DIRECT FROM ALTERNAT- 
 ING CURRENT. 
 
 Direct and alternating current seem to puzzle 
 a great many people. To find out which is 
 which one has to ask some one better informed 
 or set about to educate yourself how to tell 
 the difference, and the following simple way 
 is open to every one. Hold a simple magnet bar 
 near a lighted incandescent lamp ; if the current 
 is alternating the filament, that is, the part inside 
 the lamp from which the light emanates, will 
 vibrate; if the current is direct the filament will 
 be attracted or repelled as the positive or the 
 negative pole of the magnet is held near the lamp. 
 
 HOSE CONNECTION. 
 
 You can make a secure hose connection to gas 
 headlights, or water connection by first wrapping 
 a small piece of tape around rubber hose, then 
 draw up with a piece of wire. By placing the tape 
 around the hose it will prevent the wire from 
 cutting through the rubber' hose.
 
 Little Things That Count. 199 
 
 DRILLING. 
 
 When drilling a small piece of work you can 
 keep same from turning by placing a stiff piece 
 of emery cloth between piece of work you are 
 drilling and table of drill press. 
 
 LAYING UP YOUR CAR, OR PUTTING IT INTO 
 COMMISSION AGAIN. 
 
 Before laying up your car for a period, jack it 
 up clear of the floor, allowing the axles to rest 
 on supports. Allow all air to escape from the 
 tires, except enough to shape them, and then ex- 
 amine tires and rims carefully. 
 
 If tires are practically new or in good repair, 
 and rims in good shape, it will be all right to 
 leave them on the car. Be sure to remove all 
 oil and grease from the tires. Wash them. with 
 good strong soap and water. If the rubber is cut 
 to the fabric, be sure to have the injury repaired 
 "before using the car again. 
 
 Whether or not the tires remain on the car 
 during a prolonged period of idleness, they should 
 be wrapped to exclude the light and should be 
 kept in a cool room. 
 
 OIL AND THE COMMUTATOR. 
 
 Thihner oil must be used for the commu- 
 tator in the timer than any other part of the 
 car, as the slightest gumminess will cause a 
 tendency to skip or miss. About every thousand 
 miles the timer should be taken apart and thor- 
 oughly cleaned, the process including wiping out 
 the race, fiber, contact points and all, in order to 
 remove collections of thickened oil and dust. If 
 the oil has a tendency to gum excessively, kerosene 
 may be used to thin it out. The correct propor- 
 tion is about 25 per cent of kerosene. In cold 
 weather especially this is of value.
 
 200 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 CLEANING A SPARK PLUG. 
 If you want to thoroughly clean a dirty, sooty 
 spark plug, soak it over night in alcohol. Another 
 good and quick way is to insert the plug in the 
 ground, terminal point down, and fill the shell 
 carefully with gasoline and ignite with a match. 
 When the gasoline is burned out the plug will be 
 found to be almost entirely cleaned of soot.
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 A FEW HINTS TO THE TOURIST. 
 
 SOME of the following will be helpful for the 
 tourist before starting on an extended trip: 
 
 THE MOTOR. 
 
 Your engine should be in proper trim and 
 everything should be gone over carefully. Oil 
 should be changed about every 1000 miles. Ex- 
 amine motor bearings to discover whether there 
 is too much play in connecting rod brasses (bush- 
 ings). Place the crank on the bottom dead center, 
 take hold of the connecting rod and try lifting 
 it up and down. Should there be 1/64 inch play 
 they should be taken up by removing shims of 
 equal thickness from each side of bearing or by 
 laying a smooth file on the bench the brasses 
 or liners can be rubbed over same and reduced 
 until the connecting rod bearing is again fitted 
 properly. After each rod is fitted the motor 
 should be turned over by hand to feel for any 
 binding. Should too much be filed off the 
 brasses, place either a thin piece of tin, zinc or 
 brass under the brasses. 
 
 VALVES. 
 
 You can determine the compression of each in- 
 dividual cylinder by opening all relief cocks ex- 
 cepting one. Turn motor over by hand until you 
 buck compression, which will indicate you are try- 
 ing the compression on the particular cylinder 
 with the relief cock closed. By continuously rock- 
 ing motor against compression a few times with 
 crank handle the compression will either buck 
 consistently or gradually loose. In the latter in- 
 stance the loss of compression is due in all prob- 
 
 (201)
 
 202 
 
 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 abilities because the valves are seating improperly. 
 Example : Close all cylinder relief cocks except- 
 ing No. 1. After having tried No. 1 cylinder, 
 open same and close relief cock No. 2 cylinder, 
 and so on, vice versa. Before grinding valves 
 examine same to see if they are pitted, in which 
 
 Valve Up 
 
 Valve Down 
 
 Space should be .002" 
 or thickness of 'hiru >- 
 tissue paper N. 
 
