SCHOOL AND HOME EDUCATION MONOGRAPHS UC-NRLF ■' id WHIPPLE, EDITORS *B 303 Mb2 ^mber Two PORATION SCHOOLS !sl(lOMI,N<.itON", iLUNOtS ! I Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2008 witii funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation littp://www.arcliive.org/details/corporationscliooOObeatricli School and Home Education Monographs Edited by W. C. Bagley and Guy Montrose Whipple No. 2 CORPORATION SCHOOLS by ALBERT JAMES BEATTY, Ph. D. Bureau of Salesmanship Research, Carnegie Institute of Technology; Director of Education, The American Rolling Mill Co. Public School Publishing Company Bloomington, Illinois I g J 8 copybight 1918 by Public School Publishing Company CONTENTS. Preface. [ Introduction by W. C. Bagley. ^^ , Part One Chapter I. Introduction : the problem, the purpose, the plan, the limitations, the organization of material. II. Historical Sketch of Apprenticeship: the rise, the growth, and the decay of the gild appren- ticeship system. III. Public and Private Trade Schools and the Cor- poration School: the rise, the growth, the organization, and the present status of the factory apprenticeship school, the National Association of Corporation Schools. Typi- cal Schools. Part Two IV. The Efficiency of Corporation Schools as Tested / by the Business Concerns which Maintain Them: the five purposes for which the cor- poration school is maintained, conclusions. V. Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as to Instruction: The Teachers' Efficiency Score Card, the scoring of teachers, tabulation of results, conclusions. VI. Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as to Motivation of Work : the motives avail- able for different types of schools, the theory of motivation, conclusions. VII. Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as to Curricula and Courses of Study: the essential features of curricula, sample curric- ula, conclusions. VIII. Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as to Textbooks and Lesson Sheets: the essential features of a good textbook, text- books and loose leaf lesson sheets discussed, the faults of each, conclusions. Part Three IX. Summary of Conclusions, — The Cooperative School, a Solution of the Problem of Voca- i tional Education. LIST OF TABLES, ILLUSTRATIONS, and CURRICULA Table I. Summary of time spent and list of particular investigations. II. Corporation continuation schools. ^ III. Cooperative special training schools. Teachers' Efficiency Score Card. IV. Comparative scores made by five students. V. Scores of eighteen corporation school teachers. VI. Scores of twenty-one teachers in public secondary schools and technical schools. VII. Graphical representation of the data of Tables VI and VII. VIII. Cooperating companies and schools. Curricula A. Mechanics' short course, Packard Motor Car Company. B. Students' training course in stock room, Western Electric Company. C. Engineering for college graduates, Western Elec- tric Company. D. Bridge Engineers, American Bridge Company. E. Union School of Salesmanship, Boston. F. Electric Engineering, University of Illinois. G. Scientific, Crane Technical high school, Chicago. INTRODUCTION The corporation school has been an interesting and significant development of American industry and American education. It has come in response to a real need, — a need that was not adequately met by existing educational agencies. Its growth has been almost en- tirely independent of and apart from the existing machinery of public education, and for this reason its achievements are little known and still less appreciated among public-school workers. But to these workers and to other students of education the corporation school should be full of significance, not only because of the light that it throws upon the puzzling problems of voca- tional education, but also because of its unique contri- bution to general educational theory. The relation of the economic motive to efficient learning, the educational value of the ' ' project, ' ' the relative significance of * * apti- tude" and ''attitude," — these and other questions dis- cussed in Mr. Beatty's monograph lie very close to the fundamentals. Nor is the development of the corporation school without interest from the more broadly administrative point of view. Every form of organized educational endeavor must be a matter of concern for the state. From every point of view, the direction and control of educa- tional agencies by the public is to be preferred in a de- mocracy to private or corporate direction and control, — provided, of course, that educational efficiency reaches the same standard in the two cases. It is Mr. Beatty's contention that the cooperative and continuation schools could be made to reflect the principal virtues of the cor- poration schools and that the development of coopera- tive arrangements that will link the public schools with the industries and occupations constitutes the most prom- ising line of progress in the development of vocational education. Whether or not one agrees with this con- clusion, it is well that there is now available thife careful and comprehensive study of what the corporation school has accomplished. Mr. Beatty's investigations were made under the direction of the late Professor Charles Hughes Johnston, and such substantial contributions as this will be the tribute that would have pleased the teacher most could he have lived to see the fruition of his work. W. C. Bagley. New York City. January 15, 1918. PREFACE The problem of vocational education is one of the most insistent of social-economic questions, and while the importance of this problem has been growing in the public consciousness for the past two decades, it still awaits a satisfactory solution. The difficulty of the problem becomes apparent when we recall that its solution has been attempted at dif- ferent times by practically every important social, politi- cal and economic organization in the land. The family, the church, the gild, labor unions, manufacturers associa- tions, and chambers of commerce, the school, the municipality, and the state, have all proposed and tried plans for vocational training ; and while these organiza- tions have accomplished something for individual cases or larger groups, and have added their part to the cumu- lative experience out of which the solution of the prob-- lem must finally come, the ultimate solution is not yet in sight. Those who have offered solutions for the problem may, without great violence to the facts, be credited with praiseworthy motives, yet the history of the strug- gle for vocational and industrial education has not been without its conflicts between different and sometimes op- posing interests. There have been many misunderstand- ings, misinterpretations, jealousies and incriminations. One of the most persistent and most bitterly waged of these conflicts has been that between the employers of labor on the one hand and the employees on the other. Ever since man reached that stage in economic develop- ment when one man, either by brute force or by more diplomatic means, was able to subdue his fellow and com- mand his services, there has been in evidence the selfish and unscrupulous employer who has wrung from his workers the last drop of life blood, for the least wage which would make them profitable; while on the other hand, there has doubtless always been in evidence the time server and the shirk. Out of these conflicting interests which date back to a time so remote that the memory of man runneth not to the contrary, there has grown the modern conflict between capital and labor; and one of the most im- portant phases of this conflict long has been, and still is the question of vocational training. Capitalist and philanthropist have not always been em- bodied in the same individual, but even when they have been so united, and an honest effort has been made to provide adequate training for industrial workers, there has always been the fear on the part of the workers that this apparent and specious philanthropy was in reality only an effort to make the working class more subservient and more profitable to their employers. Whether this fear has been justified is not the prov- ince of this treatise, but its existence and its influence must be noted. Perhaps the best statement of the attitude of organized labor toward this question was made by President Samuel Gompers of the American Federation of Labor.i He says, ''A great part of my life has been devoted to combating wrong notions about the attitude or organized labor toward social and economic questions. . Organized labor does not oppose the develop- ment of industrial education in the public schools but is eager to cooperate in this reform. (The working man has too little time and can therefore take little interest in any other sort of education,) but it will continue to oppose the exploitation of labor, even when that ex- ploitation is done under the name of industrial education. ' ' Organized labor cannot favor any scheme of indus- trial education which is lop-sided — any scheme which would bring trained men into any trade without regard ^Eighth An. Conv. N. S. P. I. E. 9 to the demand for labor in that trade. Industrial edu- cation must maintain a fair and proper apportionment of the supply of labor power to the demand for labor power in every line of work. Otherwise the advantage will be neutralized. If, for example, the result of in- dustrial education is to produce in any community a greater number of trained machinists than is needed in that community, those machinists cannot derive any benefit from their training since they cannot obtain employment except at economic disadvantages. Under these conditions industrial education is a distinct injury to the journeymen who are subjected to keen competition artificially produced. ''Industrial education must meet the needs of the worker as well as the employer by maintaining an equili- brium of supply and demand of efficient artisans. ' ' How shall such an equilibrium be maintained ? The answer seems obvious. There is only one way to avoid this difficulty in spite of the very best intentions to benefit labor. The only way to avoid working an in- jury to labor under the name of industrial education is to find out what is the demand for labor in the com- munity. Industrial education should in every instance be based upon a survey of the industries of the com- munity. Upon such a basis the public schools may prop- erly provide for the particular industrial needs of the community, benefiting both the laborer and the com- munity. I can assure you that nowhere will working men oppose such an effort to make our schools more democratic in serving the real bread and butter needs of the community. ** Organized labor has been for years active in its effort to make the public schools do precisely that which some misinformed people even think labor opposes. In 1903 the American Federation of Labor at its annual convention appointed a committee on education, and the sort of education which was under consideration when this committee was appointed was industrial edu- cation. The members of the trade unions felt the need of industrial education, and this sort of education was not provided by the public schools. The trade unions whose members paid taxes to support the public schools were not getting the sort of education which would enable them to become skilled, efficient and better paid workingmen. They were getting, in so far as they got any thing at all, a sort of education which had for them very little value, and they therefore considered the possi- bility of a scheme of education which would be of value to them. ''Now when the public school comes forward with propositions to provide the sort of education needed by workingmen, they will welcome any such development. ''In 1904, and again in 1905 and 1906 the American Federation of Labor resolved that 'We do endorse any policy and any society, or association having for its ob- ject the raising of the standard of industrial education'. These committees resolved in favor of 'the best oppor- tunities for complete industrial and technical education '. In 1909 a resolution was adopted stating that 'since technical education is a public necessity it should not be a private but a public function, conducted by the public and supported by the public'. "Documentary proof that organized labor has for years been actively in favor of industrial education in the public schools is found through all the annual reports of the American Federation of Labor beginning with 1903 and extending to the present time. ' ' One of the organizations approved by the American Federation of Labor for its activity in fostering voca- tional education is the National Society for the Promo- tion of Industrial Education. This society organized in 1906 has taken a leading part in securing municipal, state and national legislation 11 for vocational education. Th^ work of the Society is founded upon the following principles : (1) The state should have the responsibility for the training and educational welfare of all children until they become at least sixteen years of age. (2) No child under sixteen years of age should be permitted to go to work unless he is at least fourteen years of age and has reached a minimum educational standard not less than that necessary to meet the test for entering the sixth grade of the regular schools or its equivalent. (3) All children between fourteen and sixteen years of age should be compelled either to attend school or to enter employment, and when not employed should be required to return to school. (4) Specialized forms of vocational education should be provided for children over fourteen years of age who desire or need such training. (5) Where state-wide action is not yet practicable, local communities should be authorized by law to decide either by a referendum to voters or by the action of a local board of control, whether children between fourteen and sixteen years of age, employed during the day, should be required to attend part-time classes for a period of not less than four hours a week out of their working time. (6) As fast as conditions permit, we should move in every state toward state-wide compulsory part-time education for those between fourteen and sixteen years of age, who are employed as wage-workers. The most important single result for vocational edu- cation which the Society has helped to attain is the passage by Congress in February 1917 of the Smith- Hughes Bill for Vocational Education. This law pro- vides for Federal aid to the states which decide to avail themselves of its provisions. This aid from the Federal 12 government is for three specific purposes : (A) Salaries for agricultural teachers, (B) Salaries for trade, in- dustrial and home-economics teachers, and (C) Train- ing of teachers of vocational subjects. It is provided that the Federal aid shall not be more than half of the amount spent in any state for these purposes, and that before any aid is available from the Federal government, the state must first raise, appropriate and spend for vocational education an amount equal to that it proposes to secure from the Federal fund. The effects of this Federal effort toward the goal of universal vocational training are not yet apparent. In the meantime, while this new organization is being put into operation, the present inadequate and cumbersome machinery for vocational training must still be kept in running order. One of these recognized means of vocational educa- tion is the Corporation School, the subject of this study. This type of school had its origin in the failure of the older means of apprenticeship to supply an adequate number of trained men to meet the demands of the grow- ing factory system, and in the failure of other and older educational institutions to assume the responsibility of supplying this training. The Corporation School is the answer of large business and industrial concerns to their own demand for industrial and vocational training. The corporation school lacks many of the advantages of older and better organized educational institutions, but it enjoys a certain perspective and a distinctive atti- tude on the part of its students which compensates in a large measure for its evident limitations. These ad- vantages, this perspective and this student attitude, make up an important part of this comparative study. A. J. Beatty. Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa. 13 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CORPORATION SCHOOLS AS TO THEIR ORGANIZATION ADMINISTRATION, AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION PART ONE Chapter I Introduction This volume is the outgrowth of the author 's partici- pation in the almost universal interest in vocational training which has developed in recent years amongst all classes of people. It describes a survey of a single type of organization for vocational education known as the corporation school. It is an investigation of the train- ing of apprentices and other employees as this training is at present conducted by those business concerns in the United States which undertake to prepare their new employees for efficient service and their old em- ployees for better service. The purposes of this volume are : first, to trace briefly the rise and the decline of the old trade-apprenticeship system; second; to describe briefly the rise, the growth, and the present status of factory apprenticeship schools ; third, to study the corporation sch o ols of the Unit ed States from the point of view of their efficiency ; fourth, to show hosL gorporation school direc tors and instructors may make a greater use of such psychological and peda- gogical principles as the experience of public secondary schools and technical schools has shown to be valuable; and fifth, t o discove r if poss ible in what mnnner rorp^^f^- tion schools on the one hand and public secondary schools 15 16 Study of Corporation Schools helpful in the solution of the problem of vocational edu- cation. With these purposes in mind, the author has, during the past two years, personally visited a large number of corporation schools in the Middle West, studied their organization, visited their classes, and observed their methods of instruction; and from a much wider field than it has been possible to survey personally, he has examined in detail their textbooks and lesson sheets, their curricula and courses of study. An adequate treatment of the corporation school movement requires first, a survey of the literature re- lating to such schools. This literature is not large, and consists mainly of magazine articles describing individ- ual schools, in reports of surveys of vocational education made by governmental or local authorities, and in the volumes of annual reports of such organizations as the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Edu- cation and the National Association of Corporation Schools. A second preliminary step in the preparation of this volume was to initiate a systematic gathering of in- formation both by personal visitation and by corres- pondence. Shortly after beginning to gather this in- formation, the author learned that the National Associa- tion of Corporation Schools,^ through one of its commit- tees, was undertaking to gather practically the same in- formation as that desired for this investigation, and an arrangement was made whereby the author assisted this committee in collecting, tabulating, and interpreting the data with the understanding that he might use for this volume any of the data collected. During the year 1916-17 the author has been a regularly appointed member of this committee and is still acting in that capacity. iRefs. 19, 27, 31, 33. (References are numbered serially In each chapter. ) Introduction 17 This appointment has been fortunate, for as a mem- ber of this committee, — the Committee on Special Train- ing Schools, — the author has had the cooperation and ad- vice of the other members of the committee who are recog- nized experts in this field. He has had access also to a vast quantity of the educational materials of these schools, and to much confidential information which he otherwise could not have obtained. He has also been the recipient of many favors at the hands of corporation officials and corporation school directors. Throughout this investigation, comparisons have con- stantly been made with public school organization, ad- ministration, and practice; and an attempt has been made to discuss these observations in such a manner as to enable administrators and instructors of both public and corporation schools to profit, not only by their own inadequacies but also by the points of superiority of the other type of school. This study has not been limited to the collection and evaluation of statistical data, nor have the conclusions reached been drawn wholly or largely from such data, though they are frequently reinforced by such statistical information as is available. Such a statistical study, if feasible, would be highly valuable, but the comparative recency of the corporation school movement, and the lack of a recognized system or uniformity in keeping the rec- ords of these schools make such a study impossible. This is not a discussion of the need of industrial train- ing. This need has already demanded and received a large place in the educational literature of the past three decades, 2 and numerous societies have been formed for the purpose of fostering industrial training.^ This is not a history of apprenticeship, though it has seemed necessary to preface it with a brief historical »Ref. 2, Chap. VII. Refs. 24, 28, 29. "Refs. 28, 30. 18 Study op Corporation Schools sketch of apprenticeship (Chapter II) as a background or point of departure. The history of apprentice- ship is a most tempting topic, but that history has been written in a number of extensive studies,* and the real purpose of this study precludes more than a brief excursion into any subsidiary fields however inviting they may be. The material of this volume is organized into three parts: Part One, comprising Chapters I, II, and III is a preliminary survey of the field; Part Two, consisting of Chapters IV to VIII inclusive, is the main body of the work; Part Three, consisting of Chapter IX, is a sum- mary of the conclusions reached and a discussion of them. •Chapter I sets forth the general plan of the investi- gation. Chapter II is a historical sketch of apprenticeship. It traces briefly the rise, the character, and the causes of the decline of the old craft-apprenticeship ; it empha- sizes the economic and social character of the institution of apprenticeship, and the economic, social, and indus- trial evolution which has demanded a new system of ap- prenticeship. Chapter III recites the principal causes which led to the factory apprenticeship system, and traces the estab- lishment of private and public trade and technical schools and the factory apprenticeship school. This chapter in- troduces the materials and facts which have been col- lected by the author in his personal visitation of corpor- ation schools. It treats of the organization and the work of the National Association of Corporation Schools and shows the growing interest of business concerns in the training of their employees. It describes the various types of corporation schools differentiated to meet differ- ent needs. It cites the fact that the trade apprenticeship school and the school of retail salesmanship touch two «Refs. 1-8. Introduction 19 very large and important groups of workers, and sug- gests that so far as the interests of these groups are con- cerned, the point of helpful contact between the corpora- tion school and the public school is to be found in some form of cooperative organization. Part Two presents the detailed information which the writer has collected in pursuing this study which has occupied a large part of his time for two years. The following summary shows something of the extent of the study, though it makes no account of the amount of committee work which the writer has performed. TABLE I. Number of corporation schools and company officials with whom cor- respondence has been carried on 49 Number of corporation school and company officials interviewed 41 Number of corporation schools visited 28 Number of public secondary schools and technical schools visited 19 Number of cooperative schools visited 8 Number of days spent in visiting corporation schools 10 Number of days spent in visiting public secondary schools and tech- nical schools 20 Number of 'teacher efficiency' scorings made in corporation schools 19 Number of 'teacher efficiency' scorings made in public secondary schools and technical schools 39 Number of schools whose curricula and courses have been examined. . . .46 Number of corporation school courses for which sets of lesson sheets have been examined 31 Number of 'corporation school' textbooks examined 27 Number of other textbooks examined 75 Number of corporation school classrooms and shops visited 44 Number of public secondary school and technical school classrooms visited 46 In Part Two the author undertakes to determine the efficiency of corporation schools : to compare the corpora- tion school on the one hand with public secondary schools and technical schools on the other and to show how the work of these two types of schools may be mutually helpful in the solution of the problem of vocational edu- cation. 