n Digitized by the Internet Arciiive in 2007 witin funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation littp://www.arcliive.org/details/concisegrammarofOOmagnricli A C0NCI8E GEAMMAE OP THE EUSSIAN LANGUAGE A CONCISE GEAMMAR OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE BY LEONARD A. MAGNUS, LL.B. Editor and translator of the '* Armament of Igor,' " Ricssian Folk Tales" dc. LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 1916 NERVATION /ADDED JJNALTOBE MNED 271994 LONDON : PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWBS AND SONS, LIMITED, DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E., AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W. P(sT\ K"^ CONTENTS. H(U m\^ PAGE Preface . . . . . xvii Introclnctioii ....... xix Alphabet xxi Russian Script and Italic xxiii Specimen of Handwriting . . . . . xxiv § 1. The Use and Value of the Letters . 1 § 2. The Vowels— (1) Hard and Soft Vowels 2 (2) a and a . 2 (3) 3, e and t . . . . . 3 (4) H, H, i, y 3 (5) and e . 4 (6) y and lo . 5 (7) Tj and i. . 5 § 3. The Consonants — Voiced and Unvoiced . 6 § 4. General Observations on the Consonants 6 § 5. The Hard and Soft Consonants. — Preliminar} 8 (1) The Labials n, 6, m, b, (|), o 8 (2) The Dentals t, ji, h . 9 (3) The Gutturals k, r, x 10 (4) The Sibilants and Compound Conso nants c, 3, ni, ai, m, u, ^ 11 (5) The Liquids j and p . . 13 § 6. Conglomerated Consonants when Final . 14 § 7. Transliteration into Russian 14 § 8. Russian Diphthongs .... 15 § 9. The Change of e to e . . 16 ACCIDENCE. § 10. The Parts of Speech . . ' . . .19 The Noun. §11. Preliminary Observations. — The Genders . 20 § 12. The Declensions 21 344623 VI RUSSIAN GllAMMAIi. §13. §14. § 15. §16. § 17. § 18. § 19. §20. §21. §22. §23. §24. §25. §26. The Oases .... The Numbers .... Hard and Soft Nouns The First Declension — Masculines The First Declension — Neuters . The Second Declension in a and a The Third Declension in ii and ma — Mascu lines of the Third Declension — nyxL Feminines of the Third Declension . Neuters in ma of the Third Declension Kemains of Older Forms in the Third Declension — (1) Mail), ji;0Hb ..... (2) J^HTfl Discussion of the Nouns .... Remarks on the Masculine Nouds of the First Declension — (1) Genitive and locative singular in "y" The *' u " declension (2) Plurals in -la. (3) Plurals in -a . (4) Genitive plural in -t (5) Nominative singular in -hh'l (6) Irregular formations . Accentuation of the Masculine Nouns of the First Declension ..... Remarks on the Neuter Nouns of the First Declension — (1) Genitive plural in -h and -eft (2) Neuters in -ie and feminines in -ia (3) Mixed masculine and neuter declensioi — nouns in -ilme, -kg and others (4) Plurals in -ba . (6) Irregular forms — (a) Obsolete, He6o, nyAO, -nrd . 1/3) Duals . . ' . PAGE 22 23 24 25 26 28 30 30 32 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 39 41 42 43 43 44 45 CONTENTS. § 27. Accentuation of the Neuter Nouns of the First Declension . . . . . >^ 28. Remarks on the Second Declension — (1) Genitive plural in -i> and -eli (2) Contraction of -oio, -eio to -oh, -eu (3) Masculine nouns in second declension (4) Nouns in -in .... § 29. Accentuation of Second Declension § 30. Remarks on the Third Declension § 31. Accentuation of the Third Declension . § 32. The " Euphonic " Vowels o, e and e — I. Extrusion of l and h wlien unacc(3nted IT. Insertion of o and e for euphony III. What heavy final consonants are allowed ..... IV. Remarks on the third declension The Adjective. § 33. Preliminary Observations— (1) The syntactical importance of the adjective .... (2) The use of possessive and descriptive adjectives .... (3) No distinction of gender in the plural (4) The predicative adjective . (5) The determinative and simple adjective (6) The accentuation of the adjective (7) No third declension adjectives . (8) The unnecessary grammarians' spel lings in the determinatives . (9) The substantival use of adjectives § 34. The Simple, Possessive and Descriptive Adjectives — (1) Examples of simple adjectives . (2) Formation of possessive adjectives and examples .... (3) Formation of descriptive adjectives Vll PAGE 45 46 47 47 47 47 49 49 50 52 54 55 00 56 56 56 56 58 58 58 58 58 59 61 Vlll RUSSIAN GRAMMAK. § 35. Ilie Determinative Adjectives— (1) The scheme and formation . . 62 (2) Examples 64 § 36, The Formation of the Predicatives — (1) Where no corresponding predicalive exists . . . . . 68 (2) Where no corresponding determinative exists . . . . . .68 (3) Possessives ..... 68 (4) Instances of accentuation of predica- tives 68 § 37. The Comparison of Adjectives. — Formation — (1) Comparative and superlative, how formed ..... 70 (2) The superlative .... 70 (3) Substitutes for the superlative . . 71 § 38. The Comparison of Adjectives. — Rules — I. Use of the uninflected form . . 72 ir. The four simple inflected superlatives 73 III. Adjectives with no determinative com- parative ..... 73 IV. Use of prefix no with indeclinable comparative . . . .73 V. Translation of " than " . . .74 § 39. The Comparison of Adjectives. — Examples — I. The regular form -4e, -iSuiirr, and accentuation . . . .74 II. The shorter form -be, -LUiiil . . 74 III. Comparison with words from different roots ...... 77 The Pronoun. §40. (1) Preliminary observations ... 77 (2) Table of Russian pronouns and adverbs . 78-9 CONTENTS. IX PAGK §41. Examples of the Pronouns — ■ I. The interrogative pronouns . . 80 Remarks on koR, Meft, KOTopHu, ckojILko 81 II. The relatives kto, KOTopHTr . . 81 III. The demonstratives tott., 3tott., ohhR, cen ; remarks on the use of them . 82 IV. The universals KaiK;i,Hn, BecL, BcaKiu . 83 V. The personal pronouns and possessives 84 (1) Use of CBofi and ce6yi, ca . . 85 (2) Use of ero, etc., vrilh preposi- tions. .... 85 (3) Instrumental fern. sing, in -oR 86 (4) When personal pronouns are used 86 VI. The indefinite pronouns ... 86 VII. The negative pronouns. The double negative in Russian . . .87 VIII. The pronouns of identity, and caMT. and caMHTi ..... 87 IX. The pronouns of difference, J^py^6^r, iiHoR, npo^iie .... 88 The Verb. § 42. (1) Table of Russian Verbs ... 89 (2) Preliminary observations — (i) The parts of the Russian verb. . 90 (ii) The deficiencies of the Russian verb and the aspects . . . .91 (iii) How the parts are formed . . 92 (iv) Verbs original and derivative . . 92 § 43. The Russian Infinitive — Consonantal and Vocalic 93 § 44. The forms derived from the Infinitive . 94 § 45. The formations from the Ist person sing. Present 96 § 46. The laws of the accentuation of the verbs . 96 X RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. PAGE § 47. Paradigms of JKe.iaTb and B'fepnTh . .98 § 48, The Four Conjugations. — Some Phonetic Rules . .' 99 ^ 49. The First Conjugation. The Present forms — I. Guttural roots, infinitives in -il . 100 II. Nasal roots, infinitives in -an. ; verbal noun and past part. pass, in t .101 III. Sibilant roots, infinitives in -cxii, -ctl . 103 IV. Liquid roots. (1) Infinitives in -epexi., -eJiBTb; verbal noun and past part. pass, in T . . . . .104 (2) Infinitives in -opoTb, -o.iOTt . 104 V. Dental roots, infinitives in -CTfr, -ctt> . 105 ii;i,Tn, MecTL, ctciL . . . .100 Accentuation of past tense . .107 VI. Roots in B, JKIITB, nJILITL, CJIEITb . . 107 VII. Consonantal roots with suffixal a in infinitive . . . . .108 §50. The Second Conjugation in -Hyib. Preliminary. I. " Instantaneous" verbs and their accen- tuation . . . . .109 II. " Inchoative " verbs and their accentua- tion 110 III. Examples of conjugation . . .111 § 51. The Third Conjugation. — Preliminary . .112 § 52. The Original Verbs of the Third Conjugation. I. Those in which termination is directly to root — (1) Liquid roots, ojioxb, opoTL . . .112 (2) Vocalic roots (a) in " a " 3uaTL, ciiiTL . 113 (/S) Roots in h,6htl, etc., past part. pass, in T 111] (y) Roots in y, ji,yTi>, past part. pass, in t. llo (8) Roots in % cmIjtb . . . .113 (e) Verbs in htb and nliTb, past part. pass, in T . . . . .114 II. Verbs with sufiixal infinitive in -arr., -HTb, and accentuation . . .115 cjiaTb, CTJiaTb, ;i;HxaTb, etc. . .110 COis" TENTS. XI PAGE § 53. Derivative Verbs of the Third Conjugation — (1) From nouns in -axh, -iiTh . . .116 (2) Inceptives in -IjTb . . . . 11(> Accentuation of them . . . 117 (3) I. Derivatives in -OBaxb, and accentua- tion. Derivatives in -HpoBaiL, and accentuation . . . .117 II. Original verbs in -OBaib, -eBaxb . 118 (4) Iteratives in -axL, -iiXB . . .119 (5) Iteratives in -HBaxb, -usaxb . .119 ;i,aBaxb, cxasaxb, 3HaBaxb . . .120 § 54. The Fourth Conjugation. Preliminary — Infin. in -ixb, -iixb . . . . .120 § 55. The Fourth Conjugation. Original Yeibs — I. In -axb, -iixb, rnaib, cxoaxb, cnaxb . 121 II. In -ixb, -axb, and accentuation . .122 Past tense in -'feji'b . . . .128 xox-fexb, 6'fejKaxb . . . .123 Accentuation of original verbs in -iixb . 124 § 50. The Fourth Conjugation. Derivative Verbs. Accentuation and origins . . .125 § 57. Anomalous Verbs — I. Mixed conjugations. The same root throughout. pesirb, xox-fexb, -ji.'fexb, cxaxb, iiocfcxHTb, o6paxHXb, -fflH6HXb . 126 II. Using different roots. iiji,xii, 6bixb (and its compounds), ixaxb . . .127 III. Obsolete forms. 3;i,a'ib, verbs in "m," BiiM-b, ecMb, licxb, ji,axb . . .128 § 58. The Aspects of the Verbs. Preliminary . 130 Perfective— Imperfective — Abstract — Itera- tive — Instantaneous — Causative — In- ceptive ...... 131 Verbs having no perfective . . . 132 xu RUSSIAN GRAMMAll. § 59. The Formation of the Aspects — T. (1) From original verbs Monosyllabic roots. Those naturally perfective Iteratives in -axt, -BaTi> . AVhen compounded -necTL and -iiiiTarb (2) Second conjugation in -ny ib . The " instantaneous " aspect . (3) Third conjugation. Prepositions to form perfective Iteratives in -HBait, -aiL ,T,BiiraTbj ii,BnraTi>, etc. (4) Fourth conjugation. Original verbs in -iiTL, -i>Tb. Imperfective in -axb, x\bstract forms in -axL, -iiTb, -ilxb When compounded, abstract is imperfective Ttei'ative forms in -axL, -/ixi. . Iteratives in -HBaxi., -UBaxi. . II. The formation of perfective of derivative verbs . With prepositions III. Aspects formed from a different root, Perfective and imperfective, concrete and abstract .... IV. The aspects of compounded verbs in -wn -axL, -axB, -HyxF>, -HBaxt V. Causatives and inceptives in -hxl and -lixh VI. II and 3a as forming depreciatory, or diminutive, and inceptive aspects § GO. Reflexive and Passive Verbs — J^py^'b ApVia 133 CONTENTS. Xlll The Numerals. §01. Preliminary ..... §62. I. The numerals 1-10 . Declension of 66a II. The numerals 11-90 . III. The numerals 100-1,000,000.— cto The compound numerals. — T}'jc)i4a IV. Notes— (1) Frequency .... (2) Distributives (3) Nought .... (4) Noun governed by last numeral (5) Decimals .... (6) Compound ordinals and examples (7) Declension of ji,Ba with nouns ji;b6h, etc. . (8) Fractions — iiojiOBHHa, noJiTopa; noji- compounds (9) Dates — roAt and .Tbio . § 63. The Adverbs .... § 64. The Prepositions § 65. The Conjunctions § QG. The Interjections 149 150 152 152 153 154 155 155 155 155 156 156 157 158 160 160 161 161 161 SYNTAX. § 67. Preliminary— Concord — Order Predominance of Adjective § 68. The Article § 69. The Cases— I. Nominative . II. Vocative III. Accusative as object Special uses : duration of Words — 162 163 163 164 164 165 XIV KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. § 70, §71. § 72. § 73 § 73 § 74. § 75. §76. §•77. § 78. § 79. § 80. lY. Genitive ..... (i) Ownership —Possessive adjec- tives — Subjective genitive and objective always follows (ii) Partitive (iii) In impersonal sentences (iv) Replaced by dative (v) Alter comparatives (vi) Objective case (vii) Aftercertain adjectives and verbs (viii) Dates . (ix) Partitive sense (x) Descriptive . V. The Dative . \J. Instrumental (1) Agent . (2) Means (3) Predicative . (4) Manner (5) Measurement (6) Words of quality . (7) Time . (8) After certain verbs VII. The Locative. Table of Prepositions and Particles . 1 The Prepositions and Particles.^ — Preliminary The Prepositions governing only the Accusative (1). The Prepositions governing only the Genitive ...... (2). The Prepositions governing only the Dative ...... The Prepositions governing only the In- strumental and Mea;;iy .... The Prepositions governing only the Locative The Prepositions iioj!.!), npe;i,T) and 3a . The Prepositions b'b, o and Ha The Prepositions no and ct. The Verbal Prefixes bo3, bh, nepe, npe, paai. The Accentuation of Prepositions and Particles PAGE 165 166 170 171 171 172 172 172 173 173 173 174 175 175 175 176 176 176 177 177 177 177 78-9 180 181 182 187 188 189 189 193 198 201 204 § 81. §82. 83. §84. §85. §86. §87. §88. §89. 90. CONTENTS. The Numerals — I. The date, days, months, etc. II. Age . . . . . III. Adjectives compounded with nume rals ..... IV. The time of day . V. Fractions .... VI. Eussian money VII. Frequencies .... VIII. One cardinal now obsolete IX. Cards The Pronouns — I. Interrogative .... II. Relative ..... in. Indefinite pronouns. Useofiiii IV. The reciprocal pronouns . V. The negative pronouns The Russian Appellatives — I. In conversation — bij, ' th, oapini patronymics. II. Between masters and servants . III. IV. Titles V. Addressing letters . Interrogati\ie sentences — .iir, pasBt. Negative sentences .... The Verb " to be," omission of *' copula " The Verb " to have " . Special use of Infinitive The Gerundives and Participles — I. The gerundives II. The participles — past and present -mhR = -ble. Subordinate Clauses — I. Temporal .... II. Causal . . . III. Conditional .... IV. Final. (1) Purpose. (2) Effect V. Reported Speech XV PAGE Addressing meetings XVI KU8SIAN GRAMMAli. § 91. The Imperative. Full forms Adverbial, Preterite and Conditional uses — PAGE 241 iiomeji'f. 241 §92. Further illustrations of the Aspects 243 §93. The Auxiliaries ..... 247 ji,aBH6, 6f)i,Y, ciaHy, 6y;i,To .... 247 TOJIBKO HTO, 6lJBaJI0 248 6hjio, the future perfect .... 249 §94. The Impersonal Construction — I. Impersonal verbs .... 249 IT. Translation of "one" (says) 250 III. Impersonal construction of active verbs 250 § 95. Apocopated forms of some Verbs 250 §96. The Eeflexive Verbs Passives, Causatives, Deponents, "Middle" 251 Voice ....... 252 § 97. Russian Relationships .... 253 Table of Kinship 258 Table of Affinity 259 Etymology. — Preliminar3\ — Accentuation 260 §98. The Nouns — I. Foreign terminations in common use 260 II. Disused or dead suffixes 261 III. Patronymics .... 262 IV. Termination to denote the feminine 262 V. Abstract nouns .... 262 VI. Verbal nouns .... ♦263 VII. The agent or implement 264 VIII. Diminutives — (1) Masculines of first declension (2) Neuters of first declension . 265 265 (3) Feminines and masculines of second declension 266 IX. Augmentatives .... 267 X. Miscellaneous .... 267 § 99. Adjectival Suffixes 268 § 100. Verbal Formations 270 PREFACE. • The Eussian language is becoming daily of increasing importance, both commercially and literarily. It is used over nearly one-seventh of the world, from Petrograd to Vladivostok and in the other Slav States. The litera- ture, popular and cultivated, technical and scientific, published in Eussia, must claim the attention of students to the same degree as German has done in the past. The greatest puzzle in Eussian is the accentuation, which governs the pronunciation and inflection, and seems utterly arbitrary. To a large extent it can be scientifically and simply explained, and to this feature the author has devoted especial care. The difiiculties of the language cannot be denied ; but they have been accentuated by two accidents : first, that all grammars w^ere constructed on a plan merely imitative of Latin ; secondly, that they mostly came from Germany, and were framed in accordance with the requirements of the German mind. It is with the ambition of writing a book on Eussian grammar that shall translate Eussian into Enghsh idiom, and shall proceed on lines more consonant with the genius of Slav speech, that this book has been attempted. The author wishes to express his obligations to many friends, English and Eussian, who have rendered him invaluable assistance, and, in particular, to Mr. Mark Sieff and Mr. J. H. G. Grattan ; and to acknowledge his indebtedness to Berneker's Eussian studies, and the essays of Professor Boyer (of the Sorbonne). This grammar, whilst aiming at being practical, is leased on historical and philological methods. Explana- tory notes on apparent irregularities are added in smaller type, the principal rules being made prominent by italics or otherwise. This grammar should be used in conjunction with one of the progressive readers now being published in England. L. A. M. h INTRODUCTION. The moderu Jliissiaii language is spoken over tlie whole extent of the Eussian Empn-e. It originated as the dialect of the Principality of Moscow and the Eepublic of Novgorod, and thus at first embraced all the provinces or governments of Russia proper, except Volhynia, Podolia, Poltava and Southern Russia (where a dialect called Little- Russian is spoken). In Minsk^ Ch-odno and Vilna another dialect is spoken, called White- Russian. Russian belongs to the Slavonic branch of the Aryan or Indo-European family of languages ; other kindred tongues are Polish, Cech or Bohemian, Moravian, Serbian and Bulgarian. The Slavonic peoples mostly belong to the Orthodox or Eastern Church. They received their alphabet, their civilisation and their ritual from Constantinople, and hence mostly use modernized or adapted forms of the Cyrillic alphabet, which was created by Saint Cyril and Saint Method in the ninth century on the basis of the Greek alphabet. Those Slav peoples who belong to the Roman con- fession use the Latin or Roman alphabet, as we do ; XX INTRODUCTION. but, to provide symbols for the iiiauy soimds, veiy numerous diacritical marks have had to be added, e.g. i^ ^, c, c, z, z, r, e, etc. The Cyrillic alphabet was invented expressly for the Slavonic languages ; and, though the signs are at first strange, they express the sounds more accurately, and, in r(3ality, aid the learner considerably. The first task of the student of Eussian is to familiarise himself with the alphabet, hoth printed and written, so that he may read and write it with ease and promptitude. In Eiujlish the voiuels a, e, i, o, u have, since Shalce- speares time, been grotesquely diverted from their original value and the general Continental use. The reader must iinderstand that in this Grammar a, e, i, o, 7c are used as in Italian or German : i.e. ah, cortege, j^ique, poke, rule ; except where specidlly stated otherwise. ( xxi ) THE RUSSIAN ALPHABET; The Kussian Alphabet consists of thiity-six letters. ( )t" these there are twelve vowels, a, e, n, i; \-, o, y, bi, b, 3, K), ff ; twenty-one consonants, 6, b, r, ^, jk, 3, k, .i, M, H, n, p, c, T, *i>, X, u, »i, ui, m, e; one semi-vowel, ii (i kiatk;>yi) ; and two letters which have no sound- value of their own, b, h — they influence the softening or hardening of the consonant immediately preceding them. Printed. Italic. Name. Corresponding; Trans- Value, jliteration. Gaps. Ord. a Caps. A Ord. (f a (as in ah) a (father) ■ a r> 6 B 6 be (like English ha>/) h b B B B 6 ve (as in Eng. vcde) v V r 1" r t ge (like English gay) g * (T 4 ,\ A () de (like English day) d d e E Hi e ye (like English yea) zhe (like Yrench. geai) ye (z (like sin \ leisure) e or ye z II :5 II 3 II .i u ze (like English zay) i (like English 'e) z ( i (as in ) ( 'pxqiie) \ z i ii 1 ii i ii 1 ii i 11 KpaTKoe (i kratkc?yi) H CT, TOMKoil (i stockoy) S y (as in \ i yct\ ] ( i (as in ) \ 2Mi(e) ) y i K K A- K ka (like English kah) k k A .1 J .« ell 1 1 Always " hard " as in Give. XXll THE ALPHABET. Prin ted. OrdT M Italic. Name. Corresponding Value. Trans- literation. Caps. M Caps. M Ord. .V em m m 11 H H n en 11 n (as in stock) 11 11 IJ 11 pe (as in pcuj) V V P P P P err (as in Scotch cdr) r 1' C c C c ess s ^s T T r m te (ag in tay) t t y y y IJ u (as in ride) u u v X A .V eff khah f , ch in looh. \ or Guruian ch f kh U u // ^ tse (as in tscuj) ts t« m^i '1 '/ n ce (as in chaste) English ch (' 111 lU lU /// sa (as in slicth) sea English sit ( sc rapidly \ (combined*] s SC bl b 1. bl 3 L LI h 3 5 lb d yerr (epi.) yery (epbi) yeri (epb) yati (jiTb) e (like English e) mute ^y like i in) \ svAm 3 mute ( like > ( Eussian e ) C like e in } \ ell \ y e c 10 10 K) H) yu (like English yu) yu a n /I H ya,(Uke English yah /) ya ya ^^ 6 e fita f V A' Y V izitsa like H Sounded like shch in /reshcheese. THE ALPHABET. XX HI Cursive. Russian Script and Italic. Italic. Cursive. Italic. yV -Oy A (L V ^ C c Jb 0a JP " r I A d X. X E e t^ 4^ Eu Jfb:¥Oofo Km % I ¥u n ^^ 3 3 UAj -UO lllm. CO My E u til ^4 lUv, flji^ # to O '6 J5 5 J A/ I i 61 u Rbi - X4 E K ^ 6 L b ■ ^L u^ J J, njul'rL7v t^ih . ^y UO Mm 9 3 3 a %X^ E n :m ^a m w ) Catherine ■feMT, (yem) I eat e is used : — (i) When it represents e [v. § 2 (5) and § 9J. (ii) When it is inserted to avoid heavy consonants and represents b [v. § 2 (7) and § 32] ; e.g. Becb, Bca (ve^, fsya) all. When unaccented it becomes a faint i/e or i sound. e.g. n6.ie (polye) field cuuee (sinyeye) blue > The pronouns 041111 and 04 Ht, ohh masc, 011 b feni. and neuter, are both sounded 04UH, oh 11 (adni, ani). (4) The sound-value of bi is best understood as a rapid combination of German ii with i, T^Tnd'ir «»; o^-- it ^^y be got by placing the tongue in the ic position, the lips in the i position. Roughly, it may be produced by sounding the English word hin deep in the throat. No ivord can ever begin with the vowel bi. * The sound "ye " (e and t) is open [y^] or. close ,{y6] according fis the following consonant is " hard " or *' soft." B 2 4 11U8SIAN GEAMMAU. I I II is the pure ^-sound, produced with elougatiou of | the lips, as in French or German. J ^ I i (ii CT. TOHKOK) = with a dot) is the same, but only ' used hefore other vowels (e.g. MniiHie [mnenie] opinion), ; except in one word, Mip^ the world. When H is used in diphthongs or reduced to the con- j sonant al value of ?/ in " yet," it is written h and called ] H KpaiKoe (h short). '\ e.g. cxau (stai) flock \ Y (uJKHua) is equivalent to w, and only used to | represent the Greek v in a few Church words. j Note. — MipT. world, miipL peace, Mvpo myrrh, cvho^it. synod, and i B.ia^yMip'i. Vladimir (and similar names, e.g. KasMMipi). (5) accented is sounded like the German short o in I Pronunciation " Gott," and can be imitated by shortening • of o and e. ^^q English vowel-sound ait (e.g. cough). I e.g. port horn j unaccentai is sounded a or 9. e.g. xopoiuo (kh9r;>s6) fine i iiopa (para) time j CJOBO (slovc^) word. ! e is sounded yd, i.e. o with a ^oc?-sound. It only \ occurs in accented syllables, and in lor'iting is not i distingimhcd from e, except in elementary books. ; llules are given in § 9 for the change from e to e. | e.g. pyjKhe (ruzo) gun \ iieceie (nisyote) ye carry jKeHbi (zony) the wives : ejyniKa (yolusk?) fir-tree PRONUNCIATION. O (C) y is sounded like a in " rule " or " pull " ; lo Pronunciation i^^ sounded like u in " universe," ])ilt of > and K). shorter. e.g. lodH.ieu (yubiley) jubilee Hccy (nisii) I carry (7) T> and i> are mute in modern Eussian. The Pronunciation former indicates the Jiardness of a con- ofbandb. sonant; the latter the softness, i.e. the absence or presence of a yod element. e.g. 6bLn> (by!) he was bhst* (vyas) elm 6bUb (byl') a tale Ba3b (vyas) bond But in older Eussian t, had a value something like the to in " nut," and l a soft short t-sound. Hence the differences in conjugation and declension between po4'L, p64a (po4^ generation), and pon., pia (poTT> mouth), lepeTL to rub, ipy I rub. This is because in all open syllables (i.e. ending in a vowel) -b and l became mute ; in all closed syllables (i.e. ending in a consonant) t> and b disappeared when unaccented, or became o and e when accented. E.g. 4T.h6, 4XH1.' (the bottom), now 4U0, 40H'b; pin.', p^ia (the mouth), now poTL, pia; 4bub', 4bHft (day), now 4eeL, 4Ha [d'nya]. Obviously then t. and b can only occur medially (in compounds) and finally. Further, theoretically no Eussian word ends in a consonant; the mute vowel is always added, even in foreign words. e.g. J6h40h^ London BpibccejL Brussels Latterly, there is a tendency to discard final i, when it is merely orthographical. b KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. § 8. The Consonants — Voiced and Unvoiced. The consonants must first be divided into unvoiced and voiced (e.g. in English t and d, f and h). We then liave : — Mutes unvoiced : „ voiced : Nasals : Spirants unvoiced : „ voiced : Labials. n f) M «I> B Dentals. T n Gutturals. K r X 'he remainder must be separately classed : — Sibilants. Unvoiced : c iii Voiced : 3 h; Compound •I 4'H cmisonants. Liquids : .i and p. § 4. General Observations on the Consonants. (1) There is no nasal guttural in Iiussian, like the ! English ng. , e.g. HseiiKa (z6n-ka) little woman (hk as in pa^icake) ' (2) When 5, 4, r, b, 3, and jk are final consonants, j they are sounded like n, t, k, •!», c, and m. ; e.g. pa5i. (I'ap) slave • 4^4^ (d'et) grandfathei- \ pori* (rok) horn j ocipoBi. (6stn>f) island ji j .lO'/Kb (los) lie j pon. (ros) of the roSe^ \ PRONrNflATION. 7 {?y) When ill coiiipoiinds t precedes 4, the first t is assimilated to a. e.g. OT^aih (ad-dfit') to give up (4) When in the same syllable 3 precedes m, or c precedes in, the combination is sounded like jkjk, and 111 iii. e.g. noavKC (pozzi) later BbieiuiM (vyssi) highest (5) .1. is scarcely found in original Russian words ; is almost disused, and has the same phonetic value, just as ^>/6 in "phonetic" has the same sound as / in "■ fine." (G) When k and r precede t in the same syllable, lh(iy are commonly sounded as x (kli). e.g. Horifl (nokhtya) of the nail KTO (khto) who (7) Other instances of assimilation {these constitute rules) : — 6y4TO (biitt^) as if c^lijair. (zdebt') to do . on. 3apu (adzari) from the dawn np6cb5a (proz'bs) request CMacTbe (scust'e) happiness H3B63MMia. (izvoscik) driver MTO (sto) wdiat MHrh'in (myakhki) soft .»er4e {h^khc-e) easier Gciundly speahing the subsequent letter, voiced or unvoiced, attrcicts and assimilates tlie 'preceding. 8 RUSSIAN GRAMMATl. (8) «i before n is sounded m. e.g. cKyniio (skiisn^) weary (9) All consonants are sounded, except ^ and t in -34H-, -CTH- ; A in cojime (sontsi) sun ; jl final after labials. e.g. noa^H'iH (pozni) late BjacTHWH (vlasny) powerful pyCjb (I'up') rouble ■ MbicJL (m^s) thought § 5. The *' Hard " and " Soft " Consonants. Preliminary. The vowels have already been divided into two sets hard and soft, i.e. plain and ioticised, viz. : — Hard: a a bi o y t. Soft : a etui e k) b Some consonants can be combined with any of the vowels. These consonaiits are either hard or soft accord- ing as the voivel folloiving is hard or soft. Other consonants are naturally " hard " or " soft," and can only be used with certain vowels. \ The strictest attention mtist he paid to these rules ; as they explain the inflections, and dispose of most of tJw apparent exceptio7is. (1) The Labials. The labials n, 6, m, b can all be either " hard " or " soft," and can be used with any of the vowels. But note that a is inserted after ii, 6, m, and b in all '•' soft 10 and e. niONUNCIATION. nominal forms and in all verbal forms before (lav it') to catch JOBJK) (lavlyii) catch ToproBaTb (t9rg;?vat') to trade ToproBja (targovlya) trade Otherwise n, 6, m, *, b are sounded like English p, b, m, f, V, subject to the general remarks in § 4 (2). (2) The Dentals. The dentals can be used with any of the vowels. But they modify their pronunciation, and are changed in derivatives and verbal forms into palatals when " soft." T, x and n " hard " are sounded as in English. TB and 4b are sounded midway between t and c, soinethinglike the cockney "don7-?/er know ?" "dic^-you?" Hb is sounded moidlle like Spanish n, French and Jtalian (^i. These sounds are here denoted t\ cV and n. Thus we have : — Hard : la [la] ibi to tv tt. Soft : Tfl Tc TH Te TH) Tb, soundcd t'a, t'e, etc. ^oft derivatives : mc HV e.g. n.iaiHTb (plat'if) to pay n.ia»iy (placii) Tpay MCIOTIITb (msbt'if) to thrash MCIOMV {moh^A) I thrash MOJOTflTT, (m^lot'it) they thrash 10 RUSSTAN GEAMMAR. Uii.^ler identical conditions a cluni<^(^R to wj. e.g. cjiAAvnicn (styditsa) to be ashamed CTbi4/iTCfl (stydyatsa) they are ashamed hnf cTWJKyci. (styzns') I am ashamed liussian, however, has some Church Slavonic deriva- tives, in which under these same conditions t became m, and 4, >K4. e.g. npe^T. (pret) before (preposition) npevKAC (prezdi) before (adverb) cjaA-i:iH (sliitki) sweet, cjaine (slasce) sweeter poAHTb (rad'it') to bear, povu^aTh (razdaf) (3). The Guititrah. The gutturals k, r, x are in Eussian words never combined with a, a, i.i, o, lo, f.. In Old Eussian, before these vowels, they were regu- larly changed in all nominal and verbal inflections and in all derivatives to i\ and h, h; and ui or c respectively. In modern Eussian these changes only take place in verbs and derivatives. Tlie series of liard and soft gutturals is as follows : — Hard: na ko kv m. Soft : i;e kh t^of/Dei'iratires: «ia Me mm mo or mo mv or mi Uy Similarly with r and x ; but r changes to vk, and x to HI. Thus : ra le imi ro ry n. Derivatives nta iKe vhii vko or jiie Hiv Hiii xa xe XII xo xy xi. Derivatives lua me iiiii nio or me mv mi» or mi, PRONUNCIATION. 11 Thii.^ in ItUMsian tlie " hard " noun BO^iin. (volk) wolf, lias a plural boji.ii, but an adjective Boniii. Time., too :— 11 para (Prag?) Prague, has an adjective npa;i;ci:iM Bon. (Bokh) God, CoHtecTBo (Bazestvo) deity CKah'aTi, (skakat') to leap, CKa«iy (ska^ii) I leap ( = kio) Bepxi. (verkh) above, Bcpiiii'iua (virsin?) the height K is always like the English h except in cases noted in §4(0). vF is always like the English g in '-got" or "give" : excqit (1) it is nsed to represent the foreign sound,/'., e.g. ro.uaii4ifl (Gollandiya) HoUajid ; also in the Eussian word Tocno^r. (Haspod') Lord. (2) It is sounded like a voiced x before dentals, e.g. Tor4a (takhda) then ; also in Bori God, and names of towns ending in Gypn.. (3) It is sonnded b in the adjective gen. sing, termination -arc, -ore. e.g. caMoro (s?>m9v6) of himself 4ypn6ro (durnov^) of the bad man Aooparo (dobr^v?) of the good man X is always sounded as in German ac]i or icli,. e.g. xaia (khata) hut xi'Mbiii (khily) feeble caxapij (sakh^r) sugar (4) The Sihlla Jits and Compound Covsoitan/s. c, 3, III, JK, H are ahvays sounded like the consonants in the English words sword, iseal, short, leisure, church ; subject to the general remarks in § 4 (2, 7, and 8). 12 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. c and 3 can be hard or soft and take any vowel. When " soft " they are sounded high on the palate, as though a sharp i-sound followed. They are here denoted as s and 1 m is a combination of s and ^, which has to be practised. iK, m, and n are always hard. H and m always soft. They can only be used with the following vowels : — Hard: iKa jkc iKii jko or jkc iKV jkl or iin. ma me mw me or mo mv mt or mi. ua qe uli and uh ug uy q-b 10, a, bi are never used after jk, «i or u\. c and 3 in soft derivatives change to m and m, e.g. 34*601. (zd'^s) hear, 6jh3i (bliz) near, 34'feraHiM, o.iiriKHiM. Soft: •la •16 'IH »io or qe 'ly •l^ ma me lUH mo or me my mb However, .though in modern Eussian the three sibilants m, }k, h are accounted hard, in older Eussian m and m were soft ; and the same rules of pronunciation in unaccented syllables apply to ma, iKa, na and ma as to a, viz. the vowel-value changes from a to i, and not a to 9. e.g. nacoBHa (cesovnya) clock-tower iKapa (zi>pa or zira) heat marii (segi) steps PRONUNCIATION. 13 n is always hard; it can, unlike aaiy of the otlier sibilants, be followed by w ; and, like them, unaccented uo always becomes, and is written, ue. Nom. Instr. e.g. OTeuT, otu6mt> the father (at'ets) (atsom) H'feMeUT. IltMUeMl the German (ne'mits) (nemtsim) i.e. m should have been spelt ne. Accented : luo Hie or >K0 Me or MO uo me or uio Unaccented: lue }Ke Me ue lUc (5) The Liquids. A and p can be accompanied by any vowel. The pronunciation of both J^ and Ah is quite different from that of the English /. .IT,* is a guttural-sounded / produced by raising the l)ack of the tongue and contracting the air-passage : the front part of the tongue is drawn back and rounded, whilst the lips are rounded. It may be imitated by pronouncing the English word ptdl deep in the throat. Jt is a palatal almost like the French I in " vil." p^ is trilled, more like the Scotch r, pt is palatal with a faint yod-^omi(\. These sounds can only be acquired by ear. With regard to the liquids .1 and p two special rules of formation should Ije noted : — In roots of the type rpa4T., ropoAi/ (grat, gor^t) town, the Church Slavonic had the monosyllabic form, * In Polish written I. 14 KUSHIAN GKAxMMAi;. Kussian the dissyllabic ; aud as the Church language has greatly intlueiiced Eussian, the modern language has examples of both. e.g. 3JaT0, 30.1010 (z]at.>, zobtc?) gold ; cipaua (strma) land ; CTopoHa (stsrma) side; xpaunib (khranit') to preserve; xopoHHTb (khjr^nit') to bury ; i6po4'i» (g^rc^t) city ; but IJeTporpiU'b (Pitragrat) Petrograd ; ocpei'L (b'erek) coast; but npnopevKbc (pribrezi) the foreshore ; Mojo^b (molod) young; Mja^nie (mhidsi) younger. § 6. CONGLOMEllATED CONSONANTS WHEN FlNAL. Eussian dislikes a word ending in a conglomeration of consonants. Thus Egypt is ErHnen. (Yegipit), where erb would in Old Eussian have been written bn.. [v. § 2 (6).] Similarly, in neuter and feminine nouns, where the genitive plural is the root, e.g. a^ao, 4li.i'b (d'e'L?, d'el'), -erb, deed, a vowel o, e or e is sometimes inserted, especially when the last consonant is a or p. e.g. cecTpa, cecTpi, or cecTepij (sistra, syostr or sistyor) sister; nrpa (igra) game, adjective Hiopubiii (igorny) ; cBaAboa (svad'b;?) wedding, cBa4e6'b (svadip) ; leiKa (tyotka) aunt, leTOKb (tyot^k) ; 6acHa (basnya) fable, Gaceub (l)asin) ; najKa (patk?) stick, najoKb (pabk). § 7. Transliteration into Eussian. The Eussians, possessing their own special alphabet, have to transliterate foreign names and words. Within the limitations of their script they strive to be phonetic. For h they use r. e.g. TaMoyprb Hamburg. IVKU^'UNCrATJON. 15 For the English th they substitute t. e.g. Smith Cmhti.. For German en, cm they use eii. e.g. JeiixTCHoepr^ Leuclitenberg. For the French u, German u, they use lo. e.g. l>pK)cce.ib Briissel (Brussels). For the French CU', German o, they use and write e. e.g. TeTC Goethe. For the rest they try to represent sounds accurately, e.g. 4HieuT.ibMeu'L gentleman, lipaMTOUb Brighton, KOMH.ib*o comme il faut, UoauKapa Boincare, TyjouTi Toulon, /Kain, Jean, 4HHti"T» Dinant, dyBeH'b Louvain, KpiHeiKaab Brzezaii. All these foreign words, if they end in consonants or vowels that accord with Kussian declensions, namely b, b, ii, a, a, o (neuter), e (neuter), are declined in the same way regularly. e.g. liaKouoMb by Bacon, bt, Jyeeuli in Louvain, BT, Jiiuaii-fe at Dinant (or Dinan). [v. § 23 (3).] § 8. EussiAN Diphthongs. Eussian diphthongs are nearly all formed with u ; and are aii, aii, sounded like i in " white," only broader; eii and fjii like eij in "grey," but longer; oh, eii almost a^ English " boy " ; and yu, lou like id in " bruited." The digraph ay denotes a true diphthong only in fcjrei'jjn words. e.g. BpayHiUBCHn, Bpaym. Braunschweig (Bruns- wick) Brown. In Eussian words (when found) the a and the y are separate vowels. e.g. ecay.1T. a Cossack captain. Cf. in French •' cao?^tchouc." 16 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. § 9. The Change of e to e. The reader will have observed there is no symbol for yo, and the diaeresis over e is only used in elementary school-books. The following rules will guide him in the pronuncia- tion of 6 as ye, or yo. The rule is that accented e preceding a hard con- sonant or oxytone is pronounced e. e.g. cejo (^ilo) village, plural ce.ia, ceji. (s'ob, sol) ; luaneTT, (pJaSit) he weeps, but pacTeit (rastyot) he grows ; pyHite (ruzo) gun ; cMepib (smert') death; ejyiiiKa (yolusk^), eJKa (yolk^) fir- tree ; MepiBbiu (myortvy) dead ; KOiieMi. (k^nyom) by the horse; Hauie (nasi) our (neut. nom. sing.) ; tboc (tvayo) thy (neut. nom. sing.). Exceptions : — e accented before a hard syllable is- not pro- nounced e — (1) In words ending in -eux, e.g. KyneuT> (kupets) merchant. This is because u was originally soft, [v. §5 (4).] (2) Before the adjectival terminations -ckIh and -uiii, which are unaccented and were originally preceded by b, softening the consonant. e.g. HtCHa (^ina) wife, plur. jkchw (^ony), adj. jKeHCKiu (^enski). (3) In foreign words, (apt'ek^) apothecary's shop 6iueT'b (bilet) ticket 4enema (d'epe§3) despatch E AND K. 17 (4) Tn words from Church Slavonic, e.g. upecT't (krest) cross iieoo (nebi>) heaven, but ueoo palate of mouth Ha4eH{4a (uad'ezd^) hope, but Ha4e>Ka (popularly) And in some few other words, such as ^epsKJii bold, 4ep30CTb boldness, cKBepubiH nasty, VHeoubiM educational, jeei. lion (but .leBL the name Leo), npe4MeT^ subject. These luords may also he taken as an exercise in the application of the rules rcgardinrf pronnnciation. (5) In some words where e should be spelt ■!, whicli never undergoes this change, cf. § 2 (3). e.g. o.iecK'b brightness, Meihiii little, Mej04t trifle, Bpe4^ damage (6) The preposition 6e3T> without, which is generally proclitic. e.g. tei mma (bisscita) without a shield (7) In the words eepxT, above, uepuoBb church, nepBbiH first, HeiBcpri Thursday, 'lepnaib to draw up, MepKHVTb to grow dusk, CTepsa carrion, cepn'b sickle, Bcpoa willow, cep4ue heart, HCHeai vanished, yate already, Booome in general. e remains before a soft consonant : — (1) In declensions and conjugations where other forms are hard and e is regular. e.g. Hccemb Heceii, HCceMi, Hccexe thou carries t he, we, ye carry yiecT. precipice. Ha yiect on the precipice so Oepeaa birch-tree, bt* Gepeat in the birch. 18 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. (2) In the instrumental singular of soft feminine nouns in a, like the hard nouns. e.g. rposoK) (rpoaa threat) scMJeio (3eM.ia earth) B^it Moeio, TBoeK), cbook), witli e not e. Also before the adjectival termination -liiii. As explained in § 33 (8), this -v\\\ is a grammarian's mis- rendering of the former form -Koii, and, this k being only visually soft, there is no real exception to the rule. So, too, mena cheek, iuckh cheeks (because after gutturals h\ is never used ; v. § 5 (3)). (3) In the following words i becomes % like e, e : — 3Bi34a star 3B-b34bi (plural) THfe^o nest THtsAa (plural) npioSptoa to obtain npioSpi.n.* (past tense) qBtcTH to bloom iiBiiTj (past tense) d^AAo saddle ci^Ja (plural) Ha^'feBaTb to dress Ha^iBaHT. (past part, pass.) nosiBbiBaTB to yawn 3aneHaTjiH'L impressed CMiiKa sally These words are merely onisspelt. In two words a is sounded e : — TpacT. he shook, sounded TpecT> 3anpan» he yoked (his horse), sounded 3anper7. Lastly, ea, the genitive of OHa she, is sometimes pronounced ee like the accusative (which is ee, sounded yiyo). * And other compounds of this verb. ACCIDENCE. 