\ s 3? E9S y*Q Division of Agricultural Sciences UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station Extension Service DAV ; MANUAL 29 Price, 25i LIBRARY DIVERSITY OF CALIFORA DAVIS GROWING WHEAT IN CALIFORNIA ■ ■„■■■. . ■ Wheat, once California's principal crop, today must compete for acreage space with more profitable crops in dry-farmed areas, and with high-income specialty crops under irrigation. Yet, for the California producer of high-quality wheat the outlook is good if he will grow well the varieties wanted by the wheat trade. This manual presents information, based on current research, on all the aspects of growing wheat in Cali- fornia that will help the wheat grower to produce his crop efficiently and profitably. : UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DIVISION OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES California Agricultural Experiment Station — Extension Service LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS CONTENTS Choosing Variety and Seed 4 Identifying Wheat Varieties. ... 5 Key to Wheat Varieties 5 Principal California Wheat Varieties 6 Methods of Wheat Growing 10 Management Schedule 12 Diseases of the Growing Crop 22 Insects of the Growing Crop 24 Two Centuries of Wheat in California 25 Wheat Economics 26 THE AUTHORS MILTON D. MILLER is Agriculturist and Extension Agronomist, Davis. C. W. SCHALLER is Associate Professor of Agronomy and Associate Agron omist in the Experiment Station, Davis. P. C. BERRYMAN is Agriculturist and Farm Advisor, San Luis Obispo. THIS MANUAL is one of a series published by the University of California College of Agriculture and sold for a charge which is based upon returning only a portion of the production cost. By this means it is possible to make available publications which, due to relatively high cost of production, or limited audience, would otherwise be beyond the scope of the College publishing program. GROWING WHEAT IN CALIFORNIA A High-quality Cereal Crop Used for Human Food and Livestock Feed 2^^ n'Wtm MILTON D. MILLER • C. W. SCHALLER • P. C. BERRYMAN Wheat can be grown in all counties of California, but because of soil, climate, and economic forces commercial production is concentrated in eastern San Luis Obispo County, districts of the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys and in Siskiyou County east of Yreka. Durum wheat for semolina is grown in the Tulelake Basin of Siskiyou and Modoc counties. High protein wheat for bread flour is produced mainly on dry- land under low-rainfall conditions. Wheat grown under moderate to high-rainfall or irrigation occasionally may be milled for flour, but because of lower quality is gen- erally used for poultry and livestock feed. Soil Wheat is best adapted to fertile me- dium textured soils that are slowly, but completely drained. The silt and clay loams are preferred, but wheat also is grown successfully on either clay soils or fine sandy loams. Because it can with- stand temporary soil water-logging, wheat is the most satisfactory winter- planted cereal to use in crop rotation with rice. Moisture Requirements Economic grain yields can be pro- duced with 14 to 16 acre-inches of water available from rain or irrigation. If the soil is wet to an average depth of three feet in fallow fields at seeding time, satis- factory crop yields can be expected in low-rainfall, dry-farmed districts with annual rainfall of eight inches or more, well distributed from November through April. In dry-farmed districts where average annual rainfall is less than 14 inches, particularly if it is poorly dis- tributed, the crop must be sown on fal- low, or else irrigated. Climate Wheat is a cool-season crop. Spring wheat varieties, commonly grown in Cal- ifornia, may survive mid-winter temper- atures as low as 10°F or lower in the early stages of growth for short periods of several hours. Temperatures of 28°F to 33°F at heading may cause some ste- [3] rility in all or some portions of the seed heads (spikes). A light frost during the late stages of kernel filling usually stops further grain development, and results in indentations on the seed coat and shrivelled grain. True winter wheat va- rieties, with proper snow coverage, may withstand mid-winter temperatures as low as -25°F when in a hardened con- dition. To avoid crop losses in districts sub- ject to strong winds when the crop ma- tures, plant shatter-resistant varieties. See page 6 and the table on pages 8-9 for information on varietal character- istics. Wheat grown in foggy, coastal areas may be so badly discolored that it can be sold commercially only as live- stock and poultry feed. CHOOSING VARIETY AND SEED Uses of Wheat Wheats grown in California have two major uses: for human food and for livestock, largely poultry, feed. Varieties used for human food are grouped, first, into the hard white wheats with high pro- tein, used to mill flour for bread making; second, the soft white wheats with very low protein, used for family flours, cake, crackers, breakfast foods; and third, the durum types with high protein, used for the granular flour (semolina) in maca- roni, spaghetti and other paste-type foods. Wheat used for bread making must meet certain standards of kernel color, water absorption, loaf volume, and tex- ture. Protein content is only one of the wheat-quality factors. As a rule, wheat shrunken by drought or disease so that its weight per measured bushel is less than 56 pounds will not give a satisfac- tory flour yield. Variety, environment and soil influence that complex of chem- ical and physical properties called "quality." High protein content generally produces a better loaf of bread, and very low protein content the best pastry; but these generalizations are subject to ex- ceptions. hi the past, large quantities of Cali- fornia wheat that did not meet the stand- ards of the food industries were used for livestock Iced, chief!) poultry. Wheat as a grain for Livestock other than poultry is nearl) equal in feeding value to corn. Since wheat is a very "heavy" feed and rather pasty, you will obtain best results with large animals, especially beef and dairy cattle, if wheat makes up no more than one-third of the concentrate mix- ture. Wheat is an acceptable feed for swine and produces the best over-all re- sults when mixed in a ration of corn or barley. When various grains are fed to poul- try, the birds usually show a preference for wheat. In a poultry ration, the en- ergy