20 Study of Corporation Schools Chapter IV introduces the main part of the treatise and undertakes to show the efficiency of corporation schools as determined by such standards as are set up by business concerns themselves. The aims advanced by business concerns in the establishment of training de- partments are : first, to develop to the limit the efficiency of the individual employee; and second, to increase in- dustrial efficiency in general. They determine this effi- ciency by the extent to which they contribute to the fol- lowing results: first, an increased supply of trained employees; second, an increase in the number of men qualified for promotion; third, an improved product; fourth, a decreased turnover of labor; and fifth, less waste of materials and fewer accidents. Chapter V describes that part of this survey in which the corporation schools have been compared with public secondary schools and technical schools in the matter of instruction. It describes in detail the "teachers' effi- ciency" score card which has been ' developed and which embodies the ten points used as a basis of making this comparison ; and sets forth in detail the procedure and the results of this scoring. Chapter VI is a discussion of motives. It treats of the various motives available for both types of schools, and undertakes to show that corporation schools have an advantage over the other type of schools in certain mo- tives which seem to be inherent in the corporation school. Chapter VII is a comparison of the courses of study and curricula used in corporation schools with those used in public secondary schools and technical schools. This comparison is based upon an examination of the outlines of courses and curricula found in the literature secured from these schools, and is made on three points : logical arrangement of courses and course-topics, time allotments to various courses and course-topics, and appropriateness of subject matter. Introduction 21 Chapter VIII is a comparison of the two types of schools as to lesson-sheets and textbooks. Such principles of textbook making as seem to be commonly recognized are formulated, and the lesson-sheets and textbooks which have been secured from both types of schools have been examined in the light of these principles. Part Three, consisting of Chapter IX, is a considera- tion of the fundamental principles which govern the character of education in a democracy, and a discussion of the inadequacy of the corporation school in the light of these principles as a solution of the problem of voca- tional education. This chapter summarizes the conclu- sions reached in the chapters of Part One and Part Two, and shows how the cooperative trade and continuation school which may be made to embody the points of ad- vantage of both corporation schools on the one hand, and of public secondary schools and technical schools on the other, offers the nearest approach to the solution of the problem of vocational education. 22 Study of Corporation Schools Chapter II. Historical Sketch of Apprenticeship Business concerns have not usually been credited with philanthropic motives, and their assumption of the re- sponsibility for the training of their employees has not usually been attributed to philanthropy. This task has been undertaken as a matter of necessity which has grown out of economic and social conditions. The most important of these factors are, the decline of the old apprenticeship system^ which was so successful in the small shop of the past which, within the last gen- eration has given way to the factory ; and the inability of other organized means of education to provide in an adequate measure that specific trade and vocational train- ing demanded in the modern factory. The apprenticeship of the gild system which served tradesmen so well in the past, but which is to the present generation in America almost unknown, had its origin in the social and industrial fabric of a time so remote that the earliest historians speak of it as a matter of course.^ * ' The craft gild or trade gilds of the Middle Ages had their origin in necessity. All sorts of industrial frauds and shoddy workmanship were practiced by the more irresponsible artisans, and the gilds were originally formed to protect their members against unskilled and dishonest labor. ' '^ Apprenticeship reached its greatest success as a means of training skilled workmen in England and on the Con- tinent during the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries.* >Ref. 81, p. 121. »Ref8. 10, 11, 12. •Ref. 13, p. 100. «Ref. 1, 8, 4. Apprenticeship 23 But even at its best the gild apprenticeship system was not a complete or satisfactory solution of the industrial situation of the period. True, it did furnish to the young man who was fortunate enough to secure an apprentice- ship, not only the mastery of a skilled trade but also access to the only practical education of the times, and a social standing fully equal to that of his master. Masters were required not only to teach the apprentice his trade and to furnish him good food, clothing, and shelter, but also to educate him and to give him religious instruction.^ The English apprentice from the Fourteenth to the Six- teenth centuries became to all intents and purposes, dur- ing his apprenticeship, a member of his master's house- hold, entitled to participate in all social activities upon a perfect equality with his master's family. The price the apprentice paid for these privileges was not small. It included in some cases, the payment of a very considerable sum of money^ and the giving of a bond to remain in the service of his master usually for a period of seven years without wages or other remunera- tion than that mentioned above. It was a big price to pay for the learning of a trade but there was no other way. Apprenticeship was the only door through which one could become a master or even a journeyman entitled to ply a skilled trade. The privileges of skilled workmen and masters were a much desired goal but the journey thereto was long, arduous and expensive. This golden age of apprenticeship corresponds very closely to the period of cathedral building on the con- tinent, and the high character of the craftsmanship is still attested by many of those noble structures. The regulation of apprenticeship was usually exer- cised by the gilds, or craft gilds, which included all the members of any particular craft in each town or parish, 'Ref. 1, pp. 50 et. seq. •Ref. 1, Chapter II. 24 Study op Corporation Schools and which usually ruled with an iron hand. The weavers, the dyers, the spinners, the goldsmiths, the carpenters, and the workers in practically every skilled trade were organized into craft gilds which controlled not only the work of their particular trades but the individual and social life of the members as well. Ad stated above, the apprenticeship system was not a complete or satisfactory solution of the industrial prob- lem. At the very time when the system was at its best the lower strata of society, — the serfs and the unskilled la- borers — were without education or training of any kind, and their suffering and degradation were almost beyond description. At the same time, the gentry as a class were densely ignorant of any useful occupations and lived in idleness, filth and vice.'' The stratification of society was horizontal and dis- tinct, and the oppression and misery of the lower strata resulted partly from the upper class, the gentry, but most of all from the middle class dominated by the gilds.^ The decline of the golden age of the gilds and of ap- prenticeship dates from the middle of the Sixteenth Cen- tury, and may be attributed, in part at least, to the arro- gance of the gilds and to the restrictions which they placed upon skilled labor. "Limitation of the number of apprentices and the long term of apprenticeship re- sulted in prejudice against the gilds and a resulting un- willingness to recognize the privileges enjoyed by the gilds. '^9 The specific events which mark the beginning of the decline of apprenticeship in England are: the passage of the Artificers Act, or the Statute of Apprenticeship, ai9 it is called by some writers,* <^ in 1562 ; and the law of 1601, making it compulsory upon free holders and mas- 'Eef. 14. •B«f. 15, p. 8-4, and 276. •R«f. 2a. pp. 91, 92. >*B«f. 4. p. 88. Apprenticeship 25 ters to accept as apprentices such beggar children as might be designated by the parish clerk.^ ^ The former of these laws provided : first, for govern- ment control of the amount of wages which might be de- manded/ ^ thus prohibiting the extortion frequently charged to gilds; second, a seven-year apprenticeship open only to the sons of freemen, and prohibiting any one^^ not having served an apprenticeship from carrying on any craft ; and third, the appointment of government officers to enforce the regulation of the gilds. The pre- amble of this law states that its object was to reenact, to codify, and enforce the many regulations which had been permitted by gild influence to become inoperative.^ ^ Writers disagree as to the effect of the Artificers Act upon the gilds, ^^ but whether due to the operation of this act or not, the influence of the gilds waned steadily after the Sixteenth Century. The second law, called the Act of 1601, entitled An Act for the Relief of the Poor, elevated the apprentice- ship system to a position of great economic importance while it produced an almost exactly opposite effect ulti- mately, upon the gilds.^^ The fifth section of this law provided that, ''parish authorities may bind out such poor children, male and female, as apprentices until they arrived at the age of maturity. ' '^"^ This law had the effect of continuing the institution of apprenticeship at a time when the gilds were on the decline. In fact the operation of this law had much to do with this decline. The ultimate influence upon apprenticeship, however, was unfavor- able. Naturally the great increase in the number of ap- prentices resulting from this law had its counterpart in «Ref. 1, p. 66. «Ref. 4, p. 91. »Ref. 4, p. 103. "Ref. 4. »Ref. 4. Chap. III. »«Ref. 16, Chap. VI. p. 322. "Ref. 1, p. 61. 26 Study of Cobpoeation Schools a deterioration of the system. Masters, no longer subject to gild regulations, neglected the education of their ap- prentices, and denied them the social equality of the home. No general law to compel masters to attend to the education of ''parish" apprentices, aside from craft in- struction, was enacted in England until 1802.^^ Other influences which contributed to the decline of apprenticeship were: the rise of the rural industries; the waning influence of the gilds owing to the rapid in- crease of skilled labor, making it impossible for the gilds to control longer the price or the conditions of labor; and later, the rise of capitalism and the factory sys- tem. This decline covers the period from the middle of the Sixteenth Century to the present time. While the number of apprentices was greatly increased as the result of the act of 1601, during the Seventeenth Century the efficiency of the apprenticeship declined rapidly from the points of view of industry and of social welfare. Since the Seventeenth Century the number of apprentices ha.s gradually decreased, while the demand for skilled trades- men has uniformly increased. The industrial history of this period of decline is marked by such dark pages as child labor and the debtor's prison. 1^ The larger number of apprentices and the de- cline of the vigilance of the gilds in governing the treat- ment of apprentices, made it possible for unscrupulous masters to take large numbers of apprentices, and then by economies in feeding, housing, and educating them to make their services extremely profitable. In these condi- tions is found the origin of the almost unbelievable evils of child labor in the Nineteenth Century in the factories of England and the United States.^o What has been said of apprenticeship in England and on the Continent applies in a large measure to the United "Ref. 1, p. 61. "Ref. 1, pp. 62 et aeq. "Ref. 17, pp. 14 et aeq. Apprenticeship 27 States. Trade apprenticeships, however, were never so common in the United States as in Europe, owing to the advent of the factory system before the United States had attained any great importance as a manufacturing nation. The condition of apprentices and the laws relat- ing to them in the American colonies were generally more favorable to the apprentice than in Europe. In Massa- chusetts, in 1642, in Connecticut, in 1650, and in Vir- ginia, in Queen Anne 's reign, legislation provided for the instruction of apprentices in reading, in the laws of the country, and in religion, over a century before such en- actments were made in England.^^ The factory system in Europe was not an outgrowth of the introduction of steam power and labor saving machinery, but it was the direct growth of the newer apprenticeship system which developed, in part at least, as the result of the Artificers' Law and the Law of 1601. But whatever may have been the origin of the factory system, it has, by the division of labor, and by the use of power machinery, revolutionized many of the skilled trades. Now, instead of mastering a trade and turning out a finished product, the factory worker needs but to become an expert in a single process, or in the operation of a machine which makes, not a complete product, but a minor part of it. The factory thus has a tendency to develop piece-workers rather than all-round mechanics or masters of trades, and has resulted in an almost entire discontinuance of trade apprenticeships. In 1895, forty typical building-trades employers had 12,000 men and only eighty regular apprentices, though the normal number allowed according to union rules was 1,600.22 The United States Census 23 in 1909-10 shows a total of 77,371 apprentices in the United States, or one for every 322 adult workers, when there was approxi- ^Rei. 1, p. 61. "Ref. 16, p. 1142. ^Ret. 23a, p. 52. 28 Study op Corporation Schools mately 25,000,000 wage earners in occupations aside from agriculture. The rapid development of labor saving machinery in the Nineteenth Century, and the growing complexity of manufacturing and marketing processes have created a demand for skilled workmen in almost every line of man- ufacture and business, far beyond the ability of any here- tofore known method of apprenticeship to supply. In this condition is found the basis of the need for a new method of apprenticeship. The evolution of this new method of apprenticeship is described in the next chapter. Trade and Corporation Schools 29 Chapter III Public and Private Trade Schools, and the Corporation School The assumption by organized society of the responsi- bility of teaching any new subject has always been pre- ceded by private enterprise assuming that responsibility, ^ from motives of either business or philanthropy. If the private project meets with success and popular approval, the burden is usually somewhat tardily assumed by the public. Hence it was, that long before public sentiment had become conscious of the duty of assuming the burden of teaching the prospective industrial worker the rudi- ments or the mastery of a trade or vocation, first, trades- mens' organizations and later private philanthropy had felt the need and had provided for it by establishing trade schools. Business concerns had also succumbed to the pressure of necessity and had undertaken the task of training their young workers for various positions. No modern educational movement is destined to have a more far reaching effect upon public school prac- tice than the corporation school movement; yet to the average American citizen as well as the average public school teacher, the corporation school is practically un- known. This lack of common knowledge of the move- ment is due in part to its comparative newness for the development of the corporation school has taken place almost wholly in the past ten years. Another cause for the common lack of information about corporation schools is, that they have grown up within the walls of factories and business houses to meet iRef. 14, p. 232. 30 Study of Corporation Schools a demand within these walls, and there has been no effort or desire on the part of the men back of the movement to get into the lime light or to seek publicity. The cor- poration school has been developed, just as any other departure which has been made for efficiency's sake, with- out any thought of advertising the matter to the public. For these reasons it is thought wise to undertake to set forth in the present chapter the administrative organ- ization of the typical corporation school, and to picture in some detail a few of such schools. Notwithstanding the above purpose, it must be stated at the outset that there is no typical corporation school. The whole movement is so new, and individual schools have grown up under such diverse conditions and in obedience to such different demands that there are no two schools which have been cast in the same mold, so far as the organization of their curricula are concerned. This uniqueness however, does not appear quite so noticeably in the organization of the administrative machinery of the corporation school, for since the Na- tional Society for the Promotion of Industrial Educa- tion has taken an active interest in the corporation school, and especially since the organization of the Na- tional Association of Corporation Schools, numerous con- ferences between directors of corporation schools have developed a recognition of the value of, and in many cases the adoption of what may be termed a typical ad- ministrative organization. Administration There is still a great diversity in methods of organ- ization. In some concerns the supervision of the educa- tional work is simply a side line for some one of the executive officers of the company ; in others, it is attached to the duties of the welfare secretary; while in others, Trade and Corporation Schools 31 we find a regularly appointed educational secretary or director who devotes his entire time to the administra- tion of the educational department. Some concerns have an educational advisory committee to counsel with the educational director. Educational Director. The chief duties of such an executive are — (a) To organize the various curriculums and couses of study; (b) To select the instructors for the various departments; (c) To supervise and criticise the methods of instruction; (d) To aid the instructors in developing text-books and les- son-sheets. (e) To adopt a suitable system of records for students' work to show their industry, their progress and attainment. (f) To select the students for the various courses and keep in touch with the sources of supply. (g) To keep the higher officials of the company informed as to the needs, the efficiency, the results, and the expense of the work, (h) To supervise the records of the department in such a manner as to show the costs of the various courses, and the various items of increased efficiency in the concern which may be attributed to the work of the department. Such a program as this demands a man of no small calibre and his selection is a task which requires most careful consideration. Unfortunately the supply of such high-grade men is not equal to the demand and many corporations have been compelled to place their educational work in charge of men who have not had sufficient technical training in school administration to guarantee the highest efficiency. The demand for better equipped directors, as well as for teachers of corporation schools, led the National Asso- ciation of Corporation Schools at its fifth annual conven- tion (June 1917) to initiate a movement to supply this demand, and the Association, through its executive sec- retary, Mr. F. €. Henderschott, in cooperation with Dr. Lee Galloway of New York University has organized a course of training in that university for the purpose of fitting men for such work. 32 Study op Corporation Schools This step cannot fail to be of inestimable value to the corporation school movement. It is comparable in possible effect, if not in scope, with the work of Horace Mann in securing the establishment of state supported normal schools for public school teachers. Most of the men who are in charge of educational departments are graduates of technical schools and in the majority of cases they are men who have been ex- ceptionally efficient in some executive capacity. While these qualifications are highly necessary, technical and theoretical training in school administration as viewed from the standpoint of professional educators is also an invaluable asset in such a position. Selection of Students. It was pointed out in the preface that the chief ob- jection raised by the American Federation of Labor against the privately controlled vocational or industrial schools, is the fact that the students must be, or at least are, 'selected'. This selection is an essential factor in the organization of at least one type of corporation school described elsewhere in this chapter, viz., the spe- cial training school. Just as the selection of the educational director is the most important duty of the firm management with ref- erence to the special training courses, so the most impor- tant function of the director is the selection of students. Natural ability is the most important factor in the suc- cess of any individual, and since the whole purpose of the special training school is embodied in *' higher effi- ciency" of the executive force of the concern expressed in longer tenure and better service, it becomes incumbent upon the educational director to select only such men as show a high degree of native ability reinforced by tech- nical training. Trade and Corporation Schools 33 Whether the selection of students should be limited to college graduates is a question upon which there is no agreement. There is no method of determining which is the most important factor in the efficiency of any stu- dent, his native ability or his college training. There is a feeling that the broader view with which college men are able to attack a new problem enables them to enter into a closer study of a business with enthusiasm and with a greater probability of mastering it. Native abil- ity and real shop experience without theoretical and technical training are seriously handicapped, while theo- retical training without native ability is useless, but there is no way of determining the constant in the equa- tion between native ability and technical training. The fact that there is a great shortage in the supply of candidates possessing the happy combination of both these assets makes it necessary sometimes to fill vacancies with a less desirable class of students. The experiences of several educational directors have amply shown that it is not always safe to depend upon the recommendations of college authorities in making ap- pointments. While no one would be inclined to question the sincerity of college executives in making recommen- dations, the fact that they feel under some obligations to aid their graduates to secure good places, cannot fail to prejudice them to a greater or less degree. Many of the directors of larger schools make annual pilgrimages to the various technical schools for the pur- pose of getting into personal touch with available men who are about to graduate. Teachers. What has been said about the selection of educational directors and students applies with equal force to the 34 Study op Coepoeation Schools selection of teachers. Instructors should have all the good qualities of both and some things besides.