19 ACCIDENCE. § 10. The Parts of Speech (saciH pbMn). The parts of speech in Eussiau are : — |(1) Nouns, HMfl cymecTBHiaiBHoe Declined <(2) Adjectives, hms npH.iaraTejbHoe 1(3) Pronouns, MtooHMcHie Conptgated (4) Verbs, r.iaro.i'b Declined (5) Numerals, hma HHCJHTejiHoe /(6) Adverbs, Hapiqie 1(7) Prepositions, npe^.ion* Unin fleeted ( ^ . . , (8) Conjunctions, cofoai. (9) Interjections, MeHt^OMeiie There is no article. Occasionally 046 ht. (one) is used as an indefinite article. There is no special form for adverbs formed from adjectives. The neuter singular is used, except in adjectives in -cniH, where the form is -ckh. The verbs only have one regularly formed tense, namely the present ; and no other personal forms, for past tenses, passives, moods, etc. These meanings are supplied by other simple modifications. c 2 20 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. THE NOUN (uMfl cyniecTBHTdbHoe). § 11. Preliminary Observations. The Eussian noun has three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter (p64bi MyvKecKifi, jKeHCKiu, cpeAHin). But Eussian presents no great difficulties in the ascertainment of gender, for — (a) Nouns 'proper or common denoting males only, whatever the termination, are masculine ("natural" gender). e.g. HBaiii John, IleTa Peter, IlBaHbKO John, Boe- BOAa general, cnpoia orphan (masc. or fem.). (/3) Nouns denoting females always have a feminine termination ("natural" and "grammatical" gender coincide). (7) The inflections of the masculine and neuter are identical, save in the nominative, vocative, and accusative singular and plural ; just as in Latin helhtm only differs from equus in these cases. (8) Generally speaking, the termination fixes the gender, unlike French or German, where the beginner has no guide, and can only leam by rote. (i) Thus, nouns ending in t., b and m are masculine, despite foreign etymology. (ii) e.g. CTOJ'b table IJapb Tsar GaaacT. basis mpH^T-b writing yHHBepcHTeTi university KOHb horse KpHSHCT. crisis coJOBeii ciOHT, elephant nightingale Nouns ending in 0, e, e are neuter. e.g. noje field cojHiie sun 4^.10 fact C-kibe washing THE NOUN. 21 (iii) Words ending in a, n, b are feminine, despite foreign etymology. e.g. pyKa hand iiyja bullet 4paMa drama {to Bpufia, le drame, das Drama, etc.) With this apparent exception, as in Latin cmd Greek, that words in a and n of masculine signification are masculine, but declined like feminines. Unlike German or French, the gender primarily follows the meaning, not the termination. e.g. MVHiHHHa man cjyra man-servant AK4a uncle IleTa Peter (short for IleTp^) WHOUia youth yGiflua murderer (masc. or fem.) Masc. Fem. Neut. Terminations: 'Lao b » e H h Mil § 12. The Declensions. There are three declensions. (1) Original o-stems : masculines in i., b and il, neuters in o, e, e. (2) Original a-stems : feminines in a and a. (3) Original ^-stems : (a) One masculine word, nyib path. (^) Many feminines, principally abstracts in -ocTb, e.g. cKopocTb speed. (7) Two relics of older declensions : Maib, Maiepn, cf. mater, matris, mother ^04 b, AoHcpH daughter 22 RUSSIAN GlIAMMAK. (8) Neuters in ma, mchh. i e.g. HMfl, HMCHH name, cf. Latin nomen, nominis ; ciMS, \ ctweHH seed, cf. Latin semen, seminis [v. § 2 (2)] ; In Old Slavonic there was, as in Latin, ^n t^txdecleiision (e.g. j tnanus, manus). This has disappeared, but has left traces in the j irregular genitives and locatives in y of the first (Russian) ' declension : also in the masculine genitive plural termination -OBb. § 13. The Cases. j There are seven cases. \ (1) Nominative, IlMeBMieJbHbiH na4e>Ki, (2) Vocative, 3BaTe.ii.HbiH „ ] (3) Accusative, BwHHTeibHbiH „ ' (4) Genitive, Po4HTe.ibHbiH „ (5) Dative, 4^TejbHbiM „ (6) Instrumental, TBopHieJbHbiH „ ; (7) Locative or Prepositional, 11 pe4.i6>KHbiH na^eJK'b This list looks formidable, but, as with Apollyon!&-i Jion in " Jhe Pilgrim's Progress," apprehensions vanish i on a close approach. | The vocative only subsists in a few Church words, ! e.g. BoHie from Bor^ God, XpHcie from XpHCTOci. Christ, | r6cno4H from rocnoAb Lord, Incyce from iHcyci. Jesus, ! oTMC from OTeuT. father, [v. § 69, IT.] | The objective is identical with the nominative in • all nouns denoting inanimate, but with the genitive in , all nouns denoting animate objects. This rule has one j exception— for the one instance where the accusative \ has an independent form, namely, the accusative , singular of nouns in a and n. ' e.g. il BUA^n* Uap/i (genitive) h Hapi'my. ■ I saw the Tsar and the Tsaritsa. ' \HMTe.!b HpOMeJb Bame coMMHeuie. j The teacher read your work. i TlfE NOUN. 23 The original Slav accusative has vanished (except in the singular of nouns in a and fl), and has been replaced by the nominative or genitive forms. In all negative sentences the object is in the genitive, whatever the noun, and without exception. e.g. fl He OKOHHU.!'!* CBOeft paooTbi. I have not finished my work ; the genitive being partitive in meaning " nothing of my work." fl nHKor4a He c^bixaxi. laiuix^ CKaaoK^. I never heard such stories. The instrumental case marks the agent by whom, and the locative or prepositional is used to denote the place in which ; in modern Eussian it cannot he used hj itself, but only with certain prepositions, hence it is often called the " prepositional." e.g. B'L ce.iii (fsile) in the village. fl roBopiUT> HHKOJa-fe (ya g<>vml aniki^laye). I was talking of Nicholas. Thus, virtually, 'there are only five separate forms for the cases — nominative, genitive, dative, instru- mental, and locative. § 14. The Numbers. There are two numbers, singular and plural (e4HH- cTBCUHoe MHC.fo, MHOrKecTBeHuoe MMcio). The forms arc almost identical for masculine nouns in i, b, ii, and feminines in a, a ; neuters in o, e, e only differ in forndng the nominative and accusative plural in a, », as in Latin. In ancient Russian. there was a dual, but this is obsolete. Some few forms of it survive as irregularities, [v. § 24 (3).] The plural of nouns in h, of the third declension, is slightly different. 24 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. § 15. Hard and Soft Nouns. All uouns of the first and second declensions are "hard" or "soft" throughout: i.e. there is a douhle scheme of declension in " hard " or " soft " vowels, according as the root is hard or soft. Those who have learnt the rules in § 3 and § 5 will find no difficulty in grasping this fundamental difference, which underlies all Eussian inflections. /^Nouns of the n declension, the third, are naturallj^ all " soft." Scheme of Declensions. First Declension. Second Declension. Third Declension. Masculine. Hard. Soft. Neuter. Hard. Soft. Feminine. Hard. Soft. Fem. Neut. Sing. Nom. 1. b ii ■ c e a n b MH Ace. Like N. or G. e e y K) b Ma Gen. a[y] «W a « bl H n MCHII Dat. y Rl y R) •I; li II Menu Instr. OMb eMT> OMb CMl 010 , CV) iK) MBHeMb Loc. ny] •fe[K)] * U ■\i 1: n MeiiH Pltir. Nom. u It* a n bi II 11 Mena Ace. Like N. or G. a a Like N. or G. H MCHa Gen. OBT) eii GBi eii b eii -b b eii eii MOIIb Dat. aM'b HM'b aMb AMI a Mil a Ml. HM'b MCliaMb Instr. aMH HMH aMH HMH a Mil HMH bMH MCHaMH Loc. axb flXb axx flX'b axi axT, axT, MeiiaxT. It will be observed that scarcely any divergence. in the plurals tliere is FIRST DECLENSION. 25 § 16. K v'amples of Masculine Nouns in the FiKST Declension (nepeoe cooneuie). Singular. tooth work cry N. V. 'S\6% TpyAi. KpHKT, Ace. ayo-L Tpy4T. 1 KpHKT. Gen. ayoa ipy^a KpUlul Dat. 3y6y Tpy4y Kpiiuy Instr. ayooMT. Tpy^oM^ I KpMKOiMI. Log. 3^6t Tpy4i o KpMK* Plural. N. V. ■ 3y6bi TpyAM KpMKU Ace. 3y6M TpyAhi KpMHH Gen. SyOOB'L TpyAOB^ KpMKOB'I. Dat. syGaM'L Tpy^aML i.puKaM'i. Instr. 3y6aMH Tpy4aMM KpikaMH Loc. 3y6ax^ S i , TpyAax'L ingular. KpuKax'b key a German march K Y. K J 10*11 niwein. 1 MapuiT, Ace. lu K)'n. ni>Mna Mapiii^ Gen. luio'ia fltM ua Mapiiia Dat. hMIOHy E'liMUy Mapniy Instr. k.ik)'i6mt> lliMUCMI. MapiUCMT, Loc. 1 HJlO'lii Plural. Mapmi^ K V. lUIOHH niMUbi MapniH Ace. K.no'ni IliMaCBX MapiiiH Gen. luHOMeii HiMUBBI. Mapmeu Dat. lUIO'iaM'L HiiMuaMi. MapmaMf. Instr. OIOMiiMIl : iriiMuaMH JwapuiaMii Loc. IUlOHaXT» 1 H^Muaxi Mapuiax'i. 26 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. These six examples illustrate regular forms in *' hard " consonants. Please observe the variations necessary, after gutturals and 'palatals, and re-read § 5 (3) and (4). The rules in § 5 apply to all deelensions and conjugations . Thus KiiOHaMT. is sounded klucam, wapiUH marsy, etc. Exa7np)les of Weak Stems. Singular. K V. hero repoH horse KOUb battle 60H knife (« originally soft) hojkt. Ace. repoa Koua oGii HGJKl. Gen. repoa Koua 66a HGJKa Dat. Instr. Loc. rep 6 10 repoew^ repoi^ KOHK) KoneMT. KOfli 66 K) 666^11. ^6^ HOHSy HOJKi K V. repoM Plura KOHH I. 6gh HGJKH Ace. rep6eBi> KGHeM 60H 1JG2HH Gen. repocBT, Koueii 6GeBb iioJKeii Dat. repoa M-b KG u a Ml. 6Gavib HG/KaM'b Instr. repoa MH liOHaMH 6oa\iH HGVKaMH Loc. repoa XT. KG Ha XL 6o:iXT. HOHiax-b These examples should be learnt by heart ; tliey are explained, and rules stated, in § 5 (3) and (4). §17. Examples of Neuter Declension. Hard Steins. Nouns OF First yoke Singular. village quality K V. A. uro ce.i6 Ka'iecTBO Gen. I'l I a ceja Ka'iccTBa Dat. 11 ry cciy Ka'ICClBV Instr. HroM^ CClOMb KaHecTBOM-b Loc. Hit ce.rfe lia'iecTBife FIKST DECLENSION. 27 Plural N. V. A. lira ' ceja KaqecTBa (len. H lb ce.rb ha^ecTB^ Dat. jiraM^ ' ce.iaMb KaqecTBaMi Instr. MraMH 1 cejaMii KaHCCTBaMH Loc. I'lraxi ce.jaxT, KaHCCTBaXT. Soft and Sibilant Stems. Singular. sea school N. V. A. Mope y4H.iHme Gen. Mopa yHHJHiua Dat. MOpK) yHHJHmy Instr. MOpCMT, yMHjnmeMT. Loc. MOpi Plural. yMHJHUlt K V. A. Mopii vHMjiHma Gen. Mopeii y^HjHmi. Dat. MOpKMT, yqHjHmaMT. Instr. MOpHMH yqiuHmaMM Loc. Mopax-b Singular. gun yiiuHiuaxT. knowledge N. V. A. pyjKbg 3HaHie Gen. py}Kba snauifl Dat. pyjKbK) JHaHJlO Instr. pyajboMb seaHicMb Loc. pyjKb'fe Plural. 3HauiH N. Y. A. pyjKba SHauia Gen. pyajeM 3uaHiu Dat. pyiKbflMb 3HaHiaMi ^ Instr. pyjKbflMH 3iiaHiaMu Log. pvHibaxb 3naHiHXb These example s should be le arnt by heart ; a dis- cussion of them wi U be found in ^27. 28 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. § 18. Examples of the Second Declension (Biopoe cKJOHeflie) in a and h. The scheme for these nouns is : — Singtilar: N. V. a H Plural. LI 11 Ace. y 10 Like N. or G. \\ ^ § 1'^] ( Gren. LI H T. L Dat. * t UML nM'I. [nstr.oiooii* BIOeH* aMU AM 11 Loc. il t ax'L flxi. Exa mples : — Hard. Singular Hard. Soft. Sibilant. widow hand bullet soul K V. B40Ba pvKa iiy.T« 4yilia Ace. B40By pvKy ny.iio 4yiJjy Gen. B^OBbV pVKH nyjn 4yuin Instr. b40b6io pyKOK) 11 y .16 10 4ym6io D. L. B40Bi pyni Plural. ny.i-fe 4yiiiii K V. B^OBLI pyK« ! nvjH 4yiuii Ace. B40BT. pyKH I ny./iH 4yiij'L Gen. B40BT, pVKT, riyiL 4yui^ Instr. BAOBaMH pvKaMH ny.ia\m 4yiiiaMii Dat. B40BaM'L pynaML nyjflMi. 4yiiiaMi. Loc. BAOBaxi. pynaxL IiyJAXT, 4yiuax'b Sibilant. Singular. Hard. Fricative. Fricative. candle tear empress food K V. CBtna cjcaa uapMua nil ma Ace. cbiiHy cjeay mipimy numy Gen. CBi'lM cjesia uapiiuLi nnmu Instr. CCBtHeK)| (CBtHOK)) cjeaoio uapuneio numeio D. L. CBtnt cje3'fe uapHui nam* * Contracted form. SECOND DECLENSION. 29 Plural. N. V. i CBt'lH c.ie3bi uapiiubi Ace. CBb'IH ciesbi uapim-b Gen. CBtMT> CJe3T. uapuu'b Instr. cetMaMH cje3aMii iiapnuaMH Dat. CBtnaMT* c.ie3aM'b uapHuaM-b Loc. CBtnaxi. cjesaxT. qapHuaxi For pr onunciation consult §§ 2 (2), 5 (3), 5 (4) >S(9/if and Vocalic Stems. Singular. earth lightning family N. V. 3eMj« MOJHia CCMbji Ace. 3eMJK) MOJuiK) CCMblb Gen. .leiMjiii mojhIh CCMbH Instr. 3eM.ieK) MOJBieio COM be 10 D. L. 3eM.i1j MOJBill CCMbt Plural. X. V. 3eMJH MOJHJH CeMbH Ace. 3eMJH MOJHiH ceMeJi Gen. 3eMe.!b M6.1Hiu ceweM Instr. 3eMJ»MH MOJHiflMU CCMbaMU Dat. 3eMjaMT, MO.IHiflM'b CCMbaMT. Loc. 3eMJjixi MO^lfliflXT. ceMbaxi Examples of Mase. in a, a. Singular. Hard. Soft. N. V. CTapocTa elder 4a4fl uncle Ace. CTapocTy 4fl4K) Gen. CTapOCTbl 4H4M Instr. CTapOCTOIO 484610 D. L. CTapo( :t' ^ 1 4A 4* 30 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Plural. N. V. ciapocTbi AMU Ace. CTapocn. men Gen. ciapocTT. AUea Instr. CTJipOCTaM 11 miiMw Dat. CTapociaMT. AWM-h Loe. ciapociaxb 4H4axi> These examp] es should be learn t by heart. § 2 (5), § 9, and ^ J 11. Consult § 19. Third Declension (ipeiBe cKJoueeie) : .Nouns in h and ma. These nouns are always soft ; most of the terniina- tions are in H.* Masculine. ly one example survives : — Sing. Plural. K Y. A. nyiL path N. V. A. nyiM G. D. L. nyiM Gen. nyien Instr. nyicMT. Dat. Instr. Loc. nyTHMT. nyTHMR nyxaxT. Formerly there were others of this type ; e.g. 4eHb day, now a soft masc. of the first declension. But " after midday " is " no- uoAfnaa " (p^paludni) ; 4bh being the old genitive. § 20. Third Declension in h : Feminines. These are numerous and important. In form they are liable to confusion with soft masculines like kohl horse. * Just like the Latin turris ; with which type they correspond philologically. THIKD DECLENSION. 31 E.g. Smg ular. bone horse door jK Y. KOCTb .louiaAB 4BepB j Ace. KGCTFi .i6nia4B Q) Gen. K('»CTII .loiiiaAH Mi • i-i Dat. KOCTH .lomaAH Loc. KOCTH .loiuaAw Instr. KOCTBH)) joma^BK)! Dec koctIk)) jomaAHO ) Plural. K V. KOCTH .wmam O) Ace. 1 KOCTH joiuaAeH Gen. 1 KOCTeH .loma^eH CD ri Dat. KOCTttMT. joiiia4«M'B li Instr. 1 KOCTBMH .lomaABMM o Loc. KOCTH Xt .loiuaAttXT. ft Singular. fortress care N. V. KptnocTL OCTOpOHtHOCTb Ace. KpinocTL OCTOpOJKHGCTB ^Gen. KpinOCTH OCTOpOHJHGCTH JDat. KptnOCTH OCTOpOHJHGCTH [Loc. KpinocTH GCTGpOHtBGCTH Instr. Kp-fenOCTBK) GCTOpOJKHGCTBK) Plural. N. V. 1 KpinocTH — Ace. KpibnocTH — Gen. KpinocTeH — Dat. KpinOCTHMT. — Instr. KpinOCTBMH — Loc. KpfenocTax-B — Observe aei 3pB wild beast, which is now masculine has 3BifepBMH in str. plural, b esides SB-fepaM H. 9^2 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR, § 21. Third Declension in ii : Neuters in mji. Consult § 2 (2). Those who know Latin grammar have learnt tlie forms like nomen, nominis, semen, seminis. The Eussian words of this type are very similar. E.g. Sing, name flame tribe seed Nom. Voc. Ace. MMfl njanfl njewfl ciMa* Gen. Dat. Log. MMCHU 1^ &0 33 Instr. HMCHeMT. Flur, sa as ^^5 ^ J Nom. Voc. Acc. MM en a ^Z -a ^-^ Gen. MMCHL QJ o M SI Dat. HMceajut 3 3 -a 5 Instr. HMeHaMH M ^ J Loo. HMCHaXT, r^ § 22. Third De CLENSiON : Eemains oj Older Forms. (1) Feminine ; There are only two. Singulc ir. mother daughter Norn. Voc. MdTh 40HL . A. G. D. L. ! MaiepH AOHCpH Instr. MaTCpbK) AonepbK) Plural Nom. Voc. MaTepii Aonepif Acc. Gen. Maiepeii AO^epeii Dat. Maiep/iMi 40HepaMT, Instr. rMaiepHMn [ (AO'iepkmi (MaiepfeMM Loc. MaiepHXT. 404epaxT. Cf . mater, mdtris ; fi-flT-np, nvTpos ; dvydr-qp, duyarpSs. * Cf. Latin si men. THIllt) DECLENSION. 33 (2) Neuter: There is only one, and this noun is iiregular. Smgular. Plural. child children Nona. Voc. Ace. 4MTa Nom. Voc. xim Gen. Dat. Loo. 4HTaTH Ace. Gen. Atieii Instr. AHTHieiO Dat. AtlflMl. Inst. (andA-feTJiMH) Loc. 4taxT, § 23. (1) The foregoing sections, 16 to 22, illustrate the rules of Eussian declension. Some space must still be devoted to apjparent exceptions (for euphonic reasons), to true exceptions (which are very few), and the principles of the accentuation in each class. It is assumed that the reader has mastered §§ 2-6 and § 9, which supply the phonetic basis, the funda- mental laws of Eussian orthography. (2) Some nouns are used only in the plural. These are masculine, feminine or neuter, according as their genitive assigns them to one or other of the declensions. e.g. Hoa^HHiibi, H6a«HHU5, etc., fern., scissors mnnubi, mnnaotft, etc., masc, pincers BopoTflr, BopoTT., etc, neut., gates (3) Some nouns are indeclinable; namely, those which do not end in t., b, h, a, a (m. and f.), and o, e (neut.). Such are (i) a few Eussian words, e.g. K6«i>e coffee, (ii) Many foreign words, especially proper names ; e.g. CapiH Sarti, IIeTpy4H0 Petruccio, Asm Loubet, Mapicuo Martello. The case in which these nouns stand must be under- stood from the context; e.g. bt, noaaiu J6nr*e.uo in D 34 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Longfellow's poetry, bo BpeMS iipe3HAeuTCBa Kapno in the Presidency of Carnot. On the other hand, names like PcHaHT. Eenan, ^HnaH^ Dinant, Aaxeat Aix-la-Chapelle, IlIo^^^^ Chopin, are declined like ordinary nouns, [v. § 7.] E.g. ViHh c'ipa B^yap^a Fpea, the speech of Sir Edward Grey (rpeii). § 24. Eemarks on the Masculine Nouns of the First Declension. (1) In old Slavonic, as in Latin, there used to be a declension in " u," e.g. mdnus, manus ; e.g. in Eussian CHBT> son (Gothic simus). This declension has com- pletely vanished, but has left traces in the following irregularities : — (a) Some nouns, denoting materials, have mostly unaccented genitive in -y, -K). e.g. HaK) from naii tea caxapy from caxapi sugar Hap64y from HapoAt people e.g. Haiuna naio a cup of tea, but aion, po^i. caxapa this sort of sugar. e.g. MHoro napo^y many people, xapaKiepi, aHrjiii- CKaro Hapo^a the character of the English people. Also in the phrases : — 01. Bepxy from on high CT. HH3y from beneath 6e3T> tojIkv senseless HST, BH4y out of sight and a few others. REMARKS ON FIRST DECLENSION. 35 (/S) Some monosyllables have a locative iu -y, -k) accented, used with bt. in, na on. e.g. Bi .itcy in the forest, but npn j-fecfc at the wood Bi. ro4y in the year Bt 6oK) in the fight vh Kpaib on the edge Ha jib4y on the ice m> CH-fery in the snow BT. paK) in Paradise Ha 6epery on the shore [v. § 5 (5).] (7) CM HI. son, KVMT. godfather, and others, insert the syllable -ob- into the plural. e.g. [cbiHbi sons (poetical)] cEiHOBbii KYMT, godfather KyMOBbJi 3aTb son-in-law aflTCBba CBarb marriage-broker cBaTOBb« (8) It is in the nouns in " u " that the genitive plural -OBT. originated ; it has spread to nearly all masculine stems. (2) Some nouns form their plural in -ba ; this is really an old feminine collective form. e.g. oparb brother, Gpaiba (gen. dpaibCBi, dat. SpaibaMT,, instr. CpaibSMH, loc. Gpaibaxi) KaMCHb stone, KaMenba stones, KaMHH single stones Cpocaib KaMHflMH, not KaMenbaMH, to stone a man ciyjix a chair, ciy.iba cym. a bough, cynba [v. § 5 (3).] yrojib coal, yrojba d2 36 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. .3y6T> tooth, 3y6i.a teeth (of a machine), .lyohi teeth (of a man) JMCTL leaf, .iiicTba leaves of a tree, .ihctm (leaves of paper) 4pyn. friend, ApysBH (gen. 4py3eii) KHfl3b prince, KUflsii (gen. KHsaeH) uymi husband, MyjKL'i (gen. MyjKefi) 3aTii son-in-law, uhtlh (gen. BflTeii), also 3flTeBi.tt 4eBepb the husband's brother, ^eBepbJi (gen. ^eeepen) (o) Some masculine nouns form their plural in -a. e.g. pyKas'L sleeve pyhaoa Gepen. shore 6epera r.ja3i. eye oa3a n6./iorb bed-canopy uo.iora pen. horn pord KO.IOKOJT. bell KOJOKOJa It will be observed most of these are essentially (heals in meaning ; this a is the old dual, Nom. and Ace. Cf. § 26 (5) {B). This a ending has been extended to a few nouns — e.g. ropoAT, town ropo4a .i-fecL wood .itca fojIOCI voice rojoca 40 Mb house 40Ma as well as most loan-words in -epb and -opi — e.g. 46KTop'b npo*eccopT. KyHCp'b hut aKTep'L doctor professor coachman actor (French acteur) 40KTopa npoeccopa Kynepa aKiepbi HMnepaTop'b Emperor MMnepaiopbi REMARKS OX FIRST DECLENSION. 37 Other instances are :- 6opa3^ x.iioT, shapes bread oopasbi shapes xAWbi loaves o6pa3a images x.ii6a corn noirb colour UBiibi flowers UBtia colours Mtx^ bellows wtxi'i M-fex^ fur Mixa OpACHl the order opACHbi the orders (e.g. religious) op^CHa the orders (decorations) (4) The genitive plural of masculines in --h originally ended in -t., and was only accentually differentiated from the nominative. This genitive plural in -i, still obtains in the neuters and feminines. [v. § 24 (1) (8).] Hence it is (v. paradigm § 15) that masculines ending in a weak consonant form the genitive plural in -eu ; e.g. uapt, nap/i, uapn'b, which became uapb'ii, and was pronounced and spelled uapefl in Eussian, after t and b had become mute. So, too, words in -jkt., -a, -mi. (e.g. HOiKT> knife, HOHia, uojKeM), because [v. § 5 (4)] jk and m, and q and m were all originally soft. But H is regarded as a consonantal ending, and takes -CBT. ; e.g. cipoii construction, cipoeo^. Some masculine nouns still have a genitive plural in -b, Gen. phir. e.g. Bojoct hair BOJOCb paai. time (so many times) pa3i caiiorb boot canon. 4paryub dragoon 4paryH^ TVpOHT. Turk TVpOK^ rpcHa^epT. grenadier rpeBa4epi rja3^ eye TAdLd-h peKpvTb recruit peKpyrL 38 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. as well as all those which form their nominative singular in -hut,, and are thus distinguished by diversify- ing the nominative. Lastly, masculine nouns of measurement — e.g. *yBTT. a pound (= '90 lb. avoirdupois) caHtcHL a lineal measure ( = 7 feet) make their genitive plural thus : 4»yHTi, caJKeaT,. (5) Nom. sing, in -hhi.. Many words, especially words descriptive of race, creed, etc., have a singular with the adjectival form -Hirb [v. §34(2)], but drop the -hhi. in the plural, forming the nom. plural in -e or -a. E.g. Eoman Christian PMMwiaHHUT> xpHCTiaHHin, xpHCTiauHna xpHCTiane xpHCTiaBT> Tatar master TampHHT. TaiapHna C Tarapbi ( laiape Taiapt xosttHHT. (master of the house) is not quite regular, the singidar, xo3aHin,, xo3HHHa, etc. Plural Nom. Voc. xo3aeBa |cf. § 24 (1) (7) | „ Ace. Gen. xoa/ieu^ „ Dat. Instr. Loc. xoaacB-, avii, aMH, axb In this connection [v. § 34 (2)] the possessive adjectives in -hht. used as proper names are declined as stated in that section, and not like the above. Nom. sing. Gen. sing. Nom. plur. Gen. plur. PuMJflHUHa Phmjjihc Phm-iahi, Nom. sing. Gen. sing. Nom. plur. Gen. plur. cap H HI. fnipHiia 6ape 6a p^ Englishman AHIJHMaHHBT. AHriMMaHHHa AniJHHaHc AHFJHHaHl. wife's brother mypHHL uiypHHa mypba mypbcB-b In REMARKS OX FIRST DECLENSION. 39 (G) Trre j^nilar formations. Singular. Christ The Lord Nom. XpHCTOCL FocnoAL (Haspud') Voc. XpocTe r6cno4H Gen. XpucTa r6cii04a Dat. XpHciy r6ono4y Instr. XpHCTOMX r6oao40MT. Loo. XpHCTt r6cao4t , neighbour devil Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Nom. Voc. coc447. C0C'b4M 'loprb* HepTH Ace. coct^a 000*46 M I Mopra Hcpieu Gen. etc. Mopia PL, G Dat. ^ en so pry s^ Instr. ■rS o ^6pT0M^ Loc. • P » soprfe .1-1 o HeJOB'feKT,, man (in general : MyjKb husband, MViKSMua male), generally forms its plural in jk)4M (declined like a plural of an u stem). When the plural is used, the genitive plural is MCiOBiKT,, e.g. 4Ba4uaTb Me-iOBtKb twenty men. § 25. Accentuation of the Masculine Nouns of THE First Declension. Most masculine nouns retain the accent of the nominative ; but, as the original nominative termination 'b has become mute, and cannot be accented, some nouns seem to throw the accent forward on to the other terminations. * Not to be confused with Mcpia (fern.) feature. 1 40 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. E.g. HeJOBiia man, capaa barn, CpaiL brotlier, retain the accent on the syllable accented in the nominative, i.e. on the stem; e.g. qcJOBiKOMb, capafo, Gpaia. No general rule can explain the variance of the accent ; the following principles may be a guide. I. The following derivatives were originally accented on the termination x, and therefore throw the accent forward on to the other terminations : — (1) All names in -hht., e.g. KapaM3MHij Karamzin. (2) All words in -em, e.g. Kvnea^ merchant. (3) All derivatives in -ain.,* -MK^, -/iirt, -6[a, -ejKT., -ji^-b; e.g. Aypaia fool, ciapHKb old man, na^eiK^ case, na.iaqi executioner, KycoKi. morsel, CKpnna4T, fiddler, tio^hkl mattress. (4) All derivatives in -yni,, -apt (except rocy^apB Lord, as a royal title, rocy^apa), -hipt, -Mpi>, and the months in -6pi> ; e.g. ^eBHiaro oiiTflSpu on the 9th October, laovHi. herd of horses, cTO-i/ipi. carpenter, nysbipt bellows; but nanubipt (naHUbipfl) cuirass. (5) A very large number of words, such as cTo.n. table, 6biKb ox, jkchmxtj bridegroom, n.!04'b fruit, no^iKT, regiment, asbiKi. tongue, niiyxT. cock. Nothing but reading and practice can determine which these are. II. Secondly, many words retain the accent as in the nominative in the singular, but throw it forward in the plural; e.g. ca^T* garden, hhht, rank, man. step. '^ Qi. the Greek accent aKos, ik6s, REMARKS ON FIRST DECLENSION. 41 III. Thirdly, some words throw the accent forward >n to the terniinatioQ in tlie genitive plural and follow- ing cases. e.g. 6orb god ooroBL BOp'L thief BOpaMH rB034i» nail rB034HMH Kpyn. circle KpyraM'b .leoe^t swan .ie6e4KX'b r In all cases the original accent on the nominative must he learnt from the dictionary or a teacher; as a general rule, a masculine noun that throvjs its accent forivctrd on the genitive singular throius it forward on to all the terminations; and a noun not accented on the last syllahle retains the same accent throicghout. This section must he read suhject to all the rules stated in § 24 and § 9. § 26. Kemarks on the Neuter Nouns of the First Declension. Except, in so far as the masculine nouns have more inflections, the special remarks in § 24 apply to neuters as well. (1) In § 24 (4) it was observed that all masculine nouns of the first declension ending in a consonant -j- b or -iKT,, -HIT., -un., -'IT, (which were all originally soft, v. § 5 (4)), form the genitive plural in -eii. The same applies to all soft neuter nouns in -e, and the same arguments hold good. e.g. n6.ie field nojew 42 RUSSIAN GKAMMAll. But, with this difference, neuters in -ijo, -ne, -mo, -me, -mo, -me, -ho, -mc, form the genitive plural in l. e.g. 0^640 shoulder n.ie4T, [v. also § 26 (5) (0).] i ffiHjjime home mttAuux'h | .iHuo face MMVh i f Nouns in -Be form the genitive plural in -efi, the ' reason being that the b is inserted to divide the ' syllables, so that such words come under the general ^ rule of neuters ending in e. | e.g. pyjKi»e gun pyjKCH | nHTbe drink nHxeti ' (2) Neuters in -ie, and feminines in -ia (these termina- j tions being unaccented) spell the i terminations as ^ they are sounded, viz. h. 1 e.g. nouHMaiiie the understanding ] Loc. noHMManiw ! These nouns in -ie are very common, being the ] regular verbal nouns formed from the infinitives to } express the abstract idea of the verb. j e.g. BbipaJKHTL to express, BbipavKCHie the expressing HM^Tb to own, HM^Hie the estate i I The genitive phc7^al in nouns in -ie and -ia is -iii. < e.g. fl lie xo'iy cm HM'tiiiM j Ya ne khacu yivo iniSni j I do not desire his property ] In poetry and colloquial speech such nouns are ', contracted, e.g. JKCJaHbe for jKCiaiiie. { REMARKS ON FIRST DECLENSION. 43 Some such nouns form a genitive plural in bCBL, v.<^. iLiaibc clothing, njaibBBT, ; uymaHbe food, KymaHbeBi ; but these are exceptions, for such nouns are in reality paroxytone collectives, the old collective termination being -be, plural -ba. These nouns are only found in the contracted form, . and may be compared with the plurals 4pv3bff, Spaiba ■[v. §24 (2)]. (3) Mixed masculine and neuter declension. Augmentative nouns in -Mine, e.g. cejo village, ceJHine a big village, form their plural like that of the soft masculine nouns, e.g. KOHb. Thus ccJMmH, ccnimeM, etc. But luaAOWine, cemetery, is regular; the augmentative sense has disappeared. So, too, diminutives in -kg. e.g. cj 0864 KG a little word PL Nom. Voc. Ace. cjobchkh H Gen. cjGBe'ieKT. [v. § 6.] Observe, too, g»ik6, ohkh (little eyes), now spectacles ; OHiioBT,, and so on. Some other miscellaneous examples are : — cojiHue sun cojeaaand-bi ccuhucbt, A HO bottom 4HbI 4GHT> aoJGKG apple /iojgkh ao.ioK'b or aoJGKOBb (4) Plurals in -ba [v. § 24 (2)]. Neuter words capable of a collective meaning have a collective plural like the masculine nouns, e.g. 4epeB0 tree 4epeBba nepo feather nepba b'pbuo w^ing Kpb'ua and KpbUba 44 EUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Observe. — kojIhio, knee, has three meanings and three \ plurals : (1) iio^bHa family or race ; (2) koj^hh, KOJ^aeM ^ knees; (3) KO-iiabJi, KO^itHLCBT. knots on wood. i (5) hrcgitlar forms. \ These may conveniently be considered under two f- heads : (a) obsolete declensions, of which a few relics i subsist ; {l3) dual forms. j (a) Ohsolete forms. * HeQo heaven, Hy40 miracle, cjobo word, Ao body, , Kojo wheel, formerly belonged to the same declension j as the 'LdXin genus, generis, Greek t^ec/)©?, ve(f)ov<; (vecpecro^;). : Hence the adjectival forms are: CjiOBecBbiH literary, | ne^ecubiii heavenly, Hy4ecHbiM wonderful, Ti^ecHbiH , corporeal, and KOJecHbin pertaining to a wheel. '. Of all these forms only two survive in regular use : MVAO, MVAeca, MVAeci, [not Hv^ecT,, cf. § 9, exception (4)] ; '' and Heoo, HeSeca, iieoecb [not Heoeci.]. \ The modern Eussian for wheel is K0.iec6, plural KO-ieca. i CioBO and t^jo are regular like a^jg. ! In words denoting the young of animals a plural j -j'rra is still used, the singular being -eHOKi,. e.g. KOTeHOKT> kitten kot/itq, KOTHi-b HJepe6eH0KT> colt HtepeoHia, Hjepeohb BOJ'ieuoKb wolf-cub BO.i»iaTa, BOJMai'b [v. § 5 (3).] So, too, nbinjttTa chickens, peoHia children (in lofty language, used as the plural of peStiHOKb), etc., and also BHyKi grandson, BHynaTa great grand-children. ACCENTUATI02S OF NEUTER NOUNS. 45 (B) Dual fomis. ()K0 eye (poetical only) yxo ear KO.i'bno knee CTO one hundred iiJC'io shoulder 0«1H, 04eu \ uiH, ymeii KO^iliHH, huiieeii 4U'fecTn two hundred nie4H, nJCH^ § 27. Accentuation of the Neuter Nouns of the First Declension. As in all cases the accent on the nominative must he ascertained from the dictionary or the teacher. words reverse the accent in the phtral. e.sr. T'klO Mope cejo peSpo 4epeB0 nUCLMO npaBO cep4ue Except 6.if04o ropjo body sea village rib ' tree letter right heart vessel throat T^ja Mopii ceja [v. § 9.] pcopa ^epeBta nwcbMa, nuceMi. iipaea cep4ua 6jK)Aa ropja Trisyllabic nouns, if oxytone, have the plural paroxytone ; if the stem is accented, make the plural oxytone. nClOTHO 3epKa.io KpyvKeeo 036 po wheel cloth mirror lace lake Kojeca no.! 6th a 3epKa.ia, sepKa^n* or aepKajt upyiKeBa, KpyHseBi, 03ep{l or 036 pa l 46 RUSSIAN GRAMMAK. j Derivative nouns in -ie, -ctbo, retain the same accent. I e.g. cymecTBo being cymecTBa 3HaHie knowledge .^HaHia ; npaBHTCibCTBO administration npaBihejhCTBa I § 28. Eemarks on the Second Declension. (1) Genitive plural in -b and -ch. ■ Practically the same conditions obtain as with the . neuters, [v. § 26 (1).] ' Soft nouns in -a and -na, -ma and -jKa, regularly form | the genitive plural in -h and -ht>, and the instrumental ' singular in -eio, -CK) ; -h6k), -hck) ; -moK), -raeio ; -jkok), ! -H;eK). [v. § 5 (4).] So, too, nouns in -qa preceded by i a vowel: instrumental singular -now, -qeio; genitive | plural -ixh. * But nouns in -na, -Hta, -ma, when preceded by a ', consonant, form the genitive plural in -en : and the same applies to nouns in -ma. e.g. BCKma squirrel BeKmeii capaHMa grasshopper capaHHeH Similarly: aw uncle 4«4eH H03Aptt nostril Hos^pen Aojfl lot 40ib and ^ojea aapa dawn* aapt and aapea Nouns in -i>« also have a genitive plural in -eii regularly, when accented ; -in unaccented. e.g. jryaba liar jiryHia CTaiba article cTaieH rocTba guest (fem.) rocTiii CBHBb/l pig CBHHeH * Also the evening half-light. REMAKKS ON SECOND DECLENSION. 47 (2) lu ordinary speech and in poetry tlie instru- mental singular -oH), -eio is contracted to -ou and -efl, and often thus written. (:{) Many nouns in the second declension are masculine, because of their meaning, as in Latin affricola. e.g. 4H4a uncle, lOHoma youth, Cauia diminutive of AjieKcaH^pi., Kojfl diminutive of HHKO.jau, IleTa diminutive of lleipi, ciyra servant (feminine form ciyjKaHKa), cnpoTa orphan, masc. or fem. according to meaning, cy4bfl judge, 6poA«ra vagabond. (4) There are very many derivative nouns in -ia, amongst them the loan-words from the Latin tio, e.g. Hauifl nation. The rule regarding these is the same as with the derivative neuters in -ie [v. § 26 (2)], namely that the ife forms are written and sounded h. e.g. apMifl army, Bt apiviiH in the army, apMiii genitive plural; so, too, ApMCHifi Armenia, AHr.iia England, paHuia France, etc. Note. — Mapia, o Mapia ; but Mapba, o Mapbi, Mary. § 29. Accentuation of Second Declension. The rules for the accentuation of this declension are comparatively easy. Only oxytone nouns, i.e. those accented on the final syllable, can shift the accent. All others retain the accent on the same syllable. Of oxytone nouns only those which are dissyllabic can shift the accent. i 48 RUSSIAN GEAMMAR. { Amongst these [v. § 5 (5)] must he included liquid stems, such as 6opo4a beard, rojOBa head (contrast uaBa chapter). J 4 Trisyllabic and polysyllabic nouns retain the same ■ fixed accent. i For the oxytone dissyllables there are two sets of " rules. j (a) The accent goes back on the root only in the 1 nom. plur. e.g. B40Ba widow B^OBbl B0.IH4 wave BOJUbl ■ Hrpa game Hrpw ptKa river ptKU cy4i>tt judge cy4bM cjyra servant cjyrM : CTpija, arrow CTptlbl CTpyHa string (e.g. of violin) CTpyebi . y34a reins :?34M 1 and a few others. (/8) The accent goes back to the stem in the ace. ^ sing, as well. . i e.g. pyKa hand pyKy, pvKH \ (Occasionally, by analogy, jKCHaMT., HteHaMH, HteHaxi ; ; cecTpaMTj, 3eM.iflMT>, 3Bi34aMT) are mistakenly used.) \ 6opo4a beard 66po4y, 66po4bi % B04a water B64y, B64bi | Hora foot Hory, Horw i KEMAKKS OX TllJUD DECLENSION. 40 § 30. Eemarks on the Third Declension. The original uouus belonging to this class are few in number, but very common in use. Some of them have both Slavonic and Eussian forms [v. § 5 (5)J. e.g. BOJOCTL an administrative district, BjacTb power.* The derivative nouns in -octl are innumerable, and abstract nouns are mostly created with this termination. All such derivative nouns accent the root-syllable, [v. § 98, v.] e.g. era pi. old, cTapocTt old age. (1) There is a special accented locative ending in I'l, used only after Ha and bt. [cf. § 24 (1)]. e.g. rpy^b breast, ua rpy4H ; b^tb-l twig, ea b^tbh ; cieuB steppe, bt, cTcnH ; Pycb Russia (poetical, usual word Poccia), ua Pvch. (2) IJepKOBT. church, has in the dat., instr., and loc. plural a for a. i.e. uepKBaMT., -aMH, -axL § 31. Accentuation of the Third Declension. The accentuation follows the paradigms in § 20 ; but some reservations must be made. (1) Many of these nouns accent the termination on the dative, instr imicntal, and locative i^lural. e.g. AOJJKHOCTb duty, 40.1}KH0CTHMT>, -bMM, -HXl * Such feminines in -ocTb and -ml correspond etymologically with the English forms " migh^," " draught," German " Wach^," etc. E rpy4b breast KOCTb bone HeCTb honour OCb axle 50 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. 1 (2) Amongst such nouns, the following have the i accented locative singular [v. § 30]. | 6poBb brow ncMb oven ci»i3b connection ; p^Hb speech nacib part ■ cienb steppe n.i6ma4b \ rfeiib shadow public square ] utiib* chain ' § 32. The " Euphonic " Vowels o, e, e. ; In § 2 (7) and § 6 brief reference was made to the ; former vocalic values of t, and b, as short 6 and i, ] and to the aversion of the Eussian language from heavy i combinations of final consonants, especially when there are liquids (such as b, p and a) in the conglomeration. < Under these two heads simple phonetic changes, vjhich are written, occur in all the declensions, and these rules must be applied to all of the declensions. ^ I. Extrusion of t> and h when unaccented. The : ancient Eussian for ''day" was 4bH-b'. When b became j mute, being " open/' the first vowel was transformed to e ; ; hence the nominative AeHb, genitive 4h/i. Similarly \ 4h6 bottom, gen. pi. 40Hx (for AT>H-'b', AT»h). \ This law may be tabulated : — j T., originally accented or in close syllables, becomes S ; unaccented disappears. \ b, originally accented or in close syllables, becomes • e or e ; unaccented disappears, or is retained '\ in spelling to soften the consonant. \ ^ I * Not to be confused with qtob flail. i THE EUPHONIC VOWELS AND e. 51 e.g. .loob (formerly .ilo'i/) forehead, gen. .loa ; poT^ (formerly pirb') mouth, geu. pia; .leui. (formerly jbBT>') lion, gen. .iboa*; cott., gen. of CTO (for c^To), one hundred; Aexb ice (.ibA-b'), gen. JbAci.* Tncidentally it may he stated here that the great complication in the accentuation of masculines arises from the loss of the final inflection of the nominative. Most Russian nouns retain the accent on the same syllable ; hut where the original inflection was formerly accented and has become mute {i.e. either "b or b), the accent had to he throion hack. In the fcminines and neuters the original inflection a, 0, has been retained ; hence the rules are much simijler. W Similar instances are : necb dog, genitive nca ; Mun,, but M ni Be uie, both meaning moment, the latter should have been spelt MbrnoBeHie; Mr.ia mist, for MbiJa; bo3t., verbal prefix meaning " up," but Bspaciaib to grow up (for Bi,3pacTaTb) ; coH-b sleep, caa ; .leui. linen, .ibHa, etc. As a contrast: Kussian, Me4b, Me4a mead (the drink), Old Eussian, Me,vb, Me^a; i.e. the original accent was on the stem. Some other instances may illustrate the same point. All derivatives in eyyh (formerly eub) were once oxytone, i.e. accenting the termination b' ; hence, they ''throw the accent forward " in the other inflections, and extrude the e of the nominative which is merely epenthetic, a strengthening of the original b (oibUb). * The b is retained to indicate the soft sound. e2 52 KUSSIAN GRAMMAK. So that the genitive of OTem> is oma ; so, too — livueuT. merchant Kvnua B^Heu^ wreath Btnua Ihtt, where the -eaT> is unaccented, the accent is stable and the form merely abbreviated in spelling, e.g. HiMCUT. German (for HiMLHL), IBMna, etc. Conversely in the genitive plurals in t, or l, o, c, e must be restored. e.g. HHUO egg flUUT,* MO evil 30.11, KClbUO ring KOJClVb nncLMo letter nwceML OKUO window 6 KG 111, CTCKJO pane of glass CTeKCIb Kpecjo armchair upecci'h OBua sheep OBenb cy^boa fate €74601, py4Ka little liand pyncKL none una the coin KoneeKi, And observe that after a voiocl the si/mhol h replaces the symhol L, hut has the same value. e.g. luefl neck, diminutive uieMiia, meeni,, i.e. seika, sei'k ; cojOBeH nightingale, cgjobbh, cojOBbeBi, ; MypaBLeii ant, MypaBbii, MvpaBbcBi,. In these last two instances eii represents an original b'ii, which in Eussian became eii. The original inflection would have been cojOBb'ii, cciOBbJi. II. Insertion of o and e for euphony. Similarly, heavy final combinations of consonants are lightened in * Irregular for a^qb. THE EUPHONIC VOWELS AND e. 53 the nominative singular of masculines and genitive plurals of feminines and neuters ; i.e. the terminations in I, and f.. Some instances have already been given; CTCKJo, Kpecio, nilCbMO. Others are VIZ. -/UllVXO Clit/ Qen. Plur. Mapna a mark (German coiu) MapOKT. Mr.ia needle iiroj'b nrpa game Hropi, poara cane poaon. cecTpa sister cecTep-b or cecTpi. ntcHfl song ntccH'b 6apbiiuefl " mademoiselle " Sapbiiuenb COTHfl a body of one hundred corcHT, Kvxua kitchen KyxoBT. or KyXOHb 3evij>i earth aCMLMb peopo rib peoepT. Be4p6 ewer BeAep^ In the nominatives : — Gen. ope.li (pronounce aryol) eagle op.ia oroiiL fire ornH B-feiep-K wind Bbipa unxopb whirlwind BHxpa Hae.Mi. hire HaiiMa ooeu'b warrior 6oHu:i :m}iin» hare .aauua Observe the vowel o ore is inserted according as the syllable is hard or soft. 54 RUSSIAN GliAMMAE. I Thus, too, ThMa darkness, reMHLiH dark, Tmaieji.iio ^ (for Tiimare-iLno) in vain, TOiniii lean, and compare * Russian Aom, ^o'lepn, daughter, with tlie Church j Slavonic 4mepn (for xunepii), cf. dvyuTepe^.* ^f An apparent exception really confirms the rule, ] namely, that, when the effect of extruding the euphonic *J vowel would be to accumulate consonants, the vowel is j retained. S e.g. MepTBein* corpse MopiBena j 6.iH3nein. twin fuiiSHena ' III. Nevertheless, some heavy combinations of final i consonants are tolerated. ■i (1) In loan Avords. .i e.g. iiipii«i>n. type (from German) [v. § 11 (8).] MHHMCTpT. minister (from French) (2) In the genitive plural of the abstract termina- tion -CTBO. e.g. ooiuecTBT. from ooiubctbo company 1 MHiiHCTepcTBi. from MHHiiCTepcTBO ministry ^ (3) In a few words where resolution would not be \ easy. ^ \ e.g. HJepTBa sacrifice >KepTBT> ^ (4) In such words as py6j i. (masculine) rouble, KopaSj f. - ship (masculine like KOHh), the .i is mute. [v. § 4 (9).] ■ (5) In the formation of predicative adjectives no \ vowel is inserted before p. e.g. Mv^pi, wise, Gbicipi. swift, [v. § 36 (4).] ♦ Whence n44Mepnna, § 97. THE ADJECTIVE. 