value of wheat is just slightly less than that of corn. In recent years, based on cost and energy value, other feed grains such as corn, barley, and especially milo have been better buys than wheat in Cali- fornia. Accordingly, less wheat than for- merly has been used for poultry and live- stock feed. Occasionally California wheat — prin- cipally Pacific Bluestem — is cut for hay. For best quality, it should be cut in the soft-dough stage while the leaves are still green. Although wheat will make hay of reasonably good feeding quality, live- stock seem to prefer oat or barley hay. Varieties The principal varieties grown in Cali- fornia are white wheats with spring- growth habit. Occasional fields of hard red winter wheat are grown in the north- ern mountain valleys, but statewide they are of limited importance. This is be- cause they do not generally yield as [4] IDENTIFYING WHEAT VARIETIES Once headed, wheat varieties can be identified by a combination of spike and kernel characteristics as set forth in the key below : Awn Beard or bristle extending from the tip of the lemma Awnletted Very short beards, usually only on florets at apex of spike Beak Point of projection at the tip end of the glume Floret Includes lemma, pollen, and enclosed flower Glabrous Smooth, no hairs Glume "Scales" or bracts at base of spikelet Keel Ridge resembling the keel of a boat on the glume of durum wheat Lemma Bract above the glumes which, together with the other bract (palea) surrounds the grass flower Palea Inner bract of a floret in grasses lying next to the kernel Pubescent Covered with fine, soft, short hairs Spike Entire inflorescence on one stem (seed head) Spikelet Basic unit of the inflorescence consisting of two glumes and one or more florets KEY TO WHEAT VARIETIES A. Glumes not strongly keeled B. Spike dense (compact) C. Palea nearly as long as lemma Big Club 43 CC. Palea noticeably shorter than lemma Poso 48 BB. Spike lax to mid-dense C. Spike awned D. Spike uniformly lax; kernels long, semi-hard Baart 46 DD. Spike moderately compact toward tip; kernels short, soft Onas 53 CC. Spike awnless to awnletted D. Glumes pubescent Galgalos DD. Glumes glabrous E. Glumes bronze Ramona 50 EE. Glumes white F. Spikes awnless (or an occasional short tip awn) G. Spike moderately compact toward tip; kernels soft Onas 41 GG. Spike of uniform density; kernels hard White Federation 5 I FF. Spike awnletted Pacific Bluestem 37 AA. Glumes sharply keeled, spikes laterally compressed Sentry (durum) [5] The Principal Califo Variety* Origin Description! Ramona 50 [(Martin X Hard Fed. 3 ) X Ramona 6 ] 2 X Ramona 44. Released 1950. Very early; short; awnless; bronze glumes; stiff straw Large seeds, generally hard. White Fed. 54 Eureka X White Fed. 38 7 . First back- crosses made in Australia. Released 1955. Moderately early; short; awnless or slightly tip awned;: white glumes; stiff straw. Seeds short, medium size open crease, generally hard. Baart 46 Baart 38 X Baart 2 . Released 1947. Medium maturity; tall; weak straw; awned. Seeds larg and long, pear shaped, small germ and creased, generall hard. Onas 53 (Kenya X Onas 41 5 ) X Awned Onas 49 2 . Released 1953. Medium maturity and height; stiff straw; awned. Seed medium size, open crease, soft. Big Club 43 [(Hope X Baart*) X Big Club 2 ] X Big Club 37 2 X (Dawson X Big Club fi ) 2 . Released 1944. Late maturing; tall; tip awned; club spike. Seeds mediur size, humped, small germ and crease, soft. Poso 48 [(Martin X White Fed. 3 ) X Poso 6 ] X Poso 44 X (Dawson X Poso 6 ). Released 1950. Early; short; tip awned; club spike. Seeds very sma and short, soft. Pacific Bluestem 37 Martin X Pacific Bluestem 7 . Released 1937. Late; tall; strongly tip awned. Seeds large and fairl long, semi-hard. Galgalos Introduced by USDA in 1903 from Russia. First planted in Oregon. Medium to late maturity; medium height; strongly ti awned; glumes pubescent and light brown. Seeds whitt medium long, soft, slightly humped, small germ an narrow crease. Sentry Drum Langdon 308 X Nugget sel. Developed and released coop, by North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station and USDA. Medium maturity; tall; awned; glumes bronze; mediur straw strength. Seeds large and long, germ midsize crease narrow, hard and translucent. * All varieties are white spr t All varieties, except Galgz ing types unless otherwise shown. ilos and Sentry Drum, are products of Univers ty of California and USDA plant breeders, Davis. much as well adapted California spring varieties. Nor is the quality of wheat usu- ally produced from these varieties under our climatic and cultural conditions as good as required hy the mills. The true winter wheat varieties require low temperatures to initiate flowering. To insure flowering and seed production, such varieties must be planted early in the fall. Spring varieties do not have the low temperature requirements. Since the majority of California's wheat acreage is planted in the fall, our spring varieties are sometimes erroneously called winter wheats. In recent years about 8,000 acres an- nually of durum wheat has been pro- duced successfully in the Tulelake Basin of northern California. When grown in most other areas of the state its quality has not been acceptable to the industry. In a 1 959 statewide survey the Cali- fornia Crop and Livestock Reporting Service found a rather marked shift in [6] ornia Wheat Varieties Pest reactions} Resistant to bunt. Moderate stem rust resistance. Susceptible to septoria. Resistant to bunt. Highly resistant to stem rust; combines two types of stem rust resistance (Hope and Eureka). ffResistant to bunt. y Moderate stem rust resistance. Resistant to bunt. Resistant to stem rust. iResistant to bunt. Moderate stem rust resistance; Hessian fly resistant. Resistant to bunt. Moderate stem rust resistance; some of the plants are resistant to Hessian fly. Resistant to bunt. Susceptible to stem rust. ; Susceptible to bunt and stem rust. I Resistant to stem rust Market use Milling. Bread and family flour when protein level is 12 per cent or above. Breakfast cereal. A feed wheat. Rarely milled. Milling. When protein is low used for cake, pastry, cracker, biscuit and pretzel flour. Breakfast cereal. Adaptation Principally southern 2 3 of California. Late winter plant- ing in Sacramento Valley. Seldom shatters. Frost injury at heading or severe Septoria likely from early sowing. Tillers poorly so more seed must be sown. Poor com- petitor with