* Many of the instructors who have been observed seem to have a distinctive personality to such a degree that it must have been made the basis of their selection. Many of them have been highly successful public school teach- ers where their success seems to have been due to their ability to *warm up' to the boys. Methods op Instruction Some successful corporation school instructors do not quibble over the difference between teaching, training, instruction and education, nor do they waste time in evaluating the various aims of education, such as the cultural aim, the social aim or the conventional aim. Their emphasis is upon the practical aim, — upon knowl- edge, and not only knowledge of facts but upon knowl- edge of how to do. Whether this apparent apathy toward pedagogical and psychological refinements is an unmixed good, is a question. The apparently better results obtained by some corporation schools are due, in part at least, to this emphasis upon knowledge of facts and of processes, but better results might be obtained by a greater atten- tion to questions of modern educational usage. This is not a suggestion that an attempt be made to apply such usages with a blind attempt at uniformity. Uniformity in practice in any system is a mark, either of perfection attained or of satisfaction with a lack of perfection. *A number of valuable inTestigations have been made during the past few years on the "qualities of merit in teachers," some of which are the following: A Measuring Rod for Teaching Efficiency, J. H. Clement. Kansas School Magazine, Vol. 2, March, 1913. Qualities of Merit in Teachers, Geo. D. Strayer and Wm. C. Ruediger, Journal Educ. Psych., 1910, pp. 272-279. Qualities of Merit in Secondary Teachers, A. C. Boyce, Journal Educ. Psych., 1912, pp. 144-168. Trade and Corporation Schools 35 Where uniformity is supreme, progress is always lack- ing. If these dogmatic statements and their implied opposites are true, there are surely many signs of prog- ress in the multiplicity of educational methods in use in the various schools. Without doubt, much of this variety is due to the fact that many of the schools are still in the experi- mental stage, and the time has not yet been sufficient to determine which is the best method, or whether there is any best method. The many kinds of business repre- sented in the different schools naturally require different methods. Special Methods. In our discussion of methods, we must not lose sight of the fact that the best methods fail with poor teachers and a good teacher will secure good results by any method. The teacher is the chief factor in any educa- tional process, and text-books and methods are of sec- ondary importance. Practically every commonly used method of teaching has been observed, including the study and recitation method, supervised study, the library, the laboratory, the project, correspondence, lectures, and inspection trips. Some of these methods need no discussion here ; others involve, in the corporation school, situations so unique that they demand more than passing treatment. Laboratory Method. A much broader meaning of the laboratory method has gradually come into use during the last decade. Now we hear of the laboratory method of teaching history, commerce, Latin, and mathematics, as well as sciences. 36 Study of Corporation Schools This wider use of the term grows naturally out of the etymology of the world, i.e., a place for work, and any method of study in which manual activity is the dom- inant or even an important factor, may be called the laboratory method. The teaching of business by the ''actual business " plan, or by actual participation in real commercial activities, employs the laboratory method. It is the method in vogue in manual training and domestic arts work in public and private schools, and it is consid- ered the only adequate means of mastering the technical processes of engineering. It is the shop method. The value of this method is attested by long and con- tinuous use. ''Learning by Doing" is the slogan of the laboratory method and the applicability of it is increased by the fact that many cannot learn efficiently by any other method. This method has some decided advan- tages over the study and recitation method. Among these are the fact that what one actually puts into action or form is much more thoroughly ingrained into the brain fibre than what is simply read about, thus it con- tributes not only to manual dexterity but to mental de- velopment as well. Much of the laboratory and shop work, performs a double function: it serves an educational end in devel- oping a mastery of processes, and a financial end as well, since much of it is real productive commercial work. There are certain drawbacks to the laboratory methods which are serious handicap — (a) This method is much more expensive, owing to the costly equipment, and to the materials used up or wasted by beginning students; (b) Good shop, or laboratory teachers are much more difficult to secure than good recitation teachers, and they command relatively higher salaries; (c) It is difficult to keep the work properly organ- ized, for each student necessarily does individual work, Trade and Corporation Schools 37 and no two students will attain the same stage of ad- vancement at the same time. This results in a prac- tical difficulty in relating the accompanying theoretical study to the practical work. Much of the laboratory work as conducted in cor- poration schools is carried on in the regular shops, where the students are assigned to tasks either for a specific length of time or until a satisfactory degree of skill is attained. The latter of these methods is doubtless the better pedagogical practice, but the necessity of system makes it more convenient in many cases to adhere to a time schedule in order to keep all the students and all the machines busy. A combination of the study and the laboratory methods is doubtless productive of the best results. It properly correlates the practical with the theoretical, the actual with the ideal. Each one reinforces the other. As to the relative emphasis, or the relative amount of time to be given to each kind of work, it is difficult to lay down a rule applicable to any considerable number of schools. The part time cooperative schools in which students work at their regular tasks a part of each day and attend a cooperating school the remainder of the day, present a very satisfactory combination of study and laboratory methods. Some cooperative plans provide for the pair- ing of the students so that each one works alternate weeks in the shop while his alternate is in school. In companies where this plan is followed school administrators are usually enthusiastic in their commendation of it. Project MetJiod. The project method is simply a special phase of lab- oratory work. The term ''The Project Method" is of comparatively recent origin. It contains, however, the 38 Study op Corporation Schools essence of the best pedagogical practice, and as such, is making its way rapidly in various kinds of schools. It is almost the direct antithesis of division of labor or piece-work. The factory method of piece-work is deadening to interest or development where the monotonous repetition of simple movements in making parts of a complete product is carried on without any interest in or knowl- edge about the other parts of the completed article. This condition is the natural result of machine work and the factory system, and it is probably impossible to return to the time when there were shoemakers in- stead of cutters, vampers, turners, liners, and inspectors as we have them today. There are, however, many op- portunities even in this day of specializing, for students to work at entire projects including all the various steps in the process from the beginning to the completed product, and where it is feasible, the project method is to be recommended. It is quite essential for those stu- dents who are to become shop foremen, or foremen of installation gangs, to become masters of entire processes" including the details of every step. Thus while the project method may not be applicable to the exclusion of other methods, it should have a place wherever possi- ble in the organization of shop and laboratory courses. The value of the Project Method as a motive to work is discussed at length in Chapter VI. Inspection Trips. For the purpose of giving the students a broad gen- eral view of the business of any concern, there is no ade- quate substitute for the observation or inspection trip. So important is this method considered by some com- panies that they organize these study tours with fully as much care as the study or the laboratory courses. One Trade and Corporation Schools 39 very large concern, first details students to act as mes- sengers about the plant and to the various substations and agencies in different parts of the city, for no other purpose than to familiarize the students with the geogra- phy of the plant. Later, the students are detailed as general assistants in different substations in order that they may become thoroughly familiar with the general policies and activities of the company. In another large manufacturing plant, the students — college graduates — are required to report to different department heads on successive days and are given de- tailed instructions as to what they are to observe in each department. This routine, sometimes lasting for several weeks, is continued until the rounds of all the different departments are made. In other schools instead of bunching all the inspec- tion trips together, they are spread throughout the year, which plan is doubtless in keeping with sound pedagogy. The entire program of excursions and observation trips is in accord with the best school practice, since it adds novelty to the daily routine and gives students a broader foundation upon which to build a thorough knowledge of the business. In order to realize the fullest possible value from an inspection trip it must be carefully planned in advance. This plan should include the details of : where to go, what to see, what questions to ask, and what items to discuss. The danger of distractions must be foreseen and guarded against. Just as it is possible to go through the forest and not ''see'' a tree, so it is possible to visit a power plant and not see any of the technically essential parts of the plant. 40 Study of Corporation Schools Present Typical Schools From this general survey of the organization of the methods of instruction and of the administrative machin- ery of the corporation school, we turn to the discussion of its present status, its geographical distribution, its aims and purposes, and the various types of schools as they exist today. In Chapter II, it was pointed out that the gild school was the forerunner and progenitor of the modern cor- poration school. The most notable, because the most successful examples of craft gild schools for apprentices, are to be found in Germany. Trade and Corporation Schools 41 ' ' In Germany as in no other country, the people have been unwilling to break with the past, ' ' and a conscious effort has been made to perpetuate by legal enactments, the handicraftsman and the small tradesman, and espe- cially the institution of apprenticeship. The effect of this legislation is shown in the statement that ''30 per cent of German industry is still carried on under the handi- craft system. ' '^ These ends have been accomplished by enacting two quite distinct sets of laws, one affecting the small trades- man and the gilds and the other those phases of industry affected by the factory system.^ The advantages of the apprenticeship system have been maintained by legally restoring the powers and privileges of the gilds. ' ' Nine- tenths of the present trade schools {FacJiscliulen) are the work of the gild schools, the origin of many of which is in the Middle Ages."^ ''Of the 251 industrial schools participating in an educational exposition in Dresden, in 1898, 88 were founded by societies, 48 by the state, and 47 by private individuals. ' '^ While it has been the policy of most of the German states to assume the control and assist in the support of these schools, "^ many of them still retain, in a large measure, their original character. Gild schools in France in the Middle Ages were nu- merous, and their industrial importance was great, but the arrogance of the gilds brought a reaction upon them- selves in 1776 which greatly limited their powers, and the drastic laws of 1791 definitely abolished the gilds. It was left for private enterprise to initiate the move- ment to rehabilitate French industrial training, which had been so ruthlessly destroyed by the revolution. The Duke de la Rochelle, at his own expense established a »Ref. 17, and Ref. 22, p. 775. *Ref. 20, pp. 7-8. »Ref. 16, p. 905; Ref. 18, pp. 530, 536; Ref. 22, p. 775. •Ref. 16, p. 872. »Ref. 16, p. 874; Ref. 22, p. 775. 42 Study op Corporation Schools school ' ' with a department for industrial training, which was the first institution for special trade instruction in France. ' '^ It was declared a national school by the First Republic in 1799. Upon this humble foundation, has been developed a thorough system of state industrial and technical schools. In Great Britain, the movement was somewhat later in developing, and private enterprise is credited with in- stituting the movement which has grown in recent years into a real interest in vocational training. This move- ment was initiated about 1784, by David Hale, who built at his own cost, a boarding house and school for five hun- dred charity children from the New Lanark cotton mills.' '9 The modern industrial technical school and technical school movement dates from 1801, in which year Dr. George Burbeck, established mechanics' classes at An- derson's University, at Glasgow; and it received a new impetus in the founding of the Mechanics' and Appren- tices' Library in 1823. ''The first building erected in England with accommodations for the various depart- ments of scientific work for the dyer, the carpenter, the mason, and the machine maker, was built by private subscription for the Manchester Mechanics ' Institute, in 1824. "10 The development of trade apprenticeship schools in the United States may be said to date from the activity of the Worcester (Massachusetts) County Mechanics' Association, which was formed in 1841 for the purpose of ''perfecting the mechanics' art", and which in 1866 opened a school for apprentices with 140 members the first year. 11 The New York Trade School, founded^^ by •Ref. 16, p. 704; Ref. 21, p. 98 •Ref. 18, p. 6. »R«f. 18, p. 25. «Ref. 19, p. 47. «Ref. 16, pp. 20-22 and 987. Trade and Corporation Schools 43 Col. Richard T. Auchmuty, in 1881 was also '*a pioneer venture. ' ' As to public industrial education, one authority states/ 3 that up to 1870, no school of an industrial char- acter existed except the higher institutions established as the result of the first Morrill Act, passed in 1862. Though private industrial and technical schools, and schools fostered by trade unions, increased in number i^ these schools were quite unequal to the task of developing competent workers, fast enough to meet the growing de- mands of industry. Public sentiment, too, was slow in developing to a point where industrial and trade training seemed to be a public responsibility. Business concerns were therefore forced to undertake the training of their own apprentices. This condition existed both in the United States and in Great Britain, and to a less extent in Germany, because the German State early recognized the necessity for state support of industrial and apprenticeship schools.^^ So far as the writer has been able to ascertain, the first apprenticeship school maintained by a business corpora- tion was established by the Chaix Printing Company of Paris, in 1863.^^ The oldest American corporation school is that founded by the R. Hoe Printing Press Company of New York in 1875. ^^ Notwithstanding these few pioneer corporation schools, the movement did not attain any considerable impetus until about 1905, ^^ since which time the growth in the number of such schools has been quite rapid. A corporation school as defined for this study is a school maintained by a business concern, quite indepen- »Ref. 16, p. 20. "Ref. 16, Chap. I. »Ref. 23; Ref. 21, pp. 153-4; Ref. 21, p. 9. "Ref. 16, p. 857. "Ref. 16, p. 23; pp. 207-8. "Ref. 16, p. 145 et seq. 44 Study of Corporation Schools dently of outside control, for the purpose of fitting its new employees for efficient service, or for the further training of its older employees to fit them for positions of greater responsibility, as foremen, executives, or tech- nical experts. This definition is amplified by the aims set forth by the National Association of Corporation Schools. This Association^^ is composed of over one hundred business concerns which maintain apprenticeship schools, and in addition to business concerns, a large number of indi- vidual members who are in sympathy with the move- ment. The aims^^ of this association as set forth in its con- stitution are : ' ' first, to develop the individual employee to his highest efficiency ; second, to increase the efficiency of industry ; and third, to influence courses in established educational institutions more favorably toward indus- try. ' ' The first two of these aims dominate, to a marked degree, all the corporation schools visited by the writer, and the literature of other schools not visited indicates that these aims are practically universal. It is pertinent here to describe briefly the National Association of Corporation Schools whose aims are set forth above ; for while this association does not include, by any means, all the business concerns which conduct apprenticeship schools, its aims and the means by which it undertakes to accomplish them are doubtless applica- ble to most corporation schools. The National Associa- tion of Corporation Schools was organized at New York University, January 24th, 1913,2i where representatives from forty-eight concerns maintaining such schools had assembled in response to a general invitation issued by the New York Edison Company, and the National Cash Register Company, of Dayton, Ohio. The constitution "Ref. 27, pp. 27-84. »Ref. 27, p. 9. »Ref. 81, pp. 50-54, Ref. 82. Trade and Corporation Schools 45 of this Association proposes the means by which the aims stated above may be realized. Section 1^2 says, ''The object of the Association is to aid corporations in the ed- ucation of their employees by providing a forum for the interchange of ideas, and by collecting and making avail- able, data as to successful and unsuccessful plans in edu- cating employees. ' ' Membership in the Association is of three classes : Class A. composed of concerns which maintain corpora- tion schools; Class B. composed of officials of schools maintained by Class A. members ; and Class C. composed of individuals who are in sympathy with the objects of the association.23 No sooner had the Association fairly got to work, than the great diversity of educational interests which are en- gaging business concerns became apparent. These vari- ous types of educational efforts are clearly shown by the enumeration of the several committees^* to which the Association has assigned specific phases of corporation school work. This work is assigned to the following committees : 1. Special training schools, 2. Advertising, selling, and distribution schools, 3. Retail salesmanship schools, 4. Office work schools. 5. Unskilled labor, 6. Trade apprenticeship schools, 7. Public education, 8. Employment plans, 9. Safety and health, 10. Allied institutions, 11. Vocational guidance, 12. Administration and supervision. "Ref. 31, p. 32. 23Ref. 31, p. 32. »*Ref. 27, pp. 23-25. 46 Study op Corporation Schools Each of the first six committees represents a distinct type of school whose characteristics are indicated by the name of the committee. The other committees, except the twelfth, whose function is obvious, represent the means by which the Association undertakes to realize its second and third aims ; they embody the broader outlook of cor- poration school administrators upon the great problem of "increasing industrial efficiency" through social uplift, and through a more general solution of the problem of vocational training than is furnished by the corporation school. We now take up the discussion of the six types of cor- poration schools, and reserve for the latter part of this chapter the discussion of the means of realizing the third aim of the Association. The second aim and its accom- plishment, we discuss only incidentally. 1. Special Training Schools The "special training school' ' is a term applied to the training departments which business concerns main- tain for college graduates and other technical men, "It is an organized effort to produce by training, all-round men whereas the present tendency in organization is to train specialists. Some key-note words will keep the purposes of special training schools before us. "Breadth, round out experience. "Make company men before you make department men. ' ' Know the system as a whole. * ' Make men more versatile. * * Get the theory plus the practice. ' ' Broaden their vision. ' * The above quotations^® present an approach to the Tdeal purpose of the special training schools, an approach which is seldom even approximated in practice. "Ref. 19. p. 260. Trade and Corporation Schools 47 The students who are enrolled in these schools usually enter directly from college and in the majority of cases tEey have had little or ho practical business, or execu- tive2<^ work; and the purpose in such schools is to make as quickly and as economically as possible that vital con- tact between the theoretical work of the technical school and the practical routine of the manufacturing or com- mercial institution. In attempting a classification of the special training schools, based upon printed materials secured from the various companies the writer encountered a difficult task because of the great variety of schools maintained. This diversity consists not only in the specific purposes for which the schools are maintained but also in the organi- zation and the methods employed to accomplish those purposes.2^ An examination of the literature of special training schools shows three dominant purposes in these schools : first, to train new employees for specific work ; second, to teach a business as a whole ; and third, to help employees to fit themselves for advancement. The first of these pur- poses provides in reality a species of apprenticeship, though the aim is a narrow specific ability instead of the mastery of an entire field or trade. The second purpose has developed because individual corporations have come to realize that an employee can be brought to his highest efficiency only by giving him a broad and intelligent view of the entire business as well as a mastery of the specific duties of his position. The third purpose applies to those employees who have shown themselves capable and worthy of promotion. The plans of organization by which these purposes are attained are classified for the purposes of this study into five types : A, B, C, D, and E. 2«Ref, 19, p. 250 et seq. 2TRef. 27, pp. 81-83. 