00 IV. In tlie feminine in m of the third declension observe — UL'pKoab chnrch uephBii, uepKOB^K) .IK)06bI> love .IIOOBi'i, JWOOBbTO BO III h louse BllIH, BOIIILIO .lOHJf. lie .iiuii, .JOHibio pojKb rye p'/Kii, po'tio But when JioooBb is a girl's name it retains in "o" throughout; thus, »1k)66bh, Jwoobbk). THE ADJECTIVE. § 33. Preliminary Observations. (1) The syntactical importance of the adjective in Russian. In English the adjectival function can be expressed in many really irregular ways ; e.g. by a noun, " the village pump " ; by combinations of adjectives and nouns, " the Civil Service Examination," even to the point of ambiguity, e.g. "the Women's Eed Cross Slavery Abolition League " ; also, vulgarly, by adverbs, " this 'ere bloke." In German, also, long compound nouns are yet more used to show the dependence. Eussian adjectives are fully declined in gender, number, and case. In Eussian, composition of words is rare and occasional, and fully declined adjectives must be used, e.g. syoHaa 6o.ib tooth^ache npaBwidbCTBeHHbie vKaubi government decrees Sapaubfl uiepcTb sheep's wool, etc. Cf. in French, le ministere de I'interieur, Home Office ; les perquisitions militaires, war demands. 56 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. (2) In addition to this, Eussian frequently prefers an adjective where other languages use other forms. e.g. cTCKj/iBHaa SyibLiKa a glass bottle, une bouteille de ver; St. Elias' day Thbi'im. 4eHt; Igor's Army HropeBi. nojKi,; the local custom TaMomiiiu viau 34tiiiHiH oSbinaH (from laMi. there, s^tcL here) ; a reindeer's horns o.ieHbH pora. Such adjectives are called j^ossessive, e.g. HeTpoB'b npasAUHKi. St. Peter's holiday : HapnubiHO ce^o the Empress's village; or descriptive, e.g. GojKiii xpaMi. God's Temple. Ordinary adjectives when used with nouns are called attrilmiive, e.g. Aoopbui good, xyAOiKecTBeHHbiM artistic; i.e. those not attached to some particular noun, and not serving as a kind of inflected genitive. (3) Except in the nominative (e masculine, a feminine and neuter) there is no distinction of gender in the plural adjective. (4) Itussian discards the copula " I am, he is," etc., and uses a special form as the predicative adjective ; this form being the nominative, singular and plural, of the old simple form of the attributive adjective. e.g. fl reopriu I am George OH'b CTO.iap'b he is a carpenter OHU Milt SHaKOMbi they are known to me (5) The attributive adjective can in general have two forms as stated in the preceding section (4), one full, when agreeing with a noun, the other predicative ; the latter only used and only surviving with a nomina- THE ADJECTIVE. 57 tive form. (Certain predicative relations are expressed by a dative or instrumental, v. § 69, Y. and VI.). This apparent anomaly requires explanation. In older Eussian, as in the Teutonic languages, there were two forms of adjectival declension, the determinative and the simple. The simple form, as in most European languages, was inflected almost the same as the noun, an adjective being in a sense only a fuller form of noun capable of all three genders. Thus Eoinanus in Latin is exactly like equus^ horse, Rdmana like meusa, and Bdnidnum like helium ; so, too, ingcns has the same forms as gen^, and so on. Similarly, in French the adjective occidental follows the form of the noun chevcd, and occidcntcde of any feminine noun. In Latin there exists little but a grammarian's distinction between homes, hona, good, masculine and feminine, and fllius, fllia, son, daughter. So, too, in Eussian the simple adjective originally followed nominal declensions almost exactly. But, there being no article, the Old Slav pronoun h, he (obsolete in Eussian), was compounded with and postponed to the simple form to make the so-called determinative form [v. § 35]. Thus as in German we find guter Mann, but der gute Mann, in older Eussian, too, two forms existed. In modern Eussian the determinative form has swept the simple form out of existence, except (a) in the jtdminative lohen used prcdicativehj, (/S) in the 'possessives and descriptives, some of which follow tlie simple in- flection, (7) in rather high-flown archaistic style when the old simple forms are used. 58 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. (6) The accentuation of the determinative, possessive and descriptive forms, is constant ; that of the simple form is very difficult, as difficult as the nominal forms which it follows. We have seen [§ 25] how the loss of the nominative suffix 'i., h has confused the rules for accentuation, and [§§ 27 and 29] the slighter variances in the neuters and feminines. All these rules come in to complicate the formation of the predicative adjective. (7) In modern Russian no instance survives of adjectives in the third declension. (8) In the eighteenth century, when Lomonosov (1711-1765) created the modern Eussian script out of the old Cyrillic, and set hard and fast rules for Russian, the grammarians introduced some unnecessary com- plications in the spelling of the determinative forms ; e.g. HOBLiM new, 4HKiM wild, for uobom, 4Hkoh (hobwc masc. pi., HOBbia feni. and neut. pi.). (9) The adjective may acquire a substantival meaning, but is still declined as an adjective. e.g. ropoAOBOH policeman nopTeoil tailor naciKovioe insect CTCioBan dining-room 4'})TCKaa nursery § P.4. The Simple, Possessive and Descriptive Adjectives. (1) For reference this is an example of the simple adjective. These forms are now disused save as stated i.1 § 33 (5). THE ADJECTIVE. t>\ Dear Singular. Plural. Masc. Neut. Fern. All genders. Nom. ^opoib 4oporo 4opora 4oporii Ace. Like N". or G. ^oporo 4opory Like N. or G Gen. 4opora 4oporn 4oporHX'i. Dat. 4opory 4oport. 4opori'iM'i. Instr. 4oporHMi. 4oporoio 4oporHMH Loc. 4opor(').M'r. Good 4opoHj 4opornxT, Singular. Plural. Masc. Neut. Fem. All genders. Xom. 4o6pL 40op6 4o6pa 406p:>'i Ace. Like N. or. G. 4or)p6 Aoopy Like N. or (t Gen. 400 pa 4o6pM Aoopwxx Dat. 4o6py 4o6pfc 466pbiMi. Instr. 466pbiM'h 466poK) AoGpbiMH Loc. 46opoMi» 406pi 46opbix'b (2) The formation of 'possessive adjectives and examples. Possessive adjectives are formed from names in the first and second declensions ; those from the first end in -OBX, those from tlie second in -hht., -hh^. The accentuation inconstant throughout all the cases. Adjectives in -OBb, -cbTj derived from monosyllables generally accent the termination : IleTpoB'b Peter's, LlapeB'b the Tsar's. Adjectives in -OB-b, -cbt, derived from other names, not monosyllables, retain the accent as in the name: e.g. AjeKcM, A.^eiicfeeBT. ; A.ieKcaH4p'b, A.ieKcan4poB'b. 60 EUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Adjectives in-HHt are similarly declined, and retain the accent of the name. e.g. Caiiia (Alexander) CaiiiHHT> UnKi'ira* Mkita Hhkuthui. l\Ahk Eliaa lUbWHii TpoHiia Trinity TpoHuwin. cecipa sister cecipMHT. L(apHua Tsaritsa LlapMUbim, 4848 uncle 4tt4HH'L Note. — Nouns in -qa take -HbiHi, ; and myskt. husband, Gpait brother, rocn()4b Lord, irregularly form MyiUHnin,, GpaTHHHi, rocn64eHb. The two following examples illustrate the declen- sions : — Peter's Nom. Ace. Gen. Dat. Instr. Log. Nom. Ace. Gen. Dat. Instr. Loc. Singular. Masc. j Neut. neipoBi, I neipoBG Like N. or G. j II expo bo 11 expo Ba neipoBv IIeTp6BbIMT> neipoBOMT. Lord's Fem. HeTpoBa lleipoBy neTpoBon neipoBOH IleTpoBGio neTpoBoii Masc. rocn64eHb Like N. or G. rocn64Ha roc 064 HM) rocn64HHM[ 1 00064 HCM'b Singular. Neut. rocno4iie rocn64ne Fern. rocn64Ha rocn64HK) rocn64neM rocn64neM roe n 64 new rocn64HeM Plural. All genders, neipoBbi Like N. or G neipoBbixT. IleipoBbiMh IICTpOBbJMW UeipoBbixb Plural. All genders. roc [104 11 ft Like N. or G. rocn64HHxi. roc n 64 n ft. Mb I 0006411 MM H rocD640HX'b * N. e.g. Bf. neipoBOMi, iiHCbMfe in Peter's letter, but a lOBopii.i'L IleipoBfe I was speaking of Pctrov. (3) Formation of descriptive adjectives. Most of these adjectives are soft, being formed from nouns by adding -iii to the stem. The nominative singular is, masc. -iii, neut. -hc, fern, -ba ; and the accent is constant and rt/if^o^ys that of the noun. The accusative singular feminine is also in -i>K). Otherwise their declension is like that of the soft determinatives, [v. § 35 (2).] Observe that the rules in § 5 as to mutation of consonants must be applied in the formation of those adjectives. e.g. BOJKT, wolf, B6.1HiH, BO.IHLC, BO.l'JM Bon. god, GoH^iii, Ooaibc, ooiKba .jHca fox, jHciii, JHCbe, .iHCba 4'IiBHua or 4'feBMua maiden, ^tBUHifi, A'fcBHHbe, 4lJBU4ba iieci. dog, necJH,. necbe, necba, i.e. nccba 3Bt34a the dog-star Also AepcBO wood, 4epeBbaHHbiu wooden KOHca leather, Kosianbiii of leather This termination -aHHbiii is hard, and is generally applied to words denoting materials. 62 russian grammar. § 35. The Determinative Adjectives. (1) The scheme and the form cUion. This form of adjective is the most common in Kussian, embracing all adjectives except the simpler declensions stated in § 34 (1) and (2). The paradigms inserted infra are to illustrate the application of the rules in § 5 to these adjectives. A short historical statement will explain away the apparent complications. In Old Slavonic there was a 3rd person pronoun declined as follows : — Singular. Plural. Masc. Neut. Fern. Masc. Neut. Fem. Nom. H e » H a a Ace. H e K) H a a Gen. ero ero CH H\'b II XI, II XI, Dat. CMV CMy eii 1].MI> HML II Ml, Instr. HML MMl. eK) mill UMU HMH Loc. CMF, CML eii IIX'I, HXL H X'l, By adding this vocalic pronoun on to the simple adjectival forms, like a postponed article, a detenninafice form was obtained, which in the older language had a slightly different meaning, such as is given in English by the use of the definite article. In modern Eussian the simple form is obsolete in the Nom,, but a survey of the paradigm of the full adjective will show where the fusion has taken place, e.g. MOj64i, MO.1046H, i.e. mojo4i.'m, and so on. THE ADJECTIVE. 63 Kemember that in Eussian the r of the genitive singular is sounded b. [v. § 5 (3) (8).] < Masc. Hard Soft* Angular. Neut. Hard Soft Fern. Hard Soft Masc. Hard Soft Plural. Neut. Hard Soft Fern. Hard Soft X. biH in oe ee au nn Lie ie blfl \il biH in oii accented A. AsNorG 06 ee VK) K>K) KorG. Nom. N.orG. Masc. and Neut. G. aro arc oii eii AH genders. L1\T> HX'b oro accented D. OMV CMV oii eii blMT. HMT> I. bi.\n. HMb owt CM) blMH UMU L. OiMTi CMl. oii eii blXT. KXT, The eighteenth century grammarians are responsible for two unnecessary complications. (i) The invariable nom. sing. masc. hard should be -oil, as t» when sounded in Eussian becomes o. [v. § 32, I.] But it was decreed that the spelling should be -oii^ only when the termination was accented ; otherwise -bi ii. Consequently in guttural stems [v. § 5 (3)] this -biu had to be spelled -iii. e.g. uoBbiu new, 4HKiii wild But in such cases Arnik and similar words are still sounded d'iM, as though spelt 4iiKoii; whereas 4iiKie, where the i is there of right, is pronounced d'ikiye. * There are /wsoft adjectives accented on the termination except palatal stems (nominally hard). t Commonly contracted, v. § 28 (2). 64 K.US81AN (IKAMiMAK (ii) The only plural nominative form should be -e. The -a is purely orthographic, and in all cases the e and the fl in -bia, -we, -bia, -Lie, -ia, -ie are sounded alike, viz. ye. e.g. Aoopbia dobryie, xy4bia (xy^oii bad) khudyie (iii) When the termination is accented, it is usual to write -oro and not -arc. e.g. xpa6paro of the brave man (khrabr9V£>) ; but HyvKoro of the strange man (cuzov^). TABLE OF ADJECTIVES. Hard. Soft Masc. Neut. Fem. Masc. Neut. Fem. Full form. -oe -a a -iii -ee -aa MHJOe MHjaa oil H iii cHHee CHuaa Short form. uiwh gentle muo Miiia CHQb blue CHiie CHua (2) Uxa Singular. Nora. Ace. Gen. Dat. Instr. Loc. Plural. Nom. Ace. Gen. Dat. Instr. Loc. m2:)les of the determinative adjective. Masc. Ncut. Fern. (y^Ablii 6iAoe {)iAa/i K or G. 1 Q^Aoe G'fejyw 6ioAafo 6i.io?> 6ijio.Mi/ (yijioii 6^Abl.Mn 6'tio/o (jLlOMn 1 oijow 1 GliAbie 6iAbifi GiU6?,7 N. or G. ()iAbj/i N. or G CrbAbixn (ykibuir, G'iAbl.MU 6iAbixd 6iA'b, 6ibja, 6 tjo, 6'fejw wl lite. THE ADJECTIVE. 65 iNIasc. Singular. Neut. Noiii. Acc. Gen. Dat. Instr. Loc. Nom. Acc. Geu. Dat. Instr. Loc. II Fcm. npaM«/« IipHM//W n pa MOM npaMo?* npaMoV) npaMo/e u\mMon npaMo^ N. or G. iipaMoV II pa iM 0/0 iipaMo'.if// iipawblvs upaMojifS Plural. Masc. Neut. iipaMbV iipaMw/< K or G. upayibi/i u^mibixn npaMbf.i/5 npaMw.iHf uipnMbixn paM'fc, iipaMJi, iipHMO, npaMH upright Fern. N. or G. Nom. Acc. Gen. Dat. Instr. Loc. Nom. Acc. Gen. Dat. Instr. Loc. Blase. ciimU N. or G, Singular. Neufc. Cl'lU^^ CHDfP chh;?/o cimeMy ci'iH^^es Plural. Masc. I Neut. cnH/> I ciiEt'/i I N. or G. ciiui/i ciimixd CHHiurs C11HWJ75 cHHb, CHB^, cAhc, c6hh blue Fern. Cl'lH/OW emeu cimeii cimeH) cimeii Fern. ciiain N. or G. 66 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Singular. Masc. Neut. Fom. Nom. oapaat/e oapaab^ 6apaHb/z Ace. K or G. 6a pail b^ 6apaHb/o Gen. 6apaHb///o oapaHbr^Y Dat. oai^aa bcMi/ oapaab^u Instr. odii^siUhuMn 6apaH b^/o Loc. 6apaHL^.U3 oapaubPiV Plural. Masc. Neut. Fern. Norn. oapaH&M oapaebw oapaubH Ace. N. or G. oapaHbM N. or G. Gen. 6apaHBWoC5 Dat. 6apaubMJH3 Instr. 6apaBb«um Loc. SapaHbMJ'g oapau'm, 6apaHba,6apaHbe, 5apaHbH of a ram [v. § 34 (3)]. Singular. Masc. Neut. Fern. Nom. BCJUKm BCIMKO^ he-man Ace. N. or G. BaiHKO^ Be.lHK^/0 Gen. BCJH mio BeJHKOM Dat. BCJH KOMy BeJHKOM Instr. BCJH mMd BCiHKOW Loc. BeJH KOMH Be.lHKOpaEmy3CKiii French, pyccKiii Eussian, ropo4CK6ul municipal, etc. j (3) COwiLiiioM big (physically): -bciiikt. is used, e.g. j OTOTT* MVJKT> BeJHia, tliis man is tall : but aiOTT, : AOM^ Co-itiuoii, this house is big. i (7) Adjectives denoting materials in -huhIm, e.g. ^' ^epeBHHHbiii wooden, cepeopaHHWH silver, etc., ^ and the descriptive adjectives, such as 5apaHiH 1 of a ram, v. § 34 (3). /( (2) The following adjectives are onli/ used in the predicative form : pa^i. glad, ropa34b skilful. j e.g. fl o^CHB pa4T> I am very glad, ona iia BceJ ropasAa she is clever in everything. % (3) Posscssives [v. § 34 (2)] are only declined with 1 the simple forms. Possessives in -ob^ never shift their accent. Possessives in -hhi. are thus accented: cecTpuHb, cecTpHHa, cecipHHO, cecTpHHW, as ijrcdicatives. (4) All other adjectives have both forms, and the predicative has to be deduced from the determinative THE PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVE. 69 la polysyllabic derivative adjectives tliere is ^(jiLerally no change of accent. e.g. MViKecTBeHHwii masculine, MyiKecTBeiii., >iy/Ke- cTBeima, My>KecTBeuiio [But in simpler original adjectives there is practically no rule but experience. A few instances nuiy be given. e.g. (i) uuBhiii new, iiobx, HOBa, hubo, hobw Thus, too, 6o4p[. gay, oLicxp'L swift, Bcii'iin. big, rop4'L proud, TBcp47. hard, tjix7> still, to.ict7> fat, cTa[)i. old, uluT. whole, MHCFL clean, [v. § 32, II.] Thus, too : — TCMHLiii dark, TeMeux, TCMHii, tcmho, tcmhm KpacHLiil red, Kpaceiii>, KpacHa, KpacHO, upacHW leiubiM hot, Tene.n,, Tcnjii, len.io, Tcn.iw •lepubiii black, 'lepem^, 4epiia, nepuo, HcpHi.'i (ii) rojbiii naked, roji., rcui, ro.i6, raibi Thus, too, BbicoKt lofty, ^a-ien-b far, lajKai-b heavy, okibiii white, lUHpoKT. far. e.g. ^ajcKifi, ^ajcKT., 4a.ieKii, ^aJCKo, 4ajeKH (iii) BOJbHbiii free, BOjeHi., BO.ibaa, eowibuo, BO./ibHbi Thus, too, .lerKiM light (in weight), jeroKi*, activa, wieriio, .lerKU ; ciububifi powerful, yMUbiii sensible. (iv) cyxoii dry, cyxa, cyxo, cyxw Thus, too, 6oc7i barefooted, rjyx7> deaf, rHHJb foul, Aopon. dear, HJiiBb alive, M(S.io4'b young, nan. naked, utMb dumb, n.ioxT. poorly, citni. blind, xpoMii lame, etc.; GojbHou sick, GaicHT,, GcibHii, oo.ibHO, oojbHb'i ; HecTHoii or Heciubiu honest, HecieHT., necTHa, necTHO, HeCTHbl. 70 KUSSIAK GllAMMAK. § 37. Till'] Comparison of Ad.jy.ctiyes.— Formation. (1) The Eussian adjective has two degrees of com- parison, comparative and superlative. .^ The comparative is in two forms : uninflected, ^i;: e.g. odrfce pa^i., from pajb glad ; inflected, e.g. rjyoJKC i deeper, from r.ivooiiiH. i The inflected comparative has a predicative and ] determinative form, e.g. Gfejie, rrkifeiiiuiii whiter. I It is formed from the positive in two ways — by i adding -he, -Mm'\i\ to the stem, the accent generally \ shifting to the termination; or by adding -i,e, -Liuiu to the stem, the accent remaining on the radical syllable, j -ie, -tiiuiiM, has become the regular form. i When adding either termination, -ic or -i>e, the rules , for the mutation of consonants [v. § 5] must be strictly i observed, and should be re-perused before the student \ proceeds any further with this section. In addition, he should remember [v. § 2 (3)] that in older Eussian f> j had a value approximating to a, and therefore, just as ^ K, r, X + a in modern Eussian make 'la, iKa, ma, so, \ too, in the comparatives k, r, x + -Be, -lifiuiiH, make i MaiuiiiH, iKaiimiii, mail mi ii. \ Similarly, ch orci + -Ijiimiil or -remake -me, -maHmiii, ; e.g. MMCTLiH pure, Minne, MumaiimiH ; miocKiw flat, njouui^miii. (2) No inflections for the superlative exist. The comparative form is used, or the positive with j suitable pronouns or adverbs. So, too, *' beautiful," j "content" in English have no inflected degrees of j comparison. r COMPARISON OK ADJECT1VP.S. 71 In some cases, where the shorter comparative is used, the longer form is reserved as a superlative. e.ih<'>io npoHHiaeHbixT.. This is the most interesting book of those I have read. llaiin> ^OMt caMbiii Kpaci'iBbiH bi ^cpeBH'fe. Our- home is the prettiest in the village. (7) The addition of a form of BCCb, all, to the com- parative, either Bcer<') or Bctxi.. e.g. Bra KBiira HHiepecHtc Bcfexi. Koiopbur n npoqina.n,. This book is the most interesting of any I have read. Baiin. coB'feTi nciesB-fee bc1>x^. Yuur advice is the best. i 72 EUSSIAN GRAMMAR. (8) The absolute superlative, as in English, is indicated by the positive with such wotds as oqcHL very, etc. e.g. 06'ij\,'h QbWh 6«ieHL unyceHi.. The dinner was very tasty. (f) The superlative also can be formed by using — BT> BbicuieA cTeneHH in the highest degree. e.g. Ohl bt. Bbiciiieft cienenw BCiiiKO^yiiieHi.. He is most generous. § ?)S. The Comparison of Adjectives. — Eules. I. The uninflected form, i.e. with 6. * He has a keener mind. ^ I (e) Adjectives ending in -eKiw, -ckom. j COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 73 II. Only four adjectives have a simple inflected superlative. e.g. HH3Kiu low HiiHiaumiii BblCOKJii high BbicoHaiimiii rjyooKiii deep r.i\ dona H III iii M:i.ii>]ii small Miuirimiii (better iiaii-MeHLiiic) III. Adjectives in -cbiii, -iijiii, -3lih, -'liii, and many in -i.iii, -rifi, have no dedinahle comparative. e.g. .ihicbiii l)ald .HilC'liO CBtjKiM fresh cubHilje ropii'iiM warm ropai'te Tlie reason probably is that where the regular form -1)0, -liiimiii is used, the combination of sibilants would be too heavy, e.g. .ibimaHUiiH, cBtiKaHiuiii, ropaMaHUiiM, and the want is supplied in other ways ; v. next sub- division. IV. The indeclinable comparative with the prefix no- can be used in concord with a noun. e.g. fl Kyriiui* lu.i/my nooaibuie. I have bought a larger hat. When the object of comparison is stated, the prefix no- has a diminutive sense. e.g. Bauia j6iua4b iioobicrpfee IlBaHOBOH. Your horse is a little quicker than that of Ivan. 74 RUSSIAN GHAMMAK. ! Y. There are two methods of translatincj "than": — : \ (1) Tlie use of «if>Mi., or rarelv neJKe.in : wlieii a i plirase follows the comparison. I e.g. Btott> ypoKT. .ler'ie h^m^ (iieiKe.iH) mh ^y.Ma.in. This lesson is easier than we thought. i (2) When the ohject of comparison is a ncun, the j noun may be in the genitive. \ e.g. lOpiii vMoie cBoero Spaia Ky3i>Mbi. George is more sensible than his brother I Kuzma. i § 39. The Comparison of Adjectives. \ Examples. !■ I. The regular form of comparison is -he, -'fctiiiiin, , predicative indeclinable and declinable. j e.g. jK)6e3HbiH amiable, .nooeairlie, .iiooe.iH'IiiimiH -•fce is often abbreviated to -iii. \ When the positive cannot in any part of its ) declension throw the accent on to the ending, the J original accentuation is retained. £ o e.g. cnpaBe4^MBbiH just, cnpaee^jMB-fce, cnpaBe^.iH- ! BtHiuiii i^ i II. Another very common form is -lb, -hiniii, the \ adjective retaining its original accent. ] This is nearly always used when the positive drops ) a suffix, e.g. -HbiH, -KiM,and the comparative termination is attached to the root. COMPAIUSON OF ADJECTIVKS. 75 AVitli a very few adjectives the predicative neuter -mo, of tlie declinable form -Miiiii, is used alternatively with -I.e. (a) Where the suffix of the positive is retained: — e.g. KpfeiiKifi powerful Kp'fen4e KpfenHaiimiH jerniM light (in weight) ^erne jer'iafimiu MejKJM small MejbMC Me.ihHaHmiii CoHKift brisk SoiiM't^e (a modern form) .i<)Bi;iH clever jOBsfee rophiiiii bitter ropmc (h) Where the suffix of the positive is dropped in the undeclined comparative, but generally retained in the determinative : — g. BbicoKiii high Bbiiue B.'icniiii* BMCOHaHUiiii rjyooKlii deep FjyoHie r.iyooMaHUiiii Bmmvi low HHIKG ni'i3miM HniKaiiiiiift nos^HJii* late no.T.ne* n034Hl»HIIliH 6.1 H3 Kill near 6j hjkc GjHiKanmift y3Kiii narrow yjKC p'^Kifi rare p'iiH.-e pBAHaumiii aia^Kiii sweet (Maiuet cja4HaHiiiiH KpoTKiii gentle [npo^ejt KpOTHaHIIliH KopoTKiw short Hopo'ie KpaTHaHniiii TOHKifl thin TOHLUie TomaHmiii lUHpOKift broad luiipe lunpoHaiiniiii 4aje!iiii far Aa.iLiiie 4a.ibHtiiii]iii * V. § 4 (7) and (9). t A Church Slav mutation from ti.. X More usually no.it.e KpoTiMii. 76 EUSSIAN GRAMMAR. (c) When the positive is not altered, there being no suffix : — e.g. TBep4F.iii hard TBepiKe TBep4'liHuiiH dorjiTWH rich ^ ooraqe | ( oorailic j ooraTtiiiniM \\,\oi'\ bad, lean j xyjKC (bad) i \\xhc (lean) xy4iuiii xy4]>uiiiiii FLIOCKIH flat iLioiue Tuxiii quiet TI'UUC THiuaiiiiiiu (Tporin stern CTp<'>iKC cipoiKa Hill ill Aoporoii dear 4op6H;c 4pavKaiiuiin M0J04(')H young MOiOJKC M.ia4miH ciapbiii old cijipme CTapmiii KpyToii steep npy4e KpyrliMiiiiw 4eujeBijiM cheap 4emeBje nycToii c desolate [ empty nyme nycrlic nymiu nycrliHiuiM 'IHCTblll clean 'iiinic HHcrliMUiiii It will be observed that in modern Eussian the mutations mostly only occur in the uninflected form of the comparative. Note, too — 46iriH long, 46.1 bme (irregular, due to analogy of Gciibiue) 4a.ieKiii far, 4ajbme or 4;'urlie, 4ajbBljMmiii (from 4iUbHbiM) pano (adverb) early, paHbiiie or pauie With these few exceptions the comparison of tlio adjective is regular ; and all derivative adjectives, e.g. 3HaMeflUTbiH famous, proceed in accordance with the rule, 3HaMeenTie, aHaMeHHT^uiiji. So, too, cep4HTbiu angry. The inflected comparative of such words is rarely used; the superlative replaced, as stated in § 37 (3). THE PRONOUN. 77 III. The following adjectives have no positive: — e.g. jv'iuie, .lyqmiii better; Meeie less; Meubuie, MeHbuiiii smaller; 60,1 te more; 66.ibuie, SojLoiiH bigger. Observe the distinction :— - MCHLiiioH junior oo-ibuioii big MeHbiiiiii smaller odibuiiii bigger Xopomiu and AoopwH are used as positives for jviuie; but 4o6p'be, 4o6piHiiiiH also exist; also Majbiii as a positive for Meete; and BCiiniiu and GojbiuoH for odiite, oojbuie. THE PRONOUN. § 40 (1). Preliminaky Kemarks on the Pronouns. The pronouns in Russian present very little difficulty. Observe (1) in the pronouns the genitive in -ro is written -oro, -ero, and pronounced and accented av6, evo. The dative in -wy is also oxytone. (2) Pronominal adjectives (such as KOiopbiii, TaKoii) arc declined exactly like ordinary adjectives [v. § 35 (2)]. (3) It will be observed that pronouns, though they are hard stems, take a soft plural, e.g. caMT» self, caw 11. The reason of this is that in Old Russian the nominative and accusative plural masculine were h and bi. In Russian the old feminine plural forms in w have superseded the masculine ; but the same survival of the old nominative is found in the old participles in -.IT), now used as the past tense, e.g. Cbi.iT), 6bi.iH. 78 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. o '^J, O =^ K ,a U © -a O ■d u: CKO.I LOW mu o J o -a W ^S-. s 1 1 2 jil T H .-1 *_._,„ g B 1g 'S 1 1 1 1 1 - ^ H o g 8 !? S +3 (.--• :« :§l a a" i 1 1 s >» -o ea ^ -O J4 S s^ '^rT] »:i u w © 1 « f §ls ^1 1 i ^^ a~c^-T :S 1 1 1 2^ S ao if s u: C8 «! =S >. "rt "^ •=t >rt <^ -2 V. •'>-> X 5 » W « n sf H H H O ® © © g ■- c.. 1 ^ce ^ ^ -e3 -^ ^ J5 ^ ^ •^ >-. ."S U-- 2 w ^ K f- w fe c^. " >. ,, 1^2 .LO ^ S rf 11 rl ^ p (U ^ s >^ c^. • ^-cj 609 T O B ^_ _ O) c^. * -a * ++«?' © 05 c^. ___ P © 1 © 1--S 1 ^ © t- i 2 s 1 ^ 4S -o t H) > _> '■+3 -t;^ *-3 '■*3 -~. '43 -1 ^ o Si OS 1 o o > '-4^ ll §1 a 1- (-4 3 > "© -2 1 'S 1 1— 1 n 1 ;2; s 1 11 79 80 KUSSIAN GRAMMAK. § 41. Examples of the Pronouns. I. The Interrogative (singular and plural). N. Y. KTO (klito) for persons mto (sto) for things Ace. Gen. Dat. Instr Loc. Koro (kavo) ,, Koro KOMV KOMI, MTO 'lero (civo^ 'leMv Me Ml, i.OTopLiii (which of several?) and lianoii (of what sort ?) are declined adjectivally. KOM which ? Singular. Flural. Masc. Neut. ! Fern. All genders. Noni. Koii KOC KOH i;6h Ace. N. or G. Koe k6k) K or G. Gen. hoero* Koeii KOHXl, Dat. i.oeMv Koeii FOnMI. Instr. JIOHM'l, Koeio KOH Mil Loc. KOCM^ KOCH KOHX'b Heiii who se? Singular. Plural. Masc. Neut. Fern. All genders. Noni. Heii Hte Hbfl Mb II Ace. N. or G. 'J be MblO N. or G. Gen. MLero (civo) 'ibcii MKHX1> Dat. MbCAiy Mbeii MbnMI, Instr. muMb HbeK) MbllMU Loc. HbeML Hfceii HbllXl ♦ Sounded k6ym. THE PRONOUN. 81 Bemarks. — (1) Koii is practically disused except in poetry, and a few proverbs. (2) ck6.ii.ko is the only other declinable interrogative form. Nom. Voc. Ace. CKoabHO Gen. T.oc. cKO.!f>Ki'iX'i» Pat. ciiOJbKnM'i. Instr. CKOJi>KiiMii cio.ibKO is similarly declined. Observe. — In the nominative and accusative cK6.ibK0 is a noun governing tlie genitive plural ; in other cases an adjective. e.g. CKOjbKO KHun. bw HaiujH ? How many books liave you found ? fl cawi. ue 3HaK) cKOJbKHMH cipaBaMH tt Bja^iio. I do not myself know of how many countries I am the master. II. Relatives. These forms are now identical with the interrojja- tives. But, except in proverbs and poetry, kto and 4to are disused, Koiopbiu replacing them as relatives. KTO and HTO are scarcely ever used in strict apposition. e.g. fl BciphTHJ'b HflaHa KOTopOMV a oGtma.i'b moh) .i6uia4b. I met John to whom I had promised my horse. But they are commonly employed in distributive phrases where the relative precedes. G 82 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. e.g. Kto 6bi HH noflB.i/iJca y OKua, bi, Toro hcmwchho ( cTptjoH. ; AVhoever appeared at a window, (at him) they ! instantly shot. ] HtO 6bl Bbl HH 4^.111.1 M, Bbl aTHMTi TOpK) HB nOMOiKeTe. Whatever you do, you will not remedy the sorrow ■ thereby. j III. Demonstratives. f TOTi. that Sing, Masc, Neut. Fern. Plural. All genders. = Nom. Ton. TO Ta Tk f Ace. N. or G. TO Xy N. or G. 1 Gen. Toro* TOH rkxi Dat. TOMy TOii T^MT. Instr. T-feMT. TOK) T-feMW Log. TOMT. Toii Tix^ 3T0TT. this Sing. Masc. Neut. Fern. Plural. All genders. 5 Nom. 3T0TX 3T0 .^Ta 3TH Ace. N. or G. 3T0 3Ty N. or G. Gen. 3T0r0 3T0H STHXT. Dat. 3T0My 3T0M aTHMT. Instr. STHMT, 3T0K) OTMH OTHXT. Loc. 3T0MT. 3T0H OHblH that Sing. Masc. 1 Neut. | Fern. Plural. Nom. oHbie, oHbia Ace. Like any hard adjective OHblXT. Gen. in -biH OHblXT. Dat. OHblMT. Instr. OHblMH Loc. OHblXT. * Sou Qded tavo DEMONSTRATIVES. 88 cefl this Singular. Plural. Masc. Neut. Fern. All genders. Norn. ceii cie ce c'lH cii'i Ace. N. or G. cie ce ciio N. or G. Geu. cero* CCH CHXT. Dat. ccMy cefi CHMT. Instr. CHMT, ceK) CHMH Loc. ceMT* cm CHXX Cormil t § 2 (3). All the rest of the declinable pronouns on the demonstrative lines in the table follow* the regular forms of the determinative adjectives without variation, e.g. TaKOH, TdKO BOH such as that; aiaKin such as this, etc. Remarks. — Practically only totl and stot-b are used in modern Eussian. ohhh is found in legal docu- ments, and CCH in set phrases ; e.g. ceroAHa (sivod'nya) to-day, ceH4acT> in a minute, 40 chxi nop-b up to the present, cIk) MBHyiy this very minute. IV. Universal Pronouns. BcaKiii of all sorts, and KaH«4biH each, are declined like the determinative adjectives. BCCB, all, drops the vowel " e " [v. § 32, I]. Singular. Plural. Masc. 1 Neut. Fern. All genders. Nom. Becb Bce BCff Bct Ace. N. or G. Bce BCK) E-. or G. Gen. Bcerof BCBH BCtxi Dat. BCCMV BCBH BCtMT. Instr. Bciivn. BCeK) BciMH Loc. BCeMt Bceu BCtxX * Sounded 6iv6. t Sounded fsivo. G 2 84 RUSSIAN GRAMMAE. V. . Personal Pronou7is and Fossessives, Singular. 1st pers. 2nd pers. 3rd pers. Keflexive. Masc. Neut. Fern. Norn. fl Tbl oin. OHO OHa — Ace. MGHH Teoa ero* ee ceoji Geu. MCHH Te6H ero ei'i t ced/i Dat. Mui Teoii cwy eii ceGt. Instr. MHOK) TOOOK) II MX eK) eooofo MHOil To66n cooou Loc. MHt Teot eM'b eii ceoi Plural Noni. Mbl ' Bbl OH II 1 OHH 1 oni| A.G.L. Haci. Bac'b 11\T> As Dat. HdMb Ba.M^ ^ HMT. singular. Instr. uaMH BcXMU HMH The close similarity of some of these forms with the Latiu pronouns will strike the student, e.g. tibi leO-B, sibi ceOfi. Eefer back to § 2 (3) and § 35 (1). The possessives mom, tboh, cbom are declined like kom [v. § 41, I.], but accent the last syllable of the termina- tions uniformly; e.g. MOe, mo/i, Moefi, Moero, MoeMV, MOM, etc. 11 ami. our, and Baun. your, are declined alike, viz. : Masc. Singidar, Neut. Fern. Plural All genders. Nom. Haiiib Hauie Htiiua HaiUH Ace. N. or G. name Haiiiy K or G. Gen. fldmero Hamefi HamnxT, Dat. HamcMy HtimeM HainaMT. Instr. HaUIHM'b HamcK) HaUIHMM Loc. HaUlCMb Hameu iiaiiiuxii * Sounded yiv6, yim, etc. t Commonly sounded like ace. ee. X Sounded like oiiu. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 85 Remarl's. — (1) cBoii and ceoH always refer back to the subject, ivhatever the 2)erson. e.g. Bbi ii[)64ajH cbomj 'lecrfc. You have sold your honour. The 3rd person pronouns when they are not reflexive are the genitives ero, eii, hxl. e.g. Miiife cKa3a.iH hto i;yneuL viKo Dp64a.11 ero lOBapbi. ^, They told me that the merchant has already sold his (somebody else's) goods. lu vulgar speech Mxiiiii is used for hxl their. When ceG/i is attached to reflexive or passive verbs it takes the shortened form ca (^oimdcd ca) after con- sonants, CL after vowels. In older Russian all the pronouns had abbreviated enclitic forms [cf. French " moi," "me," etc.], viz. mh, th, ca for Mena, Te6a, ce6fl ; MH, Til, rii for MH*, Te6b, ce6t. Of these forms only ca survives. e.g. Bi. OT'iaaHiH n^itHanKb saKcioji, ce5a. In despair the prisoner stabbed himself (re- flexive). CibiHiyci. 3Toro. I am ashamed of this (a reflexive verb). 'l;iiiJKa pasoiuacf.. The cup was smashed (a passive). (2) When ero, cMy, e/i, ee, I'lxi, hmt,, hmh, efl, ew, eMT. are governed by auf/ preposition, the letter h is prefixed to them. e.g. KT, HCMV to him (sound knemii) B'L Hcu in her (sound vnei) npoTUB-L HHX'L agaiust then; 86 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. y Hero with him [chez hd'] CL HHMH with them (sound siiimi) 6jH3'b Bea near her II a Hero against him (sound nanivo) Ha HCMT. on it (sound nanyom) BiU ero pa4H for his sake (the preposition follows) oKCio ero 46Ma near his house noAT> MXT, BJacTbK) under their power, etc. In these two instances ero and hxt. are possessive pronouns, not governed by the preposition. (3) As in the nouns and adjectives, the instrumental singular feminine -oio, -eio, is often shortened to -oh, -eii. (4) As the verbs mostly have full personal in- flections, the pronouns are not added except for emphasis. e.g. oflHCM-L we swear cjbiuiy I hear noHHMaeuib ? do you understand ? VI. The Indefinite Pronouns. These are formed, as will be seen in the table in various ways, by prefixes and suffixes ; cf. English who, whoever, whoso, whosoever. (1) Prefixing Ht- accented. (2) Adding HMoy^b (i.e. as it may be, from 6y4b, imperative of obiib). [v. § 57, II. and § 82, III.] (3) Prefixing Koe- with a distributive sense, e.g. r4t-HH-6y4b somewhere or other i;6c-r4f. here and there Koe-Kio various people (say) But HfeuoTupbie some people (say) INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 87 (4) Adding -to. This suffix may be used with nouns as well, and gives an ironic or vague sense, e.g. HeJOBtK-L-TO that kind of man KaKoii-TO some sort or other KTO-TO somebody you know who VII. The Negative Pronouns. These are formed by prefixing hh- nor. When declined with prepositions the compound breaks up, and the preposition precedes the pronoun immediately. e.g. HH ua Koro against no one 11 H iia KaKOM'L Mtcit not on any place In Itussian a negative pronoun requires a negative ^erb, and, contrary to modern English practice, a double negative affirms the negative, and does not destroy it. e.g. HuKor4a hc 6buo BOiiubi noxoaseH HaTenepeiuHioK). Never was there a war like the present war. H UHr^t lie BMA-kiT. Bauiero Gpaia. I could not see your brother anywhere. But consult § 85. VIII. The Pronouns of Identity. (1) By affixing -jkc to any demonstrative, identity is implied. e.g. aroTL-iKe the same as this TaKODOH-iue the same sort as that (2) The words cawL and ciiMbiii. Ca.\n» means " sell" ; as in English, I my sell" a caMb. 88 RUSSIAN GKAMMAK. Nom. Ace. Masc. caM'b caMoro Singular. Neut. caMo caMo Fern. caMfi cawyt Plural. All genders caMH N. or G. Gen. caMoro* caMoii caMiixi. Dat. Instr. Loc. CaMOMV CaMHM'I, CaMOM'I. caMoii caMoio CaMOM CaMHML CaMl'iMH caMHX'l. As regards the soft plural cawii, cf. § 40 (1) (3). h has been carried all through. CaMbiii means "the same," and is declined like a regular determinative adjective. For its use to form the superlative, v. § 37 (3). IX. The Pronouns of Difference. The meanings of ^pyroii and MHoii should l)e marked. 4pyr6H is " other," Latin alivs, Greek aXXo^;, i.e. anything indeterminate, not what is being thought of. HUGH is " some other," Latin cete7'l, Greek erepoi, a more or less determinate object. e.g. HiKOTopbie yToro hc Moryn. noHHTb. Some cannot grasp this (fact). Hiibie Moryib no^yMaib mto oht, coiiie.i'b cb ywa. Some {quidam, certain people) may think he has gone mad. O4HH, o^Hi [v. § 2 (3)], the plural of 0411111, one, also means " some " ; cf. English, the one says, the other . . So, too, HHor^a sometimes, from time to time (definite) iiiKor4a sometimes (uncertain) Kor4a-TO at some time or other (indeterminate) npoqie, npo^iff means " the rest," " the remainder." In the singular it occurs in tlie phrase :^ BT. npoiCMT* for the rest (of the argument, etc.) I * Sounded s^m^vo. t Or caMoe. 89 9 \ t» M 53 -•^ d ^ .^ 2 r2 S ' / a I . ■£ 3 |§|.B| -§.2 crio c «i ^ -:;:: o fl ;, CO .S V O !- t-H - £ eo -S5 S rt O a ►-: ~l~ Cfl S O .<; — g J^ O ji a, ,:^ < o S 03 root -Bn- -' P ^ *::? fl 03 o o So S P ■; =f^ o ■2i| M d -On ' ^ 03 "- -5 o fl f C5 Li 2 d O) o sfi-§ :=! d " d ,- O T .11 90 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. THE VERB. § 42 (2). PrelimiiVary Observations. The Parts of the Russian Verb. (i) The Eussian verb presents little difficulty in comparison with many other modern languages. As was remarked in § 10, the forms of conjugation are very much reduced. They are : — (1) The infinitive. (2) A fully conjugated present tense, used in per- fective verbs as the future. (3) A past tense consisting of an old participle in -.IT,, with the personal pronouns, the copula, as usual in Eussian, being omitted. (4) An imperative formed directly from the present tense. (5) A present "gerundive"* active in -u, and present participle in -ymin or -amiii. (6) A past participle active in -BUiiu, and a past gerundive* in -Bt or -eiiiiH. These last-named forms are comparable with the pre- dicatives and determinatives of the comparative, and originate in the same way. In older Eussian urn was a feminine suffix of certain adjectives. (7) A present participle passive in -cmlih, and (8) A past participle passive in -twh or -hbim. The participles are all fully declined like ordinary adjectives. (9) A verbal noun in -uie. ' The functions of these parts are more fully discussed in tlie Syntax, § 88 and 89. * This so-called ♦' gerundive " is merely an indeclinable participle, only used in agreement with the subject of the sentence. THE VERB. 91 'The Deficiencies and the " Aspects " (bh^w). (ii) Thus ill Eussian there is no conjunctive, only one conjugated tense, only one so-called past *' tense " to express imperfects, preterites, perfects, pluperfects, etc. The future imperfect! ve is formed by a compound tense, the infinitive with 6y4y, one of the forms of 6biTB to be. The obvious deficiencies are supplemented by the aspects of the Eussian verb. This subject cannot at present be approached ; it may be briefly explained, [v. §§ 58 and 92.] In English, " I do," " I am doing," " I was doing," • I did," " I used to do," '' I do do," " I have done," all define the nature of the act ; e.g. *' I am doing " is the continuous conjugation ; " I used to do " the habitual ; ''I have done" marks the completion or perfective aspect, and so on. If the reader knows any Latin, and can imagine Latin reduced to one tense, but converting the other tenses into separate conjugations with new infinitives to match, he will understand what has happened in Eussian. Old Eussian had a far fuller complement of tenses, imperfect, aorist, p)e7-fect, etc. In modern Eussian "aspects" replace the tenses and fulfil entirely the same object. If Latin had evolved an infinitive lahordhdre, from the imperfect lahombam, to express the habitual aspect, or lahordvlre (from lahordvl) to express the completion or perfective, such separate by-forms of the verb would very nearly correspond with the Russian aspects. Such desiderati\cs as esurlre, from esurus, future participle of 02 KU88IAN GiJAMMAK. Mo to eat, and the inceptives iu -vmo, might indeed in the parlance of Slavonic grammar be termed " aspects." To those who know a little Greek, the aspects will 1)0 even more familiar. Thus the present forms voaelv to be ill, a7rodui]oK(o to die, correspond to the imperfective Gojirb or xBopaih and VMnpaTL; the aorist forms ipoarjaa, loarjaai, aTToBavelv, to the perfective ooo^iiih, aaxBopaii,, yMepeTi>, to be taken ill, to die. E.g. orn, o6ojt.n., aaxBopaji,, ivoarjae ; but on'b oo.rtji,, he was ill some time, ivoaei ; oiiL VMHpaj'i,, he lay a-dying, airiOurjaKe. And just as voa-fjao), etc., is a future, not a present, but has the aorist stem, so saxBopaio, vMpy signify I shall fall ill, etc. E.g. vMpei'b on. 