THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
PRINTED AT THE 
 P. C. K. PRESS, VEPERY, MADRAS. 
 
 1906. 
 
THE 
 
 EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 C > C « ' .cs 
 
 (Sura V. 5.) 
 
 *♦ This day have I perfected your religion for you ; and it is My 
 pleasure that Islam be your religion." 
 
 BY 
 
 THE REV. F. A. KLEIN. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LIMITED, 
 DRYDEN HOUSE, 43, GERRARD ST., \V. 
 
 190^6. 
 
liL 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The Rev. F. A. Klein went out as a missionary of the 
 Church Missionary Society in 1851, to Palestine; in 1882 
 he was appointed to Cairo and in 1898 retired from active 
 service and resided in Germany. He then commenced 
 the present work, for which by his thorough acquaintance 
 with Arabic he was eminently fitted. He died in 1903 
 and the manuscript was sent to the Committee of the 
 Church Missionary Society. A note on the " Develop- 
 ment of the Science of Dogmatics " was left in such an 
 unfinished state that it has not been published. Another 
 note on the " Sects of IsUm " is added to this book. It 
 is not up to date, nor as full as it might be, but it is all 
 Mr. Klein intended to say. The rest of the volume was 
 fully completed and is now printed in exactly the form in 
 which Mr. Klein wished it to be, for he placed a printe4 
 specimen page with his manuscript and the arrangement 
 of type there found has been adopted. 
 
 As the cost of production in Europe of a work of this 
 kind is high, the printing has been entrusted to the 
 S. P. C. K. Press, Madras, and the result is a good speci- 
 men of the work done there at a comparatively small 
 cost. 
 
 It is a disadvantage when a work of this kind cannot 
 be edited by its author, but it is hoped that it will be 
 found free from any serious errors. 
 
 The Editor. 
 
 418477 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE SOURCES OR FOUNDATIONS OF ISLAM. 
 
 Page 
 The Qur'in — Inspiration — Recensions — Qur'dn readers — Various 
 readings — Sura — Abrogation — CJommcntaries — The Sunna — 
 Traditions— Ijmi'—Iklujtahids—ImAms 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE DOCTRINES OF ISLAM. 
 
 Faith— Infidelity— The Mu'tazila— Al Ash'ari— Dogmatics— Unity of 
 God— Attributes of God — Various opinions about God — Angels — 
 Jinn- Sacred Books — Prophets — Miracles— Prayer— Resurrection 
 — The Last Day— Judgment— Hell— Paradise— Predestination- 
 Reward and Punishment — Sin— Repentance . , . .37 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE IMAMATE. 
 The Im&m— Khaw^rij and Shi'ah 112 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FIQH. 
 
 PART I — Prayer— Purification — Ablutions — Alms — Fasting— The 
 Hajj — 'Umra— JihAd — DAru'l-Hdrb — D^ru'l-Isldm — Plunder 
 —Captives— Apostasy 113 
 
 PART II— Contracts— Marriage— Divorce— Slavery— Oaths— Vows— 
 The Qddi— Inheritance— Evidence — Usurpation — Pre-emption- 
 Lost property— Slaying of Animals — Food — Waste land — Usury 
 — Debt — Loans — Rental — Partnership — Agency — Pawning — 
 Suretyship — Gifts — Wills — Endowments— Compromise — Bank- 
 ruptcy—Inhibition. 132 
 
 PART III— Punishment — Adultery — Fornication — False accusation 
 —Drunkenness — Theft — Robbery — Manslaughter • . .219 
 
Vm CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 THE SECTS OF ISLAM. 
 
 The Mu'tazila — ShCah — Khaw^rij — Murjia — Nejdriyya— Jabariyya 
 — Mushabbiha — Ash*ariyya — Sufis — Darwfsh Orders — Wahib- 
 bis — Druzes — Bdbis 229 
 
The Religion of Islam. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 THE S0UBGE8 OR FOUNDATIONS OF ISLAm. 
 
 Isldm (j.]L)),* the name applied by Muhammad himself 
 
 to his religion means the religion of resignation, submis- 
 sion to the will, the service, the commands of God. 
 
 The sources* ( Jy«1) from which the doctrines and pre- 
 
 - CO 
 
 cepts of Isldm are derived, or the foundations (^j'^l) on 
 which they rest, are the following four : 
 
 (1) the Qiir'dn (^^Ji^) (2), the Sun7ia (£^]) (3), the 
 
 Ijma' (cUx^l) (4), the Qids (^^Uiill) 
 
 * fX-* (IV) to resign, surrender, submit oneself. Inf: f»A-Wtheact 
 of resigning, submitting oneself.— The professor of Isldm is a Muslim 
 
 c > c > 
 
 ( .^ ^ pi. j.t^ -). The true religion with God is IsUm (Sura iii. 17). 
 
 He who desires a religion other than IsUm, it will not be accepted of him 
 (Sdra iii. 78, 79). In this sense Abraham and all the prophets down to 
 Muhammad are considered to have been Muslims (Si^ra iii. 60). 
 
 There are three terms used by Muslim writers to designate religion, 
 viz., ^j^j used to designate religion, as it stands in relation to God 
 
 as ^y i^*^ ; ^ ♦'''8 it stands in relation to the prophet or law-giver 
 
 >- » c - c . 
 
 f^iJtji\ iL» , J*-y\ ^ ; s-^<^ ^^ ^^ stands in relation to the founders of 
 
 > > c . 
 
 the religious systems of Islam, as SittfXm ^\ s-«ft<^. {See Jowh. 12—14.) 
 
 « These four sources of Islim are called the four proofs (&iqj5\ ^oS^) 
 
 or the traditional proofs (^Ql&J^ ^o^^) i.e., transmitted by tradition, in 
 
2 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The special branch^ of theology, which treats of the 
 interpretation of the principles of these four sources, and 
 of all the questions ( JJ'..^*^) connected with the same, is 
 called J^-cj(l U^, that is, ^^^jJI J^^l ^i and ^iail J^^l ^ — 
 
 science of the principles of dogmatics, and science of 
 the principles of fikh, which means practical theology, 
 jurisprudence. 
 
 The Qur'an,* the first foundation of Islam, is the book 
 which contains the revelations Muhammad professed to 
 have received from time to time, chiefly through the 
 mediation of the angel Gabriel, which he delivered 
 as a divine message to those about him, and which is, 
 
 therefore, called the Word of God (ill ^lS=>y 
 
 distinction from the proofs of reason (iJiSxJ^ ^Si\) ; they are also called 
 the proofs of (divine) Law {l^^\ ^S%\). The first two sources, Qur'in 
 and Tradition, are called the absolute, infallible proofs (A^«LaJ^ aJo3\) , 
 because they contain the absolutely true and undoubted fundamen- 
 tal doctrines of IsUm, while the other two are called the secondary 
 
 (^ol9:;s^^\ ^S%\) i.e., obtained by exertion in searching and in reasoning 
 
 by analogy. The former are called the Roots (J*<«^) J t^6 latter the 
 
 Branches, (^.J*), on account of their being derived from the roots and 
 dependent on them. 
 
 1 A very useful commentary on this branch of Muslim theology is the 
 book of the learned Banani called Ji^4^ C/" ^ ^J^^ 6^S^\ i^W 
 
 2 The word Qur'dn, from \^ to read, means the * reading ', or rather 
 that which is to be read, the * lectionary.' It was used at first to 
 designate a portion only of the Qur'dn, a lesson to be read, but was 
 subsequently, and is now, used to designate the whole collection of the 
 revelations of Muhammad (Siira xcvi.) 
 
 There are various other terms by which this collection of revelations is 
 designated, such as Furqdn (^U^\) from jJ to separate, to distinguish, 
 
THE QUK AN. 
 
 The Qur'an, as we now have it, consists of one hundred 
 and fourteen chapters of unequal length called Suras' 
 
 because it duitioguishos between truth and error, or because it is divid- 
 ed into sections (Hebrew: Perek, Pirka= portion, section of Scripture); Al- 
 Kitib (v*^^:^^^), the Book, the Biblia Sacra of Muslims; the Mushaf 
 
 (■ *^irt^^) the Volume, collection of sheets. 
 
 The learned Suyuti relates that when the Qur'au was collected into one 
 
 book, Ab& Bakr rcquesi<ed his companions to call it by an appropriate 
 
 c 
 
 name. Some proposed to call it Sifr (yu), others Mushaf, because the 
 Abyssinians used to call their holy book by this name. 
 
 1 ^jy* (Hcb. n'^'lir) means a row or series of stones in a building, 
 steps, and also a line in books or letters, applied to the chapters of the 
 (^ur*&u, each being, as it were, a distinct row or step in ihe building of the 
 whole. 
 
 Another division of the Qur'an is that into thirty sections, called oy^ pi. 
 •W^ made to enable ^luslims to read the whole of the Qur'in during the 
 thirty days of the fast of Ramadan. Each of these sections is subdivided into 
 four parts called ^^ pi. ^\ij\. There are various other divisions besides. 
 The numlxjr of words in the Qur'in is said to be 77,934 or 77,437. 
 
 These St&ras have each a special title, taken from a particular sub- 
 ject treated of in the same. Thus the second Sura is called the Sura of 
 the Cow (l^\ ^jy^) ; the third, the S6ra of the family of ' Imrin. 
 
 ((^\j*£^ J^ *;f*)- '^^''* *** "° doubt in imitation of the custom of the Jews. 
 Suy&ti mentions various traditions in support ' I Muhammad's having 
 himself called certain SAras or portions of the Quriti by the name which 
 they now bear. The verses are called «&>^\, signs, miracles, as each verse 
 is considered a divine miracle. Muhammad himself assured his adherents 
 that it would be impossible for men and genii, if they exerted them- 
 selves to the utmost, to produce any thing like them (Stira xvii. 90). This 
 inimitability of the Qur*&n is called the (^\J0\ 3^%c^ i.e., its rendering 
 any one incapable of producing anything iikeone of its verses. The Qur'an 
 itself is therefore considered a sufhcient proof of its divine origin and a 
 ' standing miracle* (J[^({ li\)^ For a complete list of the titles of the 
 Suras $ee Dictionary of Islim by Hughes, p. 490. 
 
 The last word of the verse is called FAsila (Slc\i pi. J-^yk), or 
 separating word (yj^^ aLoU). Suyuti says : •• God bus given to Uis Book. 
 
THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 ( 'ijy** pi. j^^y These are divided into verses (kA pi. 
 ci^'oT)- Each of the Siiras has a special title. 
 
 Muhammad and the Muslim doctors after him assert 
 that everything contained in the Qur'an rests on direct 
 
 the whole of it, as well as its parts, different names from what the Arabs 
 used to give to their books, for He called His Book as a whole (^ft 
 while the Arabs called their books Diwan (^^fciO, collection of poems) ; the 
 
 larger portions which they called Qasida, (fiji*^), He called Sura, and 
 
 the smaller portions which they call Bait (c^^ pi. «j^^^) lie called 
 Ayat, (liS) ; the FAsila (iLcU) of the Qur'an corresponds to the Qafia 
 (d^\i), or rhyme of their poems." 
 
 The style in which the Qur'an is written is a kind of rhyming 
 prose (^qs-^) «.c., language having a final rhyme (^U), without being 
 measured, a style much in use in the time of ^Muhammad, and liked by 
 the Arabs, and in which their soothsayers and poets (^V^ pi. ^^^.^ - 
 ^Vii pi. 9\^) used to speak. Some Muslim doctors, however, strongly 
 object to the style of the Qur'&n being called ^as-*, or rhyming speech, as 
 they consider it improper to ascribe to God artificial language. 
 
 The Qur'an is considered to be, not only the source of the know- 
 ledge of true religion, but of all knowledge and science in general. It is 
 looked up to as the standard of the Arabic language, grammar, style, 
 logic and is said to contain the elements of innumerable other sciences. 
 As to its excellency !Muhammad says : "He who reads a letter or syllable 
 of the Qur'an receives for it the recompense of a good action, and this 
 action is worth ten other good actions." — " The Qur'an contains a thou- 
 sand times and twenty thousand letters; he who reads it with the desire of 
 receiving a reward from God, and with patience, will receive (in Paradise) 
 a ' Houri ' as wife." For further details see Itqdn II, 88 ff. ; Ghazali Ihy^ 
 
 1, 168; Noldeke; Dictionary of Islam; Muir, the Qur'an. 
 
 Each of the Suras, except the ninth, begins with the basmala (iU-L}) 
 or the words: "In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate." 
 There are twenty-nine Siiras which have one or more letters of the alphabet 
 prefixed to them. They are considered to have some mysterious mean* 
 ing, which however only God and his Prophet know. Thus Siiras 
 
 2, 3, 29, 30, 31, 32 begin with ^^ J ^ ; Siira 13 with j ^ J ^ ; Siiras 10, 11, 
 12, 14, 15 with J J ^ ; Sura 19 with ^jax^ . For a curious explanation 
 of this last set of letters, see Sell's Essays on Islam, p. 225. For a com- 
 plete list and suppositions as to the meaning of the letters generally see 
 
INSPIRATION. 5 
 
 revelation from God, (^^), communicated to His Pro- 
 phet in a miraculous manner, chiefly by the mediation of 
 the ' Holy Ghost ' (.^-. jill -^^1), also called * the faithful 
 spirit* (^.cjII --^ J^) by which is, however, meant, according 
 
 to Muslim authorities, the Angel Gabriel. Suras (ii. 91, 
 xvi. 104, xxvi. 198). 
 
 The chief modes of this divine inspiration (^jsAl' <»^a^1^) 
 were, according to Suyiiti (Itqan i. 55), the following : 
 
 (1) By the mediation of an angel' coming to the Pro- 
 phet, with a peculiar sound like the tinkling of bells 
 
 Itqan II, 10-14. Sale. p. 4'J-4d. Dictionary of Iblim, 517, 518. Nul- 
 dckc, 215. Faith of Islim, p. G4. 
 
 1 The Angel Gabriel, on account of his being conuidcred the chief 
 mediator of inspiration, 18 called 'the Angel of Inspiration' ^^^b.^^ uDdii . 
 
 Other learned doctors, like KastalUni, the author of the famous 
 biography of Muhammad :— the i^jdJ\ h-*^^^ s-»^J'^ enumerate the 
 following modes, such as : — 
 
 Dream, vision (JL. £«jLJU^iJ\), inspiration of (i:ibricl intu the hciirl 
 of the Prophet without his seeing him (l\ji ^^^ ^ i-^ ^^ cdLJ\ iM^) 
 
 and the appearance of Gabriel to the Prophet in human shape. He is 
 said to have appeared to him several times in the shape of a certain 
 Duhayyi (\^j 5,^ ^ &^\i ^^\^ jih .Kj *aU\ aJ j£»-qi ^jL=). Inspira- 
 tion is said to be accompanied by tinkling of bells or by the Prophet's see- 
 ing Gabriel in his true shape (with six hundred wings) ; or the Pro- 
 phet's receiving revelations in heaven («w\^*-J\jyyfc^ &J^ &U\ 6 W\^U); 
 
 or God's speaking to the Prophet directly (^i^\^ )^ y\ &^ aIJ^ (•i^), 
 as He did to Moses, or God's speaking with the Prophet face to face, 
 without a separating curtain (v>W^;«A| (LUl^ a3 ^\ f^^-^sS). (Maw&hib 
 i. 271—278). 
 
 Besides the above enumerated modes of inspiration, Suyuti says that 
 •' possibly the Angel received the. revelation from God in a superuatural 
 
THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 (2) By instillation (C^aj) into the heart of the Prophet, 
 whispering, suggestion. (^^1=31 ^rj^ ^i ^-^^k) 
 
 (3) By the mediation of an angel in human shape. 
 
 (4) By the appearance of an angel to the Prophet 
 while asleep. (j»^jJ] ^i cJ^I^l 'A;) 
 
 (5) By direct communication from God to the Prophet 
 
 in his waking or sleeping state. (AW iLcL^r.^, ^J) 
 
 As regards the beginning of the revelations, 'Ayesha, 
 one of Muhammad's wives, says : " The first revelations 
 which the Prophet received were in true dreams, and he 
 never dreamt, but it came like the dawn of day. After this, 
 the Prophet became fond of retirement, and used to seclude 
 himself in a cave in Mount Hira and worship there day 
 and night — till one day the Angel came to him and said : 
 
 milliner, or learned it from the Preserved Tablet (iJ^a-J^ t^^) °^^ 
 which it was written, and that he came down and transmitted it to the 
 Prophet." Some are of opinion that Gabriel transmitted to Muhammad 
 both the meanings and the words of the Qur'an in Arabic ; others, however, 
 are of opinion that only the meanings were commmiicated to him, and 
 that he expressed them in Arabic. Others mention a variety of other 
 modes of inspiration, as many as forty-six different kinds. 
 
 1 -Muhammad at first had some doubt as to whether the angel that 
 appeared to him was a good angel or the devil, as he had also feared his 
 being possessed by an evil spirit ((^jy-^s^^). It is curious to observe how 
 Khadija, his wife, undertook to decide the question as to the character 
 of the angel and to prove the genuineness of the inspiration. Ibn Hishdm, 
 in his biography of the Prophet (i. 154), relates that when the angel once 
 apiaeared to Muhammad, she caused him (Muhammad) to sit on her left 
 thigh, then on her right thigh, then on her lap ; when Muhammad 
 assured her that the angel had not retired but remained in his place, she 
 took off her veil, (another version says ' caused Muhammad to slip into her 
 chemise') and asked Muhammad whether he still saw the angel ; on his 
 declaring that the angel had disappeared, Khadija said : "Be of good 
 cheer, my cousin, bv God it is an angel and not a devil." 
 
REVELATION OF TITF. QFR AN. 7 
 
 ' Read,' but the Prophet said : * I am not a reader.' Then 
 said Muhammad : " he took hold of me and squeezed me 
 as much as I could bear, and he then let me go and again 
 said : ' Read,' and I said : ' I am not a reader.' Then he 
 took hold of me a second time and squeezed me as much 
 as I could bear and then let me go and said : * Read,' 
 and I said : ' I am not a reader.' Then he took hold of 
 me a third time and squeezed me as much as I could 
 bear, and said : 
 
 * Read ! in the name of thy Lord who created ; 
 
 Created man from a clot of blood. 
 
 Read ! for thy Lord is the most beneficent, 
 
 He hath taught the use of the pen ; 
 
 He hath taught man that which he knoweth not.' 
 (Siira xrvi. 1 -•"■)) 
 
 Then the Prophet repeated the words himself, and with 
 his heart trembling returned {i.e., from Hir^ to Mecca) to 
 Khadija and said : ' Wrap me up ! wrap me up !' and they 
 wrapped him up in a garment till his fear was dispelled, 
 and he told Khadfja what had occurred, and he said : 
 * Verily I was afraid I should have died.' "* Then Khadija 
 said : * No, it will not be so. I swear by God, He will 
 never make thee ashamed. For verily thou art kind to 
 relatives, thou bearest the afflictions of the people, thou 
 art hospitable and assisteth thy fellow-men.' After this 
 
 Khadija took the Prophet to Waraqa (ai.^) bin Naufal, 
 her cousin, and said to him : * O my cousin, hear what 
 thy brother's son says.' Then Waraqa said to the Pro- 
 phet : '0 son of my brother! what doest thou see;' 
 
 1 A tradition mentions that Muhammad said : " They wrapped me 
 up and poured cold water over me.— BukhAri mentions that Waraqa bin 
 Naufal, the counin of Khadija, had embraced Christianity in the days of 
 ignorance," i.e., before Ist&m, and that he used to copy from the Hebrew 
 book (Thorah) and from the New Testament ( Jt>%>^), Bukhdri i. 2, 
 
8 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 then the Prophet told Waraqa what he had seen, and 
 Waraqa said : ' This is the Namiis (ij«w»Jj) which God 
 sent to Moses.' "* 
 
 *Ayesha also says : " Verily I saw him (Muhammad 
 perspire when the revelation came down to him, he be- 
 came melancholy and turned pale in the face " and also : 
 " When the revelation came down to him, he used 
 to cover his head and his face, his teeth became cold 
 and the perspiration ran down on his skin in drops like 
 pearls." Another Tradition says that " froth appeared 
 before his mouth and he roared like a young camel." 
 (Bukharii. 2. Mishkat). 
 
 After this first appearance of the Angel, tradition says 
 that the revelations stopped for sometime (six months, two 
 or three years, according to different authorities), which 
 made Muhammad so sad that he determined to commit 
 suicide by throwing himself from the top of "a hill ; "but 
 when he went up in order to carry out his intention, 
 Gabriel is said to have appeared to him and to have said 
 to him : " Muhammad, verily thou art the Prophet of 
 God in truth." At these words he was comforted and at 
 ease. The Imam Ahmad says : ** God appointed the 
 Angel Israfil to be the Prophet's companion for three 
 years, during which interval he instructed him ; but no 
 Quran was sent down to him through his instrument- 
 ality ; then God sent Gabriel to be with him, and 
 through the instrumentality of this Angel the Qur'an was 
 sent down to him for the space of twenty years.* 
 
 1 For the Arabic text see Bukh4ri ii. 2-3. Nimus evidently means the 
 
 v6fio<;, or the Law, Mawihib i. 254-259. 
 
 2 Some portions are said to have been communicated to INIuhammad 
 directly from the "Treasury of Mercy below the throne of God," 
 f6^\ ^»c o.aJ ^^ L^^2\ yi.^ (^) which is considered a privilege 
 granted to no other prophet but Muhammad. 
 
REVELATION OF THE QUR'AN. 9 
 
 The Qur'an is said to have been extant in the highest 
 heaven from eternity,* written on the Preserved Table 
 (l?^ft^-<Jl •-jJJ') iiea,r the throne of God, and from thence to 
 have been sent down to the lowest heaven, in the month 
 
 of Ramadan, in the night of Al Qadr (;J^1 iij3, night of 
 the decree) and stored up there in the Temple of Majesty 
 (sjjJI ei^Ji)T from whence it was revealed to Muhammad 
 in smaller or larger portions in the course of twenty 
 to twenty-five years. (Jowh, 89. Itqan i. 47-49). 
 
 Muhammad never undertook the task of collecting and 
 systematically arranging his revelations in one book, and 
 the Qur'an, as we now have it, did not, therefore, exist in 
 his life-time. The several portions had been written, 
 down from his lips,* from time to time, by an amanuensisj 
 or some friend or follower present, on any material thatl 
 happened to be at hand such as palm-leaves, bones, stones, \ 
 leather, etc. For the space of about a year also after 
 Muhammad's death no need was felt for collecting and 
 arranging these portions, as they were preserved in the 
 retentive memorfes of the many * Readers ' of the Qur'dn. 
 When however various readings crept into the holy text, 
 and ^umbers of the readers who had. learned the Qur'An 
 from the Prophet's lips' had fallen in the many battles 
 
 1 The Qur'An is now held by all orthodox Muslims to bo eternal and 
 uncreated ( J^l^^ j^ - M-i^) when the essential word of God is meant ; 
 but when the written and pronounced Qur'An is meant, it is not eternal 
 but created. 
 U ^ - j^bi^ ^ ^j..Jui\ (O^^ ^yj^ ^Y\ fj\ lL^\ JA\ w-aX. 
 
 (Jowh G8. 88) jjyUi^ ^ i]^ ^JJ\ ItAU^ ^yju^ ^\jSi\ 
 Ghazdli says on the subject : •• The Qur'An is read and pronounced with 
 the tongue, written in books, and kept in memory and yet is eternal, 
 subsisting in God's essence' {i.e., the meanings of the Qur'An are in God,) 
 co-essential and co-eternal with him, but the written book containing 
 them is recent and created." 
 
 2 
 
10 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 that were fought in those times, it was felt by many that, 
 if the various portions of the Holy Book were not collected 
 and arranged, and the various readings sifted and the true 
 text fixed and written down, much of the text might be 
 lost, and the greatest confusion of various readings be the 
 result of such neglect. *Umar bin al Khattab was the 
 first to give expression to the want thus felt. He advised 
 Abu Bakr, who was the Khalif at the time, to order the 
 Qur'an to be collected into one book. Abu Bakr hesitated 
 at first, but at last he consented and ordered Zaid bin 
 Thabit (c:-o'j ^j Jo :) to undertake the task. The various 
 portions of the Qur'an were collected from the materials 
 on which they had been written, and from the memories^ 
 of men and written down by Zaid on * sheets ' (u-c=s:'^) and 
 
 1 Among those to whom Muhammad had occasionally dictated his 
 revelations were 'Ali and 'Uthmdn. Among the amanuenses who were 
 formally engaged for such work we see Zaid bin Thdbit, who is also said to 
 have learned Hebrew for the purpose of conducting the Prophet's corre- 
 spondence with the Jews. As many as twenty-four persons are mentioned 
 as having occasionally acted as scribes. At Mecca, when Muhammad had 
 no regular scribe, he had the assistance of Khadija,^Varaqa, 'Ali and Abu 
 Bakr, who all could read and write. At Muhammad's death the materials 
 on which portions of the Qur'6n had been written down were found 
 heaped up in the room of Hafasa, one of his wives. 
 
 Even during Muhammad's lifetime various readings had crept into 
 the text of the Qur'dn which gave occasion to him to declare ' that the 
 
 Qur'&n had been revealed in seven versions' (cJp.\ &*.. , ^^ J)'^)' 
 
 Bukhiri iii. 188, Itq&n i. 56—59. 
 
 Abu Bakr, at first, hesitated to give the order for collecting and editing the 
 Qur'in, as he said that he had received no authority or command on the 
 subject from the Prophet. Zaid, an intelligent young man, who had been 
 accustomed to write down the revelations, being aware of the difficulties 
 and the importance of the task at first refused to undertake it ; but, on 
 being urged again and again, consented and collected whatever he could 
 from the scattered portions of the Qur'dn, written on palm-leaves, bones 
 etc., and from the memories of men. One portion he found with a single, 
 man only. (For further details see : Itkdn i. 71-74 ; Bukhdri iii. 186 — 
 188 ; Muir's Life of Muhammad, 551 ff. Dictionary of Isl4m, 486—489). 
 
ZAID*S RECENSION. 11 
 
 delivered to Abu Bakr who preserved them during his 
 lifetime. 
 
 The Shi'ah sects pretend that *Ali collected the Qur'in into a volume 
 during Muhammad's lifetime and at his command. {See Noldekc, 191, 
 Sprenger III. p. xliv.) 
 
 On what principles Zaid performed his task of collecting and editing 
 the Qur'dn, and what was the exact character of this first edition, it is 
 difficult to ascertain, as no copies of the same have been preserved. What 
 we can collect on the subject from various records still extant is: 
 
 (1) That the collector and editor, Zaid, one of Muhammad's scribes 
 was, on the whole, a man well-qualified for such kind of work ; that ho 
 was a young man " intelligent, honest and unbiassed " and, therefore, not 
 suspected of having any iucliuation to tamper with the text of the Qur'&n. 
 
 (2) That he had been instructed not to receive anything as belonging to 
 the Qur'An unless two witnesses at least testified to this being the case. 
 
 (3) That in putting together the portions of the Qur'in, he in general 
 followed the original from which he copied, but occasionally added verses 
 to a longer Chapter, or portion, without regard to sense and connection. 
 
 (4) That he does not seem to have arranged the Qur'dn into Siiras, but 
 to have only collected the materials he found in parts or portions (iJk«s* 
 sheets, loaves, bundles). This is confirmed by a tradition which says : * ho 
 collected it, not arranged into Sdras, after immense trouble.' 
 
 (5) That his edition, though complete on the whole, did not contain 
 every verse which had been ' revealed.' Some parts may have been 
 suppressed by Muhammad, others forgotten. 
 
 (G) That it is not likely that either Zaid or 'Umar intentionally altered 
 any part of the text, or made additions or omissions. 
 
 (7) That Zaid's edition does not, however, seem to have been generally 
 received as the authoritative text and standard edition, for a number of 
 the Qur'An readers continued to read certain verses in a different way, in 
 which they pretended to have heard them from the Prophet, without) 
 regard to the text fixed by AbA.Bakr. Still, there is no doubt that this 
 first compilation was of very great importance, as it formed a generally 
 reliable basis for a later revised edition. 
 
 (Itqin i. 71-74; Muir's Life of Muhammad, pp. 556-577; Noldeke, 189- 
 204 ; Dictionary of Islim, 48G-487. Sell's Essayson IslAm, pp. 218-241, in 
 which the Arabic text of the lost Sura, the Suratu'n Nurain, is given). 
 
12 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Notwithstanding this attempt of xlbii Bakr to fix an 
 authoritative text of the Qur'an, which would be generally 
 received, and to do away with all "readings" differing 
 from it, the differences in reading the Qur'an not only 
 continued, but increased and spread in the various coun- 
 tries subjected to the Muslim rule to such a degree that 
 the greatest confusion ensued, and angry strife and con- 
 troversy was the result thereof.* 
 
 1 'Uthmdn also had recourse to Zaid b Thdbit with whom ho asso- 
 ciated a syndicate of three members of the Quraish. He sent to Hafasa 
 
 requesting her to send those portions which she had, (*.Ji^^\^ saying : 
 •• I shall have a number of copies taken of them and then return them." 
 •Uthm4n then ordered Zaid and 'Abdu'llih bin Jubair and Said ibn-ul- 
 Aas, 'Abdu'r Rahmdn al Harith to take copies of them. (Itqdn i, 74-76). 
 To these he said : " When you and Zaid differ in anything concerning the 
 language of the Qur'an, then write it in the language (dialect) of the 
 Quraish, for it was revealed in their language." They did as 'Uthmdn 
 had commanded them, and the old original was returned to Hafasa. 
 Transcripts of the new recension were then forwarded to the chief cities 
 in the empire and the previously existing copies were all, by the Khalif's 
 command, committed to the flames. Bukhari says that the copy of Abii 
 Bakr's recension, committed to the keeping of Hafasa, was soon after 
 destroyed by Marwan, governor of Madina, lest it should make people to 
 doubt. Copies of this new edition were sent to Kiifa, Basra, Yaman, 
 Bahrain and Damascus ; one copy remained at Madfna. The secopies seem, 
 however, to have been soon lost, and no trace of them is to be found now. 
 
 This edition of 'Uthmdn has been handed down to us. Notwithstand- 
 ing the care which had been taken to produce an absolutely correct edition, 
 it seems that it did not prove to be quite free from mistakes, (orthogra- 
 phical, grammatical, idiomatic), for 'Uthman, on examining the copies 
 written at his command, said : " I perceive mistakes in them but the 
 Arabs will correct them." (s-»;«5^ d.^*;:- ^ Ua^ t5;^)- 
 
 A comparison of a nutrtber of copies of the Qur'an will show that it is, as 
 little as any ancient book, free from various readings ; ("_ vj^UU* - &j\.» 
 «t>'\^J - bf>\.ij They do not, however, amount to any important altera- 
 tion of the sense of the text, and are, chiefly, the result of the ignorance or 
 negligence of the transcribers, or their desire to correct what they consi- 
 dered not quite clear or correct. 
 
THE QUR'aN readers. 13 
 
 In consequence of the alarming spread of the differ- 
 ences in reading the Qur'an and the great confusion 
 caused by the same, the Khalif 'Uthman was persuaded 
 to have a new recension of the Qur'an made, which was 
 to be accepted as the authorized and standard text of the 
 Holy Book, and which was to do away with all readings 
 differing from the same.* 
 
 The chief Qur'an-readers (^IJ li'i^) who were recom- 
 mended by Muhammad himself, as regards their correct 
 and extensive knowledge of the Qur'an, and of whom he 
 said : *' Learn the Qur'an from them " (Lc.l ^c mj M^ ^^^) 
 are the following four : — * 
 
 1. *Abdu'llah bin Mas'iid (jy»-^,c ^^ idi^ jjlc) 
 
 2. Salim bin Ma'qal (JJUa. ^ JU) 
 
 3. Ma'az bin Jabal (d^^ ^^ jU^c) 
 
 4. Ubai ibn Ka'b. (S-^*^ u^^ ^'-^^ 
 
 Addani in his book oW*J^ ^; ^^ ^^iiW treats at largo on this 
 subject. (Itqin i. 12-7 ff.) Noldcke in his Geschichtcs des Qur'dns gives 
 a full list of the varianta extracted from that work, see pp. 237-266. 
 
 1 At last Hudaifa bin al Yaman (1^51) who had warred both in 
 Armenia and Azerbijan, and had obKcrvcd the difference between the 
 readings of the Syrians and the men of Irak, alarmed at the number and 
 extent of the variations, warned the Khalif ' Uthm&n to interpose, 
 '• before they should differ (regarding their Scriptures) as did the Jews 
 and the Christians." 
 
 « The first two were of the Refugees (^j^^^**) and the other two 
 of the Ansir (.l^\, Helpers, Madina men). SAlim, died at the battle of 
 Yamama, and Ma'&i during the Khalifate of 'Umar, Ubai and 'AbduMldh 
 bin Mas'dd during the Khalifate of 'UthmAn. Zaid outlived them all, and 
 became the chief authority on the Qur'an. Suyuti says : " those of the 
 Companions (s^C^*\) of the Prophet who who were celebrated for their 
 knowledge of the Qur'an are seven : ' UthmAn, ' Ali, Ubai, Zaid, Ibn Ma'siid, 
 Abd Dardai, Abu Mdsa-ul-Ash'ari. From them the knowledge of the 
 Qur*4n was transmitted to a number of the ' Followers (^jijLJ\) 
 For details see Itqdn i. 88 sqq. 
 
14 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Among the Qur'an readers in the various dominions, 
 of Islam the following seven are considered as of higher 
 authority than all others, and their readings are consider- 
 ed the standard readings. They are called the seven 
 
 Imams (LuuJl ^xJjfl Itqan i, 92) Ndfi' (^i^j) AbiVAmar 
 (j^z ^i\) Ihn 'Amir ( .-c'.c ^^1) 'Asiin (^Az) Hamza 
 
 (sixxs-) Al Kisai ( J'.>^*^1)' To these some add three more, 
 so that we often read of the ten Imams. The generally 
 recognized ones however are the above mentioned seven. 
 
 For further details on this subject see Itkan 88-104. Noldeke, p. 234- 
 299. Sell's Faith of Islam, pp. 332-358. 
 
 The varianta are divided into several classes, according 
 to the authority on which they rest, and the value they 
 consequently possess. They are called : 
 
 (1) s'^yj when resting on the authority of one of the 
 seven Imams. 
 
 (2) L^.. when transmitted by some one on the author- 
 ity of one of these Imams. 
 
 (3) ^,\s when mentioned by some learned doctor of 
 later authority. 
 
 (4) dc^j when the reader is at liberty to choose be- 
 tween the various readings. (Itqan i, 93-97). 
 
 The Siiras of the Qur'an are neither arranged chrono- 
 logically nor according to matter ; but chiefly as to length 
 or shortness. The long Siiras were placed first and the 
 short ones last. Within the Suras, some portions have 
 been arranged in chronological order, others on the ground 
 of similarity of matter ; but in a variety of instances pass- 
 ages are joined together without any regard to either 
 chronology or similarity of subject. Thus we find verses 
 revealed at Mecca in the midst of Madina Suras, and 
 passages revealed at Madina mixed up in the earlier Mecca 
 
THE SURAS. 15 
 
 Siiras, and occasional!}^ most heterogeneous materials put 
 together without any regard to logical connexion at all. 
 
 It is, however, of great importance, for the sake of the 
 exegesis of the Qur'an, to ascertain, as far as this is 
 possible, the chronological order in which the Si\ras, or 
 various parts of the Siiras, have been revealed.* 
 
 In general the Siiras may be divided into : 
 
 (1) Mecca Suras (xX^s^ jy^) i.e., Siiras revealed at 
 Mecca, or more correctly the Siiras revealed before Mu- 
 hammad's flight to Madina. 
 
 (2) Madina Siiras (Juij^ ,^) i.e., Siiras revealed at 
 Madfna, or more correctly all Siiras revealed after the 
 flight to Madina, whether revealed in that city itself, or 
 in some other place. 
 
 Commentators have laid down certain rules by which 
 they say that the Meccan Siiras can be distinguished from 
 the Madina Siiras such as 
 
 (1) What begins by " ye believers" (yiJ ^^jJl 1^1 [>) 
 belongs to the later Madina Siiras. 
 
 1 For classification of the S&ras according to Arabic authorities see 
 Itq&n i. 10-12. 
 
 Though it is not possible to fix with absolute certainty the time at 
 which each portion of the Qur'in has been revealed, still we have material 
 which will help us in ascertaining, for the greater part of the same, the 
 period and the occasion at which they were ♦ revealed*. 
 
 Many works have been written on the subject by learned doctors of 
 Isl4m. AbA-l-Kdsim Neisaburi says: ♦• One of the most noble branches 
 of the sciences of the Qur'an is the knowledge of the manner, the occasion 
 and the place of the revelation of the Qur'An and the chronological order 
 in which the SAras have been revealed at Mecca, and what at Madfna, and 
 what at other places. He who does not know these things is not allowed 
 to speak on the Book of God." (Itq&n i. 10.) 
 
16 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 (2) What begins with : " ye sons of Adam," or ^' O 
 ye people" (^jT Ju b -_ ^j^Ull U^J'o) belongs to the Mecca 
 Sdras. 
 
 (3) Passages in which the '* by-gone generations " 
 ( .. Jill. j^Ji)) are referred to are of Meccan origin. 
 
 (4) Passages which contain laws and ordinances' ( Juw 
 ^1 i ) belong to the later Madina Siiras. According 
 to Ibn 'Abbas, there are twenty-seven Madina Siiras ; 
 the remainder are Meccan. 
 
 European Scholars, such as Weil, Noldeke, Muir, Rod- 
 well, Palmer adopt different classifications, which vary in 
 several points from that of the Muslim doctors. 
 
 Sir W. Muir gives the following approximative chrono- 
 logical order of the Siiras : 
 
 First Period. Eighteen Siiras : 103, 100, 99, 91, 106, 1, 
 101, 95, 102, 104, 82, 92, 105, 89, 90, 93, 94, 108. These 
 are all short rhapsodies. They may have been composed 
 before Muhammad had conceived the idea of a Divine 
 Mission. 
 
 Second Period. The opening of Muhammad's minis- 
 try, Siiras 96, 113, 74, 111. 
 
 Third Period. From the commencement of Muham- 
 mad's public ministry to the Abyssinian emigration, 
 Siiras, 87, 97, 88, 80, 81, 84, 86, 110, 85, 83, 78, 77, 76, 
 75, 70, 109, 107, 55, 56. These are chiefly composed of 
 descriptions of the Resurrection, Paradise and Hell, with 
 references to the growing opposition of the Quraish. 
 
 Fourth Period. From the 6th to the 10th year of 
 Muhammad's ministry, Siiras, 67, 53, 32, 39, 73, 79, 54, 
 34, 31, 69, 68, 41, 71, 52, 50, 45, 44, 37, 30, 26, 15, 51. 
 With this period begin narratives from Jewish Scriptures 
 and rabbinical and Arab legends. The temporary compro- 
 mise with idolatry is connected with Siira 53. 
 
THE ST^RAS. 17 
 
 Fifth Period. From the 10th year of Muhammad's 
 ministry to the flight to Medina, Siiras 46, 72, 35, 36, 19, 
 18, 27, 42, 40, 38, 25, 20, 43, 12, 11, 10, 14, 6, 64, 28, 23, 
 1% 21, 17, 16, 13, 29, 7, 113, 114. The Siiras of this 
 period contain some narratives from the Gospel. 
 
 Sixth Period. Siiras 98, 2, 3, 8, 47, 62, 5, 59, 4, 58, 
 65, 63, 24, 33, 57, 61, 48, 60, 66, 49, 9.» 
 
 In Rodwell's Qur'an translated from the Arabic, the 
 Suras are arranged in chronological order. Professor 
 Palmer in his translation of the Qur'an into English gives 
 an abstract of the contents of each Siira of the Qur'dn, 
 which may also be found in the Dictionary of Islam, 
 p. 492-515. 
 
 There are in the Qur'an passages suggested by men. 
 Suyiiti mentions that in several cases the ' Truth' was also 
 revealed through the instrumentality of other persons 
 than the Prophet.' 
 
 iFor more detoilA Mt Muir, The Qur'&n, 43-47. Ndldeke 45-174. 
 Sell's Historical Development of the Qur'in, S. P. C. K. 
 
 « Thus he mentions that Ibn Merdawiyya said : •• 'Umar used to have 
 an opinion on a certain subject and lo ! a Qur'4n revelation came down in 
 accordance with the same." Bukhiri also reports on this subject : 
 •' 'Umar used to say : • I and my Lord (God) agreed in three things." 
 I said ' O Apostle of God, that we might adopt the ^rakAm of Abraham, 
 the Ka'ba, as a place of worship '—and a revelation came down to that 
 effect : * Take ye the Mak4m (sanctuary) of Abraham for a place of worship.' 
 (Sdra ii. 119) ; then I said: 'O Apostle of God,' I see the pious and the 
 wicked enter thy house and look at thy wives ; it would therefore be better 
 if thou didst command them to put up a curtain, and lo! — the verse of 
 the curtain (^^\^^\ d^^) was revealed : ' When ye ask them (the 
 Prophet's wives) for an article, ask them from behind a curtain ' (Si^ra 
 xxxiii. 53); then when I saw the wives of the Apostle of God collect 
 around him in a state of jealousy I said : ' Perhaps God will make him 
 divorce you and give him better wives than you are ' and lo ! — a revela- 
 tion came down in these terms ' (SAra Ixvi. 5). 'Umar further says : 
 " When the verse * Truly we have created man of a choice sort of earth ' 
 (86ra xxiii. 12) was revealed, I exclaimed : ' Blessed be God the most 
 excellent of creators ! ' and this (exclamation) was literally received into 
 
 8 
 
18 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Though the Qur'an is, on the whole, a complete collec- 
 tion of the revelations of Muhammad, still some smaller 
 portions seem to have been omitted when it was collected 
 into a volume, so that it cannot be considered as abso- 
 lutely complete.^ 
 
 the Qur'An." Al Bard also says : •* When the verse * Those of the 
 believers who remain at home and those who fight in the way of God are 
 not alike ' (Sura iv. 97) was revealed, the Prophet said : ' Call Zaid and let 
 him bring the tablet and the inkstand,' then he said to him : ' write, 
 Those of the believers who remain at home and those who fight in the 
 way of God are not alike.' Hereupon AmrA bin Umm Maktum, a blind 
 man who stood behind him exclaimed : * What dost thou command me 
 O Apostle of God, for I am a blind man.' In consequence of this, the 
 verse was changed to ' Those of the believers who remain at home, except 
 those who have a defect, . . . (Sura iv. 97.) See Baid4wi's Commentary 
 on the verse. 
 
 Several other instance of this kind are mentioned by SuyAti, showing 
 that Muhammad had no objection to embody in the Qur'An opinions and 
 expressions from other people, when he considered them suitable and 
 expressive. It seems difficult to reconcile this with the orthodox doctrine 
 that every single word of the Qur'in was from eternity written on the 
 Preserved Table and communicated to Muhammad by direct divine reve- 
 lation (Itq&n i. 43 e^ seqq.) 
 
 1 Suyuti (Itqdn ii, 30-32) mentions that 'Umar is reported to have said : 
 ** some of you say ' I possess the whole Qur'dn,' but how can he know 
 what is the whole Qur'd-n since a great portion of the same has disappear- 
 ed. Let him rather say : * I possess of it what is still extant ;' also of 
 'Ayesha that she said: 'the Siira of the Confederates (xxxiii) consisted 
 at the time of the Prophet of two hundred verses ; when 'Uthmdn wrote 
 the Mushaf, he was only able to collect of it what it now contains ' 
 (i.e. 73 verses) ; also that * Ubai bin K'ab said to Zarr bin Jeish : How 
 many verses dost thou count the Siira of the Confederates ? He replied 
 seventy-two or seventy-nine." ' Ubai said : ' It used to be as long as 
 the S6ra of the cow (286 verses), and we used to read in it the 'verses of the 
 stoning ' of the adulterer (i»;^J\ &>\). ^^^^ said : ' what is the verse of the 
 stoning,' to which 'Ubai replied : ' If the old man and the old woman 
 commit adultery, stone them.'" 
 
 'Umar himself was so convinced that this verse was part of the 
 Qur'An that he said : " If I were not afraid that people would say 'Umar 
 has added something to the Book of God, I should write it down in 
 the Qur'&n." 
 
ABROGATION. 19 
 
 There are in the Qur'an a number of passages which 
 contradict each other (^^li)* In order to remove from 
 the Holy Book the reproach of contradiction and incon- 
 sistency, Muhammad himself set up the theory of abroga- 
 
 tion (^*«J). In Siira ii. 100, God is made to say : '* Whatever 
 verse we abrogate (^.«Ju 'w<)> or cause thee to forget, 
 
 we will bring a better one than it, or one like it.'* 
 This theory was subsequently worked out more sys- 
 tematically by Muslim theologians.* 
 
 Another passage which 'Aycsha affirms they used to read as part of 
 the Qur'dn, and which is no moro to be found in the same, is a verso 
 commanding mothers to suck their children for the space of ten 
 months (Itqin ii. 2G). One very remarkable instance of the suppres- 
 sion of a verse, which Muhammad used to read for sometime as part of 
 the Qur*4n, is that of the verse : " Those idols (of the Meccan idolaters) 
 are the noble beings, and verily their intercession may be looked for." 
 (^j^j^ ^q^'*^*^ f^\ . ^Jj^\ ,J^\ji\ *^) Later on Muhammad declared it 
 not to have been a divine revelation but a satanic suggestion. (Mawdhib i. 
 336. Muir's Life of Muhammad, pp. 8C-91. Noldeko, p. 80). Suyiiti men- 
 tions various other verses which formed originally part of the Qur'dn, but 
 which are no more extant in the same. The learned doctors of IsUm 
 explain such omissions by saying that God has taken away (aJ^) the 
 passages alluded to, causing them to be either quite forgotten or at 
 all events not to be written down in the Book. 
 
 1 *Ab6-l-K4sim Hibatu'llAh bin Salama, the author of the book 
 iy..^\^ ^^\ s^U^, divides the abrogated passages (^\i abrogating ; 
 ty'-J^ abrogated) into three classes : 
 
 (1) Passiigcs the sense of which is abrogated, but the words remain — 
 iSy% ^.o K^f^m f^ U, e.g.f the Jerusalem Qibla, abrogated by the 
 
 Ka'ba Qibla. 
 
 (2) Passages the words of which have been abrogated, but the sense 
 remains rt»^* ^.o &;.)^ ^^ U e.g., the command of stoning adulterers, 
 
 the words of which are no more extant in the Qur'in, but the com- 
 mand still remains obligatory. 
 
 (3) Passages abrogated both as to the sense and the words — 
 
 U^ A*^m . Ajf^SJ f^ U e.g.y the verse commanding the mothers to suck 
 
20 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 An important subject in connexion with the exegesis of 
 the Qur'an is the knowledge of what are called the 
 obscure or, ambiguous and the clear verses of the Qur'an 
 
 (^£=i^^l^ iOl^AxJI). In Sdra iii. 5 it is said : " He it is. 
 who has revealed to thee the Book of which there are 
 some verses that are clear (perspicuous) these are the 
 mother (basis) of the Book — and others are ambiguous 
 (figurative) ; — as for those in whose heart is perversity, 
 they follow what is ambiguous and do crave for sedition, 
 craving for their own interpretation of it, but none know 
 the interpretation of it but God. But those who are well 
 
 their children for the space of ten months. (For more details see 
 Itq&n ii. 24-32). 
 