48 Study of Corporation Schools Type A schools are distinguished by the fact that the student-employee spends all of his time in school and does no productive work. This type of school is designed to get definite results in the minimum of time by inten- sive study. These courses are open usually only to tech- nical graduates and to exceptionally efficient old em- ployees. Type B schools differ from those of Type A not in the purpose but in the method. Under this plan, students divide their time between study and productive work, the proportion varying with different companies. There may be one serious handicap for this latter type of school. This is due to the attitude toward these student workers of some foremen and department heads under whom students acquire their experience. The feel- ing on the part of these foremen that the student gradu- ates are being trained for positions better than those they themselves hold or hope to hold, has seemed to prejudice them toward the special-training-course men to such an extent as seriously to handicap the system. At least one large concern which has been conducting such a school for several years, has recently decided either to abandon the plan or to modify it in some manner so as to overcome the difficulty. The author feels that this particular dif- ficulty is not common as the above case is the only one which has been called to his attention as serious enough to endanger the success of the plan. Type C schools are marked by the following charac- teristics : 1. The student's time is made as nearly entirely pro- ductive as possible, no time being given by the company for related instruction ; 2. Students are assigned to work in various depart- ^ ment^ of the plant where they work under the \ same conditions as other employees ; Trade and Corporation Schools 49 3. There is little or no supervision aside from that given by department superintendents and foremen ; 4. Students are assigned to all or at least to several departments in turn, the better to learn the whole business of the firm. The manner of selecting the students for this type of school is the same as in Types A and B. Type D includes the company continuation school. The continuation school is a German product, but it is gradually making its way into the educational system of the United States. The broad utilitarian aim which per- vades the continuation school is expressed in the phrase ''Learn vv^hile earning and earn while learning." The purposes of the company continuation school are : first, to aid employees to equip themselves for advance- m^ent by specific training for more technical work ; second, to enable employees to continue their general education ; third, to increase the efficiency of employees in their present positions; and fourth, to discover for each em- ployee the particular kind of work which he can do most efficiently^ This type of school is marked by a somewhat broader educational outlook than is present in some of the other types, as is shown by the provision that a considerable part of the student's time be given to general education instead of confining him to such work as promises greater immediate efficiency in a particular position. In contrast with the rigid methods of selecting stu- dents in the first three types of schools, here we find no restrictions whatever. Any employee who desires to do so may enroll as a continuation student and attendance is usually voluntary, though it is required in some schools for certain classes of students. The number of continuation schools is rapidly increas- ing, and the writer believes that this type of school is so Study op Corporation Schools destined to play an increasingly important part in the solution of the problem of industrial training and effi- ciency. Table II compiled by the writer in 1916 shows the names of the companies which are maintaining continua- tion schools, and the characteristics of their work. Type E is the cooperative school. This type is sim- ilar to Type B, except that the study part of the school is conducted under and administered by public or private school authorities. In case of cooperation with public schools the expense of the ' * educational ' ' work is usually paid out of public funds, while the company pays the employee for the time he spends on productive work. In some cases the company pays the student for the time spent in school. TABLE II— TYPE D. COMPANY CONTINUATION SCHOOLS Companiea Employees Snbjects* Time American Bridge. . . . any (g) (s) bridge evening building & (c) Bing & Bing any (g) mechanics evening Chicago Telephone. . any (s) plant main- Commonwealth Edi- tenance (c) son any (g) (s) day Commonwealth Steel. any under 22 (g) day Curtis Publishing. . . any (g) office and commercial work evening Fore River Ship- building any (g) English evening Genera] Electric . . . office (s accounting evening B. F. Goodrich .... any (g) reading course Goodyear Tire & Rubber foremen A day & inspectors evening International Har- vester boys 16-20 (g) drafting, shop practice evening Illinois Steel any (g) Kops Bros any (g) day Metropolitan Life Insurance any (s) life insurance (o) typists (g) stenography evening any (s) actuarial work evening Trade and Corporation Schools 51 Mountain States Tele- phone & Telegraph any (g) electricity & telephone work (c) Newport News Ship- building & Dry Dock any (g) mechanical drawing evening- New York Edison. . . any (g) (s) technical accounting day & evening Norton & Norton Grinding machinists (s) evening Public Service Cor- poration of New Jersey commercial (g) day & evening Prudential Insurance any (g) day Cumberland Tele- phone & Telegraph any (s) telephone practice evening Southern Bell Tele- phone & Telegraph (s) accounting day Simons Manufactur- ing any (g) day Standard Oil of New York any (s) Swift & Company. . . office boys (g) day Tidewater Oil clerks (s) accounting Sat. P. M. Westfnghouse Air Brake office boys (g) day Western Electric . . . any (s) evening Winchester Arms . . . any (g) English, me- chanical draw- ing evening Yale & Towne Man- (g) efficiency, ufacturing any mechanical drawing evening *(g) general subjects, (s) special subjects, (c) correspondence. In this type of school we find at work the principle of cooperation. It represents a recognition on the part of business concerns, of the applicability to their educa- tional work, of that principle which in recent years has resulted in so many changes in the conduct of corporate business. There are two distinct plans of cooperation: co- operation between several business concerns in the same or related fields, and cooperation between business con- cerns and public or private schools. Table III, based upon data collected in 1916, shows typical schools of Tj^pe E. 52 Study of Corporation Schools TABLE III.— COOPERATIVE SPECIAL TRAINING SCHOOLS Schools Cooperating Companies Company Schools. Central Stations Institute Commonwealth Edison Company Federal Sign Company (Electric) Illinois Northern Utilities Company (Owning 21 subsidiary compan- ies) Middle West Utilities Company (Comprising 140 subsidiary com- panies) Public Service Company of North- ern 111. (comprising five compan- ies) National Electric Light Assn. (Correspondence courses) Electric light companies in all parts of the United States Denver Gas and Electric Light Com- pany, Gas & Electric School (Correspondence courses) Thirty-nine companies in all parts of the United States Public Schools. University of Cincinnati University of Akron University of Pittsburgh Georgia Institute of Technology Dayton High School Cass Technical High School Departments of commerce in sixteen large universities Cincinnati Milling Company National Cash Register Company Western Electric Company and "Nearly 100 other firms, repre- senting the principal phases of construction, manufacture and transportation."^ Thirty-four cooperating firms. Forty-eight cooperating firms. Seven cooperating firms. National Cash Register Company. Thirty-one cooperating firms, (partly trade apprenticeship courses) National City Bank. New York. Schools Avhose aim is to discover and develop selling ability are divided into two groups : one having reference to wholTisaling, selling to the trade, and the selling of proprietary or patented goods either to individual cus- tomers or to the trade, and the other having reference to the development of retail salesmanship. Each of these two groups is the subject of study of a separate commit- tee of the National Association of Corporation Schools, the former being assigned to a Committee on Advertising, "Ref. 48, p. 16. Trade and Corporation Schools 53 Selling and Distribution, and the latter to the Committee on Retail Salesmanship. 2. Advertising, Selling, and Distribution Schools The scope of the work carried on in schools of this character is shown in the following outline :^^ 1. Salesmanship a) relation to other phases of the business, b) salesman's dignified work, c) opportunities in salesmanship, d) importance of selling knowledge to every busi- ness man, e) selling as a stepping stone to executive posi- tions, f ) what the salesman has an opportunity to learn, g) the salesmen are ''born not made" fallacy re- futed, h) the field of marketing, i) divisions of selling, j) definition of a sale, k) factors of a sale, 1) the selling process, m) the training of salesmen.^o 3. Retail Salesmanship Schools The field of retail salesmanship includes approxi- mately one million people in the United States, a larger number than in any other one single field which is touched by corporation education activity .^^ The depart- ment stores of New York City alone employ over 28,000 sales-people.22 go important has the training of sales- »Ref. 27, pp. 476 et seq. ••Bureau of Salesmanship Research, Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Penn. See Ref. 27, p. 364, also Printers' Ink, April 6th, 1916. "Thirteenth U. S. Census Report, 1910, Vol. IV, p. 93. 54 Study of Corporation Schools people become that there have been formed a Department Store Educational Association's in New York City, a Union School of Salesmanship in Boston, and numerous other agencies have taken up the study of salesmanship and the training of sales-people. Few, if any, of the department stores have had their training work organized long enough to have any avail- able literature outlining their curricula. Many of them, however, are pursuing at least a part of the work indi- cated in the following outline taken from the bulletin on the New York Department Store Educational Associa- tion: 1. Stock a) classification in departments, b) materials and qualities, c) arrangement and care, d) color, form, and style, 2. Salesmanship a) types of customers, b) approaching a customer, c) closing the sale, d) demonstration sales for discussion, 3. Commercial ethics a) relation of employees to the store, b) relation of employees to each other, c) relation of the store to its customers, 4. System a) rapid calculation, b) business arithmetic, c) business English. 4. Office Work Schools Office-work schools undertake to train employees in practically all of the mechanical phases of office practice, and the extent of the work covered in different schools •>Mi88 BeuUh Kennard, Sec. No. 49, LaFayette St., New York C'Hj- Trade and Corporation Schools 55 varies from instruction in the simplest forms of book- keeping to a thorough training in accounting, filing, in- dexing, correspondence, stenography, typing, multi- graphing, dictaphone operating, and general office effi- ciency. The fact that instruction in office work varies from a minimum of practically zero to a complete training cover- ing a year or more has made it practically impossible to classify such schools or to secure any adequate data as to their number. 5. Schools for Unskilled Labor The fifth phase of corporate educational activity is directed toward the unskilled laborer. This may take the form of classes in common-school subjects or, what is perhaps of greater importance, the teaching of English to foreigners. It has been impossible to secure statistics as to the number of firms conducting such work, or as to the num- ber of adult employees who are enrolled in school work, but some notion of the importance of this work may be gained from the fact that one firm, the American Bridge Company at Ambridge, Pennsylvania, has an enrollment of 125 adult foreigners at a single plant.^^ The Ford Motor Company reports 2,700 foreigners in the Ford English SchooP* and other companies^^ report equally important work of this character. What company offi- cials maintaining these schools think of this work is sum- marized in Chapter IV. 6. Trade Apprentice Schools The purpose of the trade apprentice school is to impart to each apprentice the mastery of a skilled trade. "Ref. 27, p. 748. •*Ref. 86. »Ref. 27, p. 197, pp. 746 et. teq. \ 56 Study of Corpoeation Schools These schools touch a much larger number of employees than any other type of corporation school, and are there- fore doubtless the most important. Apprentices are accepted usually at ages sixteen to twenty, and a legal indenture of apprenticeship is drawn up, which sets forth the length of the apprenticeship, the wages to be paid, and the details of the agreement. The great diversity of these agreements makes it difficult to characterize any considerable number of them. The in- denture used by the Packard Motor Car Company speci- fies: a) the name of the trade to be taught ; b) a deposit of twenty-five dollars to be forfeited to the company if the apprentice fails to complete his apprenticeship ; c) the conditions upon which the agreement may be legally terminated ; d) a bonus of one hundred dollars to be paid by the company upon the satisfactory completion of the apprenticeship ; e) a probationary period of one hundred hours at the end of which, the applicant is either dismissed or formally accepted and a legal indenture ex- ecuted between the company and the appren- tice *s parents or guardian ; f) a three years' term of apprenticeship of 2,700 working hours ; g) the rating of apprentices by foremen, upon a per- centage basis, those receiving a high rating se- curing thereby a time premium which may be counted as vacation or to reduce the term of apprenticeship ; h) a wage scale of sixteen cents per hour for the first six months, and an increase of two cents per hour at the beginning of each succeeding six months ; Trade and Corporation Schools 57 i) a decrease in the term of apprenticeship at the op- tion of the company in case the apprentice is a graduate of the Detroit high school. Many companies in training their apprentices and other employees not regularly apprenticed, instead of un- dertaking to give them the academic and technical part of the training, enter into a cooperative agreement with public or private schools to give this training, while the practical part of the training is given in the shop under actual shop conditions. The importance of this coopera- tive movement and its bearing upon the solution of the problem of vocational education is discussed in Chap- ter X. The reports as to the number of students in corpora- tion schools do not give definite information as to the classification of students. In 1916, the Codification Com- mittee of the National Association of Corporation Schools (See Advance Report of this Committee) collected sta- tistics from forty-seven member-companies showing a total of approximately 12,000 students in all kinds of schools maintained by these member-companies. The Bulletin of the National Association of Corporation Schools— (March 17th, 1916, p. 10)— gives a total of approximately 30,000 students in corporation schools maintained by member-companies. In the opinion of the writer, the schools maintained by member-companies of the National Association of Corporation Schools number approximately half the entire number of corporation schools in the United States, so that according to this esti- mate there are about 60,000 students in all corporation schools in the United States. The data collected by the writer (see Chapter IV) show that less than 1,000 of these students are college men or technically trained men, from which we conclude that a large proportion of these 60,000 workers are in the schools for retail sales-people or in the trade apprentice schools. 58 Study of Corporation Schools As stated earlier in this chapter, it is impossible to present a picture of the 'typical' corporation school, though the following description of individual schools portrays a reasonably accurate picture of those main- tained by such widely different interests as railroading, printing, manufacturing, and banking. Southern Pacific Company School The apprenticeship school of the Southern Pacific Company is described by Mr. Norman Colyer* as follows : *'To my knowledge the Southern Pacific Company was the first railroad in the United States to adopt an orderly systematic scheme for the development of execu- tive talent through the medium of apprenticeship. The idea was conceived and put into effect by Julius Krutt- schnitt whiifc Vice-president and general manager of the company at San Francisco. It was first crystallized into syllabus form, under the administration of Vice-Presi- dent E. E. Calvin. In 1909 it was broadened and strengthened, and January 1, 1913, by direction of President Sproule, it was extended to embrace the Traffic and Accounting as well as the Operating Departments. * ' The aim of our student course is to give to young men in the employ of the Company an opportunity to pass through different departments for the purpose of gaining such coordinated knowledge of the entire rail- road as will fit them better to assume positions of re- sponsibility. It is, in fact, a laboratory course wherein the student performs the actual work of the department to which he may be assigned, supplemented by a parallel course of reading in text-books and railway publications and periodicals. Much thought has been given to the arrangement of the different periods and further changes are under consideration. Briefly, the procedure is as fol- *Circular by Norman Colyer, S. P. R. R. Trade and Corpobation Schools 59 lows : Upon appointment, the student is first placed at a station of medium size for a term of six months. This is because the station agent handles both the beginning and the end of transportation. The student is expected to perform such duties as are assigned to him by the agent, and the agent is expected to afford him such di- versified experience as will give him an all-round knowl- edge of station work, including ticket office, warehouse, baggage room, yard, and the solicitation of business. Being an extra man, the student is not bound down to routine, but is permitted to distribute his time in such a way as to treat each feature with equal thoroughness. Next, the student is assigned consecutively to Mainte- nance of Way, the office of the Superintendent of Trans- portation, Motive Power, Train Service, Accounting De- partment, and Tariff Bureau, spending three months in each. This completes his second year as a student, and he should now have a working knowledge of the several departments of the railroad and their mutual inter- dependence. At the student's option (subject to the ap- proval of the management) he next el* ',ts to specialise in either Operation and Maintenance, Passenger and Freight Traffic, or Accounting. If he chooses Operation and Maintenance, his progress is as follows : Maintenance of Way 4 months Motive Power 3 Signals 2 Stores Department 2 General (Manager's office 2 Student with Trainmaster 5 This completes forty-two months^ service as a student, which is the length of the course. It will be seen that the operating student has gone more deeply into Main- tenance, Motive Power and Transportation, and has also taken up several additional features. After his gradua- tion he is given such special experience as is needed to fit him for a regular position ; thereafter everything de- pends on himself. 60 Study op Coepoeation Schools ''The student specializing in Passenger and Freight Traffic spends his last eighteen months as follows : Passing Report Clerk at Gateway Junction Point . . 3 months Passenger Ticket Office 6 ♦' Student Solicitor in large city 4 " Student District Freight and Passenger Agent.... 6 '* ''If he specializes in Accounting, the distribution is as follows : Auditor Freight Accounts 3 months Auditor Passenger Accounts 8 " Division Accounting Bureau 6 " Auditor of Disbursements 8 " General 8 " ' ' In either case, after the final polishing off, he is put into the railroad sea and is told to swim, and he must either swim or sink. "There is nothing spectacular about the Southern Pacific Student Course. We do not claim to make super- intendents and general managers overnight. We are just trying to make all-round railroad men in a new way." LAKEsroE Press Apprentice School The modern apprenticeship school originated in a printing establishment, and the printing office has always been a most fertile field for the development of such schools. The school for apprentices of the Lakeside Press of the R. R. Donelley and Sons Company, Chicago, was established in July, 1908.* At the Lakeside Press the boys are taken fresh from school and are taught the trade under competent in- structors in one of the best equipped printing offices in the country, where the highest grade of work is pro- duced. The object of the school is to train competent work- men for the several departments of the establishment, — *School for Apprenticeg Lakeside Press, Chicago. Trade and Corporation Schools 61 workmen who will have a thoroughly practical and theo- retical knowledge of the printing business, and some of whom, by careful selection, will be able to fill responsible executive positions. A special room is provided for the school, one part being equipped as a modern schoolroom and the other part as a model composing-room. In the school the boys are under the direction of instructors who devote their entire time to the school: the supervisor, who teaches a part of the academic work and has general oversight of the boys ; the instructor, who has direct charge of the academic work and assists the supervisor ; the instructor in printing, who has charge of the trade instruction in the school; and the instructor in presswork, who has charge of the apprentices in the pressrooms. Requirements for Admission. The requirements for admission are that a boy must be a grammar-school graduate between fourteen and fif- teen years of age — the nearer fourteen the better. The boy's record must show good standing in his studies, and when deemed necessary a physical examination will be given. The boy must be of good moral character, he must be desirous of learning the printing trade, and his parents or guardian must promise to cooperate with the school in looking after his welfare. The supervisor of the school arranges to interview the applicant, who usually applies by letter, and also visits the parents. If the boy appears to be satisfactory, he is given a fair trial, and if both the boy and the supervisor of the school are satisfied, an agreement is entered into between The Lake- side Press and the boy and his parents for the term of the pre-apprenticeship course of two years. The firm agrees to teach the boy for two years, with the provision that if he is satisfactory to the employer 62 Study of Corporation Schools he shall contract for five additional years, as a full ap- prentice in such department as the firm deems best suited to his ability and adaptability, and the parents agree that the boy shall remain as an apprentice for a term of years until the trade is learned. Pre-apprenticesJiip Term and Wages, The course of apprenticeship is divided into two periods: first, that of pre-apprenticeship, for the first two years, during which time the boys spend half time in the school and half time in the factory ; and second, that of apprenticeship, when the boys spend full time in the factory, with the exception of several hours each week when they attend school. The students are in school three and one-half hours daily, during the pre-apprenticeship course, and are di- vided into two classes, graded according to their stand- ings. They also work four and one-half hours daily in the shop, or at work connected with the factory or count- ing-room. The boys receive $2.40 per week during the first year which pay is gradually increased until at the end of the third year they receive $6.00 per week. In addi- tion to this wage, beginning with the second year, $1.00 per week is deposited by the company in a savings asso- ciation which is paid to the apprentice as a bonus upon completing his apprenticeship. The contract guarantees the boy steady employ- ment at a regularly increased wage, and guarantees to the company the continuous services of the boy for a definite period. The pre-apprentices spend one and three-quarters hours daily doing academic work ; this time is divided into two periods, and the lessons given are in design, English, and mathematics, alternating with history and elemen- Trade and Corporation Schools 63 tary science. The lessons in design are applied in the written as well as the printed work, in all the different subjects. Every exercise is a lesson in English. The rules laid down for good book work are followed in all written work. Proof marks are used in correcting all exercises, and the marks are definite and easily under- stood. No poor work is accepted, and as all standings for vacations and bonuses are time-basis records, the boys learn to do good work in a reasonable length of time. The pre-apprentices spend one and three-quarters hours daily in the schoolroom, setting type, reading proof, and locking up small forms; the lessons are carefully graded, and each boy is treated as an individual, being advanced as fast as he is able to do the work. The boys are taught how to take proofs, and they learn to know that good proofs must show the type correctly placed upon proper paper of uniform size, reproducing every character in an even color, and that proofs must not be soiled. The boys also learn to recognize the compositor's ideas of good display in the proofs taken in the factory. As the standard is high, and there is a carefully esti- mated time on each job, the apprentices soon learn to apply themselves and do the work right at the be- ginning. At the end of two years when the pre-apprentice- ship course is completed, the boys, then sixteen years of age, enter the factory as regular apprentices to learn some one of the trades in the different branches of the printing business. During the pre-apprenticeship course they become acquainted with the various departments, and with this knowledge are better able to select the line of work for which they are best fitted. Among the printing trades which are open to ap- prentices are: composing, linotype and monotvpe oper- ating, bookbinding, presswork, feeding, pho* ''raving. 