'jaxoTKH he will die of consumption. Hoin the Parts arc Formed. (iii) To know every form of the Eussian verb, it is only necessary to learn the infinitive and 3rd person singular present. The rest follow. Vcrls Original and Dcriuativc. (iv) Verbs may be either original — i.e. uiireferabh to any simpler form — or derivative, from nouns oi other verbs. E.g. in English "to fall," "to write,*j are original ; " to book," " to tabulate " derivative (from the noun "book," and the Latin tdhvla, table)j Or as in Latin, dicer e to say, iudicdre, from iudex, judge. THE VERB. 93 Derivatives, verbs which mostly represent complex ideas, greatly outnumber the primary verbs ; in fre- ([uency of use they are less, as the simpler relations have to be constantly re-stated. In Latin derivative verbs have a vocalic stem, e.g. iudicd-re, mane-re, audlre* So, too, in Eussian ^yMa thought, 4yMaTf. to think; acieubiii green, aciefltib to become green; h»hbi» alive, hjutl to live ("original"), OHtnBi'iTL to revive, from h(hb6u alive. The derivative verbs being the more nnmerous, and the newest and easiest formations, tend to set the model, and become the " regular " verl)s. The primary verbs, being the most employed and the most worn down in daily use, also being drawn from more ancient sources, conserve obsolete forms, and are sometimes called " irregular " — arbitrarily and inaccurately. Actually Eussian has next to no verbs that can be really termed anomalous. ' Further, many " original " or " primary " verbs have consonantal stems or roots, e.g. Latin reg-ere to rule, dlc-ere to say. § 43. The Eussian Infinitive. The Russian infinitive ends in -ti, and is preceded by the root in original verbs, by the stem in derivative verbs. In some verbs -th accented survived, e.g. hcc-th to carry. * Russian verbs in -tib, -tio, -aib, -aw, -iitl, -w may be compared with the Latin -eo, -[a]o, -io, whilst the Russian first conjugation consists of root-verbs, like the Latin third. 94 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. In some few guttural stems, the guttural and -ti. coalesce into -hf>, e.g. ne^i) to bake, for neK-ir. ; jkctb to burn, for ater-TB. In some dental roots, the dental and -ti. coalesce into -cTt, e.g. bccth to lead, for bc^-ti. ; njecTH to pleat, for n.jeT-TF.. In ''original" vocalic stems -tb follows the root, e.g. 3Ha-Ti. to know. Sometimes a consonant is extruded, e.g. jkhtb to live, for jkhb-tl. All derivative stems are vocalic, e.g. H?eja-Ti> to wish. § 44. The Forms Derived from the Russian Infinitive. The -Th termination must be removed, and the stem or root stripped. (1) By adding -Hie a verbal noun is formed ; e.g. KOjeSaiB to rock, Ko^eGaHie ; Efcaih to blow, fiiflHie. (2) By adding -at, the past tense is formed ; e.g. fl KOJcCa.i'B I rocked.* (3) By adding -a to the present stem the present " gerundive " 4ija-Ti. ; e.g. 4tjaa doing. * In consonantal stems this -Ji is dropped in the masculine singular, restored in the other inflections. E.g. lepeib (root Tbp) to rule, past tense lepx, lepja (fem.), etc. jeib (root Jier) to lie down, past tense jerx, acta^ (fem.), etc. -peHb (root pen) to speak, past tense peKi, psKJid (fem.), etc. But of. for this last the Polish r:^ekL and Gech rekl. I THE VERB. 95 (4) By adding -ymiii, -lomiw to the present stem the present participle ; e.g. HMtiomia possessing (HMt-Tb);* -fluuii is added with derivative verbs in -HTb: nHC-a-Ti., nHUiymiM. (5) By adding -bl or -buih the past gerundive; e.g. nnc-a-Ti* to write, imcaBi,, nHcaBUiH,t and by adding -Biiiiii the past participle active ; e.g. BCCCIH-Tb to enliven, BeceJM-BiniH. (6) By adding -cmwh or -hmlim the present participle passive ; e.g. KynH-ib to buy, KynHMbiH ; 3ea-Tf> to know, SHacMbiH. An easier rule is to form this from the 1st person plural present KynMMT., saaeMX. (7) A perfect participle passive in t or n. t is only used in a very few verbs of certain types ; e.g. 4BHeyTb to move, ^BiiHyTwii, nodaib to send, nociaHHbiH sent. This participle is accented like the 2nd person singular present of variable verbs. All participles are fully declined as predicatives and determinatives. Before preceding to learn the verbs, the student must be sure he knows the phonetic rules in §§ 2, 5, 6, 8, 9. It will be observed that all the forms derived from the infinitive are accented like the infinitive. There are scarcely any exceptions to this rule. * In older Russian the terminations were -ynH, -hhh gerundive, -yHiti, -flqifi participle. Some of the latter survive as adjectives, e.g. Mor^qifl powerful (MOHb), ropaiift (ropHTb) hot, CHAHMift sedentary. B^4yiH is still used as the gerundive present of Smtl ; 0y4ymifi, the regular form, means " future." t In consonantal roots the termination is -luiii, e.g. aecTU to carry, necTii, Hecnilii. 96 russian grammar. § 45. The Pormationb from the 1st Person Singular Present. The imperative is formed from the 1st person singular present by substituting m, b or u for y or lo. The addition of -tc makes tliis imperative form plural. The same -le added to the 1st person plural malces a hortative mood '' let us do." The accentuation is that of the present tense. e.g. 6y4y I shall be, 6y4i», 6y4LTe, 6y4eM-Te BCce.iK) I enliven, necejii, Beccjine There are a very few exceptions to this general rule, viz. (jhtl to beat [v. § 52 (2) yQ|, 4aTF) to give [v. § 57, III.], CTOHTL to stand [v. § 52 (3)], 6o/iTCfl to fear [v. § 52 (3)], CM't/iTLca to laugh [v. § 52 (3)], KpwTi,* to cover [v. § 52 (2) e]. e.g. BHeMJK) I take, bhcmjh Glk) I beat, Geii OOK) I fear, ()ou-ca moiocl I wash, Mou-cfl § 46. The Accentuation of the Verb. I. All the forms derived from the infinitive [v. § 44] have a fixed accent, tliat of the infinitive. II. Except in a very few verbs the imperative has the accent of the 1st person singular present. III. Verbs which uniformly accent the termination or the stem in every part are said to have a fixed * The exception in verbs in -wtl is apparent only : if the li be taken as a contraction of -o6 or y, i.e. as equivalent to -MdeiL. ACCENTLTATION OF VERBS. 97 accent. Only a few derivatives and most of the original verbs have a variable accent. IV. The only constant variations in the accentuation of the verb are in the present tense and the past parti- ciple passive, and forms derived from the present stem. V. Every verb which has an infinitive of two syllables or more, and is not accented on the ultimate, has a fixed accent. VI. In dissyllabic verbs accented on the ultimate in the infinitive, the accent may vary on certain inflections. VII. A verb with a variable accent accents the infinitive and 1st person singular present alike, the 2nd and 3rd persons singular, the 1st and 2nd plural, on the penultimate; the 3rd person plural either on the ultimate or penultimate, generally the latter. VIII. As a rule, the past participle passive has the secondary accent when the accent is variable.* IX. Eussian verbs, original or derivative, with fixed or variable accents, are divided into four conjugations, which differ only very superficially and slightly. e.g. BiiAtib to see (rule V.). Bir«Ky BII4HM7. BII4HIIII. BlUMie BlMnTT. BH4aT'I. nncaTL to write (rule VI.). nnmy nHUieMi* nnmeuiL numeTe nuiueTT, nMiiiyTT, * E.g. BocnHTETb educate, BocnuxaHnbiii ; nucdib write, nemeib, nHcaHHbiH. H 98 IIUSSIAN GRAMMAR. CKaaaib to tell (rule VI.). CKaJKy CKaJKCMT. CKaHteiiii. CKaweie CKajKert CKa}KyTi> necTH to carry (invariable) (rule VI.). Hccy neccMt HeceiiiB Heceie [v. § 9 (7) (1)] HeceTT. Hecvn. § 47. Examples of the Complete "Conjugation of TWO Derivative Verbs with Fixed Accents. Infinitive : Hteja-Ti> to wish B'ipH-Tb to believe Verbal noun: meAsune [Btpenie]* Present gerundive : wejaa fiipa Present part. act. : jKejaiomiw fiipamiH Past gerundive act. : JKe.iaB'B, JKejaBmn BipHBL, B-fepuBUiH Past part. act. : jKCiaBUiiH fiipHBUiiM Present part. pass. : jKejaeMWii BtpHMbiflt Past part. pass. : meASLEEbin -BijpeHHWH Present: a asejaK) Bipio Tbi HJCJaefflb B'hpunib i OQT., OHa, OHO JKCJaCTT. BBpHTTi Mbl SKCJaCMT. BipHMT. Bbi jKCJaeie Bi^pHie OHH, Ofli Htcjaion. Bipan. Past : a, tw meALn>, mcjaja Bipajn,, B4pH.!a ,(}KejajT,, }Keja.ia, HJCJajio OH'b, OHa, 0HO< I I I ' ' (BipHJ-b, B'fepHJa, B-fepHJO Mbl, Bbl, OH II, OH'B »(ejajH, Bi^pHJH * Replaced by BtpoBanie, from BtpoBaib. f Rare. I THE CONJUGATIONS. 99 iVto.; oy4y | ^^^.^^ ^t'^^M H;e.mTB GyACTL j ^ GyAyiT. j Imperative : 2nd pers. sing. jKCjafi B-fepb 2nd pers. pi. jKCiaHie eipLie Unless specially mentioned, all the parts of the Russian verb are simply and regularly formed as in these two paradigms. \ § 48. The Four Conjugations. Some Phonetic Rules. Before entering on this section, reperuse § 5, § 6, § 8, § 9. Remember. — AVords in -epe-, -opo-, -cie-, -ojo-, though now dissyllables, represent monosyllabic roots in -pe-, -pa-, -.16-, -jia-. Remember — r + e makes Hie r -f h makes jkh r -f k) makes Hiv And similarly with k and x (changing to h and m). Remember — T + K) makes in Eussian ny, in Church Slavonic my. 4 + K) makes in Eussian wy, in Church Slavonic JK^y. T + a can make in Eussian na, and in Church Slavonic ma or remain. T + e or H can make ^e, qn or remain. A H- e or H can make ate, jkh or remain. A -f fl can make Hta or remain. When the dental remains, it is due to the influence of the written language. Remember — k, r -f- -tb are changed to -hb; but t or 4 + TH to -CTH, and the ending -cth is extended to other roots by false analogy. h2 100 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Rcmcmher — 3 + a becomes /Ka or remains, c + a becomes ma or remains, c + 10 becomes my 3 + 10 becomes jkv CT + 10 becomes my Ileme7iihcr.-—The euphonic insertion of .1 after labial roots before 10, and -enHbiii. Before other soft vowels c, 3 and ct as a rule are merely softened in pronunciation, not clianged in quality, [v. § 5 (4).] § 49. The First Conjugation. ■ At the head of § 42 there is printed a scheme of the four conjugations. The first conjugation forms its present in -y, -eiuh, -CTT., -eMx, -eie, -yi^, added directly on to the root, without any intermediate vowel. It comprises the following classes : — I. Guttural Boots. — Infinitive in -hf. ; e.g. ne4i> to bake, jc'il to lie down, mohb to be able. e.g. nenb to bake (root dck) jne'iL to burn (root iKLr) Past iMvt. act.: n e k m i \\ iKer m i \\ Ge7undivG : ne'ia HJermH Tresent -part. act. : ncKymipi >KrymiH Past part. pass. : ne^cHHwii HtaieHHLiM Present: neK^ neneMi. HJry HtajeMi* neHemi, ncHeie >KMJemi> HiHtere neMeTi> neKyTT> aiaten. jKryit Past : neKi, neK.ia, neiuo, neiUH ; jKen., >i;r.ia, atrjo, m:.\i Imperative: ncKii; H«rn THE FVJlSTcdj^jyCATION., , 101 Similarly : — peHb to speak (root peii) — this verb is obsolete. .le'ih to lie down (irregular present stem jjiry, bjjiJKeuib, JHryrL ; but past ^en,, .ier.ia, .iciMo, .lerjii); imperative j a fl MO'ib to be able (root Mor) Note. — MOMb makes Mory, mojkcuib, Moii.en,, MOJKeMi,, MoHiCTe, MorvTT,; imperative Moni, etc. Similarly : — Bje4b to draw (root bjbk) IC'fcMb to cut (root c^k) oepoMb to shelter (root oeper, present oepery, CepejKeiiiB . . . oeperyii,, past 6eperL, 6eperja, 6eperj6, 6epei\iu) CTepesB to guard (root cieper, like 5epe4i>) CTpiribCfl to have the hair cut (root cipHr)* (TCMb to flow (root tck) 3aiipH»ib to yoke (root npar: note the past 3anparb, sounded pryok, prigld, -16, -li) B0.i64b to drag (root bo J ok) Fradicall// all of these have a fixed accent on the termination. II. Naml lioolx. — Infinitive in -flTb(-aTbafter jk, 'i, etc.). Rememher. — The Eussian a represents the Old Slav i} (French aim, in, in faim, fin)] and the nasal lost in some forms is restored in fuller inflections; cf. BpeMH, BpeMCUH. [v. § 2 (2).] e.g. HaMaxb to begin (root 'ibu); cf. imperfective BaMHnaib * Note past participle passive ocrpH/KCHiiLiii. 102 EUSSIAN GRAMMAR. The present gerundive and participle Hanaa and BanaFOiniH do not exist, as the verb is perfective and has no present tense ; only the past active participles HanaBT., HasaBiuiH. But note past part. pass. Ha'mxbiu, or HanaToii. Present (with future meaning) : — HaHHy Ha4HeMi> HaMfleiuL HaMBeie HaHHeii. HaHHyn. Fast: HanaJT,, Hanaja, Banajo, HanajH Imperative: naHHii Verbs of this class take the past passive participle in T, a7id mostly throw the accent hack on the past tense in -JIT, and the participle in t. Otherwise the accent is always on the termination. Such are : — H^aiL (jkmv) to press (root h;lm) ; jKaib (atHy) to reap (root h{lh), naib (root hbh) ; only used in compounds, e.g. HaHHuaifc begin,' coHnHHTb compose ; naib (nny, root umi), mostly used in compounds, e.g. pacnKTb to crucify. Ve7'hs of this class take the verhal substantive in -lie {as also do the liquid roots, v. infra). e.g. pacnaiie the crucifixion noHHTie the meaning (of a passage) There is one other such verb (with a nasal root) of great consequence, only used in compounds, viz. -nih (root CM, Latin emere) to take. In compounds, as with the 3rd person pronoun [v. § 41, V. (2)], u is prefixed to the root. THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 103 e.g. HaBHTt to hire, npHHaib accept, noH«Ti> to understand, saHSTb to occupy (oneself) or to I lend, BSflTb to take up, CHaTb to take away ; all in the imperfective, HaHHwaib, npHHHMaTfc,etc. ; all having a past participle passive, HaeflTi, aaHHTT., etc. The present restores the original root -eM-b. e.g. HaHMV, HaHMeiDL, etc., noiiMv, B03bMy, aaiiMy, etc. There also exists a perfective present forra in 6m.ik), BneM.iJo, BHeM.ieuib, conjugated like a verb with fixed accent of the third conjugation, but with an imperative accented BHeM.iw. III. Sibilant Boots. These are : — HecTH to carry (root hcc) SL Be3T« to drive (e.g. in a carriage) (root bcs) W rpbiSTb to gnaw (root rpwa) .lisTb to climh (root Aid) U0.I3TH to creep (root no.13) nacTii to graze (transitive) (root naci) Example : — Infinitive : bcstm Gerundive pr-esent : Be3« Participle present : Be3ymiH Gerundive past : Be3mw Past 2)articiple passive : Be3e u h bui Verbal, derived from iiwperfeetive : -BO/KeHie Present : Bcay, Bcseiiib, etc. Past : Be3T», Be3.ia, -.16, -Jii Imperative : 863 h Notice. — .iteb has a present Aiiw, jtsemb, etc., jtsyii ; imperative aisb. 104 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. IV. Roots in Liquids : -epe-, -opo-, -cie-, -0.10-. (1) e.g. lepeTb to rub (root TLp, imperf. Tupaib) -MepeTB to die (root Mtp, imperf. -MHpaib) iiepeib to prop (root 11 bp, imperf. nupaib) Example : — Infinitive : lepeib Verbal: ipeuie* Past part. pass. : lepix, like the roots in nasals Present gerundive act. : ipymn Present part. act. : ipyuuH Past part. act. : TepibiH Present : ipy, ipeiub, ipen,, ipeM^, Tpeie, Tpyib M Past : lepi, lepja, -ao, -avi ■ Like the roots in nasals, the verbal noun and past participle passive are formed with t, and the past tense and past participle passive throw the accent back on to the particle with which they are compounded, e.g. yMep-b, yiviepja, yMep.10, yMcpjH (yMcpeib) So, too, no^nepi. (but -nepi) to prop. (2) SopoTb to fightf nOwioTb to weed nopoTb to rend MO.ioTb to grind KO.ioTb to pierce KOJOTb to pierce. Present part. act. : itojiomiH Past part. act. : bo^oBiiiiM Verbal noun : bO.ioTbe Past 2)art. 2)ass. : lio.ioxb Present part, pjass. : HdicMbiii Present (following the third conjugation) : bOJ Kojeujb, Kcxien*, Kojoib, kojctc, liojiorb Past: v^QAOA'h, Kcioja, kojojo, kojojh * Tepiie is disused. t Used with -ch, omitted in example, THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 105 These five verbs differ slightly from the verbs in -epeib, -cieib. (a) The present as in the third conjugation. (0) A uniformly variable accent, [v. § 46. J (7) A regular vocalic past tense with fixed accent. (8) MCioTb is irregular in forming its present: mcim), Mcjemt, MejcTT., waiCMT., Meicie, Me.iiori>, as though from an infinitive Mcieib. V. Roots in Dentals. e.g. BCCTH to lead (root bca) rnecTH to press (root fhct) UBtoii to bloom (root ueiiT), but v. § 9 (7) (3) MacTb to lay (root Kja4) KpacTt to steal (root Kpa4) (KpaAy, KpwHbiH) nacTb to fall (root 1104) npacTB to spin (root iipH4) cfecTb to sit (cH4y, cH4eiiif.) pacTH to grow (root paci : paciy, etc. ; past tense poet) -MCCTL to read (root mlt) H4TII to go (root hx) and by false analogy — cKpecTL to scrape (root cKpe5 : CKpe6y, cKpeoemt — CKpeo'b) rpecTb to row (root rpeo : rpeoy, rpeoouib, rpeob) RiHCTb to swear (roothJAri: bMany, i;.iHiiemb — bjfl.i'b) These verbs form the past in .ib added on to the >'u\vel of the infinitive, the real root being disregarded, e.g. Be.ib, BCia, bcjo, bcjh So vmxh, uBtiT., K.ia.i'b 106 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Exceptions, rpecib and cKpecTb : rpeoi., rpedia, rpe6.i/i ; cKpeoT., cKpeo^a, CKpeoja; and pacui (root paci), paciy, pacTeiiib, poc -Ty, -ja, -a6, -jm. necTt and H4th follow slightly different rules. Present : H4y (in compounds li^y, e.g. HafMV I shall find, etc.), M^euiB, H^eTT., HAeMt, H4eTe, H^yn. Past (from root me^) : meji,, maa, uijh Participles and gerundives : h^h, H^ymiii, lue^uiiH HCCTb (only used in compounds, root 'IBt) Present: -Hiy, -MieiUL, -HTyTt Past : -'lej'b, -MJa, -Hiw Verbal noun : -HTenie Participles and gerundives: -htji, -HiyiiJiiii, -HTMBiuiii, -MXeHHblH c'tcTb has a present cn^y accented uniformly like JCHb, jKiy. KpacTb accents the present Kpa4y, Kpa4eiub, etc. With these variations, one example will explain all these verbs. KpacTb to steal Present gerundive active : Kpa4>i Present participle active : Kpa4ymiH Past loarticiple active : k pa4 m i k Past participle passive : Kpa4eH'b, KpaAcuubi \\ Present: Kpa4y, -eiub, -erb, -cmb, -eie, -yrb Imperative : Kpa4M All these forms use the real root of the verb in the present forms. Past: Kpa^rb, Kpaja, bpa.io, i;paju So, too, ciiT., ci^.ia, cijo, cfeju THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 107 For the accentuation of the past tense, in its inflec- tions, as a rule, monosyllables derived from verbs which accent the terminations throw the accent forward, e.g. A'erh, jer.ia, jeoo, aqimi najij* (nacTb) and daA-b (cicTb) have a fixed accent, influenced by the derivative parts from verbs in -ais and -tib. Forms such as Ban,, D.iej'L (BeciM, n.iecTH) throw the accent forward like jert, pocL ; so, too, MfiAi (KJacTb, Kjaay), Kpa.n. (Kpacit). Except in original verbs, mostly monosyllabic, the past tense, or rather the participle in -j, never shifts the accent. VI. Boots in B. These are three in number. ' jKHTb to live rijibiTb to swim cibiTb to have a reputation of (Greek K\vetv) e.g. OH'b cibiBeiT. My4pbiM'b he is thought wise. One example illustrates all three. JKHTb to live Verbal noun : ffiHiie and jKHTbe Fast partici'ple passive : -jKUTbi ii Gerundive present active : jkhbji rarticiple present adive: /KHBymiii (Ijut older form, used adjectivally, iKHBvqiii) Gerundive past active : jkhbiuh, HiMBb Participle fast active: jkhbiuIw Present: jkhbv, JKHBeuib . . . jKHByrb Past: JKHJT,, HJHja, jkhjo, jkiuh * Cf . Polish padl. 108 RUSSIAN GRAMMAU. Yir. Consonantal roots vjith a. snffixal voioel a. e.g. Bpaib to speak at random, or lie .irarr, to lie (tell falsehoods) Gpaib to take (iterative -SMpaib) >K4aTb to wait (iterative -JKH^aib) psaib to tear cnaxb to sleep pjKaib to neigh 4paTb to tear (present 4cpy) 3BaTb to call (present aoBv) Examples : — pBaib to tear Apaib to tear Verbal noim: peaiiie ^panbe* Past part. pass. : pBa^^ ^pani. Gerundive pres. act. : pBJi Aep« Participle pres. act. : pBy in i \\ 4ep y m i \\ Past part, act.: pBaBUiiii ^upaBiiiiii Present: pay, peeuib, pBeri., 4cpy, 4epumb, ^cpcn, pBeMi., pBCTC, pByib 4epeMi,, ^epeie, 4epyTb Past: pBaJi,, pBawia, pBa.10, 4pa.rb, 4paja, 4pa.io, pBa.111 4pcUii So, too, .iraib, .iry, jateiub, etc. So, too, Cpaib, 6cpv ; ;iBaTb, .'{OBV There are many similar forms in the third con- jugation, monosyllabic and dissyllabic, e.g. .'uiaib to know, cnaib to sleep, iiiicaib to write, fv. § 51 (3). | * Irregular accentuation. the second conjugation. 109 § ;jO. The Second Conjugation. The first conjugation consists of consonantal roots attached directly to the terminations. This involves phonological difficulties, and slightly complicates the accentuation and appearance of the forms. The second conjugation is composed of roots with a vocalic suffix, and thus greater apparent regularity is secured. The marks of the second conjugation are : infinitive, -HVTi. ; present, -iiy, -Hcuir., -Hen., -hcml, -Here, -hvtt., or, accented, -ay, -ueuib, -Hen>, -hcmi., -Here, -nyn.. The present forms are therefore identical with those of the first conjugation, save for the prefixing of the n. This conjugation falls under two main heads, which must be carefully distinguished. I. Perfective verbs conserving the "ny" suffix throughout all the forms of verb, and mostly accented like the imperfective verb from which they are derived. These verbs [v. § 59, 1. (2)] as perfectives have a peculiar meaning of instantaneity — of doing an action once and suddenly. The suffixal vowel of the imperfective verb is dropped, and sometimes the last consonant of the root as well, to avoid heavy combinations of the consonants, e o". BepiiiTL to turn BepHVTL oTcraTB to quilt CTCrHyTB nopxaii. to flutter nopxnyTL !\iaxaTb to wave Maxnyib ABiiraiL to move .^BIIHVTb 110 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. e.g. 4epraTh to pull ^epHyib Tporaib to touch TpOHVTL .lonaiB to split joneyib TOnHTb to sink TOHVTB* to drown THTHBaTL to drag TffByTb* to pull Kacaifcca to concern KOCHyTLCa luenTaTS to whisper uiennyTB There are some exceptions to this rule of accen- tuation. e.g. rjaA'feTL to look afc FJ^HyTB KH4aTS to leave KMHyiB HepnaiB to take in water (of a ship) ^lepHHYTB .lirtTb to gape -3HHyTB RpmaTt to cry KpMKHyTB Note, however, compounds in r.iaHyTB have a variable accent. e.g. sarjflHVTB, aarjAHV, 3ar.i«HemB, etc. II. Verbs in -nyiB, imperfect! ve and intransitive. In the past tense the simple root is used, with no suffixal vowel between the last consonant and ji, which latter, as in the first conjugation, drops in the masculine singular. These verbs are distinguished from ordinary im- perfectives by having the special inchoative meaning of " becoming." * With variable accent T6Hemb, mneuib, TaHyiMii. THE SECOND CONJUGATION. Ill These verbs are nearly all accented on the pen- ultimate. e.g. dfenHYTFi to become blind coxHYTL to become dry HaxHyib to die gradually, or wither CTbmyTB to cool ruoHVTb (rHoaib) to decay THxevTL to become quiet In this class a few verbs have the past tense in -Hyji.. e.g. .iHnHVTi. to adhere, .iHnHy.n.; -CHyib (mostly used in compounds, e.g. sacHyTb, npocHyiL) to sleep, -CHVJT. (as the perfective of sacwnaTi,, etc.) The present runs -chv, -CHeniL . . . cuyn,.* III. Examples of conjugation in both varieties. Perfective and Transitive. Imperf . and Intrans. KMuyib to cast off rMOHyib to decay Infinitive : KWHyib rnSHyTb Verbal noun : (KHHyiie) none Past part. pass. : KHHyxbiii (in t not h) none Present part. act. : none riiSflymiH Present gerundive act. : none rndeymH Past gerundive act. : KueyBniH rHSflyBmH Past part. act. : KHHyBUiiH " FHGHyBmiu Present part. pass. : none none Present : Kwey, KHHCiiib, nioBV, rHOHCUib, KHHCTb, KHHCMT,, rHOHCTT), rHSHCM'b, KHHCTB, KHHyiT. rHOfleie, rH^eyrb Past: KUHyjT., KHHyja, thSx, raSja KMHy.10, KHHyjH fhSjo, thojh Imperative: KHHb thob ♦ Cf. the noun coei., caa. 112 russian grammar. § 51. The Third Conjugation. Preliminary. The characteristic of this conjugation is the present in -K), -euib, -CTT., -cmi., -ere, -iott». This conjugation comprises a number of primary original verbs, mostly monosyllables, and vocalic roots (thereby distinct from those in the first conjugation) ; a few consonantal roots also exist. It comprises the enormous and increasing number of regular derivatives in -tib ; the derivative verbs in -axb and -aib, which is the commonest form, and the large class of verbs in -OBaib, -CBaih, together with the iteratives in -LiBaii., -HBaib. Thus, this conjugation perhaps embraces the majority of Kussian verbs. An example of a simple regular verb in -aib is to be found at § 47. Verbs in -iib are precisely the same, e.g. acieHiib to become green, the stem 3e.ient.- being substituted for the stem H«e.ia-. § 52. The Original Verbs of the Third Conjugation. I. Those in w^hich the terminations are directly affixed to the root. (1) Liquid roots in -oJOTb, -opoTb. These have been explained in § 49, IV. (2). THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 113 (2) Vvmlw roots. — [a) Eoots in a. e.g. 3ea-Tb to know This is conjugated exactly like JKejaxi, [v. § 47J. So, too, cia-TL to shine (ciaio). (/3) Eoots in h. e.g. 6uTb to beat jhtb to flow inmb to sew BUTb to wind GpUTb to shave ihutl to rot All of these form the past participle pfassivc in -ri*. e.g. 6mti, bhtx, AVLTh, etc. The verbal nouns are formed either in -Hiie or -beiiie. e.g. 6MTbe, Oienie, raieuie, etc. The present tense is formed : — obio, Gbeoib, Gberb, 6beMT., Sbeie, 6biOTJ. So, too, uibio, riiiio, Abio, Bbio, etc. But 6pHTB, 6peK), Speeuib, Speeib, 6peeM^, Gpeeic, opeioib. The other forms present no variance; e.g. 6bfl, obiomiii, GueniiH, 6h.ix (6uja, 6ibo. Gi'i.ih), Seii (imperative). [v. § 45.] (7) lioots in y. e.g. AVTb to blow oovTb to put on [shoes] These are quite regular, the root being 4y, o6y. e.g. A\\o, Aveiub . . . AJmb, j^yii 4yji, Aywmiii, AyBUiiii, Ay.!!, The verbal noun and past participle passive are in T, AVTbe, oSyrie, AVib, ooyrb. (8) Roots in -fe. CMliTb to dare* rpliib to warm vcoiTb to succeed ♦ Not to be confused with cMt>iTi>cn laugh, [v. § 52, I. (3).] I 114 KUSSIAN GKAMMAR. There arc very few original verbs of this type ; they are all regularly conjugated like the derivatives in -tTb, or like jKCJaio [v. § 47], substituting the root in i for Hicja-. They are all accented throughout on the root- vowel ii; e.g. cMtio, rpien., vcni.n.. Eor -ji,1aTh dress, V. § 57, 11. For niifc, v. following sub-section (e). (e) Verbs in -biTb. [For obiTt to be, v. § 57, II. This verb is anomalous, forming its parts— as in nearly all Indo-European languages — out of several separate roots.] e.g. KpwTb to cover, mlitb to wash, bbitb to howl, pbiTL to dig; HbiTb to be injured, and niib to sing, which accents the termination; noio, iioeiub, noeib, noeMT., noere, iigiott,. h\ fully accented is sounded almost as a diphthong ui, and Kpbiib may be taken as an abbreviated form of KpocTb. One example will illustrate them all. Lifiniiive: Kpbiib Verbal noun : Kpuiie* Past jparticiple pass. : Kpbirh* Past par ticiple act.: KpbiBiiiiH Past gerundive act. : KpbiBi, Kpb'iBUiH Past: Kpb'iiT), Kpb'ua, KpbUO, KpbLlU Present : lipoH), Kpoeuib, Kpoen,, KpocMb, Kpoeie, KpoiOTb Present participle pass. : KpocM bj h Imperative: Kpoii, KpoBie * From §§ 49 I., II., IV., VI., § 50, § 52, I. (2) (8) (7) (e), it will be seen that most of the primitive root-verbs, consonantal and vocalic, have the past participle passive in t and not in h. THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 115 II. Vei'bs with an iufiiiitive in -ait, -htb ; but atlixing the root directly on to the terminations of the present tense. Of these verbs there is an immense number. Some instances can be given. Otherwise they are conjugated like jKciaK) or ^iwiaio. Present. Accentuation, xaflxf. to thaw Taw fixed .laaib to bark Jaw )) Kanaib to trickle Kan.iw (Kanaw) Maaaib to anoint MaiKV pfaaib to cut p'ky Hyflib to hear Hyw npaiaTb to hide npHHy fiiaTb to wave fiiw 3 opaib to plough opw HaAiflTbCfl to hope Ha^'fewcb njahaib to weep ruany ABHraib to move mimy (4BH raw) nHcaTb to write II u in V, but nnmeuib, variable iiumyTt, and IIUCaHHblH CMiaibCH to laugh CM-fewcb invariable Bflaaib to bind BfliKy ^ variable 4peMaTb to sleep 4peM.iK) >) ffleniaih to whisper luenny }) cKaaaib to say CKaJK^ „ jcneiaTb to stammer jencHV 3 , Nearly all the verbs of this class accented on the last syllable have a shifting accent, like that of riHcaTb. Notice. — (1) CTCHaTb, to groan, has mixed forms : cTCHaw, cTeHaeuib, etc., 07^ ctohw, cTOHeuib, etc.; past cieuajb or cioHa.rb. I2 116 RUSSIAN CKAMMAK. (2) lio.ieSaTb to rock, KOJeo.iio or KOJeoaio, i;o.i6o.!emi, or KO^eSaetub, etc. (3) ciaib to send, iujk), ULieiub, uijerb, uijeie, m.iK)TT> (imperfective -cbuaib). (4) cT.iaib to spread, ctcih), cTejeuib, etc., cTejion,; past cTJaiT., CTJdJa, cjasuo, cuajH. (5) 4bixaTbto breathe, 4biu«y, Abimeuib, Abimyxb or 4bixaK), AbiXcieuib, etc., in compounds. (G) CTpa4aTb to suffer, CTpaJK4y or cTpa4aK) in the 1st person; otherwise cTpa4aK), CTpa4aeiiib, etc. CTpa}K4y is a Church Slavonic form, the true Eussian would have been cTpa>Ky. § 53. The Thikd Conjugation. The DcrivaticG Verbs. There are three forms of derivatives in the third conjugation : — (1) With the infinitive in -aib or -nib, and stem in -a-, -«-, mostly derived from nouns, and conserving fixedl}' the accent of the noun. These are mostly transitive. e.g. 4'fe.io thing 4'iiaTb to do pa66Ta work paGoiaxb to w ork nenaib printing DCMaxaTb to print .iK)6e3uni{'b courtier .noOeaHU'iaib to court There are verij few exceptions to this rule of the uniformity of accentuation of noun and verb. e.g. XBopbiii ill XBopaib to be ill jacKa affection .lacKaib to dandle (2) With the infinitive in -fcib accented, intransitive, and with an inceptive and imperfective meaning. THE TIITKD CONJUGATION. 117 e.g. .3e.ieH'IjTL to become green (sciefiLiii) oorarliTh to become rich (ooritiiIh) •/KejrliTi. to become yellow (iKejiyn) cAmhth to become weak (cjaobiii) MViKaTF) to become a man (mvvki.) Bem,emhe7^—m, in, 'i, u\ + i in Eussian make vKa, ina, Ma, lua. [v. §§ 37 and 2 (3).] These derivatives in -iib are all oxytone. Except : — (a) A few words, e.g. yrpwMbiH severe, vrpwMtTb. (B) In accordance with the same principle of conserving the accent of the noun or adjective all inceptives in -tib, from adjectives in -aebiH, -HBbiH, -OBbiH, -aibiM, retain the adjectival accent, e.g. KpoBaBiib to become bloody MH.iocTBHBiTb to bccome merciful KOCMaiiTb to become shaggy C)e3Am%Th to be depopulated (Seai. .1104611) o6e3naMaTiTb to lose memory (6e3T. naMaiH) For full 7nodcl of conjugation of these derivatives, all of irhich have a fixed aecent, v. § 47, /KCjaib. (3) I. Derivatives in -OBaib, -CBaib, e.g. MyBCTBOBaib from H\BCTBO feeling. Infinitive: MVBCTBOBaTb ropeBaib Verbal noun: 'iVBCTBOBaHie ropCBaHie Past part. pass. : — — ,,ger.andpart.act.: MyBCTBOBaBiuiw, -niii ropeBaBuiin, -mii Past: MyBCTBOBa.i'b ropeBa.n. Present: »iyBCTByH), -erab^ etc. ropK)K),-emb,etc. Present part. act. : MVBCTByiomiii ropibioiuiH Present gerundive : HyBCTBya ropibfl Pmperative: qyecTByH ropiOM 118 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. The accent on thcRc drrirafives u fixccl, mmtly, on tin syllahle accented in the noun or adjective from irhich theij are derived. But in the 'present, and those forms derived from it, -OB, -ee changes to -y, ivhich is acce/nted, vjhen the infinitive is oxytone. e.g. fiipa, BtpoBaii. to believe HtepiBa, JKepTBv, atepTBOBaiL to sacrifice 6eciAa, Cecfe^OBaTL to converse BapBapi), BapBapcTBOBaifc to be barbarous cymecTBo a " being," cymecTBOBaTr> to exist BOH-Ha, BOCBaTL to War The foreign loan-words in -HpoBaiL. These if quadri- syllabic accent npoBaiL; if pentasyllable, or beyond, HpOBaiB. e.g. aKKJHMaTH3MpoBaTt to acclimatize \hut xapaKTopH3HpoBaTL to characterize] anj04HpoBaTJ> to applaud UHBHJHSHpoBaTt to civilizc, etc. But notice — 34op6BHM[ healthy, 34op6BaTi>ca ; 34op6- Bawch to greet. This is really a derivative from the adjective, [v. § 53 (1).] II. There are a few original verbs in -oBaiL, -eBaii., which really belong to § 52 ; but, as they are exactly like the derivatives, may be more conveniently treated here. They all accent in the same way : — to forge Kyw, Kyemt fixed accent ocHOBaTB to found ocHyib, ocHveiiii. „ „ coBaTB to thrust cyto „ „ K.jeBaTL to nibble i!.jiok) „ „ jKCBaiB to chew >kvk) THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 119 (4) Iteratirc^ in -<4Tb, -htf.. There is one aspect of the Eussian called iterative or frequentative, signifying habitual or repeated action. One form of this is an inflection in -air,, -kih, -aio, -hk). e.g. ABiiraiB to move, perfective abiihxV [v. § 52 (3)] 4BHraTb to move, iterative ^Biiraio HaMaib to begin, perfective naHHy [v. § 49 (2)] HaMiiHaiB to begin, imperfective Other examples will be given in the section on the aspects, [v. § 59 (4).] The conjugation is regular, like JKCjaK) [v. § 47]. (5) Iteratives in -weaTb, -neaib. (a) Where the root of the verb is vocalic, in -BiiiF.. e.g. 4aTb to give Aasaxb 6biTb to be obiBaib craib to become -ciaBaTb ooyTica to be shod (perf.) ooyBUTbca (/3) Where the verb is dissyllabic, or the root consonantal in -biBaib, -iiBaib, ^vith the accent on the root. e.ir. nncaib to write niicbiBaTb 3BaTb to call aoBbiBaib [v. § 49, VII and -SbiBaib ToproBaTb to trade TOprOBblBETb Hrpaib to play urpbiBaib X04HTb to go xaajneaTb roBopuTb to speak roBapHBaiL For other instances, v. § 59, I. (4). These forms are conjugated regularly with a fixed accent; e.g. SbiBaio, niicbiBaK), roeapiiBaEO, like ajciaib [v. § 47]. 120 RUSSIAN GRAMMAli. Observe. — ^aBaTb (from ^aii.) forms its present like KOBaif) [v. § 53 (3) Il.],4aH)^4aemL, 4aeTT',etc. Similarly -CTRBaTL has -ciaio, -CTaemh, etc., and -ana Baiii (from sHair. to know), -3naio, -3Fiaeiiii», etc. § 54. Thp: FotiTJTii Conjugation. Preliminary. The fourth conjugation consists mainly of derivative verbs with fixed accentuation. The infinitive is in -tTi. for a few very common original verbs, and in -aib, -flih in four others : rHaii. to drive, cnaii. to sleep, ctohti. to be worth (connected with CTaif. to stand), and Sohtlch to fear. Otherwise the infinitive is in -hti,, and the present terminations -lo, -iimi., -htl, -iimi., -htc, -}itt> are added directly to the root or stem, the tliematic vowel m only occurring in the infinitive and forms thence derived. For a complete paradigm of the derivative verb, v. § 47, fiipHTb, and cf. §§ 44 and 45. The derivative verbs of the fourth conjugation are mostly transitive, and often causative. e.g. cja6i> weak, ciaObTL to become weak, cMifmih to make weak ciapi. old, ciapliTi. to become old, CTapnii. to make old ^oran. rich, (JorarliTL to become rich, (loraTHTb to enrich je^flHOH (from A'ejt,i, ice), .le^enliTi. to freeze (in- transitive), .le^eHHTb to freeze (transitive) When derived from verbs, forms in -nri. are usually THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 121 e.g. tlie im perfect ives of primitive verbs of the first con j ligation. to carry to carry to lead to lie HeCTII BCSTl'l BCCTH .ICHb IIOCHTF. B03HTb BO.^HTL .lOiKHTB to lay .iC/KaTi. to lie (intrans.) Generally speaking, these derivative verbs accent the termination throughout ; there are many exceptions, some of which are detailed in § 56. § 55. The Fourth Conjugation. rif/inal Verbs. T. Verbs in -aih, -air.. riiaTi. CTOJiTb cnaib to drive to stand to sleep Verbal noun : rn;lnie cToanie — Fast part. pass. : rHaiiiihiH — — Gerundive jy^^esent . roHii CToa — Present part. : roeamift cToamiii cnamiii Gerundive past : IHaBf, CTOHBl, — ma Bin 11 cto/ibiimi en a Bill H Present : rOHK) CTOK) cn.iio loHniijr, croniiib cniiiiib roBun, CTOi'm. cnnn. rOHHMl. CTOHM-b cnnMi> roHHTC cToiVre cni'ne roHan. cToan. cnarb Imperative : lOHM CTOii cnra Past : rHa.n. cioa.n. ona.n. Present part. pass. ; roHiiMwii — — ooflTBca, to fear, is conjugated like cto/iti>; the im •ative is rlojlrfl. 122 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. II. Verbs in -^Jb. Boots tenninatinr/ In m, jk, 'i chanr/e Ij to a ; e.g. .leJKaTi.. Cf. § 37 mid § 53 (2), and § 2' (3). These verbs mostly have a fixed accent on tlie terminations. e.g. roplTb to burn, ropio, ropMiiiL . . . ropjin. uivMiif. to be noisy, mvM.iio, uivMHuit, mvM/rn. .lerfeib to fly, jchv, jeTHiuf., .ict/itt. CHA'feTb* to sit, CHJKV, CHAlIinb, CH4fiTT> 4poHsaTb to tremble, 4poH«y, 4po;KHUib, ^pojKan. Kpn4aTb to cry, Kpii'iy, Kpusiioib, KpuMan. JCJKaTb to lie, jCHty, .icHtHUib, .leiKaT-b* CTVHaTb to knock, ciyqy, CTyHarb MCiMaib* to be silent, MO.i'iy, MO^i'ian, SOwiiib (impersonal), 60.1 wrb, Oojttn. BCJ'feTbt to command, Bdib, BCJiiinb off^tib* to look at, r.ifl}Ky, r^fimuuh, etc. Some have a moveable accent, e.g. cMOTpiib to look at, CMOTpib, cMOTpiimb . . . CMOTapTT., CMOTpJIlniw, -CMOTpfelieblll lepniib to endure, Tepn.iK), Tepnnuib . . . lepnan. (but TcpnHMbiH, TepnieHHbiii) ^epjKaib to hold, ^epjKy, 4epH«Huib . . . ^epjKan. (past part. pass. 4epH«aHHbiu) * Present gerundive cii,\n, .ie;Ka, Mo.i'ia, r.iJMa. t Takes the dative. THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 123 4bimaTb to breathe, 4 hi my, 4bi[nnmB, Abiman. (Also a secondary form, ^wxaib, 4biiiiy, Awuienii., 4biiiiyTi. in the third conjugation) jioouTb to love, .iioaiio, .iwCwiub . . . .iib6«rb, .iioofliuiii, .nooi'iMbiii BcprbTb, to turn, usually has a fixed accent on the termination ; BepiMfflb, BepiHib, BepiHTX are also found. BHcfeifc to hang (intransitive) has a fixed accent ; Ijut in compounds accents the root, e.g. saBiicfeib. A few are accented fixedly on the root. e.g. cibiiuaib, cibimy, Cwib'imaTb, etc., to hear RHAtlb, Bl'lJKy, BHAHTl tO SCC As a rough guide it may be stated that verbs of the fourth conjugation with the infinitive in -iib, if in- transitive have a fixed accent, if transitive have a moveable accent. J^^ote. — njaiHTB, to pay (n.iaMy, n.iaTHUib, njainn., luaqeHHbiii), must be distinguished from njaKaTi., njaqy to weep ; njaTiim-L . . . njaiflrL, to pay, is sometimes written, and commonly sounded n.ioTHoib . . . n.i6TarL. The past tense of this conjugation ends in -iAi,, -ail., accented like the infinitive. In this class the irregular verbs xorfeib to wish, and 6ijKaTB to run, must be included. ()ia«aTi> has two irregular forms, otry I run, Si^ryTT, they run, and derivative forms. CMOTptTL, to look, is also given in full, to illustrate a verb of the fourth conjugation with a moveable accent. 124 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Infinitive : xoT'IiTh CMOTpt>TF, dijjKfiTr. Past : xoiiji CMOTptn, Gt.;Ka.n. Past rjerun. : xoTtBT,, xoiii BOIII CMOrptBl. otiKaBi. CMOTpiBIIIH OliJKaBUIH Pq'cs. gernn. : xoth [not used] CMOTp/i GiiJKa, Prcs. imrt. ad. : xoth u[ i ii CMOTpHluiw StrymiA Past part. act. : xoiiBraiH CMOTptBIIliH d-fe'/KaBiuiu Past2^t.2iass.: — [' oJc.MOTpiiHHhlH — Present: a xony CMOTpK) Gtry Thi xoneiui, CMOTpiIUII. GtiKHUIL oHa, OHi. xo^en, CMOTpHTI. d-feiKHTl. Mbl XOTHMT, CMOTpilMI. GtHiHM'L BI.I XOTHie CMOTpme ofcKHTe OHl'l, OHt XOTHTl, CMorpan. G-fcryn. Pres. pt. pass. : xoTMMbiH Imperative : xotm CMOTpiI otrH Most dissyllabic original verbs in -mil have a variable accent, e.g. yHMit to learn, yqy, y4Hiiib; nycTHib to let go, nymy, nycTHiiiL; the 1st person singular only is accented like the infinitive, e.g. nycTan,, ciyaiarh (they serve). The present gerundive active, present participle active, and present participle j)assive are generally accented like the infinitive, e.g. .iiooa, .iioOaiuiii, jiioSiiMbiir (.iioSHTb to love). The past participle passive is generally accented like the secondary accent of the present, e.g. XBaiiiTb to seize, xBauy, xBainiub, XBaqeHHbiH. Sorne verbs have a fixed accent, e.g. npocTiiTb to forgive, iipomy, npocTiiiub, npomennbiu, etc. ; but such are mostly derivative, e.g. 4ap'b gift, ^api'iib to present, 4 II BO marvel, VAHBiiTca to marvel. THE FOUKTH CONJUGATION. 125 § 56. The Fourth Conjugation. Derivative Verbs. The infinitive always ends in -htb, and the accentua- tion is fixed ; v. § 47 for an example. As stated in § 54 these derivative verbs are mostly accented on the terminations. e.g. from adjectives and nouns : — uepubiii black •lepHUTb to blacken ni.HHbIU drunk IlbflUllTb to make drunk (to dodf?e xinpbiii cunning xinpuTb (to be cunning MVIul* torment wyMiiib to torture rpycTL sorrow rj»ycTMTb to grieve Jjut those derived from verbs mostly have a variable accent, e.g. ciaBUTb (cTaB.iib, CTaBiiuib), HOCiiTb, Boaiiib, B04HTb, 6y4iiTb (to place, carry, convey, lead, awaken), from cTaib^ hccth^ bcsth, bccth, dx^ih, v. § 54. But very many conserve the original accent, especially if the verb has more than two syllables. e.g. caop-b dispute CUOpUTb to dispute ceopa quarrel CCOpUTb to set at variance cja5biii weak ClaOMTb to weaken ciapbiii old CTapuTb to make old KHClblii acid KIICIUTb make acid IlH3b low down uuiniTb to degrade in'iiuiii poor uiiimiTb to impoverish Btpa faith BtpUTb to believe * Distinguish from MVKa flour : MyneuTb to flour. 