 As regards abrogating and abrogated passages, great differences of 
 opinion exist between the many authors who have made this doctrine 
 the special subject of their studies, some holding that only a passage 
 of the Qur'dn is able to abrogate another passage of the Qur'an, others 
 maintaining that the Sunna also, i.e., saying of :Muhammad, being also 
 ♦ of God ' is able to abrogate even a passage of the Qur'dn. 
 
 Only such passages, however, as contain a command (f\) or prohibition 
 
 ((-5^) °^^^ ^^ abrogated. Historical portions, reports (^i*) promises (J^^) 
 threatening (J^^) can never be abrogated. (Itqdn ii. 25, a list of the 
 abrogating and the abrogated passages, according to the Itq4n, is to be 
 found in Dictionary of Isldm p. 520. Faith of IslAm, pp. 74-77). 
 
 It is, therefore, a mistake when some Christian controversialists state 
 that the Muslims hold that the Old Testament (i>\jf) has been abrogated 
 by the New Testament ( J-as*^) and that both have been abrogated by the 
 Qur'an. 
 
 They hold no such opinion, as, according to the abovementioned rule, 
 only such passages of the Old and New Testaments (divinely inspired 
 books) as contain a command or a prohibition could be abrogated, and all 
 other portions, history, promises, threats can never be abrogated in the 
 technical sense of the word abrogation. 
 
 There are a number of passages in the Qur'an which the learned say are 
 only * apparently ' contradictory ; but which can by proper interpretation 
 be brought into harmony. If this should, however, be impossible, one of 
 the contradictory passages must be declared abrogating " as it is impossible 
 to admit that the Qur'an contradicts itself." (Itqan ii. 32-37). 
 
SOURCES OF THE QUR'AN. 21 
 
 grounded in knowledge say : * We believe in it ; it is all 
 from our Lord ; but none will remember but those who 
 possess minds.' "^ 
 
 Though Muhammad pretended that every word of the 
 Qur'an was the result of divine inspiration,* it must 
 become evident that by far the greater portion of it 
 consists of materials collected from Jews, Christians, 
 Sabeans, Magi and pagan Arabs. 
 
 1 Thero arc various opiutous with regards to these two kinds of verses, 
 but the more generally adopted one is that the clear, perspicuous (^^^■>*) 
 ones are those clearly understood without any allegorical interpretation, 
 and the ambiguous, figurative ones, those which God has reserved to His 
 own knowledge, such as the verses which refer to the Last Day, the 
 appearing of Antichrist, the letters at the beginning of the Si^ras, also 
 such expressions as face, hand, right hand, when applied to God. " These 
 verses are to be believed, but not to be explained." (For more details sec 
 Itqin ii. 2-15, and, alao Ibn Khaldun ; also Faith of Isl&m pp. 169-70 
 for a different reading in Sdra iii. 5 and the important result which 
 followed from it.) 
 
 • The Muslim divines declare that Muhammad being the ' illiterate 
 Prophet* (^5^ ^j{jj^) unable to read and to write, ho could not have 
 obtained the contents of the Qur'An, except through divine revelation, and 
 that the Qur'4n, under these circumstances, must be considered one of the 
 greatest proofs of Muhammad's prophetic character. 
 
 Whether Muhammad knew how to read and to write is a controverted 
 question. Most Muslims deny it ; some however affirm it. As a number of 
 people at Mecca were conversant with the art of reading and writing, and 
 Muhammad was a most intelligent man and had acted for a long time as 
 mercantile agent for Khadiji it is not unnatural to suppose that he too 
 was able to read and to write. That he did not, however, possess any 
 part of the Old or New Testament from which he might have derived 
 much of his information, is pretty certain. Still, it is a fact that he had 
 many opportunities at Mecca, on his journeys to Syria, and during his 
 stay at Madina of obtaining religious information from Kos, bishop of 
 Negran, Waraqa, StUmin the Persian and the Jews at Madina. {See Ibn 
 Hisham i. 144. Sprenger i. GO and 102-137. Rodwell Qur'4n, Introduction 
 p. xviii., Geiger's Was hat Muhammadans dem Judenthum aufgenommen 
 in English Translation (S. P. C. K., Madras). Gerock Christologie des 
 Qur'4n, Noldcke 1—15, Tisdall's Sources of IsUm). 
 
 It has been said with much truth " that Isl4m owes more to Judaism 
 than it docs to either Christianity or Sabaism and that it is simple 
 
22 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM^ 
 
 Commentaries on the Qur'an are numerous. Very soon 
 after Muhammad's death, some of his companions and 
 chief followers began to comment on certain passages 
 of the Qur'an. Among the first who did so are men- 
 tioned the four first Khalifs, 'Ali, Mas'iid, Ibn 'Abbas, 
 Zaid ibn Thabit, Abu Musa bin Ash'ari.^ 
 
 The commentaries chiefly consulted at present are : 
 Al Jalalain . ^Jiliull ^^LaJI ^mJ6 ^3 ^j^jJil^Jl u-?Uv£=i!l 
 
 It is the joint worli of Jalalu's Suyiiti and Zatalu'l 
 Mahalli. (864 a.h.) It is printed at Boulak. 
 
 Al Baidawi (685 a.h.) Jj^IaII^I^^^ JjjJuil^lyl v— ?Ia^ 
 ^_^.'^jdJ Ed. Fleischer, Leizig 2 vol. 
 
 Al-Baghaici (515 A. H.) ^^'x^ x^i 
 
 Az-Zamakhshari (604 a.h.) Jjjlii) jJUa^ ^c t-jl^£=i!] 
 ^JL^^j\l I. II. Calcutta, 
 
 Muhammad Bdzi FakhanCd Din (606 a.h.) ^n^^j.*]) J^>\a^ 
 4^'U)^;jJl^* j^-o.^^ ^Um Boulak. 
 
 Talmudic Judaism adapted to Arabic, plus the apostleship of Jesus and 
 Muhammad, and that where Muhammad, departs from the monotheistic 
 principles, as in the idolatrous practice of the pilgrimage to the Ka'ba, it 
 is evident that it is done as a necessary concession to the national feelings 
 and sympathies of the people of Arabia.", (Deutsch.) 
 
 1 Among these, the chief man is no doubt Ibn 'Abbds (68 A.H.) 
 a cousin of Muhammad, for their fathers were brothers. He lived at 
 Madhia and is said to have been only thirteen years of age at the time of 
 the Prophet's death. He fought in North Africa and was appointed by 
 *Ali, the Governor of Basra. After the do.ath of 'Ali, he retired from 
 public service and devoted himself entirely to the study of the Qur'in. 
 He was'the great authority on the Qur'an and was therefore called ' the 
 Interpreter of the Qur'an ' {^^\^\ <jU=.y), and ' the Ocean ' (^^), and 
 may be considered the Father of the exegesis of the Qur'an. (Itqdn 
 ii. 221. Sprenger iii. cvi). For a list of the chief of the earlier commen- 
 tators (2nd and 3rd century A. H.) See Itqdn ii. 222-226— Sprenger iii. 
 104-120. Of these, however, we only know the names; their commen- 
 taries are lost. 
 
EDITIONS OP THE QUR*An. 23 
 
 The best European edition of the Arabic Qur'an is the 
 Gorani Textus Arabicus. ed. Gustav Fliigel Lipsiae 4to. 
 A book which will be found most useful in the study of 
 the Qur'in is a concordance on the same, ConcorantisB 
 Corani Arabicse Ed. Fluegel Lypsite. Of English transla- 
 tions, with introductory remarks and more or less copious 
 explanatory notes on the text, these may be mentioned : — 
 
 The Qur'an by George Sale. The Qur'an by J. M. 
 Rod well. The Qur'an by E. H. Palmer. Some useful 
 books are : — The Qur'an, its Composition and Teaching by 
 Sir W. Muir, London, published by the Religious Tract 
 Society : also Sell's Historical Development of the Qur'an, 
 (S. P. C. K.). Tisdall's Sources of the Qur'dn (S. P. C. K.). 
 
 Before concluding this chapter it may be interesting to hear what As- 
 Suytiti, in his famous Introduction to the Qur'an (Itq&n) says on the 
 variety of subjects the student of the Qur'iin must make himself acquaint- 
 ed with, before he is able thoroughly to understand the meanings of the 
 Holy Book. Among these he mentions the following, which form so 
 many chapters of his work : 
 
 The I^Iecca and the Madfna Stiras, SAras revealed at home, on a 
 journey, in the day time, at night, in summer, in winter, in bed, in a 
 dream, on earth, in heaven ; first revealed, last revealed ; the occasion of 
 the various revelations ; what was revealed by the mouth of some person 
 other than Muhammad ; what was twice revealed, what became law 
 before it was revealed in the Qur'in, and what became law after it had 
 been revealed in the Qur'in ; portions revealed ' en bloc ' and portions 
 revealed separately ; what had been revealed to other prophets also and 
 what was revealed to Muhammad only ; the manner in which the Qur'&n 
 was revealed ; the names of the Qur'dn and the titles of the Suras ; the 
 collecting and arranging of the Qur*&n ; the Qur'&n readers ; the author- 
 ities for the various readings, the varianta, the science of reading the 
 Qur'in ; what is written in a language not Arabic ; what is clear and what 
 is ambiguous ; passages abrogating and passages abrogated ; passages 
 apparently contradictory ; what is meant in a literal and what in a 
 tropical sense ; the similes and parables used in the Qur'&n ; the beauties 
 and excellencies of the Qur'dn, the rhymes; the sciences derived from the 
 Qur'4n, &c. (Compare also the article v>^^:J\ in Banndni i, 117-127 and 
 the chapter ^jjyj\ g^ ^\J\ in Ghaziili's Ihy4 i, 1G8-182). 
 
24 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The Sunna, (jLi.^), the second foundation of Islam, is 
 next in importance to the Qar'an.^ The term signifies the 
 custom, habit, usage of the Prophet. It designates his 
 behaviour, mode of action, his sayings and declarations 
 under a variety of circumstances in life, which are 
 considered to be so many rules to be observed, and exam- 
 ples to be imitated by all pious Muslims. It is also called 
 Hadith (c^j>j.»-), piece of information, account, narra- 
 tive, story and record of the actions, doings and sayings 
 of the Prophet, as recorded and handed down by tradition 
 and which have become the rule of faith and practice 
 of Muslims. 
 
 The science of Tradition (ci^;j^JI Ac) is considered the 
 
 noblest and most excellent after that of the Qur'an, and 
 its study the next in importance to that of the Holy 
 Book. Muhammad himself is said to have encouraged 
 his followers to keep and transmit his sayings.* 
 
 1 iZl ( pi. M^) irora v. ^^ to institute, establish a custom, a 
 practice, a usage to be followed ; way course, rule, mode of acting or 
 conduct, statute, ordinance (Ban. ii. 64. g^.^.^^^^ Jlc ,3lia» ie.JMa*\ AjlIJ^ 
 &j\j>JS . &S\m\ . ^^jJLo 6l\^\ ^J^) Both terms il* and si^A^ are often 
 used promiscuously, as if they were synonymous, which strictly speaking 
 they are not, for sunna properly designates the mode of action, 
 practice and the sayings and declarations (v:j\j>m - J W^) of the Prophet, 
 while, Hadith designates the narration, account and record of such 
 actions, practices or sayings. 
 
 An account, record of such an act or saying, is called a Hadith or a 
 Tradition (i^^J^ pi. e-^joU^). The term e^Jks. is also used to designate 
 a whole collection of Traditions, such as the Collection of Traditions 
 of Bukhari, Muslim, &c. 
 
 2 He is reported to have said : " May God bless him who hears my 
 words and keeps them, and understands them, and transmits them," 
 and also : ** Transmit from me if it be but one verse." (d>^ ^^ ^^^ ^y^) 
 When once asked who would be his successors, he replied : *' Those who 
 
THE SUNNA. 25 
 
 Very soon after the death of Muhammad, the want of 
 possessing more detailed and reliable information on the 
 exact meaning of certain passages of the Qur'an and 
 certain doctrines and practices of Islam made itself felt 
 and gradually stimulated the desire to have the Tradi- 
 tions (v.2^^fc>'»3-l), which had hitherto not been generally 
 accessible and had only been transmitted by word of 
 mouth, collected, sifted and written down, so as to pre- 
 serve them from corruption and loss and to have them 
 fixed as a code of law. About one hundred years after 
 
 report my sayings (^J^jU.\) and instruct mon in the same." Sufiinu'th, 
 Thuri (^^^fi^\ m^«*-) says : •' I do not know a more excellent science 
 than the science of Tradition (««^a^\ f^)» ^^^ people are in need of 
 it even with regard to their food and drink ; it is more excellent 
 than prayer and fasting." HAkim says : " If it were not for the great com- 
 panies of Traditionists («^I^ pi. (^y I^) , the light of Islim would have 
 
 been extinguished." Muhammad used to say: *' science (religious science 
 of Islim) consists of three things : well ordered verse, well observed 
 
 sunna and just law." (J3jU S^ji)\ ^UAi lL^p\ iL»^x^>* h^ ^^ ^^^) 
 Under the term Sunna arc comprised : 
 
 (1) all utterances, sayings, declarations, oral laws emanating from the 
 Prophet. These are called J Jd\ IL., Sunna of saying. 
 
 (2) His acts, customs, practice AMii\ tL^^ Sunna of action. 
 
 (3) His silent approbation and sanction of certain acts of others 
 a JUS^ &JU., Sunna of approbation, confirmation (Ban. ii. G5.) 
 
 These traditions are, on account of their importance, also called 
 JU/# -jfc ^j».. (unread revelation) i.e., uninspired record of inspired sayings 
 of the Prophet. 
 
 To obey the Sunna is a duty laid upon every pious Muslim, in imita- 
 tion of the Prophet. It is not, however, a duty of the same obligation as 
 
 the commands of the Qur'An, which are jbjk i.e., duty of absolute obliga- 
 tion. The duty of observing the Sunna and conforming to its rules 
 is of various degrees of importance : such as the ^^A^\ IL. or Sunna of 
 guidance ; il^y dju. the Sure Sunna, or those duties which cannot be 
 neglected wiiliMut committing a fault (Faith of 1 Inn, pp. 17-21); the 
 ijS\\ ix^ or jwiditional Sunna which may or may iiuL bo observed. 
 
 4 
 
26 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Muhammad, the Khalif ' Umar II. (99—101 a.h.)^ gave 
 orders to have them collected and committed to writing. 
 
 1. This Khalif requested Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad (120 A. h.) to 
 write down what he could find of the ' Sunna or Hadith.' The task thus 
 begun, continued to be vigorously prosecuted, and Traditions were 
 collected from all parts of the Muslim Empire, but we possess no 
 authentic remains of any compilation of an earlier date than the middle 
 of the second century. Then indeed ample materials had been amassed, 
 and they have been handed down to us both in the shape of Biographies 
 (6wj-. pi. !>-.) and of general collections of traditions, which bear upon 
 every imaginable point of Aluhammad's life and habits, and give details 
 of the minutest incidents of that life, as well as of the doctrines and 
 practices of the religion of IsUm. (For details see Muir's Life of 
 Muhammad, p. 56G et seqq. Dictionary of IsUm, 643. Sprenger III. 
 Ixxvii. Bukhd,ri's Traditions with the Commentary of Castellani, i. 6. 
 Ban. ii. 64. Ibn Khaldun i. 368). 
 
 The text of a Tradition is called ^^yx^ ; the authority, the guarantee on 
 
 o 
 
 which a Tradition rests is the support, or oU_«*V (pl. JuiU^) ; the chain 
 
 s 
 of reporters who vouch for the correctness of the Tradition is the 
 
 jlj}L,3^ ^^ ^ ; the relator of a Tradition is the X (pl, iiC) and his 
 version the &>\»j (pl. «y^L^). 
 
 Traditions are divided into various classes^ (<^i\j^), 
 according to the degree of authority they possess, the 
 persons from whom the}^ are derived, the manner in which 
 they have been transmitted, and other characteristics. 
 {see Bukhari's Commentary i. 7 Ibn Khaldun I, 368 
 et seqq). 
 
 1 Traditions may be : Genuine, sound (^^,j^^) ; handed down by pious 
 men, distinguished for their integrity (^^^U J^J^) ; good, mediocre 
 (0^) not coming up to the authority of the first degree ; weak (co^jiu.) 
 or inferior as to their trustworthiness (^^j..*^^ i^.j ^^ ^ai). They 
 may also be traced up (gyy*) to Muhammad himself; or restricted 
 (cJ**^); or intersected (g^Ls^). They may also be connected (J^) 
 or interrupted (^isSjL^). They may be generally accepted (/\jA*); or well- 
 known (j^qj^^y^ or strange (<-^^); or invented, false (g*^y*). For the 
 
THE TRADITIONS. 27 
 
 The collections of Traditions, now considered as of the 
 greatest authority, in fact the standard canonical collec- 
 tions and called the six books : — 
 
 are those of : — 
 
 1. Bukhari (»^'si>il Jaj»x^) ^i J.^s-*) who was born 
 A.H. 194. 
 
 His plan was only to collect genuine Traditions and 
 
 his book is, therefore, called ^olijJl ^J^^yc or the sound 
 
 traditions of Bukhari. He is said to have chosen out of 
 600,000 traditions only 7,275 which he considered genuine. 
 As these are repeated under various heads, they can be 
 reduced to about 4,000. A learned doctor of Islam says : 
 " The collection of Buhkari is the most excellent book of 
 
 exact moaning of these terms and others used in this science which it 
 would lead us too far to explain here in detail, ue Bukhdri's Commentary 
 i. 7-lG. Dictionary of IsUm, G40. Faith of IsWm, pp. 8G-7. Among the 
 earliest collectors of traditions may be mentioned M&lik bin Anas 
 (u-^^ i^ *iUU) in Madfna, Abdu'l Malik bin Jarlh (^^ ^^ ctUJ\jL^ 
 150 A.H.) in Mecca, 'AMu'-r-rahminu'l Wazd'i (^^jC^;^^ (:h**-;i^ aU^Juc) 
 at Damascus; Sufiin ath Thuri (v^;^^^ (j^) at KiSfa; HaminAd bin 
 Salama bin DInir (jU^o ^^ A»l,r.) at Basra. Some of them mentioned 
 the Traditions together with the chain of witnesses, others, like 
 Al Baghawi, {f^^\) give the text only. 
 
 (For a list of learned doctors who have written special works on the 
 Science of Tradition see Bukh&ri's Commentary i. 7.) 
 
 At the end of the 3rd century a.h. there existed already a large number 
 of systematically arranged collections of Traditions. Among these may be 
 mentioned the Muwiatti (V£^^ v>^^^^) ^^ ^^^ Ivaim Malik (179 a.h.) 
 The Imams Idris ash Sh&fi'i, Ahmad bin Hanbal and others had made 
 such collections, each in support of his special system of Theology and 
 Jurisprudence ; this kind of collection of Traditions is ciillcd a Musnad 
 
 (JU..W*), as its object is to furnish the * supports ', ' dicta probantia' of the 
 theological system of the respective authors. (See Faith of IsUm, pp. 2G-30. 
 Osborn's Islim under the Khalifs of Baghdad, Chapter I.) 
 
28 THE RELICTION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Islam after the Book of God." (Bukhari's Commentary, i. 
 19. Sprenger iii, cii. Ibn Khaldiin i, 369) . 
 
 2. Muslim (^^AAall j^'<Njcs>ll ^i A^^) who died in 261 
 
 A.H. 
 
 The Imam Muslim, a disciple of Bukhari, followed the 
 plan of his master in writing his Masnad, receiving in his 
 collection, the A^^ ^.^^-^^ only what he considered 
 
 genuine traditions, of which he collected 4.000. The 
 collection of Bukhari was in high repute and preferred 
 to all others in Asia and Egypt ; that of Muslim chiefly 
 in Spain and North Africa. 
 
 3. Abu Baud ( i'ju*o^vvJl i>^b ^}) He died in 275 a.h. 
 His collection is called the Sunana Abi Daiid o.^J ^A ^ 
 and contains 4,000 traditions. 
 
 c 
 
 4. Tirmidhi (^J..«.a11 |.a^ji.= ^;1)> who died in 279 a.h., 
 was a disciple of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. His work is called 
 
 5. An Nisai (^f,»Ai\ ^^s.S]Sxz ^jl) who died in 303 a.h. 
 He was the author of the 5;*i>.Al) Ju. 
 
 6. Ibn Mdja ( xiyJl] Hls^U ^j]) died 273 a.h. His 
 collection^ the .Ul \.^\1^, is also highly esteemed,^ 
 
 1 The much esteemed collection by Ibn Malik, the Muwatta, (LJj^, 
 is a so-called ju^ ^ i.e., a collection made in support of a certain theo- 
 logical system, arranged under special chapters of the Fiqh, and thus 
 more a corpus juris than a corpus traditioiium. A later, but also very 
 much esteemed collection of traditions, is the Mishkatu-'l-Masabih 
 (^Lx*3\ SLrrui*/*) the niche of lights, written by the Shaikh Wali'u'd- 
 din, 737 a.h. There is an English translation of this work, translated 
 by Captain A. N. Mathews, printed at Calcutta, 1809. 
 
THE IJMA'. 29 
 
 The third foundation of Islam is the Ijma' cl 
 or the unanimous agreement of the Muslim nation, 
 
 A very handy collection of traditions (text only) is the &2j^\ i..i>t'rs 
 i^'^\ Qt'^ti, (^ by the Shaikh 'Abdu-1-Wahhdb ash Sha'rdni v^ltoJ\ji-x) 
 (^^^».a.3\ printed at Cairo, 1281 a.h. 
 
 The Shi'ah sects, though they do not accept the traditions of tho 
 Sunnis, do not reject Tradition. They have their own collections which, 
 however, cannot be considered as of much value, for the study of this 
 branch of theology is of recent date with them. Thej consider their 
 Im4ms (successors of 'AH) as infallible and their sayings, consequently, as 
 of the same authority as tho Qur'in. They have not at times, scrupled 
 to invent lies in support of their systems (Spronger iii. ciii). 
 
 Their standard collections of traditions art : 
 
 Al Ka'fl by Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibii ^ ,i [ub ( ;_• a.m.). Man la 
 Jastahziruho-l-Faqfh by Shaikh • Ali (381), the Tuhaib of Abu Ja'far-ibn 
 Husiiin (4GG), the Istibsdr by tho same, the Nahju-l-BaUgha by Syedu'r- 
 R4zi (40G). 
 
 In the sixth cniimy we hear of the ten canonical collections 
 
 (6-Aj»J^ »^UI«*J^), which were adopted in the west ; but were noi; con- 
 sidered as of the same authority with the six in the P^ast. The following 
 ones were added to the six (is-J^ J^J^^) ^^^'' ^''^'watta, tho Sunan of 
 Bazz&r (440), the Musnad of Abu Shfba (2G4), the Sunan of Darakotni 
 (385), the Sunan of Baihaki (458). Tho collection of Ibn MAj4 was then 
 not included in lli« li^t of the ten standard works. 
 
 A most able treatise on the subject of Tradition is found in Ignaz 
 Goldziher's Muhammcdanische Studian, Halle, 189U; II. Theil p. 1-203. 
 On the value of Tradition see Muir's Life of ^lahomct. Vol. I. BdnnAni 
 treats of the various questions connected with the Sunna in his famous 
 work, the Commentary on ^^•^J^ A*^ ^o'' !!• P« 104-190. 
 
 1 A«i^l toagrec, tobcof onemind ;^Ui»>\ n. a., agreement, being of one 
 
 9 
 
 opinion. Ijmi* designates the unanimous agreement of the Muslim 
 nation, i^2\f or rather of the representatives of the same, tho learned 
 doctors of Isldm, called the Mujtahfdfn (^jk^;;^.J\), on certain legal or 
 theological questions, and corresponds with the Christian term ' the 
 unanimous consent of the apostolic Fathers' — 
 
 The importance and value of such a rollcctivc opinion of the ^fuslini 
 nation or congregation or its rc^i , tin ( liicf doctors of Isldm, 
 
30 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 or rather the Mujtabidin or the great doctors of the 
 nation. 
 
 rest on the saying of Muhammad : " My people will never agree on 
 falsehood." (^Li Jic ^\ 5*.^ ^ aJI^ J^ ^:^ ^ ^\) This agree- 
 ment is to be arrived at by oVe;^.^ or exertion, or conscientious examina- 
 tion and meditation on the subject under consideration. 
 
 The chief men among the company of the Mujtahidfn are the Com- 
 panions of the Prophet, (^Us* pl. w>Us-9^) and the first four Khalifs. 
 Such agreement is said to be three fold : 
 
 (a) Agreement of word (J^\ jU>^ , ^Jf^^ ^W^^) ^^ declaration of 
 opinion in words. 
 
 (6) Agreement of action, practice ( JxiJ^ S^^) °^ expressed in unanim- 
 ity of action, practice. 
 
 (c) Agreement of silence («y»,^uJ\ ^3U>i t* :^ ... ^^-♦^^) ^^ ^^c'^^ assent 
 by silence or non-interference. There is also the so-called * composed 
 agreement.' (■ , "^ - ^^^^) ^^ unanimous agreement as to the matter, but 
 difference as to the cause (die) ; and simple agreement (■ , ■ ^,-* y^ t^'^^) 
 which denotes absolute agreement in everything. 
 
 It has been very properly remarked that the setting up of this 
 agreement of the learned doctors of Isldm as a foundation of the Faith 
 and practice must be a source of religious dissension and sectarian strife. 
 Though it is now accepted by the orthodox Muslims, there have not been 
 wanting learned doctors who have altogether rejected it, as they said it 
 was a matter of impossibility to collect the opinions of all the persons, 
 even in the same generation (^.^ ^\ who would have the right to vote 
 on the subject. 
 
 Great diversity of opinion exists about the persons who may be con- 
 
 sidered as Mujtahids, with regard, to the time ( ..cc) in which they are 
 to be found. Some are of opinion that only the Companions of the Pro- 
 phet can be considered as men of such high authority, others add to 
 these the Ansar (jU»»\) that is, the men of Madina who assisted 
 the Prophet; others again include the Refugees (^ »:j. ^.♦i^) the peo- 
 ple of Mecca who fled with the Prophet to Madfna. Some consider 
 the authority of the people of ^Madfna to be the higher, as they had 
 had the best opportunities of hearing the sayings and observing the 
 practices of the Prophet. The majority of Muslim theologians, how- 
 ever, are of opinion that there may be true Mujtabidin in any age and 
 in any place, and that their unanimous agreement is to be accepted 
 
THE MUJTAHIDS. 31 
 
 Three classes of Mujtahids are mentioned b}^ writers on 
 this subject : 
 
 1. The absolute Muj tabid — 
 
 the Mujtahfd of general and absolute authority, whose 
 sphere of exertion embraces the whole Law. 
 
 2. The Muj tabid of a special school of theology 
 (w^AJk^] ^J iXfiAj-oJK who is an authority within the 
 sphere of one of the special theological systems, L,^:b j,^ 
 (pi. v,^Ajtlj^), as, for example, of the system of Abii 
 Hanifa, of Shafi'i and of others. 
 
 3. The Mujtahld of special questions, and cases, 
 JiU-cJI jJ fcXfUycJ), which have not been decided by the 
 founders of the four great orthodox schools. (See Ban. 
 ii. 120-134. Dictionary of IsUm, pp. 198 and 418). 
 
 The fourth source, or foundation of Isldm, is the Qias* 
 (measuring), by which is meant the reasoning by an- 
 alogy of the learned doctors of Islam, the Muj tabid In, 
 with regard to certain difficult and doubtful questions 
 of doctrine and practice, by comparing them with similar 
 cases already settled by the authority of the Qur'dn, 
 Sunna or Ijmd' and thus arriving at the solution of un- 
 decided questions. 
 
 as oonclusive in any legal or theological question. {See the view 
 of MlrzA Kdzim Beg, in Faith of Islim, pp. 41-4G). o^I^ from o^;:^^, 
 to exert oneself, to take pains, is a conventional term for a learned ^Iuk- 
 lim, who exerts the faculties of his mind to the utmost, for the pur. 
 pose of forming an opinion in questions of law respecting a doubtful and 
 difiicult case. ^\^s^\ is the exertion of the Mujtahid in solving such a 
 
 question by means of reasoning and comparison. 
 
 1 ^Li n. a.-Measuring, measure, reasoning by analogy from ^U 
 to measure, compare, conclude. This method of solving diflficult and 
 undecided questions is considered to be in harmony with the Qur'dn which 
 
32 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Muhammad himself is reported to have sanctioned and 
 encouraged the reasoning and the exerting of the faculties 
 of one's mind (t>l^A5wl), in order to find the proper solution 
 of difficult and doubtful cases of Law. A Tradition states 
 that the Prophet wished to send a man named Mu'az to 
 Al Yaman to receive some money collected for alms which 
 he was then to distribute to the poor, On appointing him 
 he said : *' Mu'az, by what rule wilt thou act " ? He 
 replied : " By the law of the Qur'an." " But if thou findest 
 no direction therein ? " " Then I will act according to the 
 Sunna of the Prophet." '' But what if that fails ?" " Then 
 I will make an * Ijtihad ' (exertion) and act on that." The 
 Prophet raised his hands and said : " Praise be to God 
 who guides the messenger of His Prophet in what He 
 pleases ! " 
 
 enjoins : " Take examples, ye who are men of insight." (Sdra lix.) 
 ( »U>3\ ^^^ \i U^-^-xc^), which is said by commentators to mean ♦' Compare 
 one thing with another." 
 
 In the Qias four points are to be considered — (^j\ ij^^\ (j\>^j\) 
 
 (a) the thing compared with, &Jlc ^j^-^jS^J^ 
 
 (6) the thing compared, ^_^*»*A♦J\ 
 
 (c) the point of similarity between the two, the thing common to both, 
 
 (rf) the decision resulting from the comparison of both. 
 ^^.^\ ^\\ ^jX^4S\ l^\yy «^A*x> ft,^^ (Ban. ii. 139 ff. and 215.) 
 The Qfds is either (a) Jali (-^l^^^) that is, evident, clear, apparent, e.g., 
 
 wine (v*^) is forbidden C-^^) in the Qur'dn. Now^,4j£. means anything 
 intoxicating; it is clear, therefore, that opium and any intoxicating 
 drug is also forbidden. 
 
 (6) Khafi {^^^) or hidden, concealed, e.g., by Tradition it is establish- 
 ed that one goat in forty must be given to God as alms, poor rate (jiL^t^, 
 so it may be concluded that the value of the goat may be given instead 
 of the goat (Ban. ii. 217). 
 
 There are four conditions of the Qias : — 
 
 (a) That the precept or practice upon which it is founded must be of 
 general (f*^) and not of special application. 
 
THE FOUR IMAMS. dS 
 
 (b) The cause (Jle) of the injunction must be known and understood. 
 
 (c) The decision (^*^->) must be based upon either the Qur'4n, the 
 Hadfth or the Ijm4*. 
 
 (d) The decision arrived at must not be contrary to anything declared 
 elsewhere, in the Qur'&n or the Hadfth. 
 
 The learned doctors of IsUm were, as regards the 
 legality of deciding religious questions by Qids, divided 
 into two camps : 
 
 (1) the people of Qids (^j-UaI) JaI), also called the 
 people of private opinion (^U^ Jjbl) and (2) the people of 
 the Tradition (vJ^j^JI Jjbl)* 
 
 There are four theological Schools or Rites ((w^jtiL* 
 pi. (*^%Jb)j^), to one of which every Muslim must belong. 
 The founders of these four orthodox schools or rites are 
 the so-called four great Imdms ( ^Ui pi. IcJt). They are : 
 
 (1) The Imdm Abu Hanifa ( JxJoll Aajuls^ y I ^^jl ^UKI) 
 
 1 Reasoning by analogy is also called J\A«J\ jWj»^ or ^^^ comparing 
 similars with similars. Among the great Im&ms who allowed reasoning 
 by analogy (^U^) was AbCi Hanifa, M&lik ibn Anas and the Im&m ash 
 Sh&fi'f, who was, however, less liberal on this point than Abu Hanffa, 
 %s he only allowed it in cases of very great necessity. He, therefore, 
 obtained the title of ' Protector of Tradition ' («^jl^\ r*^)' '^^ ^^^ 
 people of the tradition, who held that the Qur'&n and the Sunna were the 
 only rules of faith and practice, belonged chiefly the men of the 
 Z&hiriyya School (A{ JbUt3\ s-«*>^), ^^^ heads of which were Didd bin 
 'Ali al Z4hiri (270) and hi.4 son, Ibn Hazm (0^)' Their opinions were 
 violently opposed and entirely disappeared after a time. (See Ibn 
 Khaldun i. 372. BanAn. ii. 134-215. Goldziher : Die Ziheriten). 
 
 A very useful book on the four foundations of Islim, in fact an introduo* 
 tion to the Science of Fiqh, is the '• Annotations of al Bann&ni on the 
 Commentary of Zalilu'l Muhalli on the work of the Imim ibnu's Sabki 
 called : ^^y^\ ^^ (Cairo. 1308 H.) 
 
 ^UM ^\y^\ ^^ Jc J^\ J V\ cj^ Jc JW\ i^U\ JL-4.U 
 
 5 
 
34 THE EEIilGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 (2) The Imam Muhammad bin Idris ash Shafi'i 
 
 1 The subject of the works of these four great Imdms is not so much 
 what is to be believed (the Creed) but what is to be practised. They do 
 not treat of the articles of faith, but of the duties of the Muslim : prayer, 
 fasting, alms-giving and the laws by which all their concerns, civil, 
 and social are to be regulated. They are the great jurisconsults of Isldm, 
 and their sphere is jurisprudence (&fii) and practical theology, on which 
 
 they give the minutest details. 
 
 The Im&m Abii Hanlfa was born at Kufa (80 a.h. = 700 a.d.) under the 
 Khalifate of 'Abdu'-1-M41ik and died at Bagdad (150 a.h.) poisoned by 
 order of 'Abdu'llah II. 
 
 He is the founder of the Hanafi School (^^^^^ s-»AJ^^), which was 
 adopted by the 'Abbdside Khalifs and other Muslim sovereigns of the 
 East, and to which the rulers of the Ottoilian Empire adhere to this day, 
 and which, therefore, enjoys the highest authority in Turkey. His great 
 work is entitled, . ^ *^^\ 6£ii\^ " the great work on jurisprudence." 
 
 The most celebrated of his disciples, who are also considered great 
 oracles of orthodox jurisprudence, are: the Imdm Abii Yusuf (^i.Jut^^ ^\)^ 
 the author of the ^VsJ^ v.^W^ (the duties of the judge) and the Imim 
 Ikluhammad, the author of several important works, the chief of which are 
 -j-.^xJ\ ^/•^sX\ and the ^-j4j\ ^U»JV The Hanafites (i^li^^) are called 
 by Sharastdni "the men of speculation, of reasoning" (^^y^ v>V^^^), 
 as they allowed themselves to be guided by their own judgment, in 
 distinction from the other schools, which rejected the use of private 
 judgment and adhered more tenaciously to the dictates of Tradition. 
 The latter, therefore, were called the «.*^jk^\ Jjfc\, " men of Tradition " 
 (Shahrast&ni i. 160, 161, Ghazdli i, 18. Ibn 'Abidu'ddfn i, 37, 49.) 
 
 The Imdm ash Shafi'i was born at Askalon in Palestine (150 a. h.), 
 studied at Gaza, then went to Mecca, Baghdad, Egypt and died at Cairo 
 (204 A.H.) where his tomb is still to be seen. He was a great enemy of 
 scholastic divines, and one of the great supporters of Tradition (i*^ j^asJ^ -oU). 
 The adherents of the Shafi'f rite are chiefly to be found in Arabia and 
 Persia. His first work was the J»l\ • Fundamentals,' containing the 
 principles of the Muslim civil and canon law. His next literary pro- 
 ductions were ^;....^\ and jj^,^^ both works on traditional law. His 
 principal disciples were the Im4m Ahmad and az Zuhairi. 
 
 The Imim Mdlik Ibn Anas was born at Madhia (90 or 94 a.b/. = 716 a.d.) 
 and died there (175) under the Khalifate of Harunu'r-Rashid, He is the 
 
IMAM MALIK. 85 
 
 (3) The Imam Malik ibn Anas (^] ^A cJJU j»Ul) 
 
 author of the collection of Traditions called lL*^\. His adherents 
 (aI]^U3\) are chiefly to be found in Barbary and the other Northern 
 States of Africa. (GhazAIi i, 18. Dictionary of Isldm 312). 
 
 The Im4m Hanbal was born at (Baghdad 164 a.h. = 780 a.d.) and flour- 
 ished during the Khalffate of 'Abdu'llih iii, al ^lamdm and Muhammad 
 al Mu'tasim. During the reign of the above Khalifs, the disputes con- 
 cerning the Qur'lln's being eternal or created ran very high, and Hanbal 
 was severely persecuted, imprisoned and scourged for refusing to adopt 
 the Khalifs opinion on the creation of the Qur'4n. The Khallf Mut- 
 awakkil, being more tolerant, set the persecuted doctor at liberty and 
 oven received him at his court. He had several eminent pupils, 
 particularly Ismail al Bukh&ri and Muslim ibn D&i^d. (Ibn Khaldun i, 
 372. Ghaz41i i, 19. Dictionary of Isl&m 188). 
 
 To these great Imims, some add Sufi&n ath Thuri {yj\^\ (^^^tA^), '^^^ 
 of equal rank, but he had only few adherents and, therefore, did 
 not become the founder of an additional school of theology or rite, 
 and the four mentioned above maintain their rank as the four Imdms 
 (iMijJ\ i^\). They belong to the class of ^j^\^ ^vq-x^^*, or ,j1!b^ J»*^»^. 
 They- are agreed on all fundamental doctrines of Isldm, and only diflcr 
 on secondary questions, religious rites, of ceremonies and laws of juris- 
 prudence. There is between them about the same difference as 
 between the Lutheran, Galvinistic and Zwinglian schools in the 
 Protestant Church. Such differences are not, however, considered as 
 defects to be regretted or injurious to the system; but, on the contrary, as 
 advantages and mercies, as they leave more liberty to people to follow 
 their personal opinions and inclinations in matters of duty and discipline. 
 Muhammad himself is reported to have said : ' The differences of my 
 people are a mercy.* (^"^^j s,y^ cj)9u^\) 
 
 The abovementioned four great Imdms belong to the first class of 
 learned divines ( J. SU\i^^ AAiL) or Jurisprudents; they have laid down 
 the Foundations of the religious systems (J»«i3^ "^V) ^^^ belong to 
 tfac' class of ^jlL* Jk^x^^, whose authority extends over the whole 
 law. Besides these, six other classes are mentioned. To the second 
 (AftiUJ^ 6I^\ »\^) who are v, .fe.'\»^\ ^^ •^^J^^, authorities within the 
 boundaries of the system, rite, they have adopted. To this class 
 belong the Imims Abu Yiisuf and Muhammad and others. They adhere 
 to the fundamental rules laid down by their respective Imdms, though 
 they may differ from him in secondary questions. 
 
36 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 (4) The Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal ( JU»- ^^1 4^-0^1 -•L^l). 
 
 To the third class (diJLiS^ daJJ^ »^) who are J*Ln-*3\ ^ ^^6^^^*^, or 
 investigators of special questions and cases, belong men like Khassaf, 
 Tah&wi, Sarchisi. To the fourth class, called g*j^^ s^W^^, that is, 
 those who give explanations of the various meanings (&^.), belong men 
 like RkzL The men of the fifth class are called ^^y^J^ s->Us-9^, men of 
 comparison, who weigh things against each other. To this class belong 
 men like Abu'l-Hasanu'l-Kuduri, the author of the Hiddya. To the sixth 
 class belong men like the author of the Kanz {y^l\ v--se:.Lc) and the 
 author of the Mukhtac (.\j;^-J\ «--^^)' To the seventh class belong 
 learned Shaikhs (j»Uic - t\^ - tfi:^)t chiefly the authors of lengthy Com- 
 mentaries («t>3J8/») on the works of their predecessors, like ^^^IJ^ ^■^'^»^- 
 The last two classes of men belong to what are called ^.jj[£» or imitators. 
 
 The Xa>'i\ jiyXi sj\-x^, composed by the Shaikh Shamsu'd-din Mu- 
 hammad bin Abdu'llah al Ghazzi (995 a.h.), is one of the most celebrated 
 and useful books, according to the Hanlfi system. This work has many 
 commentaries ; of which one of great celebrity is the j\j;^^\jOj written 
 
 by Muhammad bin AUu'd-dfn Shaikh 'Ali al Haskafi (^ft.^. ^^). A 
 
 highly esteemed and much used commentary on this commentary is •' the 
 Raddu'l Muktir 'ala'd-Durri'l-Mukhtar j\.s^^\^jkJ\ jLcjU^^ a^ written 
 by the Shaikh Muhammad Amin. (Ibn 'Abidin (^^J^Vc ^^\) i. 57. Dic- 
 tionary of Islam, 199 and 286-292). 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE DOCTBINES OF ISLAm. 
 
 The two general divisions under which Muslim doctors 
 treat of the various subjects connected with the doctrines 
 and practices of Islam are ^: the theoretical or dogmatical 
 part, and the practical part. The former deals with the 
 creed, articles of faith, called the roots, foundations of 
 
 religion (^^ jJl J^))* or Tauhid the Science of, the Unity 
 
 of the Godhead (jod-^l Ji^), or science of the articles of 
 
 belief, of dogmas, (oj'^l ^b)* It is also called the science 
 of the word (j»ll£=Jl Ac). This term is chiefly used to desig- 
 nate scholastic theology. This part treats of all the arti- 
 cles of faith (J^}\ \:^j^ - J^}\ jJ'Ju - jJ'JjJ) Ac), which 
 every true Muslim must believe. They are said to be 
 
 1 SjLeie pi. J^fUe article of faith. J^^J^ from j^^ = to doclaro to be 
 
 one, n. a., the action of declaring God to be one. The term is applied to 
 dogmatics in general, because the article of the Unity of God is the chief 
 article treated therein. The term for scholastic theology is jJl=J\ ^, 
 cither because the subject of ^^% is much treated of in this part, or 
 because, as others say, the old dogmatists used to head their disquisitions 
 on the various dogmatical subjects with the title: "the investigation on 
 the discourse (word) on such and such a subject." 
 
 The dogmatical part is considered the 'roots' (J*«\), out of which the 
 second part (the practical) grows, which are, therefore, called ♦ branches ' 
 
 These articles of faith every Muslim must know " in a general way " 
 • c 
 (1«}U^\), but it is not required of all that they should be acquainted 
 
 • - 
 
 with the details (Vela^tf), or proofs of the same. 
 
38 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 all comprised in the formula of the creed - ^^'Jjl^All), 
 (iijl^II IcI^ ** There is no God but God, and Muham- 
 mad is the apostle of God. " (aill J^ c>^oi>,c ^ ^\] ^) ail j() 
 
 and are the following :—(l) Belief in God, (2) in His 
 Angels, (3) in His Scriptures, (4) in His Apostles, (5) in the 
 Kesurrection and the Day of Judgment, (6) in God's 
 absolute decree and predestination both of good and evil. 
 
 .jJiilj ^^1 j»^l^ <d-^^^ Jcu£= ^ ^d^il^ ^ JcUb c:^xcT) 
 
 The second or practical part consists of precepts and 
 commandments to be obeyed, rules and customs to be 
 observed, duties to be fulfilled.^ It is generally called 
 
 * Fiqh ' (jciii . jciui] Ji^) Science, Knowledge, Jurisprudence, 
 
 and treats of the following subjects : Prayer, Alms- 
 giving, Fasting, and the Pilgrimage to Mecca. Some 
 add to these. Jihad, or Holy War. The articles of faith 
 to be believed and the duties to be practised are in- 
 cluded in the formula : " Islam is built up on five found- 
 ations : the confession that there is no God but God 
 and that Muhammad is His Apostle, the performing of 
 Prayer, the giving of Alms, the keeping of the Fast of 
 Ramadan and the performance of the Pilgrimage where 
 there is a possibility of doing so." ^ 
 
 (.1«- &J^ g^osJ\ ^^ ^j>^\ ^ ^ (^\-^j (i^; i1^-^\ »U^^ i>'^\ f*^\ ) 
 
 1 Sharastani says : Religion (^^o) may be divided into (1) Knowledge 
 (Aiyu«) and (2) Obedience (dcUs). Knowledge is the root ( J*^) and obedi- 
 ence, practice is the branch. He who treats of knowledge and Unity 
 is a dogmatist (^Jyc^) and he who treats of obedience and the Law-^ 
 (A*>j-&3\^ icVy^) is a Jurist (^^^i;*). The object of the roots is the 
 
FAITH. 39 
 
 Before we proceed to treat of the several articles of 
 faith, which have to be considered in this chapter, it is of 
 importance to know what is the exact meaning of Faith* 
 ( 'wojl), and its relation to Islam, and also who is a true 
 
 Muslim and who is a true Believer (^j^j^), and whether 
 the two terms Faith and Isldm, Muslim and Believer are 
 synonymous, or whether there is a difference between 
 them. 
 
 science of the dogmas and the object of the branches is < Fiqh.* (Sharas- 
 tini, i. 58.) Besides these two great divisions, there are others, under 
 which the various subjects connected with theoretical and practical 
 religion may also be considered : 
 
 (1) «^^«>U;x^, Belief, embracing the six articles of faith. 
 
 (2) %^\j\, Morals, embracing the consideration of all the virtues and 
 moral excellencies enjoined in the Qur'&n and Tradition. 
 
 (3) «A»^ jlf£, including acts all of devotion to God. 
 
 (4) ssjX»\m^^ including such duties as are required in dealings between 
 man and man. 
 
 (5) s£>lf Je, denoting the punishments instituted in the Qur'&n and 
 Traditions for various crimes and transgressions. 
 
 (For details see Ibn 'Abid i. 38. Dictidnary of Islim, 285). 
 
 1 There are various opinions concerning the exact meaning of Faith. 
 
 Some held it to be simply belief of the heart, mind (,^^^^ j^Xa;J^) 
 «.«., intellectual conviction and assent of the truth of every thing Muham- 
 mad taught concerning religion — 
 
 (1) Others say that it implies belief of the heart (mind) combined with 
 confession of the tongue (^LJJ^ Sj^^^^ ^^JlaJ^ j^{a«sJ\), without any 
 regard to outward works. This is the opinion of Abd Hanffa and a 
 number of his disciples. 
 
 (2) Others again are of opinion that faith implies belief of the heart, 
 combined with confession of the tongue and good works, 
 
 and that no one deserves to be called a Believer unless be possess these 
 qualifications. This is the opinion of most men of the earlier days of 
 IsUm, the Traditionists and the Mu'tazila. The author of the cJU»\y*J\ ^^a^ 
 gives as many as eight different opinions on the meaning of faith with 
 the dicta probantia from the Qur'dn for each of these different opinions. 
 (Mawak, 593, Jowhara 42-44. Ghaz41i i. 7C, e^se^?.) 
 
40 THE RELIGION OF ISLIm. 
 
 The orthodox doctrine on Faith, now generally accept- 
 ed, is that it is the beUef of the heart or mind, (^^.^iallj s'ixW 
 t^^\q!l» ^iXKoiil) of the articles of the creed ; the intellec- 
 tual conviction of the truth, quite irrespective of the 
 confession of the tongue, or the performance of good 
 
 works.^ J?>-3a11 jUa;5) J^)^^ ii^^xull A man, therefore, may 
 be a believer, though he neither confesses his faith nor 
 
 1 The author of the Jowhara says: "Faith is the belief of every- 
 thing the Prophet taught • as belonging necessarily to religion,' 
 (ij^j^\» ^^_^\ ^^ fj^ ^ &i »W^ J^ ^ f^*^ ^y^^\ ^^'^) This belief 
 implies not only intellectual conviction, but belief combined with recep- 
 tion and approbation " ^Vcj^ ^ J^, (Jowh. 40. Mawak. 596), or else 
 
 a 
 many of the infidels who knew the truth of Muhammad's being a Prophet 
 would also be believers. 
 