weeds. Performs well under low-rainfall conditions. Milling. Principal use for pastry or cake flour, especially when protein content is low. Milled for cake and pastry when protein is low and test weights are high. Principally used for feed. May be used for pastry flour. Milling. Bread flour. Best wheat for hay. Milled occasionally; bread flour. Used principally for feed. Milled for semolina. General, under irrigation or good rainfall. Grown ex- tensively dryfarmed in San Luis Obispo County. May shatter in windy areas. General, performs well in low-rainfall areas. May shatter in windy areas. Avoid sowing late because of yellow- dwarf susceptibility. Lodging likely under fertile con- ditions. General, not recommended in low-moisture areas. Late hot winds may wither or shatter. Currently used prin- cipally at elevations over 700 feet where later-maturing varieties are necessary because of frost hazard. Heavy soil types with moisture to support its late matur- ity. Shatter resistant. Latest maturing variety, which in- creases chance of heat or drought damage in hazardous areas. Does well on heavy and poorly drained adobe soils, if not too weedy. May shatter. Small seed does not mean poor yield. Sierra foothills and north mountain counties, including red soils. Has considerable winterhardiness. Rust and lodging likely if crop is heavy. Northern mountain counties only. Tulelake area. t Resistance to a disease implies resistance to those races or strains of the disease prevalent in California in 1960. leading wheat varieties. The results are compared below with data compiled in 1949 by Loren L. Davis, University of California Extension Agronomist. Varietal type Per cent of total acreage 1949 1959 Ramona 25 42 White Federation 32 28 Onas 5 12 Baart 20 5 Others 18 13 Total 100 100 Acreage of Ramona 50 and Onas 41 and 53 has increased because the trade found their milling and baking charac- teristics desirable; they are being readily purchased for milling. Ramona's popu- larity is also increasing because of its early maturity and high yielding char- acteristics. Big Club 43 was planted in 2.6 per cent of the total acreage (included under "others"), and is also a desirable milling wheat for cake and pastry flour. Acreage of Baart 46 is decreasing be- [7] Wheat Variety Performance 1948-1959 (Incl.) UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS Variety Baart 46 Big Club 43 Onas 53 Poso 48 Ramona 50 White Federation 54 Ave. yield, bu./a. 44.1 31.4 41.6 40.2 44.8 44.4 Date headed, 1956* 4/20 5/3 4/24 4/18 4/5 4/14 Ave. mature height, in. 50 47 45 44 40 44 Ave. shatter,! per cent 3.5 0.0 6.0 1.0 1.5 8.7 Lodging 1956, t per cent 85 60 45 20 40 Ave. bushel weight, lbs. 61.0 58.3 58.0 60.9 59.4 59.7 * Heading data for 1956 is typical of that obtained in most years from early November seeding at Davis. Date of heading provides a guide as to normal range of maturity of varieties. Drought conditions after heading may narrow differences. t Average of 4 years (1955, 1956, 1957, and 1959). In other years shatter losses in all varieties were so low as not to be significant. % Lodging data is only for 1956. In other years lodging was not a problem in any of the varieties. cause commercial interest in it for mill- ing is currently low. The other varieties, principally used as poultry feed, have declined as interest in milling wheats has increased, and the competition of other feed grain has intensified. The table on pages 6 and 7 describes the principal wheat varieties in commer- cial use in California. All varieties in the table, except Galgalos and Sentry durum are products of the University of Cali- fornia and USDA plant breeders, Davis. Red wheats and antiquated early-day California varieties (i.e. Sonora, Bunyip, and Escondido ) are economically unim- portant and are not included in the de- tailed variety description. A continuing variety testing and eval- uation program is being conducted at Davis cooperatively by the University of California and the USDA. The table on this page presents variety data collected and summarized annually by C. A. Sune- son. Unless otherwise noted, data repre- sent an average of eight or more years. Variety Test Results Desirable wheat varieties need to have not onl) genetically inherent high yield- ing ability, but other specific characters such as disease and shatter resistance. A shatter resistant variety such as Big Club I') or Ramona 50 should be grown in a windy area if it is to be harvested for grain. A rust resistant variety such as White Federation 54 or Onas 53 should be grown in a district having a consistent history of stem rust. Date of sowing also should be consid- ered in choosing the variety to grow. Early maturing varieties such as Ramona 50, in general, do best in the dry, hot areas of California and may be used also for late sowing; late maturing varieties such as Big Club 43 are best adapted to cooler areas, where winter growth is re- stricted by wet soils. A long-time variety testing program at Davis and throughout the state, in coop- eration with the University's county farm advisors, provides current information upon which a choice of varieties may be based. The table on page 9 shows the relative grain yield in tests of the seven leading California wheat varieties in the key areas of California. In selecting your wheat variety, consider end use as well as yield. Since the purpose of the county cereal variety testing program is to de- termine the relative performance of va- rieties, yield in the table is expressed in per cent of that of improved lines of White Federation grown simultaneously in the nurseries. Depending upon the seeding rate, date of planting, fertility r«i 02 0) •H 0) u > «/> > £ .2 K o 0) 8?* •H ^ £ 6 S|| o E ° •" ris. 