126 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Trisyllabic : — roTOBbiM ready iotobiitb to make ready (past part. pass. roTOBJCHUbiH) 3kou6mti economical 3koh6mhti> to economize (trans, and intrans.) To this last principle that trisyllabic verbs retain the original accent there are many exceptions, especially in all adjectives and nouns denoting substance, e.g. ooraTHH rich GoraiHTb to enrich Bece.ibiM merry secejuTb enliven acieHbiH green seJCHMTb to make green 36JOTO gold 30.!0TMTb to gild (30J04eHHbm) je4T. ice, icy jeACHHTb to freeze roBop'b speech roBopinb to say § 57. Anomalous Verbs. A few anomalous verbs remain over for discussion. They are either of mixed conjugations or obsolete forms. I. Mixed conjugations. (1) The same root throughout. (a) pcBliTb, to roar, forms its present like a verb of the first conjugation, e.g. peB//, peBeiwft . . . peBym», mid therefore all de- rivative forms such as peByt/(m, pes// (gerundive), etc. {&) xo'fiTb to wish [v. § 55, II.]. (7) -xhih (only used in compounds, ox^ih to dress, etc.) and CTaib, to stand, form their present in Aviy, ^iy^eiab ; ciaH^, cTaut'f«(j ; and belong to the first conjugation. ANOMALOUS VERBS. 127 (3) noctTiiTB to visit, oSpaiHTi. to direct, from the 1st person present in m instead of »i ; thus, noc'feM(y, noci^THiui.; o6pai((y, oSpaiHiiiL. (e) -ujhGhtl (only used in compounds, e.g. omiiSMTLCfl make a mistake, perfective ; imperfective ouiHOaTBCfl, oiiiHSaiocfc, etc.) forms its present as in the first conjuga- tion, its past as in the intransitives of the second, e.g. ouiHoycL, omH6eTCfl . . . oiUHSyTca ; past otmlocn, oiimOjach, omu6- .loch, oum()Anch. The participles are ouiHoaiomiuoi, oniHomiiica ; gerundives, oiUHSaact, ouiiioaiHCi.. (f) Distinguish 3piTj», spw, span* [apeHHbiii] to look at ; and spiit to ripen, apiio, apieini,^ etc. II. Using different roots. E.g. in English " to be," " I was," " to go," " I went." (1) HATH forms its present from the root H4, its past from uica. e.g. Present : H^y, HAeuib . . . havti. Present part, and gerundive : HAyo^iii, n^a Past : mejT>, ui.ia, lujo, nun Pa^t pari. act. and gerundive : meAUiiii, uiCAiiiu (2) 6i>iTb to be Verhal noun : 6biTie Present: ecTb; cyib Past: 6bUT>, Gbua, 6biJ0, 6bi.iH Future: ovAy, 6y4euib, GvAerb, oyACMT,, ovAeie, GyAyn, Future participle : 6y4y uuii. But v. § 44 (4), footnote. Past participle : 6biBmi h Past gerundive : Ob'iBUJU or ObiB-b Imperative : oy^b, CyAbie 128 IIUSSIAN GllAMMAK. (3) txaib, to drive, has as its jjreseut form i4y, hAemb, iAQThj ij^eyi-b, t4eTe, i^yxb^ and theuce the gerundive feAy^iH, the participle iAymiii, the imperative fojKaJi or isAU ; but in the past ixajij, ixaBi,, etc. ; tsHiait (iterative). The present tense of owtb is scarcely ever used. ecTb and cyib only survive in definitions, and are then used for all the persons. E.g. Eort ecib uciHua God is the truth ; otherwise, Ueipi. oqeuL wy^p'L Peter is very w^ise, aio Moe a to tboc this is mine and that is yours, [v. § 86.] The compounds of Obiii. are peculiar. The future tense is -OyAV, e.g. aaSbrri. to forget, aaovAy. npoObiTb to stay (perfective), tipoobiBaib (imperfec- tive) H^obiTb, u36biBaTb to lose or s(|uander BbiOLiTb, Bbi6biBaTb to retire, resign 4o6bnb, 4o6biBaTb to earn iiepeobiTb, nepeobiBUTb to frequent npuSbiTb, npiiobiBaib to arrive or increase; iipii6bi.!b (f em.) profit OTObiTb, oiobiBaTb to depart or get rid of yobiTb, yobiBaiL to decrease III. Obsolete forms. (1) 34aTb, to build, has a reduplicated present jujoky, ,niJicdcmh, siiotcderb, 3ii^K^e^^^, siloicdeje, jw^^yib; and thence 3HiK4ymiu, 3u>K4ymu ; and the imperative suokOh (jujKdb). For the rest it is like aaaio. (2) There are four verbs in " m," like the Latin sum and the Greek verbs in fii. ANOMALOUS VERBS. 129 (a) B^MTi I know (root fit^*). This is entirely obsolete ; but one form survives in the expression Borb BtcxL God knows. The derivatives are numerous, e.g. B-feAOMbiii an acquaintance, Bt40M0CTi> the gazette or the news. The infinitive Bicib is also a feminine noun, meaning "news"; the iterative form Bt;^aTb is in common use in compound verbs ; -BiJAaib being the perfective and -B'b^biBaTb the imperfective ; the old imperative b^ab survives as a conjunction, more or less equivalent to void. (/S) ecMb, V. antea under obiTb. (7) icTb to eat (root ^4). r Present: ifewb, ifeuib, ■fecm?j,t ^xuMh, ^Ailme, l^Hmn Imperative (irregular) : hm, i?«&Te Past: ia-b, bja, 4io, Lm Part, and gerundives: 'h^k, iAymifi, iBUiH, iiBiniii, i^oMbiH, -wdenubiii (B) Aaib to give (perfective). The present form (perfective future) : — 4aMi, 4amb, ^acms, AdiduM-b, dadilme, dadf/nih The imperfective forms are supplied by AaBaib. [y. § 53 (5).] Imperative: 4a ft Past: 43,11., 4a.! ii, 4a J 6, 4a.iH Part, and gcrviidices : 4aBiiiii, jaBiuiii, 4anHbiii * Greek ot5a, English " I wot." t Cf. Latin est he is, est he eats ; German ist and iszt. K 130 EUSSIAN GRAMMAR. § 58. The Aspects of the Verbs. Preliminary. In § 42 (2) (ii) the " aspects " of the Eussian verb were mentioned. They could not be adequately ex- plained until the accidence of the verb had been fully treated. To recapitulate: the verb in early Eussian had a present, imperfect and aorist (or preterite) indicative, and a compounded perfect and pluperfect like the English " I have read," and the Latin gavisus sum. There were some few traces even of a future, but no conjunctive or other moods. Eussian discarded all the inflections save that of the present, and modified the stem or root to express the same tenses; e.g. a CBHcriji, I whistled, is "j'ai siffle"; a cBHCTeyjT> is "je sifflai"; a CBHCiajT, is "je sifflais," I was whistling; a CBHCTbiea.i'b I used to whistle (now and then). Each of these "aspects" has its conjugation; and, thus, those Eussian verbs which have all the aspects possess nearly the same richness as the Greek verb with its present infinitive and participle, aorist forms, perfect forms, etc. The perfective regards the action accomplished or to be accomplished, not the process of doing it. e.g. Yhhti-jh Bami MajbHHKT. cboh ypoKH ? Does your boy learn his lessons (as a rule) ? THE ASPECTS. 131 Hi&TX, HO OBT> liXT, BbivHHTT. cer64Ha is the perfect- ive ; there can be no present to an aorist or preterite. The present form is used as a perfect contem- plating the completion of the act. The answer is : " No, but he will learn them to-day." The answer might proceed : m tekt. ovAen. xo^htl bi. iiiHujy CT» noHe4'feji»HHKa (i.e. the imperfective future) "and so will go to school from Monday next." Or again, a 5y4y ctohtb e/Ke4eeBH0 Ha o^homt. h tomt. jkc Micii I shall stand every day at the same spot. CTiiny can also be used as the auxiliary, but signifies rather " I will begin to." e.g. Bi oyAymcMT, ro4y tbi cTaHenis pa66TaTb bl KOHTOpli. Next year you will start working at the office. The primary division, which very nearly all Eussian verbs have, is into imperfective and perfective. Some have further forms, derived from either or both in certain cases, from the imperfective. The abstract, e.g. pbi6a njaBaen. SbiCTpo the fish swims quickly (as a habit), aTOTL n.iOBeat njbiBerb oHCUb xopouio this swimmer is swimming very well (at this instant). The inceptive, e.g. ooj^tb to fall ill, aaGcifeib to fall ill gradually. The iterative or hahitttaly only used colloquially and in the past tense; e.g. Xo4HTe-JH Bbi HacTO BT. Teaipi. ? Hirb, lenepb He xoHty, ho Kor4a-TO xaasH- BaiT*. Do you often go to the theatre? No, I don't now ; once I used to go occasionally. From the per- fective the perfective form in -Hvib [v. § 50, 1.] has been k2 132 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. in some verbs specialized into the " instantaneous " or " semelf active " aspect, an act done on a single occasion. e.g. 3anpeiueH6 CTyHaiB bt> okho. It is forbidden to knock at the window. (Imperfective or iterative : CTyHaifc, civMy.) KtO BTO laMT. CTyHMTT» BT> ABCpb ? Who is that knocking at the door ? R He MOFL BOMTl'l, TaKT> CTyKHyjT>. I could not get in, so I knocked. Further, certain verbs derived from adjectives have causative and inceptive forms in -htb and -tih [v. § 53]. Intrans. Trans. sen aejeaiTb acjeHiiTi. ciaSbiM weak cjaSiTi) ciaoHib etc. Aspects. Ill I II Diminu- Incep- Perfective Imperfective Causa- Incep- tive tive j \ tive tive 110 3a I j I \ in -nTi, -iih Instantaneous Itera- Abstract Incep- tive tive Some verbs have no perfective, [v. § 59, IV. J e.g. iipeABMAiib to foresee saBHcfeib to depend C04ep}KaTb (coAepffiHTT.) to contain npHHa^jewaib {-my, -Htwrb) to belong no^jewaTb to be subject to coJKajiiTb (-tie) to regret npcACTOHTb (-CTOK)) to impend coHyBCTBOBaib to sympathize npe^iyBCTBOBaib to forebode I the aspects. 133 § 59. The Formation of the Aspects. I. From original verbs. (1) First conjugation. The simplest form of the uncompounded verb is im perfective. e.g. nsHb to cook iKC'ii. to burn HCCTU to carry, etc. With tliese may be reckoned the primitives of the third and fourth conjugations. lUJK) I send oHTb obK) I beat cnaiL cn.no I sleep THaTi, roiiK) I drive There are some ( exceptions : — e.g. .»e4b jary I shall lie down nacTb na4y I shall fall cicTb c/uy I shall sit down CTaib ciaHy 1 shall stand ^axb AaMT, I shall give The perfectives of monosyllabic verbs are formed with prepositions, i.e. by compounding the verb. The imperfectives of cicTb, etc., are : — ciiCTb ca4i'iTbca .104 b JOHIHTbCfl CTaib CTaHOBHTbCfl (cTaHOB.lK)Cb, CiaHOBHTCfl) 4aTb 4aBaTb [v. § 53 (5)] nacTb na4aTb, na4aK) 134 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. But these verbs, when . tmcom2Jounded, form iteratives out of the full root with an -aib suffix. e.g. ciaib to send -cbuaib 6paTb to take -SHpaib H{4aTb to wait -HiH^aib ^paiB to tear -4HpaTb 3BaTL to call -3blBaTb JKCHb to burn -HJHraib TepeTB to rub -THpaib HiaiL to press -JKHMaib SKaiL to reap -/KHHaib 4cTb to eat 'iASLTh [litCTb] to know B^AaTb Similarly in the third conjugation, in the vocalic stems. e.g. 6HTb to beat GaeaTb 4VTb to blow AVBaib 3HaTb to know BHaBaib, etc. In the last-named verb a distinction must be made between -seaK), -3Haemb, etc. (from -3eaTb), and -3HaK), -3Haeuib, etc. (from -3HaBaTb). [v. § 53 (5).] When these primitive verbs are compounded, the imperfective takes the derivative form in -aib, and the perfective the original form in -ib, -Hb. e.g. cjKeHb to burn down, coJKry I shall burn down, cJKHraib (imperfective), cHtHraio I am burning down noMO'ib to help, noMory I shall help ; noMoraib (imperfective) Similarly npHSHaib to recognise, npH3Haio I shall recognise; but imperfective npH3HaBaTb, iipHsnaio I THE ASPECTS. 135 aaobiBaiL (imperf.) saobiBaK) I forget hut 3a6biTL (perf.) saoy^y I shall forget pasctBaTL (imperf.) paacieaK) I disperse paacfeflTb (perf.) pascfeio I shall disperse yMHpaTB (imperf.) VMnpaK) I am dying VMcpeTb (perf.) ywpy I shall die noHHMiiTb (imperf.) noHHMaio I understand noHHTb (perf.) nowMy I shall understand [v. § 49, 11.] B03CTaBaTb (imperf.) Boyciaio I rise BoacTaib (perf.) BoaciaHy I shall rise BbiHOCMTb (imperf.) bi>i necTH to carry away (perf.) Observe. — npo4ecTb, npoHHTaib to read through (perfective) ; npoHMTbiBaib (imperfective). (2) Second conjugation in -Hyib. These verbs, as has been explained, are all either perfective or imperfective in themselves. e.g. yracHVTb to be extinguished (imperf.), past tense yracb ; aacoxHyTb to dry, sacoxi. ; KHBVTb to throw, imperf. KHAaib, past tense KHHV.i'b. Perfectives in -iiyib are often called "instantaneous" or " semelfactive," because they denote a single action. e.g. KpHHaTb to shout, KpMKHyib to shout on one occasion 4ep3aTb, 4ep3HyTb to venture (3) Third conjugation. The manner in which the original verbs of this conjugation form their perfectives has been stated in §59,1.(1). 136 BUSSIAN GRAMMAR. ! Derivative verbs in -ixi. are "inceptive" in meaning, e.g. aejentTb, viridesco, to become green, and naturally imperfective. They must be compounded with a pre- position to make them perfective. | Derivative verbs in -ait, -axL are naturally imper- fective, and compounded with various prepositions become perfective, e.g. A'^^aii. to do, c^t.iaTL. Most original verbs in -aib, such as nHcaTL to write, can only form their perfective by means of a prepo- sition, as such verbs cannot vary their form any further, or make use of a sufFixal stem, e.g. nHcaii., perfective HanHcaTb. Thus uanwiiiy means "I shall write." To the third conjugation belong the iteratives in -aib and -biBaiL. The former are always accented on the termination, the latter always on the root which is in its fullest form. e.g. -MGCTb, -Hiy : HHTaib to read (imperfective), iipoHHiaTb (perfective), HHTbiBaio (iterative) I read here and there. SBBTb to call (perfective in compounds only), e.g. co3BaTb to call together (iterative C03bi- Baib). Verbs whose radical vowel is o change the o to a in forming the iterative. e.g. jOMaib to break .iiiMbiBaTb 5pocaTb to throw CpacbiBaib (abstract sense : opocHib concrete) and even ycBoiiib to appropriate ycBaiiBaTb THE ASPECTS. 137 In some cases, the difference between the imper- fective and iterative is merely accentual, the iterative termination -aib being always accented. Imperfective. Iterative, e.g. 4BinaTi.ca move ohi, 4BHHJeTca 4BHraTi» -^BHPa.n. otraif. run Gbraio otrdib -6'fcn'aT. nai-'jarb creep no.isaio nciaaiL -no.i3a.n. nji^aTh fall na4aK) naAait -na4aji This distinction only applies to some original verbs of the type of nHcaib [v. § 52 (3)], in which the suffixal vowel -a- is dropped in the formation of the present ; such verbs having a fixed accent in the imperfective on the root, and the infinitive termination -aiL unaccented. (4) Fourth conjugation. Many of the original verbs in -htl or -iii,, -K), -HUib, have another form of conjugation in -htb, like the iteratives in -aib. In some cases the original form in -HTb, -"feTb is perfective, the imperfective being in -aib (as was seen to be the rule in monosyllabic verbs like 3HaTb, MOHb, GepeHb, anaBaTb, -Moraib^ -oeperaib); in others the original form in -Hib is imperfective, and the alternative -aib or aib has an abstract meaning. Again, some verbs in -nib derived from intransitive monosyllabic verbs, such as je4b, ciaib, etc., are causative. Perfective. Imperfective. e.g. npocTi'iTb to forgive* npomaib aBUTb show aB..iaTb * IIpocTHrbcfl say farewell, npociiire good-bye. 138 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Perfective, e.g. JHIIIHTF. deprive Imperfective. JHiuaib nycTMTb CTynwTb permit tread nycKaib CTvnaTb XBaiHTb seize XBaiaib KVnHTb buy nOKynaib (distinguish Kynaib to bathe) p04HTbCfl be born pajK^aibca* Hacja^MTbcff nocibTHTb enjoy visit HaciajKAaTbCfl* nocimaTb* vGi^HTb to convince yGiiHJ^aTb* Imperfective. Abstract or habitual. Cmicrete rnea^iing. e.g. jCTaib fly .leitib [v. § 58] njaBaib swim njbiTb Gtraib caJKaib .lOMaib run plant break GiHJaib (but oiraib iterative) 034 HTb .JOMHTb :5imilarly HOCMib carry HCCTH B04MTb load BCCTH B03HTb bear BCSTM Akmih ' climb J'taib 6.iHCTaTb gleam 6jecTtTb rOHHTb drive THaib Wh€7i these verbs are com'pounded, the derivative form in -aib, -aib is imperfective, the original form perfective. e.g. OTDJbiBaib yOtraib OTn.JbITb vS'fejKaTb to swim away to run away * Church Slav change of a, to >K4, and t to m. J I THE ASPECTS. 139 e.g. fl .lOMaK) KapaHAafflH. I (generally) break pencils. Me^BtAb JOMHTCfl BT> 4Beph. The bear is breaking into the door. Kopaojb OTU.ibiBaerb. The ship is leaving port. A6AK3. viKe OTiubua orb 6epera. The boat has left the shore. HtMUbi yotraiorb orb mibiKa. Germans run away from the bayonet. CooaKa cxBaTHjia Kocib h yotajaja. The dog snatched the bone and ran away. Hi.MUbl npHHUH BO OpaHuilO C^ TtMI. HTOOb!- rpaoHTb. The Germans came into France to plunder. HliMUbi npHUiJH BT, BejbiiK) h orpa6H.!H Bct ropo^ii. The Germans came into Belgium and plundered all the cities. Thirdly, the alternative form in -aib, -aib may be iterative. Imperfective. Iterative. e.g. xpaHHTb keep xpaHaib BU4'feTb see Be^aib y^apHTb strike y^apHib In compound verbs the form in -aib, -HTb is used for imperfectives, the form in -HTb for perfectives. e.g. OiBiny I shall answer. OTBtnaK) I am answering. Paaopio BauiH ropo4a h ccieHia. I will destroy your cities and settlements. Bi iipo40J}KeHie AByxi MicaucB^ Kopojb paaopoii HcnpiaTCibCKie ropo4a. For two months the king had been des- troying the hostile cities. 140 RUSSIAN GRAMMAK. Generally the iteratives are formed in -HBaib or iiiBaih, verbs in -lii taking -biBaii,. e.g. roBopwTb speak roBapiiBaib npOCHTI. ask npaiUHBaxb xo4MTr. go xaiKHBaib FJAAtn. look at rjH4biBaTb Bl'utTb see BH4biBaTb II. The formation of the perfective in derivative verbs. As has been stated, derivative verbs end in -tib, -aib and -Hib. Most verbs in -iib are inceptive and naturally imperfective, and generally, if uncompounded, have no perfective. e.g. cjaoiiTb to become weak Verbs in -aib form the perfective by compounding, and this rule applies to original verbs like nHcaib, nnmy, nHUien., as well as to derivatives, such as JKCJaib, noatejaTb. As to the choice of preposition, there is no general rule; na, paai, no, o, y, bh, ct., etc., can all be used. Only practice can distinguish the perfectives from the compounds. Verba in -nib mostly have a secondary form -Hib, which in the uncompounded verb has an iterative Perfective. e.g. j^Lmih to do cA'iiaTb iKdaib to wish noHjejaib Bja^iib to rule 0B.ia4'bTb CMOTpilb to look nOCMOTpt.Tb BH4tTb to see VBIuiTb nHcaib to write HanHcaib TpaiHTb to lose HCTpaTHTb THE ASPECTS. 141 Some imcompouuded imperfective verbs in -HTb form their perfectives, like those in -aib, by com- pounding with a particle. expo HTb rpaoHTb cepAUTbcfl TpCBOJKIlTb lUaTHTb to build to plunder to be angry to disquiet to pay nOCTpOHTb orpaouTb pa3cep4HTbCfl BCTpCBOJKHTb aanjaiiirb Again no general rule can be stated. III. Aspects formed from a different root. Of these there are very few. Perfective. to go to catch e.g H4TH nouMa-TL Imperfective. X04HTb JOBiiTb {hut noH/iTL un- derstand, noHHMaib) y^apmi, to strike Saib, and y^apaib iio.ioiiiiiib to lay luiacTb (iua4y) B3aTb to take opaib Concrete. Abstract. Iterative. ixaib to drive iaAHTb •fesMtaTb cibimaTb (cibiiiiy) to hear cJbixaib (cibimy) 4bi!iJaTb (4bmJHrb) to breathe 4bixaTb (4biiiieT'b) e.g. fl fojKy BT, r6po4T, Kaffi4biH 4eHb. I go to the city every day. II ixaJT. 40M6m C'b BOIJOMT,. I drove home (in a carriage). IIgmth e3Ke4HeBHO xohjv niuiKoMb 4om6h, ho Kor4a-TO a isjKa.i'b BMicit cl oapuHOMi,, Almost every day I walk home ; but sometimes I drove with the master. 142 EUSSIAN GRAMMAR. IV. The aspects of compound verbs. The general rule is that all compound verbs are perfective. The imperfective is formed by the iterative form in -aii., -/iTb, -HBaib, -HBaib; if a derivative form exists in -htb this serves as the imperfective, and the iterative in -aib, -aii., -bieaiL conserves the iterative Perfective. BMlieCTH BblHOClITb GO-bfexaTb BblBCSTM hut BbIB04MTb BblB03MTb BbI3BaTb BbiHrpaib to carry out to endure to drive round to cart out to lead about to take about (in a carriage) to summon to gain at play Imperfective. BblHOCHTb BblHaUIHBaTb OOltayKaTb BblBOailTb BblBaJKHBHTb BbiBajKUBaib BbI3bIBaTb BbiurpbiBaib Observe. — Bbi takes the accent, except in the imper- fective, which retains the accent of the uncompounded verb. All other prepositions are unaccented, except in the past tenses and past participles passive of mono- syllabic verbs, e.g. H36paH^ chosen [v. § 49, II.], Hanarb, np64aj'b, etc. e.g. BblHTW npoBecTii OOHOBHTb Observe noJOJKHTb y.I03KHTb 40J0}KHTb to go out to pass (time) to renew suppose pack report (a fact) BblX04MTb npOB04HTb oSHOBJHTb nojaraib yKja^biBaib 40Kia4biBaTb ' rHE ASPECTS. Observe : — Porfectivc. BbiotiKaib to run away htt Bbiotraib to attain by a run BbliiTH to go away hut BblXOAMTb to gain aaixaib (3afe4y) to go beyond hut saisAMTb to tire out npoBecTM to lead through hit npOB04HTb to accompany 143 ImperfectivG. Bbiotltilb BbiotrHoaTb BLIXOAMTb BbixajKHBaib satsiKaib SaisHtUBHTb npOB04UTb npoBGJKaTb, or npoBaHJHBaTb In some cases the only perfective is the semelfactive in -HVTL. e.g. ABMHVTb to move ^BwraTb KHBUYTb to nod KHBaib TpoHVTB to touch iporaiB uienHyTb to whisper uieniaTb KpHKHVTb to cry KpH^iaib B3A0XHyTb to sigh BS^bixaib In forming imperfectives the general rule is that the iterative form of the uncompounded verb is the stem of the imperfective of the compounded verb. to delay npoMe^jHBaib to deceive oSwaHbiBaTb to be extinguished noracaTb to perish norHoaib to look up B3rJH4bIBaTb to lock up saMbiKaib Observe. — laeyTb (imperfective) to pull, liirHBaTb; but in compounds, npoTaHyib to stretch forth, npoTara- Baib. [v. § 50, I.] .g. npoMe^iHTb o6MaHyTb noracHyTb* norHOHVTb* BarjflHyTb aaMKHyib * But past tense noraOi, noraci). 144 RUSSIAN GRAMxMAR. e.g. Ou'L BbiTflHy.i'L orpoMHaro jeiua. He pulled up a huge bream. llBaHT, IlBaHbiHi.TaBeT-LjaMKy 466paro ccMbHiii'iHa. Ivan Ivanyc works hard like a good family man [pulls the shoulder-strap]. Moil 4pyn. ueoAHOKpaTHO BbiTHrHBa.ib mchh H3'b xpyAHaro ncioHteHia. My friend more than once has pulled me out of an awkward situation. Other instances are : — Perfective. Imperfective. vaeaTb acknowledge V3HaBaTb(v3HaM)) [§53(5)] ociao'tTb to become weak| ocja5HyTb (semelfactive) ) GCJao'feBaTb noB-fepHTb believe noBip/iTb nopy4HTb to commission iiopyHaTb npoAaiJKHTb IIOMiTHTb to continue npo40.nKaTb to mark noMisaib yotiKaib to run away yoiraib nepen.ii.Vrb to swim through iiepenJbiBaib ytxaib to drive away (in a carriage) ytsffiaib OTornaTb to drive away OTrOHWTb onHcaTb to describe onHCbieaTb TiparOTOBHTb to prepare npiiroTOBwiiiib npH^i^aTb to affix npH^iibiBaTb npHJKeHb to scorch npHiKHraib npHKasaib to decree npMKasbiBaib npuMHpi'iTb to reconcile npHMHpaTb HsGpaTb to choose HBonpaib THE ASPECTS. 1^5 The learner must not confuse those verbs derived from compound nouns or adjectives. Such verbs are naturally imperfective, as the formative stem contains the particle, which is not added to the verb. e.g. 0631, noKOJi without rest Imperfective. oeanoKOMTb disturb Perfective. GoeanoKOHTL paavMT. reason paayM'bTf, understand ypasyMtib 061.41. dinner o6t4aTL dine nooohAari, aaooia trouble 3a56THTf,cfl 03a66THTi.ca HacjiJ4-cTB0 inheritance iiacji^OBan, yHacj 1140 Ban. npe4'iyBCTBie foreboding npe4iyBCTB0BaTL co'iyBCTBie sympathy cosyBCTBOBaTi, [v. § 58] 0031. .ii04eM without ue3.iK)4tTt to become de- people populated (o6e3Jib4'bTb perf.) The accentuation of compounded verbs is that of the simple, save with bbi, v. § 59, IV. Except BTopHTb to repeat noBTopMTb to repeat, imperfective noBTop/iTb acuMTbca to clear up (of the weather) y3T,acuuTb explain, imperfective usxaciniib V. Causatives and inceptives. As stated in § 53 (1) and § 54, verbs derived from adjectives have transitive forms in -I'lib, and in- transitives in -iiL. e.g. cHHifi blue, cmrtTb to turn blue, ciiuiiTb to make blue MarKia soft, Mar'iMib and paSMar^iaib cia4KiH sweet, yc.ia4MTb and ya!a}K4aTb MOJ046H young, MOJ044Tb to grow young, MO.104HTL to make young, etc., etc. 146 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Similarly, transitive verbs in -htb are derived from intransitive primitives. e.g. jCHh to lie down nojojKWTi. to lay cicTL to sit down noca^Hib to seat ciaib to stand (ciauy) CTaHOBMihca to stand, and CTaBHTF. to place e.g. fl nocTaBHJi. Easy na KO.ionHV. I put tlie vase on the column. VI. no and aa as forming depreciatory and incep- tive verhs. no when compounded with some verbs gives a depreciatory or diminutive sense, e.g. MbiTLCfl to wash noMHTLCfl to wash here and there noMVTMTb to create squabbles noKypHBaib, noKypiiTb, to smoke occasionally noKyuiaib (perfective noicib) to eat by snacks noKapMineaTb (noKopMHTb) to feed slightly noKaMHBaTb to waver (noKaHaib perfective, noKaHHyib to shake) noKanuHTb to cough a little (noKanunBaTb) 3a often creates another inceptive aspect, to begin doing. e.g. saBapHBaib (aaBapiiib perfective) to simmer saB'bujMBaTb (aaBtcHib) to veil, begin veiling sacBHCTaTb to begin whistling 3acMiaTbCfl to begin laughing sacbixaib (aacoxHyib) to start drying saTMeBaib (aaiMMTb) to grow dusk, etc. aaTOHVTL to start sinking (aaianjHBaTb), saionHTb perfective sac-feBaTb (aactflTb) to begin to sow REFLEXIVE AND PASSIVE VERBS. 147 But compounds with 3a are often perfective. e.g. PyccKie aaioniun* Kopjifuh bl CcBacTonojM'Kofi oyxit. The Russians sank the .ship in the l>{iy of Sebastopol. § GO. PiEFLEXIVE AND PASSIVE YeRRS. A.s stated previously [v. itifra, § 10, § 42 (2) (i) and (ii)] the Eussian verb is very defective ; it possesses only one conjugated tense, and no subjunctives. The passive is mostly supplied by the reflexive, cfl and cb being added to the terminations [v. § 41, V. (1)] ; Cfl being added to consonantal terminations, cb to vocalic. This ca is nearly always unaccented; there are very few exceptions. e.g. fl 4'kiaK)Cb I become, am made, 4'bjaeTca, A'fejaBiiJHcb, etc. poAUTbCfl to be born, po^HTca, po^n.icfl, po4H.uicb or poAHjkb. Deponent verbs also exist, i.e. reflexive forms in which the reflexive idea has vanished, or is not expressed or required in translation. e.g. fl Mowcb I wash myself, I wash Kopojb BcpHyjca 40m6u the King has returned home cTbMMTbca to feel ashamed f * Distinguish saionHTL, saToo^ieHHuu (3aT0n.{HTb) to sink ; and aaionHTb, saTon-ieHHwa, aaian.iHBaTb, to heat, t Distinguish cxbui* shame, CTbiAMTbcn ; and cxMib (perfective), CTUiiyTb (imperfective) to he cold. l2 148 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. * Similarly in rrench " se suicider," " s'approcher de '* are always reflexive or deponent. But when a verb has as its express object the same person as the subject, the enclitic form ca and ci> (which are always sounded ca and cl [v. § 41, V. (1)]), ai'e not used, the full form ce6a taking their place. e.g. A.jeKc4H He B.iaA'feeri> co66h. Alexis has no self-control. MaJbHHKl> B3ii3T> Ha KphlUIV H VOMJCfl. The boy crawled on to the roof and was killed. Oht. noKOHSHJi co66m. He committed suicide [ended by himself]. Oht. oroBopi'uca mto ero mWpbi MorvTi. 6biTi. HeelipHbi H ceo/i orpaAM.i'L ainMi* ott* bchkhxi. HapeiiafliH. He defended himself on the ground that his figures might not be correct, and guarded himself on this score from all blame. Tbi He Hcn6jb30BajT» CBoero no.ioJKeHia a a npoBeji, CBoe BpeMa 6e3noje3HbiMT> 66pa30M'b. You made no use of your position, and I spent my time uselessly. H Bcer4u UMijio npH ceoi nopTpen. jkchli. I always have my wife's portrait with me. The Passive is also expressed in two other ways : — (1) With a passive participle and the verb obiTb as in English. e.g. KoMHaia obua y6paua liBiiaMH. The room was decorated with flowers. THE NUMERALS. 149 (2) With the verb in the third person plural, with the indefinitive meaning of " one," " o/t," " man." e.g. 3oByn> MeH« no «i»aMH.iiH MoHaxoBbiMi,. My family name is Monakhov [they call me . . . .] The reflexive forms are never used loosely to express " one another." Thus [v. § 82, IV.] :— PaGonie PoccIh, AHriin, paBqiH a FepMaHin yOwBaion. ^pyrt 4pyra. The workmen of Eussia, England, France and Germany are slaying one another. Cjt40BajH 4pyn. 3a 4pyroMT,. They followed each other. THE NUMERALS. § 61. Preliminary. The inflection of the Eussian numerals is at first sight very difficult. The problem can be simplified. (a) In the first place, nearly all the numerals are nouns, and are therefore followed by the genitive plural. (0) Secondly, being nouns, when compounded, e.g. 4B'I>CTH (two hundred), each part follows its own declension. (7) Thirdly, 4Ba, ipw, qexbipc, 2, 3 and 4, take the equivalent of the old dual, i.e. the genitive singular. (8) Fourthly, the noun in ordinals is governed by the last element of the numeral, 150 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. e.g. nnjb ko31 five goats hut 4B'fe K03bi two goats (kosu,, plural Kosbi) TpH py()JH three roubles (plural py6.iM) TpH4uaTfc TpH nots^a thirty-three trains Also CTO one hundred 4B'fecTH two hundred (Old Slav dual termination) ipwcTa three hundred (gen. sing.) nflTbcoTT. five hundred (gen. plural) Other notes on the use of the numerals will be found in § 81. § 62. l.~Tke Numerals 1-10. Part of Ardbu ;. Cardinal. speech. Ordinal. Collective.* Fraction. 1 OAMH'b Adj. nepBbiH 2 4Ba 5> BTOpOH 4B6e, napa no.iOBHHa 3 TpH J> Tpeiiuf Tpoe TpeTb X 4 HCTbipe 3) HCTBepTblH HeTBcpo MeTBepTbJ 5 nsTb Noun iiHTbiii njiTcpo naTaa§ 6 iiiecTb >3 UieCTOH iiiecTepo mecTaa§ 7 CCML )3 Ce4bM6H cewepo etc. 8 BOCCMb J> BOCbMOH BOCbMCpO 9 ^eBflTb )l 4eBHTbIH 4eBaTepo|| 10 AecflTb J5 4ei}iTbiH 4ecflTepo These are the ten simple forms. 4 * The most common are 4B6e, ipoe, m6tbcpo, iniTcpo, c^iwcpo ; but all arc equally common in the form bjboc, Brpoe, etc., meaning 2nd, twice, three times as much. Families are thus designated : y iioio ^Boe, Tpoe, MeiBciK), 461011 : naib, luccTb, ccml, etc., MCJOBtKb 4fcTeii ; of an assembly, hxb QyAavb naib, etc., MciOBtKb. t Declined like dapaiiiii [v. § 34 (3)]. t Feminines in h. § Supply lacTb part. All the other fractions are similarly formed, II Very rare. THE NUMERALS. 151 04MHI is declined exactly like caMi. [v. § 41, VIII.] ; the vowel " n " drops out. Thus — OAiinx, 04b6, OABa, o^Horo, o^uoh, etc. Plural. Masc. and Neut. Fern. e.g. Nom. 04 HM 04 u"! Gen. Loc. OAwiwh OAHbxT. Dat. 04HHMT. o^Htin. Instr. o^nHMii 04HtMH The plural means " some," cf. English " the ones." Both forms, 04HM, 04H'fe, are generally sounded alike (o4Hm). e.g. Bi4b na araxT* nojuaxi. ocTajoch TOjbKo 4ecaTB KHHrs. There are only ten books left on these shelves. y Meu/i ocTajocb .iHiDb Tpa py6j«. . I have only three roubles left. KaKT. Ha 6i4y y mchk ocTiUOCb mibKo ipw afiua. Unluckily I have only three eggs left. 4Ba, ipH, 4eTbipe are declined as follows : — Masc. and Neut. Fern. '.g. JSom. 4Ba / 5Bli TpH HCTbipe Gen. Loc. 4Byx'b TpexT. HCTbipeXT. Dat. 4ByMb TpeM^ HCTbipeMb Instr. 4ByM}i TpcMa HCTbipbMa urtib to 4ecaTb are regular nouns like KOCTb, nacTb, etc. e.g. Nom. riaib Gen. Dat. Loc. naTH Instr. naibK) But, as nouns, the numerals are only followed by the genitive in the nominative or accusative ; in oblique 152 EUSSIAN GRAMMAR. cases they take the case of the nouns ; the numeral is attracted to the case of the noun. 66r, oo-fe both, is declined similarly to 4Ba. Masc. and Neut. Fern. e.g. Nom. 66a oGi Gen. Loc. oSohxt, o6iHXT> Dat. o66hmt> oG^HMb Instr. o56hmh o6iMMH IL—TJie Numerals 11-90. Arabic. 11 12 Cardinal. Part of speech 04MHHa4qaTb Noun 4BtBa4qaTb „ Ordinal. 04MHHa4uaTbiH 4BtHa4uaTbiM (collective 4K)>KHHa) 13 14 15 TpHHa4uaTb HeTbipHa4uaTb naTHa4uaTb TpHHa4uaTbiu MeTbipna4aaTbiH naTHa4uaTbiH 16 iiiecTHa4uaTb iiiecTHa4uaTbiM 17 ceMHa4uaTb ceMHa4uaTbiM 18 BoceMHa4uaTh BoceMHa4uaTbui 19 4eBflTHa4uaTb 4eBaTHa4uaTbiii 20 4Ba4aaTb 4Ba4uaTbiM 21 22 :^0 40 50 4Ba4UaTb04i'iH'b [v.§61{5)] 4Ba4uaTb nepebiii 4Ba4uaTb 4Ba, etc. „ 4Ba4uaTb Biopoii, etc. ipiuuaib Noun TpH4uaTbiH COpOK'b „ COpOKOBOii llflTMeCHTI* „ nflTH4eCHTbIM 60 luecTbAecjiTT. V mecTH4ecaTbiH 70 ceML4ecaTT. J> CeMH4eCHTbIH 80 B6ceMb4eca'n. >» B0CbMH4eCaTbIM 90 4eBflH6cTO „ For the fractions, 4eBaH6cTbiH V. naib. Sounded pidd'isydt'. THE NUMERALS. 153 The cardinals from 11-90 are mere compositions of the simple forms and 4ecaTi. (10). (1) The " teens " are formed by saying one-on-ten, two-on-ten ; the preposition iia is accented, except in 04HHHa4uaTb and HeTbipna^uaTh, and ^ecaTb is contracted to 4uaTb. The numbers 11-19 are all declined like ^ecflTb. e.g. Nom. ccMnaAuaTb Gen. Dat. Loc. ceMiia^uaTH Instr. ccMHaAuaTbK) (2) The numbers 20 and 30 are similar compounds, two-ten, three-ten. They are declined thus : — Nom. TpH4uaTb Gen. Dat. Loc. Tpn,maTM Instr. TpiMuaibK) (3) copoK-b (40), and ^eBnBocTO (90), are nouns of the first conjugation. copoKb accents the termination throughout, e.g. copoKa, copoKy, etc. (4) The cardinals 50, 60, 70, 80 decline both parts separately and similarly. e.g. Nom. Voc. Ace. ceMb4ecan. Gen. Loc. Dat. ceMHAecflTii Instr. ccMbio^ecaTbio As though the two words were not written together. 111.— The mtmerals 100-1,000,000. Arabic. 100 Cardinal. CTO Part of speech. Noun Ordinal. COTblH* 200 300 AB'tCTH ipHcra Adj. & noun (joined) 5> 5> AByXCOTblH TpeXCOTblH 400 MCTbipecTa >J J> neibipexcoTbiH ♦ Collective toj lui. 154 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Arabic, Cardinal. Part of speech. Ordinal. 500 mnhcoTb Two nouns naiHCOTbiH 600 meCTLCOTT, }} » luecTHCOTbiii 700 CeMBCOTT. J> )> CCMHCOTblH 800 BOCeMSCOT'B >) 5) BOCCMbCOTblM 900 AeeaTLcoT-fc JJ JJ 4eBaTHc6TbIM 1,000 Tbicana Noun TbicaHHbiii 2,000 AB^ TblCflHH Adj. & noun 4ByxTbica'iHbiH 3,000 TpW TblCflHW )) j> TpexTbicaHHbiii 4,000 Meibipe TblCflHH „ „ HCTbipeXT.- and so on Tb'lCaHHblM 60,000 mecTMecjiTT, Three nouns luecTH^ec/iTM- TblCflH'b TblCaHHblH 100,000 CTO TblCflHX Nouns CTO- or CTa- TblCaUBblM 1,000,000 MH.ui6nb Noun MUJjiOHHblii CTO is declined as follows : — Singular, Nom. Voc. Acc. cto Gen. cTa, etc. Similarly ^CBaHocTO. But when cio is used in a long figure, with others, all the oblique cases are uniformly cTa (the genitive); and similarly ^eBaiiocro. Plural. Nom. Voc. Acc. CTa Gen. coTh Dat. cTdMi Instr. ciaMH Loc. CTax^ All the compound rmmerals in this division decline each part separately. e.g. 4B'fecTH, 4Byxicorb, AByMcraMt, AByMJicraMM, 4BVXCTaxi, etc. » THE NUMERALS. 155 TMCH'ia is a regular feminine noun ; but the instru- mental singular is sometimes Ti.'icflMbK), as though it were a noun of the third declension. CTO, c6poKT>, 4eBaH6cTO, when declined with nouns, extend the genitive ending to the dative and instru- mental, optionally to the locative, e.g. Nom. Ace. cto c6poin,.iMCT6Bb 140 leaves (of paper) Gen. era copOKa .ihctob^ Dat, era copoKa JHCiaMi Instr. era copoKa .iHciaMH Loc. era copoKa .iHCTaxj, IV. (1) Frequ^ency. Examples of use : — o^uHT, pa3i once, or o^HavK^bi 4Ba pciaa twice, or ABaiK4bi ipu paaa thrice, or ipuiKAbi MCTb'ipe pasa four times, etc., or «ieTbipe;K4bi iiflTb pa3T, [v. § 24 (4)] This is the only and regular way of forming this series. (2) Distrilmtives are formed with the preposition no, e.g. no 4Ba, no ipw, no neibipe ; but with all other numbers in the dative: no naii'i, no cry, no copoKv, no 4eBaH6cTy (or no copoKa). (3) Nought is nyjb, masculine, (4) Tlie noun is governed hy the niimei^al immediately preeedrng, however high the whole numeral may he. In the nominative, or accusative, the noun thus enumerated is in the singular after 04um. ; gen. sing, after 4Ba, ipn, 156 EUSSIAN GRAMMAR. 'leibipe ; gen. plural after all the others. In the oblique cases, i.e. all except the accusative and nominative, the numeral and noun alike are in concord in the appro- priate oblique case, e.g. 4Ba4aaTfc oamiit. a>yEin, 21 pounds xpHAUaTb ipH KOHtt 33 horses MeoLiue ABaAuaiM warn Miinyn. less than 25 minutes (5) Decimals. RyAh qijMX-b AeBflTb ACcaTbixT, KoneMKH ct. BepcTbi. • 9 kop. to the verst (nought wholes and nine tenths . . .). Ott. 04h6m 40 cia uiecTH4ecaTH Bepcn,, no 04h6h uijou, MCTbipe Tb'icfl^H Tpncia ceMb4e('fln. njiib 4ecaTHTbicaHHbixT> KoneuKH ci> naccaajiipa. From 1 to 160 versts at 1 '4375 kop. per passenger per verst. (6) Compound ordinals. Only the last numeral Ix declined. e.g. 4Ba4F4aTb 4eBaTaro 4eHa6p)i (M-fccaua) bt, ibicasa BoceMbcoTL 4eBaH6cTO ce4bM6Mi. ro4y. . On the 29th Dec. 1914. [v. § 24 (1).] j Bi. cTo 4eBaH6cTo ce4bM6MT, ro4y 40 po}K4ecTBa 1 XpHCTOBa. In 197 B.C. rocTMHnna C7. Gcuiie mBmt. 4ByMacTaMH noMepaMii. A hotel with over 200 rooms. H-fena KoMHan. nonHJKaeTca .liiOMb 40 naTH4ecaTH npoueiiTOBi.. The price of rooms is reduced in the summer by 5070. THE NUMERALS. 157 As a complete example, 2,367,134*8295 arsins •(apiiiHHi. a measure of length about a yard) would be thus declined : — ■ Norn. ^Ba iMii.uioHa, Tpi'icia uiecTMec/iTb ceML xhicaqt, CTO TpiUUaib HCTbipe liiiJblX^, BOCCMb TljlCa4b 4B'feCTH AeBflHOCTO DflTb 4ecaTHTblC«4HblX'b apuiHiia. Ace. As genitive or nominative ; in this case as nominative. Gen. fl,ti\\i> utiAAioMOfii,, ipexcoTL luecTHAecaTH ccmii Tbicflm,, cia TpjMuaiH MCTbipexi. qkibixi*, BocbMi'i Tbica4'b AEVXCOTT. ACBauocTa naiii 4ecflTHTbica'inbix'b apuniua.* Dat. A^yM-h Mn.Lii6HaMi, ipeMCTaMi. iiiecTii4ecaTH cewi'i Tbica'iaM-b cia (or ciy) TpH4uaTH HCTbipewb U'kibiM^, BOCbMH TbicanaMb 4eBau6cTa (or 4eBau6cTy) naiH 4ecaTUTbicaHnbiMT, apuiiiHa. Instr. ^BVMa MHJ.iioBaMH TpeMaciaMM ujecTbK)-4ecaTbio, ccMbK) TbicanaMii, cia ipiMuaibib Meibipb^a uijbiMH, BOCbMbK) TbicaMaMu 4eBaH6cTa (or 4eBaii6cTOMi) naiLib 4ecaTHTbica4UbiMu apuiwHa. Loc. ^BvxT. MiKKiiouaxb TpexciaxT. mecTH-4ecaTH, ccmii Tbica'iaxi., era Tpimiain Mcibipexb utjbix-b, BOCbMH Tiiica4axT> 4eBau6cTa (or 4eBau6crb) iiaiH 4ecaTHTbicaMUbix'b apiuuua. (7) 4Ba, ipu, HCTbipe, in the nominative or accusative, are Ibllowed by the noun in the genitive singular or by the nominative or genitive plural of adjectives. * Gen. sing., the decimal being expressed by x^nWu o^ ^^ aiiin. Tlic last numeral always governs the noun. 158 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. This arbitrary rule is based ou the fact that ^Ba, TpH, Heib'ipe in the older language took the dual; the dual having become obsolete, use was made of what- ever inflections most closely approximated to it. e.g. Nom. 4Ba bbicokhxt. (or -ie) cdAaia two tall soldiers Gen. 4Byx7, bbicokhxt. coJAaTt Dat. 4ByMT> BbicoKHM'L coj^araMi. Instr. 4ByM« blicokhmh coJAaiaMH Loc. - 4Byxi, BLicoKHXi. cOw!4aTaxi» With nouns only used in the plural, there are alternative forms, 4b6h, xpoH ; otherwise the collectives are used. e.g. Bopoia the gates HeiBepo BopoT-b four gates But the ordinary collectives, with the genitive plural, may be used instead of 4b6h, xpon, MeiBepo.* 4806 and xpoe are declined like 66a, but accent the terminations hxt>, hmt>, mmh. HCTBepo and all the other similar collectives form the oblique cases like plural adjectives, accenting the termination, e.g. naiepbixi., etc. (8) uojOBHHa, standing by itself, is " a half." It is also used in composition with other words, e.g. nojiTopa IJ (for nojT,-BTopa; c£ German, andert- halb 1 J, dritthalb 2|) ; also in words like no.i*yHTa half a pound, no^naca half an hour, nojir64a half a year, etc. For further notes, v. § 81, IV. * So, too, in Latin : templum, tria temjpla ; but aedes, plural trinae aedes. THE NUMEEALS. 159 Both parts are separately declined ; all the oblique cases of nojiii being nciy. Masc. Neut, Fern. IJ arsins IJ versts (\g. N.V.A. nojTopa apuiHHa nojTopb'i Bepcibi Gen. nciVTopa apniHm,* nOjiyTopbi BepcTi. inOlVTODV) P"^""^*'''' nojVTopt BCpCTaMl. , ^ (nojVTopa > , Iiistr. < ", SapuiiiHaMH nojVTopoiOBepcTaMH (nojyTopbiMi>3 ^ . i 1 (nojVTopa) , , V . Loc. i ", A apimiHaxi> noJYTopii Bepciaxi. (no^vTop'B) ^ J 1 1 Singular. Plural. Half-pound ^ N.V.A. no.i«i>yiiTa nojy«i»yHTbi Gen. nojiya>yuTa no.iya>yBTOB'b Dat. nojy«i>yuTy nciy^yHTasn. Instr. nojya>yHTOivi'b nojy«i>yHTaMH Log. nojyoyHTij nojy4>yHTax'b However, usage varies with regard to nojTopa, and the masculine forms are often employed with feminine nouns. The noun-component is declined in full in compounds like no.i«i»yHTa, and bears and retains its own accent. TIoJACBb and noJHOHb, "noon" and "midnight," are declined nojy4Ha, nojyBOHH, and so on, the accent always resting on the second syllable, and the nojy being invariable. Similarly, nojTOpacTa 150, nojyTopacTa, in all oblique cases. ♦v. §24 (4). 