 Ghaz&li in his discussion of the subject of Faith enumerates the follow- 
 ing classes of believers : — 
 
 (1) He who combines inner belief with outward confession and good 
 works, (Ghazd.li i. 76 et seqq. J^xi . So^ • JkSc), is a true believer and 
 enters Paradise. 
 
 (2) He who combines inner belief with outward confession and some 
 good works JUxS^ ^JiM> . SjI^A . jlSc ; but commits one or more great 
 sins, JL-^ ^\ 6«<~^, does not thereby cease to be a believer, though his 
 faith is not of the higest degree (JU^). The Mu'tazila deny that such 
 a one can be considered a believer, but that nevertheless by committing 
 deadly sins he does not become an unbeliever ( jLSs) but is in an inter- 
 
 mediate state between a believer and an infidel ^jjy^»3^ ^^ iSy^ ^Js^ ys». 
 An infidel is an impious person (,3«,U) and goes into everlasting hell- 
 fire (jUJ\^_5i jl^yfc). 
 
 (3) The opinions with regard to the person who combines inner belief 
 with outward confession, but has no good works are divided. Abu Tilibu'l 
 Makki says : " Good works are part of the faith, and faith cannot exist 
 without them." The Sunni doctors of Islim, however, reject this opinion 
 as absolutely false, for they say that it is a truth, accepted by general 
 agreement, that a man, who believes and confesses and dies before he has 
 done any good work, is a true believer and enters Paradise ; that good 
 works cannot consequently be considered as a necessary part of faith, 
 and that faith can exist without them. 
 
FAlTfl. 41 
 
 performs any good works ; but, on the contrary, be an 
 evil-doer, so that consequently faith and wicked works 
 may be combined Jjt^ds^^ -^'juoi^^ J-^^^y (Jowh. 43). 
 
 This is the faith of the lowest degree, but still it is true 
 faith, and he who possesses it is a real believer. He, 
 however, who combines belief with confession and good 
 works, has reached perfection (JU.£=JI) in faith. Mu- 
 hammad said : " Faith is that thou believest in God, 
 and His angels, and His Scriptures, and His Apostles, and 
 the last Day, and the Kesurrection after death, and the 
 account and the Predestination of good and evil." 
 
 (4) He who bclioves in his heart, but dies before he has cither con- 
 fessed or performed good works, is novertheless a true believer and enters 
 into Paradise. Those who consider confession a necessary part of faith 
 naturally consider that such a one has died without faith, an opinion 
 absolutely contrary to the Sunni dogma. 
 
 (b) He who believes in his heart, and has time and o2)portunity of 
 confessing, and knows that it is the duty of the Muslim to do so, and does 
 not confess his faith is nevertheless a believer in the sight of God, and 
 will not be cast into everlasting hell-fire, for faith is the mere belief, 
 intellectual conviction and assent, and this belief docs not cease to exist 
 through the want of outward confession. Such a man is a believer in the 
 sight of God, but an unbeliever in this world before the court of justice 
 and with regard to the rights of Muslims. In case of an impediment of 
 the tongue, a sign with the hand is as good as confession with the tongue 
 (Jowh. 42-43. Ibn Khaldun i. 384). The sect of the Murji'a (A5«^jJ\ liS^i^) 
 go too far by saying that a believer, even if he act wickedly, will never 
 enter hell-fire. The orthodox doctrine on this subject is that everyone, 
 even the most perfect believer, will enter hell-fire, for no one is free from 
 committing some sins, for which he must enter fire ; only infidels, 
 however, will remain in it for ever. 
 
 (6) He who confesses with the tongue saying : " There is no God but God, 
 and Muhammad is His apostle," but does not believe it in his heart is an 
 infidel in the sight of God and will be cast into eternal hell-fire. In this 
 world, however, he is to be considered and treated as a believer and a Mus- 
 lim, for man cannot penetrate into the secrets of the heart, and the con- 
 fession of the mouth must be taken to be the interpreter of the thoughts of 
 the heart. In order, however, to make a man a Muslim in this world, 
 before the Law, in the sight of the Q&di, confession is necessary. 
 G 
 
^2 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 One of the questions which have been much discussed 
 in connection with the subject of Faith is whether Faith 
 and Islam are synonymous terms, and whether every 
 believer is consequently a Muslim.* 
 
 The author of the Jowhara mentions five degrees of faith : 
 
 (1) Traditional faith sAss ^^ yUj\ which is accepted on the author- 
 ity of a teacher, or Shaikh, without investigation and knowledge of the 
 evidences. It is the faith of the unlearned people f*\^ Xslaa^V 
 
 (2) Faith resting on knowledge, ^ ^ (^^\. This is the faith of the 
 learned class ^S^\ v^\.&-o\. 
 
 (3) Faith resting on inner vision ^Lc ^^ (^W^> *^^* i^> *he seeing 
 God with the heart, the constant communion with God ^ v-JlaJ^ ^*^y». 
 
 (4) Faith resting on Truth ^^ ^^ (jW^, ^^ seeing God with the heart 
 
 (5) Faith resting on reality &a^ (^ (^jWl, which is attained when 
 the heart sees nothing but God. This state of being absolutely de- 
 voted to God is called the annihilation, or the being absorbed in God 
 oUiJ^ (*\S^i or the state of vanishing. 
 
 1 The controversy on the subject embraces the following two questions : 
 (Ghazali i. 75.) 
 
 (1) Is Isldm the same thing as Imdn or not ? (&jtt^ ^U>S^ yfe f»)L.^^ Jjb). 
 
 (2) If Islam and Imdn are not the same thing, can they exist 
 separately, or must they necessarily be combined ? 
 
 (&^j^ <5o W»/*^^ ^^^ '^)l - i:jU»^^ c:)^ J-»«^ f»^^^'!^y. Jj^). Some say 
 that Isldm and Im&n arc synonymous (a==-U ^ #»iL.SL ^WiS^), and that 
 consequently every believer is a Muslim, and every Muslim a believer 
 ({^y^. {j^ ftX^-^ ^y f^.*.) ,^r^ i^y J^>^ 5). This is the opinion held 
 by the orthodox School. Others say that they are different, and may 
 exist separately ^^loy:?. ^ (j^M* U9>\, others again say that they are 
 distinct things but joined together. 
 
 Ghaz&li solves the difficulties connected with this subject in the follow- 
 ing manner : 
 
 From the linguistic point of view Imdn means belief (^,jua>), intellec- 
 tual conviction and assent, (^jjjua;^^ ^^ S^Lx ^^V.4jS\) ; IsUni means 
 submission, subjection, obedience, as the following quotation shows : — 
 oUfli^^^ ^\£o}J^^ f»ib.-^\^ ^A....v3\ ^^ 'ijlfC fX^'^\. The seat of Iman is 
 the heart, mind and the tongue is its interpreter. Isldm comprises belief 
 
FAITH. 43 
 
 Faith is also capable of increasing and decreasing — 
 ((jaAX) ^ s^ji {j^^^)f ^^^ ^^^ inner conviction concerning 
 the truths of Islam is sometimes strong and sometimes 
 weak. It also increases by man's obedience* to the will 
 of God and decreases by his disobedience to the same, 
 (iuiyi ^JeAXJ J^^^ t/^.^ J^^\ JusILj Jjjj. J^)\) 
 
 Infidelity (^£=>) is the contrary of faith and consists 
 in disbelieving anything the Prophet has taught as neces- 
 sarily to be believed. 
 
 • -•> •> 
 
 (^j)j^ <dju^ Jx U ,^ ^ J;***^' J^l*^^ (• J^ Mawak. 597.) 
 
 with the heart, and confession with the tongue, and good works by the 
 members of the body, and is consequently a more comprehensive term 
 than Im&n. Im&n is one of the component parts of Isl4m and Islam, 
 therefore, includes it ; but Imdn being a more restricted term does not 
 include IsUm. From a linguistic point of view the two terms are there- 
 fore not synonjTnous. ( UjjuJ ^^^LJ J^ ,^ ^ ,^^- ^xo? J^) From 
 the point of view of the Law and religion (^*«»), and in a theological 
 sense the two terms are sometimes used as being synonymous 
 (jj^yd^^ ^o^yJ^ Jtj-— J^), and sometimes as having different meanings 
 (vj5L3.3^ Jim— vj^), *n<^ sometimes as being intermingled, comprised in 
 each other (Jit^juJ^ J«I. Jc). (For proofs from the Qur'in and 
 Tradition in support of each of these definitions see Ghazili i. 75). 
 
 Imin and IsUm arc found united in the individual, who believes in his 
 heart and outwardly observes the precepts of Isl^m ; Imdn exists separ- 
 ately in the individual, who only believes in his heart ; but neither 
 confesses, nor does good works, and Isl&m exists separately in him 
 who outwardly observes the precepts of Isldm, without inner belief. 
 
 LU 6Jt\ibt ^\Si\ ^^ ^ fX,'i\^ &Jl2) jlo ^^ - (Jowh. 44.) 
 
 I Obedience to the will of God consists in doing what God com- 
 mands, and abstaining from what He prohibits— &j j«^UJ\ J«i IcUaJ\ 
 djLc (^^e^ui^ v»Lu<^.\ « (Ghazili i. 78. Jowh. 47). With regard to the possi- 
 bility of faith increasing and decreasing three classes may be distinguished : 
 
 (1) Men and Jinns, whose faith is capable of increasing and decreasing, 
 
 (2) Angels whose faith can neither increase nor decrease. 
 
 (3) Prophets, whose faith is capable of increasing, but not of decreasing. 
 
44 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 No Muslim can be called an Unbeliever or Infidel, even 
 if he opposes the truth.* 
 
 The learned author of the Sharhu'-1-Maw4kif says on this subject : 
 " Mankind may be divided into two classes, namely, those who believe in 
 the prophetic mission of Muhammad, and those who do not believe in it. 
 Those who do not believe in it are, either such as admit the divine mission 
 (ipi) of other prophets, that is, Jews and Christians ; or such as do not 
 believe in any divine mission or revelation, such as the Buddhists 
 (i4jfc\wJ\) and the Atheists (^jfcjJU. Those who reject the prophetic 
 mission of Muhammad are of two kinds : (1) such as reject it from mere 
 hostility and obstinacy (oUc m^)> and (2) such as do so from sincere 
 conviction, after due investigation and consideration. The portion of the 
 former will be eternal punishment, that of the latter will not be eternal 
 punishment. 
 
 1 Among true Muslims there are such as err in fundamental doctrines ; 
 c 
 they are Heretics (icjj ^\) innovators, but not infidels. As every sect 
 
 of Islam agrees that infidelity means the contrary of faith, there are 
 various opinions as to the exact meaning of infidelity. Those who consider 
 faith as consisting in the knowledge of God, naturally say that infidelity 
 consists in ignorance concerning God («IJ^ Js**^^). Those who describe 
 faith as obedience, say that infidelity consists in disobedience to the will 
 of God. So the Khawdrij and some of the Mu'tazila sect who say that 
 every sin is infidelity ( *i^ i,woiu« ^V^) which however is false. 
 
 The Mu'tazila hold that there are three kinds of sins (^L^^eju^ pi. ^-.cU^) : 
 
 (1) Sins which are the result of ignorance concerning God and His 
 Unity and the divine mission of His Apostle. These they consider amount 
 to infidelity. 
 
 (2) Sins consisting in committing, besides good works, some deadly 
 sins such as murder, adultery, etc. This class of sinners, they say, are 
 not exactly infidels, but belong to an intermediate class between believer 
 and infidels ("^^^y^^ ^^ ^r^) *^^ ^^^ called impious (,j^\i^, 
 
 (3) Sins consisting in smaller transgressions, venial sins (fi-jA-o pi. JU-s) 
 which do not deprive a Muslim of his character of a believer and do 
 not cause him to become an infidel. 
 
 The believer (aLsJ^ Jjfc^ - aJJ^\ J^^), ^^^° commits a deadly sin, is 
 therefore : 
 
 (1) According to the orthodox doctrine still a believer, but impious. 
 
 (2) According to the Khawarij an infidel. 
 
 (3) According to Hasanu'l Baria, a hypocrite (^^U*), 
 
INFIDELITY. 45 
 
 In the lifetime of Muhammad and the Companions,* 
 and their early followers, in the first century of the Hijra, 
 the religion of Islam was very simple, and all the religi- 
 ous knowledge the believers possessed consisted of the 
 Qur'an, of which some learned by heart a few verses, 
 
 (4) According to the Mu'tazila he is a man in an intermediate state. 
 {See Mawikif. 597-600.) 
 
 1 Abu'l-Hasan says : " After the death of ^luhammad, the Muslim 
 nation became divided into many sects, each one considering the others 
 heretics, and separating itself from them ; but Isl&m was common to 
 
 them and united them" (&>\ ^^ oy^***^*^ \^\ y ^^t^\^X4^\ ;^d<*^) 
 
 (Mawdkif 600). f,^ ^ ,»«ju^ ^S^ f^\ S^ ^j^W^ Cy 
 
 According to SAra v. 76, 77 : '* They indeed are infidels who say that 
 
 God is the Messiah, the Son of Mary Whosoever shall join other 
 
 Gods with God, God shall forbid him Paradise, and his abode shall bo 
 the fire." The Christians must be considered infidels, though in many 
 passages thoy are described as ' the people of the Book ' («^U:~J\ Jit)\) 
 as those who possess an inspired book ( J,^^^^) and thereby belong to a 
 class standing high above idolaters and infidels. 
 
 The learned author of the Sharhu'l-Maw&kif sums up his discussions 
 on Faith and Infidelity and the many heresies of Isldm, by stating it as 
 the orthodox doctrine on the subject that a Muslim, though he may lead 
 a wicked and ungodly life, and entertain many opinions opposed to the com- 
 monly received doctrines of Isl&m, may never thereby become an infidel, 
 deserving eternal fire. He only becomes an infidel (1) by denying the exist- 
 ence of the Almighty God, (2) by associating other gods with the One only 
 true God, (3) by denying the divine mission of the Prophet, (4) by denying 
 what has been received by general agreement, i.e., by declaring lawful 
 what has been by common consent declared prohibited. However he 
 may differ in other points, he can never be considered an infidel but only a 
 
 heretic, innovator, ^ji &^ Uj S^ dMX\ Ja^ ^^ W^ /t^ ^ 
 
 &t fX^\ &e)ifi il^^ ^ U ^\ ft^^JuU j\^=6\ ^\ ^yb» ^\ f,^\ j^\^\ ^UU 
 
 (Mawdkif 634). ^L& ^ 
 
46 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 others larger portions, and the necessary explanations 
 which were given by Muhammad. Neither the Qur'an 
 nor the sayings of Muhammad were then written down 
 in books, but were chiefly learnt by heart and communi- 
 cated to others by word of mouth. Later on the Qur'an 
 and the Traditions were collected and written down in 
 books, and, towards the end of the first century, people in 
 some quarters had begun to speculate on the truths which 
 had at first been simply received and believed without 
 investigation, and at the beginning of the second century 
 a kind of theological school had already formed itself. 
 
 Hasanu'l-Basri (,^j^\ ^j***»- HO a.h.) may be considered 
 the founder of the same.^ 
 
 The leaven of speculation and independent thought, 
 and the application of simple philosophical principles 
 to the primitive dogmas of Islam had by this time al- 
 ready worked in various directions. Dissatisfaction had 
 been shown with the old doctrines, and the introduc- 
 tion of new and vivifying elements into the same were 
 required. Wasil ibn 'Ata (Ike ^^1 J^l^ 80 a.h.), a disciple 
 of Hasanu'l-Basri, publicly gave expression to these feel- 
 ings of dissatisfaction with the old teaching, and long- 
 ing for the introduction of new elements, and separating 
 himself from his master, became the founder of a new 
 school, the free-thinkers of Islam, called the Mu'tazila 
 
 1 Hasanu'l-Basri lived and taught at Basra. He was the son of a freed 
 slave of Zaid ibn-Thdbit, the editor of the Qur'dn. His mother had been 
 the slave of one of the wives of the Prophet. He possessed all the 
 learning of his time and may, in a certain sense, be considered the 
 founder of Scholastic theology, which was more fully worked out at a 
 later period. There were at the time at Baghdad one hundred and twenty 
 learned doctors, who lectured on dogmatical and legal subjects, while 
 there were only a few who made inward piety and spiritual religion the 
 subject of their lectures (^^LS\ u^U* ^ v«>yLaJ\ J^^^ ^ (^j-iA^^ ^ 
 Ghazdli i. 31). 
 
THE mu'tazila. 47 
 
 iZjxjt^] or Separatists* from Jiix) to secede, to separate 
 
 oneself. 
 
 The Mu*tazila, after having had a time of success and 
 power, were finally expelled from Baghdad, but continued 
 to flourish in Basra, when a blow was dealt to them 
 
 there by Abii'l Hasanu'l-Ash'ari (^^yi,i, jl ^***<vll yl), one of 
 their own body, from which they have never recovered. 
 With Abii'l Hasanu'l-Ash'ari, who adopted the scholastic 
 
 1 The story of W&sil's separating himself from his Master and becoming 
 the founder of the Mu'tazila is thus told : " al Hasan was one day seated 
 in the Mosque at Basra when a discussion arose on the question as to 
 whether a believer who committed a mortal sin thereby became an 
 infidel or not." When the question was proposed to al Htvsan for decision, 
 ho kept silence for a moment to consider it ; but before he had had time 
 to give an answer Wisil ibn 'Atd rose up and said : ' I am of opinion 
 that a ^luslim who has committed a mortal sin should be regarded 
 neither as a believer nor as an infidel, but as occupying a middle station 
 
 between the two.' (^^^^yLt^\ ^J^ ^V^) ^^^ ^^^^ retired to another part 
 
 of the mosque and was joined by a number of his friends to whom he 
 explained his opinion on the subject. Kat&da, entering the Mosque, 
 went up to them, but, on becoming acquainted with the state of things 
 he said : * These are Seceders.' 
 
 The system of the Mu'tazila very soon spread in all directions, and 
 gained numerous disciples and was by degrees more fully worked out, 
 especially when later on the works of the Greek philosophers, chiefly of 
 Aristotle, were translated and thus became accessible to the doctors of 
 Islim. The system was then so construed as to be in harmony with the 
 demands of sound reason and the principles of philosophy. 
 
 This theological school of the Muslim rationalists and free-thinkers 
 found no favour in the eyes of the Ummayad Khalifs, who persistently 
 discouraged and, when possible, persecuted its adherents. Under the 
 reign of later Khalifs (198-182 a.h.) they were in high favour at court, but 
 were finally discouraged, persecuted and suppressed. Their final blow 
 however came not from a Khalif, but by one of their own disciples, al 
 Ash'ari, who seceded from them and became the bitter opponent of their 
 system and a defender of the old system. (For the doctrines of Ash'ari 
 see Faith of Isl4m, pp. 181-2. For failure of the Mu'tazila and their 
 revival in India also see Faith of Isl4m, pp. 101 -9). 
 
4S THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 methods, began a new period in the Muslim science of 
 theology. It was the beginning of a new and vigorous 
 start and of the triumph of orthodoxy, and of the decline 
 and fall of the more liberal and rational School of the 
 Mu^tazila. The teaching of al Ash*ari (S.rli;^l <*^^aA^)j 
 spread very widely and rapidly and soon gained many 
 disciples. ^ 
 
 1 The story of Abii'l Hasan's leaving the camp of the ]\Iu'tazila and 
 becoming the defender of the old school of orthodoxy is thus related : 
 'Abii 'Aliu'z-Zubbai was lecturing one day to his students when Abii'l- 
 Hasanu'l Ash'ari, one of his disciples, propounded the following case to 
 his master : " There were three brothers, one of whom was a true 
 believer, virtuous and pious ; the second an infidel, a debauchee and a 
 reprobate, and the third an infant ; they all died. What became of 
 them?." Al Jubbai answered: "the virtuous brother holds a high 
 station in Paradise, the infidel is in the depths of hell, and the child is 
 among those who have obtained salvation." '• Suppose now," said al 
 Ash'ari, " that the child should wish to ascend to the place occupied by 
 the virtuous brother, would he be allowed to do so?" 'No,' replied al 
 Jubbai, "it would be said to him." * Thy brother arrived at this place 
 through his numerous works of obedience to God, and thou hast no such 
 works to forward.' " Suppose then," said al Ash'ari, that the child should 
 say : * This is not my fault ; you did not let me live long enough, neither 
 did you give me the means of proving my obedience." "In that case," 
 said al Jubbai, " the Almighty would say : * I knew that if I allowed thee 
 to live, thou wouldst have been disobedient and have incurred the punish- 
 ment of hell; I acted therefore for thy advantage." "Well" said 
 al Ash'ari, and suppose the infidel brother were to say : — ' God of the 
 universe ! since Thou knewest what awaited him. Thou must have known 
 what awaited me ; why then didst Thou act for his advantage and not for 
 mine? Al Jubbai was silent, though very angry with his pupil, who was 
 now convinced that the Mu'tazila dogma of man's free will was false, and 
 that God elects some for mercy and some for punishment, without any 
 motive whatever. Disagreeing with his teacher on this point, he began 
 to find other points of difference, and soon announced his belief that the 
 Qur'an was not created, as the Mu'tazila pretend. This occurred on a 
 Friday on the great Mosque at Basra. Seated on a chair he cried out in 
 a loud voice, * They who know me know who 1 am ; as for those who do 
 not know me, I shall tell them : I am ' Ali Ibn Isma'ilu'l Ash'ari and I 
 used to hold that the Qur'an was created, that the eyes shall not see God 
 
DOGMATICS. 49 
 
 Seventy-three sects are said to have sprung up in 
 Isldm at different times, 1 and on various subjects, most 
 of which have since disappeared. The adherents of these 
 sects, though considered as heretics, or innovators, are 
 nevertheless acknowledged to be Muslims, and not infi- 
 dels. The system of theology now acknowledged to be 
 orthodox is that of the Ash'ariyya (L.*.--^l kyiJii^l) 
 
 Dogmatics (ja^y) may be divided into three parts : 
 
 (1) CL^'^l Theology treating of doctrines connected 
 with the Godhead (»^^U JuiLuJl JJUJl ^y 
 
 (2) CLjlrxil), Doctrines connected with the prophetical 
 office. (fKxxii\i iiilnlcJI JJU-Jl ^J e^l) 
 
 and that we ourselves are the authors of our evil deeds. Now I have 
 returned to the truth, I renounce these opinions, and take the engagement 
 to refute the Mu'tazila and expose their infamy and turpitude. He enlist- 
 ed on the side of orthodox Islim all the dialectical skill of the Mu'tazila 
 and gave to the side of the orthodox the weapons of the sceptic. He then 
 adopted the scholastic methods, and started a school of thought of his 
 own, which was in the main a return to orthodoxy. He thus overthrew 
 the liberal school, and his principles and methods have ruled the greater 
 part of the Muslim world ever since." (Faith of Isl4m, pp. 179, 180). 
 
 1 Muhammad predicted that his followers would bo divided into numer- 
 ous religious sects. According to a tradition recorded by 'Abdu'lldh ibn 
 * Umar he said : " Verily it will happen to my people even as it did to the 
 children of Israel. The children of Israel were divided into seventy-two 
 sects, and my people will be divided into seventy-three. Every one of 
 these sects will go to Hell except one sect." The Companions said : •* O 
 Prophet, which is that ? " He replied : " The Religion which is professed 
 by me and my Companions." 
 
 The chief subjects on which these sects differed from the orthodox dogmas 
 were (1) The attributes of God and His Unity (V^^ jk^fe-yJU ci^UJ^), (2) 
 Predestination and God's justice (JjuJW jOaJ^), (3) God's promises and 
 threats (j^^\ y J^^^), (4) Revelation, reason and (6) The Imamate 
 
 7 
 
50 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 (3) Li^lXi»xx*Jl, Other dogmatical subjects. 
 
 The name by which God, the one and onl)^ true God, is 
 
 called in the Qur'an, is Allah (jdl^), originally jdl with the 
 
 J. » 
 
 article Jt prefixed to it. ^ 
 
 The doctrine concerning God, His unity. His essence, 
 His attributes, and His works forms a very important 
 part of the Qur'an, which speaks in many of its passages 
 of His absolute Sovereignty and Majesty. He is the 
 Creator and Preserver of every thing that exists, the 
 Almighty, All- wise, and Omniscient.^ 
 
 1 As many as thirty opinions have been started respecting the deriva- 
 tion and meaning of &fi^ , most of them agreeing that it is not a derived 
 but a proper name (ni'PM " D"*T7bK). Another word frequently used in 
 the Qur'in for God is Lord (sh-J^). 
 
 The title AlUh is called the essential name of the essence («y^jj^ /*-»^)> 
 
 ' a 
 all other titles being considered names designating attributes of God 
 
 (uyUJUU— ^). They are called the excellent names (^_;i.«^^ oU—S^ Sura 
 vii. 179). Abii Huraira reports that Muhammad said: "Verily there are 
 ninety-nine names of God, and whosoever recites them shall enter 
 Paradise." 
 
 According to tradition, God has among the many names by which He 
 is known, one called the Exalted Name (-»!ac!J\ /*— ^^), which is generally 
 considered to be unknown to any but the Prophet and possibly some of 
 the dis'jinguished saints. Some however say that it is Alldh. 
 
 It is a generally received opinion that it is not allowed to call God by 
 any other name besides those mentioned in the Qur'an. These are called 
 fixed, settled names (iJLJJ bU—^). The Mu'tazila and others hold that 
 there is no objection to one's applying expressive names to God besides 
 those mentioned in the Qur'dn. {See Msiwiqii. 540-545 where a list is also 
 given of the ninety-nine names of God.) 
 
 2 It would lead us too far to quote all the verses of the Qur'an referring 
 to this subject. It may suffice to quote a few verses, and the curious will 
 find a fairly complete list of those passages in the Dictionary of Isldm, 
 p. 142 et seqq. 
 
THE UNITY OF GOD. 51 
 
 The doctrine concerning God, as it has been developed 
 on the foundation of the Qur'an and Tradition, by the 
 learned doctors of the Ash'ariyya School, among whom 
 may be mentioned as chief representatives Ibn Mujahid, 
 the Qadi Abii Bakr al-Baqilani Abii'l-Ma'ali, known 
 as the Imamu'l-Haramain. Ghazali says : that the two 
 
 *' Verily your Lord is God, ^'ho created the heavens and the earth in 
 six days. . . He created the sun and the moon and the stars, subjected to 
 laws by His commands. Is not all creation and its empire His?" Sura 
 vii. 52, •' Omniscient, Judge of all. Author, Preserver of all things." 
 Sdra vi. 59-64. The Mighty, the Wise, the Subtile. Siira vi. 95-103 : 
 " God everlasting, self-subsisting, all by his sovereign will ; His throne 
 embraces heaven and earth." Sdra ii. 256. " God brings forth the living 
 from the dead— and the dead from the living." Sura iii. 25. 
 
 The most important doctrine laid down by Muhammad in the Qur'an, 
 to which he refers again and again, on which he insists as the great truth 
 to bo believed, and which he endeavours to prove and illustrate in a variety 
 of ways, is the doctrine of the unity of God (alj^ &^\j^^^, • There is no 
 
 God but God ' (ih\ 'i\ il\ 3) is a formula said to contain the negation 
 
 of false gods (^), and the affirmation (u:>L^^) of the one true God. 
 
 Sdra ii. 158 *' Your God is one God ; there is no God but He, the Merciful, 
 the Compassionate." Sdra cxii., called the (^^!!i\ &^^) the chapter 
 of clearing oneself, i.e., of belief in any but the one true God, states the 
 dogma thus :— 
 
 •' Say : • He is God alone 
 
 God the eternal ! 
 
 He begctteth not and He is not begotten ! 
 
 And there is none like unto Him." 
 Everything opposed to the oneness of God is strongly denounced in the 
 Qur*an, so the statues and idols (v'Ui^), which the pagan Arabs set up 
 for worship, are called an " abomination of Satan" ^lLi;...ftJ\ J^^ ^^ w'**') 
 Sdra V. 92. Idols (j»U*^), and their worship are spoken of with con- 
 tempt and reprobation (Suras vi. 74 ; xiv. 38). Three hundred and sixty 
 such idols are said to have been erected in and around the Ka'bah on the 
 day when Muhammad conquered Mecca. 
 
 Some of these pagan Arab idols are called by name in the Qur'dn, such 
 asLat, *Uz2a,Manat (SU*, ^\ ^ sfi.>:J^^ Sura liii. 20); Wadd, SuwA, 
 Yaghdth, Ya'dq, Nasr (^ , jyij , vi,ykj , ^\^ , j], Sur* Ixxi. 23-4) ; 
 
52 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 sentences of the Confession ('ijl^/^Jl ^jLcI^) (1) there is 
 no God but God, ("2) Muhammad is the apostle of God, 
 notwithstanding their shortness, comprise the doctrines 
 of: 
 
 (1) The Essence of God (^11 cl>1 J) 
 
 (2) The Attributes of God (a:ll] cuU^) 
 
 As'if and F4'ila (&l*\i, v-»L— ^) were two idols erected on the hills Safa 
 
 c_ , * 
 
 and Marwa (a.-* . Uc), round which the pagan Arabs used to go in pro- 
 cession and which hills Muhammad retained as holy places to be visited 
 during the pilgrimage to Mecca. 
 
 Another false opinion Muhammad denounced as opposed to the Unity 
 of God is that entertained, apparently by the pagan Arabs, that God had 
 taken angels as his wives or had begotten daughters. "What! has your 
 Lord chosen to give you sons, and shall he take for himself daughters 
 from among the angels." Sdra xvii. 42 : " He begetteth not and He is 
 not begotten." Siira cxii. 3 : 
 
 Another false system Muhammad denounced as irreconcilable with the 
 Unity of the Godhead is that of ascribing to Him associates, partners, 
 
 companions in His dominion (oLSs^j : " Yet they made the Jinn part- 
 ners with God .... and in their ignorance they have falsely ascribed 
 to Him sons and daughters." SAra vi. 100. Polytheists are therefore called 
 Mushrikfn ij:.'^.''-', or those who ascribe partners, associates to God. 
 
 Not only the idolatrous Arabs and pagans in general, but the Jews also 
 as well as the Christians are considered as holding opinions which 
 militate against the Unity of God. So the Jews are accused, falsely so, of 
 
 believing that Ezra ( >*ys) is the son of God. " The Jews say Ezra is a 
 
 son of God and the Christians say " The Messiah is a son of God 
 
 God do battle with them ! How they are misguided ! " Siira ix. 30-31 : 
 (On this verse see "Sell's Historical Development of the Qur'An, S, P. C. K, 
 p. 193.) 
 
 In many passages of the Qur'dn Muhammad accuses the Christians 
 also of being Polytheists, on account of their holding the doctrines of 
 the Trinity (^*£>J\ji3\ - e-^JjLsJ^) and the divine sonship of the Lord 
 Jesus. It is evident that Muhammad was mistaken in his opinion of the 
 doctrine of the Trinity held by Christians, which he represents as God, 
 Jesus and the Virgin ^lary and confounded it with Tritheism {See 
 Suras V. 77 ; xix. 36, 91, 91 ; vi. 101 ; Ixxii. 3 ; v. 116 ; iv. 169 ; xxxix. 5.) 
 
THE UNITY OF GOD. 63 
 
 (3) The Works of God (2^] J'^1) 
 
 (4) The Truthfulness of the Apostles ( J**J1 ^J*.^) 
 
 In giving a somewhat condensed exposition of these 
 doctrines, we make use of the following Arabic books : 
 
 Ghazali's ^jjl >^ ^^' Suniisi's^^LJI j,] and Shaikh 
 
 Ibrahim al Lakani's Ja^-yiil »yt^»- 
 
 The doctrine of the Unity (ijj^^ _ JLXilj^^) of the God- 
 head is a most important dogma. God is one in his 
 essence (nature ejl J)) that is, not composed of parts ; 
 one in his attributes (cl;'^^), that is, not having two 
 powers, two knowledges, and so on. He is one in his works 
 ( J'jul), no other being besides God having any influence 
 
 on God (cl;!^ jJiy-J ia!'<iy« ^liJ &;ij). For proofs of the 
 Unity of God from the Qiir'An see Siiras ii. 110, 111, 
 158-160 ; iii. 1, 4, 16 ; iv. 51, 52, 116. Ghazali says that 
 the doctrine of the Essence of God comprises the following 
 points : existence of God, His existence from eternity 
 and for ever, His being neither substance nor body nor 
 accident. His not being tied to space, nor resting in a 
 place. His being seen at the last day. 
 
 These various subjects are dealt with under ten different 
 heads : ^ 
 
 1 (1) The Self-existence of God. ( JU? iu\ o^^ - ««JL^ A^^), mubt 
 be admitted as a matter of ncccbtiity (jy>.J\s->^.U &U^), for wo cun- 
 
54 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 not admit that there was a time when God did not exist, nor that a 
 time will come when He will not exist. (Jowh. 49 o»:j. J\ *t^^ ^^^ ^ 
 fjo^ i5^ %^\ 3 ^JjJ\ J-i> "ki ^JuO\ ^Jlc 3^^ 3) For proofs from the 
 Qur'an and reason (see Ghazdli, i. 68. Siiras xiii. 2-4 ; xxii. 18 ; Ixvii. 
 19, 30; vi. 72-78). This attribute (mode of being of God) is called an 
 
 essential attribute (&..^i6 ii*), as it refers to the essence of God. It is 
 
 also one of the positive attributes (6^^ llu>) He is self -existing :— 
 
 (dLj i5 4?\ JkS fi*>^^ (^\) not by reason of some cause that called him into 
 
 existence (^*^fi'^^^^fy* {j-^ jti^\(^\). (GhazAli i. 68. Jowh. 49-59 
 Mawiqif 478-479). 
 
 (2) His 'Eternity (dB^ ^li - Jjf ^ji j^\ ^^^ of old, without begin- 
 
 ning (a^yiS £S^\ ^Jkc - ^^^^ t^^^^ f*"^ 6** J"^ J^)' ^^ ^^ "^^^^ ^°^ 
 the first He would require a creator, and this creator another creator. 
 This is one of the negative attributes (dl-L. AA-o) as it negates in God 
 an attribute, which it would not be becoming to ascribe to him 
 icju/.^ 4*j^^ iSj\> ^ Afju^ ^ ^UJ^ ^Ic i^\ (Ghazdli, i. 68. Jowh. 51-52. 
 Maw. 474.) 
 
 (3) His Eternity (&ij\ bU») in the sense of his having no end. 
 5^/-1J^ f AC dh j^\^ jiJ\ fij^y ^ £j^\ C}^\ &i^ ^ JU» 6j\ j\i) 
 (j^y^ ft\x:idJ\ ^j^ ^ For proofs see Jowh. 52-54. 59 Mawiqif 474. 
 
 (4) God is not a substance, an element (aI^^ }^^ U^ ^^ O^)- "^^ ^^ 
 not contained in space (vje^). Every substance comprehended in a space, 
 either rests or moves, and is, consequently, subject to changes and accidents 
 (8^ ^ *£j^^i^ ^\ ^^j^SsU.). This cannot be admitted of God. " He who 
 calls God a substance, an element ( Jb»:j.^, without meaning His being 
 
 contained in space, may not be mistaken in what he means thereby, but 
 he makes a mistake in employing these terms." (Ghazdli i. 69. Maw. 474.) 
 
 (5) God is not a body (^w_t ) composed of elements or parts. 
 (jto\fi- i^ ^y ft M^s? ^r^ ti\) (Ghaz41i i. 69. Maw. 473.) 
 
 (6) God is not an accident (yc-y^), inherent in a body, or dwelling in 
 a place (J^^^ ^•— >^ ^^ U^J*? U*^ J^ *^^). (-^^^ further explanations 
 see Ghazili i. 69. Maw. 474). 
 
THE ATTRIBUTES OF GOD. 55 
 
 The attributes of God are known as the Sifdtu'llah 
 (^JU> <d!l cl;'a^) and concerning them there are ten points:* 
 
 (7) God is not restricted to certain regions. isj\ii\ 6y^ A\jiS &i\\ 
 («yl^lj ^Us<i.3\ ^^, He cannot be said to be on high or below, on the 
 right or left, etc., (Ghazili i. 69) For a full discussion of the negative 
 qualities of Qod (fti^'i *a>VA* or la^iyS sa>U*) see Mawiqif 471. 
 
 (8) God is sitting on His Throne (^^) in the sense in which He 
 means His sitting on the Throne 6j\j\ ^ji\ ^nt^^i v^>«^^ J* r=--^ **^) 
 
 (c^yi-^lj 6^\ SAras xx. 4 ; 11-27. (For explanation see Ghaz41i i. G9-70. 
 Dictionary of Isl&m, 145.) 
 
 (9) God will be truly seen in the next world with the eyes and sight. 
 
 Though God has no shape, and cannot be jV.a}^\^ ^^ ^^ ^Jy v^^ ^^) 
 (j\/^\j\^ i^\j\*y ^ seen in this world, yet in the world to come the 
 blessed will truly see him with their own eyes as it is stated in the 
 Qur'An : *' The faces then resplendent will regard their Lord " (Siira Ixxv. 
 22-23). The author of Jowhara (p. 107-112) says : '« It is possible to see 
 God in this world as well as in the next. In this world it has been 
 granted to Muhammad only. In the future world however all believers 
 will see him ; some say with the eyes only ( joo.), others with the whole 
 face (a^O, others with every part of their whole body " 
 
 c 
 
 (10) God is one, having no partner (oXg^) ; one, single (o^), having 
 
 no equal. (&J Ji 5 o^ &J **^/i ^ >>^\) tjJ^ a*^) ^^ l^rooi of this doctrine 
 the verse of the Qur'in (Sura xxi. 22) may suffice: " Had there been in 
 heaven or in earth gods besides God, both surely had gone to ruin, for one 
 would have opposed the other." Jowh. 65. Mawdqif 475. Ghazdli i. 70). 
 
 1 (1) God is omnipotent. Almighty, powerful (joU - jiJ^i - J^a3\ W^). 
 Stiras ii. 19 ; Ixxv, 40 ; iii. 159. The proof of this is the wonderful 
 mechanism of the world. This attribute implies God's power to create 
 and annihilate whatever is possible (Jowh. 60-62. Dictionary of IsUm, 
 145). 
 
 (2) God is omniscient ( J\i - ^^) He knows all things in the present, 
 
 the past and the future, in general as well as in detail (L.atf ^ SW^). 
 
5b THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 This knowledge is not acquired (>- .v,^^) like that of man. His know- 
 ledge comprises all things necessary, possible and impossible. iJu> f^\) 
 
 (Suras vi. 59 ; Iviii. 8). 
 
 (3) God is living (^^). SAras ii. 256 ; xxv. 60, ^^^ c:^ww--J 6S\Ji aB\ SLa. 
 (Jowh. 66-67. Ghazdli i. 70). (^^^\ s---^ J? ^\Ji >j>^ UvU-;) 
 
 (4) God is endued with a will (j»>^ - &JUi^ Jkj^ JU* d]i\ ; will is 
 bM - iL^J^). This will subsists in His essence from eternity. 
 
 a 
 
 (&j 6^\i v£j^aJ\Jlc iJj\j l^jjki libe JUy 6h\ lS\j\^ Siiraslxxxv. 16;vi. 35; 
 xiv. 4. His will is not synonymous with His omniscience, or His com- 
 mand or His pleasure (^j) as the Mu'tazila of Baghdad pretend, for 
 God's knowledge extends to everything whether necessary, possible or 
 impossible ( J*jssi,w« - y Uj. - s-^^s) ; while His will comprehends only 
 what is possible. As to His will being synonymous with His pleasure, 
 this is refuted by the Sunni doctrine that God wills certain things, though 
 he has no pleasure in them (^JUk &j ^-ij 21 U? <3l*5d» Jui 6o^jS\). His 
 
 will comprises everything possible, good or evil (yiJU^^J^ ^^'^^♦♦U J^A»). 
 The Sunni dogma that His Will is eternal refutes the opinion of the 
 Karrami}7a sect, that His will had a beginning (a*oU^ &*j\j^) ; just as 
 the orthodox teaching, that the Will of God is an attribute added to his 
 essence («i>^ jj\ ^jLc SjJ^j) refutes the doctrine of some Mu'tazila, who say 
 that His will is His very essence («t>^JkJ^ ^J,J6 Sj\ji3^ ^^). The Mu'tazila 
 also hold, contrary to the orthodox dogma, that the will of God does not 
 comprise what is evil or shameful but only what is good. 6^\ bS\j\ y\) 
 
 (5) God sees and hears everything ( «j-a> ^-*-^ l^^ *^^) > ^^^^ *^® 
 most secret thoughts of the heart. Each of these attributes is eternal, 
 inherent in His essence, extending to every existing thing. 
 
 (6) God speaks by speech (#%-3^^a> A^sc^ i^^ ^^) ^^^ ^^^ speaking 
 is not like that of man composed of sounds and words, liic JUi' 6^\^) 
 («y^ ^^ <J|;<&^ «> — fii iS\^i S^\j Li\\ The speech is in reality the inner 
 
 speech of the soul (^_;«j^^ (•^^)J *^® outward speech is only the inter- 
 preter of the inner one. The Mu'tazila, on the contrary, hold that the 
 speech of God is composed of sounds and words, and is not eternal but 
 
THE ATTRIBUTES OF GOD. 57 
 
 recent (*t,*>U.). The speech, word of God is one (^ oI«»iJ), but it has, 
 according to the circumstances of the case, various modes, as command, 
 prohibition, information, promises, and threats (jl,jC4- JkC. - p^ - ^J^ -y*^). 
 God's word (i^%^) has two meanings, «^., the eternal word inherent 
 in God's essence (6S\Si fj^\ ^JkSJ\ ^^j-JLJ^ ^^^\\) and the spoken word, 
 (,^_j!feAU^ p^<^jU^ created by God. In this sense is to be understood the 
 saying of «Aye8ha &15\ f»\^ Uia^^\ ^u ^^U " what is comprised 
 between the two covers of the Qur'&n is the word of God," combining 
 both the above mentioned meanings, by participation (^-J^yA^lj), or truly 
 (^_yyk.) of the eternal word (^_j-AJ\ (•J)^:^^) ; figuratively ((jijV*) of the 
 spoken (or written) word. Anyhow, he who denies that "what is con- 
 tained between the two covers of the Qur'An," (written or printed) is an 
 infidel. Though the words of the Qur'in which are read are recent, it is 
 not permitted to say that the Qur'in is recent (s£>oW), except for the 
 Rake of instruction, such as a professor gives to his students (Jowh G7-68). 
 
 (7) The speech (word) of God is eternal (^jJ> &..JU) fJ\J^\ fJc^\ ^\) 
 like all His other attributes. What is recent are the sounds and words 
 which express it. The words of God, to Moses : •' Take off thy shoes 
 from thy feet " existed from eternity in the essence of God, though they 
 were addressed to Moses in his days in words and sounds (Ghazili i. 70-72). 
 
 (8) God*8 omniscience (knowledge) is eternal (m^sS ^J\Jo &^). He 
 knew everything before it came into existence. 
 
 (9) God's will is eternal (JU^jul ih\ iS\j\ ^\). From eternity God 
 willed the events that were to take place, in due course, according to his 
 omniscience. 
 
 (10) God knows by knowledge, lives by life, is omnipotent by reason of 
 His omnipotence, wills by will, speaks by speech, hears by hearing, sees 
 
 by sight, A|^ SjJJ} ^jU S^^rf ^^ ^ ^Ic JU* iSl\ ^\ (Ghaz41i i. 71) 
 j.*^ yt!^ ^♦^-j ge«— f^<^ ^ri=>5>* lS\^\i. God's knowing cannot be separ- 
 ated from his knowledge. The Mu'tazila, in opposition to this ortho- 
 dox dogma, hold that God knows, lives, is omnipotent, wills, speaks, 
 hears, sees, by reason of His essence &y\Jkj ^ 6S\i^ ^U dlJ^ ^^\ (Jowh. 
 73-73). The glorious names of God are, like His attributes eternal 
 that is, not the articulation of these names, but the meanings ; and men 
 are, therefore, not permitted to designate God by any other names 
 than those mentioned in the Qur'4n. The Mu't&zila, on the contrary, 
 hold that the names of God are recent, applied to God by men, 
 and that there is no objection to apply to God any appropriate name 
 even if not mentioned in the Qur'4n or Traditions. Expressions in the 
 Qur'dn or Traditions which ceem to ascribe to God a body, are to be 
 8 
 
58 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The works of God are called the AtValu'llah jcUl JUil 
 and concerning them there are ten points : — ^ 
 
 understood in a figurative sense, ( Jj^^) ; and to be explained in accordance 
 with the other expressions, such as ' Thy Lord comes, descends {Ayi ©W) 
 to the lowest heaven ' * God has created Adam in his image ' (i>,yo ^Ic) 
 • the face of God remains ' («£)J^ &^^ ^^^ ^) ' the hand of God is above 
 their hands ' (^Jb^ j^ iiJ^ J^), ' all hearts of mankind ace between 
 two fingers of the fingers of the Merciful ' (<jIJ\ ^Vc\ ^^ ^;j->*--o\ U^)* 
 1 (1) Everything that exists and takes place in the world is God's 
 doing and creation ; He has created man and his actions. 
 
 All acts of man are created by God as the Qur'dn says : " God has created 
 you and what you do." (Ghaz41i i. 71-74). 
 
 (2) Though God has created the movements, acts of man, still he has 
 done so in a manner that they are, at the same time, the acquisition of man. 
 
 oL«u Sj^jkfi^ W»^ e^ W;ab* ^ ^W«J^ s^v^f^ S^r^^ A*\^-->- j\jii\ ^^\) 
 
 God has created the power which man possesses to act, and has created 
 the act itself (\iu>A^ j^aS^^^ ijjS^\ yj^) ; He has created the choice and 
 the thing chosen. Ciu^=^ jU^-*.^^^ jW^^^ ij^ (For details see Ghazd,li 
 i. 72). 
 
 (3) Though the acts of man are his own doings, acquired by him, and 
 
 the result of his own choice (jujJJ L^^), still they are nevertheless 
 willed by God (dB^ J\j^ 6iyS^ ^^ g^ li C^ ^ ^^\^=> ^^\ ^ Jk-jJ^ J*i J\), 
 Not the least thing happens in the world except by the decree and will 
 and power of God. (As-.^.t >• . &jS\j\> ^ iSjSi ^ eSi\ cUSj) He decrees the 
 good and the evil, what is profitable and injurious, faith and infidelity 
 and idolatry, obedience and disobedience, salvation and perdition. He 
 does what He wills, and no one can alter what He has decreed, or change 
 what He has predetermined. He guides aright whom He wills, and He 
 causes to err whom He wills. No one has a right to question His doings, 
 but man will be questioned as to his doings, he will have to render an 
 
 account and is responsible for his acts. li5U ^a^U r*^^< r^^ l^^ ^^'•'^) 
 
THE WORKS OF GOD. 59 
 
 '^^\^ ^wy\^ ^^^\ ^^L^^; ii^m^.j^=^\y yU;ij\^ ^\^ fX:^\^ 
 
 The Qur'in says : " If God had willed He would have guided all men.' 
 Ghaz41i says that reasou also proves that God must be the author of good 
 and evil, else Satan who wills evil would be mightier than God, which 
 cannot be admitted. To the objection " How can God forbid what He wills 
 and command what He wills not," the answer is that there is a difference 
 
 between God's conmiand and his will (Sj\ t!9\ ^^ yA\ Ghaz^li i. 72). 
 