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D = eo O = o bo G o s ■*» l» CO - p si CO 1- o ^ (1 o ^ X! o >H e« O CO O i- X) G ed O CO > CO CO o G o o o ja (0 G o CO ho •5 CO o 5 co «B CD ! co o. o o O and moisture available, yields of any one variety in any one district may fluctuate widely. For example, Ramona wheat under irrigation in the San Joaquin Val- ley has yielded up to 5,000 pounds per acre; under dry-farmed conditions the same variety in the same area yielded only about 1,200 pounds per acre. In 1953, commercially grown wheat yielded an average of 1,290 pounds (21.5 bushels) per acre in California. Choosing the Seed Use certified seed. The cost of seed constitutes a minor part of the growing of the crop. Buy seed of the best quality you can obtain. By purchasing certified seed of the appropriate variety you will be buying top quality seed, meeting high standards of purity, germination and freedom from weed seeds. Moreover, you can be certain it will have the inherent qualities which you seek in using a spe- cific variety. Common seed frequently can be the most expensive, even if the initial pur- chase price is low. In a recent experiment samples of common cereal seed volun- tarily supplied from farmers' drill boxes were found to contain as high as 2,000 weed seeds per pound of seed. In many instances the samples contained noxious weeds such as morning-glory, star thistle, and whitetop. Where such seed is used, you are literally seeding your fields to these noxious weeds. This could cost you thousands of dollars in future years for weed-control measures. If you have to reseed a field because of low-germinating seed, your seed costs may be doubled or trebled just in extra seed costs. Treating wheat seed with an effective chemical fungicide such as Ceresan M, liquid Ceresan or Panogen is recom- mended for the control of seedborne dis- eases such as bunt. In some districts soil inhabiting wireworms have seriously damaged germinating wheat. You may combine lindane or other recommended insecticides with the fungicide for added protection against wireworms. Carefully follow the manufacturer's recommenda- tions. Too much chemical can seriously impair germination. DO NOT use treated seed for feed or food. It is poisonous, and should be so labeled. METHODS OF WHEAT GROWING Three methods of wheat production are common in California. First, a fallow-crop rotation, or a vari- ation of fallow-crop-pasture three-year rotation. Second, continuous cropping with or without supplemental irrigation, rotated annually with one or more spring- or summer-irrigated crops such as grain sorghum, safllower, or beans. Wheat may be grown every winter, although this is not commonly done. Third, spring seeding in areas where irrigation is frequently practiced, such as the north-eastern part of the state. Vgain, a crop of wheat may be grown <-wry year; this is not universal practice. Fallow-Crop Rotation The alternate crop and fallow system is common in areas of less than 14 to 16 inches of average annual rainfall, where the moisture available in any one year is insufficient to produce a crop. In most wheat areas an annual rainfall of 14 to 16 inches is considered necessary for annual cropping. The fallow-crop rota- tion conserves moisture, and has several other benefits, among them weed control. Even in areas where moisture is sufficient for annual cropping, fallowing every third or fourth year has been essential to control wild oats. If proper moisture is available throughout the fallow year, microbial activity is encouraged, result- | 10 ing in considerable release of essential plant foods, especially nitrogen. The fallow-crop rotation system has two variations in some areas: a fallow crop-pasture and a fallow-crop-hay rota- tion. This allows for a fallow year once in three years just before the wheat crop, so that the land is as free as possible of wild oat and weed seeds during the major crop year of the rotation. A fallow system also provides the op- portunity to improve the physical condi- tion of the soil through the incorporation of crop residue and green manure. Until some satisfactory method is worked out permitting the incorporation of crop res- idue in an annual dry-farmed wheat pro- gram without depressing yields, the use of green manure crops offers one of the best ways of maintaining soil organic matter. Continuous Cropping Fall-Sown Wheat This method of wheat production is normally in rotation with other winter- or spring-sown crops, such as safflower or rice or a double-crop rotation with short-season (90 days) summer crops, such as beans or grain sorghum. In the latter case, pre-irrigation, land prepara- tion and seeding take place in the fall, harvest in early summer, then land is prepared immediately for the summer ro- tation crop. The wheat may receive one or two crop irrigations depending on the amount of rain. Timing of operations, correct use of fertilizers and irrigation, and crop residue management are im- portant for success in this method of wheat raising. In the Sacramento valley, rainfall is usually sufficient to produce a satisfactory crop without supplemental irrigation. Continuous Cropping Spring-Sown Wheat Over much of California wheat is fall sown. However, in northern California Grain stubble should be thoroughly incorpo- rated into the soil after the first fall rains to help insure its rapid decomposition. Where wind or water erosion are problems, a trashy coverage, somewhat like that above, is advisable. (Macdoel, California) at elevations above 2,000 feet, or else- where where winter temperatures are se- vere enough to winter kill fall-sown spring-type varieties, spring seeding is common. The rotation practices vary by areas; however, irrigation is common in the Tulelake Basin. In most other spring- sown areas dry-farming is the usual prac- tice, utilizing the crop-fallow system. Three rotations are common with spring seeding: wheat following wheat; wheat rotated with potatoes; or a longer rotation of alfalfa or clover, barley, potatoes, wheat and then back to alfalfa. Though there are variations in equip- ment used and time of the initial tillage operation, the usual procedure is a rough working in the fall with a chisel or plow. The spring operations include disking; harrowing to firm the seedbed; fertilizing if wheat follows wheat; and then seeding with a drill. Following barley with wheat is not recommended because barley may volunteer in the ensuing wheat, resulting in a mixture with reduced sales value. ni] MANAGEMENT SCHEDULE A management schedule or operations calendar could be outlined in consider- able detail for a given system in a spe- cific area of the state. However, because of the many variations of practices and conditions in California, only a general- ized schedule of operations for the three methods of wheat growing can be given. For local details of practices and specific recommendations, consult your Farm Advisor. Preplanting Operations No one method of seedbed preparation is applicable in all cases. Economically, and for sound soil management, it is very important that every tillage opera- tion serves a definite, beneficial