 Valve Tappet 
 Adjusting Screw 
 
 Valve Tappet* 
 Check Nut 
 
 Valve Tappet. 
 
 An illustrated lesson in valve adjusting. 
 
 case a slight cut taken off in a lathe will save 
 much time. A valve need not necessarily show 
 a bearing all over the valve seating; however, it 
 is not properly ground until it shows a contact all 
 around the valve. When finished grinding adjust 
 properly.
 
 Hints to the Tourist. 203 
 
 Attention should be given the opening and clos- 
 ing of valves, which will also cause a loss of com- 
 pression and power. 
 
 IGNITION. 
 
 Follow all wires starting from battery box and 
 leading to switch, also magneto to spark-plug 
 wires, and examine carefully for loose terminals, 
 or possibly a wire has loosened and by rubbing 
 on some moving part worn through the insulation, 
 causing a leakage of juice. Poor contacts on 
 make-and-break contacts will cause misfiring. 
 Good flat contacts are required and some atten- 
 tion in the shape of filing the platinum points on 
 the make-and-break will remedy this trouble. 
 
 STEERING GEAR. 
 
 Examine with caution pins connecting on the 
 steering arm, distance rod, and axle steering 
 knuckle pins or bolts to determine whether same 
 are all properly cotter pinned, greased and secure. 
 
 TRANSMISSION AND AXLES. 
 
 Starting from the front axle, detach all the 
 wheels, remove all bearings, and after having 
 washed off same in kerosene oil, as well as wheel 
 spindle and inside of hubs, pack in a fresh supply 
 of grease and attach again. Every time a wheel 
 is removed the cup of the bearing is removed 
 with it, and consequently the bearing must be 
 properly adjusted when the wheel is replaced. 
 The best method is to turn the bearing up tight, 
 and then revolve the wheel a few times by hand, 
 which overcomes any tendency to "back-lash." 
 
 Then back off the adjusting nut very slightly, 
 so that by grasping the two spokes in a perden- 
 dicular line (one above and one below) yei can 
 begin to feel a very slight shake in the vheel. 
 If this is more than barely perceptible, it 's too
 
 204 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 much, and the adjusting nut should be a little 
 tighter. Do not overlook spindle body bolts. If 
 they are loose, tighten them, because you will 
 feel this looseness when you are adjusting the 
 front wheel bearings. 
 
 When you have it just right, lock it, and the 
 bearings will give you the best of service. 
 
 Gear bearings should be turned up to snug fit, 
 but not so tight to prevent the gears from turning 
 freely. 
 
 Attention should be given the transmission and 
 rear axle as well as the universal joints. Remove 
 drain plugs from the aforesaid parts and allow 
 all old oil, grease, etc., to empty out. Your next 
 step is to replace plugs again and jack up rear 
 wheels about two inches clear of traction. Pour 
 about one to one and one-half quarts of kerosene 
 oil in transmission and rear axle, with about one- 
 half pint in universal joints if same are encased. 
 With this all in readiness, start up your motor 
 and allow same to run about two minutes on low 
 throttle. This will loosen small particles of oil 
 and grease clinging to the housings of the differ- 
 ent parts, as well as wash the bearings, etc. Re- 
 move drain plugs again to drain off this cleansing 
 solution, after which you insert plugs and refill 
 with a fresh supply of oil, grease, graphite, or any 
 such lubricant as is recommended for the par- 
 ticular make car or part. 
 
 SPRING CLIPS. 
 
 Manufacturers employ different methods in at- 
 taching spring clips. For instance, some are in- 
 stalled with a double lock nut, while others use 
 the lock washer and nut ; still, it often occurs that 
 spring clips loosen sometimes, causing the break- 
 age of spring leaves or even an entire spring. 
 
 It would be advisable to look over the spring 
 clips once a month and see that nuts are tight.
 
 Hints to the Tourist. 205 
 
 BRAKES. 
 
 With the car still on jacks, give your brakes 
 some attention, and caution should be exercised 
 if any adjustments are made to the extent that 
 with brake being applied that braking powers will 
 be equally effective to both wheels, unless brake 
 connecting rods have an equalizer or some other 
 such compensating device, in which case it will 
 be unnecessary. If brakes are not equally ad- 
 justed on each side it will cause the car to skid 
 to one side when they are applied. 
 