 (4) God's creating man and imposing on him the duties of religion is 
 an act of His free will and grace, nothing made it incumbent on Him. 
 
 ^^_ ^^ S^\ uUl^wj J^ ^ tf^^^y »3J^^ J*^ J^ aS^ O^) 
 («Jlc Crt^U »-A,JL=uJ\. j^1*J\ The Mu'tazila, on the contrary, pretend 
 that this was incumbent on God, as the highest interests of man require 
 it. (j\^\ dU^ M U3 «£U J Mc ^T^y '^\) 
 
 (6) God has the right to require of His creatures more than they are 
 able to perform. This the Mu'tazila deny, ^U? ^ &> We-« 6i^\^ j^ &i\) 
 (^JlfiLt 3U yjpL^^ ' aT«^j ^ saying that God, in accordance with His 
 justice, cannot require of man anything exceeding his ability. (Ghazili 
 i. 7-2). 
 
 (6) God has the right to inflict pain and punishment on His creatures 
 without any guilt on their part, and without bestowing on them any 
 
 reward afterward. ^^ ^L- ^^ j^^ ^^ f^i^ y k2^^ rh\ ^^ tj^) 
 ,(^j^.!l v^^y j^ God is the absolute Sovereign over all His creatures, and 
 cannot, therefore, be accused of acting unjustly towards them, howsoever 
 He may deal with them, * as every possessor of an object is forced to do 
 with his own property as he likes.' The Mu'tazila reject this doctrine, as 
 contrary to God's justice. To this Ghaz&Ii replies that injustice is a 
 man's dealing so with the property of another person, but as long as he 
 deals so with his own property, no one can accuse him of dealing with it 
 cruelly or unjustly.' (Ghaz&li i. 72-73). 
 
 (7) God has the right to deal with his creatures as He wills, 
 and is not bound to take into consideration what is best for them, 
 hS^ ^ T\ li\Ay &eie s-^^ ^ bUj U 6jW*) JuA} ^U* 6i\. Nothing can 
 
 be said to be incumbent on God. His will is the sole rule for His deal- 
 ings. He is not responsible to any one for what He does. The Mu'tazila, on 
 the contrary, hold that God according to His justice is bound to have 
 regard to what is best for the welfare of His creatures (&^ s-^^^ f^ ^^) 
 
60 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The learned Shaikh Suniisi ^ gives a somewhat different 
 classification of the attributes of God. 
 
 and to punish and reward them, not according to His sovereign will, 
 but according to their deserts. (For details see Ghazdli i. 73). 
 
 (8) To know and obey God, is the duty of man, not in accordance with 
 the dictates of reason, but in consequence of God's command and law. 
 
 GhazAli says in explanation of this statement that reason is not suffi- 
 cient to guide man to the acquisition of the knowledge of God and the true 
 way of obeying and pleasing him, it is only the positive law of God 
 which can do this. * Obedience and disobedience are the same to Him.' 
 
 The Mu'tazfla, on the contrary, ascribe a great influence to reason in 
 guiding a man to the obedience of God. 
 
 (9) There is no absurdity (impossibility) in God's sending the prophets 
 
 (aJLJ^ <»9«A^ »WsJ^^ ^^ J1^*f^^~->*. ^ ^^). Reason alone is insufficient to 
 guide man to salvation, prophets arc, therefore, required to instruct 
 them. The proof of the prophet's divine character is his ability to per- 
 form miracles (Syqsiui^ ^,s^^ «3*'^ ^f^) Grhazali i. 74. 
 
 (10) God has sent Muhammad as the last of the prophets and thereby 
 abolished the former laws (dispensations) of the Jews, Christians and 
 Sabeans, and has confirmed him as to his prophetical mission by evident 
 
 signs and miracles. t^j-U ^ ^ >; . ; .sI3 UjUs. ^»jiIc ^JlI^^ J-,j\ JU> ^\ ^\ 
 
 6jfcL3\ In explanation of this Ghazali says : " God has established 
 Muhammad's prophetic character by miracles, such as the splitting of 
 the moon, and the praising of the stones, the gushing out of water from 
 between his fingers. One of the greatest miracles, proving his divine 
 mission, is the Qur'an, for none of the Arabs were able to produce any- 
 thing like it. Another sign of his prophetic character is his being able to 
 foretell things which are to come to pass, such as his victorious entry 
 into Mecca, the defeat of the Greeks and their subsequent victories. (Siira 
 XXX. 1-2. Ghaz41i i. 74). 
 
 1 Suniisi says : The judgment of reason comprises three classes of 
 things, vi^., those that are (1) Necessary (v-^^^ - s-ȴ=^%i^), (2) Impossible 
 
 (J^j^s^Um^ - dJU-:-.^^), (3) Possible (yU^.j^^^). Every responsible 
 
THE ATTRIBUTES OF GOD. 61 
 
 Abii *Abdu'llah Muhammad Yiisuf al Suniisi (about 
 895 A.H. 1489-90 a.d.) wrote a short treatise entitled 
 
 sjlfuJl ^JLoI^s t/^< ^y ^W^- Another treatise on the 
 
 subject is called : ^^JJbl jJI *) ^^["x^ with the commen- 
 tary of the Shaikh Muhammad al Dasiiki. 
 
 Muslim (• *TgL.l J<»^ is boUnd to know what it is necessary, possible 
 and impossible to ascribe to (rod and to His Prophet. 
 
 Attributes which must necessiirily be ascribed to God are — Existence 
 (j^^), Eternity (f*J^^), Eternity (•U^S)), being distinct from created things 
 
 (*i»o\^^ JViri? A5*JU-»), Self-existence (A-JUj JU> L»ie*), Unity (il^^jk^^) 
 in His essence, attributes and works. Of these attributes the first 
 essence is called an essential attribute, an attribute of essence (L^^^Ji jju) ; 
 
 M it refers to His essence it is also called affirmative, positive (d^^ Sjlc) ; 
 
 the other five are called privative, negative attributes Agfl... SJlc. There are 
 
 seven attributes which must bo ascribed to God^ called ideal attributes 
 (A{yu(«« «A>UU), which are intimately connected with the attributes just 
 
 mentioned, vt^., God's being omnipotent (;«>U), willing (A|^), omniscient 
 
 (^), living (^). hearing (^t,^), seeing (^^), speaking (^J^a-^). 
 
 These are attributes which must necessarily («.,.*^\.) be ascribed to 
 God. 
 
 Attributes which it is impossible to ascribe to God (Aa^' •*) ^^'^ those 
 which are the contrary of those just enumerated, vu., non-existence (f*aii)^), 
 coming into existence (^.jl^\), vanishing in time (»UaS^ - f**^^^ f^), 
 similarity to created things («&>o^^^ iJifU^J^), not being self-existent, 
 {65\in f>^\ f»J*) not being One ^j,^ f j*.^^ ^j,y=u 5 f^\ JU» i^ J a ^ *■.>■ ! ) 
 (iS\k» j\ A»U ^j* J»U- aS (J)^ )^ *»^»> o* ^^r* O^J *» ^^*"* °' power 
 (y^ ' i^JJA\ f»Jkc), want of will (Sj^j5\ (••'^). ignorance (J«%.), death 
 («A>^), deafness (^«,«.«), blindness (,«4£), dumbness (m^^^). It is also 
 impossible to ascribe to God the contrary of the ideal attributes. 
 
 Attributes it is possible to ascribe to God are called ^U» iJk^ i^yW^^- 
 
 It is allowed to ascribe to God the doing or not doing of anything possible 
 (L^ y»^ J^ Ja* JU? &&- ^ ^\^\ Jowh. H'J-U'i. Sunusi 4-5.) 
 
62 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Many learned doctors have deviated from the orthodox 
 doctrine on these subjects in a variety of v^ays. They are 
 the founders of separate schools and sects (^5' 3 pi. ^y)> 
 and their peculiar opinions are considered by the Sunni 
 theologians as heresies (it^jo pi. cJj innovations, inven- 
 tions). The chief among these are those mentioned 
 below.^ 
 
 The learned author of the commentary of the Jowhara sums up the 
 ahove statements thus : 
 d;;&}l2b^ ^ &>U> • &/«Jui • ^^t^9 ^^)^i ^ J lx— <^ > p U jkx-M.j^ q^\ ^^\i 
 
 6Xjfl£ iyiutt ^Jc^\ ^jj^ . Ul^U^ ^ \^-i-a> ^ U..»..* 6j^ ^^ W^;^ ^ 1*^^^*^^^ 
 
 «t>\jL=u»-^\ ^ o^^ Jjii s^^^ ^^ ^^ f»^ ^ . ^^*^>^= — ^^ er* **M^ 
 
 - SjuSc (:))/^) ^^" »^^i*Ji-.^^ A^^L^u-^ U aU^ .yW^^ ^'M^ 2*^ • ^^^f ;^ 
 ^ L^ A5^ ^^ ^3^y _5 ^^^ So\^^\^ Sjj^\^ 6L«J^ ^^L: — > ;U;ii^^ U ^ 
 
 jS\Siii\ ^^ &M — -J 60^ . \jbo\jL*\ c^^Ua.?' ...\ «i>ULj^ 6JUb o-^^ ^_3■^ ^ 
 A»)XiU vj^ WU . ftJuaxi SyLc ^Ui" jVa;^^^ l^^Lx-.^ U dU«ti . cy)LasX->^^ 
 
 (Jovvh. 119 ef seqq). For a somewhat condensed statement on these subjects 
 see Ghazdli's al Maksudu'1-Asna, translated into p]nglish in Dictionary of 
 Islam, pp. 144-147. See also Palgrave's observations on the Muslim 
 doctrine of the Unity and absolute Sovereignty of God, and the influ- 
 ence of this doctrine on the character of Muslims. Faith of Isldm, p. 161.) 
 
 1 The ^lu'tazila CdSyatJ^) who, as a body, entirely reject the eternal 
 attributes of God, in order, as they say, to avoid the distinction of persons 
 made by the Christians, and they hold that eternity is the proper 
 
 attribute of God's essence (6S\6 cAc. ^Jad^ (•J^^), ^hat God is omnis- 
 cient, not by reason of His knowledge, is omnipotent, not by reason 
 of His omnipotence, as the Sunnis say, but by reason of His essence, 
 because of these attributes shared in His eternity, they would also share 
 in His divinity and there would be a plurality of gods. On account of this 
 
 opinion, the orthodox school call the Mu'tazila, the 'Mu'attila' (AlLiuJ^ 
 
VARIOUS OPINIONS ABOUT GOD. 63 
 
 «=divestors). They also hold that all those verses of the Qur'An which 
 contain a comparison of God to creatures (^^^^.^u must be explained 
 allegorically (wuViS^ J4^^)« These are the opinions of the Mu'tazila, as a 
 body. There are, however, a number of groups, which though Mu'tazila, 
 have peculiar opinions. In addition to these, some declared God's 
 omniscience and omnipotence to be declarative of His eternal essence, 
 (iUjjJlS^ %AAi)i J\ jf^\) or states (^UJU) ; others reduced the two into 
 one, viz., omniscience (a^^) This, says SharastAni ii. 32, is the very 
 opinion of the philosophers. Another branch of the Mu'tazila: the 
 Hodhailiyya (ijijiij\) say that God is omniscient by His omniscience, 
 and His omniscience is His essence and so with His omnipotence 
 (ajU ijlc y ^ ^W 6l}\ . 6S\S hjji y SjJJIj joU) which opinion, Sharas- 
 tini says he took from the philosophers, who affirm the essence of God to 
 be simple, and that His attributes are not accessory to His essence, 
 subsisting therein, but arc His essence itself. 
 
 (AJU ^ J» i5\^ U\i f^\ju* ^\ji\ u\j^ o — (J «yUJ\ ii. 34). 
 
 The HA'itiyya (d^^\) and the Hadathiyya (a^jl^^) ascribed a 
 divine character to Christ, in conformity with opinions of the Christians 
 ** who believe that he will come to judge all creatures at the last day." 
 Ahmed bin Haid believed that Christ was the eternal word incarnate, and 
 that he had assumed a true and real body. They asserted the existence of 
 two gods ; the one eternal, the most High God, and the other not eternal, 
 
 that is Christ, ^l — W Ajlc fy.^\ ^ lc^'i\ ^i^s>^'^\ ^^ i^^s^ \yiJ\) 
 ,jU4\ v^—W v5"^V r^^-^^ *e^ c*~^^ J\ ^oUUc^ jLc ^^UJU iU\y 
 
 He believed that this was the meaning of Si^ra Ixxxix. 23 " thy Lord, 
 Cometh with angels rank on rank," (See Sharastini ii. 42. Sale, 114). 
 
 The Bishriyya (jJytJ^) hold that the Will of God was one of His 
 works, (ASUi^ ^^ JaA vj^^ ^^ So^) that since God is omniscient and 
 
 knows what is profitable for man, it is impossible to suppose that He 
 does not will it (Sharast4ni ii. 45. Maw&hib G22. Sale, 115). 
 
 The Mushshabbiha ( a < ^. >- 1 »3\) are called Assimilators. As regards the 
 verses of the Qur'&n containing a comparison of God to creatures, the early 
 Muslims had said : •' we believe what the Qur'dn and the Sunna contain, 
 and do not take our refuge in allegorical interpretation ; everything 
 comes from God our Lord, we believe in the evident sense thereof, 
 
64 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Angels (c)^)u pi. <x=nlLc) are beings endued with 
 subtle bodies created of light,^ (^:f^W '^^ f*^^^*?-^) ^^^ 
 neither eat nor drink, in whom there is no distinction 
 of sexes and who, therefore, do not propagate their 
 
 species (i^*fU ^. ».%> Jo ^%a^y ^)- Their chief characteris- 
 tic is complete obedience to the will of God ; their dwelling 
 place, as a rule, is heaven ; their chief work consists in 
 praising God day and night and in executing His orders. 
 
 and also in the hidden meaning; we leave to God the knowledge of the 
 true sense, and we are not obliged to know it, as it is not a con- 
 dition of faith or an article of the Creed." Some of the Mu'tazila 
 followed the early Muslims in this way. Others, however, allowed a 
 resemblance (&,j^.<AJ) between God and his creatures, supposing Him to 
 be a figure composed of members or parts, either spiritual or corporeal, 
 (A-JU— .^ CA . i-^»\fi^•^ C*\ ,jiU>\ . pUc\) Jind capable of motion. Some of 
 this sect inclined also to the opinion that the divine nature might be 
 united with the human in the same person (Shahrast^ni ii. 76-77. 
 Mawdqif, 633. Sale, 120). 
 
 The Karrdmiyya ^a^V^j^^U^ followers of Muhammad ibn Karrdm, 
 called the Mujassima (rt» ^.»3^ corporealists) not only admitted a resem- 
 blance between God and created beings but declared God to be corporeal 
 (a.^.»...^.?^\ - A-j-JLsJ^). They are subdivided into as many as twelve 
 different sects, each holding somewhat modified ideas about the corporeal- 
 ity of God. (For details see Sharastani ii. 79. Maw4hib 633. Sale's 
 Introduction.) 
 
 1 The Qar'in (Siira ii. 28-31) says that when God determined to create 
 man he said to the angels : " Verily I am about to place one in my stead 
 on earth " to which they demurred. He then made them ashamed by 
 asking Adam to name all things, which they had not been able to do. 
 He then asked the angels to bow down and worship Adam, which they 
 did, except Iblis, who was, therefore, expelled from Paradise and cursed 
 (Sdras xv. 34-35, xvii. 63-67). Satan tempts Adam to sin and causes him 
 to be expelled from Paradise (Siira xx. 115-122). 
 
 He who asserts the existence of male angels is impious ; he who asserts 
 the existence of female angels is an infidel ' because he contradicts the 
 Qur'dn.' (Suras xliii. 18 ; xxi. 26 ; xxxvii. 150-159 ; liii. 28 ; xvii 42.) ' Hath 
 
ANGELS. 65 
 
 They are able to adopt a variety of beautiful forms ; 
 some live on earth. The Mu'tazila and others, consider 
 them superior in rank to the prophets because they are 
 free from evil propensities. The Ash'ariyya school con- 
 sider them inferior to the prophets, in accordance with 
 the saying of the Prophet : " The works God loves most 
 are those performed under the greatest difficulties." The 
 prophets have the evil propensities in their hearts, but 
 they fight and conquer them, and are therefore superior 
 to the angels, who have no evil propensities to resist. 
 
 There are four Archangels (<i£=JloJI f^^^j) *• 
 Jibrll (Jj-Ad-), God's messenger, said to be meant by 
 j^jJill --^ Jl mentioned in the Qur'in ; called also the 
 Angel of Revelation (^^.^1 C-XU) Siira ii. 91, 92. 
 
 Mika'll (Jjjl£=ui^ and Jl£=ui.<), said to have been the 
 
 friend and protector of the Jews. 
 * 
 Asrafil (JixiL**!) who will sound the trumpet at the 
 
 day of resurrection. 
 
 'Azrd'll (JjLJl.x), the angel of death (c:^*^>«JI cjlc).* 
 
 then your Lord preferred you for sons, and taken for himself daughters 
 from among the angels? Indeed, you assuredly say a dreadful saying." 
 (Sdra xlii. 3.) 
 
 1 'Azr&'il is said to separate men's souls from their bodies ; and also 
 those of the angels and all other creatures (SAra vi. 93). He is said 
 to be terrible in appearance ; so large that his head is high in heaven 
 opposite the Preserved Tablet, and his feet in the deepest regions under 
 the earth ; to a believer however he appears in a pleasing shape. The 
 learned Sunusi and other learned Shaikhs say that the best remedy, 
 enabling one to meet death and its anxieties and terrors which come after 
 it, without fear, is to perform a prayer of two rak'as after sunset on the 
 night of Friday, and after it to read the FAtiha and the Sfiratu'z Zalz41 
 (xcix) fifteen times. This Sura is said to be worth half the Qur'An (Jowh. 
 153). Of neither of the three latter Archangels is the name mentioned 
 in the Qar'&n. 
 
 9 
 
56 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Besides the Archangels there are Guardian Angels (dlsAt. Suras vi. 61; 
 Ixxxvi. 4) who continually attend man, and of whom each man has, some 
 say, two others four, to guard him from dangers and such calamities, as 
 are not decreed by God, i.e., such things as are * suspended ' ((jljc^), for 
 from what is absolutely decreed by God no one can save him. The Jinn 
 also are said to have such guardian angels to protect them. As these 
 Angels are said to succeed each other in their watch they are called the 
 Mu'aqqibAt ^«i>l{ix/#j, INIuhammad is reported to have said that every 
 man has ten angels (according to some traditions twenty or as many as 
 four hundred), who have charge over him by day and by night, from 
 the first beginning of his life to the moment of his death. Angels 
 intercede for maC; but their intercession is of no avail unless God is 
 pleased to accept their intercession ; they also assist believers against 
 infidels (Suras xxxiii. 42 ; xlii. 3 ; liii. 26; viii. 9-12, 52; iii. 119-120). 
 
 Besides these there are also Recording Angels (/^j-j^j^J^ Sura xliii. 80), 
 who constantly observe and write down men's actions. Of such angels 
 every man is said to have two, one standing on the right to write down 
 
 his good actions (uyL; ^^ idUL*), the other on his left to write down his 
 
 bad actions (»^\£.J^ cdUj ; they are constantly watching ^.^_^J|.) and 
 always present (ju;;c) except on certain occasions. These angels never 
 change, but remain with man till his death and then stand at his grave, 
 praising and writing down his reward, if he was a believer ; cursing him 
 to the day of the resurrection if he was an infidel. Some say that every 
 man has four such angels who relieve each other in the morning and the 
 evening. The good acts are said to be noted down at once, but when a bad 
 act is committed, the angel of the bad actions asks the angel of good 
 actions whether he is to write it down, whereupon this one orders him to 
 wait for the space of six hours, in the hope that the sinner may repent 
 and ask for pardon. If within this time he does not repent, his bad 
 action is irrevocably written down. The recording of good and evil is to 
 be understood literally, i.e., that it is done on paper with pen and ink 
 
 (o^x# . (j-UsJ . il\i ^fljgg^ »^ <?.'^)^). Some, however, understand it figura- 
 tively. As to the place where these angels abide, opinions differ. 
 Some say that they stand on the last molar teeth (^j^^e pi. ^_^^j-«>) 
 right and left, others on the shoulders. They are called in the Qur'an 
 f^^VSs f*\y^ (Siira Ixxxii. 11-12), exalted writers. 
 
 Another class of angels are the Throne Bearers ((^j«J^ iUs.) who are 
 said to be at present four, but will on the day of resurrection be strength- 
 ened by an additional four who will then bear the Throne of God above 
 them. 'Above them on that day shall eight bear the Throne of the Lord.' 
 (Siliraslxix. 77 ; xl. 7.) 
 
THE JINN. 67 
 
 Besides angels and devils a distinct order of creatures 
 is said to exist, whose nature places them between man 
 and angels. They are called Jinn^ (J^ Genii). They 
 
 Another kind of Angels are the Cherubim (^^^^J^^\) who surround 
 the throne. 
 Ridwan (m^**;) »s the Angel in charge of heaven ; the treasurer, keeper 
 
 or guardian of Paradise (^iX^\ Oj^)* 
 
 ^I41ik ((aUU) is said to preside over Hell and superintend the torments 
 of the damned (X!^\ (^'j<^ S^^a xliii. 77). And the inhabitants of hell 
 shall say, * O ^I41ik, would that thy Lord would make an end of us.' (Sura 
 Ixxiv. 30, 31). 
 
 Munkar and Nakfr (jt^si j^'") ^^^ ^^° fierce looking angels, who 
 visit every man in his grave, and who, immediately after the return of the 
 funeral party from the burial, are said to examine the dead person as to 
 his or her belief in God and Muhammad and to torment him, if his 
 answer is not satisfactory. 
 
 As to the sinlessness of angels (£4.^ , immunity, exemption from sin) 
 the orthodox doctrine is that angels are free from sin (^y^). Some, how- 
 ever, reject this idea, on account of their having remonstrated with God 
 on His creating Adam, which is a sin. To this objection the Sunnis 
 reply that the angels did not withstand God, but only wished for an 
 explanation. 
 
 As to the superiority or inferiority of angels to the prophets, the pre- 
 valent opinion is that prophets stand higher in rank than angels. On 
 lK>th these subjects the author of the MawAqif says that every one is 
 at liberty to hold whatever opinion commends itself to his own mind. 
 
 The Devil is called IbKs (,j-elj\) and also Shaitdn (yUa^jLJ^), and is 
 
 said to have been created of fire. His name was originally 'AzizH ( Jij^jc) 
 and he belonged to a class of angels and, according to the Qur'dii, 
 was expelled from Paradise and stoned (f^t^j), 
 
 1 ^ (from ^ to conceal, to hide) are so called because they are hid- 
 den from men. "We created man of dried clay, and the Jinn had been 
 before created of subtle fire " (S6ra xv. 26, 27). They eat, drink and 
 propagate their species and are subject to death. They arc consider- 
 ed to be, like men, capable of future salvation and damnation, where- 
 fore Muhammad pretended to have been sent for the conversion of 
 the Jinn as well as of men (Suras Ixxii. 1-17 ; xv, 27). The Jinn are 
 said to listen to what is going on behind the curtain in heaven, which 
 
68 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 were created of fire some thousand years before Adam 
 came into existence. There are good ones and evil ones, 
 believers and infidels among them. 
 
 Every Muslim is bound to believe in the divinely 
 inspired^ Books which God has sent down from time to 
 
 hides the presence of the most High, in order to steal God's secrets, and 
 so the good angels are said to throw stones at them {i.e., stars), wherefore 
 they are also called the stoned ones,' (i**:?.J from ^f, to throw stones 
 at. ^j shooting stars. Suras Iv. 14; li. 56; xi. 120; xlvi. 28-29; Iv. 
 33-41 ; XV. 16-17-18 xxxviii. 78 Ixvii. 5). See Baidawi's Commentary on 
 these passages. The Jinn are said to be divided into five distinct orders : 
 (1) Jinn (^i;.) Sura XV. 27. (2) Jinn (^). (3) Shaitdn (^a>^). (4). 
 'Ifrit (ooyic pl. c:^^^). (5)M4rid (*>)U). The terms Jinn and Jdnn 
 are often used to designate the whole species, good and bad. The weakest 
 among them are the J&nn, the strongest the M4rid. Their chief abode is 
 said to be the mountains of Q4f, which are supposed to encircle the world. 
 
 See Bukhdri's Commentary, v. 291. Sprenger ii. 238. Dictionary of 
 IslAm, pp. 133-138. Faith of IsUm, 199-206. 
 
 ]\Iuhammad and his followers have evidently borrowed from the Jews 
 the whole doctrine concerning angels, devils and Jinn. The Jews in their 
 turn learned the greater part from the Persians. Thus the Talmud 
 teaches that angels were created of fire and that they have various offices, 
 that they attend on man .... that the Jinn are an intermediate order 
 between angels and men .... that they know what is to happen in the 
 future, because they listen to what is going on behind the curtain to steal 
 God's secrets. {See Geiger's Judaism and Islam, 62-64, Simpkim Marshall 
 London ; Tisdall's Sources of the Qur'dn, 84). 
 
 1 Inspiration is called Wahi (^^^). The number of such inspired books 
 (i-iisJo ' ^ ^) is said to have been one hundred and four. Of these ten 
 are believed to have been given to Adam, fifty to Seth, thirty to Idris 
 (Enoch), ten to Abraham. The other four : the Pentateuch, the Psalms, 
 the Gospel and the Qur'an were revealed successively to Moses, David, 
 Jesus and Muhammad who, is now the last, the seal of the prophets. 
 (cL.jS^ a**^) These revelations are now closed, and no more are to be 
 expected. All these divine books, except the four last, are believed to be 
 now entirely lost, and their contents unknown. As regards the Penta- 
 teuch, the Psalms and the Gospel, the learned doctors of IsMm pretend 
 that they have undergone so many alterations and corruptions that no 
 credit is to be given to the present copies in the hands of the Jews and 
 Christians. 
 
THE SACRED BOOKS. 69 
 
 time to men, through his apostles: "We believe in God 
 and what has been revealed to Abraham and Ishmael and 
 Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and what was brought 
 
 The Suhuf (*J1*- pi. of iJU^-c), small books, sheets, pamphlets given 
 to the ancient prophets, are often mentioned in the Qur'dn (Sdras Ixxxvii. 
 18, 19; liii. 3G-40 ; xxxii. 23-25 ; xlv. 15, IG). (For a list of the passages of 
 the Qur'4n referring to these books, and especially to the Old and New 
 Testaments, see Sir William Muir's *• The Coran and the testimony it bears 
 to the Holy Scriptures," and also Dictionary of IsUm, pp. 440-448). 
 
 The Pentateuch (5^jyiJ\) is thus referred to: — "And verily wo gave 
 Moses the Book : wherefore be not in doubt as to the reception thereof 
 and we made it a direction to the Israelites " (Sfiras xxxii. 23 ; xli. 45 ; 
 
 xlv. 15). In Sura xxxvii. 117, the Thorah is called ^^at' ♦^^ v*L;^J^, 
 
 the perspicuous book. (Sdra vi. 91, 155). " Then we gave Closes the book, 
 complete as to whatever is excellent and an explanation of every matter 
 and a direction and a mercy." (S6ras xl. 56 ; xxv. 37). The following Old 
 Testament characters are mentioned by name in the Qur'An, Adam, Abel, 
 Cain, Abraham, Aaron, Therah, Korah, David, Goliath, Enoch, Elias, 
 Elijah, Ezra, Gog, Magog, Isaac, Ishmael, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jonah, 
 Joshua, Lot, Moses, Noah, Pharaoh, Solomon, Saul. The following 
 incidents of the Old Testament are some of those related in the Qur'4n 
 with more or less correctness. 
 
 Creation of the world (Sdras xvi. 3; xii. 3; xxxv. 1-12) Adam, his fall 
 (SAras vii. 18; ii. 34) Cain and Abel (Sura v. 30), Deluge (Sdras liv. 9; 
 Ixix. 11 ; xi. 42). Noah's Ark (Sdra xi. 40). Abraham visited by Angels 
 (Sdras xi. 72 ; xv. 51). Abraham ready to sacrifice his son (Sdra xxxvii. 
 101). Jacob goes to Egypt (Sdra xii. 100). Joseph's history (Suras vi. 
 84 ; xii. 1 ; xl. 36). Moses strikes the rock (Sdra vii. 160). Pharaoh 
 (Sdras ii. 46; x. 76 ; xliii. 45 ; xl. 88). Manna and quails (Sdras vii. IGO ; 
 XX. 82). Aaron makes a calf (Suras xx. 90). Korah (Suras xxviii. 70 ; 
 xliii. 45; xl. 38). David's praise of God (Sura xxxiv. 10). Solomon's 
 Judgment (Sura xxi. 78). Queen of Sheba (Sura xxvii. 22). Jonah and 
 the fish (Suras vi. 86; x. 98; xxxvii. 139 ; Ixviii. 48.) 
 
 The Psalms (j»j J\ from j ; to write, read, recite) are a writing, a book : 
 " And to David we gave the Psalms." (Sdras iv. 116 ; xvii. 57). " And now 
 since the exhortation was given have we written in the Psalms that my 
 servants, the righteous shall inherit the earth" (Sdra xxi. 105 ; see 
 Psalms, xxxvii. 29). It may hero be mentioned that this is the only 
 direct quotation from either the Old or New Testament in the whole of 
 the Qur'4n. The history of David is referred to in Suras ii, 262 ; xxxvii i. 
 20-24 ; xxi. 79-80; v. 82 ; xxxiv. 10-12. 
 
70 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 unto the prophets from their Lord : and we will not 
 distinguish between any of them, and unto him are we 
 resigned." (Siira ii. 130). 
 
 The Gospel is called the Injil (J*^^^). The word Jtsss*^ occurs 
 twelve times in the Qur'dii, but is only used in the later Suras. «' Who 
 follow the apostle, the illiterate prophet, whom they find written down 
 with them in the Thorah and the Injil" (Sura vii. 156), See also Suras 
 iii. 2 ; iii. 43-58 ; Ivii. 27 ; xlviii. 29 ; ix. 112 ; v. 51-70. Then let the 
 people of the Gospel judge by what is revealed therein " Ye rest on nought 
 until ye observe the Thorah and the Gospel and that which has been 
 sent down from your Lord." Siira v. 72. In Siira Ixi. 6, Muhammad 
 refers to the promise of the Lord Jesus that He would send the Paraclete 
 (jt4*>U mentioned in the New Testament, John xvi. 7. {See Faith of 
 IsUm, 13.) 
 
 The Qur'in contains far more of the histories of the Old than of the 
 New Testament. It contains, however, the history of the birth of John 
 the Baptist, and of Christ, of the miracles, the death (but not on 
 the cross) and the ascension to heaven. It is to be observed that the 
 references to the Injil as a divine revelation are to be found in the later, 
 i.e., the Madina Suras. (For details see Dictionary of Isl4m, the article 
 'Injil' pp. 211-212). 
 
 Jews and Christians have been accused by Muhammad and his followers 
 of having changed, and of altering their Scriptures (Siiras iv, 48 ; v. IG; iii. 
 72). The learned doctors of Islim say that tahrif (c-ftj^asJ) means the 
 changing or turning aside from the truth, and that it may be effected in 
 two ways : (1) by changing the meaning (^^yji^ «-ft>v^) o^ (2) by altering 
 the words of the text (,^_^ «-fli^«sj) . On careful comparison of the pas- 
 sages of the Qur'dn which accuse the Jews and Christians of corrupting 
 their scriptures, it becomes clear that Muhammad did not mean to accuse 
 them of having changed and corrupted the text of their holy books, but of 
 having misunderstood, and misinterpreted and concealed (^^^jlSs) certain 
 passages, which he thought contained prophecies confirming his divine 
 mission. This is also the opinion of men of high authority on Muslim 
 lore. Bukhari records that Ibn 'Abbd,s said that •' there is no man who 
 could corrupt a single word of what proceeded from God," so that the Jews 
 and Christians could corrupt only by misrepresenting the meaning of the 
 words of God. 
 
 The Qur'&n given to Muhammad is considered to be the most excellent 
 and complete of all divinely inspired books. The essential word of God 
 (^^j-JLJ^ j»Sl^^_) contained therein is held by the orthodox school to be 
 
PROPHETS AND APOSTLES. 71 
 
 As human reason is not sufficient to guide man to the 
 knowledge of the Truth, God has, from time to time, sent 
 his servants, the Prophets (^ pi. *Ijuo^) and Apostles^ 
 
 oteriial, uncreated (j^L^^ ^) ; the letters and words, however, written 
 down or read by men ( JfciU^ j»5k:=J\) are created, but even in this sense it 
 is considered unbecoming to speak of the Qur'in as created. The creation 
 or non-creation of the Qur'in (J\jii\ J^) was a highly disputed ques- 
 tion chiefly during the reigns of the Khalifs al ^lamiin and al Mu'tasim 
 (211-227 A. II.) and some of the most famous doctors of Isldm were 
 severely persecuted for holding the doctrine of the non-creation of the 
 Qur'An. (See Faith of IslAm, 189-191). The Mu'tuzila, in opposition to 
 the Sunni doctrine, hold the doctrine of the creation of the Qur'&n. 
 (Shahrastini ii. 30). 
 
 The Qur'&n is believed to have been written (created by God) on the 
 ' Preser>'cd Tablet' (iJk^^^ C^^^)} ^^^° brought down in sheets (cJJWo) 
 to the lowest heaven on the night of al Qadr, where they were preserved 
 in a place called the House of Glory (iyii\ u^^rf), whence they were 
 brought to ^luhammad according to the requirements of the case. Some 
 think only the meaning was revealed and that Gabriel and ^luhammad 
 clothed them in their own words, but the commonly received opinion is 
 that both the meaning and the words were revealed. (l^U Afi^M Jv^^) 
 
 Uyu ^ ;^\ Jlc h^\ ^* jjjJ^ a^ ^ &J«J^ o^ ^3 JUij J^ ^ \^^\ 
 
 (Jowh. 89 ^\i^\ s teJ 
 
 With regard to the inimitability (;^»c\) of the Qur'dn, the Nozdimiyya 
 
 dissent from the orthodox opinion by saying that the Arabs would cer- 
 tainly have been able to produce a Sura equal to the Sdras of the Qur'in 
 in eloquence, style and elegance, if God had not prevented them from 
 attempting it by peculiar circumstances, and that the excellency of the 
 Qur'4n consisted in what it relates of the past and the future. 
 
 1 The sending of prophets is something that may reasonably be ex- 
 pected, but it is not, as some sects pretend, incumbent on God to send 
 them ; his having sent them is an act of free grace. 
 
 ^J^ ^}\ '&J^j^ - JU? ^ ^ JJbil\ ^t\^\ ^^ ^j^\ ge^ J^j\) 
 
 Philosophers pretend that this is incumbent on God, as promoting 
 the spiritual and temporal welfare of man. 
 
72 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 (J^. pL J^.) in order to guide and teach men, and it is 
 the duty of every Muslim firmly to believe in God's 
 having sent such divinely commissioned messengers. 
 
 The number of prophets or apostles God has sent is said, according to 
 a saying of ^luhammad, to have amounted to one hundred and twenty- 
 four thousand ; some say two hundred and forty thousand and others again 
 one hundred thousand ; of these three hundred and thirteen are said to 
 have been ' apostles ' with special missions and dispensations and Books, 
 while the others were merely prophets, i.e., men divinely guided and 
 inspired, but having only a general commission to teach and guide their 
 fellowmen, for a prophet, according to Muslim divines, is a man inspired 
 by God, but not sent with a special dispensation (ijo^) nor a special 
 Book, while an apostle is one with a distinct message, (aJL.,) and a 
 special Book. Such were Moses, Jesus, Muhammad. According to this 
 definition all apostles are at the same time prophets, but not all prophets 
 are apostles. The commentator of the Jowhara gives the following 
 definition of a Prophet : 
 
 The office of a prophet is the free gift of God - (&U\ J-ai i^i\ ^^ dla,yai.). 
 It cannot be acquired by any acts of man however excellent, such 
 as seclusion, or an ascetic life entirely devoted to the worship of God 
 (Kf.,„x:T^^ c^nI-jJ S»^\). The philosophers pretend that man may reach 
 this high rank, by which the Sunnis say they accuse the Qur'dn of 
 telling falsehoods, for it calls Muhammad the last of the prophets 
 and Muhammad said : "There will be no prophet after mc (f^-xto, ^_^iJ)." 
 
 As regards the characteristics of the prophetical office, we must consider 
 
 (1) What must necessarily be ascribed to prophets, 
 
 - (^^ <3^ ij ^^^. ^) 
 
 (2) What it is impossible to ascribe to them, 
 
 (3) What it is allowable to ascribe to them, 
 
 The qualifications which must necessarily be ascribed to a prophet and 
 which he must possess are the following four : 
 
 Faithfulness ("ioU^j, i.e., he must outwardly and inwardly be preserved 
 from the commission of any sinful act. 
 
QUALIFICATIONS OF A PROPHET. 73 
 
 Inwardly a prophet must be free from envy, pride, and hypocrisy. 
 As to his total freedom from sin before his assumption of the prophetic 
 office, the majority admit that he may then commit small as well as great 
 sins (iytrf^ #»«J^jJ^ (j^ jyiA»jt S). The author of the Mawiqif says: 
 " We Sunnites hold that prophets, after the assumption of the prophetic 
 character (^^'J^ J^), are absolutely preserved from committing great sins 
 and from committing small sins intentionally ^Lj=J\ ^^ ^^y^oM^ ^) 
 (^JL4i£ JUJ^ 1^ • Uliw*. (For further details on the infallibility of pro- 
 phets see Mawiqif, 568, et seqq. Faith of IsUm, 216-19.) The Qur'&n 
 mentions several cases of prophets committing sins, such as of Adam 
 (Sdra ii. 29-37) ; Noah (SAras xi. 49; Ixxi. 29) ; Abraham (Sura xxvi. 80-82). 
 Moses (Sdras xxviii. 15-16). In Sdra xl. 57, Muhammad is commanded to 
 ask for pardon for his sin (Sdra xlviii. 2). God is spoken of as pardoning 
 his former and later sins. Tradition reports that Muhammad used to say : 
 '♦ I ask the Almighty for pardon and repent unto him three times a day " 
 (i}» ^j^e-^- c^^ M^ ^f^) m/As^\ ^J\ see Ghazili i. 190-191). The 
 biographers of Muhammad also mention acts of his which are sinful. 
 
 This contradiction between the teaching of the Qur*&n and that of the 
 theologians is a difficulty. In order to explain it, Muslim divines say that 
 what would be disobedience and sin in other men is not to be considered as 
 sin in the prophets ; that Adam's disobedience in eating of the forbidden 
 fruit was a sin but not like other sins (^^Vik*3L^ ^ L;Mttu»)^ that what was 
 forbidden to him outwardly was commanded to him inwardly \jjb\^ ^}e^) 
 (C;L^ ir*^ ^^^ ^^^^ there was a secret understanding between him and 
 his Lord which we do not know. All such sinful acts and disobedience 
 in prophets must, therefore, be explained, so as to leave their character un- 
 touched by sin ; nor is it becoming to mention or refer to their having 
 committed illicit acts, except when circumstances necessarily require it. 
 Muhammad's confessing his sins is explained to be an act of humility, 
 done in order to be an example to his followers. 
 
 Truthfulness (ja*), or their speaking the truth, in accordance with 
 the real state of the case, or, at all events, in accordance with what 
 they believe to be the truth. - <v.,p^.fcM (»l:=u 3\j iJL^J^ ^5^*^** c5* ^*^) 
 (^jUUc\ s ^ ^ ) C*^y^ f*^r^ ^^ (Jowh. 114-115). For an expla- 
 nation of Muhammad's having once recited a verse the devil had suggested 
 to him, rt^., the verse of the vjMV» ^^ Maw4qif, 573. 
 
 Intelligence, sagacity (^^), enabling them to silence the objections 
 of the opponents and to defend the truth by sound and convincing 
 arguments ; apostles must possess this quality in a still higher degree 
 than prophets. (ixUJ\ JUS* ^ *^^\ ^f\) 
 
 10 
 
74 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Delivery of the message (\J\ U ^^^t)^) *^^^ is» ^° deliver (A-JLJ) ^o 
 those to whom they are sent the messages God charges them to deliver, 
 and on no account to conceal (^^x^) them. This of course does not 
 include messages they are charged to conceal, or, with regard to which, 
 they are at liberty either to publish or withhold. 
 
 (&*i \^^ U^ &iUi=a> \^j^\ U Jowh. 115, 116). 
 
 It is impossible to ascribe to prophets (©L.{iS\ ,3^^ ^ J^ ^i^-vi U) attri- 
 butes opposed to those, which have been mentioned as necessarily belong- 
 ing to the prophetic office, such as unfaithfulness (AiL^^), falseness, men- 
 
 daciousness ^vy>A^), want of intelligence, dullness (AlAi), concealing the 
 message (^Ux^). A prophet, as a rule, must be a male not a female, free 
 not a slave, free from repulsive diseases and defects (jix!* /^ /»t^), taken 
 from mankind not from angels or Jinn or animals. 
 
 (JUi ^j u**^^ '^^ ^^ cs^^ ^ W» c>il:Ss U) (Jowh. 9), Mariam, Eve, 
 and Sarah are admitted by some to the list of prophets. 
 
 It is permitted to ascribe to prophets the power of eating, fasting, 
 sleeping, walking, marrying, or abstaining from marriage, and the state 
 of health or sickness. *• The leprosy of Job was not a repulsive disease, 
 as it did not appear on the surface, but was hidden between the skin 
 and the bone." " The blindness of Jacob consisted merely in a film over 
 the eye, which was removed when he received the glad tidings of his son 
 Joseph" (Jowh. 9,10, 116, 117). 
 
 c - 
 
 Neglect, or omission ( •9-), with regard to the verbal messages they 
 were commissioned to deliver may not be ascribed to prophets before 
 
 they have delivered them. 
 
 c 
 Forgetfulness, oblivion (^^L«-i) , may not be ascribed to a prophet before 
 
 he has delivered the message ; after it he may forget it. (Jowh. 117-118) 
 God has given the prophets and apostles the power to perform miracles, 
 i.e., the doing of things contrary to custom (SjUU liXi, jy*\) in proof 
 of their prophetic mission, and the truthfulness in what they deliver to 
 men as a divine message Juc \jtj^\ «i-^,ss^ «y\^^sxjb ^Jk*^ ^J\Ju ih\^ 
 
 (^-ifc ^Lo U J^ ^^ (^J^^ J-i* iJy Oiie single miracle is considered 
 sufficient to prove the prophetic character of him who performs it. 
 
MIRACLES. 75 
 
 The characteristics of a true miracle are the following seven : — 
 
 (1) It must consist in a word, or a deed, or the relinquishing of an act. 
 (t^j.\ Lii .^ 5y> ^jysu ^^\). Examples of these are: the Qur'&n— the 
 coming forth of water between the fingers— the fire not burning Abraham 
 {See Mawiqif, 547). 
 
 (2) It must be contrary to custom (SoUU AijU. (^y^s>j (^\). 
 
 (3) It must be performed by a person claiming the prophetic or apostolic 
 office. (aJL,^^ y\ i^\ ,^1* J^ ^J>^ Of^ O^) '^^^^ distinguishes 
 miracles (S)^»a<«) from unusual acts performed by men of uncommon piety 
 (()^\ Jt\L JL^), which are called LAj^^ and from what happens some- 
 times to common men ((•W), i^ deliverance from great calamities, which 
 extraordinary thing is called iif^f help ; and from what may also be 
 produced by a wicked man (,3-.U), which is called gt^jo-^, also from 
 what may be wrought by him with the assistance of the devil, which is 
 called ii\jb\^ contempt, shame. 
 
 (4) It must be performed during the assumption of the prophetic 
 office, or, at all events, only a short time before the same. 
 
 (V»'^tw y\ lifJU. Sl\^f\ ^\ i^\ ^^Jkj AJ^yu Q)y^>S f^\) Miraculous works 
 performed by, or in favour of a prophet long before he has assumed the 
 prophetic office, are not called iy^tu* but {P^j\ {^' {J»^^ ^^ ^^V ^^^ 
 foundations). They are signs preceding a prophetic call, laying the found- 
 ation of the same. Such is said to have bceh the cloud which appeared 
 over the head of Muhammad, years before his assumption of the prophetic 
 office. With regard to the miracles performed by Jesus when he was 
 a child (Suras xix. 30-32; iii. 43), long before his assumption of the 
 prophetic character, the Qidi says that these may nevertheless bo consi- 
 dered ui>^^^«^, because Jesus was a prophet even when a babe, for ho 
 said : •• And God made me a pl-ophet " (t^^i ^^aW), and there is nothing 
 impossible in God's having created in him all the qualifications of a 
 prophet, even when he was yet a child (Mawiqif, 548). 
 
 (5) It must be in accordance with what the prophet protends to do 
 (^^jkU iU\y* (^j^S (^). If he should pretend to divide the sea, and 
 instead of this the mountain were to be divided, this would not be a true 
 miracle. 
 
 (6) It must not declare him who assumes the prophetic office to be a 
 deceiver and liar (&J d^I^u* j.*^? 3 ^^\). If he were to declare that a 
 dumb animal should speak, and the animal really spoke, but Ciillcd him 
 a deceiver this would be a proof of his being a false prophet. If he 
 were to ask a dead man to rise and speak, and the man did so, but 
 
76 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 declared him to be a deceiver, this would not be a conclusive proof 
 of his being a false prophet, for the man risen from the dead might be 
 an infidel, and purposely chosen to reject the prophet's divine commission. 
 
 (7) It must be such that it is impossible to contradict, deny or imi- 
 tate it. (\^xcj\»^jl*a Q^\) Things done by means of sorcery (^*^) or leger- 
 demain (SA**i.), or conjuring are therefore not miracles. (See Mawaqif , 
 chapter cy^^^s^^ J^-a=. A .i... £a - and chapter lgJi5j LJu^.) 
 
 It is remarkable that, though Muhammad repeatedly and distinctly 
 declared that God had not given him the power to perform miracles, and 
 that he had not performed any miracles (Suras xvii. 16, 92-95 ; vi. 109-1 12 ; 
 xxix. 49, 50 ; xviii. 1 10), the learned doctors of Isldm insist on ascribing to 
 him a number of miracles and declare that " he who denies the genuine- 
 ness of such of his miracles as rest on the testimony of an uninterrupted 
 chain of witnesses is an infidel." («t>^v^tJt»JU \^i^ m^^ ^ o)\ ^\) 
 
 a\^\ ^^ y9^^-^\ o^ " ^}^=^^ /^ o^/^^^ f^y^^ ^^ ^b CyU/* 
 
 fiJ=U^ jjC (j^"^ if\ ^^a^^ ij^^ c:^' y^ ^ - ij ^* ** ( 3-' ■•■■ * ^»*J^ &*jU>\ ^^ 
 
 (Jowh. 131. 
 
 The greatest miracle, mentioned by Muslims as confirming Muham- 
 mad's prophetic office, is the Qur'dn. It is called " the standing miracle " 
 (LJ\^\ &ili\ Sura xvii. 190. Jowh. 33, 134. Mawdqif 557-563). Other 
 
 miracles, mentioned are the so-called splitting of the moon (^ S£i\ ^Vaii^ 
 Siira lix. 1-2) ; the pebbles praising God, the night-journey (g^yt* 
 
 Siira xvii. 1). He who denies the truth of this miracle is an infidel. 
 (For more details see Jowh. 133-134. Mawdqif, 563. Dictionary of Isldm, 
 351. Faith of Isldm, 218). Among the miracles mentioned is also 
 his having been predicted in the Thorah and the Injil as a true prophet. 
 (Mawakif, 565). There are various sects of Muslims which deny the reality 
 of these miracles or the possibility of miracles. (For a detailed account 
 of their opinions and a refutation of the same see Mawdqif, 550-557). 
 