64 Study op Corporation Schools retouching, lettering, commercial designing, illustrating, and lithographing. The boys are under supervision during the appren- tice period, and are scheduled for a definite time to each of the different lines of work in the trade selected, and are given every opportunity to learn the trade as a whole. As far as possible, commercial work is given, mak- ing the boys realize that only good work will be accepted, and that to become efficient workmen they must center their attention upon the work in hand. The present- day industrial education is really an art education with an industrial turn, and the best guide toward an art education is producing something that everybody wants. The academic training, begun during the pre-ap- prenticeship course, is continued during the apprentice- ship ; the boys attend school for several hours each week during the entire course and receive regular pay. The courses of instruction advance, and new subjects are added as the apprentices master the work. Much atten- tion is given to designing: layouts for jobs are made, and when carried out in type are carefully criticized. Mechanics, industrial history, English, hygiene, and economics are given, thus training good citizens as well as producing thorough, reliable, and efficient workmen. Reports and Standings. A monthly report of standings is also sent to the parents, with the shop report. The method of figuring standings is explained below. A graph of the average monthly standing is also shown on the report card. All standings are based upon the quality and the quantity of work done. Time limits are set on each job or assigned task, according to past experience. If the jobs are performed within the time limit set, and the Trade and Corporation Schools 65 quality of the work is up to the standard of the depart- ment, a credit of 100 is given, which means satisfactory work, both as to quality and quantity. The quality must be standard, hence the standing becomes largely a time- basis record. Above 100 indicates excellent work — standard quality in less than the time limit. Ninety- five is the bonus standard, ninety is fair, and eighty-five is failure. HigJi-ScJiool Graduates, Special courses for high school graduates are main- tained in the school. Each year a number of carefully selected young men, who have completed a high school course, are employed. These young men spend some time in learning how printing is produced, in order to pre- pare for executive positions in the offices or the factory. They are entered as high school special apprentices, and are given every opportunity to learn the business. The length of time served depends upon the line of work selected. The young men are paid an initial salary of $8.00 a week, with regular increases, and a salary of $15.00 a week when the preliminary training is com- pleted. The salary thereafter depends entirely upon the ability of the individual. Ford English School for Foreigners* Ford Motor Company Brief History The Ford English School was started in May 1914 with one teacher and twenty pupils. The latter part of the same month, five experienced teachers took up the work for demonstration and found the plan employed *See Refs. 36 & 37. 66 Study op Cobpoeation Schools to be very successful. In September following, a call was made for volunteer teachers from the Plant. The response was so generous and the interest was so splen- didly maintained that the enrollment of the English School was soon increased to 2700. The enrollment has remained about the same, as there is thus far no space to accommodate more men. The Course, The course consists of 72 lessons taught in 36 weeks, and in this length of time a foreigner of any nationality is taught to read, write and speak simple English. Classes in penmanship and naturalization are also conducted under the best teachers obtainable. The Method of Teaching. The Cumulative Method of Dramatic English Teach- ing is used. This system may be defined as an adapta- tion of the Francis Gouin method which originated in Germany about the year 1710; but the Ford system differs from this and all other existing systems in that it furnishes instruction sheets and classroom programs for the guidance of the teacher, and also employs and emphasizes the cumulative method of dramatization. The Teachers, The teachers are volunteers who are willing in the spirit of **Help the Other Fellow '* to give their own time without pay to the work of teaching the foreigners English. The teachers are all employees of the com- pany and come from all parts of the Plant. These men are put into a teachers' training class which meets every week, and after twelve weeks' training they are given Trade and Corporation Schools 67 classes as substitute teachers. They may then teach two school periods per week, each period lasting one and one-half hours. When they prove themselves satisfac- tory as teachers, they are given regular classes. Graduating Classes. On July 25th, 1915, the first class of 115 men was^ graduated. The second class consisting of 519 men waS' graduated on February 27th, 1916 ; the third class con- sisting of 230 men was graduated on October 1, 1916. Each of these classes had a representative who made an address in English as part of the program of the gradu- ating exercises. These classes represented over fifty na- tionalities. Each graduate of the school receives a di- ploma signed by the officers of the Company and the Educational Department certifying that he can read, write and speak English sufficiently well for all the cpm- mon usages of life. The American Club, The American Club is an organization of the school alumni. All graduates are eligible. This Club meets twice each month to hear a program of music, a short lesson in American history or geography and to see moving pictures on educational subjects. The members are taught patriotic songs, and frequently give the school and country yells. Americanization Bay. Historic events in which the school participated was the Americanization program of Independence Day 1915 and 1916. Two thousand Ford English School pupils and four thousand other Ford employees marched to the Detroit city hall, where they were met by the Mayor and 68 Study of Corporation Schools other City Officials. Massed in front of the City Hall the men sang ''America" and then proceeded to Belle Isle where they participated in the Americanization Day program. It was this event which stimulated the Board of Commerce and the Board of Education of Detroit to undertake on a large scale, the teaching of English by the Ford method in the night schools of the city. From this beginning the work has spread to other cities, and other corporations are taking up the cumulative system of dramatic English teaching, initiated at the Ford Plant. Advanced Englisli. This department is maintained for any one in the Plant who wishes instruction in grammar, composition, etc. A class is also maintained in practical psychology for the benefit of those interested. Teachers* Training Classes. These are two in number. First, the training class already mentioned fitting men to become skilled teachers of foreigners. In this class precisely the same methods are used on the future teachers as are used in the daily classroom with foreigners. Second, the class in public speaking. In this class all who desire it are given instruction and practice in the fundamentals and principles of public speaking. Results. Since the school was started in the plant accidents in the production departments have decreased 54%. A large force of interpreters were used before the school was started ; now but few are necessary. Trade and Corporation Schools 69 The Banking Apprenticeship Plan* The National City Bank Experience has shown that many important positions, including officer ships, are filled by men who entered the Bank as boys. The Bank has, therefore, endeavored to employ only boys of the highest type — boys of real pro- motional possibilities. This has led the Bank to become interested in developing a closer relationship with the schools. So far the Bank's efforts in this direction have been quite successful. The college cooperative plan, in- augurated two years ago, whereby each year a number of the leading universities nominate students for mem- bership in The College Training Class, has resulted in the training of over seventy-five men for service at home and abroad. A further step toward a closer relationship with edu- cational interests is now contemplated. Arrangements are being made with a number of elementary and high schools whereby every term each school will nominate not more than three boys for membership in the Bank- ing Apprenticeship Class. The cooperating schools must be within a distance which make it possible for the nominee to live at home while working for the Bank. The boys nominated by the cooperating schools will be interviewed by a Bank official who has had special experience in the selection of boys. No boy should be over nineeteen years of age. Boys under sixteen years of age must be in possession of '^ working papers'' and all must have had at least an elementary school edu- cation. Length of Apprenticeship The apprenticeship will cover a period of from two to four years, depending upon the age and education *See Banking Apprenticeship Plan, by Nat. City Bank. Study of Corporation Schools of the nominees, and will be subject, of course, to the Bank's right to terminate at any time, without notice and without any further obligation on its part, the ap- prenticeship of any boy who, in the opinion of an officer, does not show sufficient promise to warrant his continu- ing the course. Selection of Nominees. In passing upon the nominees, the Bank's custom of expressing in quantitative terms the opinions of personal qualities and the results of native ability tests will be followed. The qualities considered are : a. Appearance and manner. c. Industry. 1). Initiative and self-reliance. d. Scholarship. e. Character. The applicant's native intellectual ability is deter- mined by a number of tests which seek to measure those qualities of mind which are necessary for the efficient performance of bank work. Among these qualities are : a. The ability to handle figures. d. Reasoning ability. b. Power of concentration. e. Accuracy. c. Memory, and powers of observation. f. Alertness and Speed. One of the Bank 's medical examiners will pass upon the applicant's physical fitness. Training. The training in general will be very practical. Train- ing which is practical for the banking profession is to a large extent broadening and cultural as well. The plan comprises four distinct features : 1. Shifting to new Departments. 2. Attendance upon the Training ClasBes. 3. The Regular Class Work. 4. The InterviewB. Shifting to New Departments. Apprentices will be shifted to new departments from time to time to secure as wide practice and experience as Trade and Corporation Schools 71 is compatible with the rendering of efficient service. Each apprentice is thus assured of an opportunity to become acquainted with the routine of a number of the more important departments. He will commence work as a page, messenger or file clerk, depending upon his age and education. The Page Class. Up to a year ago, when office boys and pages were employed and put to work, the Bank, like many other concerns, left their acquisition of much important in- formation very largely to chance. The Office Practice Class, organized last year, has served in a degree to remedy this situation. But as it is important that cer- tain information be given during the first few days that a boy is in the Bank, a Page Class has been started which among other things gives instruction in the following : a. The Value of Courtesy. b. Bank Geography. c. How to Use the Telephone in The National City Bank. d. Important Rules. 0. The Officers, f. Important Facts About the Bank. g. How to Handle the Tubes. h. Simple Functions of the Departments. i. Simple Bank Forms. J. The Work on the Platforms. The class meets twice weekly and in one month, or eight sessions, the material is covered. An examination is held at the end of each month, and those making a passing mark are allowed to discontinue the class. Those failing to pass must repeat the course with the new boys who have entered the Bank since the class started. The Messenger Class. This class is intended for young men entering the employ of the Bank as messengers, and for pages who are shortly to be promoted to the Messengers' Depart- 72 Study of Corporation Schools ment. Its purpose is to describe in detail the work and duties of the messengers, mentioning every possible task or duty and explaining the proper method of handling each case. The reasons for doing things in certain ways are explained, and the underlying principles of each transaction discussed. Tlie Filing Class. When a boy is to be promoted to the File Room, he is required to join the Filing Class, which is conducted on the same principle and in the same manner as the Page and Messengers' Classes. If, after one month's instruction, he cannot make satisfactory showing in the test, it is assumed that he is not fitted for this work and he is shifted to work of another nature. The class then accomplishes two important things : It provides a splen- did preliminary training for every boy who will enter the Filing Department, making it possible for him to render efficient service from the start, and second, it pre- vents placing boys in filing work who are not fitted for that work. The Regular Class Woj'k. In addition to taking from time to time the Train- ing Courses just described, the apprentice will attend during each school year, October 1st to June 1st, the classes shown below. All classes, with the exception of language, meet once a week. The class hours are from 8 :15 to 9 :00 A. M. and from 5 :00 to 5 :45 P. M. During the first two years, four class periods will be required each week. There- after the requirement will be two periods. In addition to the special work required in the Page Class, the Filing Class, and the Messenger Class, the following courses are required: arithmetic, office prac- Trade and Corporation Schools 73 tice, English, penmanship, banking and bookkeeping; while optional courses are offered in typewriting, sten- ography, commercial geography, economics, and ad- vanced general reading. TJie Interviews. As the apprentice goes about his work, he will re- ceive careful attention and supervision. Every effort will be made to direct his energies properly and to set him right when he makes mistakes. In addition, he will be included in the Interview Plan of the Bank, which is briefly described as follows : Three times a year each employee has an interview with an officer. Preparatory to this talk the employee is given a physical examination by the bank physician, a report on his educational activities is made out, and a Personal Report form is filled out by the department head. This Personal Report covers the following qualities : a. Interest in the work. b. Aptitude. c. Reliability. d. Accuracy. e. Tact. f. Speed. , g. Cooperation. h. Address and Personality. i. Self-confidence. J. Initiative. k. Courtesy. With these three reports before him, the officer is able to talk more intelligently to the employee concern- ing his work and progress. He points out mistakes and weak points and commends the good features. He asks for suggestions and listens to complaints, gives advice, and in fact has a heart-to-heart talk with the employee concerning his work and his future. 74 Study of Coepoeation Schools Outside Courses. A feature of the Bank's educational work that will appeal strongly to apprentices is the new plan of sup- plementing the Bank's classes with approved outside courses. It is felt that the Bank can best devote its time and energies to the more directly practical instruction, and that those desiring to specialize in any particular subject will profit most by enrolling in a local business school or college. Accordingly, a cooperative arrange- ment is being made with a number of schools which will enable our employees to take the above subjects, and such other courses as may be recommended, outside the Bank. The fees for these outside courses will be re- funded by the City Bank Club upon the satisfactory completion of the work. Opportunity to Enter Foreign Service, One of the most important features of the Bank's educational work is the training of men for foreign serv- ice. Heretofore, the men comprising this group, known as the College Training Class, have been chosen ex- clusively from various universities. Hereafter appren- tices who make exceptional records in bank and class work will be eligible for appointment to this class. Selections will be based upon merit only. The fac- tors considered are: a. Record in Bank work. 1). Record in general class work. c. Record in language class work. d. Personality, and general all-round showing. Applicants must not be under 20 nor over 23 years of age. Physical Examinations. Each boy must pass a physical examination before entering the Bank. Thereafter, every three months he Trade and Corporation Schools 75 will be given a thorough examination by one of the Bank's examining physicians. Between examinations a physician is available to render medical advice, and give treatment for ordinary ailments. Salary. Four year apprentices will enj:er the Bank on a salary of $250.00 per year. The three year boys will start on $300.00, and the two year apprentices, $350.00. A mini- mum increase of $50.00 per year will be made during the term of the apprenticeship, while upon the completion of the course each apprentice will be given a bonus of $100.00. In this chapter an effort has been made to present a general survey of the corporation school; in the suc- ceeding chapters are discussed some of the fundamental principles of organization and administration in these 43chools. 76 Study of Coeporation Schools PART II THE EFFICIENCY OF CORPORATION SCHOOLS Chapter IV The Efficiency of the Corporation School as Tested BY Business Concerns Which Maintain Them We now come to an examination of the corporation school in the light of the aims of such schools as set forth by the National Association of Corporation Schools. These aims are:^ first, **to develop to the limit the effi- ciency of the individual employee; and second, to in- crease industrial efficiency in, general. ' ' In this chapter we set forth the results of our investi- gation of the efficiency of corporation schools as deter- mined by such standards as have been set up by business concerns themselves. In Chapter II reference was made to the high state of development of craftmanship under the craft-gild ap- prenticeship system, and the origin of the corporation school was found in the decadence of that system. It would be highly desirable to compare the efficiency of the present system with that of the system which it has displaced but such a comparison would be manifestly misleading if not impossible. The social and industrial conditions which were dominant factors in the older sys- tem have undergone an almost complete transformation, and the present system of apprenticeship is affected by many new factors quite lacking under the old system. Among these new factors are a wide-spread general edu- cation, and the many opportunities for special technical »Cbap. III. Efficiency 77 training, a great increase in the number of trades and professions, and entirely different methods of manufac- turing owing to the almost universal use of power ma- chinery. Any conclusions, therefore, which might be based upon such a comparison would be almost valueless, not only on account of widely different conditions but also because of an almost complete lack of data for com- parison. Business concerns have assumed the responsibility for the training of their apprentices not, as a rule, from phil- anthropic or humanitarian motives, but for business rea- sons, though one of the leaders in corporation school work says that ' ' It is a movement to introduce the human ele- ment into industry. "2 This recognition of the human element is becoming increasingly common, especially in those firms which have organized training departments. The improved conditions cited, though they may be cred- ited largely to the training departments, are due partly to recent legislation requiring better working conditions, and the installation of safety appliances.^ The warrant, however, for a training department must still be found in purely business reasons which ap- peal to stock holders, and directors whose duty it is to produce dividends. These reasons are five in number: first, an inadequate supply of young employees to meet the demand of developing industry; second, a lack of highly skilled or technically trained men qualified for promotion ; third, a demand for a higher grade of com- mercial products than can be produced by unskilled labor; fourth, a too frequent turn-over of labor; and fifth, a very considerable annual expense through waste of material and through accidents resulting from the carelessness or ignorance of untrained operatives. The evidence of improvement in efficiency on these »Ref. 34, p. 12. 'Ref. 33, pp. 57-58. 78 Study op Coepoeation Schools five points is of two kinds : first, the almost unanimous opinion of the officials of the firms which maintain these schools ; and second, extracts from the records of a large number of these concerns. In the writer's correspondence with company offi- cials and corporation school directors, the almost uni- versal tenor is to the effect that their schools supply these deficiencies and produce these results. Personal interviews with officials and company employees rein- force this evidence. The strongest objective evidence of the efficiency of these schools from the company 's standpoint, lies in their rapid multiplication in recent years. The report of the first annual convention of the National Association of Corporation Schools* shows that but five corporation schools had been established before 1905, while the fourth annual report,^ shows that this number had grown to 201 apprenticeship schools. Further evidence is in the fact that the writer has been unable to learn of the discon- tinuance of any of these schools except in a few cases where cooperative relations have been established with public or other educational agencies.^ One authority^ reports six of 112 schools discontinued, but he fails to state the reasons for their discontinuance. In but a single case has a company official reported the apprentice school as unsatisfactory^ and the reason for that failure was to be found in the unfavorable atti- tude of the older employees toward the apprentices. The fact that the older apprenticeship schools con- tinue to exist and that new schools are multiplying rap- idly is strong evidence that they are accomplishing the purposes for which they are established. *R«f. 81, p. 120. •Ref. 27, pp. 164 et. 9«q. •Ret. 18, pp. 282. 