purpose. Important accomplishments of tillage are: incorporation crop residues, killing weeds and other unwanted plants, and preparing a seedbed. Moisture conserva- tion results from destroying unwanted plant growth and preparing a rough sur- face mulch to capture rainfall. Incorpo- rating plant residue and rough tillage can help rain and irrigation water to per- colate into the soil. Excessive tillage will result in soil compaction and a surface mulch so fine that it will increase the erosion danger and impede water pene- tration. To conserve maximum moisture, in a fallow system, the first heavy tillage op- eration should be as early as possible, usually in the fall or early winter after the first rainfall. Early tillage will also promote maximum decomposition of the incorporated crop residue. In addition, this early tillage should be rough and trashy in appearance to allow faster ac- ceptance of winter rains and thus reduce runoff. This fall incorporation or mixing of the past season's crop residue will usually result in less nitrogen tie-up when the crop is seeded. Where annual cropping is used, the first heav) tillage operation also usually follows the first rain, often at the time when volunteer seeds, including weeds, start to grow. Subsequent seedbed prep- arations usually follow closely to con- serve surface soil moisture. Deep tillage should be practiced with caution. Use it only when there is enough time and rainfall to permit the soil to settle before planting. Deep tillage just before seeding is not advisable, as it leaves the seedbed too loose and may result in excessive moisture loss and in- crease danger of erosion. Normally, deep tillage should be done when the soil is dry. A variety of tillage equipment is essen- tial because California wheat-growing conditions differ widely as to soil types, topography, and rainfall. Tilling soil at the same depth year after year will pro- duce a "plow" pan. Variation in depth of tillage is a good practice and reduces the danger of plow-pan formation. A good assortment of tillage equip- ment for differential use on plains or gently rolling land is: wheatland plow, chisel, light disk, CC cultivator or spring- tooth, rod weeder and spiketooth harrow. For farming hilly land a heavy offset disk would replace the wheatland plow. Heavy adobe or clay valley soils require the use of heavy disk or moldboard plows, and irrigated farms need floating or land- planing equipment and ditch and border equipment specially adapted to this type of operation. Time and Rate of Seeding For highest yields and economy of production the best time to sow wheat in California is November and Decem- ber, except in the northern mountain counties at elevations over 2,000 feet. Here, when spring varieties are used, seeding in late March to early May will usually avoid frost injury to the crop. Seeded at the right time, wheat will usually escape serious injury from yellow 12 Preparing fallow. Some growers first graze off the stubble and then plow or disk the stubble under following the first good fall rain. (Near Montague, California) dwarf virus disease, and from frost the following spring. If seeded too early or too late, yellow dwarf problems can be intensified. Very early seeding increases the heading-time frost hazard manyfold, especially with early varieties such as Ramona. Other important advantages of No- vember or December seeding (where rec- ommended) : The crop makes maximum use of win- ter rainfall. It matures during relatively cool weather. The wheat matures ahead of damaging warm-weather diseases. Planting tests clearly point to the ad- vantages of optimum-time seeding. In tests at the University of California Im- perial Valley Field Station, El Centro, during the period 1951 to 1954 inclusive, Ramona 50 yielded 44.5 per cent and White Federation 38, 56.9 per cent when planted in February as compared to the yield of the same varieties sown in No- vember of the preceding fall. At Davis, Agronomy Department re- searchers had previously demonstrated sharp decreases in yield as the planting time was delayed I see the table below). Wheat seeding rates in California vary from 20 to 110 pounds per acre, depend- ing on seeding date, soil moisture and fertility levels, climatic outlook, and seed- ing method. In the low-rainfall, drv- farmed area of San Luis Obsipo County the average seeding rate is about 30 pounds per acre. In higher-rainfall, dry- Ef f ect of Seeding Date on Average "Wheat Yield* Crop Number of varieties Yield in lbs. acre from various dates of seeding year Nov. or Dec. Jan. March 1928 5 1764 1626 396 1929 5 1734 1482 738 1930 5 2304 2142 348 1938 2 2574 240 1939 3 3150 2358 1941 15 2046 1458 1942 12 3252 1062 f * At U. C, Davis. t Seeded February 16, 1942. [13] Fallow-Crop Rotation Soil Management Schedule 1. October through April First heavy tillage, offset disk, chisel or wheatland plow. In many districts of adequate rainfall, the heavy tillage operation may be delayed until the volunteer green feed has been grazed down in the spring. Such a practice does not conserve as much moisture as starting the fallow operation earlier. 2. Late winter Second heavy tillage, if needed, offset disk or wheatland plow. Some conditions may require use of a moldboard plow. 3. April through May Light tillage, springtooth, CC cultivator or tandem disk. Two operations will usually be sufficient. 4. Summer Weeding operations may be needed: a rodweeder, springtooth, or chemical sprays. In some areas of the state sudan grass is planted at low seeding rates on fallow land for summer pasture. Cattle will then keep many summer weeds under control. 5. Fall to early winter After the first good rains a preseeding tillage with a disk or CC cultivator is followed by fertilizer applications and the seeding operation. Where fall rains are long delayed, seeding may be done before first rain. Annual Cropping Soil Management Schedule 1 . October-November Reduce past crop residue; bale, pasture, chop, or burn (only if necessary). Plow or disk. Harrow. Fertilize, if needed. Set up irrigation system, where needed. Irrigate, springtooth and seed. 2. Spring or Early Summer Irrigate as needed. Operations are somewhat different for spring-planted cold winter areas of the state. A good schedule for this method of wheat farming would be as follows: 1. October-November Reduce or chop previous crop residue. Plow, disk or chisel. Let land lay as rough as possible all winter. 