 The highest in rank among the prophets and apostles is said to be 
 Muhammad, who is considered not only the greatest prophet, but 
 the most excellent among all created things. (^i\Li5^ ^J^ ^^^\ ^\) 
 Then comes Abraham, then Moses, then Jesus. These four are distin- 
 guished by the title ^Jj^ J»\, possessors of constancy. (Suras xlvi, 34). 
 After these in rank come the apostles ( J^J)^ and then the other pro- 
 phets. The follov^ing six prophets are said to have brought new dispen- 
 sations and new law (&jo^) : Adam (aJJ^ i^), ^o&h (&U\ ^J^ 
 Abraham (^\ JJ^), Moses (&U^ ^*L^), Jesus (&U^ jjj,^), Muhammad 
 
THE COMPANIONS. 77 
 
 Immediately in rank after the prophets and apostles 
 come the Companions^ of Muhammad ( jui] c-j'^-^1 Jix^^), 
 who are considered to be the most excellent men after 
 Muhammad ; after these come the followers (v^liiil pi. 
 ^^*jVa11); after these in rank come the followers of the 
 followers (^jj^*j'ii) cU^) 3 after these the Khalifs (iaj^ld^ pi. 
 
 (^\ J»-;). The dispensation of Muhammad is considered to have 
 superseded all previous dispensations and to be superseded by none. 
 Muhammad is coneidered to have received a general mission to all 
 nations ( w ^- lixi ^^tV^ - Us*. ^^ 6^ ^^ &ai--i ^ 6^ ^^Zj^ 3 ^3^)» 
 Muhammad's spirit is said to have been created before all others, and 
 then sent to them to make them acquainted with his apostleship 
 and divine mission. Ho was sent to all men, including himself. Though 
 Jesus will come down at the last day to judge, it is believed that He 
 will judge according to the law of Muhiunmad, and as a follower of 
 his law. (Jowh. 128). AH prophets are believed, in their previous 
 existence (as spirits), to have declared their submission to Muhammad, 
 and to have been in this world merely his representatives (a^^Ij V It is 
 difficult to reconcile this classification with the teaching of the Qur'an 
 and the sayings of Muhammad, which declare that there is no distinction 
 between the apostles. (. s^J^ ^J^ ^^LAAJiJ Suras ii. 285 ; v. 130 ; iii. 
 78). Muhammad said : •' Do not give me the preference over Moses "... 
 {yj^y* ^J^ o*^;**^ "^ ■ Jowh. 122-123). For a detailed description of 
 the life of Moses as given in the Qur'An see Dictionary of IsUm, pp. 
 356-866, taken from Lane's selections. (For the Muslim opinion of Jesus, 
 His sonship and death see Suras xix. 35-36; iii. 62; liii. 57-65 ; ix. 30; 
 iii. 72-73; v. 19. 76-79; iv. 169; v. 116-117. For details see Dictionary 
 of Islam ; 229-235). 
 
 1 Muhammad said : •' God has chosen my Companions before all the 
 worlds, with the exception of the prophets and the apostles." The 
 followers are those who lived, and had intercourse with the Companions 
 even if but for a short time. The Khalif is a representative, a successor 
 of the Prophet, a substitute. Muhammad is reported to have said : •' The 
 Khalifate after me will last thirty years, then will come a tyrannical 
 monarchy" (C*^ C^aU ^ ^ Aju, ^y"^ ^^^Mi li'^X^y Jowh. 136). 
 
78 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The Khalifs who were, at the same time Companions, were Abu Bakr, 
 *Umar, 'Uthm^n and 'Ali, who together reigned twenty-nine years, six 
 months and four days. Mu'dwiya is reported to have said : " I am the 
 first king " (Jowh. 137). After these come in rank the following six men 
 to whom Paradise was expressly promised : Talha, Zubair, Abdu'r 
 Rahmin bin 'Auf, Sa'd bin Abi Wakkds, Sa'd bin Zaid, Abu 'Ubaida. To 
 these Muhammad had expressly promised Paradise by saying : " *Abu Bakr 
 is in Paradise, ' Umar is in Paradise " (Jowh. 138). After these come the 
 men who fought at the battle of Badr, three hundred and seventeen fighting 
 men ; after them those who fought at the battle of Uhud, three hundred 
 men, of whose seventy were martyrs. After these in rank come " the 
 covenanters" (^^*^J^ d*-j> J^fc^) i-^-, the fourteen hundred men who 
 accompanied Muhammad on his pilgrimage to Mecca, six years after his 
 flight from Mecca to Madfna, and made a covenant with him (6yo^), 
 that they would stand by him against the hostile Meccans. They are 
 praised in the Qur'an (Siira xlviii. 18. Jowh. 140-141 ; 142-143). After these 
 in rank come the four great Imdms, the guides of the Muslim nation 
 (&^'^\ S^JJfc) ; the Imdms Malik, Shifi'i, Abu Hanifa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal. 
 To this class of great doctors belong also Sufian ath Thuri, Abu Hasanu'l- 
 Ash'ari (For details see Jowh. 143, 144). M41ik and the three other Imams 
 arc the teachers and guides of the nation in the branches (^jvi, i.e., Fikh, 
 or practical part, jurisprudence) ; the Imam al Ash'ari and those of his kind 
 in the Roots (J»-«»\ i.e., the articles of faith, the creed iIii*JJ\ Jk*Uj*J\) 
 and al-Zunaid and those like him in Sdflism. 
 
 It is the duty of every Muslim who has not reached the degree of 
 knowledge which constitutes him a Mujtahid (,jlUJ^ Jkg.x^^) to follow 
 one of the great Imams in what they have laid down as the law with 
 regard to practice (4*c^y^^ ^V:=a£^iJ\ ^ sAa:^\ s-*^^^). He who has 
 become a Mujtahid need not do so. ('juiosJ^ 6,Jst ^j^, Jowh. 144-145). 
 
 A Wali, or saint ( J^ pi. ^^\), is a believer who is distinguished by 
 great piety and asceticism. He is not considered exempt from sin, but if 
 he transgresses, he repents at once. He is called a ^Jj. (from ^1 to pos- 
 sess, be in charge of a thing) because God takes charge of his concerns 
 {6y»\ ^^f &IS\ oyi) and also because he himself only cares for the worship 
 of God (fiS^). He is able to do things contrary to custom, and such 
 acts are called "beneficence." Such miracles do not appear in his life- 
 time but after his death. Such a saint, if no miracles appear through him, 
 is not a true Wali. (For further details see Jowh. 145-146). 
 
PRAYER. 79 
 
 Prayer, supplication, intercession, petition, (JUJS *'^jJI) 
 
 as well as imprecation, (^JU ^ix Mr jJI) profit and injure 
 respectively, both the living and the dead, even when 
 proceeding from an infidel'. 
 
 > Prayer and supplication are said to be of use against all calamities, 
 whether they be decreed by God absolutely (j»«-* otiJ), or only condi- 
 tionally (jUa^ etiS). With regard to what God has decreed only condi- 
 tionally, there is no difficulty in believing that He will in answer to the 
 supplications of His servants not send it down. As regards such 
 calamities which He has irrevocably decreed, it is believed that He may 
 lessen them, so if He has decreed that a large rock shall fall down upon 
 men, He may, in answer to their supplication, cause it to be broken up into 
 small pieces like sand in order that it may not hurt them. The Qur'&n 
 commands men to make supplications (Suras xl. G2 ; ii. 182 ; Jowh. 147). 
 
 Such supplications, however, in order to be efficient, must be in accord- 
 ance with certain conditions, i.e., the person who offers them must have 
 the following qualifications : (\i\S\ ^ ^^^ aWjJ3 ^^) (1) he must live on 
 what he has honestly acquired (J^i J-^^)> (^) ^^ TtiVist call on God 
 with firm confidence in His help (d^l^S^) ; (3) his heart must not be 
 distracted (\i\t ALei (j^^ ^) (4) he must not ask what is wrong or 
 what may injure his relatives or any Muslim ; (5) he must not ask for 
 things impossible (JW*f yC<H ^ (:)^). 
 
 The following rules are to be observed when offering supplications and 
 intercessions : (1) to choose the proper time (aUUJ^ wt>U.S^ Z^^ q)^) ', 
 (2) before offering such petitions to perform the ablution and canonical 
 prayers, to turn to the Qibla, lift up the hands towards heaven, confess 
 sins, repent, praise God and ask for blessings on the Prophet at the 
 beginning, the middle and the conclusion. (Jowh. 147). God's answer to 
 such petitions may be given in a variety of ways, and at different times ; 
 but, under all circumstances, man's obtaining what he asks for is sub- 
 ordinate to His will. 
 
 It may be useful here to mention that oWj is used for (Jowh. 148), 
 private prayer, in which a person is allowed to use his own words, while 
 £iu is only used of the stated liturgical form of prayer, the appointed 
 prayer-service. (For further details on the subject and specimens of 
 petitions offered by Muhammad for forgiveness of sins, of 'Ayesha, Fdtima, 
 Abu Bakr, Abraham, Jesus, Ada^n, 'AH and others see Ghazali i. 182-199. 
 A specimen of imprecation is found in Sura 111). 
 
80 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The Qur'an, in many passages gives a minute descrip- 
 tion of Death,^ the Kesurrection, the last Judgment, 
 
 Paradise, and Hell, (j'jtJl JL^) L;^>all). It may suffice 
 here to refer to the following Suras : Ixxv ; Ixxxi. 
 1-19 ; Ixxxii ; Ixxxiii. 4-20 ; Ixxxiv. 1-19 ; to a later 
 period belong the following verses : Sura xxii. 1-7. 
 Death (cl?^^II) is the lot of every man. Sura iii. 182. 
 
 (CD^^l iXiijli} '^^fti J^ 
 
 J Death takes place when men have reached the age which God has 
 appointed for them (Lofi^J^ JW^^^ ^\>» Juc). He respites them up to a 
 fixed time, and when that is come they cannot put it off one single hour, 
 nor can they bring it on sooner (Siira xvi. 63). Learned men differ as to 
 whether death is a positive or negative thing. Al Ash'ari defends the former 
 opinion arguing that it is a positive, really existing state or qualification 
 (dij»:>.. i>ko^\ LJu^)^ while others like al-Asfar4ini, Zamakhshari hold 
 the second opinion, saying that death is the want of life (S»*^\ r**^)* 
 Al Ash'ari appeals, in support of his opinion, to the verse of the Qur'An : 
 " God the highest who has created life and death " and to certain tradi- 
 tions, such as *' God has created death in the shape of a ram (^jlLSs 6j»-a>): 
 every one before whom it passes will surely die." This doctrine refutes 
 the opinion of the Atheist that man appears and disappears in the course 
 of nature. The word wS.^ means quickening, or vivifying (e-»ii<J^ #• J) : 
 
 The term yiL is collecting, congregating (-i^\ ^^j), the day of congre- 
 gating the dead. The word *>U^\ means returning from death unto life. 
 These are synomymous terms for the Last Day. 
 
 Ghaz&li says : " When God Almighty let His hands pass over the back 
 of Adam and gathered men into His two hands, He placed some of them 
 in His right hand and the others in His left ; then he opened both His 
 hands before Adam, and Adam looked at them and saw them like imper- 
 ceptible atoms. Then God said : '* These are destined for Paradise and 
 these are destined for hell-fire." He then asked them : "Am I not your 
 Lord?" and they replied: "Certainly, we testify that Thou art our 
 Lord." God then asked Adam and the angels to be witnesses . . . after 
 this God replaced them into the loins of Adam (^v_JlJj. They were at 
 that time purely spiritual beings without bodies. He then caused them 
 
DEATH. 81 
 
 When the hour is come for man to die, * Izra'il, the 
 Angel of death, appears with his assistants (^j;)^^]) ; these 
 
 draw out the spirit up to the throat* (jLajId.), when it 
 is pierced by a poisonous lance which detaches it com- 
 pletely from the body. * Izra'il then seizes it. 
 
 Siira xxxii ; 11. ^£=^ ji=j ^jjl ^y<^\ c)!^ ^^ U^) 
 
 Immediately after the burial, two large, black livid 
 angels visit dead men in their grave, whether they were 
 infidels, hypocrites or believers. These angels are called 
 
 Munkar and Nakir' ( J^suL* . ;^»j hideous, horrid, 
 
 to die, but gathered them and kept them in a roceptncle near His throne 
 (y^yj\ t^i*- ^ ^^y*" o*)' ^^^^" ^^ germ of a new being is placed 
 in the womb of the mother, it remains there till its body is sufficiently 
 developed ; the soul in the same is then dead yet, when God Almighty 
 breathes into the spirit, He restores to it its most precious part (IAw«) 
 of which it had been deprived while preserved in the receptacle near the 
 throne. This is the first death and a second life. Then God places man 
 in this world till he has reached the term fixed for him. 
 
 1 As long as the soul slowly ascends from the heart through the throat, 
 it is exposed to various temptations and doubts, but when it has been 
 pierced by the lance and thus separated from the body these cease. 
 *Izr4'n is said to be frightful in appearance and of enormous size ; his 
 head in the highest heaven, his feet in the lowest parts of the earth, and 
 his fsuje opposite the preserved Tablet. To a believer, however, he appears 
 in a lovely shape, and his assistants as 'Angels of Mercy, while to the 
 unbelievers they are tormenting angels. The soul, spirit, according to the 
 orthodox school i? said to be a subtle body, intimately united with the 
 body of man, like the juice is united with the green branch of a tree. 
 (^5\ jyJ^ »U3\ yW^lSs ^^jlJVj ciLjJL^ ULJJ ^^.-^ typ^)' The angel 
 of death also takes the life of Jinn, of angels and even of animals 
 (Jowh. 158). 
 
 s Their eyes are said to be like copper cauldrons, their voices like 
 thunder .... in their hands they hold enormous iron hammers of such 
 weight that, if they were to let them fall down on a mountain they would 
 grind it to powder. In order that this examination of the dead may take 
 place, God is said to cause the spirit of the dead person to return to its 
 body with its senses and reason and memory. 
 11 
 
82 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM, 
 
 abominable) who examine the dead as to their belief in 
 the Unity of God and the divine mission of Muhammad.* 
 
 I The spirit of the believer, according to some, is, immediately after his 
 death, taken up through the seven heavens to the presence of God, 
 and then returns to the grave, to re-enter the body in order to be 
 examined. (Ghazali Durr 13-19). The examining angels will say to 
 the dead person : "Who is thy Lord and what is thy religion and who 
 is thy prophet? " (cdlji ^^ . isUjo U. inXfj ^). {See Jowh, 160, 
 also Dlctipnary of Islam 79-80. Faith of Isl&m, 204). Jf the person so 
 examined returns a satisfactory answer : " God is my Lord, Islim is my 
 religion and Muhammad my prophet," a beautiful angel approaches 
 him and assures him of the mercy of God and the delights of Paradise. 
 Then orders are given to spread carpets for him in Paradise, to 
 assign to him a green garden and he is made to shine like the 
 full moon. His grave is made spacious for him (70 x 70 cubits), and a 
 window is made in the same, opening into Paradise. (Ghdzali iv. 312. 
 314 ; Jowh. 161). If the answer is not satisfactory, the two angels beat 
 him between his eyes with the iron maces, till he roars for ang-uish so 
 loud that his cries will be heard by all creatures excepb man and genii. 
 He is then doomed to eternal hell-fire ; orders are given to spread for him 
 fiery boards and to open for him a door into hell fires. Ninety-nine dragons 
 sting and scratch and lick and torment him till the dfly of resurrection. 
 This grave is made narrow for him by the pressure of the earth upon 
 him till his ribs are almost crushed. The infidel will suffer such torments 
 for ever ; the disobedient believer however only for a time, according to 
 his sins. (^^^^ s-^->^ ^^^ Ghdzali iv. 312. Jowh. 161. Dictionary 
 of Islam, 27 and 80). Prophets and Martyrs, it is said, are not subjected 
 to this examination. Angels are also held to be exempt from it but not 
 the Jinn, 
 
 The inhabitants of the grave are said to be of four kinds, (1) those who 
 sleep on their backs till their corpses become dust, when they constantly 
 rove about between earth and the lowest heaven ; (2) those on whom God 
 causes sleep to descend and who only wake up at the first blast of the 
 trumpet ; (3) those who remain in their graves only two or three months,, 
 then are carried away into Paradise ; they perch on the trees of Paradise 
 in the shape of birds. The spirits of martyrs are in the crops of birds. (4) 
 Prophets and saints who may choose their own habitation. {See Ghazdli 
 Durr 33-38). 
 
 He who dies a violent death at the hand of a murderer, or otherwise, 
 must nevertheless be considered to have reached the proper term of his 
 
THK llESURRECTION BODY. 83 
 
 ^ Muhammad taught that, though man's body will be 
 consumed by the earth, yet one part^ of it will remain 
 uncorrupted till the last day namely the os sacrum 
 
 (^^ JJI Jh^^vAji the rump-bone), and that from this God 
 will, at the last day, create a new body so that, as it 
 was the first part created, it will remain to the last un- 
 corrupted, to become the seed whence the whole body 
 
 is to be renewed (Jowh. 155 Iju. "i ^ J>*»tSi] ^^ ^^j.i 
 
 ^ " » » — 
 
 life; for, if he had not died a violent death, he would have died a natural 
 death at the same hour. (For varioui: other opinions of the Mu'tazila 
 se<5 Jowh. 36, 153. Ghazili Durr). 
 
 Though the body becomes dust and perishes after death, the soul, 
 spirit, will continue alive till the first blast of the trumpet at the last day. 
 In this all learned men are agreed. Whether, however, it will die or 
 continue alive after Isrifil has sounded the first blast of the trumpet is 
 a controverted subject; some hold that it will then die, or vanish (oUi), 
 till made alive again at the second blast ; while others believe that it 
 will not die, (IfTUi ^^m^ \y^^s^). At this second blast God is believed to 
 collect all the souls into the trumpet, in which there are said to be 
 little holes or cells, like those in a bee-hive. They then leave their cells 
 and repair, each to its own body. 
 
 I Some object to this statement, fur God has declared in the Qur*in that 
 ovcr>thing will perish except His (God's) face (^e**-; ^^ «^^ ^ J^). 
 To enquire in what the spirit of man consists and where its seat is in 
 the body is useless ; some say forbidden. Siira xvii. 87. It is generally 
 admitted that man has only one soul; but some arc of opinion that he 
 has two, one is called thespirit of watchfulness (d]iA«3^ ^t.) which, while 
 it resides on the body, causes man to be awake and watchful and, when it 
 departs from it, causes him to sleep and to have dreams ; the other the 
 spirit of life (S\^>^^ ^a.) which, while it abides in the body, causes man 
 to live, and when It departs causes him to die. (Jowh. 150). 
 
 The spirit after death enters the state, or interval, called al Barzakh 
 (^1^^=* interval, separation), i.e., the intervening state between death and 
 the last day (Sura xxiii. 19). 
 
 As regards their abode, the generally accepted opinion is that the 
 prophets arc admitted into Paradise immediately after death ; that ihc 
 
M THK RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The exact time when the Kesurrection will take place 
 no one knows but God. The approach of the Last Day, 
 
 the Hour, (y^'i) ^^>1] . h}^]) may, however, be known 
 from certain signs which are to precede it (icUJl LL-il)- 
 These are distinguished into the lesser and the greater 
 
 signs (J^ytoll c:;UW] . dsjl^"^ c^^ULliy. 
 
 martyrs, according to a saying of Muhammad, rest in the crops of 
 green birds, which eat of the fruits and drink of the river of Paradise 
 (wii-.jJsAcW . > jkQ^\^\\), Sura iii. 163. This living in the crops 
 of birds cannot be explained, but must nevertheless be believed. 
 The commentator of the Jowhara says that the birds may be trans- 
 parent, or the saying may be understood figuratively, as represent- 
 ing the speed with which they are able to move about. The spirits of 
 common believers are usually believed to stay near their graves (Jowh. 
 
 181-182 j;««s-J\ J^ jy^\ ASjJVj b^ JjuJ\ cV)' ^^*' *'^^y ^^^-i^^' liberty to go 
 wherever they please : others say that they are with Adam in the lowest 
 heaven. The spirits of infidels are said to be cast down into a pit in hell, 
 
 in the seventh earth called Sijjln (^^^^^^^^^ , where they are to remain to 
 the day of Resurrection (Sdra Ixxxiii. 7-10). Others fancy that they remain 
 in a certain well called Barhut (^^yfcrf /^) in Hadrament or, according to 
 a saying of Muhammad "under the devil's jaw ", to be tormented till they 
 are called to join their bodies. 
 
 As regards the enjoyment of Paradise and the torments of Hell there 
 will be the following classes : believers and infidels. The infidels will, 
 according to a general agreement, be in hell for ever (j\jJ\ ^^j* jI^/«) ; 
 the believers are of two kinds : (1) obedient (a»^) who go to Paradise ; 
 (2) the disobedient (^JoVc) who, if penitent (s-s*^), go to Paradise also, 
 
 or, if impenitent (^^^), they are treated according to God's will 
 (i£jj-i^\^), that is, He pardons them, or torments them as He 
 pleases. He will not leave them in hell for ever, for, though dis- 
 obedient, they are Muslims and Believers, and therefore are not to 
 be treated like Infidels. 
 
 1 The lesser signs of the Hour are, according to some authorities, as 
 many as five hundred. Of these we may mention (1) the decay of faith 
 
 among men («i>\jU^\ ^r^y «t>W^ S^ Aii ^ ^U3\ s^V^uj^ ^ ^^\ SyL^ 
 
SIGNS OF THE LAST DAY- 85 
 
 (2 the advaucing of the meauest persons to cmiucut dignity dluJSS^ jL. 
 (JiL.S\ A*; - «•«*— ^ (3) A maid servant becomes the mother of her 
 mistress, i.e., there will be an increase of sensuality. (4) Tumours and 
 seditions. (5) A war with Greeks and Romans. (6) Greiit distress in the 
 world. (7) The provinces of Irak and Syria shall refuse to pay tribute. 
 The greater signs are the appearance of the Mahdi (^^J^U^^t), 
 the directed one, who is therefore fit to direct others and concerning 
 whom Muhammad foretold that the world would not come to an end, till 
 one of his own family should govern the Arabians and should fill the 
 earth with righteousness. It is believed that the Mahdi will come from 
 Madfna and go to Mecca where the people will make him Im&m. He 
 will be a great conqueror, causing the Muslims to become a mighty 
 nation. He will break crosses and kill swine. According to the ShCahs, 
 the Mahdi has already appeared in the person of Abi^'l-Qdsini, the 12th 
 Imim (255 a.h.), who is believed by them to be alive now, but concealed 
 in some secret place until the day of his manifestation before the end of 
 the world (Mashar 185.192. Jowh. 168. Vaith of Islim, 99). 
 
 The appearance of antichrist is another sign (Jlij^aS^ ^a...»M &;/')• 
 tie is said to be one-eyed ( t*c^), i^nd marked on the forehead with the 
 letters K. F. R. which stand for Kifir, or infidel. According to some 
 traditions he is to appear first between Irak and Syria: according to 
 others near Madina. He will ride on an ass and be followed by seventy 
 thousand Jews of Ispahan and continue on earth for forty days ; he will 
 lay waste all places, but will not enter either Mecca or Madina or Jeru- 
 salem. At last he will be slain by Jesus, who is to encounter him at the 
 gate of Lydda. (For more details see Mashar 197-199 ; Bukh&ri's 
 Commentary, x. 199-205. Sale, 57. Dictionary of Isl&m, 328). 
 
 The descent of Jesus, son of Maryam, (f^y» ^Ji ^j-«>«e J^y ) w>l^ ^.akc 
 place near the white minaret to the east of the Mosque at Damascus 
 at the time of the afternoon prayer. The Imim, it is said, will make room 
 for him, and he will lead prayer according to the rite of Muhammad ; he 
 will marry a wife, get children, and die after forty years' continuance on 
 earth and be buried at Madina. Under him there will be great security 
 and plenty. . . . lions and camels, bears and sheep, shall live in peace, 
 and a child shall play with serpents unhurt (Mash. 192, 197-199. Sale 
 57-58. Isaiah xi. G et seqq). 
 
 The appearance of the Beast (^kl^jJ^ S^/*) ^^^^ cubits high, a compound 
 of various species with the head of a bull, the eyes of a hog, the ear 
 of an elephant, is also a sign. . . It will rise out of the earth in the temple 
 of Mecca and mark the face of believers and of the infidels, so that 
 every person may be known for what he really is. {See Mash. 203 et seqq. 
 Dictionary of Islim, 61-539. Sale, 57). 
 
86 THE RELIGION . OF ISiAm. 
 
 The first sign of the immediate coming of the Hour 
 will be the sounding of the Trumpet {j^^^ J^i)- At the 
 first blast of the Trumpet^ (? f^^ ^ai) all creatures will 
 be struck with terror. This blast will be followed by a 
 second blast, when all creatures in heaven and on earth 
 will die, or be annihilated, except those whom God may 
 exempt from the common fate. 
 
 Another sign is the appearance of Gog and Magog (g^r^-U^ S^V. t^f-)' 
 These barbarian nations of whom many things are related in the Qur'an 
 and the Traditions, will make inroads into the Holy Land, cross the lake 
 of Tiberias, which the vanguard of their vast army will drink dry, proceed 
 to Jerusalem and there greatly distress Jesus and his companions, till, at 
 his request, God will destroy them. Their carcases will fill the earth, 
 and the burning of their bows, arrows and quivers will last for seven years, 
 God will at last, send a rain to cleanse the earth and make it fertile ; 
 (Suras xxi. 96 ; xviii. 93-97 : Revelation xvi. 14 ; xx. 8 : Ezekiel xxxviii. 
 2 ; xxxix. 1-9. Sale 68 ; Geiger 74. BukhAri's Commentary x. 205.) 
 
 The rising of the sun from the west (^ JU f^ ^J**^<i^\ ^^), ai^d the 
 appearance of a mighty smoke (/jU-aJU which will remain on earth 
 for forty days (Jowh. 168) and the destruction of the Ka'ba by the 
 Abyssinians (d**^\\ *^^J^) ^^^^ *^^ removal of the Qur'in from books 
 and the memory of people. (j^x^\^ t..AsJia^\ ^^ O^/^^ ^;)) ^^^ *^® 
 inhabitants of the earth becoming infidels (^^Uisr ^.^ ^j'^\ Ji^^ tf^)) 
 ai-o all signs which indicate the near approach of the Hour ; but the 
 exact time will still remain uncertain. 
 
 1 At the first blast of the Trumpet the earth will be shaken, and all 
 buildings and mountains will be levelled ; the heavens shall melt, the sun 
 be darkened, the stars fall and the sea be troubled and dried up. Women 
 who suck shall abandon their infants and even the she-camels which have 
 gone ten months with young shall be utterly neglected. (Sura Ixxxi.)^ 
 This first blast shall be followed by the second blast, when nothing shall 
 survive except God alone, with Paradise and hell and the inhabitants of 
 these two places and the throne of glory., The last who will die is the 
 Angel of death. 
 
 There is a difference' of opinion as to the number of blasts. Some say 
 they are three : (1) ^jA\ &^J6 the blast of consternation ; (2) <_^^ A^Ai 
 
THE INTERMEDIATE STATE. 87 
 
 All creatures are said to remain for the space of forty 
 years in the intermediate state (^JtjJ^) of insensibility 
 and death, between the first and the last blast of the 
 Trumpet. During this interval God is said to cause a rain, 
 or dew supplied from the water under the throne of God, 
 to fall upon the earth. It is called the water of life 
 
 (5*ji^UU) and will penetrate the earth to the depth of 
 twelve feet. By the etticacy and virtue of this water, the 
 dead bodies will spring forth from the graves, (the os 
 sacrum being the germ) as they did in their mothers' 
 womb, or as corn sprouts forth from common rain, and 
 grow till they become perfect. 
 
 Immediatley at the sound of the blast of Resurrection 
 (^Ud^^l l^sj _ c^xaJI JL^) the souls of men will repair 
 to their several bodies^ 
 
 the blast of dying; (3) o^J^ l^u the blast of resurrection. The 
 truth is that there are only two blasts, that of consternation, and 
 that of the resurrection. 
 
 1 Isr&fil, who with Gabriel and Mfkd'fl, has been restored to life, 
 standing on the rock of the temple of Jerusalem, will at the command 
 of God, call together the souls from all parts, those of believers 
 from Paradise and the unbelievers from hell and throw them into 
 his trumpet. There they will be ranged in little holes, like bees in a 
 hive, and will, on his giving the last sound, bo thrust out and fly like 
 bees, filling the whole space between earth and heaven. Then they will 
 repair to their respectis'e bodies. (Mashar 212-213. Ghazdli iv. 320. Sale 
 69. Dictionary of Isl&m 540-541). The earth will then be an immense 
 plain without hills or villages (S^L-J^ Sura Ixxix. 13-14), and the dead, 
 after they have risen, will sit down, each one on his tomb, anxiously 
 waiting for what is to come. (Ghazdli Durr 43). 
 
 The first to rise will be IsrAfil, then the other archangels, then Muham- 
 mad will mount the BurAq (j\^\), a wonderful animal, between the 
 size of a mule and an ass, having two wings and moving with remarkable 
 swiftness, and repair to the presence of God. The dead will arise from 
 
88 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 All mankind will then have to repair to the place 
 of assembling^ (JJ^^xJl - v— iJ^^ll) for judgment. 
 
 In consequence of the heat, and the press of people a 
 copious sweat ( j,*ll) will come out of every pore of the 
 skin, forming a deep sea of sweat covering the whole place 
 into which all will be immersed according to their works. 
 
 their graves in the same shape and with the same qualities (^^^^jjU 
 in which they lived on earth. Even the still-born child (WvJU will rise 
 in this condition. As the glorious change of the bodies of believers will 
 only take place in Paradise, when Muhammad stated that men would 
 rise barefooted, naked, and uncircumcised, 'Ayesha objected that it would 
 be indecent for men and women to look at each other. The Prophet 
 replied that people would then have weightier matters to care for than to 
 look at each other. 
 
 Men will then, according to Muhammad, be distinguished into three 
 classes : (1) those who go on foot are those who have performed few good 
 works ; (2) those who ride are true believers who have been obedient 
 servants of God ; (3) those who creep, grovelling with their faces to the 
 ground, dragged along by angels, are the infidels. The various classes of 
 evil-doers will be distinguished by their outward appearance : adulterers 
 as apes, usurers as swine, etc., etc. 
 
 I As to the place of assembling the Qur'4n and the Traditions agree 
 that it will be on earth, but as to the exact place opinions differ. Some 
 say it will be Jerusalem. Ghazdli says it will be an extensive plain 
 without any hills, valleys or trees where one might find a hiding place. 
 (Siira xiv. 49). On this place of judgment, angels, men, genii, devils, 
 animals will be gathered and kept standing, some say, for seventy, others 
 for one hundred years, anxiously looking up to heaven and waiting for 
 their sentence, but God will not speak to them. The sun will be very 
 near the earth and the heads of the infidels will almost be burned 
 (Ghaz41i iv. 322). 
 
 This sea is said to be seventy feet deep ; some will stand in it up to 
 their ankles, others up to their knees or loins, others to their ears, and 
 some will be almost drowned in it. Prophets, saints and pious Muslims 
 will not suffer from these troubles, for they will be protected by the shade 
 of the throne of God. (Suras iii. 102-103, 182, 192 ; iv. 89 ; vi. 12 ; xvii. 
 54, 99 ; xviii. 99-101 ; xix. 69, 95, 96 ; xlv. 25 ; xxxii. 11.) 
 
THE JUDGMENT. 89 
 
 Then God will appear in the clouds, surrounded by 
 
 angels, to judge those who have risen from their graves. 
 
 This judgment will consist of the following :^ the present- 
 er 
 ation before God (^^yJl), and the taking of the books of 
 
 account (u-i^^l i^l), then the questioning (JlyJl), the 
 account (u-j'»***^l), and then the weighing in the balance 
 
 Muhammad, according to tradition, will be the first 
 man to rise on the day of resurrection and will stand 
 on the right of the throne of God. All other prophets 
 will then range themselves under his flag. Men on 
 rising will in their fright flee for refuge to Adam and 
 entreat him to intercede (».aAj) for them, but he will 
 
 1 The presentation means that all men will have to present themselves 
 before God in their true character. The books in which all good and bad 
 acts of man are recorded will be blown by the wind from a repository 
 under the throne of God, where they have been preserved, and will then 
 be fixed to the necks of those to whom they belong (Sura xvii. 14). 
 The angels will then come and place these books in the right hand of 
 those who will be saved (\Ae»-. ^^V.^ (^\) and in the left hand, behind 
 the back, of those who go to hell. Angels and prophets will enter Paradise, 
 without having to render an account and so receive no book (Suras Ixxxiv. 
 8-12 ; Ixix. lU, 20). 
 
 The first whom God will question will be the angels, then the 
 prophets. Men will bo questioned concerning their outward actions as 
 well as their inward thoughts (ds^i^ ^ *jr- (:J* Sdras Ixxv. 5 ; v. 108, 116). 
 All creatures, that is, men, angels and genii also will then be clearly 
 made acquainted with the account of their works, good and bad 
 (aJl-x aU\ cJljiy yfc v»^-^^^). All wrongs and diflerenccs between men 
 and beast will then be settled satisfactorily. God will then also judge 
 wild beasts, and reduce them to dust. (Siiras iv. 45 ; Ixxviii. 41). 
 
 12 
 
90 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 decline,* so with Abraham, Moses and Jesus. At last 
 Muhammad will undertake the office of Intercessor.* 
 After all creatures have been questioned and received 
 their account, then, in order still further to show the 
 justice of the account, a balance (^^IjJ^^) will be set up, 
 in which the books of actions, bad and good, will be 
 weighed^. 
 
 1 Adam will dccliue on the score of having disobeyed God. Jesus, it 
 is said, will also decline for the reason that he had been made the object 
 of worship due to God only. 
 
 5 Jesus will send them to Muhammad who at once will accept the ofiticc 
 of intercessor. There is said to be an interval of one thousand years 
 between this going from one prophet to another for aid. Muham- 
 mad will intercede for his people. Sura xvii. 81, is said to refer to 
 this circumstance (0*4.^-4.^ «%\JUJ^). After this general intercession of 
 Muhammad (i/*^\ AcU^i.!^), the door of intercession will be opened to 
 others and prophets and also to other pious men. Numbers will thus be 
 saved from hell-fire. 
 
 Besides this general intercession, Muhammad is believed to exercise 
 several other kinds of intercession for a number of people, some of whom 
 never performed a good work : also for such as have committed mortal 
 sins and for Muslims who are already in Hell-fire, for people in paradise 
 to raise them to a higher degree (&I*3\ ^^ ci^W-j«^^ ^j)» '°^' lightening 
 the torments of some people in Hell, for alleviating the torments o^ 
 the grave. (For further details see Jowh. 178-179 ; Mashar. 255, 259-264 ; 
 Ghazdli iv. 329-340. Suras ii. 256 ; xix. 90 ; see also Siiras ii. 45 ; xx. 
 108 ; xxxiv. 22 ; xxxix. 45 ; Ixxiv. 49 ; Ixxviii. 38). Every sin may be 
 forgiven except idolatry (Sura iv. 51-116). 
 
 3 There will then, according to Ghazali, be three classes : (1) those 
 who have done no good works and who will go to hell-fire at once ; (2) those 
 who have committed no evil action (prophets) and those who have per- 
 formed many excellent works, who will go to Paradise at once ; (3) those 
 who have done both good and bad works. These constitute the majority. 
 For this class chiefly are the balances set up. Their books of actions, 
 some say the actions themselves, which will assume a bodily shape, will 
 be thrown into the scales and weighed (^Uxii5\ ^^ *. -V^U (^j^). This 
 balance is referred to in the Qur'an (Suras xxi. 48; xviii. 105). The 
 orthodox opinion is that it is to be understood literally, not allcgorically. 
 
HELL. 91 
 
 After the account has been rendered and every man's 
 works weighed, and sentence pronounced accordingly, a 
 bridge* (^l,^) will be spread over the midst of hell and 
 all believers and unbelievers will have to pass over it. 
 
 After having passed over the bridge, a pond' (^jc^) 
 will be given to Muhammad. It will be full of sweet 
 and refreshing water. It is said to come from the river 
 
 Kauthar ( Jj^)* which flows from under the throne of 
 God. 
 
 Hell (mH^ - i^ - (-->l»i«!Kl J) is the place of punishment 
 and torment. All men, without exemption, believers as 
 well as infidels, will have to enter it. " There is not one 
 of you that shall not go down to it." (Siira xix. 72./ The 
 
 (For further details see Jowh. 170-171; Ghaz&li iv. 325; Ghazdli Durr 
 69 ; Mash. 264. Faith of Isltoi, p. 226.) 
 
 * W%.« means a road. Those who enter Paradise will take the right 
 hand way, and those who are doomed to Hell-fire will take the left, but 
 both of them will have to pass over the bridge spread over the midst of 
 hell, finer than a hair and sharper than the edge of a sword and besot on 
 each side with briars and thorns. The righteous cross it with the swift- 
 ness of lightning, others like the wind; the wicked will soon miss their 
 footing and fall into the fire of Hell. 
 
 * Muhammad and his people will drink from it. Every prophet also is 
 to bo given such a pond, but of inferior quality. Sura cviii. 1 is said to 
 refer to this delicious water. The throne of God (,JyJ^ Sura ix. 130) 
 is a large body, or cupola, spread over the world, made of fire or green 
 emerald, or red ruby, resting on four columns which are borne at present 
 by four angels; but at last by eight. The seat (^^^£si\) also is a body 
 of light (^W At), attached to the throne from beneath. The 
 Pen (Jji\) is a large shining reed (s-^), ''^hich God is said to have 
 created and commanded to write down everything that was and shall bo 
 to the day of the resurrection. (Bukh&ri's Commentary ix. 831). The 
 Preserved Tablet (^i*ifc.tM t^^) '^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^ large shining slab, on 
 which the Pen writes down, with the permission of God, everything that 
 has happened and will happen. 
 
 * Some commentators make Sura xix. 72 refer to the believers' passing 
 (he bridgo spread over hell ; but the majority hold that believers also 
 
92 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 believers will scarcely, if at all, feel its heat, and will pass 
 through it quickly ; infidels will remain in it for ever. 
 
 Hell is said to be divided into seven stories (^aL) or 
 apartments, one below the other, designed for as many 
 distinct classes of the damned. They are given below^ : 
 
 will enter Hell but pass through it quickly and that the heat will be cooled 
 down for them {see Baid^wi Commentary). Hell, according to the Sunni 
 doctrine, Ifas been created by God in past times and exists now. Hell is 
 described as an awful place, terribly hot, its fuel are men and stones, its 
 drink matter mixed with blood, the clothes of its inhabitants are made 
 of ever-burning pitch ((^\^) ; serpents and scorpions will sting and 
 torment its victims. 
 
 11. Jahannam (^^!;g^), in which the wicked believers will be punished, 
 according to their works or demerits, till they are, at last, released. It is 
 a purgatorial hell for Muslims and will be destroyed after they have come 
 out of it. 
 
 2. Laza (^J^)J a blazing fire for Jews. 
 
 3. Hutama (iUij&.), an intense fire for Christians (Sura civ. 4). 
 
 4. Satir («jau.). a flaming fire for the Sabians (Sura iv. 11). 
 
 5. Saqar (vil), for the Magi (Siiras, liv. 47 ; Ixxiv. 44). 
 
 6. Jahim (^^^-j^^jw), for idolaters (Siira ii. 113). 
 
 7. Hdwia (&iAjt> the abyss), the lowest hell, the bottomless pit for 
 hypocrites (^^j»jSiU^), i.e., those who outwardly professed IsUm, and 
 inwardly were infidels (Siira ci. 7). 
 
 Over each of the gates of these stories is set a guard of Angels 
 (aJCL Suras xxxix. 71; Ixvii. 8), whom the damned will beg in vain to 
 intercede for them with God that they may be relieved from their 
 torments or annihilated (Siira xl. 52). Over these guards is set as chief 
 M^lik (c£\JU). The food of the damned is a bitter fruit called Zaqqiim 
 (j»Jj\ S^jjA Siiras xxxvii. 60-64 ; xliv. 43-44 ; Ivi. 51-53), their drink 
 is hot, stinking water (^^^j.**.), mixed with matter ( jdii Siira xxxviii. 
 57, Jo Ju3 bU Siira xiv, 19) . 
 
 The unbeliever who dies as such, though he had been a believer all his 
 lifetime, will remain in Hell for ever (^^oAiJ o^ jW j\^\ Ghazdli iv. 
 
PARADISE. 93 
 
 The abode of the blessed is believed to be a kind of 
 
 partition wall, called the A*araf* («-Jl-c^l), between heaven 
 and hell. Those who have not yet entered Paradise, 
 although they desire it, rest on this wall. From this 
 place they see both those who enter Paradise and those 
 in Hell. (Sura vii. 44). 
 
 The righteous having safely passed the bridge and 
 having refreshed themselves at the pond, will at last 
 enter Paradise,* and in the heavenly garden (JuL^jll) will 
 enjoy all kinds of delights, bodily as well as spiritual. The 
 Qur'an gives a detailed description of these delights in a 
 number of passages ; among others in Siiras Ixxvi. 12-22 ; 
 
 831 et seqq). Tho children of infidolfi arc, according to the best author- 
 ities, admitted into Paradise ; some place them in the A'ar&f (^Uci\) ; 
 a kind of Hades ; some few pretend that they are in Hell-fire. No Muslim 
 will bo doomed to eternal fire, all will be released from it after a shorter 
 or longer period. Even during their stay in Hell, ^luslims will not be 
 made to feel the torments like infidels, as they are believed very soon 
 after they enter it, to undergo a kind of death, and to become 
 insensible to pain. (s^\Ju»J\ ^\ ^L-».^ tj^J^^ Jowh. 175. Mashnr, 27G. 
 Dictionary of IsUm, 171-172). 
 
 I Baidiwi says that the term *^\jc\ is derived from tjLc pi. i^\jt^ 
 and is tho mane of a horse, or the most elevated part of a thing; other 
 commentators say that the place is so called because it 'distinguishes' 
 between heaven and hell, or because those who stand on it know and 
 distinguish the blessed from the damned by their respective marks 
 («»i«c, to know, distinguish). Some consider this place a kind of limbo 
 for the patriarchs and prophets and saints ; some also place the children 
 of infidels on the A'arif. 
 
 • Paradise, according to the orthodox doctrine, was created of old, is 
 in existence now, and will last for ever (j^l^^ j^j) and will not, as the 
 Mu*taEila pretend, be created on the day of resurrection and eventually 
 cease to exist. As to the number of Paradises, some believe that there is 
 only one, some two, others four, seven or eight. Those who adopt only 
 one say that the various names mentioned in tho Qur'&n only desig- 
 nate the various delights to be found in the one Paradise. Those who 
 
94 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Ivi. 12-39 ; Iv. 54-56 ; xlvii. 16 ; xviii. 30 ; xxii. 23 ; xxxvi. 
 55 ; xxxvii. 39-59 ; xxxix. 21, 73-75 ; lii, 17-18 ; Ixxxiii. 
 22-36 ; x. 9-11 ; xxiii. 8-113 ; xxxviii. 49-55. 
 
 admit more than one mention the following : o Jl^J\ ila. garden of immor- 
 tality (Siira XXV. 16) ; j»iLJ^ ^W dwelling of peace (Siira vi. 127) ; j^yiJ^ ^U 
 lasting habitation (Siira xl. 42) ; ^jkc uyLij. gardens of Eden (SAra ix. 73); 
 f^X^\ ^\^ gardens of refuge (S6ra xxxii. 19) ; ^»-jjuJ\ cyU:?. gardens of 
 delight (Sura v. 70) ; (j*^^ the highest place in heaven (Si^ra Ixxxiii. 18) ; 
 and ^.jJ^\ cyUa. the gardens of Paradise (S6ra xiii. 107). 
 
 The highest and most excellent of these eight Paradises is said to be 
 the Firdaus, above which is the ' throne of the Merciful ' (^^^.♦js. J\ \J^y^) 
 from which flow the rivers (^^\) of Paradise. Muhammad is believed 
 to occupy the highest place in Paradise, called the Maqdmu'l-wasila 
 (&L^J\ (•^)> ^^^ place of relationship, of influence. Paradise is also 
 said to have eight gates : gate of fasting, of prayer, of alms and so on. 
 (For details see Ghazdli iv. 335-33G ; Mash. 227-279). In Paradise there are 
 upper apartments ^^Jvc), palaces (jy«3*), consisting of one single pearl, 
 in every palace seventy houses (j^o), in every house seventy rooms (o^wjj) 
 bedsteads, beds, on every bed a Houri, tables, dishes, girls to serve (liu^.) 
 and the believer will have power given to enjoy all these delights. (Mash. 
 
 280 ^^\ d^ «dj j Jb j;V> U f^\ ^^ S^jlc j^ ^ e^r^^ o^)- 
 
 Paradise is a shady place (S6ra iv. 60) full of sweet perfumes and no 
 one there suffers from fatigue (S6ra xxxv. 32). In it there is a tree called 
 ^_56^U4J\ 6)J^, Sidratu-1-Muntaha, also delicious fruits and other kinds of 
 food. The occupants of the lowest place in Paradise will be feasted on 
 the liver of the great fish («t>»<aJ^ Ju-^) ^^^ ^^^ ox of Paradise 
 (&j^\j^) (Ghazdli iv;336. Mashar 281-284). Rivers of sweet smelling 
 water, milk, wine and clarified honey flow from the mountains of musk. 
 One of these is the Kauthar (y »^\ Sura xlvii. 16 ; Mashar 235). There 
 are said to be in Paradise four springs (q)^), the two issuing from 
 under the throne of God are the Zanjabll (J-j<^j), and the Salsabil 
 (Ja.j-.JL, Siira Ixxvi. 18). As so much eating and drinking necessarily 
 requires proper evacuations, God is said to have so arranged that all 
 superfluities will be discharged, and carried off by perspiration as odori- 
 ferous as musk. (See Ghaz41i iv. 336), 
 
PABADISE. 95 
 
 The blessed in Paradise are dressed in clothes of the finest silk and 
 brocade (^j*xJ\ . ^j^jLi-,), with silver and gold bracelets on their arms, 
 and crowns of inlaid jewels and shining pearls on their heads (Siiras 
 xviii, 30; xliv. 53 ; Ixxvi. 21-22, 33 ; xxxv. 30-32 ; Mashar 2S5-287) ; they 
 will rest on beds of silk (cdH^^ Sdras Ixxxviii. 13 ; xv. 47 ; xxxvii. 43 ; 
 Hi. 20 ; Ivi. 15). The tents in which they live arc each made of one large 
 pearl. 
 