 In trying brakes to determine how they are 
 holding, also if they are gripping both wheels 
 equally, do not apply fully, but gradually. With 
 the brake only partly applied, you try one wheel, 
 then the other, and by gradually applying more 
 brake you will notice in pulling on the wheels 
 again just which side is out of adjustment. After 
 having made the required adjustments to brakes, 
 be sure to see that there is no binding or dragging 
 by spinning the wheels a few times. 
 
 SPRING BOLTS, GREASE CUPS, ETC. 
 
 Manufacturers have provided a means to lubri- 
 cate all moving parts wherever there is any fric- 
 tion or wear. However, some drivers and owners 
 fail to regard seriously enough the value to be 
 gained from regular oiling and greasing. 
 
 Spring bolts, radius rod support pins, brake 
 connecting rod clevis pins, steering connections, 
 and a few extra accessories, such as shock absorb- 
 ers, speedometer, electric horn, etc., should be 
 given daily attention. With a piece of waste and 
 oil can, oil such parts as are supplied with oilers 
 and give grease cups each one turn daily.
 
 206 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 TIRES, TOOLS, ACCESSORIES, CURTAINS FOR 
 THE TOUR. 
 
 Having attended to the pointers mentioned in 
 the preceding paragraphs, it now remains for the 
 tourist to prepare for weather conditions, tires and 
 the necessary tools to make minor repairs while 
 on the road. With the top raised all curtains 
 should be attached to assure they will fit properly 
 to the buttons on top. Do not fold curtains ; it 
 cracks the celluloid and creases the cloth. Roll 
 them to pack away. 
 
 It is advisable to replace badly worn casings 
 and keep the older tires for emergency use. In- 
 flate tires to proper pressure. With two 'extra 
 casings, about four to five inner tubes, together 
 with tire patches, fresh cement, chalk, about two 
 blowout patches, and the tire equipment would 
 appear complete. The tourist should next have 
 a tool kit and be supplied with such tools as will 
 enable him to make small roadside repairs. 
 
 The following can be used as a guide to help 
 make up a tool kit. However, experience alone 
 will in time dictate a complete outfit : 
 
 1 two-pound hammer. 
 
 1 small screw driver. 
 
 1 large screw driver, 
 
 1 No. 25 Double open end wrench. 
 
 1 No. 27 Double open end wrench. 
 
 1 No. 29 Double open end wrench. 
 
 1 No. 33 Double open end wrench. 
 
 1 Jack and handle 
 
 1 tire pump 
 
 1 complete tire repair kit. 
 
 1 oil-can 
 
 1 6-inch cold chisel with J^-inch face 
 
 1 12-inch monkey wrench. 
 
 1 14inch pipe wrench. 
 
 1 pair combination cutting plyers. 
 
 1 10-inch flat file 
 
 1 set tire tools. 
 
 1 12-inch hack saw and blade. 
 
 1 box assorted nuts and bolts.
 
 Hints to the Tourist. 207 
 
 1 box lock washers and cotter pins. 
 
 1 spool wire. 
 
 1 piece 2 feet insulated wire. 
 
 3 or 4 spark plugs. 
 
 1 6-inch drift. 
 
 1 canvas pail. 
 
 1 gallon lubricating oil. 
 
 1 gallon gasoline. 
 
 The tire tools should consist of the following 
 1 Jack 
 
 1 air-pump. 
 
 2 tire removers. 
 
 1 repair kit box, containing : 
 
 1 piece emery cloth, ^ dozen small patches. 
 
 1 tube cement, l / 2 dozen large patches. 
 
 2 valve tubes, Yt pound French chalk. 
 
 2 valve tube nuts. 
 
 3 valve plungers.
 
 208 Care of Automobiles. 
 
 ANTI-FREEZE SOLUTIONS. 
 
 In order to prevent the water in the cooling 
 system from freezing during the winter months 
 when the motor is stopped, it is necessary to 
 add some ingredients to this, and consequently, 
 prevent the bursting of the radiator, cylinder, 
 water packet, or some other unit of the cooling 
 system. 
 
 The following mixture is recommended by a 
 number of motor car makers, which will give 
 satisfactory results: 
 
 For temperatures not lower than 5 degrees 
 below zero 
 
 Wood alcohol ... 15 per cent 
 
 Glycerine 15 " " 
 
 Water 70 " 
 
 For ternperatures not lower than 15 degrees 
 below zero 
 
 Wood alcohol 17 per cent 
 
 Glycerine 17 " " 
 
 Water 66 
 
 The wood alcohol evaporates, and in order to 
 maintain the proper proportions, small quanti- 
 ties of this should be added at intervals. 
 
 UCSB LIBRARY
 
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