160 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Other fractioDS are expressed much as in English, e.g. AU't CT, no.ionuHoii ovTbLiKH two and a half bottles Tpu^uaTi. njiTF. H cewHa^uaTi. TpiMuaib boclmwxi. Meibipe 11 TpH MeTBepiii 4 J (9) Dates. The date and the montli are put into the genitive, and the year, if accompanying, into the ordinal with the genitive 164a (ro^i.) year. If the year stands by itself, tlie locative in. i04y is used. In dates the plural of ro4T> is .if>Ta (.rfeio summer). e.g. ^Ba^uaib n/naro ^ei.adp/i iMca^a ACBHTLCon. MeTBepiaro 1043, 25th December 1904 BT> Tbicfl^a BoceMbcoT'L nfliua^qaTGM'b ro^y in 1815 mecTbAecjiTb jiib TOMy uaaaA-b sixty years ago Numerals preceding the noun are exact denotations; when they follow, approximate. e.g. r64a Hepe3i> ipii in about three years' time nocii TpexT> j'Bn> after three years § 63. THE ADVEEBS. The adverbial forms of adjectives are simply the neuter singular predicative, excepting adjectives in -CKiM, which form -ckm ; e.g. ciporo sternly, 46poro dearly, paubuie earlier, 3KouoMM4ecKH economically. Other adverbs will be learnt in the course of readinir. UNINPLECTED PAPtTS OF SPEECH. 161 § 64. THE PREPOSITIONS. These are very commonly used in Russian, and are lealt with in §§ 70-80 in the Syntax. § 65. THE CONJUNCTIONS. The conjunctions are best acquired in the course of reading. As the Russian verb possesses no moods, and as there is no inversion of sentences, the conjunctions present no difficulty. Some few may be noticed here. H "and." 4a " yes," is also used for *' and," but has a corrobora- li\'e strengthening significance, and belongs to the older ummiajT^e. o o H also is used in a sentence to mean " also." a " but " or " and," when used in contradistinction ratlier than conjunction. HO "but" in contradistinction, or denial, eme " also." H.!H "or." luii — H.1H, "either . . . or." UH — HH '* neither — nor." As will be seen in § 85, these require a double negative, i.e. a negatived verb as well. §66. THE INTERJECTIONS. These are best learnt from reading. Russian being a phonetic language, these primitive sounds are written as pronounced, not conventionally as in English ; e.g. " hush " for " sh," " ough ! " for pain. e.g. in Russian yxi. ! oxt* ! ax^ ! etc. Other interjections are developments from recognised words, e.g. " Lo " (from " look "). So, too, in Russian vbli ! woe ! M 162 EUSSIAN GRAMMAR.- SYNTAX. § 67. Preliminary. In comparison with most other European languages Eussian syntax presents comparatively few difficulties. The order is much the same as in English — suhject, verb, object, adverbs. There are no subjunctives, the use of which becomes technical as in French ; gender is in the main sex, or determined by the suffix. Thus in French " sa majeste le roi " is feminine, and a following sentence must run : " elle a bien voulu." In Eussian, Ero HMnepaTopcKOC* Bejii4ecTB0 IJapL coH3B6jH.n>; the verb is in the masculine, though BejuHecTBO is neuter. In German, again, "das Madchen" the girl, is supposed to be followed by neuter pronouns; in Eussian, as in English, child 4htji (neuter), awwo person (neuter) may be followed by ght., OHa, according to sense. Or again, 4ecflTi> is feminine, but "there remained ten" (neuter, general impersonal sense) is ocTiUOCb AecflTi). [v. § 62, I.] The Eussian richness in inflections gives the language a freedom of order such as was possessed by ancient Latin and Greek. But whereas the order of Latin was conventionalised and stiffened, Eussian retains the natural order of words, with the liberty of slight transposition for emphasis ; adjectives precede, unless otherwise desired; in fact, much the same considerations obtain as in English. But ambiguity ceases, the inflection defining the relations. * V. § 83, IV. SYNTAX. 163 In one respect, as stated in § 33, Eussian allows less flexibility in the formation of compound nouns. German (amongst modern languages) is :lie most adaptable, e.g. " Eisenbahnfremdverkehr- verbindungen '* Eailway - foreign - traffic - connections. I'jiglish tacitly has the same power, with some unbiguity, e.g. The Foreign Office Clerks' Providence Society; the wooden baby's chair. In Eussian all -iicli relations must be stated by means of adjectives ; '.Li. iKcifaeaa 4op6ra the railway, BoeuBbie aanacw war supplies, Ha nciimeMCKOMT. xpaueHin in police detention. § 68. The Article. The article does not exist in Eussian. Nevertheless ron. is occasionally used for the definite article, and >4MHT. for the indefinite, where the sentence requires iiiiplification. e.g. In the folk-tales : — 'f}^^^A'h-(^hU'h oahht. 6t4HbiH B^OBeu'b. There once lived a poor widower. ToTTJ caMwii loproBem* KOTopbiii MH-fe npo^ajii. BC.iGCMne^'b coBiTycT-L TenepL Meuii KynHTL MOTOCHK.ieTT>. The same dealer who sold me a bicycle now recommends me to buy a motor-cycle. § 69. The Cases. I. The Nominative, — As in all languages, the nominative is used for the subject of the sentence. It can never be governed by any preposition. M 2 164 ItUSSIAN GRAMMAR. 11. The Vocative has survived only a very few strictly ecclesiastical phrases. e.g. Bo'/KC from Kon. God FocnoAH from rocnoAi. Lord 6THe from OxeuT, Father XpHCTe from XpwcTocT. Christ KDHHte from KHa3b Prince iHcyce from iHcycT. Jesus Cbiflc from CbiHT. the Son IJapK) from Hapb Tsar B.ia4biKc ► from Bja4biKa Lord In modern Russian the nominative takes its place. III. The Accusative is properly the case to denote the direct object ; e.g. Jack (nominative) built a house (accusative) llBaHt nocTpoH.ib 40mi.. However, in modern Russian, except in the singular of the second declension, special accusative forms no longer exist, [v. § 13.] Hence a rule has sprung up that, exce2ot for nouns of the second declension in the singular, the objective case shall be the genitive whenever the object is a living being; also, without any exception, whenever the sentence is negative (in which event the genitive is really partitive; e.g. "I did not see him" is equivalent to " I saw nothing of him " *). In every case the nominative form is used. e.g. lIpHHCCM CK)4a H6.I0IiH. Bring the apples here. DpH 86411 aaBipa iBoero 4pyra. Bring your friend to-morrow. * Cf. in modern Spanish the use cf i when the object is a person, e.g. " el conduzo d Juan " he brought John. THE CASES. 165 fl lie BUAt.n. 4eM04aHa. I did not see the portmanteau. Ofla He HauiJa Jouia^H. She did not find the horse. llHKor4a lie noMMaeuii, pwobi. You never catch a fish. H npHBeiTi 4ByxT. .lOuiaAeii. I liave brought two horses. Besides this very limited use as the objective case, til is accusative case, but never its genitive substitute, is found with the following meaning : to indicate III ration in space or time. e.g. fl }K4a.i'L leo/i Bce yrpo, uLibiii 4eub, bcio homb, Bcio neAijjio, noi^iaca. I was waiting for you all the morning, the whole day, all the night, all the week, half an hour. fl ryjH.n, ipM Maca m npomejT, mecTb Bepcii*. I walked for three hours and went six versts. fl npouiedL Bce paacToaHie uemAy BapmaBOM H KpaKOBOMT>. I went all the distance between Warsaw and Cracow. A'ermn'h npojeriii. nojOBMHy nyiii kt. HaineMy nOMicTLK). The airman flew half the way to our country house. IV. The Genitive. In modern Eussian the genitive is used for a variety f purposes. The simple genitive indicates the relation- ship of possession between two substantives. 166 RUSSIAN CxRAMMAR. In English there are two methods of indicating the genitive : the possessive case in s, and the preposition of. (i) The simple genitive is used in three distinct ways : (a) subjective, (B) objective, (7) defining. e.g. (a) Wilson's house, i.e. Wilson has a house. (In such cases an active verb may be substituted.) Ciesar's hatred, i.e. Caesar hates. (i3) Heniy IV.'s assassin, i.e. Henry IV. teas assassinated. The torpedoing of the Forinidahlc, i.e. the FormidaUe was torpedoed. (I.e. a passive verb may be substituted.) (7) A man of great talent, i.e. a greatly talented man. In the last case an adjective may be substituted,' and such phrases are really inversions of adjectives. These subjective and objective genitives may be compounded. e.g. U 21's torpedoing of the Formidable, i.e. U ^. torpedoed the FormidaUe, fl In other languages there is great ambiguity on this score. In Latin the genitive is used both subjectively and objectively : thus " Csesaris odium " may mean either that Csesar hates, or that Caesar is hated; so, too, in French, " la haine de Cesar." In English there are irregular attempts to dis- tinguish by means of the two forms, e.g. "Ctesar's hatred," or ^' the hatred of Csesar." THE CASES. 167 Lastly, a subjective or objective genitive may be ^(iieral or particular, permanent or casual. In the lormer event, an adjective can in very many cases be substituted. e.g. God's love = the Divine love. The king's banner = the royal banner. But one does not speak (except jokingly) of the ''royal pocket-handkerchief" or "the 'divine' love (of Zeus) for Semele." In Eussian we find the simplicity of French with the accuracy attempted by English, which has a rich stuck of adjectival forms. (1) Subjective genitives (nearly always possessive). When general, the adjective of the governing noun is used ; when particular, the genitive. e.g. Herd cjOHa pa34aBiha Mepem, iiirpa. The elephant's leg shattered the tiger's skull. (Possessive genitive.) Hora cjOHa noHTH Seai. bo-ioct.. The elephant's leg is almost hairless. (Generic genitive.) CioeoBaa KOCTb ctohtt. Aoporo. Ivory [literally, elephant's bone] is dear. KaBaH.ibaKi, yoiHua FcHpHxa MeTBepraro. Cavaillac, the assassin of Henry IV. (Objective.) loaHHOBbl [HacMHbie] ySlHUM. Ivan (the Terrible's) [hired] assassins, (Subjective.) 168 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. rieibKHUbi AiiH TSHyiHCb O4uooopa3no. Pefcya's days dragged on monotonously. (Subjective and general.) lIiMenuHbi rocy^apa. The Emperor's birthday (as a mere fact). FocyAapeBbi HMeoHiibi. The Emperor's birthday (generalized, e.g. as a public holiday). SaKait coJHua. Sunset (as a particular fact on a certain day). CojueMUbiii aaKari.. Sunset (as a natural phenomenon). Co.i4aTCKaH CBHp'fenocTb. Soldiers' savagery (in general). But CBiipinocTb coJ4aTT.. The soldiers' savagery (in particular). Bxo4'b BT. 4Bopeub.* The entrance of the palace (in particular). But ^BOpUOBbie BXO^bl CTporO OXpaHHlOTCJI CO.!- 4aTaMn. Palace entrances are strictly guarded by soldiers (in general). 4op6ra (or luocce) kt> MocKBi; on> MocKBii. The Moscow high-road (direction to or from). * I.e. in a direction ; cf. English ** the entrance into the station." But in French only " I'entree de la gare," "Ja route de Versailles." THE CASES. 169 MocKuDcuiji 4op6rn 6'ieiib xopoiuii. The Moscow roads are very fine. MopcKoe 4H0. The bottom of the sea (generally). 4uo MOpfl. The bottom of the sea (particularly). a JKUJb B'L OTUOBCKOMb AoA I lived in my father's house (with ray parents). H iKH.n> BT, AOMi OTua. I lived in my father's house (i.e. his, not mine or Mr. Smith's). (2) Objective genitives. These, too, may be general or particular, but the word in the genitive cannot be adjectivally expressed. However, Eussian avoids ambiguity by using the genitive or any other case with a suitable preposition, e.g. such as would be required by the verb corre- sponding to the governing noun. e.g. KpecTMncKaa jioGobb kt* necipbiMi. vKpaujeaiaMT.. The peasant love of gaudy ornaments (general proposition). JlOOOBb 3T0r0 MViKIUHbl Kl> HteimiHHaM'b. This man's love of woman (in particular). HeaaBHCTb kt. ^e3apK). The hatred of C^sar (felt against Csesar). (Contrast HeHaBiicTb I(c'3apfl the hate Caesar felt.) 170 EUSSIAN GRAMMAR. y Hero ciuhUM jk)o6bi> kt> MCKyccTBV. He has a great love of art. yoiHCTBO 9Ayap4a Bioporo. The murder of Edward II. Ha^eiKAbi IleiH Ha noBbiuieHia. * Peter's hopes of promotion (in particular). (IleTHHbi in general.) Pa.'JCKdsHHK'L ;JT0H CKaSKH. The narrator of this fairy tale. CKasoHHbiii pb'mapb. A fairy knight. In conclusion. — (1) The possessive or other adjectival form must be substituted for the noun in the genitive in all phrases, where the sense is generalized. (2) When the genitive is objective, the relationship is usually more closely defined by a proper preposition ; but the possessive adjective is almost always in- admissible. (3) In Russian, except for the proclitic pronouns cro, eh, hxt,, the genitive SilwsLys follows the noun. (4) The possessive adjective is also used to avoid a succession of genitives. e.g. MoFMja Btpbi Haxo4Hjacb b^ MyGHni luaAOHiua. Vera's grave was at the bottom of the cemetery. But no4p66nocTH BhpHiioii cMcprii. The details of Vera's death ("de la mort dc Vera"). (ii) There exists a partitive genitive [v. § 24 (1)] in " y " with some nouns of the second declension, THE CASES. 171 and a distinction is made wliich can only be learnt by practice ; generally speaking, when quantity, not quality, is implied, the form in " y " is preferred to that in '* a." e.g. IIo^aHTe Mni Maio. Give me some tea (donnez-moi du the). ^Ba 34tcb. To-morrow, may-be I shall not be here; literally, "there will not be of me here." Milt no xo'icTCfl ciiaib. I do not want to go to sleep. Ero HtiT, ^oMa. He is not at home. (iv) The genitive is replaced by the dative, in many instances, of ownership or possession. e.g. IJtBa :jTHM'b .Joma^AMi, ABfccTH pyo.iefi. The price of these horses is 200 roubles. Ohx MHi cTapbiii 4pyn,. He is an old friend. Such sentences are really instances of the dativus commodi. 172 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. (v) The genitive is used after comparatives [cf. § 38, v.] e.g. 4«4a MOJOiKe CBoeii njeMMiinMUbi. The uncle is younger than his niece. PocciH Bi ceMHa4uaTL pa.Ti, 66 j Line Opauniw. Kussia is seventeen times bigger than France. (vi) The genitive is the objective case, as stated in § 69, III. (vii) The genitive is used after the adjectives and verbs denoting fulness, toorthincsSy deprived, fear, desire, ejcpectancy, and value. e.g. /KH3eb noJHa ropa. Life is full of sorrow. Oh7. 40ct6hhi. HaKaaaHia. He deserves to be punished. Baint BonpocT. KacaeTca Bbiuie-MSJOiKeHUbixi, n\HKTOBT>. Your question touches points previously defined. fl npomy Baiuero npomeflia. I beg for your forgiveness. OhT> JMIIlMiCa HtM3HH. He deprived himself of life (committed suicide). Cy4T, JHIUH.!!. Ileipa IlBaBOBHsa acixT, npaa-L cocToaHia. The court deprived Peter Ivanovic of all rights of position (civil rights). Bci Jiiom >KejaK)Ti> 34op6Bi,a. Everybody desires healtli. THE CASES. 173 fl oowcb rpoMa h mojhjh. I fear thunder and lightning. 3to CTOHTi. 4enen.. This costs money. •But if the price is stated, the accusative, e.g. Bywara CTOHTT, ipa py6.ia ny4T.. Paper costs three roubles a pud. IhiKor^a ne 0H;H4a.ii lahoro ciacTM. I never expected such luck. (viii) To denote dates on which. e.g. Tpeibaro 4Ha AHHa yiwepja. On the day before yesterday Ann died. llIecTHa4uaTaro ^eiiaSpa. On the 16th December. (ix) In all cases where the object of the verb is impliedly partitive, i.e. the word "some" might be added, or when in French the " partitiver article " da, dcs, would be used. e.g llpHnecHTe Biiiia. Bring some wine here. Apportez du vin. So, too, after all words of quantity, e.g. Majo little, iieMHoro a little, 40B6.ibHO enough, etc. (x) As in Latin to denote descriptions. e.g. Oh'L HeJOBtKT. iKejiaHOU UaCTOUHBBOCTH. He is a man of iron persistence (will). Deipi BciHKiw 6w.ii BbicoKaro pocra. Peter the Great was a man of great height. Oht. obU'L Tor4a iiiecTH4ec}iTH .iti-b. He was then sixty years old. (Or, CMV obKio Tou.a iiiecTb4ecaTi> .iferb.) 174 RUSSIAN GKAMMAR. V. The Dative. As in other languages, the dative marks the personal relation or effect. e.g. Mu-fc nojesHO HHTaiL no-pyccKH. It is useful to me to read Eussian. The dative is also extensively used instead of the genitive, [v. § G9, IV. (iv).] As in Latin, French, German, and other languages, many verbs which in English take a direct object are intransitive and take the dative. e.g. rpo3MTL KOMy threaten y4HB.i>iTf>ca Mcviy be surprised 3aBMA0BaTL KOMy or MCMy envy CMiaTbca 4eMy to rejoice at a thing (but CMt/iTLca HaATi k1>mt> of a person) B'lipHTb KOMV or ^CMY belicve (but BipoBaib BT. Bora believe in God) Other instances of verbs requiring a dative are : — iKajOBaTLca Kowy Ha Koro to complain to A of B MOJHTbca Kowy 3a hto to pray to someone for something oauaTLca KOMy to greet (to bow down to) MCTHTb KOMy 3a MTO to take vengeance on somebody for something iianoMHBaTb hto KOMy to remind somebody of something yHHTb Koro HCMy to teach somebody something y4JiTi,ca HCMy to learn sometliing THE CASES. 175 But only practice can supply a full knowledge of such usages. e.g. ^CMV BLI CMieTCCb ? What are you making merry of ? fl fiipK) TOJLKO MaTCMaTHMeCKHM^ 40Ka3aTeJb- CTBaMT>. 1 believe only mathematical proofs. H CMiwCL Iia4T> Bam H Ml. BblCOKOMljpieM'I.. I smile at your arrogance. OTce.lL rposuTb Mbi Gvacmt. IIlBe4y. From this spot we shall threaten the Swede. Mbi y4HBiuHCb ero cKopoMv BosBpameHio. We were astonished at his swift return. H 3aBi'i4yK) BauiCMy ooraTCTBV. I envy your wealth. H 3aBiJ4yK) PoTiiiH.ib4y. I envy Eothschild. VI. The Instrmnental. This case denotes the instrument hy which something is done, or the agent hy whom something is done. Thus : — (1) It is used after passive verbs, e.g. I^api. obLiT. noMaaaBi apxieniicKonoMi.. The Tsar was anointed by the archbishop. Hapb obLi-b noMaaam. MvpoMi,. The Tsar was anointed with the chrism. (2) It also denotes the means by which a thing is done or made. e.g. 4epeBba pyOarb TonopaMH. Trees are cleft with axes. k 176 RUSSIAK GRAMMAR. (3) It is used predicatively (like the dative in Latin) after verbs of becoming, or oliti. in the past tense. e.g. llBaBT. Slut, mohmt. cjvtoio. John used to be my servant. Oht. C4ljja.ica oojfcHbiM^. He made himself ill. Hence such irregular concords may arise as : oin. naaean. mbhh 4ypaK6.>n. he called me a fool. (4) It is used to denote the mode or manner where we in English should say " like . . ." e.g. Opei^ AerbA-b CTpt.ioK). The eagle flew like an arrow. Ohtj BOOopajKacTT. ce6>i bcji'ikhml rocy^apeMi. He fancies himself a mighty emperor. (5) The instrumental is also used with words of measure. e.g. Ohi. npo40.iJKajT, hath wtpHbiMX luaroMT.. He continued to go at a regular pace. Mope 3A'fecb rJvGHHOH bt> 4ecflTi> ca;KenT>. The sea is here 10 sazens deep. TcMoepaTypa 6o.ibH6ro noBbicHjaci. abvmh ppaAycaMH. The patient's temperature has gone up two degrees. Btit Btott. ca.vb na apmiiim. mnpe TBoer6. This gar. 1 en is an arsin broader than yours. Moe Hojoi.o Bx 4Ba4uaTb paai. c-iame Toro. My apple is twenty timeis sweeter than tliat one. THE CASES. 177 (6) The instrumental is used with words of quality. e.g. Btott. TiopeMmHKi 4odpi. 4yui6K). This gaoler is kindly in soul (has a kindly soul). (7) The instrumental is used to denote time in ■which something happens ; e.g. 3Hm6io in the winter, Bee HO K) in the spring, iioHbK) at night, yrpoML in the morning. (8) Many verbs, especially those denoting nsiiuj, (foverning, naming, are followed by the instrumental. These can only be acquired by practice. Such are : n6.iL30BaTbca to use HasbiBaibCff to be called BJa^tTb to govern rop4MTbca to boast of jKepTBOBaib to sacrifice npaeiiTb to guide cibiTb to be reputed as H36HpaTbca to be elected e.g. C0.J4aTbI JKepiBVIOTb JKHSHbK) aa 0T4M3Hy. Soldiers sacrifice their lives for their country. 11 rOpJKyCb CBOMMH pOAHTCiaMH. I boast of my parents. Ero Ha3aa4nj[H (H36pajH) oneK^HOMi. They have appointed (chosen) him as guardian. OhT, He B-ia^teTT. CBOMMT, p04HbIM'b aSblKOM-b. He does not understand his own language. VII. The Locative. In modern Eussian this case is never used except with the prepositions npn, Bb, o, na, no. Hence it is often called the prepositional. N • 178 EUSSIAK GRAMMAR. CO o t-H H 1^ o e1 O 1 i i B E 1 1 1 bJ o §• i & s g 1 1 i o B 1 £ o o J M 1 B s EC 1 i i J 1 ® t I 1 > 1 s o S B i B "fa B ta X! 1 5 B s g i 5 1 B B PQ B 0a "S aa 15 >fa ta 1 03 t 1 ^ S a 1 B * 1 >. 1 > is 3 1 j 1 a 1 i *^ M -d TABLE OF PREPOSITIONS AND PARTICLES. 179 !i Hi £ j 1 i jj i i -a ^ 1 CO 1 a \ B ! I I i : I _l — © B O B J. ti- ts 1 > t 1 S 1 s 1 1 a M 1 g s 1 o ' s .1 5 OS -*3 1 I H 2 180 kussian grammar. § 71. The Prepositions. Preliminary. I. In order further to assert the relationships of nouns and verbs, as in other languages the cases are not sufficient. They have to be more accurately and extensively defined by means of prepositions. II. Prepositions and particles are either simple or adverbial, e.g. in English " by " and " beside." III. Most simple prepositions are compounded with verbs ; but Mspesi. through, kt. to, 6e37, without, cannot be thus used ; nor are bo3- up, bm- out, nepe- again, npe- in excess, used except with verbs. IV. Most prepositions govern only one case, some govern two, and some three. V. The prepositions and the cases they govern are all stated in the Table § 70. VI. Prepositions governing the objective take the accusative (or nominative) of inanimate things, and the genitive of living things [v. § 69, III.]. In a few instances only the older practice survives of a preposition taking the accusative with nouns denoting a living being; e.g. the idiomatic use of bt. in BT» rocTH, bi. HanhKB, to be a guest, nurse, etc. VII. Monosyllabic prepositions preceding mono- syllabic nouns (including under this designation dis- syllabic nouns in liquids, e.g. ropo^'i., Cepen. [v. § 5 (5)]) THE PREPOSITIONS. 181 or dissyllabic nouns of the second declension often accent the preposition, especially in adverbial phrases. e.g. Ha nOviT. on to the floor Ha B04y on to the water In older Eussian this rule was much more general, [v. § 80.] § 72. Prepositions Governing the Accusative. Three prepositions govern only the accusative : Hepeai. (or »ipe3x), opo, ckbosf,. npo means "for," " concerning." e.g. BcflKi npo ceS/i, a rocn64L npo Bctxi. Each for himself, but the Lord for all. ripO KOrO rOBOpHIUL? Of whom are you speaking ? Combined with verbs it gives the idea of thoroughness. e.g. IIpoMHTaTfc to read through. cKB03b right through. e.g. rB034b CKB03F> Aochv npouiaiT.. The nail has gone right through (pierced) the board. Oht, npoH^erb HeBpeAHMsiM-b CKB03b oroeb h B64y. He will pass through fire and water unscathed. C.MOTp'bTb Ha HTO CKB03b na.ibubi. To look through the finger (i.e. overlook). Oht. npomejT. cKB03b oronb h B64y a M'fe4Hbi}i ipyobi. He passed through fire, water, and brazen tubes [proverb: i.e. every danger] for Hepe3'b . . .]. 182 RUSSIAN GHAMMAR. MepesT. through and across, e.g. ^epesT. ptny across the river. ^epesT. CTeK.j6 bh^ho. One can see [bhaho it is visible] through glass. Hepe3T> Hero Meorie nocTpaAajH. Through him many have suffered. H y Hero 6y4y nepesT. HeA^jio. 1 shall be with him in one week. § 73 (1). Prepositions Governing the Genitive only. These prepositions ahvays govern the genitive; not merely the objective case. Cea-L without, e.g. Ee3i, ^enerx without money, toll ua4e}K4Li without hope. Gjhs'l* near, e.g. Bjh3t. ropo^a near the town. B^HBTi Moero wyjKa cioHja HacTacba. Nastasya was standing near my husband. B40JI) along, e.g. B^o.it yjHUbi along the street. BMteot instead of. e.g. BMtcTO Bccejia rope Sbuo. It was woe instead of joy. BHyipH* inside, e.g. BHyipji 4eM04aHa inside the portmanteau. Bflt* outside, e.g. Bh^ EBpoHbi outside Europe. * Whence adjectives 6jM*"iH, BH;^TpeHHLiH, BHtuiHlft. ^t Not to be confused with the adverb BMtcTt together ; e.g. BM'kcTt. CI. T06610 together with you. I THE PREPOSITIONS. 183 803.1^ beside, e.g. B6.3jii nenu beside the stove. BOKpyn. or KpyroMi round, e.g. BoKpyn. uepKBH round the church. 4jia for the purpose of. e.g. Hah jii^feeia for the purpose of being healed. L 40 defines the limit " up to which." r e.g. 4o ciapocTH AomttA-h. He lived up to old age. ^HTaw OTT. Hanaja ao KOHua. Eead from the beginning to the end. Otl JoB^oHa 40 IlapHiKa. From London to I'aris. 4o nojy4Ha. Until mid-day oi^ before mid-day. 4o PoH{4ecTBa XpHCTOBa. B.C., i.e. up to or before the bu^th of Christ. 4o l(apa HHKOjafl HHK0.meBH4a. Before Tsar Nicholas Xikolayevic. II XL Oj'ijo 40 4ecaTH. There were up to (or about) ten of them. 40 in compound verbs gives a sense of finishing ; e.g. 404HTaTi> to read to the end. H3'L from, out of. e.g. IIsT. orua out of the fire. Ii3T> 4pyHj6bi out of friendship. HST. is scarcely ever used in measurements of time {v. OTh). 184 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. n3T.-3a up out of. e.g. CojHue Bhiiij.10 H3'L-3a jtcy. The sun rose out of the wood. H3^-3a Heji *' Thanks to her . . ." H 31.- 0041* from under. e.g. H3T>-n04T» MCHtt B3/l.!H CTVJl. They took my chair from under me. H3T. in composition with verbs retains its original " meaning. Before heavy consonants it becomes M30 ; e.g. M30}K4aTL to await. Before soft vowels it retains the t.; e.g. H3^'l>4eHHbiM (m6.ik)) moth-eaten. Before unvoiced consonants it is written and sounded hc ; e.g. HciparHTb to squander. KpoMli besides. e.g. KpoMi laKHXT. npiiidipoBi.. Besides such examples. KpoMi JoiuaAeH cm, 3aBe.n> eme aBTOMoSHJi.. Besides his horses he brought a motor. KpoMife Toro in addition to this. The "gerundive " or undeclined participle, BCiuK)4aji, is used absolutely to mean " except, excepting " ; e.g. HCKJiOHaa aHrjHsaB'b HHKaKou iiapw- CBOoo^eHi. except- ing the English no nation is free. MMMO past an object, e.g. Ope.!!, jeiiji mhmo mocio ca4a. The eagle flew past my garden. THE PREPOSITIONS. 185 OKOJO about. e.g. Oko.io 4Bopa round about the courtyard. Oko.10 naiH nacoB^ about five o'clock. BOKpyrL signifies rather "encircling" all the way round, e.g. BoKpyn. Moero ^owa ^pyKTOBLiii ca4T.. There is an orchard all round my house. OTT, out of, from, e.g. Ott. KHaaieflia B.ia4HMipoBa. From the time of Vladimir's reign. H noiyiHiT. no4apoKT. on Maiepn. I received a present from my mother. fl noKpacHlj.1^ OTX cibMa. I blushed for shame. OT'L, as distinguished from u3t., indicates the source whence, rather than motion whence. .e.g. 4op6ra gt-l Mockbli 40 rieTporpa4a. The road from Moscow to Petrograd. But OflT. npiixaj^ h3i Mgckbm. He arrived from Moscow. OTT. corresponds more with the Latin ah ; h3i. with ex. When compounded with verbs, gt-l, like h3i., retains its meaning, and changes to gto, ott.. e.g. OropBaibca to tear oneself free. Orbt>xaTb to drive away. OT'b'fe34^ departure. n64.i'fe means the same as BOut, nG3a4Ji behind, e.g. nG3a4H 4epeBHH behind the village. 186 ELTSSIAN GRAMMAR. nocj'fe after (in time or order). e.g. Ilocji yxo^a otl aoathhocju. After retirement from service. Ilocji Kopcj/i BOiuedT. ero ciyra. After the king his servant entered. npoTHBT) against or opposite to. e.g. IIpoTHBT, 4Bopaa ctoht'l codopi,. Opposite to the palace stands the cathedral. PoCCIfl GopCTCa npOTHBT. HtMUCBT.. Russia is fighting against the Germans. pa^H for the sake of. e.g. Pa^M TBOeM Maiepn. For the sake of your mother. CBepxT> besides. e.g. CBepxi> paayMa beyond reason. CBcpxT. JKiUOBaHhJi, nciyHacTi. narpa^y. In addition to a salary, he gets an emolument. CuepxT. Toro furthermore. cpe4H or nocpcAH in the middle of. e.g. IIocpeAM ocipoBa in the middle of the island. Other adverbial phrases are also used with the genitive, but need not be noticed here. y means " at," " by " (of place). e.g. y ji^A-h at work. y uovh Koro at one's feet. » THE PREPOSITIONS. 187 y with the verb ecTb replaces the verb " to have.'* e.g. y MCHH ecTL xjtoi. [v. § 87]. I have a loaf. y ccSh .ih SapHUT, ? Is your master at home ? y with the personal pronouns, or proper names, has much the same force as the Latin aptid or the French chcz. ^ e.g. y IleTpoBbix^ Bcer4a xopomiM oSi^i'. They dine well at the Petrovs. In composition with verbs its use can hardly be profitably defined. § 73 (2). The Prepositions Governing the Dative. Of these there are only two. Kx can be used with some nouns to indicate ap- proximate time. e.g. Kt. Be«iepy toward evening. Otherwise Kh merely amplifies the ordinary meaning of the dative " to " or " for." e.g. Kt. Gepery to the bank. ITpHmjib KHHry kt. HCMy. I will send the book to him. KT. is never combined with verbs. When used with nouns, the consonant k is merely sounded in front, like r and d' in French : "I'ame," "d'autres." Before dentals and gutturals kt. is softened to x in pronunciation; e.g. kt. TOMy is sounded XTOwy ; kt. AOMy, x^OMy. 188 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Before heavy initial consonants la is sounded, and is sometimes written, kg. e.g. Ko 4Bopy to the courtyard. Similar rules apply to bt. and cl, which may be written and sounded bo and co. BonpeKM in spite of. BonpeKH ero cTapaniaM'b despite his endeavours. § 74 Prepositions Governing the Instrumental. Ha4x means " above," " over." e.g. HaAT. .'{CMaeio over the earth. Bpaib BepxT* Ha^i, k^mt. ('liMi.) to overcome someone. BoHtbfl BOJfl Ha40 MHOK). God's will over me. Bt4a BHCHTT> Ha^b ero iojoboh. Sorrow hangs over his head. MejKAV may be added to this paragraph, as it is only occasionally used with the genitive. It means " between." e.g. CHA-feib MevK^y Abvxt, CTyjbCB^ — nojojKeHie PVMblHiH. Sitting on the fence [between two chairs] — Eoumania's situation. MejK4y ABywH ^epeBbflMH 6bLio okho. There was a window between two trees. It can also have a derived meaning, "among." the prepositions. 189 § 75. Prepositions Governing the Locative. One preposition, npH, governs the locative and no otlier case, npn originally meant "at." e.g. lIpH 40Mt near, by the house. II pH KOMT. in the presence of. II pn CBH4iTejaxx before witnesses. 1 1 pn II H Kojaife AwieKcaH4poBH M-fe. In the reign {or time) of Nicholas Aleksan- drovic. Ohi npn 3aB64i. He works in the factory. Ohi. obLiT. a4K)TaHT0Mi, npH CHOOOJeBt. He w^as adjutant to Skobolev. Also causal — e.g. ripw CoraTCTB'fe BoaHocHMca. In prosperity we enhance ourselves. Tlie meaning of npa, when compounded with verbs, is best learnt by practice ; no rule can be conveniently stated. § 76. no4i., npe4'b, and aa. These govern the accusative and instrumental ; the former when motion is implied, the latter when a state of rest is implied (cf. in in Latin or German). I. 3a primarily means " behind," also " beyond." With the accusative : — e.g. T>xaTb 3a rpanimy. To travel beyond the frontier, i.e. abroad. Mat 4aBe6 ea copoKi .lifeii.. I am long past forty years old. 190 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. ^1 3a AecflTb .itii cBoeH cjyjKow npiooptj^ 5o.i OnblTHOCTfc. In ten years' service he gained great experi- ence. Notice also : — Mbi ca4vuHCb 3a cTo^n.. We were sitting down at the table. Also with verbs of " holding," " grasping." e.g. Ero B3HJH aa pvKV. They seized him by the hand. McHH ^epjKajH 3a n.ie4H. They held me by the shoulders. In combination with 'ito, 3a means " what a . . . ! " e.g. Hto 3a luvMi, ! what a noise ! Also " for the sake of." e.g. MyneeHKH ywepjH 3a mcthhv. The martyrs died for truth. MciHCb 3a OTua. Pray for your father. And " in price." e.g. ripoAajT. KUMry 3a 'icibipe pyojji. I sold a book for four roubles. With the instrumental : — e.g. Btott. rocnoAHHT, jkhbctt. 3a rpaHHueio. This gentleman lives abroad. 3a caAOMT. behind the garden, H CHA'fej'b 3a CTCIOMI. I sat at the table. THE PREPOSITIONS. 191 Or " giving the reason." e.g. 3a HenpiisAOM^ oma mbi ot.iojkiuh nauiy 110*34 KV. On account of my father's non-arrival we postponed our excursion. Sa'itMi? why? Also with verbs of ** fetching." e.g. McHK nocjiuH 3a caxapoMi,. They sent me to fetch the sugar. 3a, in composition with verbs, expresses an incipient action [v. § 59, VI.], but sometimes a completed action, e.g. sacHyiB go to sleep, 3anjaTHTb to pay up ; in com- position with nouns, expresses "at the back of," "behind"; e.g. 3aropo4Hbm suburban (also npuiopoAi. suburb). II. no4T> properly means " under "; with the accusa- tive implying motion, with the instrumental static. e.g. H 6p6cHiT. ero no^i, ctoai>. I threw him under the table. Oht> .leJKHTT. no4T> ne4bK). He is lying under the stove. In regard to time. e.g. Bto cjy^iMJOct no^i Be^ep^. This happened in the evening (cf. Latin suh vesper e). Also in derivative senses, e.g. 1X041. 3THMH vcioBittMH HC Mory no4nHcaTbca. Under these conditions I cannot give my signature. III. npe4T. or nepe4T. means "before" (of place, and of time). 192 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. The accusative and instrumental similarly refer to motion or rest. e.g. H flBiucfl nepe4T. cy4i,eM. I appeared before the judges. nepe4'B BopoiaMH croHn. abh cTOJoii. •In front of the gates there stand two columns. npe4T> aauoHOMT, Bct paoHbi. All are equal before the law. Observe the adverbs bt, nepe4H in front, btj nepe4'b forward, Ha nepe4H beforehand. no4T> and npe4i>, when compounded with verbs, conserve their meaning. e.g. no4HHMaTL uo4hhti> raise no4aHpaTB no4nepeTb prop up npe4CTaBaTb npe4CTaTb stand before npe4CTaBJttTb npe4CTaBHTb to present Like OTX, no4'b and npe4T» keep the t, before soft vowels, and ripe4T' changes to npe4y before heavy consonants. e.g. npe4iaBHTb to present. 11 pe4ycM0TpiTb to foresee. lIo4T>i4aTb to nibble, eat from below. II pe4yCM0Tp'fcTb Bci MeJOMH. To foresee all details. npe4'baBMTb BeHccJb la BabicKaniio. To present a bill for payment. Ohx no4Ti'fexa.i'b ea KOHi. He came by on horseback. f THE ^REPOSITIONS. 193 § 77. The Prepositions bt., o, and na. These govern the accusative and locative ; the accusative as usual relatiug to motion, the locative to a state of rest. I. B^ primarily means "in." It is sounded as a part of the following word, like kt, and ch, and similarly may, if the following word have heavy initial con- sonants, be altered to bo. BT, with the accusative is primarily " into/' e.g. (1) IIbrht. Bome.ib bt. KOMHaiy. John went into the room. H i34HiT, BT. OpeHSypr-b. I travelled to Orenburg. (2) It is used in statements of time. e.g. Bo BpeMfl nyTemecTBifl a cuynaji*. I was bored during the journey. Bx naifa .li^Tt okohmv moh Tpy4T.. In five years I sliall finish my work. Bt. noHe4l>.itHHKT. on Monday. (Distinguish no noHeA^-ibHHKaMT. every Monday.) Bt. 4eBaTL MacoBi, at nine o'clock. Tpii>K4bi Bi 4eHb three times a day. (Distinguish bt. 4eBKT0Mi Hacy in the ninth hour ; i.e. between eight and nine.) (3) And in statements of price, measure, etc. e.g. 4opora bi BoeeMHa^uaTi. Bepcix. A road eighteen versts long. 194 HUSSIAN GRAMMAH. (4) One idiomatic use with the accusative plural should be remarked, viz. : — MSHa 3BaJH BT> rocTH. They invited me as a guest. Oht. noinejT> bt. o MOHaXH. I shall take the tonsure as a monk. In this idiomatic use the accusative, and not the genitive, is used as the objective case [v. § 71, VI.]. (5) Similarly: — CblHT* BTi OTua. The son is like his father. B^ with the locative means (1) " in." e.g. BapHHT. BT> CTOJOBOH. Master is in the dining-room. (2) " in," in measurements of time, e.g. Bt. ceHTflop'fe Micaqi in September. Bt, TbicflHa AeBflTbcoT'i. naTuaAiiaTOMT. ro^y in 1915.* (3) " in," in measurements of distance. e.g. Moa 4aHa OTCib^a b^ ipex^ Bepciax'b. My estate is three versts away. (4) After certain verbs. e.g. Kaaibca bt, rpixax^ to repent one's sins. IlpH3eaBaTbca bi oiiiHSKi to confess a mistake. OoBUHaib Koro bi yOiucTBi to convict of murder. * In these phrases ro4y cannot be omitted, and no other locative form is admissible. THE tKEPOSlT^IONS. 195 111 composition bt, conserves its meaning, e.g. Bxo4MTi> to enter. The original form bo is kept in some accented adverbs ; e.g. bobcc altogether, [v. § 80.] With verbs commencing with a soft vowel vb is still hard and written bi. e.g. BiixaiL (vyekh^t') to drive in. II. The preposition Ha primarily means " on." With the accusative. e.g. (1) fl xo^Mi. Ha ojomaAB. I went on to the square. XlaiTj TyMaHi Ha cbipyio seMJio. A mist fell on the damp earth. fl nOJO}KH.ICfl Ha Tco/i. I relied on you. (2) In reference to time. Ha HeiBepTbiH ^eHb on the fourth day. OinymJ xeoii na ipw Haca. I will let you go for three hours (40 Tpex^ naca until 3 o'clock). (3) In reference to the effect produced. KymaHTC na B^opoBLc. Eat for your health, i.e. may it do you good. fl cjt40BaJT. CMy na sao* I followed him to do him hurt. ♦ Or h4 3J0. 02 196 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. (4) " Against," " in respect of." H cep4iucfl Ha FpHropia. I got angry with Gregory. He JKajyucji Ha TBoero opaia. Do not make complaints with respect to (against) your brother. With the locative. e.g. (1) Baoia KHiira na ctcjIj. Your book is on the table. (2) In words denoting time. Ha Po3K4ecTB'fe. On Christmas day. (3) In words indicating the points of the compass. Ha ciBcpt in the North. (a) MoH Span. Hteniuca na 4>paHu^}KeHK'fe nJCMJinHHua KOTopoM BbiH^en. aaMVJKx .la pyccKaro n644aHHaro. My brother has married a Frencliwoman whose niece is going to marry a Russian subject. (/S) HrpaJH hi Kapibi. They were playing cards. Hrpajn bi> maxMaTbi. They were playing chess (i.e. a game). But HrpaiH na cKpHniJi. They were playing the violin (the musical THE PREPOSITIONS. 197 (7) Ohervc ua PycM or bi Pocciu in Eussiii. (Pycb is a poetical form.) In composition Ha has no meaning limited enough to be stated in these pages. III. The preposition (ool before vowels, 660 before very heavy initial consonants) primarily means " on " ur " against." WitJi the accusative. (1) Oht. y4apH.!Cfl KaMCHb he hit against a ston? (2) OoT. 'di\ nopy at this time. With the locative. (1) Concerning, about. e.g. Mbi roBopiuM tbocmt. iiecMacTin. We were speaking of your misfortune. (2) Of time (when the time is not exactly stated). e.g. Dacxi at Easter. (3) With numerals, when the objects enumerated are constituents of something else, and not accidental. e.g. CTVit TpexT. flojKKaxT. a chair with three feet. {But CiiBa B7, Tpn apim'iua a wall 3 arsins high.) In composition o indicates the completion of the act, and some generality. e.g. OooiiTii to go round (and survey). Or-iflByibca to glance round. Before heavy consonants it can take the full form 000 ; e.g. ooo4paTb, oo^HpaiL to flay. 198 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Before verbs beginning in soft vowels it is written and sounded got.. e.g. OGiacHHTb to explain. 06T./iTie, oGieMT), an embrace — the capacity, contents. Beforie verbs beginning with h, t. + h are fused into bi ; e.g. oobirpaib to beat at play, cf. cbirpaif. from ctj + Hrpaib to play (a piece of music or at cards). As a preposition 061. is the correct form before words beginning with a vowel, and occasionally 000 before words with heavy initial consonants. § 78, The Prepositioi^s no and cb. I. no, with the accusative, states the limit in space or time, or the purpose of the action. e.g. Ho Kpan cBiia to the edge of the world. OonaiKM pyKv no-joKoib. Bare your arm up to the elbow. Mbi npooyACMT. SA'bcb no Ilacxy. We shall stay here till Easter. rio cie BpeMa a HH4er6 ne cjbixa.ix. Up to now I have heard nothing. Ilo B^K-b CBOH (hjh no cMcpTb) HC 3a6y4y- 1 will not forget (for all my life) up to my death. fl meM> BT. AlaCT* UO MaJUHV. I went into the wood (to gather) raspberries. nom.iH no B04y. Send for water. DistributivelT/, no 4Ba, no ipw, no Heibipe [v. § 62, I. and IV. (2)]. THE PREPOSITIONS. 