 . &» 
 
 They have wives ( Ja\), whom no stranger ever sees and who never 
 
 look at any man but their own husbands (»j|^\ «y^woU), and who arc 
 pure (ij^fat* eU\\), that is free from the ordinary habits of women 
 (i.UrJ^ - jUJ\ . Jp^ . UUJ^ - ^J^^ Sdra ii. 23 ; iii. 13; iv. GO; 
 Ghazili iv. 337; Mashar 287; Nazha'l Arwih 37). Every believer (none 
 of them will be unmarried) will have, besides other wives and houries, two 
 wives so beautiful and trlinsparent that he will sec the marrow of their 
 bones behind the seventy magnificent dresses which they wear, and will 
 see his face in their cheeks as in a mirror. Besides these he will have 
 four thousand virgins (•^i|), and eight thousand women who have 
 
 already been married (s-*is») a"d five hundred houries (^^y^X j^) having 
 the white of the eye intensely white ; and the black inticnsely black 
 (86ra Iv. 72). These are the finest damsels of Paradise. According to 
 Ghaz41i (iv. 837) Muhammad said •' The believer in Paradise will marry 
 five hundred houries, four thousand virgins, and eight thousand married 
 women ; their occupation will be the enjoyment of the sensual delights 
 provided for them (^^q «SU Jaa ^Jk Sdra xxxvi. 56 ; which commen- 
 tators explain to mean jl^S\ ^Usi^). It is a controverted question 
 whether women will conceive and boar children in Paradise. The best 
 authorities are of opinion that children, being the chief pleasure of niiui, 
 will bo born to those who desire it, but their conception, birth, weaning 
 and growth into youthful age will all take place within the space of one 
 hour. Music will be provided for those who like it ; horses for those 
 who wish to ride, camels, fields and, in short, *• things which eye saw 
 not and which did not enter into the heart of man." (GhazAli iv. 338 
 jj^ s-^ ^5^* j^ 5^ ^««* ■« ijS\ S^ «y^j ^jj(^ iJ U) . Among these 
 there is also said to be a tree called Tiiba (Jj^i), "o* mentioned in 
 the Qur'in, on which grow precious jewels, and fine clothes. On entering 
 Paradise believers will be youthful-looking creatures, beard less, thirty- 
 six years of age and they will grow neither older nor younger. The 
 statements mentioned in the chapter on the resurrection are to bo 
 firmly believed by the Muslim, as they rest, if not all on the Qur'4n itself, 
 on Tradition and the agreement (^U(».^) of the learned doctors. On 
 
96 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The delights of Paradise are not, however, considered 
 to consist solely in bodily and sensual pleasures and 
 enjoyments, but to include spiritual enjoyments also. 
 The highest spiritual delight (^^^1 i$Il31)' the blessed 
 in Paradise will enjoy, consists in seeing the face of God 
 
 certain details of minor importance the Muslim is, however, at liberty to 
 adopt what commends itself to his own mind. (For further details see 
 Ghazali iv. 337 ^V>^S^ ^i «yJ»;^ iT^J^ ^it>\ ^^)^ c>^ ^j^^ J^ CjW>). 
 
 The orthodox and general opinion concerning the above described 
 delights of Paradise is that they are to be understood in their literal and 
 obvious sense, and not in the figurative sense to designate spiritual 
 pleasures and enjoyments. 
 
 I This spiritual delight is said to be referred to in Sdra x. 27 ** to those 
 who do good will be given goodness and increase " (S^^.;). This ' increase 
 being the seeing of. the face of God. Muhammad one fine moonlight 
 night is reported to have said to his disciples : *' You will see your Lord 
 as you see this moon " — the curtain will be lifted, and they will look into 
 the face of God and nothing of all that has been bestowed upon them 
 will delight them more than the seeing of His face. Some are said to 
 see him for the space of a whole year, others for a week, others morning 
 and evening ; others will be privileged to see him without ceasing. Another 
 of the spiritual delights the believer will enjoy in Paradise is to behold 
 Muhammad. Ghazali, at the conclusion of his description of the delights of 
 Paradise, says : ' Nothing of the delights of Paradise can be compared to 
 the delight of meeting God (sUU\ S3j), for the other bodily enjoyment 
 of Paradise dumb animals share with the believer, but this is reserved to 
 him alone. The possibility and reality of God's being seen (dlj^ &i^j) 
 by his faithful servants in Paradise — men, angels, genii, is an article 
 of faith which must be believed by every Muslim, as it is supported by 
 the Qnr'an, Traditions and the Ijma'. There arc some sects which pretend 
 that it is impossible that God should be seen with the eye. 
 
 The sources from whence Muhammad and his disciples derived most of 
 the statements on the resurrection, the last judgment. Paradise and Hell 
 are explained by Sale in his Introductory Discourse and by Geiger in his 
 book : Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume auf genommen, now 
 translated into English under the name of "Judaism and Isldm," 
 Simpkin Marshall & Co. See also Tisdall's Yan4bI*u'l-IsUm in Persian, 
 and in English on " The Original Sources of the Quran. S. P. C. K 
 
PREDESTINATION. 07 
 
 The sixth article of faith is that of Predestination^ 
 (jSj _ jjiAj -^jJiJlj ^'-fliill) Every Muslim must believe in 
 God's absolute decree and predestination both of good and 
 evil, and that God has from eternity predetermined and 
 decreed everything, good as well as bad, belief and un- 
 belief and that everything that has been or will be depends 
 
 * The Qur'&u speaks in many passages of this all-important subject 
 •* All things we have created after a fixed decree " (Sura liv. 49). *' No one 
 can die except by God's permission according to the Book that fixeth the 
 termof life" (Sura iii. 139). " All sovereignty is in the hands of God. He 
 whom God guideth is the guided, and they whom He misleadeth shall be 
 the lost " (Suras liv. 49 ; iii. 139 ; xiii. 30 ; vii. 278). The Sunni doctrine 
 on the subject is that whatever happens in this world, good or evil, faith 
 or unbelief, obedience to God and disobedience, proceeds entirely from 
 the will and decree of God and is irrevocably written down and fixed on 
 the ' Preserved Tablet.' Not a worm creeps on earth, not a leaf falls from 
 the tree, except by the decree and will of God. 
 
 As regards man, God has from eternity (Jj3\ fj^) fixed his adverse or 
 prosperous fortune in this world, his faith or infidelity and consequently 
 his happiness or misery in the next world. Muhammad said ' Everyman 
 is joined together in the womb of his mother forty days, then ho becomes 
 coagulated blood for the same time, then a bit of fiesh for the same time, 
 then God sends an angel (fvWjj^ uJjL««the angel of the ^ombs) whom 
 he commands to write down for the embryo four things : its portion of 
 prosperity ; food, much or little ; its life, short or long, miserable, damned 
 or happy in the future world." He also said &M /^ _i j^m.^ ^^ Jk^^\ 
 ^^ ^W\ ^\ J*«) J^ f^^^\ o^-^b ^^ c>W ^ o*-*- (jT J«-^^; 
 
 jtM l^ijrf ^ Im o^^ ^ o^ i^^\ Ja^ v>*» v>*tJ ^j^\ o\ ) - V^Ua^ 
 (Jowh. 97. ^A^ jU\ Ja\ J4J^ J.♦J^i v»U:=J^ Aelc jh — ijJ ^^,>c\; J ^\ f \ji 
 Muhammad taught the fore-knowledge of God, but he did not lay down 
 precisely the doctrine of predestination. It perplexed him and ho spoke 
 of it, but often contradicted himself and he would become angry if the 
 subject were mooted in his presence. " Sit not down with a disputer 
 about fate" he used to say. Bukhdri mentions that the Prophet once 
 came out of his house when the Companions were debating concerning fate 
 (predestination). He became angry and red in the face and said : '• Has God 
 ordered you to debate on fate ? Was I sent to you for this ? . . . I adjure 
 13 
 
98 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 entirely on His fore-knowledge and sovereign will (Jowh. 
 93-106 ; Mawaqif 515-538 ; Bukhari's Commentary ix. 
 328-338.) 
 
 As regards the exact meaning of the M^^i" and the .j,5 S 
 which both designate the act of God's predetermining and 
 
 you do not argue on these points." Among other sayings of Muhammad 
 on the subject Bukhari mentions the following : " God created Adam 
 and touched his back with his right hand and brought from it a family, 
 and God said to Adam: *I have created this family for Paradise, and 
 their actions will be like those of the people of Paradise.' Then God 
 touched the back of Adam and brought forth another family and said : 
 ' I have created this for Hell !' " 
 
 Then a man said to the Prophet : " Of what use will deeds of any kind 
 be? He replied when God createth his servant for Paradise, his actions 
 will be deserving of it till he dies, when he will enter therein ; and when 
 God createth one for fire, his actions will be like those of the people of 
 hell till he die, when he will enter therein. — ' There is not one amongst 
 you whose place is not written by God whether in the fire or in Paradise. ' 
 Thereupon the Companions said : * prophet ! since God has appointed 
 our places, may we confide in this and abandon our religious and moral 
 duties ' ? "He said : * No, because the righteous will do good works, and 
 the wicked will do bad works, ". . . . (See Jowh. 93, 105 ; Bukh4ri's Commen- 
 tary ix, 232). Though good and evil are predetermined and decreed by 
 God, yet man may not use this doctrine as an encouragement to commit 
 sin ; for example, he must not encourage himself to commit adultery by 
 saying : " God has decreed that I should commit this sin, and therefore I 
 will commit it," nor may he use it as an excuse when he has committed it 
 in order to escape punishment. Then again the doctrine of predestination 
 must not prevent man from asking God in prayer and supplication what 
 he is in need of, for his praying and obtaining in answer to prayer what 
 he wants are also predetermined. As to the lot of children who die young 
 ^[uhammad replied : " God knows best what they have been doing." The 
 learned Nawawi says that the majority of learned men are of opinion that 
 the children of Muslims go to Paradise ; as to the children of infidels 
 some say that they go to hell-fire, some that their lot is undecided ; 
 (^6JS\L *_a5k>) others that they enter Paradise, which, Nawawi says, is the 
 true opinion (dlsj\ Jjfc\ ^^ ^j^) (Bukhdri ix. 333.) 
 
 1 As regards the meaning of the term .j^i those of the Ash'ariyya 
 School say that it designates God's creating things in certain proportions 
 
PREDESTINATION. 99 
 
 decreeing everything, and the difference between the two 
 terms there are various opinions : 
 
 and in a special manner in the strictest accordance with His will 
 ( JU» 6h\ lj\j\ ^^jIj»^ 6^y^ ^^<a»-. jOi ^Jc La5\ &iJ\ oV^\). The term 
 according to this opinion refers to the attribute of God's works 
 JUi3\ «yUu tr* yfc^ oV^5\ ^^ a^V-x &»3 J*i &L^ 6^j>. The MAturidiyya 
 (AjJkiyUJ^) say that the »jj refers to God's defining and knowing from 
 eternity the limits which every man should reach as regards beauty or 
 ugliness, wealth or poverty, success or misfortune, and has reference to 
 God's knowledge, which is an attribute of His essence. 
 
 As to the meaning of the term oUi, the Ash'ariyya say that it means 
 the will of God that wills things from eternity as they are. o\^^\ iSi\ i^\j\ 
 ^juc s^Mi\ «yUu ^^^J^^SUtJAjb^UJlc Jj^l^ ^^ The 
 M&turfdiyya say that it means God's creating things with additional 
 finishing and perfection ^UJiJ^^ j^Lsaa-iS) SoVjj ^ e\,j_ja.}J\ Al3\ oV^^ 
 . ^Jkc Jjii Xa«^. With the Ash'ariyya the .ju» is recent («*»jU.) and the 
 (»Ui) eternal (^Ji) in opposition to the Miturldiyya. The difference 
 between these two terms has been summed up thus : 
 
 The »Ui is eternal, and the .ju» recent, and both terms have reference 
 to God's knowledge and will and power. Some say that the dU5 desig- 
 nates what is decreed in a general manner (ajujc^), while the ^jJ 
 designates the things decreed in particular (iiJcj*), The following 
 definition is given in the Jr ^a A-^ ^ jt c^\ s-»V;l^ : 
 
 IiuJ\ iiy^ ^JJii\ f^\ ^»9.AA) j^X^ . ^\^ Jc-A-J^ yto UfiJ\^ y-L-iJLSs ^j^fiJU 
 
 . Je^^ i^y^ oUaJ^^ J,^^ 
 
 jjj has been compared to the thing to be measured, the oUi to the 
 
 measuring itself. When the Khalif 'Umar intended to flee from the 
 
 plague which had broken out at Damascus, 'Ubaid said to him: "Dost 
 
 thou think thou canst flee from the decree (oU*) of God ? " 'Umar 
 
100 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Man's acts are of two kinds : voluntary (hJSX^'] Jl*il) 
 and involuntary (hX\2^\ JU^l). As regards voluntary 
 acts of man there are different opinions, as that things 
 operate by means of their nature or the power inherent 
 
 in them (^j.j 'i^h^) jcxaLj y^j lijL*« ^1), just as fire burns, the 
 knife cuts by reason of its nature or the power inherent 
 in it. Those who hold this view are, by common consent, 
 considered infidels. Those who say that things operate 
 by reason of the power God has created in them are 
 considered to be either infidels, or impious or sectarians 
 ( .U£=> _ iv^lj _ cjjuus). Thus, the Mu'tazila believe that 
 it is God who operates, but that he has ordered a 
 necessary connection between (<a3 adJI) causes and effects 
 which can never be revoked. They are ignorant (Jjfclsi-) 
 and their opinion may ultimately lead to infidelity by 
 denying the miracles of prophets, as being contrary to 
 the usual course of nature. The only true and orthodox 
 opinion on the subject is that it is God who operates, 
 and has ordered a certain connection between causes 
 and effects, which can however be revoked : — 
 
 As regards involuntary acts of man such as the 
 movements of him who trembles (^xL^II ^^.-w), they 
 
 said : *' I take my refuge from the eUi of God to the .jub of God," 
 («iJV^Ju> ^J^ &]1\ sUS ^JOyi\) implying that one may hope what God has 
 determined to do (^ju* ) may he averted, if it is not absolutely irrevoc- 
 ably decreed. The learned Commentator of the Jowhara says: "God is 
 the Creator of man, and his actions (,Uc U • Ju*J^ (J^^ (J^ ^^) ; 
 this is called the oneness of works M^iiJ^ fiJ^s:..) and refutes the opinion 
 that things can operate by the nature or power inherent in them." 
 
PREDESTINATION. 101 
 
 are, by common consent, created and produced by God. 
 
 As regards God's and man's parts in producing men's 
 voluntary actions, the orthodox opinion is that man has 
 no influence whatever on his voluntary actions, but that 
 they are the result of God's power alone, that God causes 
 power and choice, to exist in man and, if there be no im- 
 pediment. He causes his action to exist also, subject to His 
 power and joint with that and His choice ; which action 
 as created is to be ascribed to God, but as produced, em- 
 ployed or acquired, is to be ascribed to man. This ac- 
 
 quisition (c^^v«*£3) of an action by man, therefore, pro- 
 perly means his joining or connecting the same with his 
 power and will, yet allowing herein no impression or 
 influence on the existence thereof save only that it is 
 
 subject to his will,* Uj.s^^ I'ao adll ijSh iol^ j'a*l) JUil) 
 t^ JCA3 S^^' ^'w« cJUa ^^£=J>. J Ij) ^ LUi>.l^ ij^i 4Xa*I1 
 
 ^^ iCiCi\j\^ *J,jJil *Jy'JLo »'ol KUvJr^.i jLcJl^ • J^AulI \i^mS=D.^ ^ 
 JJy^ v^^-* **^*^^ 15* )1>-J^ jl ^ni^ cJUjb ^;;^=^. ^J^ j^t^ 
 Jowh. ^^y»_^il ,^->.^J' ^3^ ^rf-'i'^' ^^Jti^ IJjb ^ . i t^^ 
 
 97-9b; Mawaqii 510-2-n)) 
 
 1 Though God has created all acts of man, good as well as evil, still man 
 has no right to say : " How can God punish me for bad actions I have 
 committed since it is Ho who has created them, for no man has a right to 
 enquire concerning the doings of God (JaA| Ua J^ ^) and his duty is to 
 acknowledge God's absolute sovereignty in evcrytliinR ^J-^;J\ V\ U*^> "%) 
 (^^♦^\ and to ascribe to Uim all that is good, and lo ouibtlvo all evil 
 
102 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 As regards the proroises (sc^ _ S^^^) God has made 
 to believers by the mouth of His prophets and in His 
 Book that He will cause them to enter Paradise, He will 
 certainly fulfil them.* As regards the threats (Sxc^) with 
 which God has threatened the wicked, He may choose 
 not to carry them into execution. 
 
 As the eternal happiness of him who is saved is pre- 
 ordained from eternity in God's fore-knowledge (U-)> so 
 
 is the eternal misery of him who is damned also decreed 
 from eternity in God's fore-knowledge.* 
 
 works, out of respect (^oV>), created it is true by God, but acquired 
 («i. ....E?) by ourselves according to the words of the Qur'dn : Sdra iv. 81 
 ' What happens to thee of good things is from God, and what happens 
 to thee of evil is of thyself ' and Sura xlii. 29 : ' What happens to you of 
 calamities is by what your hands have acquired.' ' Say : Everything is 
 from God!'" 
 
 God has created in the man who is to be accepted and saved the power 
 of obedience, together v/ith the disposition and the will to obey, and pro- 
 vided him with the means to walk in the right path, or, as others say. 
 He creates in him the power of obedience itself (dc^^ 'i\^i). Even 
 the disobedient believer is included in this class. 
 
 God has created in those whom he has decreed to reject and doom to 
 hell, some say disobedience (&*-aJt4J^) as others say the power of dis- 
 obedience (i**aJuJ^ h'^)' 
 
 1 "Verily God will not fail the promise" (Sura iii. 7), for if He did so 
 He would have told an untruth which cannot be admitted. God may, if 
 He wills, not carry out threats, for not carrying them out is not a defect ; 
 but, on the contrary, a characteristic of generosity and perfection 
 (jk*cy\ ^^ *-aUJ\ ^^ - <5cji t_alL^\ uj^ XjC^^). Muhammad is reported 
 to have said : " God will surely fulfil His promise to reward certain 
 actions, but as to the punishment He has threatened. He is at liberty to 
 choose, if He wills. He will punish, and if He wills. He will pardon." 
 There are, however, other opinions opposed to this Sunni doctrine on 
 the subject. {See Jowh. 95-96, 100). 
 
 2 This divine decree cannot be changed, otherwise God's knowledge 
 would be changed into ignorance. The happiness of man or his misery 
 
THE MU'TAZiLA. 103 
 
 Besides the Sunni doctrine on predestination there are 
 two Schools which differ from it. One is, the Jabariyya* 
 (JujLsJ) from A^ to compel). Their opinion is that 
 man is necessarily and inevitably compelled and forced to 
 act as he does by the force of God's immutable degree. 
 
 The other is the Mu'tazila (d^'Jxn^W) also called the 
 Qadariyya' (Jb^jill from .^ya to have power, to decree). 
 
 depends, according to the opinion of the Ash'arlyya, entirely on the state 
 in which he is at his death. If at the moment of his death man is a 
 helievor, he will inherit eternal bliss, in accordance \vith God*s fore-know- 
 ledge, if, on the contrary, he dies in a state of infidelity, his lot will be 
 eternal misery, in accordance with God's fore-knowledge. 
 
 The end, therefore, clearly indicates what has been pre-ordained 
 (iJjLJ^ JLc JjJ i^^^). If a man dies a believer, though he has spent 
 his whole life as an infidel, he will enter Paradise. The Mdturldiyya, in 
 opposition to the Ash'ariyya School, are of opinion that man's going to 
 Paradise or Hell depends on his life of faith or infidelity, and that should 
 he, who has lived as a believer, die as an infidel we must admit that he has 
 been changed from one destined to eternal happiness into one destined 
 to eternal misery. . . ^ yt=J^ ^ S^UL-aJ^^ - JU3\ ^^ CjUj^^ SoU-J^) 
 
 Cjui s-J^^ Jju yk^»J^ J^ ^^ \^^\ ) JUJ^ ^ cr«^^ y^ .v.o ]\i - j{^\ 
 
 (Jowh. 96-97). (U4. f^\^ f^\ j^ f j^jju^ s^l£i\ a£J 
 * Man, according to their view, is forced to act as ho does like a feather 
 in the air which the wind moves about at will, and that he has neither 
 power, nor will, nor choice any more than an inanimate agent and there- 
 fore no acquisition (», .■■■'=='>) (^^^ ^^-.^*« yfc Jj s- & &J ^J^ <^'>i\) 
 
 (For details see Sharastini 59 ; Maw4qif 033 ; Jowh. 97-99.) 
 
 s They are called Qadariyya, either because they deny the .Ji or 
 predestination, or as others say, more correctly, because they assert 
 man's power (^jJ^J) to act freely. They consequently believe that he 
 deserves either reward or punishment (s^Uc A s-»V) ^^ the "ext world in 
 accordance with his actions. ^Z-«t . U>wjA. dijL;:«s.^\ &]Uii5 ^jJUs. .jU J^«3^) 
 
104 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 They deny God's eternal predestination and say that man 
 produces his voluntary actions, good as well as bad, by 
 the power which God has created in him ; in fact, that 
 man is a free agent. 
 
 Wisil Ibn *At&, the founder of the :Mu*tazila sect, says that God, being 
 wise and just, it is impossible to ascribe to Him evil and injustice, or that 
 He should compel a man to do a thing, and then requite him for it. It 
 is impossible to believe that God should command man to act, if He 
 had not given him the power to do so. 
 
 The author of the Jowhara says that the Jabariyya and the Qadariyya 
 entertain on the subject extreme opinions, but that the men of the 
 Sunni school have chosen the safe middle road between the two, by 
 asserting that man is neither absolutely compelled, nor an absolutely free 
 agent; but that, though God is the creator of his actions, still man shares 
 in producing his voluntary actions, so that they are the result of two 
 different powers, viz., of God's creation and man's acquisition. He further 
 explains the orthodox view by saying : man has no power or influence 
 (-j*\J) over his actions but he is inwardly forced, outwardly free 
 
 (^Jb\!k jb^^ ULVj j»-.as^). Man is a compelled being in the shape of one 
 enjoying free will. 
 
 Js^Ja J^^y \ j^Aa«J\^ ^y! — ^ &i^ <^;W^^^ j^ J^jJ^J e^^ J**^ «J^^ ^^) 
 Jk*ii!^ bJ^i (.s-viJ ^ vji^^ ^^ t^^ ^^ ^j-^ c:-^' JsS'J^ (Jii')'^ tj;-sas? 
 (*..^--.=J\ A^as* (Jowh. 98-99). " He who considers man from the point of 
 view of his real condition excuses him, but he who considers him from 
 the point of view of the Law hates him."- ^jlc AS^siesJ^ (^^-j*> ^3WJ jiei ^^) 
 (f^^XA^ Jjoy^\^^*«> ^gJ^aj ^^ ^ (Jowh. 99). The objection of the Jabari 
 and the reply of the Sunni contained in the following verses is very 
 characteristic : 
 
 »U5^ 
 
 Jx^- CiJb\ ^Gj 
 
 «15J^^ 
 
 ^^, JU ^J, 
 
 8V;*-3> 
 
 ^sj1 f,] ^ ^.^n ^ 
 
 Ji> ^^ &— ^ «»J c-OiaU^ &flfc. ^\ 
 
 Jabari : — " What can man do since everything has been decreed and pre- 
 ordained concerning him ? This is as if God threw him into the sea with 
 hands and feet bound and told him : * Be careful not to make thyself wet 
 with water' ". 
 
REWARD AND PUNISHMENT. 105 
 
 As regards reward (cyly) and punishment (u-;Ur), 
 man neither deserves reward for his. good actions, nor 
 punishment for his bad actions, since God has created 
 
 them both j^ *^^ \^y^ ^ c;y*'«>^'^-***?. r:^*" ^^X^ (J*-^^. rJ) 
 (L'Jb jc> ^^^svJ^. > but, though man does not deserve either 
 the one or the other, still it is generally agreed, among 
 the orthodox, that God does reward or punish. When He 
 rewards He does so by an act of His free will and sovereign 
 
 grace; c-jJjo ^^1 ^ ^^^^isi-cJl A^i ^Jb UJl UJ ^J\j6 *Jill L'jl) 
 ( JtXxil ija>cJ3' When He punishes He does so as an act 
 of pure justice. 
 
 On the much discussed question whether it is incum- 
 bent on God in His dealings with man to do and promote 
 
 what is good (—1^)> or best ( JL^^I)' the orthodox doc- 
 trine is that it is not incumbent on God to provide for 
 a man either the one or the other, for God is not bound 
 to do anything, but does everything according to His 
 free will and pleasure.* 
 
 Stimtt: — If the favour of God encompass him, water will not make him 
 wet, nor will he care about being bound and cast into the sea. If God 
 decreed that he shall be drowned, he will be drowned, even if he were 
 thrown into the midst of dry land. (For further details on the contro- 
 versy between both parties see Dictionary of Isl&m, 473 ; Faith of Isl&m, 
 294-289). 
 
 The Mu'tazila, in opposition to the orthodox dogma, teach that it is 
 incumbent on God, according to His justice, to reward those who obey Him 
 and to punish the evil-doers. Reward and punishment are merely signs 
 pointing to the reward of him who obeys, or to the punishment of him who 
 disobeys. Even if God reversed the meaning of these signs by saying : 
 "Him who obeys me I will punish, and him who disobeys me I will 
 reward," this would be good and just as coming f j om God (Jowh. 100-101 ; 
 Mawiqif, 584-586). 
 
 * The Mu'tazila, on thecontrary, say that it is incumbent on God in His 
 dealings with man to provide for him what is good or best. Some of them 
 say that this is the duty of God both with regard to worldly and religious 
 
 14 
 
106 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 God gives every creature (roan and beast) its due por- 
 
 c 
 
 tion^ ((jjji))y material as well as spiritual, such as food 
 
 and raiment for the body, learning, sciences and so on for 
 
 the understanding and the heart. 
 &- - - 
 
 Sins, (^^j j pL «-->y J 5 HX^ pi CL:>[iX^ i ^xAs-li pi- 
 
 ^J^s^\fi J\ pi ^'oTi iiiAiv pi Uks-) according to the ortho- 
 dox teaching, are of two kinds : * (1) little, venial sins, 
 
 concerns, others say that only with regard to religion is Ho bound to 
 consider what is best for man. Thoy also hold that God can and will 
 only Create what is good and not what is evil for their own sake. To this 
 the Sunnis reply that reason is not competent to judge what is good or 
 bad, that this can only be decided by the Law; that, on the whole, 
 nothing is bad (9-^) in the sight of God : — 
 - ^d. «ij\ (^ ^ S &i^ - ^^\ &«»-i U ^^\j ^^\ Lwl^ U ^^^-.«^^) 
 
 God has good reasons for creating evil also in the world. 
 
 1 By this portion is meant, however, not what man possesses, but only 
 that part of it of which he makes use or derives benefit from. What he pos- 
 sesses, but does not make use of nor derives benefit from, is not his portion. 
 *£\Jo (j-Jli JxiJV* &> ^i;ui ^ ; &^ gULsii!^ ^^ (^^^ ^ lM» *^^ (^) 
 
 The Mu'tazHa believe that all that man possesses is his portion, 
 whether he makes use of it or not, and all that which is blameable or 
 positively forbidden, such as wine, etc., cannot be the portion of man 
 ordered for him by God. 
 
 It is a matter of controversy between learned men whether man's 
 acquiring by personal exertion what he is in want of, or his expecting 
 it from simple reliance on God without personal exertion is the more 
 excellent way. ( J^yJ^ LX^\ ^\ w>LM-x.S5i3\ LX^\ For details see Ghazdli 
 andJowh. 182-185). 
 
 2 Muhammad made the following statements on the subject : " He is 
 not a believer who commits adultery, or steals or drinks liquor or plunders 
 
 >^ 
 
SMALL AND GBEAT SINS. 107 
 
 {'ijj^i^ pl. y^-^) and (2) great, capital sins (jLj^a^ pi. 
 J'o^) The Qur'an says on the subject : " Who avoid the 
 
 heinous things of crime and filthiness forgive ". (Siira 
 
 xlii. 35) •' Those who avoid great sins and scandals but 
 commit only lighter faults, verily thy Lord will be diffuse 
 of mercy." Sura liii. 33. 
 
 ror embezzles when intrusted with the plunder of the infidel. Beware, 
 beware !— the greatest sin is to associate with God, or to vex your father 
 and mother, or to murder your own species, or to commit suicide or to 
 swear or to lie.— Abstain ye from the seven ruinous and destructive things 
 namely : (1) Associating anything with God. (2) Magic. (3) Killing any- 
 one without reason. (4) Taking interest on money. (5) Taking the property 
 of the orphan. (6) Running away on the day of battle. (7) Accusing an in- 
 nocent woman of adultery. — Verily everyone who performs the five prayers 
 and fasts in Ramad&n and avoids committing the seven great sins, God 
 will open for him eight gates by which he will enter Paradise on the day 
 of resurrection." Tha ^v^B aina ^r e called tho •^^Vt^lA^ ^\ 
 
 The sect of the Murjia, on the contrary, hold that all sins arc little, and 
 do not harm man, as long as he is a Muslim. Qne of their d oe tm s has 
 e mb o di ed thio ep iHion in t h e following ve r ae a : 
 
 The Khawirij, on the other hand, pretend that all sins are great sins, 
 and that every great sin is infidelity. Others again hold that, though all 
 sins are great in consideration of the majesty of Him against whom they 
 are committed, yet that they do not amount to infidelity, and that ho 
 who commits them, does not thereby become an infidel, except ho commit 
 sins which imply infidelity, such as worshipping an idol, or casting the 
 Qur'4n into a dirty place (Jowh. 18G). 
 
 As to the number of the great sins the learned doctors are not agreed. 
 The Companions and the Followers differed on this point. Some said 
 they were four, others said seven and others eleven or more. Ibn 'Abbds 
 used to say that they are nearer to seventy than to seven. Ghaz41i and the 
 doctors of the 8unni School are of opinion that it is not possible to de- 
 termine the exact number of capital sins and that the Law has purposely 
 left them indefinite in order to frighten men from committing sin. 
 The capital sins may be distinguished from the smaller ones by certain 
 \ signs (saAj\^\), their deserving the punishment of juJ, and by their being 
 
108 THE BELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 threatened with torments, or by the circumstance that he who commits 
 them deserves to be called impious (,3<<,U), or to be cursed by God (^^jjiU^). 
 
 The most grievous of the capital sins are : 
 
 Polytheism, idolatry, associating anyone with God (^\i i^^\). 
 
 Murder without reason. (^>^^ ^\ \^ &iJ^ ^^ ^j\ ^J»Jnl\ ^). 
 Adultery (oUj), sodomy (U J), disobedience to parents (^.IJU\ s3^), 
 
 c 
 
 sorcery (y^^), false accusation of adultery («-»Jui), fleeing on the day of 
 battle (<-Ai.^!\ f»»> J^J^^)f usury (ii^\ J^^ ). As regards the capital sins, 
 enumerated after the two first ones, the degree of their grievousness 
 depends on the circumstances under which they are committed and the 
 consequences which result from the same. 
 
 To the class of the greater sins, belongs also the sin of intentionally 
 deceiving the Prophet by lies (^»*U &Jic v»'J^^^^). ^ Muslim, though 
 he commits small and great sins, unless be become an idolater Cci)-^*/*), 
 or declares lawful what God has forbidden, can never remain in hell-fire 
 for ever. (jU3\ ^ jI^^ iJ i>Uc ji^SS ^J£. Jowh. 166, 167, 186.) 
 
 I Some give the following list of great sins: infidelity (JLSs), perse, 
 verance in committing little sins (yUJ\ Jlc j^^iJ^), despairing of God's 
 mercy (&iJ^ i,4£^j ^^ ^y^^), considering oneself safe from the wrath of 
 God, false witness (^^y\ 60^4.), falsely charging a Muslim with 
 adultery (^jkSJ^), swearing a false oath (^^^ikJ^ ^v*^^), sorcery (^^^•), 
 drinking wine (S^-*^^ v»/**), appropriation of the property of orphans, 
 usury (\i^\ J-^^)> adultery (\i\), unnatural crime, sodomy (U J), theft 
 (diJL), murder ((j.v A-M J-=^), fleeing in battle before the face of an infidel 
 eneiny (*_is.y\ j«^ J^j^^)} disobedience to parents (^^aJ^^^ (i^)- 
 
 Every sin which has not the abovementioned characteristics belongs to 
 the class of little sins. Small sins may become great sins by being re- 
 peatedly committed with intention or persevered in, or when commit- 
 ted by a learned man, who thereby misleads those who take him as a 
 guide on the right way. 6j.\ju»yi . l^jLc^^^l^li s^**fhM f^^^ cs^ 6^-^*^\) 
 ( JjwJ \xi£. dJ\ Ok*J\ &r> x>* s-sj JkJ^ If a man commits small sins repeat- 
 edly but without intention, they do not become great sins. Small sins 
 are forgiven if great sins are avoided ( JL^a3\ (-.jUx^^Vj). 
 
 Forgiveness of sin (*--^>jJ^ Jtt - **«.^^) consists either in God's par- 
 doning it and not punishing man for it («i> Sj«^^^\ ftjst^^\yiji\"jj or in 
 concealing it from the eyes of angels, or in wiping it out from the book of 
 
REPENTANCE. 109 
 
 It is the duty of the Muslim to show repentance^ 
 (LjS « i_j1jLc - L'jLo) for sins at once (^^11 ^Iz - W)' 
 immediately after the sin has been committed, for delay 
 constitutes in itself a sin. The degree of the guilt of 
 such delay, however, depends on the length of the time 
 which elapses before repentance. 
 
 account. According to a Tradition small sins are also atoned for by 
 Wadu, the legal ablution before prayer. (v>yjJ^ (j^ ^fc^j ^^^)- 
 The orthodox belief is that the prophets do not commit sin, and arc 
 / sinless (|»*.a«<«), but this dogma contradicts various statements of the 
 Qur*4n and of Muhammad as recorded in the Traditions (Suras xxvi. 82 ; 
 xl. 57 ; xlvii. 21 ; xlviii. 2.) 
 
 (Jowh. 187 ; Maw. 189 ; Ghazili iv. 3 et seqq.) 
 
 Repentance is enjoined in the Qur'dn ** Those who, after they have 
 done a base deed or committed a wrong against their own selves, remember 
 God and implore forgiveness of their sins—and who will forgive sin but 
 God only ? — and persevere not in what they have willingly done amiss. 
 As for them! Pardon from their Lord shall be their reward," (Sura iii. 
 129) See also Suras iv. 21 ; ii. 155 ; iv. 22 ; v. 43 ; ix. 113 ; xxv. 70 ; Ixvi. 8). 
 Muhammad said : " The greater wailing of the inhabitants of hell-fire 
 comes from those who have delayed repentance.*' 
 
 True repentance comprises the following : 
 
 (1) Forsaking sin (s^Jj\ ^ ^^^^). 
 
 (2) Sorrow for having committed sin against God. 
 
 (8) Firm purpose never to return to sin. 
 
 (4) Making amends or obtaining forgiveness, if the sin has been com- 
 mitted against man whom he has injured thereby. 
 
 Another condition of true repentance is that it should take place before 
 the pangs of death come on (S;i;A3^ J-i i}.iJ\ j.Jl.c). At this time repent- 
 ance is considered of no avail. Some, however, hold that repentance is 
 
110 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 accepted (Jowh, 187 ; Ghaz41i iv. 34) from a Muslim even at this time ; 
 but uot from an infidel. 
 
 When a man, after having repented, returns to sin, this does not 
 invalidate his former repentance and its beneficial effects ; the sins of 
 which he has repented are not placed to his account, but remain blotted 
 out (s-ob:J\ &iyl ^^ \AXi\ S). The Mu'tazila hold that, in this case, his 
 former sins are again placed to his account (Jowh. 188). 
 
 As regards the certainty of God's accepting repentance (dJ»;J^ J^) 
 the learned doctors are not quite agreed. The Imdm Abii Hasanu'l- 
 Ash'ari and those of his School believe that there can be no doubt with 
 regard to God's accepting repentance, and that this is according to unde- 
 niable proof from the Qur'an : Sura xlii. 24 : * It is He who accepts repent- 
 ance from his servants.' See also Suras ix. 105 ; vii. 152. The Imdmu'-l- 
 Haramain is of opinion that the acceptance of repentance with God is not 
 a matter of absolute certainty, but rests on probability, which amounts 
 almost to certainty. (^\ ^ ^._^y» &jl=J ^ J^Joj Ut J^aJ d>yJ\ ^^\) 
 r As regards the repentance of the infidel, all are agreed that it is 
 accepted according to the verse : " Say to the infidels, if they cease from 
 their unbelief the sins they have formerly committed will be forgiven 
 j^them." (Sura viii. 39.) 
 
 There is some difference of opinion with regard to the infidel's embrac- 
 ing Islam, as to whether this act may be considered as equivalent to 
 repentance for his former infidelity, or whether, besides the embracing of 
 IsUm, it is his duty to repent of his former infidelity. 
 
 Some consider that the embracing of Islam is equivalent to his repent- 
 ance of his former infidelity, while others are of opinion that, besides 
 this embracing of IsUm, he must repent of his former infidelity. 
 
 Whoso commits a capital sin and dies unrepentant, God will deal with 
 him according to His will (<!bj ^\ J^y* ; C:^*^'^ diU ^ ^^p-^)- ^^ ^^ 
 sees fit He will pardon him, for He can forgive all sins, except poly- 
 theism. The Mdturfdiyya hold that, if God does not punish all Muslims 
 who have committed capital sins, He must, at least, punish some of 
 them, because He has threatened to punish them, and he cannot contra- 
 dict Himself. The Ash'ariyya, however, believe that, if He chooses. He 
 need not carry His threats into execution (Jowh. 180-181). 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 THE IMAMATE. 
 
 The Imamate* (L\^\ - hl^\) is the general leader- 
 ship in religious and worldly affairs over the Muslim 
 nation (bJjJl^ ^^'^];ye\ ^i i<U L*\>j i[Jw<^1), or, as others 
 
 define it, the succession of the Prophet for the purpose of 
 upholding Isldra, and the interests of the Muslim nation. 
 
 k* 
 
 » Imim comes from ^\ to proceed, have precedence, to lead. Khalifa 
 from ^A)n «- to succeed, to become a substitute. 
 
 It is the duty of the Muslim nation to appoint a duly qualified 
 Im&m to be the vice-regent of the Prophet and leader of the nation, 
 when no person has been specially appointed to take this office, either by 
 divine conunand or by order of the Prophet, or when the late Khali f has 
 not himself designated the individual who is to succeed him in the 
 Imimate. 
 
 The author of the Sharhu'l Maw4qif says: "The ImAmato is valid 
 when resting (1) on a command of the Prophet, or (2) on a command of 
 the preceding ImAm, or (8) on the appointment of those who have the 
 right to elect the ImAm " ^U5^ ^^ ^ ^iy-^^^ i^ u*^^ A^US\ sa-s-JiJ) 
 
 Adam and David are mentioned in the Qur'An (Siiras ii. 29; xxxviii. 
 25), as having been appointed vice-regents of God on earth. Muhammad 
 died without having appointed his successor. The people chose Abii Bakr, 
 who appointed 'Umar to be his successor in the Khalifate. 
 
112 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The Imam must, according to the opinion of the 
 Ash'ariyya (orthodox) school, possess the following quali- 
 fications (^^*i) '• (1) Islam, (2) be of full age and of sound 
 mind, (3) freedom, (4) not impious, (5) just, (6) be of the 
 tribe of the Quraish.* 
 
 In proof of the necessity of appointing an Imam it is mentioned that 
 the Imdmate was established after the death of Muhammad by general 
 consent on the election of Ab6 Bakr. In his first sermon, after the death 
 of the Prophet, Abu Bakr said : " Muhammad certainly is dead, and it is 
 necessary for this religion that some one should be appointed for its 
 protection." And all the Muslims agreed with this saying Vx*,^/* ^\) 
 
 (<liJy J^ J^^^ ^•^W* - ^ f*^ e)"*^ i:yi'^^ ^^ *^^^ »^Ujui. The 
 
 appointment of an Imdm is said to be necessary both in time of peace and 
 in time of war and rebellion. This is the opinion of the Sunnis and 
 most of the Mu'tazila, while others pretend that it is only necessary in 
 times of rebellion and of internecine wars. Others, again are of opinion 
 that he is only to be appointed in times of peace, while others again deny 
 the necessity of the appointment of an Im&m at all. (For further details 
 see Mawiqif 603 ; Jowh. 191 ; Ibn Khaldun i. 159 et seqq.) 
 
 The appointment of the Imam is, according to the orthodox opinion, 
 dictated by the Law (^y^^i f»Ui5\ s-^ '^f^) O^ ' ^**^ s-^^^ f»U^\ s— «>). 
 The Mu'tazila and the Zaidiyya consider it merely expedient, in accord- 
 ance with the dictates of reason ; while the Ism^'fliyj^a and the Im&miyya 
 say that it belongs to God only to appoint an Imdm and the Khaw&rij are 
 of opinion that there is no necessity for the appointment of an Imam at 
 all. (Jowh. 191-192 ; Mawiqif 603). 
 
 1 j»^^\ L.w6., A non-Muslim cannot care for the true interests of IsUm. 
 He must be of full age ( Ja*^^ t)^^ ^^)» ^^^ children or insane persons 
 are not able to manage their own affairs, much less those of Isldm. He 
 must be a free man (in]&J\ ^*»)> ^°^ ^ slave ((3-^5;) whose mind is 
 taken up with the concerns of his master and who enjoys not sufficient 
 
 respect. He must not be impious (,j ii\ j»ac I=>v&), for no one would 
 
 have sufficient confidence in him. He must be just, (JJk«J^ ^j**)? ^^ ^^^^ 
 outwardly. He must be a Quraish (L-i^yf (^)^=>i (^\), for Muhammad is 
 reported to have said : " The Imams must be from the Quraish." The 
 ShCahs pretend that, being a Quraish, he ought to be of the family 
 of the Hashimites also. (C.».^lfe ^j.*^; ^^), 
 
THE IMAm. 113 
 
 The author of the Sharhu'l-Maw&qif, says that with regard to the first 
 five qualifications, thej' are by common consent necessary qualifications 
 but, as regards the sixth qualification, i.e., his being a Quraish, there 
 are different opinions, the Khaw&rij and the Mu'tazila being of opinion 
 that it is not a qualification required of necessity, the Prophet having 
 said : •• Obey the Im&m, even if he be an Abyssinian slave." He explains, 
 however, that the Prophet in giving such advice could not have meant 
 the Khallf ; but he must have referred to an Am(r (^cA), or Commander 
 appointed by, and under the order of the Khalif, for such an explanation, 
 he says, is required in order to reconcile the two contradictory sayings of 
 the Prophet. 
 
 According to some authorities the Im&m, in addition to the qualifica- 
 tions just enumerated, must possess the following also : 
 
 (t) He must be a man of learning in the roots and branches of the 
 science of religion (^jji^\) J^*^^ «j* Ao ;t»*) ».«•» in theology and juris- 
 prudence. 
 
 (2) He must understand the art of war, leading an army, concluding 
 peace, etc. (^^\ U..^ Js»y:^\ s-t??/ ^ ^^; ^j^\ ;*»xt, S^Uj^ J\j^6) 
 
 (3) He must be courageous (^l^). 
 
 But as these three qualifications are rarely found united in the same 
 individual, it is said that they cannot be required as necessary qualifica- 
 tions of the Imim, and the majority, therefore, agree that the six qualifi- 
 cations (p. 112) suffice to make a man eligible for the Im&mate. (Mawdqif 
 G05.) 
 
 These qualifications the ImAm must possess at the time of his election 
 and appointment (jVe;a.}J\ aJW ^\ u\x^'i\ ^^Ui\ lyjJ^\ fiJufc). Should 
 he afterwards become defective concerning them, or should he have 
 assumed the office by force, when once appointed, he is to be considered 
 the rightful Im&m and obeyed in whatever he commands or forbids, even 
 though he should be unfit and unworthy. 
 
 The belief in the necessity of the appointment of an Imim is not an 
 article of faith, so that he who does not accept it is not to bo consi- 
 dered an infidel (^J^Ji\ JLc^y ^ jJLx«2 ii^j ^j^ Jowh. 190 et seqq). 
 With the orthodox school it belongs to the secondary doctrines (^«»i), 
 while with the Shf'ahs it is an article of faith and of the first importance 
 (jJUuJ\^ *>Ul|jJ^ JyJ\ ^^ Mawiqif 600). 
 
 It ia the duty of every Muslim to obey the Im&m inwardly and out- 
 wardly (ULl, ^ <yfca \i\^^\ ^,j^ Jb j»U:J\ IcMo s-V), so long as his 
 commands and prohibitions are in harmony with the doctrines of Islim. 
 Should he give orders contrary to the same, i.e., positively wrong (#»W), 
 or objectionable (4^^,^u#), he is not to be obeyed. When he commands 
 15 
 
114 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The first four Khalifs* Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman and 
 *Ali are called by the Sunnis the * rightly directed 
 Khalifs' (^;>j.*i,Ulp'.al.:^!l), and are considered to have pos- 
 sessed the perfect Khalifate (^Ul£n!l J^5L^I),in distinction 
 from their successors who are not considered as such. 
 
 The Imamate is one of the four points on which many 
 and angry controversies have arisen among Muslims, 
 and which have given rise to the formation of a number 
 of sects, the chief of which are the Khawarij and the 
 Sh{'ah«. 
 
 what is allowable («.lL#V if his orders are such as tend to promote the 
 interests of the Muslim nation, they are to be obeyed ; if not, there is no 
 obligation on the ^luslim to obey them. 
 
 If he should command a thing which implies infidelity, Muslims are to 
 give up their allegiance to him ; if possible, publicly, if not then, at least, 
 secretly. This is the only reason for which the allegiance may be given 
 up, or for which he may be deposed. 
 
 Even if he should lose the qualification of justice ("AJ^JkiiJU and become 
 an impious, unjust or cruel tyrant, this would not be a sufficient reason 
 for his deposition (aJ^jjJ^ <_io^ J>;^ (^\ J^ S) ; some, however, allow it 
 under these circumstances (Jowh. 192.) 
 
 1 The first rightful Im^m after Muhammad was Abii Bakr. The 
 ShCahs, on the contrary, regard 'Ali as the first or rightful Imdm, and 
 are of opinion that he, and not Abu Bakr, ought to have been appointed 
 the first Khalif. According to their traditions Muhammad had distinctly 
 nominated 'Ali as his successor. (For details on the subject see Mawdqif 
 606-616). Muhammad is also reported to have said: ''The Khalifate 
 after me will last for thirty years, then it will become a kingdom " 
 (Mawaqif 613-614. U^^ C^xU ^ lu. ^yi\j ^J^ Aii\^\) 
 
 2 ^j^ pi. ^j\^. The first of this sect were the twelve thousand 
 •men who revolted from 'Ali, after they had fought under him at the 
 battle of Siffin, taking offence at his submitting the decision of his right 
 to the Khalifate, which Mu'dwiya disputed with him, to arbitration , though 
 
THE KHAWARIJ AND THE ShI'AH. 115 
 
 If several Imams have been chosen and appointed in 
 the same country, the one who has been first appointed 
 is to be considered the rightful Imam, and the others are 
 to be opposed, and, if they refuse to abdicate, they are to 
 be considered rebels (ii'jul] ^) and ought to be fought 
 again&t, till they be overcome. 
 
 they had first obliged him to do it. They blamed 'AH for referring a matter 
 concerning the religion of God to the judgment of man. They held the 
 opinion that a man may be made Khalif, though he was not of the tribe 
 of the Quraibh, nor even a free man, provided he possessed the other 
 necessary qualities . . . that there was no absolute necessity for any 
 Imimate in the world. They charged 'AH with sin, and went so far as 
 to declare him guilty of infidelity and to curse him. They also reject 
 'Uthm&n. 
 