2. Early Spring Disk to work down the ground and kill all weed growth. Fertilize if necessary. Set up checks and irrigate, where needed. Harrow to produce a firm seedbed. Seed with drill and cullipack. 3. Early Summer Irrigate as needed. farmed districts and under irrigation the average is about 70 to 90 pounds. There can be a fairly wide range in seeding rate for fall-sown wheat, without affecting yield, since optimum-time sown wheat plants tiller or stool freely if the stand is on the thin side. If sowing is done by broadcasting or if planting has to be delayed into late January or Feb- ruary, increase the above suggested rates by 15 to 20 per cent. Spring-sown wheat does not tiller as freely as that sown in the fall. Broadcast seeding followed by disking or harrowing results in a total of about 20 per cent of the seed either being too deep or too shallow for effec- tive use. Seeding In fallow-crop rotation, proper main- tenance of the fallow during the summer will normally provide an excellent seed- bed for the following crop. However, it may be advisable to delay fall planting until after the first rains to provide an additional chance to control weeds. Planting before continuous rain is as- sured may result in partial germination and loss of the seedling stand by drought. The top zone of fallowed land will rarely retain enough moisture to germi- nate the seed and sustain plant growth before the first rains. The actual seeding method and equip- ment used will vary from one area to another. The two principal methods are broadcasting and drilling. Broadcasting is the seeding method used on probably three-fourths of the wheat in California. One method fre- quently used includes a preseeding till- age operation to kill weeds and prepare a seedbed. The seed is then broadcast with a regular drill box (without open- ers) mounted on a heavy cart which pulls a light disk or springtooth type of culti- vator, to cover the seed and kill any re- maining weeds. These seeding units range from 20 to 50 feet in width ; acre- age covered varies from 5 to 15 acres an hour. This operation is usually followed by a spiketooth harrow to smooth out and firm the seedbed. End-gate type seeders and airplanes are used in many areas after the seedbed is prepared. After broadcasting, the seed is then covered with a spiketooth harrow. On some wheat farms seedbed prepara- tion, weeding, seeding and harrowing are carried out in one operation by mount- Some wheat growers combine final seedbed operations, fertilizing and seeding into a single-time-over operation. This usually works best on land which has been fallowed. (Near Roseville, California) This is a CC cultivator-seeder, popular in San Luis Obispo County wheat districts. The seeder broadcasts or drops the seed onto a prepared seedbed. The following spring-tooth harrows cover the seed. ing a seed box on a flexible disk tiller with harrows pulled behind the same unit. These tillers are similar to wheat- land plows (only lighter) and generally till the soil as deep as a plow. Drilling instead of broadcasting often results in a more uniform, weed-free stand, less lodging, and usually higher yields. In some spring-sown areas, a firm seedbed is very important to con- serve moisture; hence press drills are in common use, or a disk drill is followed by a ring roller. This practice is used fre- quently where spring-sown wheat land is irrigated before seeding. Wheat is usually drilled or covered to a depth of l 1 /^ to 2 inches. Planting deeper than 1 to 2 inches is advanta- geous only in placing the seed into mois- ture to insure uniform germination. Planting deeper than 2 inches can result in poor stands, especially on clay-tex- tured, cold soils. Experience will show you what method will (] borne. Infection of the seedling follows germination, with the fungus be- coming established in the growing point of the plant. Grayish-black small balls filled with millions of black minute fungal spores are formed in place of kernels. During harvest these smut balls are ruptured and the spores scattered, contaminating healthy kernels and often being carried by air to adjacent areas. Subsequent infection resulting from soil contamination, although common in parts of the Pacific Northwest, is of little importance in California. Most of the California varieties (see the table on pages 6 and 7) are resistant to the strains of bunt prevalent in California. However, strains capable of attacking the resistant varieties have been collected. Seed treat- ment will help keep these new strains under control. Stem rust can be highly destructive and may result in complete loss of the crop. Before the development of resistant vari- eties, statewide outbreaks averaged once every four or five years. Localized out- [22] breaks occurred every year. Since 1941, losses have been held to a minimum by the use of resistant varieties. The disease can be recognized by elon- gated pustules filled with red spore masses which break through the surface of the host stem tissue. Later in the growing season or under conditions unfavorable for disease development, black spore masses may be produced within the same pustules. Although concentrated on the stems, pustules occur on the leaves and floral parts. Under the most severe con- ditions the plants may be killed, but nor- mally are weakened so that the kernels fail to fill properly, are shrivelled and low in test weight. The spores are air borne, and fields become infected from spores blown from adjacent wheat fields, volunteer plants, and some wild grasses. High humidity and slightly higher-than-normal spring temperatures favor rust development. The only control is through the use of resistant varieties (see the table on pages 6 and 7) . Yellow dwarf is not as readily recog- nized in wheat as in barley and oats, although it may be of equal importance. In contrast to the red discoloration in oats and the brilliant yellow in barley, both accompanied by severe dwarfing, infected wheat plants normally show a rusty to yellowish-brown discoloration with only a moderate degree of dwarfing. Severe infection of young plants usually will result in a marked stunting of the plants. Discoloration begins at the tips of the upper leaves and progresses to the base. Infected plants may exhibit a high degree of sterility and a high percentage of shrivelled kernels even though the plant appears to develop normally. Yellow dwarf is caused by a virus which is transmitted from