199 Notice — no Ty CTopoHv, no npaeyio (pj^Kv), no jteyio, that side, to the right, to the left. no with the dative indicates extensive space, in which something happens. e.g. (1) Ho ropavii. over the hills. Do ropo^y through the town. n.ibiTb no MopK) to sail the seas. Bra ipaBa pacTen. no oeparaMX. This herb grows in the ravines. (2) Distributively — no yipaMT, every morning. no nsTH in fives (and with every number, except ABa, ipn, Heibipe). [v. § 62, IV. (2).] Do HOnaMT. every night. no cpe^aMT. every Wednesday. (3) "According to." Ho-MocMy* in my opinion. no ciapoMV in the old-fashioned way. no HHHy according to rank. noHCMy ? why ? noTOMy HTO because. no with the locative. (1) With words of time, means "after." e.g. noTOMt thereupon.f no poJKAecTB'fe after Christmas. no neipi BejiHKOMT. after Peter the Great. * In this single phrase mogm;^ is accented Moeaiy. So, too, no TBoe.My, CBocMy. Thus : — Ho MOCMy npou^ccy buui.io no-MoeMy. My law-suit came off to my liking, t Whence hotosikh, dotomctbo descendants, 200 RUSSIAN GEAMMAK. (2) " On account of." e.g. /KcHa no ujmi uaabiBaercH. A woman bears her husband's name. lie KOMI, Bbi Bt ipaypli ? For whom are you in mourning ? no in composition confers a diminutive sense to the verb [v. § 59, VI.], e.g. norj«4biBaTL to glance here and there; or indicates the completion of the actions, e.g. nooiiiL to smite down, nociaib to send at last. II. (1) CT, with the accusative is used in general measurements of space and time. e.g. Py6.ieM ct> uhtokl M34ep}ijaj[L. I spent about five roubles. TaMT. fl npOiKHJ-L CT. MtCflm,. I stayed there about a month. On'L pocTOM'L CT> oma. He is about as tall as his father. Bepc'n> CO cto (cl cotuio) 6y4eTb. It will be about 100 versts away. (2) 01. with the genitive has the primal meaning " down from." e.g. Ohi couiei'L ci. njaTa»opMbi. He left the platform. (h3 b implies rather " away from," in space : e.g. u6t34 b 4BHHyjc« HBT* Mockbl'i the train moved out of Moscow.) Ona couija cb yMa. She has gone mad (literally, out of her mind). Cb "riBXT. nopi> from that time. /K4y CO 4ua Ha 4eHb. I waited from day to day THE PREPOSITIONS. 201 It may also have a causal meaning, like otl. e.g. Ct. tockh from melancholy. ch with the instrumental has an entirely different meaning, i.e. " with," " accompanying." e.g. fl npH4y en cynpyroH) (cynpyroii). I will arrive with my wife. Oh-L AiiAdiA-h 3T0 01. pa40CTbio. He was doing this with pleasure. OU'L MClOBiKX 07. VMOM'I.. He is a man with sense. CoBoliWL quite. Ivro roBopuj'L oi* KyjbMOM ? Who was speaking to Kuz'ma ? In composition cb can have either the meaning ** from " or " with," e.g. ouiiMaTi. to take away, oi.fe^H rb to travel away ; or coe4HHaTb to unite, coHHUMTb to compose, oAt-iaib to finish doing. Before soft vowels c^ is retained entire, e.g. cL'fc4aTb to devour ; or, before h, amalgamates, e.g. cbioKaib to search (cb-HOKaib) ; or remains as co, e.g. coe4HHttTb. § 79. The Verbal Prefixes bo3, bw, nepe, npe, pasi.. B03 adds the sense of *' up " to a verb. Before unvoiced consonants it is written and sounded boo, e.g. BOonHTaib to educate. Before verbs beginning with o + a consonant it is, however, written bo3 and sounded boc, e.g. BOSCTaHie insurrection. 202 RUSSIA^^ GRAMMAR. In Old Slavonic the form was bt>3t., hence in modern Eussian b3 and b30 are also met with. e.g. BBjeiiTb to fly up B34yTb u^Hbi to inflate prices Or before heavy consonants — e.g. B34HpaTb, but B304paTb to tear up B3HpaTb (for B33HpaTb), but B033piTb to look up (Cf. cHteib,* but cowry to burn utterly.) Before verbs beginning with soft vowels the 3 is pronounced and written hard. e.g. B3ifeH«aTb to drive up As with other similar prepositions, !> + h after is fused into w. e.g. B031 + HM^Tb becomes BOSbiMiib to conceive (doubts, fears, etc.) Similarly pa3-, pa3T.-, pa3bi-, pa30-, pac-. Bbi probably means ''out," and signifies the com- pletion of an act. e.g. BhiGcii^Tb to become utterly ill BbiGi^Htaib (perfective) BbiGtraib (imperfective) to run out [v. § 59, IV.] BbirHaib drive out, BbiroHUTb (imperfective) Bbi always takes the tonic accent except as stated in § 59, 1. (3), II., and IV., when the imperfective is the * Sounded zzed. THE VERBAL PREFIXES. 203 iterative of the simple verb, in wliicli the imperfective retains the original accent. e.g. BbinpocHTb to question, BbinpaiuHBaib Bbira^aiB to guess, BbiraAbieaib riepe implies repetition, or change, e.g. nepe4yMaTb to reconsider nepeoMTb to kill many, to massacre nepeobiBaib to be in many places nepcAonpocHTb to re-examine nepciaMbiBaib to break to pieces nepenHcaib to copy nepecMaTpoBaTb to review, survey ; nepecMoipb revision npe implies excellence, and is nearly the same as IIf)e4^ ; with adjectives it forms a superlative, e.g. npeJK)6e3HbiH very kindly npeBbimaib to surpass npe3HpaTb to despise But it is often merely a bye-form of nepe. e.g. npcBpainaib, npeBpaiiiTb to transform pa3x has a motion of scattering or dissipation. e.g. pacTCKaTb to flow (in various directions) paacTaHaBJHBaTb to station people apart paabirpHBaib to play out to the end paaife^T. a departure (of many people in different directions) paavBaib to take off one's shoes paactBaib to sow (scatter seed) paacMaipHBaTb to survey all round 204 russian grammar. § 80. The Accentuation of Prepositions and Particles. The general rule is that, as in other languages, prepositions are proclitics, i.e. atonic words pronounced with their noun, which is accented ; e.g. " in-the-hoiise," " on-the-table," ''et aomj," "ua ctoaL'* But in older llussian, and to a slight extent in modern Ilussian, certain of the simple prepositions — not tlic adverbial prepositions — when used with monosyllabic or dis- syllabic nouns, are accented, the noun becoming tlie enclitic. e.g. Ha 6oKT. on the side Further, when particles are used in compound verbs, in some cases the particle takes the accent, the verb becoming enclitic. This only applies — (1) to the prefix bh [v. § 79 and § 59, IV.]; (2) to monosyllabic verbs [v. § 49 and § 52, (1) and (2)] and generally only to the past participle passive. e.g. npojKHTB iipoiKHTLiH to livc tlirough Hanaib HaHaji* to begin HsSpaiB MsSpaei. to select HdHHTb HaBfliT> and uaiiflTi to hiref HasBaifc HaseaHT. called ii04AaTF, n644aHHLiH a subject (of a State) This list contains some of the most important phrases in which the old accentuation of the preposition * But past part. pass. Ha'idTbitt. t So, too, all dissyllabic compounds of -nn. THE PREPOSITIONS. 205 survives. It will be observed the words are nearly all monosyllables, or dissyllables with liquids, such as Cepen. shore [v. § 5 (5)], or dissyllabic feminines, and that the usage is practically confined to the accusative. Verbs that accent the preposition are also mono- syllabic. The forms accenting the particle are mostly used in set phrases, like adverbs. e.g. Ha 6oKi (or na 66K^) to one side Ha 6epen> (or na Sepen.) to the shore Ha TOAO (of weapons) naked Ha rciOBv (or na r6.iOBy) on to the head Ha Ay my (or na 4yuiy) into the mind fla 3eM.iK) (or na aeM.iio) on to the earth Ha 3J0 (or Ha 3.16) in despite Ha nojT> on to the floor na noje (or na no.ie) on to the field Ha uoHb for a night nacMtxTi (to hold up) to ridicule HivincTO (to wipe) clean So, too, in verbs. e.g. HaHflji. I hired 3ana.n> (aaHfln*) busied npe^aHHbiH devoted npo^aHHbiH betrayed ihSpaHT, selected Ha3BaHHbiH called Similarly with the negative hc : ho 4a4'i., He 6pa.ni, He 6bU0, ue nwA-h. uepeiHit (or nepejiUT.) overflowed oT^aJT. (odd^l) he has given away npcViKiui. he has lived through 206 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Other instances are : — no jyry (ao Jyry) over the meadow no Mopio (no Mopw) over the sea no 6epery (no oepery) along the bank BOBce at all M3i jicy out of the wood 6 seM^K) (o 3eMiio) against the ground 3a Hory by the leg y Mopa (y Mopa) by the sea No very general rule can be stated. In modern Eussian the preposition is sometimes accented before simple monosyllabic or dissyllabic nouns, mostly when used with the accusative. § 81. The Numerals. Under this head it is proposed to enumerate some, idiomatic uses of the numerals. I. The date (hhcjo), days (/^HH), etc. The days of the week (ne^tjA) are : — IIoHeA'feJbHHKi Monday (HcAija, Church Slavonic for Sunday) BiopHHUT. Tuesday Cpe4a Wednesday (i.e. the middle) ^eiBepr-b Thursday (i.e. the fourth day)=^' DflTHBua Friday (i.e. the fifth day) CySOoia Saturday (i.e. the Sabbath) BocKpeceHBe Sunday (literally " Eesurrection ") II 64^1 fl the week * In ecclesiastical parlance, HeTBepTOKi. DATES. 207 The months (w-fecflin.) are: — HeBapL January (flHBapH, etc., accenting termination) eBpa.iL February (^eepajH, etc.) MapiT* March (Mapia, etc.) AnpLib April (anpija, etc.) Man May (Maa, etc.) IlOHb June (man, etc.) 1 10.1 b July (iio.ia, etc.) AfirycTb August (aBrycia, etc.) CcHTiiopb September (ecHTaopa, etc.) OKTHOpb October (oKTaSpii, etc.) Hojiopb November (eoaGpa, etc.) /(eKaopb December (4eKa6pa, etc.) The calendar of the Greek Church is still used in Eussia, and is now thirteen days behind the Julian or Western calendar. Instances are given of the use of these words, illustrating the rules. e.g. KoTopoe (KaKoe) hhcjo y naci, cero^ea ? What is the date to-day ? IIIecTbHa4uaToe auBapa. The 16th of January. IlaTHHqa 4Ba4uaTb naiaro (naioe) Mapia. Friday the 25th of March. Do not 2tse capitals in designating the days and months. When the year is mentioned, the year and number all go into the genitive, unless the day is named. 208 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. e.g. Cpe4a (bx cpe^y) xpH^uaTb nepeoe wapia Twcana BOCeML-COTT. COpOK'b BOCBMurO FO^a. Wednesday the 31st March 1848. But ^eBflTHaAuaiaro ♦teBpa.i/i iwcaMa BOccMLcon. mecT^ecHTfc nepBaro ro^a. The 19th of February 1861. These would be commonly abbreviated : — e.g. Cpe^a (bt, cpe^y) 31-oe Mapia 1848 r. 19-ro 4>eBpaJH 1861 r. Generally both dates are indicated, e.g. 25/12 iii. 15. II. A(jc. The following instances illustrate the rules : — CkowIBko IlBauiKy (HBany) .ibrt? How old is Ivasko ? ft ' KaKoii B03pacn. Aenbi rieipoBiiM ? How old is Anna Petrovna ? Em uiecTb^ecHTt jiIiTT>. She is sixty years old. Ona po^Hjaci. BOChMoro Man Ti.'irnMa Bocewwon. copoKi BToporo ro^a. She was born on the 8th May 1842 EMy HAen> ABa^uaib nepBLiM ro4T> He is in his twenty-first year. Mflt TpHAuaiB j-feii oipoAv. I am thirty years old. Ewy 66.1 te 4BaAaaTH-B0CLMu .liit He is over twenty-eight. EMy y>Ke aa copoKi .liiXT). He is over forty. THE NUMERALS. 209 III. In forming compound nouns and adjectives in which the first element is a numeral, the rule is to use the genitive of the numeral, e.g. 4ByxT>-3Ta5KabiH two- storeyed; AByrpuBCHUHia* twenty copecks; ipext-rcioBbiM 3\itii a three-headed dragon; MeTbipexcoTbiii the 400th; 4Ba4naTiijiTeiu twenty years old ; naTHyro^bHHK^ pentagon, etc. ; except Tbicii'if.rfeTie millennium, and compounds with cto, such as CTo.iiiie century. IV. The time of day. The Eussian for hour is naci ; for a watch or clock 'lac'bi (plural). The following sentences give the rules : — KoTopbiii lenepb 4acT. ua Bamiixi nacax-b? What time is it by your watch ? CK6.ibK0 lenepb BpeMCUH ? What is the time now ? CK6.ibK0 np(56n.io? What time was it that struck ? Tenepb 4Ba naca. It is now two o'clock. CeH4acT» mecTb ^lacoBi.. It is now six o'clock. CeuHaci He 66.ibiiie ccmh nacoBi.. It is not more than seven o'clock. Ceii^iacT. 04Ha Mueyia nKiaro. It is one minute past four. CcHMacb MeTBcpib naiaro. It is a quarter past four. Ceiinacb nojOBiiHa u/iTaro. It is half past four. Ceii'iacT. Tpiuuaib AeBaib Tpeibaro. It is 39 minutes past two. CeuqacT> ipji qeiBepiH Tperbaro. It is a quarter to three. * 4By Old Russian for ^eyxb. 210 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. CeHHacL Ceaii HeiBepTu 4eBaTi>. It is a quarter to nine. CeH4ac'L nojOBiiHa OAMiiHaAuaiaro. It is half past ten. CcMMacL 6e3T. Aecaiii (MHnyn,) 4Biiia4uaTi>. It is ten minutes to twelve. Oh-b yixaj'i. bt, copoKi, acbatm nocvit Heibipexb. He went away at 4.49. V, Fractions. There is little to add under this head, but the student must specially note the compounds with nojb, ncjy, a half, uojt as a regular noun signifies sex or half.* e.g. MyjKCKOM nojT. the male sex nono.iaMT. by halves (1) When the compound signifies half of a whole, he nominative has nci- with the substantive in the genitive; the other cases are declined regularly with the prefix nojy-. e.g. nojHaca half an hour, nojyHaca, nojynacy, etc. no.iBepcTbi half a verst, nojyBepcTbi, nojyBepcTli Thus, too, noJ^eHfc mid-day, nojHOHt midnight; DdyAHfl, nojyflOHM, etc. After the preposition no, the locative of n6j4eHi> is nojy4HH (a relic of the time when 4eHb was a feminine like KOCTb) ; e.g. HicKCibKO MMHyii no no.iy4HH a few minutes after noon. Thus, too, noJTopa [v. § 62, IV. (8)]. * Distinguish mxi, floor, and msk skirt. FRACTIONAL EXPRESSIONS. 211 It is most important to distinguish noJ4Ha, noJuoqH, half a day, half a night, which signify duration, not a point of time. In these words only the first element is declined, the second already being in the genitive. e.g. H ooApcTBOBa.ii no.i^HH, nojHosii, iio.iHaca, etc. I sat up half a day, half a night, half an hour, etc. In older Eussian, as in German, there were other compounds with no.iy-, for 2\, 3^, etc., viz. nciTpeibfiro, 2i, etc. These are obsolete. Modern Eussian, like English, says ABa ct. nOwiOBHaoii, etc. [v. § 62, lY. (8).] e.g. nocjik nojyMHHVTbi 3toh paooibi OHa yeiajia. After half a minute of this work she was tired. In this connection the word cyiKH, cyTOKi, may be noticed, meaning the whole day, i.e. 24 hours, including 46 Hb day and HOHb night. (2) Where "half" is used loosely, and not in terms of strict measurement. These are compounds prefixed with nojy- invariable. e.g. nciyocTpoBT, a peninsula nojyMicamj a crescent moon nojyioMT, a half-volume ijbut no.ir6Ma, nciyioMa half of a volume) nojiv-o«t«i)imia.!bHbiH semi-official, etc. p2 212 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. VI. Ilitssian money. The unit is the pyo^i. (pySja) or u^jkobbim, worth about two shillings, [v. § 4 (9).] The divisions are as follows : — 90 copeks ^eeaHocTO Kon'BeKi> or ^eBflTi) rpHBCiri. 80 , B6ceMb4ecan> „ BOCeMb 70 „ ceMi>Aecan» „ „ ceMb „ CO „ mecTBAecan, „ mecTb 50 ;, naTb4ecaTT, „ nOJTHHa or UOiTMlIHHKL 40 „ COpOKT, „ iCTbipe rpuBcuuHKa 30 „ TpH4UaTI> , „ Tpn 25 „ 4Ba4naTr, narb , „ HCTBepTaia 20 „ 4BaAuaTb „ 4ByrpMBeuHbiH 15 „ naTHa4uaTb „ naiH-ajTbiuHbiH 10 „ 4ecaTb „ rpMBeHHHK-b 5 . naib , „ naiaMeia 3 „ ipM Koneui.ii ,, a.iTbiin>* 2 „ 4Bi „ rpoiu'b 1 » KoneuKa 4 . nciKoneHKa „ 4eHeH;Ka i . HeTBepib Koneii KH „ nojymKa VII. Frequencies. Besides 04eaH{4bi, etc., there are some other locutions that should be noticed. (1) In the multiplication table e4HH05K4bi is used instead of o^^km^u, and MCTbipcHiAbi is retained for this purpose. From five onwards the instrumental of the numeral is used, but is accented naibio, mecibio, BoccMbK), 4eBaTbio, 04MHHa4uaTbK), etc., and not on the idtimate, as usual. ♦Obsolete. r THE NUMERALS. 213 (2) Before comparatives the forms used are B^Boe, Bipoe, BHeiBepo, Bnaiepo . . . bt. 4ecflTepo ; and thence- forward BT. OAHOHaAuaTL pa3^, etc. e.g. MocKBa no npocTpaHCTBy bt, 4Ba4uaTb ccml paai. GoAhme CepnyxoBa. Moscow in extent is twenty-one times bigger than Serpukhov. VIII. A note should be added that one cardinal has become obsolete, namely TbMa or TMa 10,000 (except in some phrases, and as an expression for a multitude). There is a derivative, TeMHiiK^ a commander of 10,000, and TMaTMymiri, ''multitudinous." IX. Cards. The names of the suits and the cards (Kapiw, feminine) may be useful to the student. The four suits (Macib, feminine, third declension) are : hearts nepew (qepBea, feminine, third declension) ; diamonds SyoHbi (6y6om., feminine) ; spades dhkh (nnin., feminine), and Tpe4»bi (ipeo'b, feminine) clubs. Trumps are Kosbipb (mas.) ; a game without trumps nrpa bx 6e3- Kosbipaxi,. A trick is B3HTKa, B3HT0HKa ; Hrpoia the player. The cards in each suit are : — Ty:n. ace meciepKa six Ba.ien. knave ^BoiiKa deuce ceMepua seven ^aMa queen xpoiiKa three ocbMepna eight Kop6.ib king MCTBepKafour ^CBiiTKa nine iiaiepKa five .^ec/iTKa ten e.g. Kopojb nepBeii ; naiepKa 6yoeHT, ; ipoHua IIHK1. ; 4eBrtT[;a Tpe*T>. Notice the phrases: iirpaib, cbirpaib (perfective) bi. Kapibi ; nponrpaib to lose; BbiHrpaib to win (imperfec- tives npoi'irpbiBaib, BbiHrpbiBaib). 214 russian grammar. § 82. The Pronouns. I. The Interrogative Pronouns. These are used as in English, kto referring to persons, like " who "; hto to inanimate objects and neuters like " what/' and KOTopbiu corresponding to •'' which." Note, however, that in English the genitive precedes the noun by which it is governed ; in Russian it follows, [v. § 69, IV. (3).] e.g. John's house. ][owh HflaHa. Thus : Bt. 40m^ KOToparo MVJKHKa tli Bomeji? Into which peasant's house did you go ? II. The Relative Pronouns. As in English, the interrogative and relative are now identical in form. KTO is used when the subject is a person, or in cor- relative and indefinite sentences, answering to ion., bchkIh, BCfe. e.g. ToMy, KTO JHteTi, hc BtpaTi. A liar is not believed. Bcfe, KTO npAoEUH, H3yMM.IHCb. All who arrived were astounded. MTO is similarly used, when the generality is not personal. e.g. Bee ^tg tw cKaaajT, — 4ypaHecTB0. All you have said is folly. PRONOUNS. 215 Otherwise, for nouns KOTopwH is used ; and, as always in Eussian, the genitive follows and never precedes. e.g. OnacHocTH, KoiopbiMi* a no4Bepmca. The dangers I have risked. 4oMi, Kpbima KOToparo CHCccHa B-feipoMT.. The house the roof of which has been carried off by the wind. KaKoii may be substituted, where the sense allows ; it means " such as." Ohserve. — The relative is iicver omitted as in English. But in common parlance hto in the nominative tends to replace kto and KOTopbiH for all numbers and genders. This is not an admitted literary use. e.g. Bto tott, caMbiH Humifl, hto npHX04H.n, kt. BaMi. yipoMT,. This is the same beggar as visited you in the III. Tlie Indefinite Pronouns. These are of two kinds; first, kto and hto, etc., unaccented (cf. in Greek Ti?, xt, contrasted with rt?, ti), and next, compounded pronouns with to, hh, and other particles, [v. § 85 on negative sentences.] e.g. Bee hto hh ecTb.* Anything whatsoever. CKOJbKO HH paSoTajH. However much they worked. * HH as compared with He is like the Latin ne, Greek /t^, e.g. ■nuv o,Tt au 7; or /u^ ft whatever it may [not] be. 216 RUSSIAN GKAMMAT^. Kf>Ml 6bl Tbl HH p04IUCff, TH BceiaKH oo/iiaiiT, noBHHOBaTbcfl aaKOHv. Whatever you were born, you must obey tlio law. lvi6-HH6y4b. Whoever it may be. KT6-HH6y4i> nycTL npHneceri. Mirb ciaKaHi. bo^w. Let somebody bring me a glass of water. (oy4i> imperative of 6wti»; v. § 57, IT. and 41, A^I.) The distinction between KaKOH-TO... and KaKoii iiu is almost identical with the English "some" and "any": someone (but I don't know who exactly) ; anyone (and there is no discrimination nor knowledge of any individual). IV. 21ie Becip^ocal Pronouns. ] To express "each other," "one another," there are , two phrases: 4pyn. 4pyra, 04hht. 4pyroM. 4pyr'i» 4pyra | is used for all genders and numbers. The latter part | of the phrase is varied, to be in agreement with the verb or sentence. • ■ e.g. Ohm iieiiaBHAtjH Apyri* 4pyra. They hated each other. Ofli ctiopHJH 4pyn. CI. 4pyroMT.. i They quarrelled with each other. 4pyrT. 4pyH;Ky (from ^pvHJKa, feminine) is popularly also in use. PRONOUNS. 217 But with regard to things, the usual phrase is o^nm. 4pyr('>H, both of which are declined in fulL e.g. BojHLi CX04IUHCI. H pa3otrajnci> Sop/ici. 04 Ha ci. 4pyr6ii. The waves met and parted, fighting one another. Y. The Negative Pronouns [v. § 85 and § 41, VTI.]. In liussian, negatives are doubled, but do not cancel each otlier.* There is no means of expressing in Ifussian " I did not see nobody." e.g. llHKai.oH He 6si.!0 npM'n'iHbi in, ero yxo^y. There was no reason. All negative pronouns are resolved when governed by a preposition, [v. § 41, VII.] e.g. Hh k^ KdKOMy b3i. Bwmeyi.asaBHbixT. npHMiipoBi. bio ne 004x641111,. This does not comply with any of the previous examples. The only apparent exception is when the second negative negates a different verb or a noun or adjoctive. e.g. fl lie c»iHTaio ero HeyiniBbiMi.. I do not consider him impolite. IIhkto He MovKCTi, He ysnaiL ero MH.!ocep4in. No one can not-recognise (fail to recognise) his clemency. * E.g. in Greek ohZth ovk aer»crat no one has come, but ovk eVafl*!' ovSfu could mean, as in English, "he did not experience nothing, but. . ." 218 EUSSIAN GRAMMAE. § 83. The Eussian Appellatives. Under this head a few notes will be found, as to the Eussian methods of speaking to others, writing to others, and addressing letters. I. Conversation. Intimate friends and relatives use the pronoun tli ; the politer form is Bbi. The Eussian for "tutoyer," "dutzen," is TbiKaTh. Bbi takes a predicative adjective in the plural. e.g. Bbi oMCHb jK)6e3Hbi you are very kind (unlike the French " vous etes tres aimable ") But a noun following is in the singular, as in French, e.g. Bbi mom .lyquiiH Apyri you are my best friend. Servants when speaking of their masters use the 3rd person plural. e.g. 4oMa'4H 6apnin> (hjIh SapbiiUHa)? Is your master (mistress) at home ? Ohh yiii.iH. He (she) has gone out. Eussians in addressing one another use not the family name, but the Christian name and patronymic. Eussians have three names : the Christian name, the patronymic, i.e. the father's name, and the family name. e.g. JeB^ IIuK0jaeBH4T» Tcjctoh. APPELLATIVES. 219 The "patronymic" ends in -obhht, (-eBH4T>) or -obt. (-cb-l) (for the lower classes) in the masculine,* and -OBna (-CBua) and -OBa (-CBa) in the feminine. The Christian name is called hma, the patronymic OTMCCTBO, the family name 4>aMiuifl. e.g. KaKT>30ByT'L BacL no mmchh, oTHCCTBy, ^aMujlH ? KaKi. Baiue hmh, (Baiue) 6T4ecTB0, (Baoia) <^axMUJifl ? In ordinary narration and conversation all classes are designated by the name and patronymic. e.g. ITpH MuKOjai AjeKcaH/tpoBHH-fe. In the reign of Nicholas II. Bnepa a BCTptTHJi. Mdpbio AjGKcfeeBHy. Equivalent to "yesterday I met Mary," or " yesterday I met Mrs. or Miss ..." The Eussian equivalents for Mr., Mrs., Monsieur, Madame, are rocno^HB'L (plural ^oc^oy^a), and rocnojKa. The use of them is very much more restricted than in other European languages. rocnoAHHT,, rocnoJKa, are only employed when the relationship is distant. Thus, the master of a factory would address his equal (whose name we will suppose to be BaciuiH IIaBJ0BH4't ^epeualKHH^) as BacHjitt * The patronymic is accented like the name from which it is derived ; where monosyllabic names throw the accent on to terminations, or the termination can be accented, the accent is similarly thrown forward in the derivative. E.g. Ooidd, OoMMHb ; Ky3bMa, KysbMHM'b ; CaBBa, CdBBUMb; Heipi (Heipa), neipoEHMb ; Ajgk- caii^pi (A.ieKcdH4pa), A.ieKc4H4poBHMi. A few feminines are formed in -HMHa, e.g. 0oMMHHiu(M)na, CdBBHiii(M)Ha, Ky3bMMHHm(H)Ha; Ay^k, A)Kuaum{H)nsi ; UuKura, UiiKUTuui(M)ua. 220 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. naB.iOBn4T» ; an underling (such as a clerk) as rocno4Hm. nepenaiKHHi. ; a mere workman or lower servant as BacibiH. He would not address him as llepene^KUHF., unless he were a superior giving a direct command to an inferior; e.g. the master speaking to a foreman. Again, if a doctor is introduced, he will commonly be addressed as 46 KTop^ (as we say " colonel " or " lieutenant " or " doctor '"), unless he is of highor standing, when the polite form would be rocno^iini. 461110 pi.. When comparative strangers address one another, they will say rocno4Mm. KaiUKHUb; as they approach intimacy, they will use the form Ihi,/i KysbMHSi; and as close friends, lUih ; but seldom KaiuKHHi., as in other languages, the surname. II. Bchvcen masters and servants. The servant speaks of his master and mistress, and their daughter, respectively as uapHm., oapbiiui, oapbiiUHfl. In shops, restaurants, etc., an attendant calls the customers or masters cy4apF., cy4api.iiiH (an alibreviation of rocy4apL, rocy4apbinfl), or adds an enclitic ci. ; these, phrases are equivalent to the English "sir" and "madam." e.g. Cjyinaio-ci,. I hear you, sir. 4a-CT,. Yes, sir. ^TO npHuaHCCTe-c^ ? What are your orders, sir? This 01. is supposed to be an abbreviation of cy4ap''- The master and mistress (patron Si,iid patronne) of a business house are xoa/iHjii., xo3HeBa. APrELLATIVES. 221 III. At meetings the company is collectively addressed as MH.iocTHBbia IOcvv^apbIHH m MUJOCTHBbie* rocy4apH, or more simply as roc n 04a, equivalent to " Ladies and Gentlemen." I^^ mies. Majesty is Be.iH4ecTB0. The monarch is called rocy^apL (i'0cy4apbiHa), and these words are written with a capital, unless the reference is liistorical to a deceased monarch. e.g. Ero IlMiiepaTopcKoe BciiiMecTBO rocy4apb. Eji llMnepaTpHua Be.!ii4ecTB0 rocy4apbiHH. Llapbj uapi'ma, are used in ordinary speech. The Eoyal family has the title Bbic6«iccTB0. e.g. Ero IlMiiepaTopcKoe BbicoqecTBO HaCwi'i>4UHKb. J^ecapeBii'ib AjcKcfeii HHK0.iaeBH4T.. His Imperial Highness the heir Tsesarevic Alexis. Otherwise the forms are uapeBH4T», uapcBiia. Grand Dukes (who belong to the Royal Family more distantly) are styled Be^HKift KHa3b. e.g. Ero IlAinepaTopcKoe BbicoHCCTBO Bciiihiii Kujiab tluKO.iau HiiKOJaeBU'ii. E/i llMiiepaTopcKoe BbicoqeciBO BejiiKan Kuaniua E.iH3aBeTa HnKOJacBHa. The daughters of a KHasb are styled KHaa^aa. * A rendering of the German " gnadige Herrschaften." 222 EUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Dukes (KHfl3b) have the title cij'iieJbCTBO (brilliance). e.g. Eio Ci}iTe.iBCTBO Knasb DaBen. IIcTpoBHH^ /Jo-Jio- pyKiii. Earls and barons are also styled ciareJtCTBO. e.g. Ero CittTCibCTBo Fpa*!. (rpa«MiHa) . ., . The civil ranks are as follows : — Ero BbicoKonpeBOCxoAHTejbCTBO (excellency), for a ^tHCTBHTCiSHbiH TaHHbiM CoBtTHHK^ (something like a Privy Councillor; also called CTaTCKiii FeHepaiT,). Ero npeBocxoAMTcibCTBO, for a TaHHbifl Cob^thhkt.. Ero BbicoKopoAie, for a CTaTCKiii CoBijTHHK'b. Ero BbicoKo6jarop64ie, for a KojjejKCKJH CcKpeiapb, and for the lower ranks. Ero BjaropoAie. In the army, ranks from a nopy4Hin, (lieutenant) to a iniaG-b- Kan HiaH^ (captain) are styled Ero Bjaropo^ie; from a KanHTaai, to nojKOBHHKi., Ero Bbic6KO-6.iarop64ie ; from a general of infantry to a general-lieutenant, Ero lIpeBocxo4nTe.ibCTBO. In the Church, the regular clergy are styled BbicoKO- npenoAoSie, npeno466ie, BbicoKonpeocBameHCTBO, npeocBa- meecTBO, according to rank; the lower orders being called SjarocJOBeHie. Persons not titled are addressed rocno^HH'b, rocnoKa, followed by the full name; often the rocno^HHT,, rocnojKa, is omitted on envelopes. TITLES. 223 As stated in § 67, Eussian concord follows sense and not form, unlike French and German. e.g. Ero npeBocxo^uTcibCTBO hbbojhjh npnGbiih. His Excellency has arrived (deigned to arrive) Ea HMnepaiopcKoe BejH'iecTBO rocvAapbiHa roBopiua HTO . . . Her Imperial Majesty the Empress said . . . Contrast — " Sa Majeste le roi est arrives." "Que desire-t-e^/c ? " In Eussian, hto xoimtc. These titles must be used in combination with the name of the office. e.g. Ero BbicoKonpeBOcxoAMTe.ibCTBy rocno4Huy MHHHCTpy HapoAHaro JIpocBi^meuiff (IlyTeM cooSmeeifi). To his Excellency the Minister of Public Education (communications). In a private letter — Ero BbicoKonpeBOCxoAHTejBCTBy ApKa4iio MHxau- jOBH'iy Pa3Hiiy. To his Excellency Arkadi Mikhailovic Eazin. \. In addressing letters the full titles are inserted, in the dative, with or without kx. e.g. In a private letter, Ero IIpeBoexGAUTejbeTBy (or BbicoKOQpeBOCxoAiiTe.!bCTBy) HttKciaio CeMeeoBHqy UyraneBy. If official, Ero BbicoKonpeBocxoAHTeJbCTBV rocnoAHHy HaHajbHHKv JHSaBO-PoMeflCKOH jKejisHOH 4op6rH, HnKOjaio CeMeBOBHHy HyraHeBv. To his Excellency the director of the Libava- Eomeny railway. . . . 224 RUSSIAN GRAMMAK. Where tliere is no title, any of these three forms arc applicable : — Ero BbicoKopoAiio HuKCiaio IleTpoBH'iy rocno- 4l'lHy IlHBOBapOBV. HnKCiaK) IleTpoBHMy DuBOBapoBy. Or simply, II uKOjaK) lleipoBiiHy rocuo^iiiiy IlHBOBapoBy. Next follows the name of the street and number, then the house, lastly the town and country. e.g. Ero CiiixeiLCTBy Khhsk) CcMeny Apha^ieBHMv 4o.iropyKOMy, M'bxoBaa pima, No. 18, ^OM'L BauiKHua, BT, MockbL Letters addressed abroad are marked: 3a rpaHiiuy, beyond the frontier. The letter is usually headed with some honorific adjective. e.g. When very formal, MiLiocriiBaa rocyAapbiini, rocnojKa IlIaxMaTOBa; when less stift', MiuocTHBaa MapLfl E*HMOBna; if friendly, MnoroyBaJuacMaH MapM E4>HiM0Biia; if intimate, 4opora« or JwoeanaH Mapta E«i>iiMOBiia. Thus the English equivalent of MHoroyBaJKacMaa Mapta E«i»uMOBiia, would in this case be " Dear Mrs. or j Miss Sakhmatov." ' The conclusion of the letter would be as follows : — Ct. coBcpiiJeHiibiM'b noHTeflieMT>. FoTOBbiH KT> yaiyraiMT.. (or, informally) Baiui BacujiH HHBOBapoBT,. interrogative sentences. 225 § 84. Interrogative Sentences. As in English, sentences beginning with inter- rogative pronouns and adverbs are interrogative in themselves. e.g. Kor4a npH6y4eTe ? When will you arrive ? Other interrogative sentences are distinguished by the enclitic particle .ih, which is appended to the emphatic word of the sentence. The personal pro- noun, or subject, may or may not follow the verb. e.g. He cM6H{eTe-.iH bbi saeipa npnroToBHTB moh canorH ? Will you not be able to get my boots ready to-morrow ? CKopo-JH npiiov^eMT. Kb oepery ? Shall we soon reach shore ? There is another interrogative adverb, pasBt, which conveys an ironic sense. e.g. Paaei^ ByntHO htoSbi HacL no4CjiymBBajH ? Is it necessary they should overhear us ? § 85. Negative Sentences. Itussian has two particles of negation, ne and hh. A third one, HirL, is considered to be an abbreviation of lie ecTfc, and is used for " No " as a reply. UH is used: — (1) To express neither — nor — . e.g. Hii a HH MOH OTea^ ne motau cKpwTBTaKyH) ipcBory. Neither I nor my father could conceal such a trouble. HH UH alicays requires the verb negatived with He. Q 226 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. (2) In composition with negative pronouns [v. § 40 (1), § 41, VII. and § 82, V.]. Such pronouns, e.g. HHKaKoiij also need a verb negatived with He. (3) With the indefinite pronouns [v. § 82, III.]. He is used : — (1) To express the negation of a verb in all tenses and moods. e.g. He Tporaii mch/i, Kor^a a mtio. Do not touch me, when I am sewing. (2) With adjectives to negative their meaning. Notice in this connection that Eussian possesses no such distinction of negatives as English or Latin; e.g. between non-essential, unessential, illogical, non- logical, insensate, nonsensical (the distinction generally being that an adjective negatived with " un- '* or " in- " implies the absence of the positive qualities ; whereas the non-compound excludes the compatibility of that quality with some other object). Such a distinction must be otherwise expressed, e.g. Your statement is unreasonable. Tboc oStflCHeHie HcpasyMHO. Caterpillars are irrational, non-rational beings. ryceHHqbi — aio SespasvMHbia cymecTBa. HeonpeAijeHEbiff 3a4aqH indefinite, undefined tasks. BeanpBAtjbHbifl npocTpaHCTBa infinite — endless — horizons. Observe {a.?i stated in § 41, VII.) that in Eussian a double negative asseverates, and does not annul as in English. e.g. fl He BCTp'feHa.i'b HHKoro I met no one. NEGATIVE SENTENCES. 227 An apparent exception exists, when the negatives belong to separate verbs or as stated above. e.g. 9to 6buo BCTp-feHceo, naKi. Hiqio laKoe, hto aoaikuo ObLlO C^VMMTbCff, HTO HC MGFJO He CJVHUTfcCa. This was faced as something that must have come about, that could not not have come about (have failed of coming about). (3) He, in combination with certain pronouns, forms negative pronouns.* The pronouns are kto, 4to, Kor4a, Ky4a, etc. (i.e. those on the first line § 40 (2) ). In this usage ne stands for Hifeit there is not. e.g. Henero ^-fejait. There is nothing to do. (biU H He ^i-iaJt HHHcro. I was doing nothing.) Mui He KT, KOMV oopaTMTBca. I have no one to turn to. Emv He Ha HOMT. ocHOBbiBaTB ero Ha4e)K4w. He has nothing on which to build up hopes. TJie preposition is always itiserted between the negative and the pronoun, as with hhkto, etc. Observe, in the past or future tense the verb "to be " must be inserted. e.g. He Hero GvAeit (5buo) 4^jaTb. Lastly, the reader is cautioned to distinguish between this use of ne, as a separable negative, and ni the indefinite prefix ; e.g. h4kto somebody, HiKOTopbiii, etc. [v. § 40 (2).] * This use of He, formerly nt, is probably derived from ne e there is not ; e in older Slavonic being an unaccented form of ecTb. q2 228 KUSSIAN GllAMMAIl § 86. The Verb "to be." In the present tense the verb " to be " is generally omitted. In any case the forms ecML, cch, ccmw, cctc, jire obsolete, and cyib is only rarely found ; ecu,, when necessary, replacing all the persons and numbers. e.g. H SAopoB-L I am well. Tw Hero4/iM you are a scapegrace. Ohm Bopbi they are thieves. EapHHa n^Ti. ^oMa master is not at home. However, the " copula " in the present sometimes must be stated. (1) EcTL regularly stands for '' there is," " there are." e.g. EcTb !ia cB'Jirfc xy^bui .ik)4h. There are evil people in the world. The negative of ecib in this sense is nta.. [v. § 85.] (2) EcTb and cyib sometimes are used to assert existence. e.g. Bon. ecTb : aHrcjbi cyib. God is : the angels are. But it is better to use the verb cymecTBOBaib. e.g. Bcer4a cymecTByfon, H-fecKCibKO HciuHO'ieiiiii ^m BC»Karo npaBHja rpaMiuaTHKH. There are always some exceptions to every rule of grammar. TlIK VEKi: '' TO ]?K." 229 (3) In definitions. e.g. lIpaMaa .iniiia ecu. HpaTHauiijee paacTOUHie weHi^y .AhXWn TO'lKaMH. A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. liojisHH cvTb Hai;a3auie MejOBihy aa iiepBopo^Hbiii rplixi. Diseases are man's punishment for primeval sin. But, in all such cases it is better to substitute the pronoun 3to. e.g. JiiHia — 3T0.. . Bo.iijaeii — aio iiaKaaaHie . . . (4) When the use of the copula is essential to clarity obiTb is generally replaced by some exacter verb, such as cHAiTt, HaxoAiiTbca, .lemm, CToaib, cocToan.. e.g. MoH aIiah Haxo^iiTca bi. ii.ioxom l cocToaHiii 34op6Biff. My uncle is in poor health. MocKBa cTOHTt Ha p'feK'fe Toro jKe iiaaBanifl. ^loscow lies (is) on a river of the same name. Ilpara ctohtl Ha xojMii naAi. piKoio B.iTaBOK).* Prague is on a hill above the Moldau. KouiKa CHAHT'i. na CTy.rI>. The cat is on the chair. CoOaKa JCHiUTT. no4^ ctojomt.. The dog is under the table. CtV^T* CTOHT-L BT. AijTCKOH. The chair is in the nursery. Om. cocTOHTb o«i>HuepoM'B B^ apsiiii. He is an ofiicer on service. The omission in Russian of the present of 6biTL explains the form of the past tense. In older Russian the perfect ran n ecMi. (Ha)niica.n>, -a, -o, tm ecH (Ha)nHca.ii, -a, -o, etc.; later the copula vanished. Cf. in Polish pisalem, pisalam, pisalom ; pisales, pisalas^, pisalos, etc. ; pisalismy, pisalysmy, etc. * Or Mo.i.^aBow. 230 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. In every other tense and mood the verb olitl is used, but the predicate put into the dative or instru- mental, according to sense. e.g. Oht, (thwh 6aHKHpoMi, (present oht. 6aHKHpi.) a Tcnepb oht. ToproBeui. ce^e^KaMH. He was a banker and is now sellins: herrin^^s. HamecTBie Taiapi, 6buo HecHacTtCMT, 4ja PycH. The incursion of the Tatars was a misfortune to Eussia. Kor^a 6i.iBaeTe (6y4eTe) ^oMa? When are you at home as a rule ? When will you be at home ? It should, however, be observed that in the present the word bott> is used like the French void, voild, or the Italian ecco. e.g. BoTL Bairn, opan, KOTopwH onosAajix. There is your brother who was late. § 87. The Verb " to have." In Eussian there is no verb which can be exactly translated " to have." The verb "to have" is replaced by y mchh ecTr>, obUT., etc. e.g. y Mena [ecifc] (6buo or Cbua) xpH rpaMwaiMKH pyecKaro asbiKa. I have (had) three grammars of the Eussian language. SPECIAL USES OF THE INFINITIVE. 231 HMtif. " to possess " or "own" is also used in this sense. e.g. Ct K^Ml HM-felO HCCTb rOBOpMTb .^ With whom have I the honour of speaking ? Otherwise, HniTb means "to own"; of. UMymecxBO property. e.g. y MCHfl eCTB COOCTBeHHblH AOM'b. I have a house of my own. Bid IlMiw coocTBeHHbiii aomt.. I have (i.e. own as my property) a house belonging to me. § 88. Special Uses of the Infinitive. The infinitive has a special idiomatic use as a sort of general fatalistic future; the construction is impersonal, the logical subject and the predicate both being put in the dative. e.g. HM-b He 3a6biTb cbohxt, A'tieH. They shall not forget their children. Tekhm'l 66pa30M'b HHKOMy He 6biT^ 5oraTy. In this fashion no one gets rich. [v. § 34 (I).] Hy, xopomo hto tw kg mh^ saman. ; a to ne 6bIBaTb Te6i yKHBOMV. It is well for you you came to me ; otherwise you w^ould not be alive. Observe the dative adjective may be in the simple or attributive form; the instrumental is also allowable; thus in the instance above, laKiiM^ oopaaoMi . . . 6oraTbiMi. The infinitive may be used as a noun, as in English. e.g. To fly on an aeroplane is a great pleasure. JeiiiTb Ha aapoojaHt — arc 6o.ibm6ey40B6jbCTBie.* ♦ Observe aviator is jeiMHKi. 232 I^USSIAN GRAMMAK. But the verbal noun in -aie is generally substituted in the nominative, and always in the oblique cases. e.g. To suffer is our truest experience. CipaAaHie — Haiue caMoe I'lCTHHuoe HcnbiiaHie. By trying you will succeed. CTapaHicMT. leoi y4acTca. § 89. The Use of Gerundives and PAiiTiciPLEs. I. The Gerundives. The two gerundives, present and past, can only refer to the subject* of the sentence, and are used as indeclinable participles. e.g. BpoAfl no yjnui, » BCTpiinji. HBaoa Akob- jeBHHa. Whilst wandering along the street I met Ivan Yakovlevic. .^Hiaa Afley KapeHHHy, a njanaja. On reading Anne Karenina, I cried. 3anjaTHBT> cboh acitm, a noHyBCTBOBa.ia ceGa CB0664HOK). Having paid my debts I felt free. II. The participles, present and past. These are used in agreement with a noun. e.g. Bi KOMHaii 6buo thxo, xojbKO me.iecTi.iii nepeBopa4HBaeMBia jhctf.'i. It was quiet in the room, only the leaves (of the book) rustled as they were turned over (present participle passive). * The historical explanation of this rule is that the " gerundives " are the shorter (predicative) form of the nom. sing, masculine of the active participles. USE OF TAETICIPLES. 2:'3 llepe^'b ero pacmnpeHHbiMH naaaMii npoxo4H.«H CTpaiuiibie 66pa3bi, BLiSLiBaBUiie HiajocTb . . . Before his open eyes terrifying images passed, provohiiuj pity . . . B'b TeMUVK) H04b OH II ^cxtin KV4a-T0 ua CBonxb KOJlbsHXl Kpbijbaxi.. In the dark of night they flew somewhere on their sharp-pointed wings. Bee 3T0 obuo npoaB.ieiiia o^hoh .lara^OMHOu CHJibi, fficjaioinew noryoHib MCiOBtKa. All of these were aspects of some one mysterious power that wants to ruin man- kind. H BiM'ki'b ee cn4ameu aa cTyj-fe. I saw her sitting in a chair. Ohi. 00x046.11. Ha HcioB-iiKa lepaiomaro nocife^- HiOK) Ha^ejK^y h ocTaBHBiuaio Bce bi. nponi- .lOM'b. He resembled a man who was losing his last hope, and had left everything behind in the past. Ka/K4biH ro4T. pyecKatt iKejtsoAlKiaTejbuaa npoMb'im.!eHHOCTb yMCUbuiaerb KOJirieciBO BBOSlIMblX'b H3T» FepMaHiH TOBapOBT*. Every year the Eussian iron industry diminishes the quantity of goods imported from Germany. It should also be observed that the present participle passive, especially when compounded with He, has a secondary meaning, corresponding to the Latin -hilis. 