 A»eA3^, followers, companions, from ^U, to follow, to accompany. 
 They, in opposition to the Khawirij, maintain that 'AH was the first 
 legitimate Imim, and that he ought to have been appointed as the first 
 successor of the Prophet, and not Abu Bakr. They therefore reject Abu 
 Dakr, *Umar and 'Uthmin as usurpers, and say that the Imdmatc belongs 
 of right to 'AH and his descendants. They arc also of opinion that the 
 office of Imim is a fundamental affair of religion and one of the foundations 
 of faith, and docs not depend on the will of the vulgar. Though widely 
 differing among themselves on certain points connected with the subject, 
 they all agree on the following : (1) the necessity of appointing an Im^m, 
 of his being specially designated and appointed by the proper authority 
 (^i3A-<'"Mt ^^^e,}ju]\ s-^M-O ; (^) ^b<^t the Im^m is, as a matter of necessity, 
 exempt from committing great as well as small sins L^^\ l^^^cc *^yt*) 
 ( JUu)\. JW:=xl^ ^ \tyt,^ ; (3) that every one ought publicly to declare whom 
 he adheres to and from whom he separates himself, by word, deed or en- 
 gagement, except in time of great fear. Many of the Shi'ahs carried their 
 veneration for 'AH and his descendants so far that they transgressed all 
 bounds of reason and decency, though some of them were less extravagant 
 than others. The branch of the 'Gh4Ha' (a^JV^, extravagant, fanatic) 
 raised their Im&ms (descendants of 'AH) above the degrees of created beings 
 and attributed to them divine properties. Some atlirmcd that 'AH was 
 not dead, but would return again in the clouds and fill the earth with 
 justice. They held the doctrine of metempsychosis, and what they call 
 
 the immanency, the indwelling of God in man ( J*W^) ('i>t'c Ibn 
 
 Khalduu i. 15U f! ; Sharastaui ii. 132. Sale 125.) 
 
116 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Should it be difficult to decide who was first appointed, 
 they are all to be deposed and a new choice is to take 
 place. Should the country, however, be so extensive that 
 it would be impossible for one man to direct the affairs 
 of the property of the Muslims, it will be a question for 
 the consideration of learned men (^^J^fi^^^) to decide 
 whether another Imdm may be appointed or not. The 
 sect of the Jarudiyya, in opposition to the Sunni doc- 
 trine, believe that there may exist several rightful Imams 
 even in a small country, and that every descendant of 
 Fatima, if he draws the sword with the intention of call- 
 ing people to embrace Islam, and is learned and courage- 
 ous, is an Imam and may be appointed as such, and is to 
 be obeyed. 
 
 The Muslim nation, as they have the right to elect and 
 appoint an Imam, so they have the right to depose him 
 for any cause justifying their doing so. Such a cause 
 would be, if he commits acts which tend to bring ruin on 
 the Muslim nation or endanger the religion of Islam. If 
 such a deposition should become the cause of internal 
 war and rebellion, the smaller evil (war, rebellion) will 
 have to be borne with submission. 
 
CHAPTEB IV. 
 FIQH. 
 
 Fiqh (<U3) includes religious, ceremonial, civil and 
 moral laws and regulations. It properly means know- 
 ledge, science in general, but has been adopted as the 
 technical term to designate the science of the Law of 
 Islam. The preceding chapters of this book deal only 
 with the theoretical part (dogmatics), this one treats 
 of the practical part. Fiqh is also called the c^.ill Jlc 
 or knowledge of the branches, as distinguished from 
 ^}yci\ J^ or knowledge of the roots.* The dogmas, arti- 
 cles of faith, are considered the roots, and the laws 
 and regulations concerning worship, religious practice, 
 civil transactions and jurisprudence are considered the 
 branches springing out of and derived from the roots. 
 The regulations, ordinances and decisions are (-'<^ — '^^) 
 derived from the Qur'an, the Sunna, the IjmA* and Qias. 
 
 These then are the sources from which Fiqh is derived. 
 It is, however, necessary that the Muslim should rightly 
 understand and interpret the same, and certain principles 
 
 > (Ajlts-*^^ \^^\ ^^ s — ^-^=>^\ A^ykJ^ AiryLl\ j»V;=uwS^ ^\yfc aM\) 
 Somo say that a man is a &^, a Lawyer, a Jurist, when he knows the 
 laws and regulations, together with the proofs in support of the same 
 from the Qur'4n, Sunna, Ijm4* and QI4s ; the majority, however, agree 
 that a man may be considered a Faqih, if he knows the laws and regula- 
 tions and without being able to produce the proofs in support of the same ; 
 that he need not even know them all. Some take a higher view of the 
 Faqih and say that, if ho combines good works with the knowledge of 
 the Law, ho deserves to be called a Faqih. 
 (^\) fM\ e«» e^^ ***J^ I^" *khidin i. 28. GhazAli i. 21). 
 
118 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 and rules have, therefore, been laid down according to 
 which the Qur'an and the Hadith must be interpreted. 
 It must also be known how the Ijma* and the Qias are to 
 be understood, and how questions are to be decided and 
 deductions to be made by means of the same. To deal 
 with these questions is the object of the jciia!] jl^V' 
 
 From early times great diJfferences existed on a variety 
 of questions connected with Fiqh and everyone adopted 
 the opinion which recommended itself to his own mind. 
 This state of things continued for some time until the 
 differences greatly increased. When the systems of the 
 four great Imams became generally adopted, their deci- 
 sions were received on all controverted questions, and all 
 other opinions of minor authority rejected. The students 
 then began to examine and compare the decisions of the 
 four Imams and to discuss the relative value of the same, 
 
 1 The early Muslims, says Ibii Khaldiin, were not in want of this 
 branch of religious science, as their exact knowledge of the Arabic langu- 
 age enabled them to find out the various meanings conveyed by the text 
 not did they require the study of the Isnad, or the chain of narrators of 
 a Tradition, for they personally knew and conversed with the men who 
 first reported the Traditions. When the first generation of Muslims had 
 disappeared, the necessity made itself felt of acquiring by artificial means 
 and special exertion the knowledge which their predecessors had natur- 
 ally possessed. A code of rules and principles was therefore laid down. 
 
 (See Faith cf Isldm pp. 23-30). 
 
 The Imam Shafl'i was the first who composed a work on this subject, 
 by dictating to his disciples his famous treatise on ♦' what is commanded 
 by the Law, and what is forbidden, on abrogation and the manner of ana- 
 logical deduction." After his time jurists of the Hanafi School and the 
 men of scholastic theology wrote many treatises on the subject and con- 
 siderably developed the new branch of theological science. The best works 
 written by earlier divines on the subject are the (j<Ji>j> of the Imamu'l 
 Haramain, the ^JiliS by Ghazali, the J^^;*^^^ s->lx^ by Fakhru'd-din 
 and the ^l^j^iJ^ s-*^-^ ^Y Saifu'd-dinu'l Amadi and the ^^^j^^ ^^ 
 of Ibnu's-Sabki with a commentary by Bannani. . 
 
VARIOUS KINDS OP DUTIES. 119 
 
 each endeavouring to defend the opinion of the Imam 
 whose system he followed, and thus sprang up a special 
 branch of learning called cL^UiL^l ^Lc. 
 
 Among the best works on this subject may be men- 
 tioned the jo^'^l c-?'jL£= of Ghazdli. The science of 
 disputing on these controverted points, called Jj^l Ur, 
 
 dialectics, lays down the laws and rules to be observed in 
 carrying on controversy with an opponent, whether to 
 refute the opinion of the opponent or to defend one's own. 
 
 (0»j^ ^ For details see Ibn Khaldiin i. 278-381*. 
 
 t It may be useful, at this stage, to explain the meaning of several tech- 
 nical terms which are of frequent occurrence. 
 
 ^ji (from jbji^ to order, to command, to make incumbent) designates 
 a duty absolutely obligatory, according to a command of the Qur'&n or 
 the Hadith. 
 
 i^s^ jbj^ is ^^ absolute duty incumbent on every individual believer, 
 male or female, free or slave, such as prayer, fasting, etc. 
 
 &>U^ jbji is a duty which is not incumbent on every Muslim, but 
 which, if fulfilled by some members of the community, (some say one 
 in eight or ten suffices) is considered to be as good, as if the whole com- 
 munity had fulfilled it. Such duties are the attending a funeral, visiting 
 the sick, accepting an invitation to dinner. 
 
 v,.*^^^, a duty obligatory on the Muslim, but not in the same degree 
 as ^^ 
 
 Ii«,, a duty in so far as it was practised by the Prophet. It is laud- 
 able to imitate his example. 
 
 <i,..^7...^ a praiseworthy act. It is desirable to conform to this. 
 
 ^\^, allowed, licit, desirable, but it is a duty which may be omitted 
 without fear of committing a sin. 
 
 J^, a thing lawful, licit, honestly acquired. 
 
 j»^^, something unlawful, illicit, forbidden, dishonestly acquired. 
 
 «.^^i^, a thing not exactly forbidden, but disliked ; it is to be avoided. 
 
120 THE RELIGION OF ISLAm. 
 
 The subjects treated of in the Science of Fiqh are, ac- 
 cording to Ibn 'Abidin (i. 58) : 
 
 (1) The t:L.*]jUj:, or laws concerning worship, reh'gi- 
 f^ious duties, rites and ceremonies. 
 
 (2) The cuLcUaj, or law^s concerning dealings between 
 man and man. 
 
 (3) The d^'j^jii, or laws concerning the punishments 
 to be inflicted on transgressors of the law. 
 
 The duties to be treated of under ci;bUr are : 
 
 (1) Prayer, (xl*^) including purification, ablutions 
 
 (2) Alms, tithes, poor-rates, (s'^j)- 
 (8) Fasting, (^f^y 
 
 (4) Pilgrimage, (^). 
 
 (5) To these some add Holy War, (i^l^s^). 
 
 The first fundamental point of religious practice, as re- 
 quired by the Qur'an, is prayer. In order to be able pro- 
 perly and acceptably to perform his prayers, the Muslim 
 must first purify himself, i.e., he must be clean from 
 
 s.>.ju^, a duty recommended, 
 jjt^'*, a duty prohibited, forbidden. 
 
 (^■^ good and lawful duty, performed by the responsible Muslim, 
 comprising what is obligatory, and laudable. 
 
 ^*J»j is something bad, hideous, forbidden. 
 
 The learned Bair&ni says that (^J and «--^a.\. are synonymous 
 
 (*-»»>^^), and also s^^x;^^ s-s^j; ^, ^")^> ^•'^' Some like Abii Hanifa 
 
 differ from him, but Bairdni says they are differences in words only, 
 (i. 50 et seqq.) 
 
PUBIFICATION. 121 
 
 from all material and all legal or ceremonial impurities, so 
 that he may present his prayers whilst he is in a state of 
 purity (ij.l^ Jx) Before treating of prayer, we must treat 
 of purification, as the preliminary preparation for the 
 same. 
 
 Purification.*— The purity required of the Muslim, 
 as a necessary preparation for prayer is, according to 
 the Qur'an and Traditions, the purity from outward, 
 material, as well as from legal, ceremonial uncleanness. 
 
 (C-^j tljj^ ^J£ s^l^yi - j^li j^l ^^ 5^1) 
 Before we proceed to describe the various kinds of 
 purification, ablutions, and washings and the manner of 
 performing the same, it will be necessary to show what, 
 according to Muslim law, is considered unclean and pol- 
 luting, and what, therefore, are the things from which 
 a Muslim must cleanse and purify himself in order to 
 
 I The Qnr'dn gives the following general precepts on this duty : " ye 
 believers ; when you rise up to prayer, wash your faces, and your hands 
 as far as the elbows and wipe your heads and your feet to the ankles, and 
 
 if you are polluted (C^) then purify yourselves " (S6ra v. 8-9). See 
 also Sdras iv. 46 ; ix. 109 ; Ivi. 78. '• Ho sent you down water from heaven 
 that he might thereby cleanse you and cause the pollution of Satan to 
 pass from you." (S&ra viii. 11.) 
 
 Muhammad used to say : ** Purification, that is, ablution, washing, 
 bathing is the key of prayer" (^^\ SU\ C^^=*^) - "Religion is built on 
 
 cleanliness" (iiUfcJ\ JLc ^JkJ^ ^yi) and "Purity is one-half of faith" 
 (yUj!>^ «JUJ 5jl«U^). Ibn ♦Abidin says ; <' The state of impurity prevents 
 prayer, puts a lock to the door of prayer ; purification is the key which 
 removes the lock." 
 
 Qhazili quotes the following sayings of the Prophet on the necessity 
 of purification: "God accepts no prayer without previous ablution" 
 
 •♦ He who performs the Wudu (u^) in the proper manner will be 
 
 cleansed of his sins." — " He who performs the ablution when he is already 
 clean (^ ^U) God will account it for ten good actions." (Bukhdri i. 
 
 34-51 ; kashf i. 42.98). 
 16 
 
122 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 be clean, or in a state of purity ( .alls . 'iX^\s ^Xs-)* There 
 
 are three kinds^ of things which defile a Muslim, and 
 from which it is consequently his duty to purify himself : 
 
 (1) Filth, ordure (c^jki-) (2) Legal, ceremonial impurity 
 
 (i±js^) (3) Superfluities of the body (cjJl-fli). 
 
 The only means by which impurities can be removed 
 is water.' 
 
 1 «^Ii., dross, excrement, ordure, filth ; sijl^, impurities contracted 
 by voiding of ordure ; «i>iLsi superfluities such as long nails, hair, etc. 
 Impurities are also divided into (1) real, material, substantial impurities 
 (dlfi^jSaw LJi^V which may be either greater (dkU/# i^^Us*) or smaller 
 
 ^ • C J 
 
 (&i6^^ 1-V^). (2) legal, ceremonial impurity (<v^.»f7)r. iuUs*), which may 
 consist in a greater (jt^\ y±><i^) or smaller defilement. (Ghaz&li i. 83). 
 Substantial, material impurities ((^Lc\ J^v*^^) ^^Y ^^ either inani- 
 mate things («y\jL*->), or animals («yU\^-j_e^), or parts of animals 
 
 Inanimate things are all clean and do not defile, except wine (♦■♦^) and 
 all intoxicating drinks. Animals are all clean, except the dog and pig 
 (j>y^) . When dead, however, all animals are unclean, except man, fish, 
 locusts, worms in apples, insects like the fly and the beetle. Of parts of 
 animals, some are clean, some unclean. ... Of some of the defiling sub- 
 stances, a small quantity does not defile, e.g., a small quantity of dirt of 
 the street, a little blood caused by lice or fleas. (For more details see 
 Ghaz41i i. 83.) 
 
 8 There are various and conflicting opinions on the subject of the 
 cleanness or uncleanness of water, and the most minute, difficult and 
 puzzling distinctions are made by the learned doctors of the four Ortho- 
 dox Schools on the most important subject of finding out whether a 
 certain kind of water is clean or unclean. On the whole, however, the 
 rule generally accepted is that water, the taste, colour or smell of which 
 has not been changed, is to be considered as clean. Muhammad said : 
 
 «*&S^ \j^\ h^^\ &AS^^ U S\ ^ LIas;i>S fj^ bU3^^". Ghazdli (i. 83) 
 
 deplores the importance attached to this subject and the scruples and 
 doubts it causes to many pious Muslims, and mentions that, at the time 
 
PURIFICATION. 123 
 
 The purification from any legal, or ceremonial impurity 
 (olj^^U'^) is made, according to circumstances, in 
 one or more of the following ways^ : 
 
 (1) Abstersion, called Istinja (^'^.Juu*l). 
 
 of the Prophet to the end of the period of the Companions, no such im* 
 portance was attached to the subject. Indeed, 'Umar once performed his 
 ablutions from water in the jar of a Christian woman. Muhammad said : 
 " When water amounts to two large jars (Aii), it does not admit im- 
 purity " (Kashf i. 44-50 ; Ghazili i. 83-84.) 
 
 In order to remove substantial impurities (dJUS^ A,jV^), it is notsufti- 
 cient to pour water over them ; it is necessary to remove the unclean 
 substance itself by rubbing and scratching and wringing, till the smell, 
 taste and colour of the impure substance have been removed. 
 
 1 Before explaining the manner of performing the above operations, 
 Ghazili considers it necessary to mention a number of regulations to be 
 observed during natural evacuations (^[^l^\ dUS ^J\ ^ Ihyd i. 85.) 
 •' When the ^luslim goes to ease himself, he must remove to a distance 
 and, if possible, hide himself behind some object, so that he may not be 
 seen by men. He must not turn his face or his back to the sun, or the 
 moon or the Ka'ba, except he be within a building, nor use his right 
 hand for washing or removing impurities. On entering, he is to put 
 forward the left foot, on coming out the right. Certain prayers are 
 to bo said on entering: "I take my refuge to God from the devil" 
 
 (^\ ) ^ J^U ^yc s,-jfcJ\ ^^\ aU Jl*^^ t>^ aW^ ^yi^) on leaving : 
 
 (^yjiAj^ U Jlc f^^^\ yU.e— U^ «^<^^ v^M«4b)^ (j<*^\ ij^^\ 
 c 
 Istinji (V^>,?,.\), abstersion, (from l^ to escape), means to deliver 
 
 oneself from impurity, cr to clean oneself with pebbles and water 
 (J^^^ WrUJ\ ^;^eCj^ J^\ i^ trV ^y y^) *•«•» ^y wiping it off by means 
 
 of three, four or, if necessary, five pebbles taken with the left hand, 
 and then washing the parts of the body with water. When finished, 
 the following ejaculation is said : ^j^ji Jam, ^ jUjJ\ ^^ ^^^ ^ f^\ 
 .^J^\Ji\^J^ When Sura ix. 109 was revealed: ''Therein arc men who 
 aspire to purity for God loveth the purified?" the Prophet asked the 
 people of Kufa: "What is meant by this cleanliness (bj\^) for which 
 God praises you," to which they replied : '♦ We used (in our lustration) 
 
124 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 (2) Partial ablution, called Wudii (^^^^). 
 
 (3) Total ablution, immersion, bathing, called Ghusl 
 
 (Juli). 
 
 both water and stone " v»^o'^ ^ cI^sJls^^J^ 7^**^^ ; ^^^ (:>«? ^■♦-^ ^^-^ 
 ej^ ^^^\ ^ ^\ Jj£.o (Ghazdli i. 85. Ibn ' Abidin, i. 245-266). 
 
 Muhammad affirmed that Gabriel taught him how to perform the 
 Istinjd by performing it before him. (Kashf i. 54-55.) 
 
 Wudii, txyt^ from o\Sl to wash, perform ablutions, is a partial ablution, 
 the performance of which rests on the command of the Qur'dn : ♦ O ye 
 who believe ! when ye rise up to prayer wash your faces, and your hands 
 as far as the elbow, and wipe your heads, and your feet to the ankles.' 
 (Sura V. 8.) 
 
 Muhammad, before performing the Wudii, used to clean his teeth with 
 
 c 
 
 the miswdk (**J\^..w«), a kind of tooth brush made of fibrous wood, 
 
 about a span long and ordered his followers to do the same, for he said : 
 •'Your mouths are the paths of the Qur'dn, make them sweet-smelling 
 with the siw4k." The use of the siwdk is therefore considered a Sunna 
 
 duty (SjL^y#iL.). On using it, the believer must propose to himself 
 to cleanse his mouth for the reading of the Qur'dn and for mentioning 
 
 God's name in prayer. (p^\ ^ ^_s^^ ^^ T^"^ ) O^^^ ^^"^ &^^,j^ <^f^) 
 Muhammad used to say : "One prayer after the use of the siwdk is 
 more excellent than seventy-five without it." (For further details on the 
 importance and benefits derived from the use of the siwdk see (Ghazdli i. 
 86. Ibn 'Abidin i. 83-85). 
 
 After having done with the siwik, the believer makes the Wudii. He 
 sits down facing the Qibla and says : *'In the name of the Gracious, the 
 Merciful, I take my refuge unto Thee from the instigations of the devils. 
 I take my refuge unto Thee, Lord, lest they approach me " — 
 
 Then he washes his hands three times before dipping them into the 
 vessel used for his ablutions, saying : " God, I ask Thee for prosperity 
 and blessing, and flee to Thee from misfortune and ruin." 
 
 (l£si^\^ f,^^\ ^^ cd> jyi\ ^ ^^P^; (:^\ tsWU ^\) 
 
 Then he proposes in his mind the removal of all impurity and there. 
 by makes the performance of prayer legal for himself. 
 
PUBIFICATION. 125 
 
 (4) Ablution with fine sand, called Tayammum (^j.>y 
 
 (Skti\ ^V.,?.. ...^ ^ vijJk^\ ^j ^Jyii ^). In this state of inward proposal 
 and intention he must remain, till he comes to the washing of the face. 
 
 Then he rinses his mouth (^y^,»A»,?i») three times and gargles (j jQ) 
 saying : ** God, help me to read Thy Book and to multiply the mention 
 ofThyname" ( . cOJ ^^JJ^ ^r^ ) ^sXjU^ i^^ Jst ^\ j^\) 
 
 Then he takes a handful of water and snufis it up thrice into his 
 nostrils, saying, while doing so : "0 God, create in me the smell of Par- 
 adise, and be pleased with mo " ; then he blows out the water again 
 three times by compressing his nostrils with the thumbs and the fore- 
 fingers of the loft-hand, saying while he does so : '* I take refuge unto 
 Thee from the smell of hell-fire and from the evil of that abode." 
 
 He then throws the water into his face three times, from the top of the 
 forehead downward to the chin, and from one ear to the other, not forget, 
 ting to wash the roots of all hairy parts of the face and body and letting 
 the water flow from his beard, and combing it thrice with the fingers of 
 his right-hand, passing the fingers through the beardf rom the throat 
 
 upwards. The eye-holes also (^^^^J^^ ^^^^) must be carefully washed. 
 While performing these operations, he repeats, at every part which 
 he washes, the following petition : ** God, make white my face with 
 Thy light on the day when the faces of Thy saints become white (i.e., 
 pale from fright), and do not cause my face to become black, on the day 
 the faces of thy enemies become black." 
 
 (Ghazili i. 86. «df^jkc\ iy^,^ 3^^ 
 c 
 
 He next washes his hands and arms (d«Ai ^ ^J\ A^Jst) up to the elbows 
 
 three times, causing the water to run along his arm from the palm 
 of the hand to the elbow. Beginning with the right arm, he says : " 
 God, give me my book (of account) in my right-hand, and make a small 
 
 account with me" (f^,>-i iJL-*. vj**-^ ; e^-^nrf ^J^'^^ ^.J^^ j^^ • ) 0" 
 
 washing the left arm, he says •' O God I take my refuge unto Thee that 
 I may not have my book given into my left-hand, or behind my back." 
 
 (^j^ "b; i:^)^ J^*^ o»^^^ cr«^" c^ *^ -^^^ J^ i^^) ^^ 
 
 then washes his whole head, rubbing it all over with both hands from the 
 front to the back thrice (one rubbing backward and forward being counted 
 
126 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 When the Wadii has been properly performed, it is 
 valid for the five daily prayers, and need not be repeated ; 
 
 as one rubbing (Sjka.^^ i^s---) ; so doing he says : " God, cover me with 
 Thy mercy, and send down upon me Thy blessing and shade me with 
 the shade of Thy Throne on the day there is no shade but Thy shade." 
 *^-V J^ "^*^ v^^ ; *£^^i^^ C:>^ J* Jy^ ; c^b:^^ ^^jj^-^aii ^^) 
 (edit ^\ Jk ^ ft^ He then takes a fresh handful of water and washes 
 the outer, as well as the inner parts of his ears, by putting the tips of 
 his forefingers into his ears and twisting them round, passing his 
 thumbs at the same time the back of the ears from the bottom upwards. 
 While doing so he says : '* God, let me be of the number of those who 
 hear the words and follow the best of it. God, let mo hear the call of 
 Paradise with the righteous." J^\ Of^^ — i C:>^'^^ i:^* cT^^ f^^) 
 
 Then he takes fresh water and washes the neck with both hands, 
 making the ends of the fingers meet behind the neck. While so doing he 
 says : *' Deliver my neck from hell-fire. I take my refuge unto Thee from 
 
 , chains and bonds." (jL^J^j J-U\ ^^ c£X> jyi^ ^^UJ\^^ ^juij «di ^^) 
 Lastly, he washes his feet as high up as the middle between the feet and 
 the knees thrice. Beginning with the right foot he says : " God cause 
 my feet to stand firm on the straight path on the day when the feet slip 
 into hell-fire." QUJ^ ^ ^\M'i\ jy ^^^ f^,MX^\ l\y^\ Js^ ^^ ^ ^^\) 
 Then, washing the left foot he says : •' I take my refuge unto Thee, lest 
 my foot slip on the path on the day when the wicked slip into hell-fire." 
 (^\j1\ ^i ^^^{^\ f,\^Ji\ Jy ^^^ l\^\ Js. ^^ jy ^\ cdj S^\). He 
 must also be careful to pass the wet fingers of his lef-thand between the 
 toes, and the water must reach the middle between the foot and the knee 
 (i^^^W ^U\ J\) The Qur'an says : " ^^^,J[^^ ^\ " {Sura v. 8). 
 
 When all this is done, he lifts up his head towards heaven and says : 
 "I testify that there is no God but God and that there is no partner 
 to Him and that Muhammad is the servant and Messenger " — dJ^ }J ^^ J^^) 
 
 V»y^; ^^ vsJyWU— \ - ^_5-Ji» c:.wjt ^ f^ cJUfi - *J>i\ % i^\ ^ C£J Jl».«s> ; 
 
 ^^^fi\ i^ ^^s^i^'^ r«^^ • r*^y^ ^^y^^ ,^\ ciXiy Js^ ^^ ^ J;^^ - «^^ 
 
PUBIFICATICN. 127 
 
 unless it has been rendered invalid by the person's having 
 
 c* 
 
 contracted one of the lesser impurities^ (JLcl cl;J^), in 
 which case he has to repeat it. 
 
 The petitions to be repeated daring the abovementioned manipulations 
 are not obligatory (jbJ); but only laudable (»., .^?„„,^) and various other 
 petitions may be used instead. This mode of performing the Wud6 has 
 been given from GhazAli's Ihyi (i. 87). 
 
 1 The defilements which render Wudii invalid (yi^\ ^/Axj U), and 
 therefore require a new ablution before prayer can be performed are 
 (1). ordinary natural evacuations of the body, (2) extraordinary secretions, 
 (3) worms, gravel, stones, (4) blood, matter, coming in contact with parts 
 which must be washed in Wudu, (5) vomiting food, blood, bile, (G) insanity, 
 (7) drunkenness, (8) swoon or temporary absence of mind, (9) laughter at 
 the time of prayer, (10) voluptuous embraces, (11) sleep. (Ibn 'Abidfn 
 i. 98-104.) 
 
 Wudd is absolutely obligatory (j^ji) before performing prayer, canon- 
 ical as well as supererogatory (\^ ^ ^ji). ^^ is desirable, laudable 
 (•l^i^M, but not obligatory before touching the Qur'^n, or on performing 
 the procession round theKa'ba at the time of the pilgrimage («^^^) (Ibn 
 Abidln i. 66.) It is a laudable custom also (^) before going to sleep. 
 
 Ibn 'Abb^s said that the command (yt^\ ^/) ^^^ given at Mecca; 
 but the revelation concerning the same in the Qur'An was only given at 
 Madlna. As regards the blessings of the Wudu Muhammad said : '* When 
 
 the Muslim performs his ablutions all his sins will be forgiven 
 
 him.) (Kashf i. 60-64. As regards the necessity of performing the Wudi^, 
 
 he said : " God accepts no prayer without ablution." (aJJu J^ )J iB^ (^\) 
 ij*^ jt^) Ab6 Huraira mentioned to a man from Hadramant the neces- 
 sity of ablution after having defiled himself; (i^ja.^ whereupon the 
 Hadramanti enquired : •• What is <±>Aa.," to which Abii Huraira replied : 
 •' ^\y^)\ L«i." (Bukhdri i. 25). Intention must be combined with Wudu 
 (not as ^ji but as &x^). The Sunna of Wudu, i.e., things it is a duty to 
 observe in imitation of the custom of the Prophet, though they are not an 
 absolutely obligatory duty, are (1) the use of the siwdk (a)\*«.), (2) washing 
 of hands (^^JuJ^ J— *)» (^) "using of the mouth, snuffing up and blowing 
 out the water (jLu^\ _,^Uju«3\-jLiju-.5\), (4) disjoining the hair 
 
 of the beard and the fingers (^U^^^ lii^\ Jt^^), (^) t)he rubbing of the 
 
128 THE BELIGION OP ISLAM. 
 
 A greater defilement,^ ( r^^^ lUS^^) cannot be re- 
 moved by partial ablution (Wudu) but requires a total im- 
 mersion in water. This washing or bathing of the whole 
 
 body is called Ghusl (Juwi.). It is founded on the ex- 
 press injunction of the Qur'an : ' If you are polluted 
 
 (Li^), then purify yourselves (Sura v. 9). 
 
 The Muslim intending to perform the GhusP places 
 the vessel containing the water for his ablution on the 
 
 ears (^si\ j^), i^) *^6 pouring out of the water over all the parts of 
 the body (yi,^\ gL-*^), (7) the quantity of water to be used (oUJ\ j^JJU) 
 (8) the towel ( J)Ai^\) used for drying after the Wudu, (9) mention of 
 the name of God and supplication ( &j .».......7^^^ oVcjJ\), (10) consecutiveness 
 
 (SS\4^\), that is, observing the consecutive order in performing the 
 Wudii (Kashf i. 65-70). 
 
 A Muslim in the Mosque who fears that something renders his Wudii 
 invalid, is not to leave it in order to peform a new ablution, till he has 
 
 clear proof of it and that he has become »±>»x^/» or impure. Muhammad 
 said : « ^>j»x^ ^\ \S^ ^^-^ ^y^ e^^ ^ " (Kashf i. 71); he also said : 
 "BUy:> ^^sa^ ^Jka^\ ^^ i%^ iSl\ J-Jj iJ." 'Umar said : *' He who has touched 
 the cross of a Christian, let him perform the ablution " (Kashf i. 73-77). 
 
 Muhammad often merely touched his boots instead of washing his feet. 
 (^^^\ Ji^t ^^\ Kashf. i. 77 ; Bukhdri i. 33). It is admitted by the 
 Muslim doctors that Wudii was practiced by other people before Isl&m. 
 (Ibn Abidln i. 67, Sale 74-75.) 
 
 1 A Muslim man or woman is in a state of greater defilement t&^\j^ i.e., 
 greater defilement by (1) pollutio nocturna (^ibs^\ - ^^^\ t)f^) (2) coitus 
 (gU^s- ^^U^\ cU;:J^), (3) menses ((jil^\ - yi,j^iJ\), (4) puerpurium 
 (y.»\A;!\). On these occasions Ghusl is absolutely obligatory {^^), on 
 other occasions such as before Friday prayer, on the two great Festivals 
 on entering Mecca, after having washed the dead, after blood-letting', 
 Ghusl is only Sunna ((^yuw« J~«^), or a praiseworthy and meritorious act 
 (Ibn Abidin i. 124 ; Ghazdli i. 87-88). A woman is considered unclean 
 for the space of twenty-five to forty days after childbirth (^j-Ui) and 
 for three to ten days at the time of her menstruation. {See Sdra ii. 222). 
 
ABLUTIONS. 129 
 
 right hand, then mentions the name of God, then washes 
 his hands thrice,* then performs the Instinja, then re- 
 moves any impurity that may cleave to his body, then 
 performs the Wudii in the manner before described, ex- 
 cept that the washing of the feet is delayed. After this, 
 he pours out the water three times over his head, and on 
 the right and left side and then rubs the front and back 
 part of his body and combs the hair of his head and beard 
 with his fingers. A woman need not undo her hair, except 
 she fears the water may not penetrate sufficiently. 
 
 When the Muslim does not find water, or is prevented 
 by some weighty reason, as illness or extreme scarcity of 
 water, etc., from performing his ablutions with water, 
 he may perform the same with fine clean sand or earth 
 
 (joju* _ «— )li) This is called Tayammum^ (^^c^iiiiJl) 
 
 » The chief points ((^\^j\) to be observed in Ghual are (1) the pro- 
 posal, intention, (2) that the water should touch all parts of the body 
 ( J— aJVj (^'i^\ s^Ue^-^). Ibn 'Abidfn says that a person (male or female) 
 in a state of djLii^. may not enter or walk through a mosque, nor read or 
 even touch the Qur'in, nor read the Taurat or the Psalms or the Injil, 
 these also being the Word of God. " Christians are not allowed to touch 
 the Qur'&n but there is no harm in instructing them in the same in the 
 hope that they may be guided aright." (For further details on the subject 
 of Ghusl sec Ibn •Abidin i. 111-131). 
 
 Ibn 'Umar says : Prayers were at first fifty and Ghusl from janaba 
 (&}U^\ ^^ J— *J^) seven times and Ghusl from urine from the coat 
 (v>ytS^ ^^ J»J^ J—*) seven times ; the apostle of God did not, however, 
 cease to entreat his Lord, on the day of the heavenly journey (B\^««.ii\ aLJ), 
 till he reduced the daily prayers to five and the Ghusl from janaba to 
 one only. For a detailed account of the sexual intercourse which re- 
 quires Ghusl, and that which does not require it, and the manner in which 
 Muhammad used to perform the Ghusl see Ibn 'Abidin s. 1., Bukh&ri i. 
 40, 42; Kashf i. 79-83. Muhammad ordered those who wished to cm- 
 brace Isl&m to perform the Ghusl, to have their heads shaved and to be 
 circumcised (f^xioA ^ jk^>i\ jMJb, aJUxs Jp\). 
 
 * This practice rests on the command of the Qur'in : "If you are ill, or 
 on a journey, or any of you come from easing himself, or you have touched 
 
 17 
 
130 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Purification from superfluities is very necessary.* 
 
 women and do not find water, then wipe yourselves with clean sand, and 
 wipe with it your faces and your hands." (\'juit« \yJif3 Sura v. 9). In 
 order to perform the Tayammum, the Muslim places both his hands, the 
 fingers being joined together, on the ground covered with clean sand or 
 dust and then carefully wipes with it his face once, proposing to himself 
 the lawfulness of prayer after this kind of ablution ; then, if he has any 
 ring on his finger, he takes it off, places the palms of his hands on the 
 dust again, this time with his fingers spread out, and then rubs his arms 
 up to his elbows. The chief points of this operation (^LSsj^^ the Arkdn), 
 are ^^U>^\ and the v-^U^jX-.^ ; the conditions (1=.,^) are (1) £j^\ 
 
 (2) ^^--^M (3) /^^;^ e?U ^IS^, &i^ (4) XjitJ\ (5)!>v. x^\ ^^ 
 (6) sUJ^ J^. The Sunan are (1) a.I^ ^^U> ^^^\ (2) WW*^ 
 
 (3) \^j^S\ (4) Ue-iSi (5) &*>U joyb* (6) a1*--k (7) s-^y (8) »^; con- 
 secutiveness. Ibn 'Abidfn i. 168. Kashf i. 188-92). 
 
 1 The following impurities all of which come out of the body 
 (I^4.yu.J\ <^\\^^\^ c^.^^^) must all be removed : filth and lice gather- 
 c 
 
 ing on the hair ( J-«^^^ CD*^^)* ^^^^ cleaving to the ear, «.»ftL.U/« ^^ tr*f^) 
 (^iS\ mucous matter collecting in the nose, to be removed by snuffing 
 up and blowing out (^jLiju^^ - .Iajj^,^) ; impurities attaching to the teeth 
 
 9 8 
 
 and the tongue (>Ii) to be removed by the siwak and rinsing, or gargling ; 
 
 filth gathering in the beard, to be removed by washing and the use of the 
 
 c 
 comb; ^Li^ - ^^jju*), iron instrument used to scratch with ; dirt at the 
 
 fingers' joints (^^^\) and at the fingers' ends (*»_o-U^) and under the 
 nails ; impurities collecting on the body in consequence of perspiration to 
 be removed by the use of the bath (j«U<^^^. (For details as to the manner 
 of bathing and the proper behaviour in public baths see Ghazali i. 89). 
 
 There are also many impurities which form themselves on the body. 
 (eWS^ (^ (j-i^\ ^^ »^»Xas> U) These must be removed. They are the 
 hair of the head which must be occasionally shaved off; mustachios 
 (w>j^ plural s-»j^y») which must be clipped ; the hair under the arm- 
 pit (LjS^) at least every forty days ; the hair of the « regis pubis ' (AiGs) 
 
 a 
 
 which is to be removed at least every forty days by shaving or a depila- 
 tory (S J) ; the nails of the hands and feet which are to be trimmed 
 
ABLUTIONS. 131 
 
 Ghazali and some other doctors of Islam, of the more 
 spiritual-minded and idealizing sort, pretend that the puri- 
 fication here meant is not merely or chiefly outward puri- 
 fication by water and sand, but inward purification of 
 the heart and mind. Ghazali distinguishes four kinds or 
 
 (jUkJ^ ^ftjl») ; superfluity of tho navel (fjl}\ 6jUj) which is removed at 
 the birth of the child ; the foreskin («jlAA^\ aaL*) which is to be removed 
 by circumcision (^jjU^Vj ^,j^kJ\). The circiuncision should be delayed 
 until tho child has shed its tocth, when it is said to be less dangerous. 
 Muhammad said : *' Circumcision is Sunna for males, an honorable act for 
 females (dU^ L»j:^a>» y}Wfi Sj^ f^\ji^\) Ho said to Umm Atiyya who 
 used to circumcise females (tho act of circumcising a female is yAA^K) : 
 ••Do not exceed tho bounds in circumcision." Tho beard, if too long, 
 is to be cut off. The normal length of the beard is, however, a matter of 
 dispute. Ghaaili gives a detailed description of ten bad methods of deal- 
 ing with the same, among them the customs of dyeing or tearing out of 
 gray hair, which the Muslim ought to avoid. (GhazAli i. 90-92). 
 
 It is a remarkable fact that circumcision is neither commanded, nor 
 even once alluded to in thoQur'dn, though it is now considered incumbent 
 on every Muslim. There is also no authentic account of Muhammad's 
 having been circumcised. Some writers pretend that ho was born cir- 
 
 cumcised (^y:^^ ^£^ \);*'^*^ •^^), ^ut this is denied by the most eminent 
 scholars. 
 
 Those who deny that he was bom circumcised say that, even if this 
 were the case, it would not be a special privilege of the Prophet, as many 
 children are born with a kind of circumcision \S\ j«)UJ^ (j\ ^y s-»;«J^ (j^) 
 
 ( . (j»^*^^^ jt^ fcA'Jt l\ ^^ i>si^ cfa4 * ^\ ^ •^^ It is generally 
 
 admitted that circumcision is not a duty involving the degree of absolute 
 obligation ((j***) ; some are of opinion that it is of the degree called 
 v^^ U that is, a duty incumbent on the believer, though not absolutely 
 obligatory ; the majority are in favour of its being only Sunna (Ij^) that 
 is a degree lower than s-^^4. I^^ *fa® case of a convert to IsUm from some 
 other creed, to whom the operation may be an occasion of great suffering, 
 it can be dispensed with, although it is considered expedient and proper 
 for all new converts to be circumcised. (For details on the subject and 
 arguments in favour and against, see Mawihfb i. 149-156 ; see also Dic- 
 tionary of Islim, 57 ; Sale 76.) 
 
132 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 degrees of purifications which, he says, are implied in the 
 purification commanded in the Qur'an. 
 
 1. Cleansing the body from all pollution, filth and 
 superfluities (cL?il^ill^ cl;lj^^i^ C-?U^^1 ^£ ^ib'Jiil^j.^^). 
 
 2. Cleansing the members of the body from sins and 
 transgressions (^if^l^ r^J;^^' ^-^ ^j\^] jj^^y 
 
 3. Cleansing the heart from blameable inclinations and 
 odious vices (L:^j. Jl jJU^^I ^^ Lj^Jiiilly^S). 
 
 4. Cleansing the secret thoughts from everything ex- 
 cept God (dJJI ^^^ Lex JaJLj^). 
 
 Outward cleanliness, he says, is in comparison with in- 
 ward purity as the shell compared with the kernel 
 
 If, however, we carefully compare all the passages of the 
 Qur'an which speak of purification, and purity it becomes 
 evident to every unprejudiced reader that in none of them 
 is there any reference to inward, moral or spiritual purity 
 of the heart, but that what is required in them is the out- 
 ward, bodily cleansing by means of ablutions and wash- 
 ings. The celebrated collections of Traditions also, as 
 well as the standard works on Fiqh, contain pages and 
 pages of most minute and often obscene and disgusting 
 explanations on what constitutes impurity and defile- 
 ment, which cannot be given here. In practice they do 
 not allude to moral purity as a preparation for prayer. 
 We see also to this day the most pious Muslims far more 
 anxious concerning the outward and ceremonial than 
 about inward and moral purity. 
 
 Prayer^ (jil^) is the second of the five foundations or 
 pillars on which Islam is built up. This most important 
 
 I Muhammad used to call prayer " the pillar of Religion " and " the key 
 of Paradise"..,*' and that which caused man to be a true believer" and 
 
1>RAYER. 13^ 
 
 duty (^JcJ) of every Muslim is frequently enjoined in 
 the Qur'an : ** Glorify God when it is evening and morn-, 
 ing, and to him be praise in the heavens and the earth, 
 and at afternoon and at noontide." (Siiras xxx. 17 ; xi. 
 116 ; XX. 130 ; xvii. 80 ; ii. 40 ; iv. 104). 
 
 also: ij^ e**^\ jUt SiU\ - \^\y^ aJU^ JUi ^i\ JUc^J^ J\ j£-^ 
 ^JlJ^\ ^OA \^^f (Ghazdli i. 93-94). 
 
 At the bcginuing of Isl&m Muhammad and his followers performed only 
 two prayers: the morning prayer before sunrise, and the evening prayer 
 after sunset. Besides these they used regularly to spend a great part of 
 the night in praying and reading the Qur*&n. When their health began 
 to suffer in consequence of these night exercises, this practice was given 
 up and, after it had been obligatory (;j6^), it became optional (^^), and 
 was left to the choice of every individual. 'Ayesha says that ** God at 
 first commanded the spending of the night ( JtJi3^ ^V,J) in pious exercises 
 mentioned in the SAratu'l Muzammil (Ixxiii), which the Apostle and his 
 companions observed for a whole year, lill their feet became swollen, then 
 God revealed the alleviation (<.ji«^\) mentioned at the end of the Sura" 
 (Kashf i. 08; see Sura Ixxii. 1-8 and 20). 
 
 These two prayer times wore observed till the famous night journey of 
 Muhammad (o^^5\ ii^) when the five prayers (^^-ta.M «y^ J-J^) are said 
 to have been appointed, and this command holds good to the present day. 
 The change is not mentioned in the Qur'dn, but rests entirely on the 
 sayings of the Prophet, transmitted by Tradition. Of the appointment 
 of the five prayer times Muhammad gives the following account : " The 
 divine injunctions for prayer were originally fifty times a day, and as I 
 passed Moses (in heaven during the night journey), he said to mc : 'What 
 hast thou been ordered ? ' I replied • fifty times ! ' Then he said : ' Verily 
 thy people will never be able to bear it.' I then returned to my Lord and 
 asked for some remission, and ten prayers were taken off then I pleaded 
 again, and ten more were remitted and so until at last they were reduced 
 to five times. Then I went to Moses, and he said : * How many prayers 
 hast thou been ordered ' ? and I replied : • Five ' and Moses said • return 
 to thy Lord and ask for a farther remittance,' but I said : ' I have asked 
 until I am quite ashamed. I cannot ask him again.' " (Bukhdri i. 51-52). 
 
 Muhammad used to say : '♦ Five prayers has God prescribed for his ser- 
 vants. God has promised that he will cause him who performs them to enter 
 Paradise " (^\^\ ^Jl£ ih\ ^Qi-:'=^ «6>^yL« fj-.^^i-) ; they arc therefore called 
 
184 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The five obligatory prayers^ (or rather prayer-services) 
 are (1) Morning prayer, (2) Noon prayer, (3) Afternoon 
 prayer, (4) Evening prayer, (5) Night prayer. 
 
 the stated, the obligatory prayers (ii^yui\ aJ\J\ - &iyi^s^\ i>%^\) 
 (On the meritoriousness of observing these five prayer times punctually 
 see Ghazali i. 93-94). 
 
 It is worth noticing that the term 'iXo is now used by Muslims only of 
 the stated five prayer-services or liturgical prayer hours, while private 
 
 - -» - CO 
 
 prayer is called oVcj (pi. d*co^ from Vcj, = to call, to supplicate, to 
 intercede). 
 
 * Morning prayer ^^\ alo, also called ^^\ fei3u>, may be performed 
 at any time between dawn and sunrise. When the sun has risen, the time 
 for morning prayer has passed. It is a prayer of two obligatory and two 
 
 - C _ _ _ - 
 
 Sunna rak'as (AitSsj ?!• uyU^. Bowings). 
 
 Noon prayer ^\ b'Xo begins from the inclination of the sun towards 
 the west (^^.-^JiJ^ J\,; ^^), and closes at the time when the shadow of 
 a person shall be the length of his own stature, which time makes the 
 beginning of the afternoon prayer. This noon prayer consists of four 
 obligatory and two Sunna rak'as after the obligatory rak'as. 
 
 Afternoon prayer may be said at the expiration of the time for noon 
 prayer and then at any time the sun assumes a yellow appearance. It 
 consists of four obligatory and four Sunna rak'as before the obligatory 
 ones. 
 
 Evening prayer (v>yuJ\ Silc may be said after sunset and until the red 
 appearance on the horizon disappears. It consists of three obligatory 
 rak'as and two Sunna ones after them. 
 
 Night prayer (\Ju»}\ S)X« - 6^^^ Uu«J\), may be performed at any time 
 between the time when the night has closed in and the beginning of dawn 
 when morning prayer is due ; it consists of four obligatory and four Sunna 
 rak'as after them. (Ghazali i. 122 ; Bukbdri i. 73-82). 
 
 Though these prayers may be said at any time of the respective inter- 
 vals mentioned, and do not cease to be valid, even when delayed till the 
 latest portion of the appointed hour, yet it is considered preferable and 
 more meritorious not to delay, but to recite them at as early a part of the 
 prayer time as possible. Muhammad used to say on this subject : " The 
 worst thing I fear for my nation is their delaying prayer till after the 
 appointed time, or their hastening to perform it before the appointed 
 time " (Kashf i. 100). 
 
PRATER. 135 
 
 Besides these five obligatory prayers (or prayer-services) 
 there are other kinds of prayers, which it is desirable and 
 meritorious to perform also, but on the character of which, 
 whether they are Sunna or only Wajib there is difiference 
 of opinion. These are : The Witr prayer, the Duha 
 prayer, the Tahajjud prayer.* 
 
 The manner of performing prayer is as follows : 
 
 When the time of public prayer is come, the Mu'azzin 
 (^j^l), standing near the Mosque, or on the minaret, 
 (s^Uu)) calls to prayer by reciting the AzAn (^jl j^i) with a 
 
 It has been calculated that a Muslim, conscientiously performing his 
 obligatory devotions (including three other prayer-services ^^, jl^ 
 j\^\, mentioned hereafter), recites the same form of prayer at least 
 seventy-five times in the day. 
 
 1 Witr prayer (y^^ SJU=« odd prayers, from y^, odd,) is so called because 
 it consists of an odd number of rak'as (3, 5, 7,) or of one single rak'a 
 (S«>|i). It is to be performed after the night-prayer (\>riM iXc Jui)), and 
 to be the last prayer before the dawn of day. 
 
 The Duha prayer (^j^^ il«) is a forenoon prayer, (^j^^ is the time 
 before noon when the sun is already high above the horizon). ^Muhammad 
 used to make it a prayer of four or more, but at the utmost of eight 
 rak'as. 
 