289, 294, 801. 'Industrial Education in Cincinnati, p. 4. Alto R«f. 88, p. 199. •See Chap. III. Type B. Efficiency 79 1. The development of trained workers The number of applications for apprenticeships varies with business conditions, and business conditions of the past few years have developed a great demand for work- ers. The evidence gained by the writer's correspondence and consultation with company officials supports the statement that the corporation school, in a great measure, meets this demand. There are approximately 60,000 stu- dent-apprentices in the corporation schools of the United States and this number constitutes a constant source of supply of trained workers.^ 2. The development of managerial talent The development of managerial talent is another aim set up by business men. Here, too, the evidence is in favor of the corporation school. ^^ The Chaix Printing Company of Paris, France, which operates the oldest corporation school, reported in 1902,^1 that of the 1,200 employees of the company, including many of the fore- men, 250 were graduates of the apprentice school. Mr. Norman Colyer, of the Southern Pacific Railroad Com- pany, reports that, of 68 important promotions, 18 per cent were given to graduates of the special training course, 12 ^j^^g giving 18 per cent of the better positions to a small fraction of one per cent of the employees of the company. The Winchester Repeating Arms Company, reports^^ that a large number of their apprenticeship graduates are now company foremen. The Pennsylvania Railroad Company school is credited with being * * a most valuable selective medium for drawing men into official work.''^* •Ref. 27, p. 825 et eeq. "Ref. 16, p. 386. «Ref. 16, p. 857. "See bulletin Students' Course, S. P. B. B. Co. "Ref. 19, p. 192. "Natl. Assn. Corp. Schools, Bulletin June, 1914. 80 Study of Corporation Schools Another report states that 65 per cent of the executives of the company come up through the apprenticeship school. The development of foremen and company executives is one of the functions of the special training school de- scribed in Chapter III. Here a distinct type of appren- tice is sought and only men who have had some technical training, and in most cases a complete technical training, are sought for these courses. Many of the companies which maintain such courses find it necessary every year to visit the universities and technical schools, in compe- tition with other concerns, to seek the services of desirable new executive material in the graduating classes. During the months of January and February, 1917, in reply to a questionnaire sent to all the member com- panies of the National Association of Corporation Schools, the writer collected data from twenty firms which maintain special training schools. The question- naire asked, among other things, the characteristic fea- tures of the special training courses offered and the ap- proximate number of technical men employed each year. These twenty firms reported a maximal annual demand in their training departments for a total of 887 college graduates and men with technical training or experience. These men are selected with great care and they are usually given such special training in the business of the company and in practical engineering as will fit them for important technical and managerial positions. Some of these special training schools have been in operation for twenty-five years and the writer has not had information of the discontinuance of a single school through a failure to accomplish this end. The persist- ence of these schools is strong evidence that they accom- plish the second end for which they are established by developing men for managerial positions. ErnciENCY 81 3. Improvement in quality of output The third criterion applied by business men to their apprenticeship schools is the improvement in the quality of the work done. Unfortunately, here few data are available, though all company officials report, so far as reports are available, that one of the noticeable outcomes of their training departments is the improved quality of the work. One firm reports a reduction of unit office cost per business transaction, from $1.16 to $.57 in three years, because of better trained office help, making a total saving to the company of $45,000. Another firm handled 11,247 more orders during one year, with four- teen fewer employees, all on account of greater efficiency as a result of training. ^^ A representative of a large rail- road company reported that through their system of training men, his company had made more progress in four years than in the preceding twenty-five years when dependence was upon other means of getting trained men.^^ 4. Decrease in tJie turn-over of labor The fourth test applied by business concerns to cor- poration school efficiency relates to their effect upon the turn-over of labor. It is not in order in this study to examine into the details of the causes which affect the tenure of employees. This has been done by other writers. ^^ It is essential here to report only the bearing which corporation schools have on the question. The manager of one large department store stated that his firm could not interest itself in the training of sales-people because of a turn of labor five times a year, and a training department would simply mean the train- »Ref. 19, p. 650. "Ref. 19, p. 220. »TRef. 19, p. 677. 82 Study of Corporation Schools ing of people for other stores. Most company officials interviewed show a somewhat broader spirit, and where schools have been in existence long enough, the officials are almost unanimous in reporting an increase in the tenure of employees, and they credit this improvement to the corporation school. This credit, however, cannot be given wholly to the training department, for many concerns, simultaneously with the installation of training departments, have in- stalled welfare work, one of the chief functions of which is to decrease the turn-over of labor. ^^ Extracts from the reports in the hands of the writer, on the lengthened tenure of employees follow : Mr. L. Atherton, director of apprentices at the plant of Swift and Company, reports that at the end of six- teen months the average tenure of the boys in his depart- ment has been increased from 3.5 to 8.5 months. Of 395 boys hired during three years, 192 were at the end of that time still in the employ of the company. ^^ Mr. Townley, assistant superintendent of the J. L. Hudson Department Store Company, of Detroit, reported a "very marked improvement" in the turn of labor, and he credited the improvement, in part at least, to the edu- cational department. The Cadillac Company, of Detroit, graduated a total of 144 apprentices from their training courses in 6 years, of whom 63 were still with the company at the end of that period, while 36 were in the automobile service of other companies. The Denver Gas and Electric Company has since the installation of its student training course, taken on 145 men, 116 of whom — or 67 per cent — are still with the company. The Denison Manufacturing Company reports that it "Ref. 19, p. 721. »Ref. 19, p. 642. Efficiency 83 costs from $50 to $75 to train a new: worker, and that it has saved approximately $25,000 in 4 years by reducing the turn-over of labor from 68 per cent in 1911 to 28 per cent in 1915, through proper training and supervision of employees.2<> The General Electric Company is reported as spend- ing $831,000 in hiring and discharging annually over 22,000 employees. 21 The purpose of the training and welfare work of this company is to reduce this enormous expense. Another company reported 2,649 college men taken into its special training course during the past 10 years and 55 per cent of those taken during the past 7 years still with the company. 22 The Winchester Repeating Arms Company reported that about 90 per cent of the apprenticeship graduates remain permanently with the company and that several of these graduates are now foremen. 23 The Southern Pacific Railroad Company report shows 9 graduates of their student course still in the employ of the company, with an average term of service to date, of 8 years, and 3 months.24 The Burroughs Adding Machine Company shows after 8 years of experience that, with 20 apprentices at all times, 25 per cent of them remain permanently with the company.25 The most complete statement available contains data for 1913, from 33 companies, all but 3 of which have established schools since 1905 :^^ Total number of trade apprentices 7,420 Total number of graduates 1,978 Total number still in the employ of the company where training was received 1,854 Total number in executive positions 129 aoRef. 19, pp. 667, 668. ^New York Evening World, Nov. 21, 1916. 22Ref. 19, p. 196. '"Ret. 19, p. 192. ^Norman Colyer, Southern Pacific R. R. Bulletin, Training Course. ='>Natl. Assn. Corp. Schools, Bulletin, June, 1914. =«Ref. 31, p. 120. 84 Study op Corporation Schools This table shows that 93 per cent of the graduates remain with the company where their training was re- ceived. These figures for corporation schools compare very favorably with the following report of the persistence in service of the electrical engineering graduates of Purdue University. This report covers the period from 1890 to 1915, during which time there were 1,081 graduates in electrical engineering. It shows the present occupation so far as obtainable of all these graduates. ^^ Present occupation Number of men Per cent of total Manufacturing 850 82.2 Power plants 181 12 Railroad 66 6.1 Communication 67 6.2 Miscellaneous 478 48.5 1,081 100 The Miscellaneous group is further subdivided as fol- lows: Present occupttHo% Number of men Per cent of total Public Service companies 26 2.8 Teaching 68 6.8 Non-electric 60 6.6 Non-engineering 100 0.2 Miscellaneous 117 10.8 Not accounted for 118 10.4 478 100. If we may assume that the above figures from cor- poration schools and from this technical school are fairly representative of the two types of schools, we are war- ranted in the conclusion that men trained in corporation schools show a greater tendency to persist in the kind of work for which they were trained than graduates of other technical schools. "^Ewing, D. D. Engineering Education, Lancaster Penna., Feb., 1917. EmciENCY 85 5. Reduction in waste and in number of accidents The fifth end attained by the companies which have installed training departments is a reduction in the waste of materials and a decrease in a much more serious waste, that of human health and human life as the result of accidents. It is not possible to credit the corporation school with all that has been accomplished in this direction, though company officials agree that the corporation school has been a very important contributor to this improvement. The fact that in many concerns the welfare work and the training work are carried on by the same department and by the same officials, makes it quite impossible to de- termine how much of this improvement is the result of the educational department. Safety and health have become the slogan of a very wide-spread propaganda, even more wide-spread than the corporation-school movement. A large part of the agi- tation for safety and health has been crystallized into the National Safety Council, an organization of nation-wide scope which has undertaken to coordinate and unite the welfare work which is now a part of practically every modern up-to-date corporation.^^ * ' Fewer accidents and longer terms of service invari- ably result from medical attendance, physical examina- tions, 'safety first' advice, sanitary lunch rooms and toilet rooms, and sanitary heat and light. ' '29 \i requires no argument to show that whatever makes an employee more healthful, more comfortable, and more intelligent will make him a more profitable worker, will increase his term of service and will reduce his number of acci- dents.2o One of the most fruitful sources of accidents is the inability of foreigners to understand English. »Ref. 84. *Ref. 19, p. 684 and 800. »«Ref. 27, p. 811, 86 Study op Corporation Schools This fact is recognized by all employers of large num- bers of foreigners, and the teaching of ' ' English for For- eigners "^^ is one of the most important forms of corpor- ation school work. This work is being fostered by i^^ the National Association of Manufacturers,33 the National Association of Corporation Schools, the National Educa- tion Association, the North American Civic League for Immigrants,^* the Young Men's Christian Association,^^ some from business and some from civic motives. Typical of the latter group of interests is the work of the United States Bureau of Education in the Division of Immigrant Education.^G So far as information has come to the writer, the unanimous verdict of the firms conducting this work, is that it tends very strongly to reduce the number of ac- cidents. One company reports^"^ a decrease in 3 years of 64 per cent in the number of accidents attributable to the safety department and to the teaching of English to foreigners. Other companies report^^ a decrease of from 60 to 80 per cent in the number of accidents and they at- tribute the improvement to the same sources. CONCLUSIONS The data cited in this chapter and the reports from individual companies do not, by any means, exhaust the information at hand or available, bearing upon the five points in question. These data have been selected because they are typical of the large amount of evidence which has been examined. The writer believes that this evi- "Ref. 87 . «Ref. 34, pp. 515, 521, 723, 725, 747, 753; Ref. 35; Ref. 27, pp. 839-42. "Headquarters No. 30 Church St., New York City. "Hoadouartcrs No. 173 State Street, Boston, Muss. "Ref. 2, p. 363; Ref. 86. ««IJ. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, Immigrant Education. •'Ref. 87. '"•Ref. 36, p. 33. EmciENCY 87 dence is sufficient to show that corporation schools ac- complish the ends for which they have been organized by supplying a more nearly adequate number of trained employees, by fitting men for promotion, by re- ducing the turn-over of labor, by improving the output, and by decreasing the number of accidents. One of the important items in the argument is the fact that practically no negative evidence on these points has been found. The corporation school stands the efficiency test which business concerns apply to it. In the following four chapters are given the results of the comparison of cor- poration schools with public secondary schools and tech- nical schools. Study op Corporation Schools Chapter V Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as TO Instruction In this chapter are given the results of the compari- son of the corporation school with public secondary- schools and technical schools in the matter of instruction. This study had scarcely been begun, when the writer repeatedly encountered the statement that one of the main points of superiority of corporation schools over other technical schools and public schools is a superior teaching force, and this claim, emanating both from corporation- school teachers themselves and corporation officials as well, has been kept continuously in mind as various schools of both types have been visited. There is something about a good teacher which all recognize as the distinctive mark of his ability, yet this something is so intangible as to elude isolation. Some call it personality, some sympathy, and some intuition. While we cannot accurately define it or isolate it, every supervisor and every student readily recognizes it in the true teacher. In addition to this essential personality, a successful corporation-school teacher should have had enough shop experience to enable him to handle any practical problem which is likely to arise. He must know more than the students do in order to hold their respect. Students ex- pect a teacher not only to know more than they them- selves, but to be a master of the subject he teaches. In order to meet the demand for well-qualified in- structors several of the larger corporations have estab- lished teacher-training courses for the purpose of giving to prospective teachers technical training, not only in Instruction 89 class management, but also in the handling of subject- matter according to approved pedagogical principles. This movement is one of the most hopeful signs and it cannot fail to contribute to a more scientific technique of teaching. Among the organizations which are training corporation-school teachers are: the American Steel Company,^ the American Telephone and Telegraph Com- pany,^ the Union School of Salesmanship, and the Na- tional Association of Corporation Schools in cooperation with the New York University. 2 This awakened con- sciousness on the part of corporation school adminis- trators toward the technique of teaching suggests that a comparison of the teaching in corporation schools with the teaching in public secondary schools and technical schools may be valuable. At the beginning of this study, copious notes were made on the teaching observed, but these were soon found to be inadequate for making a measurably accurate com- parison between the two groups of schools. The better to accomplish this end a score card was needed, adapted to the scoring of engineering teaching and such other sub- jects as are usually taught in corporation schools. A teacher 's efficiency score card suitable for scoring the teaching in corporation schools should take into con- sideration those points which the efficiency engineer con- siders in investigating the efficiency of any business or manufacturing concern. Among these points are economy of time, economy of effort, and economy of materials. The writer has been permitted to make an adaptation of Professor Charles Hughes Johnston's Ten-Point Scale for this purpose.^ It was desired to have a score card which should not take into account the teacher's personality as a separate »Ref. 27, pp. 825, 335-7. "New York University Bulletin, Dept. Store Education Courses, Jan. 8, 1916. •Not yet published. 90 Study of Corporation Schools TEACHERS' EFFICIENCY SCORE CARD School Lesson Topic Teacher Observer Subject Date Length of Observation Time of day Items Scored* (Over) Score| P | F [Mj G | E | TECHNIQUE OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMEN T | | I I I I 1 smoothness in classroom work for whole period 2 mechanical skill and skillful use of devices 3 economy of time and effort 4 good physical and mental conditions 5 good order, industry, — avoiding distractions IL RECITATION TECHNIQUE | | | | | | 1 choice of methods — lecture, laboratory, quiz, ge- netic, textbook, problem, project, excursion 2 memory drill and reviews 3 consideration for maturity of students 4 use of local and illustrative material III. DEFINITENESS OF AIM | | | | j 1 logical and pedagogical organization 2 elimination of irrelevant materials 3 clarity of aim 4 attainment of aim IV. ASSIGNMENT OF NEXT LESSON | | | j 1 relating the present lesson to the next 2 suggestions of methods of attack and study 3 amount of assignment 4 deflniteness of assignment. V. PRACTICAL AND COMMON SENSE | | | | | | 1 relating theory to practice 2 consideration of economic and cost factors 3 prevalence of common sense judgments 4 evidence of common sense atmosphere Vi~ MENTAL DISCIPLINE j | | | ~j [ 1 ability to realize cause and effect 2 ability to make scientific inferences 3 ability to generalize and conceptualize 4 ability to think logically "vTir~RESPONSIVENESS OF CLASS j | | | "j [ 1 effective and adequate response 2 spontaneous response 3 responses from entire class 4 group cooperation and responsibility Vlfir~OLASSTATTITUDE TOWARD LEARNING | | | | "j j 1 respect for the educative process 2 students blas6, bored, superficial, interested ■5 <'oni)LMnti'>n lictw (>»>!» toriclior and students 4 sympathetic relations of teacher and students IX^BREADTH OP VIEW | | | | | j 1 use of source material 2 use of supplementary materials 3 subservience to textbook or syllabus 4 hospitality toward students' contributions X. DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE "^ | | | | | | 1 good form, voice and language in classroom 2 appreciation of thoroughness of knowledge 8 refinement in manner, speech and thought 4 appreciation of form vs. mere knowledge Instruction 91 item to be scored, not that personality* is an unimportant factor in any teacher's success, but it has seemed prefer- able so to organize the score card to be used that the scor- ing of the items in it, will take into account, the teacher's personality as it affects the item in question. On the preceding page is shown the writer's adapta- tion of Professor Johnston's Ten-Point Scale. The back of the Score Card is reproduced below : TEACHERS' EFFICIENCY SCORE CARD Explanations and directions for scoring a teacher's classroom efficiency. Read these instructions carefully. 1. The aim of this score card is to enable teachers and supervisors to cooperate intelligently in improving teaching by scoring important items in the process. 2. Use the subtopics as the basis of your judgment, but score main points only. The naming of specific subtopics need not prevent the con- sideration of others not named but presumably equally important. 3. Score points as they come in evidence, not necessarily in the order printed. 4. Do not score any point upon which there is insufficient evidence. 5. The observer should focus attention not upon teacher, or upon pupils in isolation but upon the entire cooperative classroom activity, and should also keep in mind the factors over which the teacher has no con- trol, such as former classroom practice and local school and community prejudices. This suggestion applies specially to items, I, II, VII, VIII, and X. 6. The observer and the teacher should have a thorough understand- ing of the score card and its purpose before a class is visited, and no final judgment should be formed until at least three different scores have been made. If possible these visits should include the time when some definite larger unit of instruction is being developed. A visit should include at least half of a recitation period and should include either the beginning or the end of the period. 7. The rankings: P. F. M. G. and E. may be understood to repre- sent approximately equal steps between the poorest teaching likely to be found and the best possible — say, roughly equivalent to rankings of 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, plus or minus on a scale of ten. *School Review Monograph. No. VI. 92 Study of Corporation Schools The score card is not a grading card nor a measuring- stick or scale. The fundamental element of a scale is a series of approximately equal steps between a lower point of zero and an upper point of approximate perfection. No such claim is made for this score card, nor is it as- sumed that the ten items of this score card are of even approximately equal importance. They are all im- portant, but no attempt has been made to establish a rank- order nor any weighting of the ten items. The line drawn through the scores entered for the va- rious items therefore cannot in any sense be considered the graph of an equation representing a relation between the various items for there are no scaled coordinates and no coordinate axes. Each of the ten items of the score card is subdivided into sub-topics, though it is not intended that each of these sub-topics shall be scored separately; they are given simply as indicative of what the observer ought to look for, and these items are not intended to preclude the consideration of others not mentioned but pertinent and equally important. In order to facilitate the use of the Teachers' Effi- ciency Score Card, and further, in order fully to ac- quaint any who may find occasion to use it in the scoring of teaching, with the import of the various items, the fol- lowing fuller discussion of the ten items is presented: 1. TECHNIQUE OF CLASSROOM MANAGE- MENT involves the more or less mechanical phases of the entire classroom procedure, including mechanical skill in the selection of, and in the adjustment and use of classroom devices, such as maps, globes, apparatus, and machinery ; skill in securing economy of time and effort in making assignments, in taking the class roll, in pass- ing to and from seats; maintaining good physical con- ditions as to temperature, ventilation, and humidity; Instruction 93 and good order, a spirit of industry, and freedom from distractions. 