plant to plant by any one of several species of grass- inhabiting aphids. Plants infected in the early growth stages are the most severely damaged. Timeliness of planting, avoid- ing early (prior to November 1) or late (February or after) planting dates offers the only practical means of reducing losses. Plantings between the above dates normally escape the late aphid flights in the fall and have reached considerable growth before the heavy spring flights. All of the present California varieties are equally susceptible. Root rot may be caused by several soil- inhabiting fungi and is usually applied to all diseases that affect the roots, crown and other basal parts of the plant. Symp- toms vary from a stunted, unthrifty ap- pearance to actual death of the plant. The roots, crown and basal parts of the stem are usually discolored. Occasionally, considerable stem breakage may occur. Since destruction of these tissues inter- feres with the normal uptake of water and nutrients, plants may appear to be suffering from drought or other stresses. Such plants may seem bleached, and if such stresses are imposed at flowering time or later, sterility and shrivelling of the kernels may be evident. Root rot causing fungi multiply in the soil when susceptible crops are grown continuously. Wheat and barley are equally susceptible, and the same organ- isms attack both. Fortunately, oats are fairly tolerant and you may obtain satis- factory control by including them in ro- tation about every third crop year. Septoria leaf spot, while not widely prevalent in California, may cause con- siderable defoliation of the susceptible variety, Ramona 50. The other commer- cial varieties are sufficiently tolerant to escape any pronounced damage. Spots of irregular outline, which first appear as light green to yellow areas but later take on the characteristic light to dark brown discoloration, spread rapidly, fre- quently over the entire leaf blade. The most distinguishing and final means of identifying the disease is the forming of small, scattered, black fruiting bodies on the dead leaf tissue. The disease is favored by cool, moist weather. No complete control is known, [23] but both crop rotation and sanitation help to keep the disease down. Other diseases, such as leaf rust and stripe rust, may occur but are of little economic importance at the present time. Leaf rust may be difficult to distinguish from stem rust. However, leaf-rust pus- tules are small, round to slightly ob- long, and orange-yellow, in contrast to the larger, elongated, red stem-rust pus- tules. The pustules of stripe rust are small and elongated in form and bright orange. They are usually confined between the parallel veins of the leaf and united end- to-end to form long, yellow stripes. No satisfactory methods of control are avail- able for either disease. INSECTS OF THE GROWING CROP Hessian Fly formerly caused consider- able damage in localized areas of Cali- fornia, but use of the resistant variety Big Club 43 has reduced the fly popula- tion to a level below economic impor- tance. However, local outbreaks on both wheat and barley may occur. The flies lay their eggs on the upper surface of the leaves of young plants. The eggs hatch in three to 12 days, the small red larvae make their way down the leaf and be- hind the sheath, where they feed on the tender plant tissues. The larvae are full grown in two to four weeks. At that time they are glistening white, but soon turn brown, forming "flaxseed" or purporia. Adults emerge from overwintering "flax- seeds" in early spring to lay their eggs. Small plant tillers die, jointed tillers often break over and fall to the ground before harvest. Adults emerging from "flaxseeds" in stubble reinfest early fall- seeded fields. In addition to resistant va- rieties, the most practical control meth- ods are complete plowing under of crop residues in the fall as soon as possible and maintaining a high level of fertility. Wireworms — These small, yellowish or brown worms, about one inch long, are the immature stages of the click beetles. They feed on seeded grain and the under- ground parts of the plant, thus thinning stands. Treating the seed with lindane or aldrine before planting has been fairly effective in reducing damage. Such treat- ment should be combined with a fungi- cide for a combination pest and disease protection measure. Since these chemi- cals are poisonous, treated seed should not be used for feed or food. Aphids — Aphid populations may, on occasion, build up to a point where they damage the plants. Under such condi- tions, chemical control may be economi- cally feasible. Consult your local Uni- versity of California Farm Advisor for current recommended control methods. TWO CENTURIES OF WHEAT IN CALIFORNIA Wheat was first sown in California about 1770. in I he lower valley of the San Diego River near the original San Diego Mis- sion settlement at Old Town. Until the discovery of gold, enough was planted [24 1 annually around the expanding mission system to maintain mission personnel and to feed the military garrisons and some of the natives. The padres brought to California several wheat varieties, in- Old grist mill, Mission San Antonio (Est. 1771) near Jolon, California. Falling water, from a stone flume at rear of the building, drove the water wheel shown in the first picture above. This provided the power to turn the grist mill in the building constructed over the waterway. The second picture shows the grinding facilities. (Pic- tures by Dan Irving) eluding Propo, Little Club, and Sonora. Also introduced at that time were such weeds as wild oats, filaree and mustard which probably came to California from Spain in contaminated wheat seed. The mission wheat fields suffered from rust, and the padres had our current usual difficulties with birds and rodents. Yields therefore were generally not high. By 1821 statewide production had risen to 120,000 bushels a year. Following the Mexican revolution, the early California settlers found wheat a good crop to grow. Within 10 years from the time John Sutter settled at New Hel- vetia, wheat was grown on farms scat- tered as far north as Cottonwood Creek. Wheat production practices during the early American period were little ad- vanced from those of the Spanish arid Mexican days. The American plow and some other American farm implements had been brought in by 1850, but the crudest methods were still used. Harvest- ing was done with sickles, butcher