234 KUSSIAN GE.AMMAK. ag. BH4HMbiM visible, ABHJKMMbiM iiioveable crapacMbiH incendiable, HejiiooHMbiH unlovable Abstracts from these are formed in -ocib, etc. HeoTT>eMjeMOCTb imprescriptibility HeoTMiH«eMOCTb irrevocability The past participle passive may also bear this same secondary meaning, e.g. uecpaBHeHHbiM incomparable. As a general rule these gerundives and participles are used much like the English forms in '' -ing." § 90. Subordinate Clauses. I. Temiwral. There being no moods in the Eussian verb, temporal conjunctions merely govern the same forms as are used in principal clauses. There are some few independent forms, such as Kor4a when, noKa until ; most of the conjunctions are compounds with hto ; cf. in French quand, but qnoique, hienque, lorsque, etc., all formed with qite. Kor^a means ** when " generally ; noKa is followed by '' He," as in French. e.g. IIoKa HoBnKOBT) He yfeajaji. h3t. MocKBbi, Until Novikov left Moscow, "jusqu'a ce que Novikov ne quittat Moscou." But temporal conjunctions are mostly formed with the appropriate preposition governing a case of toti, to. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 235 followed by Kaia or hto ; e.g. MCWAy T-fewT* KaKt while, Bl. TOMT, HTO CXaCtlj whsil, DO TOMl HTO, noCjt TOFO KaKl. after, 40 loro Kao. until, oti Toro hto after which . . . II. Causal conjunctions, etc. These are all formed prepositionally ; e.g. noTOwy HTO because, 4.1a tofo Hioobi with the object of, KpoMt Toro MTO besides which, nocit Toro KaKT> after (causal), npoTHBT. Toro, HTO agaiust the fact that . . ., etc., very much like the German "wogegen," "indem," " nachdem," etc. III. Conditional clauses. The clause prefaced by " if " is called the protasis, the principal sentence is called the apodosis. The regular method is to prefix the protasis with ecJH, in common parlance k6.ih. When the past tensesare used, the particle oli* may be added to the protasis, and must be added to the apodosis. 6h is enclitic and can be abbreviated to 61., The apodosis is also frequently prefaced by the particle to^ which stands first in the sentence, like the German " wenn . . . " " so." This to, like so, is left un- translated in English. * Bbi in modern Russian is a particle creating the sense of a conditional tense (** I would have," " should be," etc.). It is originally the 2nd and 3rd person sing, preterite of fiuib (formerly fl Obixi., Tw, OHb ubi). In Old Russian the compound tense Obixi ObUb was a regular conditional like fatirais Ui, feussc Hi. 236 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. The tense sequence is as in English. e.g. EcjH Baci. nocimv, to npHBe4y moio cecipy. If I visit you, I will bring my sister. EciH-oT, cjy4u.iaci. laKaa Gfe^a, to a yui^AOMiLri.- 6W BaCT. OOT. 3T0MT.. If such a misfortune happened to me, I would acquaint you of it. When the events stated in protasis and apodosis are both unreal, obi is repeated in both. e.g. Ec.ih-6t> a npocTVAHJca, a iie won. obi okohhhtb CBOK) KHiiry. If I had caught cold, I should not have been able to finish my book. The infinitive may be used in eitlier clause as stated in § 88. e.g. EciH Obl MUi 3BaTL. If I had known. EcJH H4TH HanpaBO. If we are to go to the right, .... The protasis may be irregularly introduced : — (1) By two disjointed verbs. e.g. Pa36oraTiK),3anjaHy; ne paaoorar'feK), ne 3an.ia4y. If I grow rich, I will pay ; if I don't, I shan't. (2) By the imperative uninflected for any person \y. § 91]. e.g. 3HaH a 3to paHi.iiie, a ow ne Hanncaii,. Had I known this sooner, I would not have written. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 237 (3) By the infinitive [cf. § 88]. e.g. 3HaTi. 6bi mh^ 3T0 paHbme, k 6b\ hc ocMi.iHjica rOBOpilTL. Had I known tliis sooner, I would not have dared speak. In all these cases 6bi marks unreality/, an unfidfdlcd condition. Cf. § 93 on 6bi.io. IV. Final clauses. Final clauses relate either to purpose or effect. (1) Purpose. Where the subjects of the principal and the sub- ordinate clause are the same, nioow (souietinies .^aohi) is used witli the infinitive. e.g. }[ nvTeuiecTBOBa.ib no Pocciii 4f66bi y'li'iTbcii pyCCKOMV flSblKV. I travelled about in Kussia to learn Eussian. [v. § 69, v.] Where the subjects are different, HTOobi (or 4a6bi) generally with the past tense. e.g. fl yi4y hst. Mockbm 4t66li ibi ocTajacb 04Ha. I will leave Moscow that you may be left alone. (2) Effect — " so that," laKi. mto, with the present, past or future, e.g. Opeji jcrtji laKT. 6biCTpo hto ne.ib3a GbLio nonacTb bi> Hero. The eagle flew so fast that there was no chance of hitting him. ()Ha laKT* pa34paJKHTejbHa, hto a ue BbMcpjKv. She is so irritable that I shall not stand it. 238 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. V. Reported Speech. In English reported speech goes into the tense of the principal verb, with the necessary change of person, e.g. " He said that he was going to visit his cousin if time permitted." The remark in direct narration would be "I am going to visit my cousin, if time permits." The same rule does not altogether apply to Eussian. Eussian has only one past tense, so that there is no difference corresponding to " I have seen," " I said I had seen." Further, there is no reported future tense, " was going to visit," " would visit." Consequently the above sentence in Eussian would run: "Ohx CKaaaj'L HTO nocfeiMTT, cBoero 4BOK)po4Haro Gpaia eciH y iiero Oy^CTT, BpeMfl " (present tense in reported speecli). Or again, " He said he had seen the Tsar," His remark was "I have seen the Tsar"; however, in Eussian, " I saw," " have seen," and " had seen " are all alike, yBMA't^t. Consequently the Eussian would be: " Oht. CKasa^iT. mto BiiA'kn. I^apa." Lastly, in reporting the present tense, Eussian, like English, sometimes may change to the past. e.g. He said he was writing a letter to his mother (I am writing ....). Oht. CKasaJT. hto nucajn. nHCbMo kt> Maiepn, or letter qio nMUien,. Consequently, in reporting an action with a verb in the past, Eussian does not, because it cannot, change the tense. In reporting a speech with a future tense Eussian must use the future, as it has no indirect form of expressing the future. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 239 In reporting a speech with a verb in the present, Kussian can retain the present, changing the person, or may use the past tense. In reporting an imperative, the imperative must be treated like a future. e.g. They said they would murder Cuesar (i.e. Let us murder Caesar). Ohm cKaaajH »ito yCbiOTi IJeaapa (cKasajH, 4*1 y6be\n> or yGbeMie l(e3apa). In reporting a question, the same changes of person and tense must be used, but the particle jh is affixed to the first word of the subordinate clause, unless some other interrogative word be there instead, [v. § 84.] e.g. He asked Peter would his (Peter's) sister be going out as a nurse. He asked Peter when his sister had lost her money. He asked Peter whether his sister was ailing. In direct speech — Will your sister be going out as a nurse ? When did your sister lose her money ? Is your sister ailing ? In Eussian — Owh cnpociiJT. Ileipa, noH4eTb-jH ero cecipa Bl HflHbKH. [v. § 69, III.] Oht. cnpocHJ'b lleipa, KorAa ero cecTpa noTep«ja ea 4eHbrH. OhT) cnpocuji HcTpa, hc 6o.!bHa-jH ero cecipa. In all these cases the only change is in the person, noue in the. tense. 240 RUSSIAN GEAMMAR. Similarly — He said " could one believe a German." Oh'i* cKaaajT., " paaei m6h{ho B'ipHTt HtMuy." These are the usual methods of reporting speech in llussian. A few idiomatic usages must still be discussed. Three particles, ^e, mojcl and ^ecnan. (or 4HCKaTb), and in vulgar Russian, rpio, rpmub, rpHTi., rpH.in (abbreviations of roBopib), are used like the vulgar English, '' 'e sez," to indicate a reported speech ; ^e, mojt>, ^HCKait are all three abbreviations of words bearing the same meaning, " he said" ; * and are all popular in style. These particles are used in reporting messages (where in Latin and Greek the accusative and infinitive would be employed). e.g. Out, roBopMit: a MO.n. HCKa.i'i>, 4a snaTi. Mo.rb Htiy. He says, " I looked, but could not find out." OoT. HTajL/iiicKOM apMln 0T3biBajcji CT, ripe3pi'i- TCibHOu y.ibi5K0ii, Karn, BejHMHHli 4aihe cepbeaiiaro BHHMaaia ue aaciyjKHBawiueii ; Mbi-4e ee xopomo soaeMi.. [v. § 4 (7).] He disparaged the Italian army with a con- temptuous smile, as though speaking of a power not deserving serious attention ; " we know all about it." Bbi 4yMa.iH sanyraTB mcuh, BacHjiii HBaaoBHHb; Boi'b ^eciiaib, a ero nyruy. You thought you would frighten me, Vasili Ivanovic ; you thought, " I will frighten him." * These examples are partly taken from Boyer's Manuel de la langue russe. THE IMPKliATlVE. 241 In every case where these particles are used, the quotation or indirect narration is in the person and tense of the original; these words merely serve as spoken inverted commas. § 91. The Imperative. The imperative conjugated in full comprises the following forms : — e.g. Aa Hrpaw nycTb Hrpaio let me play Hrpaii play 4a HrpacTT, nycib Hrpaeri. let him play 4a HrpaeMT. nycib nrpaeMt, HrpacMie let us play HppaHTe play 4a Hrpaion. nycTb HrpaiOTi let them play The forms with 4a express desire; those with nycib perndssion. The original imperative has only two forms, iirpaii, iirpaHTe, and in Old Eussian iirpau was the correct form of hoth the 2nd and the 3rd person singular. The form in h, ii, ii, h (e.g. coxhh, 4epH;H, 4kiafi, ca4b) is used for all numbers and persons in phrases which have no imperative meaning. (1) Adverbially. e.g. norhajyucTa please (cia suffix) no/Kajyn* I consent, so be it nau* (naaib expect) so be it iiycTb or nycKafi so be it KaajHCb apparently r.ifl4ii apparently HcGocb (for HCOOHCb do not fear) apparently no4M (for nou4H from 110U4TH) apparently no4TH almost * Probably these are abbreviated forms of noaidjyio, m4io. R 24:2 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. 4aH with the perfect future " if I only could/' e.g. BoTT. 4au vHccy MimoK^ orypuoBt, npo^aMi.. If I can carry off this sack of cucumbers, I will sell it. 4aBaH with the infinitive. e.g. 4aBaH HrpaiB. Let us play. The answer may be ^aBaii ! Let us ! = Yes, please ; willingly. - (2) As a preterite.* The form is invariable, and expresses a sudden action. e.g. 0TKy4a hw B03F>MHCb from out of the clouds. (Literally, from wherever it came.) Ct. ropa 4a ct tockm ... a bosbmh 4a ace eii paacKaajH. What with pity and grief I told her every- thing. ^Ier6-iKT> 6bi a wu j^oM'h hc SHajt? KajKHCL, Bce 3HaK). What do I not know of at home ? I think I know everything. nocTaBnja Ha ctojt. Hani/iTKH h saKycKH pasHbie, H noyipy paHexoHLKO 6y4HT'L h 4aBaH pac- npauiHBaTt. She set various foods and drinks on the table ; wakes up in the morning, and began asking [literally " and let me ask ! "]. So, too, rja4B he looked up, — lo ! xBaib he seized ; 4epHH, e.g. 4epHH Mcea the idea occurred to me; yropa34H, e.g. yropa34H MCHa the idea occurred to me. * This usage is in accord with the older grammar, which had a 3rd person singular preterite in this form. FURTHER ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE ASPECTS. 243 (3) As a conditional, v. § 90, III. (2). (4) One past tense, nome.n,, is used as an imperative, equivalent to " get out." The explanation is that the older language had the full form Gy^b nomeii (6y4i> imperative of oLiib). e.g. lloniJH BOHi, 4ypaHKM ! Out you go, you fools ! § 92. Further Illustrations of the Aspects. Eussian has two future forms, perfective and imperfective. e.g. Bt, 6y4ymeMT. ro4y 6y4y aaHHMaTbca xHMien. Next year I shall study chemistry. 3aBTpa saHMycb MysbiKOH. To-morrow I shall be busy with my music. Remember 6yay ^^^ ciaHy can never he used with a 'perfective infinitive. The perfective implies definition of object, and completion of purpose; the imperfective the duration or method of the process. Instances : — A^iowh OHi x046.11 BT. najbTo (imperfective). In the summer he walked about in an overcoat. (French "paletot"; indeclinable in Eussian.) OhT. Hep'fe4K0 XaJKHBaJl bt, OmOBCKiH 40M'b. He often went to his father's house. (The iterative, expressing discontinuous frequent action.) r2 244 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. ToTT,, KOTopwii iipoxajKHBaeicfl oko^o aioro AOMa OTT, 4ecaTM nacoBT. ao nojy^ufl HasbiBaeica HHKHTHHblMT.. The man who saunters round this house from 10 to 12 a.m. is called Nikitin. Oiii mej'L Bi. Mock By he was going to Moscow. Oht> noiiiejT> Ha B0K3a.n,. He went to the railway station (perfective and definitive). fl BHAajT. BH4bi Ha CBoeM^ Biny ! I have seen wonderful things in my life! (imperfective ; general). H yBn4ajT» Anny na Gamufe. I caught a sight of Anne on the tower (per- fective). H VBHA't.n. BT. rocTMUHHui^ o^Horo SHaKoMaro. I saw an acquaintance in the hotel. (I.e. I just saw him for an instant; perfective.) TaM^-iKC BHA^JT. MHOrO HHOCTpaHUeBT.. I also saw many foreigners there. (There is no definiteness in the action.) It has repeatedly been stated that the "aspects" are best understood as devices for supplementing the defective tense-system, there being in modern Eussian no inflections save for the present tense. The following table illustrates this adaptation of the " aspects." Very few verbs, if any, possess all the aspects ; few possess as many as meniaTb or BbiAnpaib. The iterative is in such cases expressed by the present form, and the perfective signifies both the aoristic and a completed action in the past. A few verbs have an "abstract" and "concrete" aspect; for these, v. §§ 59, T. (4) and 50, IE. and III. RUSSIAN VERB WITH FULL ASPECTS, 245 Scheme of a Eussian Verb with Full Aspects ARRANGED AS TeNSES AND MoODS. Present. To tear asunder. To whisper. Infinitive : BWAHpaib uieniaTb Verbal noun : BbiAiipanie menraaie Part, indecl. act. : Bbi4Hpaa mema Part. decl. active : Bbi^npaiomiii iiienqymiH Part, passive : Bbi^HpacMbiw luemeMbiH Indicative: Bbi4BpaK),-euib,-K)rb men'iy, uienHyn. Imperative : BbiAHpafi iiien^u Imperfect. Indicative : BbMupaii. meaiajii Part, indecl. act. : Bbi^iipaei, -aBinw iHeniaBT., -aBUiH Part. decl. active : BbMHpaBUliM menTaBUiiM Imperfect iterative. Indicative : Same as iiienTbiBa.ii Part, indecl. act. : Imperfect fflenTbiBaBx,-aBniH Part decl. active : throughout, menTbiBaBmiii 246 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. Perfect active. To tear asunder. To whisper. Infinitive : Bbupaib Verbal noun : BbupaHie* Same as Part, indeclin. : Bb'^paB-b, -aBiiiu Aorist Part, declinable; : Bbi4paBiuH throughout. Indicative : Bb'i4pa.n> Imperative : Bb'upn Perfect. Part, passive : CBbMpaHHbIM ) (BbiAHpaHHbiii 5 Aorist. luenTaHUbin Infinitive : BbUepHVTb menHyib Verbal noun : BbMcpHyiie* menHyiie* Part, indecl. : BbMepHVB^, -VBUIH uieneyBi, -yBUiH Part, declinable: : BbMepuyBiiiiH menHVBmiH Part, passive : BbMepHyTbiii menHyiMM Imperative : BbMCpHU lUeDHH Future. Continuous : 6y4y Bbi4HpaTb Gy^y menmib Iterative : „ „ 6y4y iiienTbiBaTb* Perfective : Bb'upy, -eiub, -yit Same as Aoristic. Aoristic : Bbi^epHy, -emb, -yn* luenny, -euib, -yn, Couditionals can be formed from any past tense by adding the particle obi. * Seldom used. auxiliary particles. 247 §^3. Auxiliary Particles. The Eussian verb has only one past tense, and one present. It has been explained how the aspects supplement the tense system, the imperfective supply- ing an imperfect tense [v. § 42 (2) (i) and (ii), § 59, § 90, III., and § 92] ; the perfective a past tense of completion, whether preterite perfect or pluperfect, and a determinate future ; the iterative a tense to express frequency of action ; and the abstract aspect the power as contrasted with the act. Further, the particle 6bi partially replaces the subjunctive mood. There are other particles and auxiliaries used, e.g. iiycTF., 4a, 4aM, Aaeaii [v. § 91], principally with the imperative ; and the use of some others, e.g. AaBHo, Cbuo, GbiBajo, CTaHV, 5y4y, 6y4TO, TOJhKO, hto, is important. (1) 4aBH6 (4aBHLifi in the past) or \me (already) is used to express the pluperfect. e.g. Oht, 4aBe6 HCKa.i'L 464Ky. He had long been searching for his daughter (imperfective). Tbi \me npHroT6BH.i'b 06441,. You had prepared dinner (perfective). (2) 6y4y, as has been seen [§ 92], expresses the imperfective future [also v. § 58]. (3) CTauy also expresses the imperfective future, but has a remoter meaning, like the English " I am going to ..." or the French " je vais ..." e.g. CiaHy coSHpaTb moh Bemn Bb 4eM04aH'b. I am going to pack my things in the portmanteau. 248 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR. (4) 6y4TO or Kaia 67410 means *' as though." e.g. Oin, BCTa.ni kbkt, 6y4TO htoow yxo4HTt. He got up as though he were going out. Oht. yJbiSey.ica KaKT> 6y4TO eio Span. nomyTii.n.. He smiled as though his brother had made a joke (5) TOJfcKO HTO means "just." e.g. Oin. T6.jbH0 mto iioxopoiiiUL cuoeio orua naKL iiOMepia H Man.. He had just buried his father, when liis mother died. (G) CbiBa.io with the past tense adds a meaning of 'he used to do/' of a continuous practice. e.g. fl 6LiBa.io nocfema.!!, aiy ceMLio. I used to visit this family. (7) XOTH (or xotl) is used for " tliough "; in com- bination with 6bi and a past tense, 61. when the sense imports unreality. e.g. XoTii Tbi ClbUT, xy4eHbKiM, Ha40 6bi.io nocTapaTbca. Though you were ill, you should have tried. XoTM a 6y4y bi> MocKBi;, no wni HC.ibsa 6y4eT'b noBH4aTb BaiiiHXT. po4UTe.ieH. Though I shall be at Moscow, I shall not be able to see your parents. XoTa-6T» a dhWh caMbhM^ CHJbuliMiiiMMb Ha CBi^TlJ, 6'fe4Hbix^ a-6T. HC yrHCTajL. Even if I were the most powerful man on earth, I would not oppress the poor. THE IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTION. 249 (8) 01)110 with the imperfective or perfective past signifies that the action contemplated, in the clause into wliich 6buo is inserted, was never completed : as some- thing — in the following sentence — intervened. e.g. H A^AM-h^buo npHroTOB.!eHiff MToobi npnnacHTi. BacT> Kb ceoi bt. rocin, Koaa Menii Bbi3Ba.iH H3T. JiOHAOHa. I was getting ready to ask you to a party, but was summoned away from London. H 40MHTajT. Baiue ccmueHie h yjoiiiiui, Cbi.io 4.IH iiombi, KOFAa HcnpiHreiM cojKrjM Moii 40Mb. I had finished reading your composition, and had packed it up to post, but the enemy burned my house. (9) The future perfect (I shall have . . .) cannot be expressed in Eussian by any one corresponding tense. e.g. Kor4a a 6y4y Bncmi y40BieTBopeHT,, weHs'i vase lie 6y4eT'L y jKHBbix^. When I shall have been satisfied completely, I shall no longer be alive. fl nooiry 40m6m h 6y4y Ha3a4'b, npeH«4e h^mt. Tbi BCTaeeiiib. I shall have run home and back, before you even get up. § 94. The Impersonal Construction. I. Many verbs are in themselves impersonal ; e.g. KaHiCTca it seems, obaabiBacTca it transpires.* * Kaaaxbca to seem, OKasdib to render, cKaaaii. tell, npRKaaaib order, pascKasaib narrate, yKasarb indicate, iioKaaaih show, otku-uItl dismiss, refuse ; all of them perfective, the imperfcctives being OKa.jbiBaTb, etc 250 RUSSIAN GEAMMAR. Sucli verbs are used only in the 3rd person singular, as in Latin or Greek without any pronoun. II. There is no one word for generality like " one," "man/' "on"-, either the 2nd person singular, or the 3rd person plural is used. e.g. FoBopaTi one says. Mtitft G6.i'6e CTapaeuihCfl,!^*!!. GojBe oinH6aembca. The more one tries, the more mistakes one makes. III. Eussian has a predilection for impersonal con- struction in the passive with ca [v. § 60], the agent or subject being put into the dative. e.g. XOHV I wish, or mh^ xoHCTca ; BWAi^Tt I saw, MHife BM4'kiocb; cnaii. to sleep. Met cna.iocb xopouiu I slept soundly; AyMaw I think, mhIj AywaeTca I think; jkhtb to live, bt» AHrjJM CB0664HO no}KHBaeTca life is free in England. As a rule the reflexive passive construction imports a remoteness or generality to the sentence, whereas the active records a precise and determinate fact. § 95. Apocopated Forms of some Verbs. A few verbs signifying a brusque action or noise have an invariable form for the past tense.* E.g. the interjections axi. ! ox^ ! yxi. ! ax^ ! are sometimes used like parts of a verb, meaning " to cry out " axt, 3X1., etc. * In many cases very similar to the apocopated past of imper- fectives in -iiyiL [v. §50, II.J, and the imperative preterites [v. §91j. THE REFLEXIVE VERBS. 251 So, too, the past of inchoatives in -HVTh; e.g. iipbirb jumped, cTVKi, knocked, and similarly oyxb bump. e.g. Bv XI — n6n.iLUH bt. BOAaxx ovSokhxt.. Plump — they swam in the deep waters. OhH nO^OlIlJU la ^OMV H CTVKT, BX OKHO. They approached the house and rat- ta- tap-tap on the window. Auci nycTM.iacL ki .licy h wpKL bl Hopy. The fox started for the wood, and dashed into a hole. § 96. The Keflexive Verbs. Under this head a few special phrases may be discussed. It has already been stated [§ 60] what the distinction is between passives and reflexives. e.g. Btoh bohhoh paapyiuiuHCb Bcixo4aHia .imepa- lypHbifl npcAcraBjeHifl. In this war all the current literary notions were destroyed. yHHHTOHiaju caMiixi ce5H 66a nponiBHHKa (or vHH'iTOiKH.iH, pcrfectivc). Both combatants annihilated themselves. Where an action is done for someone at his orders French uses the exact phrase " faire . . . " ; English leaves it to be understood ; the Eussian usage will be illustrated by the example. e.g. The workmen built a house. L'ouvrier batit une maison. PaooHifi nocTpoHJT. aowl. Bitt I have built a country-house. Je me suis fait batir une maison de campagne. II nocTpoHJi. ceoti yca4b6y. 252 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. /KcHa oovjacb. The woman has put her shoes on. EUe s'est chaussee, or elle s'est fait chausser. H no5peK)CB. I will shave [myself] or be shaved. H 6peK)cb caMT.. I shave myself. I Many verbs are reflexive in Eussian, where they would not be so in English. In the first place the reflexive indicates that tlie object is identical with the subject. e.g. MbiTLCfl to wash (oneself), o6yBaTbCfl to put on shoes, etc., 04'feBaTtca to dress (oneself), etc. In the second place [v. § 60] it indicates the passive (as in French). e.g. CBHp'linocTH npoAOJJKaiOTCfl. Les barbaries se continuent (are being continued). fl .SHiiiHJca MaiepH. I have lost my father. OhI. .IHlllHJCfl ;KM3HM. He has died. Oht. .luim'u'L ce6H jkmshh. He has committed suicide. In the third place many verbs are naturally reflexive or deponent. e.g. rop4HTi>cn n^wh to boast oojiTtca 'icro to fear nUSSTAN EELATI0N8ITIPS. 253 Fourthly, many verbs with the reflexive import what was in Greek the middle voice, i.e. an action directed to the purpose of or aflecting tiie subject of the verb, though the object governed be not the subject of the sentence. e.g. Oht, CTyHi'iTT. b^ 4BepL. He is knocking at the door. Oiri, cTYHUTca btj ABcpr,. He is knocking at the door (with some expectation concerning himself). B6.iocbi ciapua (or y ciapaa) 61oA'l\OTh. An old man's hair goes white. CaiiKHbia BepiUHHbi rop^ oi-itiOTCH n-h oi^a-ieuiH. The snow-peaks of tlie mountain are whitening in the distance. CiyuiaiL to hear. dyuiaxLca obey. MyxH KycaWTT.. Flies sting [bite]. Mott KoniKa Kycaerca. My cat bites (as her habit). npH3HaBaTb to acknowledge. lIpHSBaBaTbca to admit, confess. H npH3ea.n» ero npaBbiMij. I acknowledged him to be right. fl i]pn3Hajca, HTO a He QbWh coBctM-b GeaBiiHiibiMX. I confessed I was not altogether guiltless. § 97. EussiAN Eelationships. In the matter of words descriptive of relationships, Itiissian has an extraordinary abundance of special words. 254 KUSSIAN GRAMMAR Kinship is po^cTBO. Degrees of relationship cieneHH po^cTBa : — General terms 65mla HaseaHifl. npe40K'L npe^KH ancestors noTOMKH descendants po^cTBeHHHirb kinsman pOACTBCHHUaa po4T. (p64a) ceMwi (*aMHjifl) Special designations ocoobia HasBaHJa : — Lineal descent noKO^ieie HHcxo4Hinee. kinswoman family (genealogically) a family CblHl. 404b 44th son daughter children !noKOJt>Hm no npsMoft jhhIh generations in the direct line grandson granddaughter grandchildren [v. § 26 (5)] great grandson BHyK'b BBy4Ka BHYHaia npaBByKT>, etc. Lineal ascent noKOjiaie Bocxo4amee OTem* Maib p04HTe.IH GaoyiiiKa (oaoKa) npa4i4i. npa6a6yiiiKa npanpa4'1^4'b, etc. npamypi* father mother pareftts grandfather grandmother great grandfather great grandmother great great grandfather great great great grandfather EdiiouiKa in familiar speech. BUSSIAN RELATIONSHIPS. 255 Collateral relations 00604 hoc po^CTBO. 6paTT>* cecxpa AW leia, lerKa tcipHH tcipwH tyw tyHKa tyeux, yHHHHi, -e^Ka tCTpbIHHH»I^, -eHKa njeM«HHHKT>, -Hua 6paTaHH4T,4 -Hua cecTpH4T.,t -Hua 4BOH)p04HblH6paTl (cecipa) ipoibpo^HbiM Span. 4BOiopo4Hbiii njeMHH- HUH1> Similarly — TpompoAHaH Gaoyuii^a ipoibpOAHblH A'^At brother sister uncle aunt uncle, paternal aunt, paternal uncle, maternal aunt, maternal first cousin on father's side first cousin, maternal side nephew, niece nephew, niece, by brother nephew, niece, by sister first cousin § second cousin, and so on first cousin once removed in second generation downwards great aunt great uncle These words for relationship are, however, seldom used beyond the third generation ; in ordinary language a third cousin would be poACTBCHHHK'b bi 4eTBepT0MT> KO^iH-fe, a kinsman in the fourth generation. * Used colloquially to express friendly connection. t All of these are obsolete or nearly so. X Disused now. § I.e. a brother in the second generation. 2m TJlTSSIAN aKAMMAE. Eelatious by marriage po^CTBO no 6paKy (cbomctbo*). From the Jmshand's side. From the wife's side. Father-in-law TBCTb CBeKOpi. Mother-in-law lema CBCKpOBL Brother-in-law Sister-in-law uiypHin. or 3flTJ, ^enepF. [v. §24(2)] CBO/lMHHHUa, 07' SOJOBKa CBCCTb, or HeBtcrha Son-in-law 3aTB 3aTb Daughter-in-law ciioxa or HefiicTKa CHoxa or HeB'tcTKa Sister-in-law's husband CBOHKT. 30j6bkhhi. MyHti, Wife of brother-in -law HTpOBbf aipoBbt I.e. my sister's husband is aaib ; my brother's wife HCBliCTKa; but my wife's sister is CBCCib or cBo/i'ieiuiaa, and her husband CBoaii'b; my husband's sister aojoBKa. In English " broth er-in-lav/," " sister-in-law," leave all these relationships indeterminable. Other terms to be noted are : — oTHHM^ step-father Ma'iexa step-mother nacbiHOK^ step-son naA'iepHua step-daugliter CB64HbiM Cpaii step-brother CBOAHaa cecipa step-sister But ciioiicTBO property. t Obsolete. RUSSIAN KRLATTOXSHTPS. 25^ KpeCTHblH oTcnx KpecTeafl muti. KpecTHHin. ([{pecrHbiM ci.ih^) h'pecTHHua (KpecTHaa 404 b) HefiicTa bride JKeHHXi bridegroom jKeeaibiH married (of a man) saMyjKHfla married (of a woman) godfather godmother godson goddaughter opaKi CBa^boa weddinsf Note. — MViKT. jKCHHTca Ha iKCHy, hut vKCDa BbiH^en. saMVHJT* Ha Koro. Oht» Bbua-iT. AHHy saMvarb Ha Hjbio. He gave Anne in marriage to Ilya. Moa cecipa saMyjKeMi. My sister is married. 3aMyH;cTB0, aaMyjKecTBO marriage (of a woman). /KeHHTbSa marriage (of a man). EelatioDs of the half-blood are said to be e^HHOKpoB- HbiH ; e.g. MOii Spai^ eAUHOKpoBHbiii my half-brother, and are further distinguished as opan, no Maiepa, cecipa no OTuy, etc. 258 RUSSIAN GKAMMAR. 3 npe4K a —Ancestors. IIOTOVIKH— Descendants. 2 5- O H 5 o Wj- -as- -S|-S t& a-* 9 •^■ -it— li CO »0 CO K Eg- ^£ eo ea a"- ■at eo g, ^a 3 "5 ,as. II i=l o o ?f i ? rt |-! © rt M ^ 0) u fl fo Cfi o ".( fl §, trt- fl 3 nS Q) p^ t> o a B w S-T3 « > n ^ s 0) ,— . i .1 w- ^ fl tc G P3 r/3 O 3 o O u rO tl t f3 o ^ i^>^ kH r^r^ t(b H I TABLE OF AFFINITIES. 259 § s sa a: will be found prefixed to many. This indicates that in composition the previous sounds, vowels or consonants, must be modified, [v. § 5.] § 98. The Nouns. I. Foreign terminations in common use. These are few in number and easily learnt. -'qiff, in foreign words, = "-tion"; e.g. aKuia share, Haqifl nation, no3uuia position. Always accented as shown. -ep-b, i.e. the French " -aire '* in foreign words ; e.g. auqioHepi. The plural is in -bi. ETYMOLOGY. 261 -epi., i.e. the French " -eur " in foreign words ; e.g. aKTep^. The plural is in -bi. -H3MT. = English " -ism." This suffix is mostly accented. -ncTT. = English "-ist," used in foreign words; e.g. apTHcrt artist, -.loriff = English *' -logy " in foreign words ; e.g. H3ioj6ria physiology. Accented as shown. -Topii, -cop'L, in foreign words ; the I>atin " tor " ; e.g. aBTopi author, npo*eccopT. professor. The termination is unaccented ; the plural in a or bi. II. Disused or dead suffixes. -boa (dead). Nouns denoting action, mostly derived from nouns ; e.g. CBa^bGa wedding (cBarb), ApyJKoa friendship (4pyn»), cy4b6a judgment (cy4T.). These words are mostly paroxytone. -ua unaccented (dead). Nouns denoting action of verbs ; e.g. 6puTBa razor, K.iHTBa oath. These words are generally paroxytone, unless derived from verbs. -Ma (mchh) neuter (dead). Suffix of a number of nouns such as iims name, n.iaMff flame. Corre- sponds to Latin "-men," always dissyllabic and paroxytone. [v. § 21.] -y.Tb (dead). A termination found in a few Tatar words ; e.g. ccay.rb captain, Kapay.n. sentry. -b»i accented, masc. second declension (dead). Names of agents ; e.g. cy4b« judge. 262 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. III. Patronymics. -vm-h, in patronymics ; feminine -hmho. [v. § 83, I.] -OBHHT,, -CBUMi,, in pati'onymics ; feminine -OBHa, -CBua. [v. § 83, L] -OBT., -CBL, in patronymics; feminine -OBa, -eBa. [v. § 83, I] IV. Termination to denote the female. -a; e.g. pa6a (paoi) slave. -eBa; e.g. Kop6.iB king, KopojeBa. -Hua, forming feminines and nouns from verbs; e.g. BHcfejHua gallows, n.ieM}iflHHua niece. -ma (never accented), denotes the wife of an official ; e.g. ejt4i»erepma the wife of a state messenger, ^oKTopraa the doctor's wife. -biHfl, -HHfl, feminine formation; e.g. repoiiHa heroine, KHaPHHa countess, 6orMna goddess, cy^apbiHa, 6a p bin a mistress^ V. Abstract nouns. r3in. fem. (dead), forms abstracts; e.g. ooitaub illness. -H3Ha (dead), forms abstracts; e.g. 0T4H3Ha father- land, H0BH3ea novelty. -HHa, abstracts from adjectives ; e.g. riySHua depth, ro^AHa time. -hi Da, -Hiia, forms abstracts from adjectives; e.g. ropAbina pride. ETYMOLOGY. 263 -ie (unaccented), forms abstracts from adjectives ; e.g. Becejbe mirth. -ocTb, -ecTB (never accented), forms abstract nouns of the third declension from adjectives, and retains accent of the adjective, unless it is oxytone ; e.g. CKopocrb, CKopbiii quick ; 4B»;KHM0CTb, 4BH}KHMbiw movcablc ; HarocTb, naroii naked; cBtHjecTb, cB^HiiH freshness. -Ta forms abstract nouns from adjectives ; e.g. obicTpoTa speed, Kpacoia beauty. Almost always accented as shown. -uiH Ha (never accented), forms abstract nouns from nouns, descriptive of a state of affairs ; e.g. OojoMOBiunea Oblomovism (Oblomov, the hero of a novel by Goncarov) ; nyraneBmnHa, the state of rebellion induced by the rebel Pugacov ; TojcTOBmHHa, Tolstoyan life. -bCTBO forms abstracts from adjectives and nouns. One of the commonest terminations; e.g. .itKapcTBO medicine, TOBapHmecTBO society, BopoBCTBo thieving. YI. Verbal nouns. -HpoBKa forms nouns of action from verbs in -HpoBaib ; e.g. rpynnpoBKa the grouping, MapmapoBKa the marching. Always thu.*^ accented. -Hie (seldom accented), forming verbal nouns, [v. § 42 (2) (i).] Note, however, -Hbe (BpaHbe, 4paHbe). -Tie (very seldom accented), verbal noun. [v. §49, II.] 2G4 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. VII. The agent or implement. -EKi, -flK'b, an agent; e.g. 6aTpaKT> workman, BOJKaKL a leader. The accent is thrown forward in all the terminations. Always oxytone. [of. § 25, I.] -apt, -flpi', an agent, derives nouns from nouns ; e.g. CTOJap'b joiner, SoHapi. cooper. The plural is in -a. -apL, an agent; e.g. SHaxapt magician, noHaMapb sexton. -eu'L, agent or implement ; e.g. npiMMeuT> a receiver, BajeuTi a roller, 6opem, a wrestler. -HKT., an agent. The nominative is accented according to the noun from which the word is derived, when the word is oxytone the accent is thrown forward in the oblique cases; e.g. a.ixMMHKTi alchemist, paacKas'iiiKT. narrator, jiMmHKi coachman. -i;a (unaccented), an implement; e.g. buutobke a rifle, BosKa carrying. -HHKT>, an agent, derived from adjectives and nouns, V. -HKT,; e.g. aJTbiHHHKT> a miser, 6apbimHHKT> a jobber, BOSHHK'b a draught horse. Feminine -HHua. When -hkt. is accented it throws the accent forward on to all the terminations. -Te.ib, an agent, forms nouns from verbs ; e.g. y^HTejb teacher, nHcaiciB writer. The termination is never accented, the accentuation follows the infinitive. Sometimes the words have a secondary meaning, e.g. yi.a:{aTe.ib index. ETYMOLOGY. 265 -yuT, fern., -yHba (accented), depreciatory, agent from a verb ; e.g. SciiyHi., -yHLa chatterbox, OtryHi runaway. -MHirb, -mHKX, an agent; e.g. 6y«i»eTHHKT. a butler, HMmHKi. a coachman, eaitmHRi. a paper-hanger. VIII. Diminutives.* (1) Masculine nouns of first declension. -eiiT., -CKt, diminutive suffix for masculines ; e.g. KpyHioKt circle, Kpyn,. -a (never accented), forms diminutives of proper names ; e.g. IleTff (IleTpi), Koja (HuKOjiaH), CepeHja (Cepriii). -o'lCKi, -HMCKb, diminutive denoting affection for masculine nouns ; e.g. ^pyjKOHCK'b (4pyri.), Kpy/KO'icKi. (Kpyri.). -II 111 KG (masc. gen. -iiiiiKa, etc.), and -MiuKa, feminine (always thus accented), forms depreciatory diminutives from masculine nouns; e.g. 06.111 m KG (ce.i6), BopMOiKa (Bopi. thief, pick- pocket). (2) Neuter nouns of first declension. -BKo (seldom accented), forms diminutive of neuter nouns ; e.g. KpBLibao, lipbLie^KG ; hit 04k6. -bue, diminutive ; e.g. aepKa^bue mirror. * In Kussian the use of diminutives and augmentatives is very common, the subtleties of meaning are difficult of translation into English, and can only be gathered by practice. It is important for the student to recognise the forms. 266 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. -eHKO, -biniKO, -yuiKO (never accented), forms diminutives of affection from neuter nouns ; e.g. c6.jHbiinK0 (cdHue), rH'b34biiijKO. -b'liuKO, -MiuKO, neut., and -biiiiKa, -I'lmKa, feminine, (always accented), forms depreciatory diminu- tives from nouns ; e.g. ccihiiiko nasty little village, KopoTbiiuKa pigmy, 3eM.iHUiKa barren piece of ground, ropo4MinKo ugly little town. (3) Feminines (and masculines) of the second declension. -bKa (unaccented), diminutive of feminines ; e.g. HiCHKa little woman ; KHir/KKa little book. This same termination forms diminutives of proper names ; e.g. CaiUKa (AjcKcanApT*), CepeasKa (CeprtH). -CHbKa (never accented), forms diminutives of affection from the second declension ; e.g. 4yineebi;a (4yuia) little soul, darling. -MUa, -H4Ka, forms diminutives of affection from feminine nouns ; e.g. cecxpHua. -04 Ka, -eMKa (never accented), forms diminutives of affection from second declension ; e.g. CKaMecMKa little stool, KapiOMKa visiting card. -yuiKa, -wiiiKa (never accented), forms diminutives of affection from nouns of second declension ; e.g. MHTyiiiKa (waib) mother, GaiioiUKa (Gaifl) father. ETYMOLOGY. 267 -eBKa (always accented), forms depreciatory dimi- nutives; e.g. .loma^eHKa nasty little horse, KopoBeHKa nasty little cow. -yuia, -ibma, -yuiKa, -wniKa (always accented), forms diminutives of depreciation from nouns of the second declension ; e.g. Kaiioma from Kara Katy, AKCwiua (from AKCHHin). IX. Augmentatives. -lime (masc. and neuter), -nma (feminine), forms augmentatives from nouns ; e.g. AOMiime a big house (masc.) ; Aypiiiua a great fool (femi- nine) ; nciOTHume a big piece of cloth. In some nouns there is no augmentative sense; e.g. asujiime abode, KjaAoiime cemetery (generally accented on the first syllable), yHHJHUie a school. When -nme is not an augmentative it is, as a rule, unaccented. -HHO, -Hna, forms augmentatives from nouns, gene- rally depreciatory; e.g. 40MHHa a very big house. X. Miscellaneous. -aHHH^, -aHHHT>, mostly used to denote members of nations, religions, etc. [v. § 24 (5).] Accented either oxytone or paroxytone. -a4T>, forms descriptive nouns ; e.g. 6opo4a*ii a long beard, Sorarn. a rich man. -eiKT, (accented, disused), forms nouns from verbs; e.g. na4e>Ki, case (iia^aTi.), rpaoeHii, plunder (rpaoHTF.) ; in the oblique cases na^CJKa, etc. 268 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. -eHOKT>, plural -km, the young of animals; e.g. BO.iHeHOK'B, BOiHaia wolf; ra.iqeHOKi. jack- daw ; but meHOKT), meHHia puppy ; bo.ih6ki. woK's cub. [v. § 26 (5).] 'jio, from verbs; noun describes action of verb and follows accent of the past tense in .it.; e.g. Hanajo beginning, o^ioo blanket, Bifl.io winno wing-fan, Bajuo chisel. § 99. Adjectival Suffixes. -aBbiii (dead); e.g. .lyKaBtiif sly, BCJHHaBbiH stately. Accented on termination -aB. -BaTbiii, a termination mainly used with adjectives denoting substance, generally accented -BaiLiH ; e.g. ajanoBaTMii clumsy, BHHOBaTbiH guilty, BiiTicBaTbiH eloquent. -OBaibiM, -eeaTbiH, added to adjectives, often has the sense of "-ish"; e.g. cnHeBaibiii bluish, 6tj[0BaTbiH whitish. Always thus accented. -BUTbiH, descriptive adjective (from nouns) ; e.g. rpaeoBHTbiw faceted, ^apoBiiibiH talented. -HKiii, adjectival suffix; e.g. BduKiH big. -HCTbiH, from nouns, "resemblance"; e.g. aoJOTMCTbiH gold-coloured, rjHnHCTbiH clayey. -HHCCKiH forms adjectives mostly from words derived from Greek ; e.g. apHeMeTMHCcuiH arithmetical, ii paKiu'iec hi ii practical. Accented as shown. ETYMOLOGY. 269 -ifi (unaccented), forms possessive adjectives ; e.g. Bopoeiii a crow's, [v. § 35.] -jHBbiu forms adjectives from nouns ; e.g. cqacT.iHB'b happy, cTbi4.iuBbiH shamefast. -MbiH, present passive participle, equivalent to "-ble." [v. §89, IL] -0B-, -BB-, one of the commonest ways of forming adjectives of all sorts ; e.g. 6okob6h lateral, neipoBi of Peter, A.ieKcieBT, of Alexis, BepxoBoft upper, THcoBbiH of yew, BibKOBoii age-long. -okIh adjectival ending, -oki substantive ; e.g. uySoKiH deep, siiaioia an expert, apanoKi. pupil of eye. -OHbKiH, -CBbKiH, forms adjectives with diminutive meaning; e.g. MajeBbKiii very small, n.i6xoHbKiu unwell, TQXOHbKiH silent. -yqiH, -flHJH, former pres. part, act., now adjectival; e.g. Moryqia powerful, ropaqlM hot, sbioyniu vacillating, [v. § 44.] -HaibiB, forming descriptive adjectives ; e.g. KCiiflqaTbiH knotted, sySMaTbiii notched. Ac- centuation follows that of principal noun. -qHBT., forming adjectives; e.g. saAyMHHBbiH thought- ful, roB6pqHBbiH talkative. The termination is unaccented. -ineiH, adjectival from nouns ; e.g. 40ManiHiB domestic, BqepamfliB yesterday's, lenepemBiB of the present time. 270 RUSSIAN GRAMMAR. -lckIh, -lckoh, forms adjectives of all sorts. There is no shortened predicative form. The accentuation is that of the noun from which the adjective is derived. A few words accent -bcitoH ; e.g. MvaicKOH male, jioackom public, ropoACKOH civic. -BHbiH, -bHOH, one of the commonest ways of forming adjectives of all sorts ; e.g. ScibHOH ill, iocy4ap- CTBeHHbiii of the State, BajKHbiii important. -HHT), forms possessive adjectives in the second declension ; e.g. ah^mhi. the uncle's, [v. § 34 (2).] -iuiuifi, -aHiuiH, -ie, comparatives, [v. § 37.] -flHHbiH, -flHoi'i, adjectives of substance ; e.g. bo^hhoh watery, ^epcBJiHabiu wooden, MacjaHbiii buttery. § 100. Verbal Formations. -HpoBaib (third conjugation), used mainly in foreign words ; e.g. aTpo*HpoBaTb to atrophy. [v.§53(3).] -HTb (fourth conjugation), forms transitive verbs ; e.g. crapHTb to make old, 6'BcHTb to drive frantic, [v. § 59, V.] -nyib, verbs of second conjugation, [v. § 50.] -biBaib, -HBaib, iterative verbs, [v. § 59, I. (4).] -bib (third conjugation), inceptive verbs ; e.g. ajiit to grow red, KpacHiib to blush, [v. § 53 (2).] With roots ending in h, m, m, the termina- tion is -aib, V. § 5o, II. LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, DUKK STREET. STAMFORD STREET, S.E., AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. JJ G IG.7 ^Apr'SQCA .v^t>^^ 90ct'55BCl p STACKS ^ JUL 2 9 1958 L-100m-12,'46(A2012sl6)4120 260ct'58 PY RECO to 13Iiil'59MW RECD k-D 94 76 ^ U L. D__nKt . L f Llbh,-,riiLb <:DM31DM7ES 34'^4p.: m. THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARV >, V <