2. RECITATION TECHNIQUE involves : the means and methods employed in making the real vital contact between the students and the subject matter ; the adapta- tion of the methods and materials to the maturity of the students; skill in the use of illustrative materials; and a proper emphasis upon reviews and drills. 3. DEFINITENESS OF AIM involves: considera- tion for proper logical and pedagogical presentation of materials ; an emphasis upon essential points ; the subor- dination of irrelevant matter so as to make the central aim of the recitation clear, and its attainment certain. 4. ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS requires : a reason- able and a definite assignment ; a proper relating of the present lesson to the next and suggestion of methods of attacking and of studying the new lesson. 5. PRACTICAL AND COMMON SENSE in a class- room is evidenced : by a due relating of theory to practice ; by a due consideration for economic and cost factors wherever these factors are present; by a prevalence of common sense judgments; and by a common sense at- mosphere, 6. MENTAL DISCIPLINE is evidenced in part by the ability ; to realize cause and effect ; to make scientific inferences ; to make proper generalizations, and to form right concepts ; and to think logically. 7. RESPONSIVENESS OF CLASS is evidence of good instruction, in proportion as responses are effective, adequate, spontaneous and general; and to the degree that there is present a group cooperation and a sense of group responsibility. 8. CLASS ATTITUDE TOWARD LEARNING is evidenced by the extent to which there is present a respect for the educative process ; a blase, bored, superficial, or interested attitude on the part of students ; and a helpful 94 Study of Corporation Schools cooperative and sympathetic relation between teacher and pupils. ' 9. BREADTH OF VIEW is evidenced by the use of source and supplementary materials, by freedom from subservience to textbooks and syllabi, and by the consid- eration given to pupils' opinions and contributions. 10. DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE is evidenced by the presence of good form, good voice, and language ; by appreciation shown for thoroughness of knowledge; by refinement in manner, speech, and thought ; and by appreciation of good form rather than knowledge. Some of these items are in evidence in practically every classroom recitation, while others are frequently lacking. Some are easy to score, while others are rather intangible. Those relatively easy to score are Items I, II, III, IV and VII, while under the latter category fall Items V, VI, VIII, IX, and X. The importance of these more elusive outcomes will scarcely be questioned but evidence of their presence is sometimes difficult to detect. The suggestion is made in the instructions for scoring that no score be made for any item in case of insufficient evidence. It may frequently happen too, that such items as the ' ' Assignment of Lesson ' ', which! is relatively easy to score may not be in evidence at all, owing to the fact that the assignment may have been made in advance. In such a case the proper procedure is not to score that item. Shortly after the beginning of this study, the faculty of the Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Illinois became interested in the pedagogical phase of engineering teaching to the extent that the writer was invited to make a survey of their teaching. In compliance with this request the writer made systematic visitations to the classes of the department during the months of November and December, 1916. . This invitation afforded the desired opportunity of Instruction 95 making a systematic comparison of the teaching of cor- poration schools with that of a public technical school, and hastened the completion of the Teachers' Efficiency Score Card described above. According to Rule 6 for the use of the score card, a thorough understanding was reached with the instructors as to the purpose and the process of the scoring, and each instructor's classes, as far as possible, were visited at least three times. In order not to prejudice later scoring, as soon as a score was made, it was put aside and not re- ferred to again until all the scoring was completed. After three scores had been made for each instructor in the de- partment, an average score was made for each instructor by taking a mean of the three rankings in each of the ten items. The averaging of the several scores for an instructor was done by the ordinary arithmetical process, giving the various scores, instead of the letters the arithmetical val- ues : 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 suggested in Rule 7, on the back of the card. In the same manner the average score on any one item for all the instructors in the department was obtained. By treating each item in the same manner and by drawing a line through these mean scores on the various items, each instructor's average ''graph" was obtained; and by a similar averaging of all ten scores for the sev- eral instructors, the department average on all the ten items was obtained. After all the scoring was done and the average ''graphs" were drawn, a report was submitted to the faculty of the department at their weekly conference and the value of the survey and the scoring was freely dis- cussed. The writer maintained for the individual average scores, and for the department average scores, that they were diagnostic only. He did not hold that they measured on a per cent scale, the exact amount of any item, but 96 Study of Corporation Schools he did maintain that each instructor *s average score was a fairly accurate diagnosis of that instructor's classroom efficiency. He further maintained that the low point on the department average score — Responsiveness of Class, — ^was the real low point in the instruction in the depart- ment. This conclusion the writer believes agrees substan- tially with the combined judgment of the faculty of the department. Thus the writer, whose knowledge of civil engineering is limited to mathematical theory, but who has given a good deal of attention to the technique of teaching and of classroom management, has been able by means of the Teachers' Efficiency Score Card, to diagnose with a fair degree of precision the instruction of the department. The usefulness and reliability of the score card has been further tested by the aid of six graduate students of the University of Illinois. These students cooperated with the writer in scoring, each quite independently, the same recitation. Five separate recitations were scored in dif- ferent departments of the University of Illinois. These scores are tabulated below : TABLE TV. 1. Items Student A. Student B. I 7 7 II 9 9 III 6 7 IV 7 5 V 7 7 VI 5 8 VII 1 8 vni 6 IX 7 7 X s 1 1 1 1 - - 2. Items student A. Student C. I 8 8 II 8 7 III 8 8 IV 1 1 V 8 VI 8 9 VII 5 9 VIII 7 9 IX 6 1 X 8 7 2 - 8 2 1 2 2 8. Items Student A. Student B. I 7 II 9 9 III 7 7 IV V 7 9 VI 7 7 VII 6 9 VIII 7 9 IX 7 9 X 7 7 1 - 1 2 1 1 4. Items Student A. Student D. I 7 5 II 7 7 III 5 6 IV 8 1 V 7 6 VI 5 8 VII 8 7 VIII 7 7 IX 9 7 X t 1 Instruction 97 6. Items I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X student A. 9975-58397 Student B. 9976758 875 Student E. 9995975797 In summarizing these scores * * " indicates a perfect agreement between observers on that item; ''!" indi- cates a displacement (disagreement) of one step on the score card, the steps being 1-3-5-7-9; *'2'' indicates a displacement of two steps. ' * Displacement ' ' may be read as the difference between the highest and the lowest score on any item. In cases where the observer made no entry for any item, it has seemed best to take no account of that item rather than to call the blank a score of zero, which would be obviously misleading. (See Rule 4.) In the five scores there are therefore, out of a possible fifty, in each of the following cases : (a) 17 exact agreement of the observers, (b) 38 displacements of one step or less, counting ^'O's'^ (c) 7 displacements of two steps, and only (d) 1 displacement of more than two steps. In the case of '*a", if the number of observers had been taken into account instead of the number of items, the number of exact agreements is shown to be 29, out of a possible 70, which makes an even stronger show- ing, the ratios being 29/70 or 41.4 per cent against 17/50 or 29.4 per cent by the former method. The agreement of these results of the scoring of the same classroom exercise by different observers confirms the belief that the Teachers' Efficiency Score Card is a valuable aid in focusing attention upon the essential points of good classroom procedure and in scoring that procedure. The usefulness of the score card depends largely upon two factors: first, a reasonably accurate knowledge of 96 Study or Corporation Schools what is meant by the ten items of the score card ; and sec- ond, a sufficient knowledge of correct classroom procedure to recognize its presence or absence as shown by these items and to judge its quality. The judging and scoring of these items was not an easy matter. The writer usually proceeded by checking either with '* + " or " — " the various sub-topics as they came into evidence to indicate either **good" or **bad'^ on that point ; and frequently by notations in case any topic was conspicuously present or absent, or in case of other points not mentioned in the card but pertinent and im- portant. The purpose of this procedure was to develop a general idea of the extent to which the items were in evidence. The decision as to whether any item should be scored P, F, M, G, or E was determined in the following manner: if an item was in evidence in such a manner that it represented undoubtedly very bad practice, or an evident ignorance of, or disregard for good procedure, that item has been scored either ^'P'' or **F'' according to the degree of badness ; if an item was in evidence in such a manner as to show that good practice in that par- ticular was carefully considered or habitual, that item was scored either **E'' or **G'' according to the degree of excellence ; if the item in question was in evidence in such a manner as would likely to be most commonly ob- served, it was scored "M". In pursuing this study of corporation schools the Teachers' Efficiency Score Card has been used to com- pare the efficiency of the instruction observed in these schools with that observed in public secondary schools and technical schools. The scoring of corporation schools and of public and private schools has necessarily not been done with such a degree of intensiveness as was possible in the civil engineering department of the University of Illinois. This is due to the fact that it has seldom been practicable to remain in any one school longer than Instruction 99 a half day, and in but few cases has it been possible to make duplicate scores for individual instructors. There is therefore a greater probability of error in the scores of corporation school teachers than in those described above. Table V shows the scores of 18 instructors in eight different corporation schools.^ TABLE V. Items I II III — iv~ V VI VII VIII IX X Teacher 1, 7 5 7 5 5 5 3 3 3 5 2. 3 5 5 5 7 3 5 3 3 3 3. 5 5 7 — 7 5 5 5 3 — 4. 5 7 7 — 9 7 7 7 3 3 5. 5 7 5 — 5 5 7 5 1 3 6. 1 3 3 3 7 5 3 5 7 5 7.* 8 7 6 5 8 5 4 6 6 5 8. 7 5 7 _ 3 8 7 5 1 1 9. 5 3 3 _ 5 3 1 3 3 •, 10. 3 7 7 — 5 5 5 3 3 3 11. 5 7 7 _ 5 7 7 3 3 12. 5 7 5 3 7 _ 3 7 3 3 13. 7 7 7 7 7 5 7 5 3 14. 7 5 7 - 7 3 7 7 3 3 15. 7 7 7 3 5 — 7 7 — — 16. 3 7 5 — 5 5 5 7 3 3 17. 5 7 5 5 5 5 3 7 3 3 18. 3 7 7 5 5 5 5. 7 5. 7 5. 7 3.5 8 Averages 5. 6. 5.9 3.8 6. 8.3 ♦(average of two scores) Table VI shows 34 scores of 21 different teachei*s in 7 public secondary schools and technical schools.^ The first 23 scores are those made by 11 instructors in the De- partment of Civil Engineering of the University of Illi- nois, which are discussed above. ^Schools of the following companies: Marshall Field and Co., Packard Motor Co., R. R. Donnelly Printing Co., J. L. Hudson Department Store, Ford Motor Co., Western Electric Co., Swift and Co. and Central Stations Institute. ^A total of 39 scores were made but 4 of these were made in mixed »nd secondary classes in the Gary Schools, and one was discarded on ac- count of extraordinary conditions under which it was made. These schools include two departments of the Engineering College of the University of Illinois; two departments of Bradley Institute at Peoria, 111., and the High Schools at Springfield, 111., Detroit, Mich., (Cass Tech)., and the Froebel School at Gary, Ind. 100 Study of Corporation Schools TABLE VI. Items I II Ill IV V VI vn vni IX X Twcher 1. 7 5 3 7 5 6 8 9 7 7 5 7 ~ 7 5 8 9 — 2. 7 7 7 _ 7 5 7 7 7 i 7 7 9 7 5 5 7 5 — 3. 5 7 5 7 5 5 5 6 6 i 5 9 7 9 5 6 8 7 6 4. 7 7 7 7 6 5 7 7 6 f 7 7 9 7 7 5 6 7 — 5. 7 7 7 _ 7 5 5 7 7 5 7 5 5 7 _ 9 7 6. 7 7 9 5 5 6 7 7 7 5 7 — 7 6 8 7 7 3 3 8 5 5 5 8 7 7. 5 7 7 — 6 6 7 7 — 5 5 7 5 6 6 5 6 7 7 5 7 6 6 8 5 _ 8. 3 8 7 — 7 6 1 7 6 9. 3 5 5 — 5 5 8 7 — 7 5 7 8 7 5 3 6 _ 10. 8 5 5 8 5 5 5 5 8 8 7 9 — 7 7 6 6 ~ 11. 7 6 7 _ 7 5 8 6 . 9 7 9 - 7 7 7 8 8 0. B. Teach . ers' Av. 6. 6. 6.7 5.7 6. 5.+ 4.6 5.5 6.1 6.- Teacher 12. 3 7 5 8 8 8 8 8 8 13. 5 3 7 — 7 ~ 6 7 . U. 9 7 6 — 7 8 8 — — 15. 9 9 9 — 9 6 5 7 _ 16. 7 5 5 _ 9 6 6 9 — 17. 7 8 6 — 8 8 1 8 18. 7 9 9 _ 7 5 .5 _ _ 18. 7 3 7 8 7 7 1 . . 19. 7 8 3 5 3 1 6 ~ 8 20. 5 7 7 6 6 6 3 8 8 . ai. 5 7 - - 5 - 7 - 7 - Average 21 Teachers 6.1 6.9 6.6 6.8 6. 4.9 4.8 6.6 6.1 6.8 Corporations School Teachers' Ayerages TABLE V 6. 6. 6.9 8.8 6. 6. 6. 6. 8.6 8.8 The "graphs" of these two sets of averages are shown in Table VII. The average score of the public secondary school and technical school teachers is shown by the solid line, and that of corporation school teachers by the dotted line. Instruction \ o 101 TABLE VII. TEACHERS' EFFICIENCY SCORE CARD Items Scored* (Over) I. TECHNIQUE OP CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 1. smoothness in class work for whole period 2 mechanical skill and skillful use of devices 3 economy of time and effort 4 good physical and mental conditions 5 good order, industry, — avo iding distractions ilT^ECITATION TECHNIQUE 1 choice of method — lecture, laboratory, quiz, genetic, textbook, problem, project, excursion 2 memory drill and reviews 3 consideration for maturity of students 4 use of local and illustrative material III. DEFINITENESS OF AIM 1 logical and pedagogical organization 2 elimination of irrelevant materials 3 clarity of aim 4 attainment of aim IV. ASSIGNMENT OF NEXT LESSON 1 relating the present lesson to the next 2 suggestions of method of attack and study 3 amount of assignment 4 definiteness of assignment V. PRACTICAL AN^) COMMON SENSE 1 relating theory to practice 2 consideration of economic and cost factors 3 prevalence of common sense judgments 4 evidence of common sense atmosphere VI. MENTAL DISCIPLINE 1 ability to realize cause and effect 2 ability to make scientific inferences 3 ability to generalize and conceptualize 4 ability to think logically VII. RESPONSIVENESS OP CLASS 1 effective and adequate response 2 spontaneous response 3 responses from entire class 4 group cooperation and responsibility VIII. CLASS ATTITUDE TOWARD LEARNING 1 respect for the educative process 2 students blase, bored, superficial, interested 3 cooperation between teacher and students 4 sympathetic relations of teacher and students IX. BREADTH OP VIEW. 1 use of source materials 2 use of supplementary materials 3 subservience to textbook or syllabus 4 hospitality toward students' contributions X. DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE 1 good form, voice and language in classroom 2 appreciation of thoroughness of knowledge 3 refinement in manner, speech and thought 4 appreciation of form vs. mere knowledge "P r /Vl Or. E IS. Bf YC m YSL IX y- 102 Study op Corporation Schools In order to determine whether dependence can be placed upon these averages, the probable errors have been computed by the Pearson formula.^ In no case is the probable error more than .33 and in no case less than .20. From a statistical standpoint, therefore, the writer bases no conclusions upon these averages except such as differ by more than .66 or twice the largest probable error. This exception applies to Items I, III, IV, VII, IX, and X. Conclusions The evidence of Tables V and VI counting only these items, warrants the conclusion that the teaching in pub- lic secondary schools and technical schools is superior to the teaching in corporation schools in Classroom Man- agement, Definiteness of Aim, Assignment of Lessons, Breadth of View, and Development of Culture ; and that corporation school teaching is superior in Responsive- ness of Class. The averages for the corporation schools are slightly larger, too, in Recitation Technique and in Mental Discipline, though the differences are too small to be statistically significant. The conclusions derived from the scoring of the teach- ing observed agrees substantially with the opinion which the writer has formed while visiting these schools, except on two points. The writer believes that the teaching in public secondary schools and technical schools is superior to that in corporation schools in Recitation Technique, and that the Class Attitude Toward Learning in corpora- tion schools is better than that in the other group of schools. The first four points of the score card are presumably those in which professional training would function. They Thorndike, E. L. Mental and Social Meamrementt, p. 188. Instruction 103 are the items which are emphasized in the training of teachers. In three of these four items, the teaching in public secondary schools and technical schools shows superiority over that in corporation schools. In this con- dition, the writer finds a further warrant for a compari- son of the methods of teaching in these two groups of schools in the next chapter. 104 Study of Corporation Schools ' Chapter VI. Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as TO Motivation of Work In the inanimate world there is no possibility of mo- tion except as the result of some impelling force. In the animate world also, it is impossible to conceive of any motion or activity except as the result of some causal or motive force. In the physical world, force is defined in terms of its effect, — motion, and in the realm of the animate and the intelligent, a motive is defined as that situation which tends to produce activity. In discussing intelligent activity, the terms, motive and incentive, are usually treated as synonymous, or at least, very closely related. The selection and the application of motives in school work has given rise to a comparatively new word in pedagogical parlance, * * motivation. ' ' Motivation has to do with the bringing to bear upon a pupil, such mo- tives and incentives as will secure the desired activity, or produce an adequate reaction, and secure a proper atti- tude on the part of the pupil toward the work in hand.^ Professor John Dewey says,^ *'An educational aim must be founded upon the intrinsic activities and needs of the individual to be educated". ''Education", he says, * * is that reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience and which increases the ability to direct the course of subsequent experience." The best experience for any individual depends upon the intrinsio activities and needs of that individual, and the motives which will best produce these intrinsic activities and supply these needs will be the best motives for that individual. >Bef. 40. p. 128. >Ref. 40, p. 89. Motivation op Work 105 Return again to the figures of the physical world. The development, the conservation, and the application of power constitute the chief function of the efficiency engineer. The educational realm presents an analogous situation. The task of the teacher is the selection and right employment of incentives and motives. The needs of the pupil are important factors in determining which motives will be the most efficient in any case. Efficiency here is used in its technical sense, as the ratio between motive power and resulting activity. As stated above, that motive will be most powerful, and therefore most effective, which grows out of the felt needs of the pupil. Professor Dewey formulates this theory^ into what is called the problem situation. ''A problem is that situation which arouses thinking and suggests something to do with something new, to relate it properly with former experience." This ''something to do" is an out- come which the pupil feels is worth while. His interest in the problem is this feeling of its worthwhileness, and this feeling of worthwhileness in a situation and its out- come is interest.^ Some writers measure the value of any school activity by the degree of interest which the pupil has in that activity. The fallacy here, grows out of the fact that in- terests originate in wants fully as frequently as in needs. Hence many interests do not contribute to the real ends of education. Their value all depends upon whether they originate in mere wants or in real needs. For example : a student may become so interested in athletics or in social pleasures as seriously to interfere with his studies and his real needs ; a man may become so interested in satisfying his uncontrolled intemperate appetite as wholly to neglect his business and his family ; a boy may »Ref. 40, pp. 181-182. «Bef. 40, p. 147; Bef. 45, 10. 106 Study op Corporation Schools become so interested in his play as to be quite oblivious to his duty to perform some useful task. Interest, intense interest, is unquestionably present in all these cases but interest which grows out of wants or perverted needs, — felt needs perhaps — ^but not real needs. Mr. H. B. Wilson says,^ ''Why not substitute for rou- tine schoolroom practices, self imposed tasks which the pupil is vitally interested in successfully completing?*' There are several reasons why this cannot always be done : first, it is not at all certain that there is anything better to substitute ; second, many of the pupils who con- stitute the teacher 's ' ' problem ' ' are not vitally interested in anything that the school can indorse or sanction ; third, many pupils are so transitory in their interests that they seldom, if ever, complete any task unless under compul- sion; fourth, many of the self-imposed tasks are not worthwhile, so far as being contributions to the ultimate efficiency of the pupil ; fifth, the great differences in the interests of pupils and the resulting great variety of "worthwhile self-imposed tasks" would so disorganize classes as to make class teaching practically impossible ; and sixth, in order to develop adequate social efficiency, many real needs must be considered by the teacher which do not have in them a felt appeal to the pupil. These real needs must have attention at a time determined by the pupil 's psychological development, and by social require- ments, fully as much as by the pupil's feeling in the matter. Habit formation frequently comes under this cate- gory.^ Habits are a valuable part of one's efficiency- equipment, and many habits, in order to be effectively mastered, must be acquired during early childhood. Young children do not appreciate the importance of habits, and older ones seldom place a proper value upon •Ref. 45. p. 10. •Ref. 41. Motivation of Work 107 them until the time for their easiest mastery has past, 80 that the fixing of proper habits cannot be, to any great extent, self imposed tasks, or tasks in the successful See Reference 7, of this Chapter. "Ref. 19, pp. 200 et teq. Textbooks 139 salesmen with an accurate knowledge of what to do and what to say in' any situation which may arise. Marshall Field and Company's spelling lesson sheets also show a good adaptation of specific materials to specific ends. That lesson sheets have some decided advantages over textbooks, will scarcely be questioned, but that they are subject to most of the faults of textbooks and some others besides is equally true. A clear, simple literary style, broad and up-to-date knowledge, accuracy of statement, careful editing, and good printing are requirements that apply to lesson sheets fully as much as to textbooks. The chief advantages of loose-leaf lesson sheets are: a) they are readily reorganized and revised; b) they bring a feeling of novelty with each new lesson; c) they bring to the students a suggestion of a nearer approach^ to real business ; d) they are more flexible, permitting the adaptation of a course to local conditions, to particular classes, and to individual students. The serious faults to which they are subject are: ft) poor organization, and lack of coherence and unity, b) a tendency to faulty sequence of course topics, c) lack of broad scholarship, and d) careless editing and poor printing. A summary of these discussions of textbooks and les- son sheets, in the writer's opinion, warrants the conclu- sion that, on the whole, public secondary schools and technical schools use better organized lesson materials than do corporation schools. i2Ref. 27, p. 202. 