knives, and bare hands ; threshing by trampling [25] wild horses; and winnowing by throwing high into the air shovelfuls of grain, straw, and chaff, letting the wind blow away the lighter materials. The pyramiding demand for food in California that followed the gold rush resulted in the great era of wheat during the fifties through the nineties. Califor- nia was prominent in wheat production by 1859, only ten years after the gold rush began. Large areas well suited to wheat, together with the rapid develop- ment of farm machinery, particularly gang plows and headers, favored large- scale production; by 1888, the peak year, California ranked second in the nation for wheat, producing more than 42,000,000 bushels on 3,000,000 acres. Until the sixties, the wheat growing possibilities of the more arid San Joaquin Valley south of San Joaquin County were not fully appreciated, and it was not until more than 20 years later that this crop was grown extensively south of Merced County. Beginning about 1890 the California wheat acreage began to decline. Loss of a portion of the foreign market and in- roads of bunt, rust, other diseases, and insect pests such as Hessian fly all con- tributed to this reduction. By 1906, wheat production had fallen to 790,000 acres. Between 1906 and 1956 the acreage fluc- tuated between about 500,000 acres and 1,000,000 acres, averaging somewhat less than 750,000 acres. Since 1956 it has dropped further. In 1960 there were 352,000 acres of wheat harvested in Cali- fornia, about one-third of it in San Luis Obispo County. Two of the major factors in this de- cline have been the development of former wheat land into irrigated crop land, and the expansion of acreage de- voted to barley. Barley has consistently proven more profitable for most dry- farming areas than wheat. Recent strin- gent government wheat acreage control programs have also been instrumental in reducing California wheat acreage. Any person considering growing wheat should first check with his local USDA Agricul- tural Conservation Program Service rep- resentative or with his University of California Farm Advisor concerning cur- rent regulations. WHEAT ECONOMICS A wheat enterprise, where rotation with more intensive crops is not possible, has to be on a fairly large scale. Dryland fal- low wheat farming requires large acre- ages, as returns on an acre basis are usually low. A farm unit of 640 to 1,280 acres of land in crop each year requires a farm enterprise of at least 1,280 to 2,500 acres. To operate this many acres and perform such operations as short- period seeding — necessary in some years —requires heavy investment in large equipment. A 50 to 60 horsepower trac- tor, the necessary complementary tillage and seeding tools, plus a harvester, add lip to a high investment for a family-size farm. Exclusive of land, in I960 a Cali- fornia dryland wheat farmer, cropping about 1,200 acres of wheat annually, had about $65,000 invested in equipment. If he also owned his own land, his invest- ment frequently totalled $250,000 or more. Harvesting for this size operation can be hired in most areas, though close supervision of custom operations is often advisable. An investment in the size units out- lined here points out the position of a specialized Western state wheat produc- ing area when the trends of wheat con- sumption the past twenty to fifty years are considered. The trend is downward for per-capita consumption of all flour and cereal [2f. I products, according to USDA reports. U. S. consumption slumped to about 142 pounds in 1958, from 193 in 1942 and 147 pounds as recently as 1955. The use of wheat flour alone dropped from 154 pounds per person in 1942 to 118 pounds in 1958; the drop in bread eating is largely responsible. Farm economists see no end to the downward trend. Farmers, who eat more grain than their city cousins, make up a dwindling part of the population, less than 12 per cent today and probably no more than 7 per cent by 1975. Bigger paychecks encourage a shift away from bread and cereal and all so-called fatten- ing foods. But — for the California producer of high-quality wheat the outlook is good, if he will grow well the varieties wanted by the wheat trade. California millers want increased supplies of well-grown, weed-free, high-quality Ramona 50, Big Club 43 and Onas 53. Currently Cali- fornians are consuming about 50 million bushels of wheat annually, of which only about 8 to 10 million bushels come from California farms. California farmers can tap this burgeoning home market many times over their present level by produc- ing high-quality wheat of the required varieties. Wheat-growing districts will probably find it profiitable to concentrate on one or two well-adapted varieties. Once a mil- ler locates a good quality wheat, he favors districts where he can purchase large quantities of that type. Standardization and mechanization is the keynote of modern baking industry. The mills and bakers achieve it with a heterogeneous collection of wheats by blending, modifications in milling, varia- tion in chemical treatment such as bleaching and oxidation, and use of ad- juncts such as malt. The so-called strong wheats of the hard red classes seem nec- essary for blending with even the best California wheats; and since these ap- parently cannot be produced in quantity in California we must be content to pro- duce the best possible white wheats. 27 ] The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of the following colleagues who helped in developing many of the research findings reported in this manual: C. A. Suneson, Fred N. Briggs, Loren L. Davis, George F. Worker, John R. Goss, B. R. Houston, D. S. Mikkelsen, W. E. Martin, and many Farm Advisors who participated in local cooperative tests. In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible, it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products and equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical identifications. In so doing, it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named prod- ucts is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned. Co-or ■ •''• "'■ ExttMlon wort in Agriculture ond Homo Economics, College of Agriculture, University of California, and United States Deportment of Agriculture co-opcraling. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, ond June 30, I9M. George B. Alcorn, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. 5m 2/83 ' B5810 |JV