140 Study of Corporation Schools PART THREE •Chapter IX Summary of Conclusions — The Cooperative School, a Solution of the problem of vocational Education It is now in order to discuss the corporation school from the point of view of the main question of this study : * ' In what way can the corporation school and the public school be mutually helpful in the solution of the problem of vocational education ? ' ' The need for vocational education has been gradually dawning upon the American people for the past three decades, and society is now fully awake to its importance. While the movement is still in its formative state, it has become crystallized in the foundations established by pri- vate agencies,! in the legislation of nine^ states and many municipalities.^ The main outstanding feature of the movement, aside from its real purpose, is the lack of agreement as to the best means of providing vocational training. Before undertaking to answer the question as to how the corporation school may contribute to the solution of the problem, it is pertinent to summarize some recognized fundamental principles as to the character of education in a democracy.^ The course of evolution through which ^National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education; Americaa Federation of Labor, Com. on Industrial Education; National Education Association, Com. on Vocational Education ; National Association of Manu- facturers, Com. on Industrial Education, Refs. 24, 28, 28a. 80; Ref. 24, p. 232. 'Reports Commissioner of Education, 1914-'15-'16. »See Tables III and VIII. ^Elliot, C. W. Fmiction of Education in a Democratic State. Mann Horace, The Ground for the Free School System. Ref. 40, pp. 97 et »eq. Ref. 41. Chap. III. Summary of Conclusions 141 these principles have come, the bitter conflict, the heroic battles, the temporary defeats, the discouraging reces- sions, and the final triumph, constitute some of the most romantic and heroic pages in the history of the growth of democratic principles. It is not pertinent here to re- cite the story, except to enumerate the results. These fundamental principles of education in America are : 1. Education in a Democracy Must Be Universal.^ This principle means that the door of opportunity must be open to all ; limited only by the ability of society to provide the opportunity, and by the pupil's intellec- tual and physical ability to profit by it. 2. Education in a Democracy Must Be Free. The assumption by society of the financial burden of educating its citizens has come about only after a long and bitter struggle, and while the acknowledgement is almost universal in America, the universal practical ap- plication of this ideal is still unrealized. Yet this realiza- tion is approaching fulfillment, as is evidenced by added educational opportunity and increased appropriations for education every year.^ 3. Education in a Democracy Must Be Compulsory. This principle, long ago accepted in Europe, and nominally accepted in America quite as early, is the latest one to be acknowledged by public sentiment; and even now several states, and many individuals have not reached the point where they are willing to act upon this principle.^ »Ryf. 1. pp. 97-98. 'Report Commissioner of Education, 1916. Vol. II, p. 8. ^Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education. 142 Study of Corporation Schools 4. Education in a Democracy Must Be Non-Sec- tarian. This principle means that education, in order best to serve democratic ideals, must not be subject to any control more restrictive than the broadest ideals of a democratic state. This principle is inherent in American Democ- racy.^ 5. Education in a Democracy Must Be a Socializ- ing Factor, and Must Contribute to Social Efficiency. This principle means that education must ''bring peo- ple and classes into closer and more perceptible connec- tion with one another. It means not only freer inter- action between social groups .... but change in so- cial habit, and continuous readjustment."^ Social effi- ciency, — i. e., the ability of the individual to act his part as a social unit, supporting himself and contributing to the common good in proportion to his intellectual and physical endowment, and placing a minimum of burden upon society in case of deficiency in these gifts — is soci- ety 's chief warrant for the establishment and mainte- nance of schools. ^^ 6. Education in a Democracy Must Be Controlled ; BY THE State. This principle has been accepted only after control by the family, by the church, and by private or philan- thropic enterprise, has been found wanting, and only after the state has become conscious that its own perman- ence can only be assured by universal education under state control.^ ^ "Ruffini, Francesco, Religious Libert}/, trans, by Burg and Hajrnea Ref. 46, pp. 228-5. , •Ref. 40, pp. 99100. wRef. 41, Chap. IH. "Ref, 40, pp. 108-116, Ref. 16, p. 874, Ref. 22, p. 775. Summary of Conclusions 143 The application of these six principles to vocational education, as well as to general education, is now so nearly universally accepted in the United States that their universal acceptation may be assumed. ' These six fundamental principles constitute a measuring rod by which may be gauged the efficiency of the service to the community of any individual school, or any system or type of schools.^ In the following paragraphs, this meas- uring rod is applied to the corporation school. The corporation school cannot become universal. It is now reaching less than one half of one per cent of the industrial workers in the United States. ^ 2 Business rea- sons require the corporation school to select the best and to eliminate the inferior applicants. This selection^^ is the one feature which has for the past decade arrayed the American Federation of Labor^* against any form of privately controlled vocational education. In addition to this selective feature, financial and geographical limi- tations are further reasons why the corporation school cannot become universal, and all are reasons why it can- not become compulsory or free. The question as to its non-sectarian character needs no discussion. The corporation school contributes to social effi- ciency ;i^ it may also be controlled to a limited degree by the state, as is the case of many such schools in European countries. ^^ These two conditions lead the writer to the conclusion that some form of cooperative organization between the corporation school and the pub- lic school will be the chief factor in the ultimate solu- tion of the problem of vocational education. This point is developed further in the concluding paragraphs of this chapter. "See Chapter III. "See Chapter III; also Ref. 19, pp. 715-716; Ref. 31, p. 126. "Refs. 24 and 25. «See Chapter IV. "Ref. 20. 144 Study of Corporation Schools The discussion of corporation school efficiency in Chapter IV shows that : 1. They tend to produce an adequate supply of young employees to meet the demands of industry. 2. They supply the demand for men qualified for promotion to higher positions. 3. They improve the character of work and the quality of the products. 4. They reduce the turn over of labor, or increase the tenure of em- ployees. 5. They tend to reduce waste of materials and the number of accidents by improving working conditions and by reducing carelessness and ignorance. The conclusions of Chapter V were that the teaching in public secondary schools and technical schools is su- perior to the teaching in corporation schools in : a) classroom management, b) definiteness of aim, c) assignment of lessons, d) breadth of view, e) development of culture, f) and recitation technique, and that the teaching in corporation schools is supe- rior in : g) responsiveness of class, h) mental discipline, and i) class attitude toward learning. The conclusion of Chapter VI is that the corporation school has what seem to be inherent advantages over public secondary schools and technical schools in such motives and incentives as : a) the relation of employer and employee, b) pecuniary interest, c) the shop situation, and d) real problems. The conclusion of Chapter VII is that the curricula and courses of public secondary schools and technical schools show, on the whole, a better logical and pedagog- ical organization than those of corporation schools, and that the latter are superior in being more specific and in having a closer relation between the materials employed and the ends sought, and that some show a decided su- periority in time allotments. Summary of Conclusions 145 The conclusion of Chapter VIII is that, in the matter of textbooks and lesson sheets, public secondary schools and technical schools are using better organized lesson materials than corporationi schools are using. The opening paragraphs of the present chapter stated the six fundamental principles upon which education in a democracy must be based, and the limitations upon the corporation school which prevent it from being consid- ered a satisfactory solution of the problem of universal vocational education. It was pointed out, however, that the corporation school through its contribution to voca- tional efficiency, may be an important factor in that solution. While a complete and satisfactory solution of the problem of vocational education has not been found in any of the phases of vocational education which have been studied, in the writer's opinion the cooperative trade and continuation school is a nearer approach to that solution than is offered by any other plan. The reasons upon w^ich this conclusion is based are as follows : 1. The cooperative trade and continuation school meets in actual practice, or can readily be made to meet, all the conditions of the six fundamental principles formulated above. 2. In the cooperative trade and continuation school, it is possible to combine all the points of su- periority of the public secondary schools and technical schools and of corporation schools which have been found in the matter of in- struction, methods, motives, lesson materials, and curricula. 3. The cooperative trade and continuation school is a success in actual practice. 4. The cooperative trade and continuation school has the sanction of many of the educators, business men, labor leaders, legislators and 146 Study of Corporation Schools social workers who have given most thought to the matter of vocational and industrial edu- cation. The experience of several states^ ^ and numerous municipalities in the United States in establishing and conducting some form of continuation school or coopera- tive trade school demonstrates the first of these proposi- tions, and the experience of Germany, France and Eng- land in establishing and maintaining such schools is further evidence on this point.^^ The second proposition is based upon the evidence of this study presented in Chapters IV to VIII, inclusive, which shows that corporation schools are superior in those phases of organization and administration of instruction in which public schools are confessedly weak, while these are strong where corporation schools are weak. The co- operative trade and continuation school furnishes the essential conditions for emphasizing these strong points and for eliminating or minimizing these weaknesses. The third proposition is justified by the information which the writer has collected by personal observation and otherwise. Company officials are unanimous in the statement that among the results of cooperation are the advantages discussed in Chapter IV. Among the coop- erative schools visited was the Cass Technical High School of Detroit, which is working in cooperation with thirty- one companies. These companies report that their em- ployees are from fifty to one hundred per cent better workmen because of the instruction received in the con- tinuation school. So satisfactory is the work that there is at present (February, 1917) a long waiting list of ap- ^^Vocational Education, Reports Oommissioner of Education, 1914'- 16-16. >«Befs. 18, 21. **0ircular: Industrial Part-time Oontinuation Olassea, Oass Techni- cal High School. Summary of Conclusions 147 plicants for admission. ^^ This school offers both trade and continuation courses. The writer has also secured information from a large number of other schools, either through school authori- ties or cooperating concerns, and this evidence substan- tiates the statement that the cooperative school is success- ful. The National Cash Kegister Company of Dayton, Ohio, is working in cooperation with the Dayton High School, and Mr. Adkins, for the Company, pronounces the work a success. ^o The cooperative school seems to be a natural out- growth of the corporation school. The R. Hoe Printing Press Company, of New York City, which established the first corporation school in the United States has recently (1915) entered into an agreement whereby the city Board of Education supplies all the teachers for the academic work of the apprenticeship school. ^i The General Elec- tric Company, of Schenectady, New York, which has main- tained a training department for many years has recently entered into a similar agreement with the Board of Edu- cation of Schenectady,22 and the plan is still (1916) in operation. Many similar cases are reported from Eng- land.23 The Seventeenth Annual Report of the Superintendent of Schools of New York shows that ten high schools are cooperating with sixty-three firms covering twenty-three occupations. The report also shows that cooperating schools are maintained in twenty-six business houses, in- cluding department stores, hotels, railroad shops, and public service companies. In these schools the companies furnish the schoolrooms and the board of education, the teachers. This report states ten conclusions based upon experience. Two of these are : '' The industry profits by »>Ref. 19, pp. 308-814. «jjgf 27. p. 132. «Ref. 19, pp. 287-288. »Ref. 18, pp. 282, 289, 294, 301, 370. 148 Study of Corporation Schools the plan by securing better employees. ' ' " The plan does not necessarily prolong the period of high-school attend- ance for graduation. ' ' Table VIII shows a partial list of cooperating schools and companies from whom information has been secured. TABLE VIII. Companies Schools Brighton Mills Burroughs Adding Machine Co. Chicago Telephone Co. Consolidated Oas, Elec. Light and Power Co. Simonds Manufacturing Co, and nine other companies. United Shoe Machinery Co. Six Companies ■Phirty-nine printing companies Six Department stores Sixty-three companies Twenty-six other organizations aside from the above Passaic N. J. H. S. Cass Technical H. S. Detroit Central Y. M. C. A. Baltimore Night School Fitchburg, Mass. H. S. Beverly, Mass. H. S. York, Pa. H. S. Chicago Typothetae School of Printing Union School of Salesmanship, Boston New York City High Schools New York Board of Education (schools in company buildings). If to this list be added the schools for higher training listed in Table III the momentum of the cooperative movement may be appreciated. The reports from these schools and the companies cooperating with them show no disposition to doubt that the cooperative school is a satisfactory and permanent solution of the problem of vocational education. The fourth proposition is a matter of the weight of cumulative opinion. While the cooperative plan of voca- tional education does not enjoy unanimous support of those who are interested in the problem, it does have the support of many of the strong men in this field. Mr. C. A. Prosser, says^* that the continuation school under state support and control is the most modern and up-to-date means of educating the young worker. Dr. David Snedden, until recently Commissioner of Education of Massachusetts, says^^ that the part-time «N. A. 0. S. Bulletin, July, 1916. »Ref. 22a, p. 49. Summary of Conclusions 149 cooperative school is destined to become a permanent form of vocational education, and that nothing short of legislation compelling town and shop to cooperate, will ever give to us, as it gave to early England and modern Germany, a national system of industrial education. He says further that the belief is rapidly gaining ground, that a large part of vocational education should be ob- tained through actual participation in the pursuit, under commercial conditions, of the occupation itself, but so controlled as to make education rather than earnings the chief objective, and that such participation must be under the direction of the agency responsible for the effective vocational education of the novice. The Hon. W. C. Redfield says:26 '^What is needed is a complete system of vocational education with due rela- tion to industry. ' ' The Report of the Committee on Vocational Educa- tion of the National Education Association, composed of twelve prominent educators and representative men in- terested in vocational education states :2''' "that theoretic- ally vocational education under the cooperative system should ultimately prove most effective, depending upon the effective coordination of the separate agencies, ^^ . . . . and experience has shown that this coordination is perfectly possible.'' Dr. Clifford B. Conelley, of the Carnegie Institute of Technology, expresses the opinion that if we take away the direct backing of the corporation and leave the cor- poration school with all its essential details as organized by the company, we have the school best fitted for modern conditions. This would really be the continuation school.29 R. S. Cooley, director of continuation schools in Mil- 2«N. A. C. S. Bulletin, July, 1916. ^^Bureau of Education, Bulletin 21, 1916. ^Report Committee on Vocational Education, N. E. A. 1916. ""Journal N. E. A. pp. 412 et aeq. 1916. 150 Study op Coeporation Schools waukee, states^^ that *'In one year, the continuation school brought back into school 5,000 young people under sixteen years of age, who had left school to work. Dr. George Myers,^! who has made a special study of vocational education in Germany, concludes that any satisfactory solution of the problem of vocational educa- tion must include some form of cooperative school work, and that the continuation school idea is growing in Prussia. Supt. John D. Shoop, of the Chicago schools empha- sizes the fact that vocational education must come through cooperation. * ' The interplay of interest between the school and the shop, the classroom and the commer- cial world, constitute the most promising and hopeful indication of the final solution of the problem of voca- tional education. ''32 Conclusion The argument of this summary of conclusions, of per- sonal opinions, and of committee resolutions, is further strengthened by the facts that, within the past five years seven states have provided by legislation's for some form of cooperative or continuation school for industrial and vocational training, and congressional enactment in the Smith-Hughes Bill,^* has recently provided for federal aid for vocational education. The writer believes that this evidence justifies the conclusion that the cooperative trade and continuation school is the solution of the prob- lem of vocational education. »^op eit. "Ref. 20. **Journal, N. E. A. Jan. 1917, p. 112. •^Report Commissioner of Education, 1916. (see also next Ref.) "Natl, Society for the Promotion of Indus. Educ. Bulletin 26. Summary of Conclusions 151 BIBLIOGRAPHY The following abbreviations are used: N. E. A. National Education Association N. S. P. I. E. National Society for tlie Promotion of Industrial Edu- cation. N. A. 0. S. National Association of Corporation Schools. 1. Scott, Jonathan French, Historical Essays on Apprenticeship and Vocational Education, Ann Arbor, Mich. 2. U, S. Bureau of Labor, vol. 25, 1910. 2a. Unwin, George, The Gilds and Companies of London, 1908. 8. Dunlop, 0. J. and Denham, R. D. English Apprenticeship and Child Labor, T. Fisher Unwin, London, 1912. 4. Kramer, Stella, English Craft Gilds and their Government, Co- lumbia University Press, New York, 1905. 5. Lambert Jos. M., Two Thousand Years of Gild Life, Hull, Eng- land. 6. Wright, Carroll D. The Apprenticeship System in Relation to In- dustrial Education, U. S. Bureau of Education, bul. 6, 1908. 7. Seath, John, Education for Industrial Purposes, Toronto, Canada, 1911. 8. Trade Gilds of Europe, U. S. Consular report, 1885. 8a. National Association of Manufacturers, bul. 34, New York. 9. Bible, I. Kings V. 15, I. Samuel II. 18. 10. Thucydides, I. 24. 11. Plutarch, Numa, 17. 12. Dilts Roman Society in the Last Century of the Empire, bk. II, III. 13. Webster, C. W. History of Commerce. 14. Graves, P. CP. Great Educators of Three Centuries. 15. Tawney R. H. The Agrarian Public of the Sixteenth Century, London. 16. U. S. Commissioner of Labor, 17th annual report, 1902. 16a. Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce, Cam- - bridge, Eng. 17. U. S. Dept. of Labor, bul. 33, 1915. 17a. Hutchins and Harrison, History of Factory Legislation, West- minster. 18. Sadler, M. E. Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere. 19. N. A. C. S. report third annual convention, 1915. New York. 20. U. S. Bureau of Education, bul. 33, 1915. 21. N. E. A. Proceedings, 1915. 22. N. E. A. Proceedings, 1910. 23. N. S. P. I. E. bul. 14. 23a. N. S. P. I. E. bul. 20. 24. N. S. P. I. E. bul. 20. 25. N. S. P. I. E. report fifth annual convention. 26. U. S. Consular report. Continuation schools in Europe. 27. N. A. C. S. report fourth annual convention, 1916. 28. N. S. P. I. E. bul. 2, biblography on industrial education. 28a. University of the State of New York, biblography on industrial education. 152 Study of Corporation Schools 29. National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, Year book, pt. I, 1912. 30. U. S. Bureau of Education, bul. 22, 1913. Biblography on In- dustrial education. 81. N. A. 0. S. report first annual convention, 1913. 32. Metcalf, H. C. The N. A. C. S. Times Analyst, June, 1913. The corporation school movement. Printers' Ink, June 5th, 1913. Henderschott, F. C. The N. A. C. S. in proceedings American Institute of Electric Engineers, June, 1913. 33. N. A. C. S. second annual report, 1914. 34. National Safety Council, proceedings fourth annual convention. 35. National Association of Manufacturers, bul. 22. 35a. National Association of Manufacturers, Industrial Education in 'Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. 36. The Ford Guide, Ford Motor Co. 37. English School circular. Ford Motor Co. 38. Cassiers' Magazine, vol. 23, p. 199. 39. Davis C. O. High School Courses of Study. 40. Dewey, J. Democracy and Education. 41. Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process, Chap. III. 42. Advance report codification committee N. A. C. S. 1916. 43. U. S. Bureau of Education, bul. 37, 1916. 44. N. S. P. I. E. bul. 11. 45. Wilson H. B. and G. W. Motivation in School Work. 46. Russell, J. E. German Higher Schools. !ETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT Omi^ 202 Main Library OAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE 2 3 5 6 ALL BOOKS AAAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 1 -month loans may be renewed by calling 642-3405 -month loans may be recharged by bringing books to Circulation D Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW APR 30 1978 Moif ?^, I'i^r gECL CQSi ^^^ 78 0CT/4uff(98O»S^ hi MAY 2 ^ytt ORMNO. DD 6, 40m 10 '77 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKEL BERKELEY, CA 94720 I UJ 1 «WMLUB««y.u.c.„„,,^^^ ■^.k ■: UNIVERSH^ QE- CALIFORNIA LIBRARY