 The Tahajjud prayer (a^iiJ^ S)L», from j^^ to sit up at night vigils) 
 is also called the prayer between the 'Ishi'fn (^^oUjJ\ ^^ U ol^\), said 
 to be between the evening prayer (v»yui\ tXe) and the night prayer 
 (oU4iS\ Sl«). It is considered incumbent on the ^luslim and highly mcri- 
 torious (ix^y* ii-.). Muhammad used to make it a prayer of six rak'as. 
 
 Besides these, Ghaz&li mentions special prayers for every day and night 
 of the week which he recommends as most profitable and meritorious. 
 The obligatory prayers are JL^^ ; the supererogatory, voluntary prayers 
 Ji (For traditions on the above statements and further explanations 
 see Bukh&ri's Sahib i. 73-80). 
 
136 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 loud voice thus : " God is most great, God is most great 
 
 I testify that there is no God but God.... .. I testify 
 
 that Muhammad is the Apostle of God come to pra5^er 
 
 come to prosperity God is great. There is no 
 
 God but God." 
 
 Jdl "i ^1 c^^l -^a£=1 ill .^a£=,I ill _^^1 ill _^^1 ill 
 
 j.i^] - il J^^j 1 j^^ ^1 j^^l - il ^1 A] ^ ^1 j.^1 _ ill )i] 
 
 ill ^1 ^11 "i .^£=1 ill -^1 /Ul - ^M Jc ^^ _ ^JlAll^lc 
 
 This call to prayer takes place before every one of the 
 five prayer services. In the call to morning prayer after 
 the words: "Come to prosperity," the following sen- 
 tence is added twice : " Prayer is better than sleep." 
 
 When the believer hears this call to prayer it is desir- 
 able that he should repeat what the Mu'azzin says, except 
 that instead of saying : ** Come to prayer," he says : 
 ** There is no strength and no power except with God.*' 
 
 (jcUlj ^1 'ip'i^ J^s^ ^). Should he, however, already be in 
 the mosque when he hears the Azan, he need not repeat it.' 
 
 1 Having already performed his ablutions, and removed all impurities 
 from his body and his clothes, he repairs to the place of worship where- 
 ever that may be (the mosque, which is more meritorious, a private room, 
 court or an open place), and there stands upright, with his face turned 
 towards the Qibla (aLjJ^, that is, the direction of the Ka'ba at Mecca), 
 having carefully covered his nakedness (Sj»c) from the navel to the 
 knees, and placed his feet together, yet not too closely. 
 
 Muhammad especially warned his followers against two false posi- 
 tions (1) joining the feet too closely together, called jk6^^ and (2) raising 
 one foot somewhat above the other, called ^^i^2 ; his legs and waist must 
 stand quite erect, and his arms down at the sides ; as to his head he 
 is at liberty to hold it up, or to bend it 9, littl? forward (cjUM) in si^n 
 
PRATER. 137 
 
 of humility, the eyes are to be directed fixedly to the place which indi- 
 cates the direction of the Qibla which is, as a rule, the Mihrrfb (^j.^^). 
 If there is no MihrAb or prayer-niche, it is good for the worshipper to 
 draw a line on the opposite wall, in order to prevent the eyes from wander- 
 ing and the thoughts from being distracted. This upright position is 
 called the Q{4m (^Wi). 
 
 In this position the worshipper recites the verse : "I take my refuge to 
 the Lord of the nations," (,^LJ^ vy •^^^) ^^ prayers are said in a mosque, 
 or there is at least a congregation, large or small, the call to prayer is 
 repeated, except that at the end are added the words " Prayer, has begun." 
 This is called the Iqama (L»\i\^ the beginning of prayer). 
 
 The worshipper, still standing with his hands close to his sides, proposes 
 (yaJi) to perform morning or evening, obligatory or supererogatory, 
 prayer, as the case may be, by saying in a low voice : " I have purposed to 
 offer to God with a sincere heart this morning, or as the case may be, 
 with my face qibla-wards, two, or as the case may be, rak*a prayers Fard» 
 Sunna or Nafl. This purpose he must constantly keep before his mind to 
 the end of the TakWra (S^^^jsv?). This is called the Niyya (i^jJ^). 
 
 He then raises his hands to the height of his shoulders, with the thuitibs 
 touching the lobules of the ears, the fingers somewhat separated from 
 each other, and the palms of the hands toward the Qibla. In this position 
 
 he recites the Takbfr, praising God thus : «• God is most high .There 
 
 is no God but God ... to God be praise." 
 
 This Takbir is called ^^^^ ^jc^^' ^ prayer of prohibition, consecra> 
 tion, because it prohibits the worshipper from saying or doing anything 
 extraneous to prayer. It is also called the ^Usi^S^ Sw^^-^u, the opening, 
 beginning of praise, because this is the first time in the prayer-service in 
 which it is recited. Later on it occurs several times. 
 
 Then he places his hands between the chest and the navel, putting the 
 palm of the right hand on the back of the left, stretching out the fore 
 and the middle finger, and seizing the wrist of the left hand with the 
 thumb and little finger. While so standing he recites the opening invo- 
 cation ((UsiS^ ft^j) consisting of the ^,,>;.,.; or Aj.^^ and the Jyj or 
 taking refuge in God. The Tasbih is : 
 
 "Holiness to Thee, God! and praise be to Thee ! Great is Thy name, 
 great is Thy greatness, there is no God but Thee." The Ta'awwuz is 
 j^^n}\ ^^\Ltri^\ ^J^ «IS^ 6yc\^ " I take my refuge from the cursed Satan." 
 Then follows the F&tihaor the Ist chapter of the Qur'&n. 
 18 
 
138 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 After the Fatiha the worshipper recites a Sura, or anj' portion of the 
 Qur'an, consisting at least, of three verses. The worshipper is recom- 
 mended to read from the long Siiras in the morning and from the short 
 ones in the evening. A Sura which is most commonly recited is the 
 ^Jk.iJ\ Svk-, (Sura 112) which says : *' He is God alone, God the Eternal ! 
 He begetteth not, and is not begotten ; and there is none like unto Him." 
 
 After having recited the portion of the Qur'an the vrorshipper performs 
 the Ruqii' (gj-^j bowing) in the following manner : standing upon his 
 feet, as before, he inclines the upper part of his body so as to bring it in a 
 horizontal position and places his hands upon his knees, separating the 
 fingers a little. He then repeats three times (or more up to seven times 
 when there is no Imim who leads in prayer): " Praised be my Lord, 
 the exalted One and glory be to Him ! " (ajt*.^^ ^ f^-i^\ ^jij (^jUs--!) 
 This is called the ^y^^\ fe^.«-;.^> the praise of Bowing. 
 
 He then raises himself up, places the hands on either side, and says : 
 *'May God hear him who praises him!" (fijk^a. ^^ <jIJ\ a«>~») This is 
 called the ^..^^..J' to which he adds : " Praise be to Thee the fulness 
 
 of the heaven and earth." (^j'^\ 2U ^ vji?^^,»,„ \\ iU Jl4^\ ttU U>j) 
 
 This standing position must not be made too long, except in a service 
 of praise. ("-.-j-JIjJ^ SJJLc) 
 
 After the bowing the worshipper drops on his knees, saying: "God is 
 Great " and prostrates himself in such a manner that his knees, the toes of 
 his feet, the palms of his hands, the fingers close to each other, the nose 
 .and the forehead touch the ground. In thus prostrating himself, he must 
 be careful to touch the ground first with his knees, then with his hands, 
 then with the nose and the forehead, taking care that the thumbs just 
 touch the lobe of the ears. The elbow must not touch the side, nor the 
 stomach the thigh, nor the thigh the calf of the leg. (The woman on the 
 contrary keeps all the limbs of the body together). In this position, called 
 the J»a*- Sujiid, or prostration, he says: " Praise be to thee, my Lord, 
 the most High ! " three times or more, if he chooses. This Takbira is called 
 ftjkas--J^ 5..;fTi.y Takblru-'s Sajda, or ** praise of the prostration." 
 
 Then he raises his head and body, sinks backwards on his heels, and 
 thus, half sitting, half kneeling on his thighs, he repeats the Takbira : 
 "God is Great." While in this posture, called the XJlq. (or sitting), he 
 says : " Lord, forgive me and have mercy upon me, and grant me my 
 
 portion and guide me." (. ^^JJt^ ^ ^5^;;^ ^ o''^'^^ ; <Jj^^ ^) 
 He must not lengthen this sitting, except in the prostration of praise. 
 After this he sits up to rest a moment, and then rises and stands erect, 
 
 repeating, while doing so, the takbira: " God is Great ! " This is called 
 
HIAVEH. 139 
 
 The total of these various postures with their respec- 
 tive prayers and praises constitutes what is called a rak'a 
 
 (^in^J). Each full prayer-service consists of a number of 
 such rak'as. 
 
 The worshipper having completed the first rak'a, now 
 performs the second in the same manner as the first, 
 beginning however with the Fatiha. At the end of every 
 two rak'as, as also after the last one, instead of rising 
 from his half kneeling, half sitting posture, he remains 
 sitting on his left foot, and placing his hands above his 
 knees he says : ** Praise be to God and prayers and good 
 works. Peace be on thee, Prophet, with the mercy of 
 God and His blessing." This is called the Salutation, or 
 greeting, (iJLA^iIi)• Then raising the first finger of the 
 right hand he recites the Tashahhud (j.^^!, the confes- 
 sion) : *' I testify that there is no God but God, and I 
 testify that Muhammad is the apostle of God." At the 
 end of all the rak'as, that is, at the end of the respective 
 prayer-service, he asks for blessings on Muhammad and 
 his descendants, saying : ** God have mercy on Muham- 
 mad and his descendants. Thou art to be praised, and 
 Thou art great. O God bless Afuhammad and his de- 
 scendants, as Thou didst have mercy on Abraham and 
 his descendants ; Thou art to be praised and Thou art 
 great. O God bless Muhammad and his descendants. 
 Thou art to be praised and Thou art great." This is 
 called the Blessings (cl?!^!)- Then the Salutation (/•L*ll) 
 is said: "Peace be on you and the Mercy of God,"^ 
 (Ghaz^lii. 98). 
 
 tho f*L2)\ Ajfl.'^y the " praise of Htanding up." (For further details 
 8ee Ghaaili i. 1)7-1)8. See also Faith of IslAm, pp. 257-263.) 
 
 1 Tho two recording angels arc supposed to be standing, the one record- 
 in^ the good actious on the right, the one recording the bad iiciioiis on 
 
l40 O^HE RllLlGlON Ot^ ISLAM. 
 
 At the close of the prayer-service the worshipper raises 
 his hands as high as his chest, with the palms towards 
 heaven and offers up a Supplication^ (cijyiill ^Uj)j and 
 
 when this is done he draws his hands over his face (^>^c) 
 
 as if to convey the blessing received from above to every 
 part of the body. 
 
 the left shoulder of the Muslim. Then the Muslim is to salute by turn- 
 ing to the right and left. By so doing, Ghazali says, he is to have in view 
 not only the two angels but also the congFegation of Muslims. 
 
 * s^yyi (from ct^, to adore, to worship God) is adoration, supplication. 
 In these supplications the worshipper is not bound to certain prescribed 
 forms but may use his own words. When prayer is ended, the men re- 
 main standing at their places for a short time in order to allow the women, 
 who may have been standing behind, to retire first. 
 
 Women who are bound to perform the prescribed prayers, as well as 
 men, have to observe some slight alterations in the postures. For instance, 
 they are not to raise their hands as high as the men at the takbiru't- 
 tahrim ; and at the tashahhud they are to place both their legs bent under 
 them, instead of stretching out one, like the men. 
 
 All these rites and ceremonies are partly obligatory, partly in a less 
 degree incumbent on the worshipper, partly praise-worthy, and optional. 
 
 The obligatory things are, according to Ghazali (i. 99), the following 
 twelve : &lji\ -^■.,..^.;J^ - &^"US^ - ty^?^ ^ ^^^^ - ^^ ^ J^xx^J^ _ 
 
 ^\ Js, i'U\ - J^:J\ ^^\ . 
 Things which are Sunna are the following four : i^-j-J=ru ^i ^^,Si^ *ij 
 
 The following are also considered Sunna ^\"f^-- ^^\ cVcj - JyusJ^ _ 
 
 The omission, purposely or by forgetfulness, of an obligatory part of 
 prayer, makes that prayer invalid and it must be performed again. The 
 omission what is merely Sunna has not this bad effect (Ghazali i. 99-100). 
 
i>ray£:r. 141 
 
 Friday (jtuxx^l - I«x^l j»y) is the day appointed by 
 Muhammad as the day of solemn, public and united 
 prayer for Muslims. It rests on a direct command, 
 (Siira Ixii. 9). It is the bounden duty (^r {ja^) of 
 every Muslim personally to attend public noon prayer 
 with the congregation at the mosque.* 
 
 Under things prohibited (va>C»^^) '^^ prayer may be mcuiioucd the 
 following which Muhammad commanded his followers to avoid : 
 
 ^^ and JJU, wrong position by cither joining the feet too closely or 
 raising the one a little above the other ; sUi^ wrong position in sitting 
 on the ground ; JJLI, wrapping oneself up in a coat, shirt and putting 
 
 the hands inside; cJL^, raising the dress in front or behind when going 
 to kneel down ; jl«u.^ - vJU, the placing the hands on the waists ; 
 jJL^l^, joining those parts of prayer between which there is to be a short 
 pause ; ^L. - s-^^ - Jj^ having small shoes which incommode the 
 worshipper. A Muslim is also to avoid saying his prayers when hungry 
 or angry or sleepy (Ghaz&li i. 98-lM)). 
 
 Muhammad and his followers while at Mecca used to worship with 
 their faces towards the Ka'ba, that is, the Ka'ba was their Qibla ; after 
 the flight to Madina, however, Muhammad, in order to conciliate the 
 Jews, adopted their Qibla, and ordered prayers to be said with faces turned 
 towards Jerusalem. When, after the space of about sixteen months, he de- 
 spaired of winning over the Jews to Isl&m, he changed it back to the Qa'ba 
 again. When one day he performed noon prayer in the new mosque of 
 Madinii. with a large congregation behind him, he suddenly in the midst 
 of pr<i}(r turned round and completed prayer with his face towards the 
 Ka'ba, and all the congregation followed his example. The mosque was 
 therefore called the mosque of the two Qiblas (^.vi^Jd\ >v^..„>») {Sec 
 Stira ii. l.%-145). 
 
 The origin of the Azan was as follows : 'Umar relates that after the 
 flight to Madina, the IMuslims used to assemble to prayer, without anyone 
 to call them. When they consulted together about the way of calling the 
 believers to prayer, some proposed the use of an instrument like the Chris- 
 tians, others said : ' No, let us take horns like the Jews,' but *Umur 
 said : " Would it not be better to let a man call to prayer ; '* whereupon 
 Muhammad ordered Bil41 to call to prayer. 
 
 1 Muhammad said that God had originally appointed Friday as the 
 solemn day of worship both for the Jews and the Christians, but that they 
 
142 THE RELiaiON OF ISLAM. 
 
 had acted contrary to God's command, the Jews by choosing Saturday 
 and the Christians Sunday, and that it was reserved to the Muslim to 
 keep it as the appointed festival day (GhazAli i. 112). 
 
 Every other prayer-service may be held by the Muslim alone, in his 
 house or any place he may be at the time, but Friday noon prayer must 
 necessarily be performed by him in common with the other believers and 
 in a special place of worship, whatever that may be, mosque, prayer place 
 or chapel. 
 
 The conditions (^yl) of Friday prayer are the following six : 
 
 (1) It may not be performed in the open air, or in tents or outside the 
 
 c 
 town (^-♦.M) ; but inside the town or village, in a mosque or a decent 
 
 prayer house. 
 
 (2) The Sultan, or his locum tenens, must be present. The Imam is 
 considered to be the lawful representative of the Sultan. 
 
 (3) In order to be valid, it must be performed at noon (y^\) 
 
 (4) The Khatib (s-^jW^ preacher) must deliver a sermon (dLjla^^) at the 
 Friday service ; this sermon consists of two distinct parts, so it is also 
 called ^^jwwLi., or the two sermons. Between the two parts of the sermon 
 he sits down for a short time of rest. The first part is called LcJ^ i<ise-, 
 the sermon of admonition, consisting of the praise of God, invocation of 
 blessings on Muhammad and his family and companions, and admoni- 
 tions and exhortations to the congregation. The second part is called 
 o^juJ^ i-ist., the sermon of the mention of God's glorious attributes. 
 (For specimens of such Khutbas see Faith of IsUm p. 268, 269.) 
 
 The Khutba is said in the following manner : the Khatib, after the four 
 Sunna rak'as have been performed, seats himself on the pulpit, while the 
 Mu'azzin recites the Azan, after which he stands up on the second step 
 and delivers the Khutba leaning, while so doing, on a wooden staff or 
 sword. After he has delivered the first part, he descends from the pulpit, 
 and sitting on the floor of the mosque offers up a silent prayer ; he then 
 again ascends the pulpit as before and delivers the second part. The 
 Khutba being ended, the Khatib descends from the pulpit and the obliga 
 tory prayer of two rak'as begins. 
 
 (5) In order that Friday service may be held in a mosque it is necessary 
 that a congregation (^LcU^^) of at least three Muslims besides the Imam 
 should be present according to the Hanafi rite. The Shafi'l School requires 
 the presence of, at least, forty male worshippers, besides the Imdm. 
 
 Every Muslim must have full liberty (^UJ\ ^^oS^) to enter the mosque 
 and join in the service. 
 
PRAYER. 143 
 
 The Masliiu, while on a journey, especially when he is in 
 haste, is excused from perforruing the full prayer-service. 
 He says the J'^Jl 'il^ and need say only two rak'as 
 instead of four at the noon, afternoon and night pra3^ers 
 
 (^^^£=, Vp5^y^ U^j^^ L5^)' °^^ ^^ ^* required that he 
 should recite a portion of the Qur'an after the FAtiha. He 
 is also excused from attending the public prayer on Fri- 
 day and the prayers at the great festivals. He need not 
 fast. When performing the Wudu, instead of washing 
 his feet, he is allowed only to wet the stockings and 
 shoes.^ 
 
 If any of theRC conditions bo wanting, the Friday prayer service cannot 
 be held. Ibn *.\bidln mentions the following conditions -^^^ -j^o^f l^\i\ 
 
 ^^..^ ^ - ^^^\ ^ Sj.x8 - ^ o^^ - Jac - gyij - h)^^ - ^f 
 
 (i. 59G-C00) j^jla. ^L# ^ ^ys. ^ 
 
 Ghazili (i. 113-116) devotes a long chapter to observations on the due 
 preparation for the Friday service and the behaviour during the same. 
 Another chapter is devoted to the subject of the best way of spending 
 Friday (Ohazili i. 1 10-117). In another chapter (i. 118-120) ho treats of a 
 number of general questions connected with prayer such as : killing a 
 scorpion, louse or a flea, yawning during prayer, praying with shoes on, 
 spitting and so on. 
 
 I A Muslim is considered a traveller, enjoying the above mentioned 
 mitigations from the time he leaves his homo to undertake a journey of 
 at least three days. Should he, however, on arriving at the village or 
 town propose to himself to stay a fortnight or more, ho ceases to be a 
 traveller, and becomes a resident (^»^). If ho stays at a village or town 
 without intending to take up his abode there, he may put off his departure 
 from day to day and thus enjoy the privileges of a traveller for years (Ibn 
 *.\bidin i; 676-588). On these mitigations Muhammad used to say: 
 *'They are a gift of Qod, accept them." Ho forbade the traveller to 
 perform more than two rak'as instead of four. Some persons once said 
 to 'Umar: ''We find the prayer of fear and the prayer of residence 
 (y^\ Sl« • <-i^^ A^) written in the Qur'an, but not the prayer of 
 the traveller ", to which 'Umar replied : " O my cousin, God sent to us 
 Muhammad when we did not know anything of religion, we do what we 
 saw him do." (Kashf i. 197-202). 
 
144 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 There are two great feasts of Islam, and the prayer 
 connected with them is called the prayer of the two 
 feasts^ (j'xK!^] SLj). 
 
 The feast of breaking the fast of Eamadan is called the 
 .Wl jui£ and also J^cj jax, which is kept inmiediately 
 
 on the conclusion of the thirty days' fast of Eamadan, 
 that is, on the first day of the month of Shawwal. It is 
 also called the minor festival ( .xwll cU*il) or the feast of 
 almsgiving (^>j.JI jar). 
 
 The feast of the sacrifices, *Idu'l-Adha ,^^] s^£^ (from 
 'i[:s»^\ pl. ^j^s^l an animal offered as sacrifice) is also called 
 the great feast (^A^dl J^j^xll) which is celebrated on the 
 10th of the month of Zu'1-Hijja (jcc^^. J), seventy days 
 after the former (Sura xxii. 28-33). 
 
 The prayer Tarawfh' (^.^Wl ijl^ prayer of pauses) is 
 so called because he who performs it rests awhile after 
 each tarwiha prayer, which consists of four rak'as, and 
 
 1 The prayer of the two feasts is a special prayer service to be held on 
 the first day of each of these feasts. The conditions are the same as 
 for the public Friday prayer, with the exception that the Khutba 
 follows instead of preceding it. It is a prayer of two rak'as. The time 
 at which this service is to be held is from the time, when the sun, after 
 rising, has apparently reached the height of a lance above the horizon to 
 the time when noon prayer is to begin. When this time is passed, it is 
 not lawful to hold it and it must be deferred to the next day ; if for some 
 reason or other it should again be omitted, it cannot be held on the third 
 day, nor can it be replaced by a ' redeeming prayer.' (For further details 
 see Ghazdli i. 125). 
 
 2 l^i^/ pl. ^^\y a rest, pause. Whether it is to be performed in 
 private or in public with the congregation, is a controverted question. 
 During the five pauses the worshipper may, resting on his knees, recite the 
 tasbih, or tahlil, or verses from the Qur'dn, or supererogatory prayers, or 
 sit still in deep devotion. The pause should be as long as it would require 
 
PKAYER. 145 
 
 because worshippers used to rest after each two pairs of 
 sahitations. It is a prayer-service of twenty rak'as. 
 Every Muslim must, in imitation of the Prophet, perform 
 it at night, after the five obligatory prayers during the 
 thirty days of the fast of Ramadan. 
 
 The Prayer of Fear (v-jLill iLc) is said, in imitation of 
 the Prophet, during the time of war when there is immi- 
 nent danger from the approach of an enemy. The Imam, 
 under such circumstances, divides the army into two 
 bodies, one of which is placed in a position towards the 
 enemy so as to observe and keep him in check ; with the 
 other he recites, if they are on the march, one rak'a ; if 
 stationary in a place two rak'as. This division will then 
 march towards the enemy and the first division will 
 recite as many rak'as as may be required to complete 
 the prayer. The Saldm is said by the Imim alone.* 
 
 to Ray four rak'as. It is meritorious during these prayers and the nights 
 of Ramadin to repeat the whole of the Qur'&n. (Ibn *Abidin i. 519-523 ; 
 Kashf i. 16G ; Ohazili i. 125). As regards the importance of private prayer 
 Muhammad is reported to have said : "A prayer in this my mosque 
 (]^[ad(na) is worth more than a hundred thousand prayers in other mosques 
 and a prayer in the Holy ^fosque (f*^*^^ ^^ -^ at Mecca) is worth more 
 than a thousand prayers in my mosque ; of greater worth than all these 
 is the prayer of two rak'as a man performs in the corner of his room : of 
 which nobody knows anything but God Almighty." This prayer is not 
 obligatory. The Shi'ahs do not observe these prayers. (Faith of IsUm 
 272). Muhammad used to make it a private prayer of twenty rak'as and 
 the witr ; after every four rak'as he used to rest awhile (tij^), *f*er this 
 he stood up and performed the regular obligatory prayer. 
 
 1 The first division will not recite the FAtiha and the verses of the 
 Qur'4n usually required, but the second division will supply the omission. 
 If the enemy are so near that the cavalry dare not dismount, then each 
 man will pray a rak'a for himself and make the bowing and prostration 
 by means of signs. Should the danger be very imminent this prayer may 
 be altogether dispensed with ; so also in case of other imminent dangers 
 
 such as, the being attacked by a lion, or a large S'jrpent, etc., etc This 
 
 prayer rests on the command of the Qur'dn (Stira iv. 102-103 ; Ibn 'Abidin 
 i. 624-626 ; Kashf i. 219-221. Dictionary of IsUm, 561). 
 19 
 
146 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The Prayer at the time of an eclipse of the sun, or an 
 eclipse of the moon is also called ii y..<^ \\ 'il^, the prayer 
 of the two eclipses. This is a prayer said by the congre- 
 gation and performed in the mosque, headed by the 
 Imam ; it consists of two rak'as and the reading of long 
 portions of the Qur'an such as the Siira of the cow, the 
 Family of 'Imran or some other appropriate portion.^ 
 
 When there is a scarcity of water from want of rain 
 the prayer in time of drought (^Ua«J*«^] il^) is used. It 
 is a time when rivers become dry and wells and springs 
 do not yield sufficient water for men, animals and fields. 
 It is desirable that the Imam should order the people to 
 fast, to give alms for three days and to repent of their sins. 
 Supplications (Mc j), and confession of sins and prayer for 
 pardon are to be offered to God by each private individual ; 
 it requires neither congregation in the mosque nor ser- 
 mon, though both are allowed.' (Ibn 'Abidin i. 622-624 ; 
 Ghazalii. 126 or 189 ; Kashf i. 233-236). 
 
 » The Azan and Ik&ma are omitted and there is no Khutba. According 
 to the Shafi'ite rite there are to be two Khutbas. The bowings and pros- 
 trations and reading of the Qur'dn are to be lengthened so that the service 
 does not cease till the sun has fully regained its light. If there is no 
 Im4m, united prayer cannot take place and each Muslim performs the 
 prayer separately. Women also perform their prayer each separately. 
 The prayer during an eclipse of the moon is not necessarily a service 
 of the congregation but is recited by every Muslim privately at home, 
 or wherever he may be at the time ; it may, however, be made a prayer 
 of the congregation. This prayer may also be performed at any time 
 of great calamities : violent storm, inundations, earthquakes, etc., etc. 
 (Ghaz41i 126 ; Kashf 232 ; Faith of Isldm, 272.) 
 
 8 For three consecutive days the Imdm goes out with the people, rich 
 and poor, high and low, on foot in a procession to some public place, all 
 being dressed in old, well-worn or patched clothes with their heads bent to 
 the earth and showing in every possible way their sorrow, repentance and 
 humiliation. Arrived at the place of prayer, the Imdm stands up, his 
 
PRAYER. 147 
 
 Within the Ka'ba any kind of prayer prescribed, re- 
 deeming, supererogatory, single or in a body may be 
 offered, without regard to position, place or time. It is 
 even allowed to turn one's back to the Imam. It is called 
 the (ix*£=Jl ^5 ijloll).' 
 
 The Prayers used for a burial service are called the 
 sjlLj] iHc' When a person is about to die, the attendants 
 place him on his back or on his right side, with his face 
 and feet towards the Qibla, unless circumstances prevent 
 it. He is then made to repeat the words of the confession 
 of faith. His last words ought to be : " There is no God 
 but God ! "» 
 
 face turned towards the Qibla, and lifting up bis bauds offers up supplica- 
 (^ions, the people sitting with their faces also turned towards the Qibla con- 
 firming those petitions by saying : " O God grant us a bountiful, refreshing 
 
 rain." While thus imploring divine help, the Imim turns his coat 
 
 inside out or upside down in sign of thoir anxiety to see a change of 
 weather. 
 
 Care must be taken that no non-Muslims join in this procession and 
 supplication. They may, however, go out by themselves and offer up their 
 supplications and prayers. Whether God answers the supplications of 
 unbelievers is a controverted question, some learned men denying, others 
 aflirming it. 
 
 1 Turning one's face towards the Imam is not allowed, as this might 
 bo misunderstood as if the prayers were addressed to him. In support of 
 this, the example of Muhammad is cited, who, on the day of the conquest 
 of Mecca, performed a prayer in the midst of the Ka'ba at a non-canonical 
 hour. (Ibn 'Abidin i. G73-674.) 
 
 s On this occasion it is desirable to read the Siira Y& Sfn and the SAra 
 of Thunder. After death has taken place, some say the corpse is to bo 
 addressed thus : " 0. N. N, remember what was thy condition in this world 
 and say : * I am pleased to accept God as my Lord, and Isl&m as my reli- 
 gion and Muhammad as my prophet.' " The jaws are then tied up, the 
 eyes closed with a prayer for his acceptance with God, the members 
 stretched, and a sword or piece of iron placed on the belly to prevent its 
 becoming swollen. It is then laid on a bod or plunk, which has been 
 perfumed all round an odd number of times, and washed, whether it be the 
 corpse of a man, a woman or a child. It is stripped naked except the 
 part between the navel and the knees, and the Wudd is performed with 
 
148 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 special care. If the dead person was * junub,' a woman in her courses or 
 in childbirth, the washing is done with a decoction of aromatic plants 
 and then rubbed with camphor. The corpse is carefully dried, and the 
 head and beard arc covered with aromatic substances, whereupon it is 
 wrapped up and tied in a shroud of white cloth called the kafan (^^jij=^\). 
 The kafan of a man consists of three pieces : the shirt f^p^^^ the izAr 
 (jb^)> * piece of cloth reaching from the navel to the knees or ankle 
 joint and the sheet (&iUJ) covering the whole body. The kafan of a 
 woman consists of five parts : the chemise (gjO), the khirka (&ij^), 
 a small piece of cloth to cover the bosom, the khimar (XU-), a piece of 
 cloth to cover the head the izar and the sheet to cover the whole body. 
 
 After the corpse has thus been duly washed, wrapped up and placed 
 on the bier (S;U^\), the prayer for the dead is recited. These opera- 
 tions and the attendance at the funeral is a duty, called a% U<=-> ^joli, or a 
 duty which is not obligatory on every individual of the Muslim commu- 
 nity ; if only a few fulfil it it is sufficient ; but if none fulfil it, the whole 
 community are guilty of sin. The burial service takes place in some open 
 space near the dwelling of the deceased person, or near the grave-yard. 
 
 The following is the order of the service. Some one present calls out : 
 "Here begin the prayers for the dead." Those present arrange them 
 selves in three, five or seven rows opposite the corpse, with their faces 
 towards the Qibla. The Imam stands in front of the ranks near the 
 chest (jJu>) of the corpse, this being the seat of faith ; if the Sultan be 
 present, he is the person to lead in prayers, otherwise his representative, 
 the Q4di, Imim, or nearest relative of the dead person (^^^^). The 
 whole company, having assumed the Qidm, recite the niyya : "I purpose 
 to perform prayers to God for this dead person, consisting of four takbirs." 
 Then placing the hands to the lobes of the ear they say the first takblr : 
 " God is great," then folding the hands, the right over the left, below the 
 navel, they recite the "Praise." 
 
 Then comes the petition (cVcSj^) : " God have mercy on Muhammad 
 and his descendants, as thou didst bestow mercy and peace and blessings 
 on Abraham and his descendants — Thou art praised " Then follows the 
 
 third takbfr, after which the following petition (oVco) is recited : "0 God 
 forgive our living and our dead, those of us who are present, and those 
 who are absent." U.**'Tia « ^^«iU . U.}ll£ . UjufeU* » U;wy«^ Ul.s^ J^^ (*^^) 
 
PRAYER. 149 
 
 The ^^,J^\ 'il^ -^^JjuJI itc is the Prayer of the 
 Sick. A man who is sick and cannot stand erect or 
 bow down without injuring himself is allowed to recite 
 his prayers in any posture that is convenient for him. He 
 is to face the Qibla, or at all events to have his feet to- 
 wards the same. Instead of observing the various pos- 
 tures, if he is not able to do so, it suffices for him to make 
 ■» 
 
 a sign with his head (^'.x)J>1). It is desirable, that on his 
 recovery he should make up the neglected prayers by so 
 many redeeming prayers ; should his illness, however, last 
 longer than a day and a night, he is not obliged to perform 
 these redeeming prayers. (For more details see Kashf 
 i. 197.) 
 
 The Kedeeming Prayer is called c:^JLa!I ^Lajf. When 
 the Muslim has for some weighty reason been hindered 
 
 Then follows tho fourth takbir and tho Sal&m right and left. The 
 burial bcrvicc being now over, the people scat themselves on the ground 
 and raise their hands in silent prayer in behalf of the deceased soul, 
 after which the chief mourner gives permission to the people to retire 
 
 saying : " There is permission to depart ; " this is the |*US\ ^J\, or general 
 
 permission. The corpse is then placed in its grave (Jkaj^\), head and feet 
 towards Mecca; those who place it saying: "We commit thee to tho 
 earth in tho name of God and in the religion of the Prophet." Those who 
 have stayed behind them recite the FAtiha in the name of the deceased, 
 and again, when they have proceeded about forty paces from the grave 
 they recite another F&tiha, for at this juncture, it is said, the two Angels 
 ^lunkar and Naklr examine tho deceased as to his faith (P'aith of IsUm, 
 204-276). 
 
 Muhammad said: "Hasten to bury the dead, for it is not becoming 
 that the corpse {}kt/^) of a Muslim be long kept in the midst of his 
 family," and also: "Any Muslim to whom four individuals (Muslims) bear 
 good testimony, God will make him enter Paradise." (Kashf i. 24'2-243) 
 " He who dies in the early morning ought not to rest at midday anywhere 
 but inhis grave." Muhammad at first prohibited visiting the tombs, but 
 later on he first alluwcd it to men and then to women also. 
 
150 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 in performing one or more of the obligatory prayers, it is 
 his duty to perform what he has omitted at the earliest 
 opportunity, before he performs the next obligatory prayer. 
 
 The Prostration of Forgetfulness,^^Ajl j^cnj**. _^^aJ1 ISj^csj^wj 
 
 consists of two prostrations which the Muslim is bound 
 to perform at the conclusion of the prayer> after the first 
 salutation (which is towards the right), in order to make 
 amends for any mistakes committed in prayer from for- 
 getfulness or inattention, such as praying one rak'a 
 instead of two, bowing twice instead of once. This pros- 
 tration is obligatory only when more than one mistake 
 has been made in one and the same prayer. If the Imam 
 commits such mistakes, the whole congregation, which 
 has joined him in prayer, should make such amends 
 together with him. (Kashf i. 179-180). 
 
 (1) The Salutation of the mosque is called Tahiyyahu'l 
 Musjid (j^csjAA^xJl L^'). Muhammad said: ''Give the 
 mosques their due." On being asked what that was, he 
 replied: "When you enter a mosque pray two rak'as ; 
 (according to another tradition) make two prostrations 
 before you sit down." (Kashf i. 171-172). 
 
 (2) The Prayer after the Wudu is called s^^yi ^^c 'ilJi)- 
 Muhammad recommended his followers to say a prayer, 
 if it be but of two rak'as after every Wudu. (Kashf i. 
 172). 
 
 (3) The Prayer ot Need is ^s^'^JI jjlL^. Muhammad used 
 to say : *' If any of you be in special need of anything 
 whether from God or man, let him perform the Wudii care- 
 fully, then let him say a prayer of two rak'as, then praise 
 God, invoke a blessing on the Prophet, then say : ' There 
 is no God but God, the gracious, the bountiful. I pray 
 for the blessing of thy mercy and pardon . . . forgive all 
 my sins," . . . (Kashf. i. 172). 
 
PRATER. 151 
 
 (4) The Prayer of Repentance is Lyil 'il^- Muhammad 
 said : " If a man have committed a sin, let him go and 
 perform the Wadu, then let him pray and ask God for 
 pardon: verily God will forj^ive him, then recite Siira iii. 
 129-180, then let him say a prayer of two rak*as, obliga- 
 tory or optional." 
 
 (5) The Prayer for an object lost is ^'^1 j. sJU- When 
 Muslims had lost anything they used to pray two rak'as, 
 after which they said : " God, the Restorer of lost 
 things, the guide of what is gone astray, restore to us 
 what we have lost, by Thy power and might, for it was 
 of Thy bounty and gift." 
 
 (6) The Prayer for Guidance in making a good choice 
 is ii.labl**^' »2L*' Muhammad used to say : " If any one 
 desires to undertake a thing, let him pray two rak*as in 
 addition to the obligatory pi:ayer, then let him say the 
 following petition (^'^ j). " God, I ask Thee to guide 
 me in my choice by Thy omniscience, and to assist me 
 with Thy omniscience, and I pray Thee to be gracious 
 to me, for Thou art mighty and I am helpless. Thou art 
 omniscient and I am ignorant. Thou knowest hidden 
 things ; if Thou knowest, God, that this thing is for my 
 benefit as regards my religion and my subsistence and 
 my latter end, then make straight the way and let it 
 succeed and let it be blessed to me ; but if Thou knowest 
 that it will be injurious to me, as regards my religion and 
 my subsistence and my latter end, then remove it from 
 me, and give me what is good for me and let me be con- 
 tent with it." Then let him mention the object of his 
 choice. He also said : " Let a man thus pray for God's 
 guidance seven times; then let him consider what is 
 
 nearest to his heart (aulJjyJI jw>^^jJl)5 this will be best 
 for him." 
 
152 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 (7) The Prayer of Praise is ^jiwaII 'iLc- The Prophet is 
 
 reported to have exhorted his followers to observe the 
 praj'-er of praise saying : *' whosoever of you is able to do it, 
 let him say it once a day ; if he cannot, then once a week ; if 
 he cannot, then once a month ; if he cannot once a month, 
 then once a year ; if he cannot, then once in his life." 
 This is a prayer of four rak'as, at each of which is to be 
 said, after the reading of the Qu'ran fifteen times : " Praise 
 be to God, and glory be to God, there is no God but God." 
 
 (^a£d1 adJl^ 4I1I ^1 jcil ^^ jdi Axxjl^ ^11 ^^kou.). The same is 
 to be repeated ten times at the ' bowing,' and at rising from 
 it, and at each of the two prostrations and during the 
 * sitting ' between them, and at the tashahhud, making 
 altogether seventy-five praises for each of the four rak'as. 
 On reading certain verses of the Qur'an a prostration 
 
 c _ 
 
 should be made (x^Ml ijj<s}«j _ i}^.js}aJI jJU^)'^ 
 
 Besides the aforementioned prayers, prostrations and 
 petitions, the Muslim, who would reach a high degree of 
 perfection and acceptance with God, is recommended to 
 engage in certain additional devotional exercises called 
 
 Wird (dj^ plural j].^]),reading of a portion of the Qur'an, 
 
 chiefly in the hours of night. ^ 
 
 I 'AUsays: "The o^^s--.5^^ys, that is, the verses of the Qur'dn at which 
 the believer is to prostrate himself are four ; ^ _ ^♦^rjJU - cdfj ^♦—^ s>\3\ — 
 isTss-^W f^l'S-iJk^^W" *Umar says: "The Prophet taught me fifteen 
 Sijdas in the Qur'an." {See Faith of IsUm, 339.) 
 
 At the giving of thanks, a prostration should be made. 
 
 When any one brought good news to Muhammad he used to prostrate 
 himself and thank God. Abu Bakr did the same. (^iSl V *^ *t \^-; \. ,.„ ^) 
 
 3 Ghazali (i. 199 et seqq) devotes several chapters to this subject from 
 which it will suffice to give the following abstract: " From many verses 
 of the Qur'4n it appears that the only way of becoming united with 
 
PRATER. 153 
 
 God is constant intercourse with him " (*^*-.^^J^ v^o f»W). This is the 
 object of the devotional services called *>V.^, in which the believer can 
 engage at all times of the day as well as the night. The Wirds to be 
 observed during the day are seven : 
 
 1st wird (J*:J^ ^j^\ ^J..>^^\ ^^ ^\ ^\ ^^ ^^). The IMuslim on 
 rising up early mentions the name of God and praises Him and recites 
 certain petitions (&*co\^ ; while dressing, he recites the appointed peti- 
 tions, cleans his teeth with the siw4k, performs the WudiS, then prays two 
 Sunna rak'as of dawn. After these rak'as he repeats a petition, then he 
 goes to the mosque with a collected mind. In a solemn and respectful 
 manner he enters the mosque with the right foot first, saying the ap- 
 pointed petitions on entering and on leaving. He enters the first rank of 
 worshippers if there be room and prays the two rak'as of dawn, if he has 
 not done so already at home ; then two rak'as of ' Saluting the Mosque ' 
 (£^^;JU, then sits down, repeating petitions and praises, waiting for the 
 assembling of the congregation. After having performed the obligatory 
 prayer of dawn, be remains sitting in the mosque till sunrise, meditating 
 and repeating certain petitions and praises a certain number of times 
 (3, 7, 10, 70, 100 times), counting them by the rosary (K^i .) and reciting 
 portions of the Qur*4n. (For the formulas to be repeated see Ghazdli i. 
 200-203). 
 
 2nd Wird. Between sunrise and an advanced forenoon hour, the worship- 
 per says a prayer of two rak'as, and when the sun has risen the length of a 
 lance above the horizon (^Jle)\ ,^j«<aS^) more rak'as. This is the time 
 when the believer may perform good works, such as visiting the sick, and 
 accompanying funeral processions. When nothing of the kind requires 
 his attention, he spends his time in repeating petitions, in zikr, medita- 
 tion and reading of the Qur'&n. 
 
 Srd Wird. Between morning (S^^) and the declining (J^;,)) of the sun, 
 the believer, after taking care of his worldly affairs, engages in the devo- 
 tional exercises as before mentioned. 
 
 4th Wird. Between the time when the sun has become somewhat high 
 (JSj) *"^ '^® "°°" prayer, four rak'as between the Az&n and the Ikiima 
 are said and portions of the Qur'&n are recited. 
 
 5th Wird. Between noon and afternoon prayer (^-^^J^), »t is laudable 
 to spend the time in the mosque in acts of devotion. 
 
 6th Wird. This begins at the 'Asr. 
 
 7th Wird. It begins at the time when the sun is near setting and its 
 light begins to grow pale. 
 
 The Wirds of the night are five. 
 
 20 
 
154 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 There are fifteen special nights in the year which are 
 said to be specially favorable to devotional exercises and 
 which the believer ought therefore scrupulously to observe, 
 as special favors and mercies and blessings may be obtained 
 on the same. These are six nights in the month of Rama- 
 dan, viz.f five in the last part of the month, one of which 
 will be the night of the Qadr ( . j^]^!) and the seventeenth 
 of Ramadan, on the morning of which the battle of Badr 
 occurred. The other nine most noble nights are : the 
 first night of Muharram ; the night of 'Ashiira' (^L^-ilc), 
 
 First night Wird. After sunset, when the prayer of sunset has been per- 
 formed to the time when darkness (JU3x) has set in the worshipper says 
 tworak'as, in which certain portions of the Qur'An are recited, then four 
 long rak'as and as much of the Qur'in as time allows. This Wird may 
 be performed at home ; but it is preferable to do so in the mosque 
 (Ghazdli i. 205). 
 
 The second night Wird. This is from the darkness of the last ' Isha ' 
 
 lbj£^\ \J^\) to the time when people retire to sleep. This consists of 
 three things: (1) the obligatory * Isha ' prayer: ten rak'as ri^., four 
 before it and six after it ; (2) performing a prayer of thirteen rak'as, the 
 last of which is the Witr prayer. In this about three hundred verses 
 of the Qur'dn are to be recited; (3) the Witr prayer before going to sleep, 
 unless one is accustomed to rise in the night, when it may be performed 
 later on which is more meritorious (Ghazdli i. 205-206). 
 
 The third night Wird. This consists of sleep, and sleep may well be 
 considered a devotional act (So\^), if enjoyed in the proper way. 
 
 The fourth night Wird. This is from the time when the first half of 
 the night is spent to when only one-sixth of it still remains. At this 
 time the believer ought to rise from sleep and perform the prayer of 
 tahajjud. This prayer is also called the Hujud (o^^^ sleep). Muhammad 
 mostly made it a prayer of thirteen rak'as. 
 
 The fifth night Wird. Thisbegins with the last sixth of the night called 
 theSahar (^i-J^ '^^;)> *^® ^^^^^ morning before dawn to the appear- 
 ing of dawn (^^^)JJJ^ ^\j^\ o-^^^\ ^U^^). To these devotional 
 exercises it was considered meritorious to add four additional good 
 actions: fasting, almsgiving, visiting the sick, attending funerals. 
 
PRAYER. 155 
 
 the famous fast day of the Jews, and for some time 
 of the Muslims also ; the nights of the first and the mid- 
 dle and the twenty-seventh of the month of Kajab ; the 
 night of the 15th of the month of Sh'aban ; the night of 
 
 'Arafa (hjc) and of the two festivals (^^.Ja«ll IaIj^I). The 
 days most favorable to prayer are said to be nineteen 
 
 (ili'ill j.'jjll) viz. ; the day of 'Arafa ; the day of 'Ashiira* ; 
 the twenty-seventh day of Rajab, on which Gabriel is said 
 to have been sent to Muhammad with the divine mission; 
 (iciLfJlj) the seventeenth of Eamadan ; the middle of 
 Sha'ban ; Friday ; the two days of the two great Festi- 
 vals, and the appointed days of the month of ZiVl-Hijja 
 (cdIc^WII Ao^l) and the days of Tashriq (jj .^5). The 
 most excellent days of the week are said to be Thursday 
 and Monday, on which the account of men's actions are 
 taken up and presented to God. (Ghazdli i. 216-217.) 
 
 There are special prayers for every day in the week. 
 
 Sunday (day time). Muhammad said: "He who on 
 Sunday says a prayer of four rak'as, reciting the Fdtiha 
 in each rak'a, will find that God records these in His 
 account book as so many good actions (cl?Ijua».) as there 
 are Christian males and females in the world." 
 
 Monday. When the day is somewhat advanced towards 
 noon, he who says a prayer of two rak'as and recites in 
 each rak'a the Fatiha and the verse of the throne, two 
 taawwuz, and asks for pardon ten times, and prays for 
 .blessings on the Prophet ten times, God will forgive him 
 all his sins. 
 
 Tuesday. Ten rak'as at noon, and the reading of the 
 Fitiha, will gain remission of sins for seventy days. 
 
 Wednesday. Twelve rak'as before noon, and Qur'an 
 reading and certain formulas will get remission of all 
 
156 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 past sins, deliverance from the tribulations of the grave 
 and the reward of a prophet in the future world. 
 
 Thursday. A prayer of two rak'as said between noon 
 and afternoon and the reading of portions of the Qur'an 
 get a reward, such as he who fasts during the months of 
 Kajab, Sha'ban and Eamadan and performs the pilgrim- 
 age to Mecca obtains. 
 
 Friday. He who, after having carefully made his ablu- 
 tions, says a prayer of two, four, eight or twelve rak'as, 
 will find that God will raise him in Paradise 200, 400, 
 800 or 1,200 degrees respectively and wipe out 200, 400, 
 800 or 1,200 sins, respectively. 
 
 Sunday night. Twenty rak'as, reciting the Fatiha in 
 
 each, repeating : '' Say God is one " (j.»^l cxUI ^a> Ji) fifty 
 times, and : "I ask for pardon" (J^^^ ic ^W Akx^]) one 
 hundred times, bring a rich reward. 
 
 Alms. — The giving of the duly appointed Alms (tithes, 
 
 poor rate, taxes, tenth, i[^j,y is another of the five 
 foundations of Islam, next in importance to prayer. It 
 rests on a distinct command of the Qur'an. ''Perform 
 the prayer and give the alms." Sura ii. 40 : (Siiras ii. 
 77, 104 ; iv. 79 ; ix. 5, 11 ; xxii. 42, 78 ; xxiv. 55 ; Iviii. 14 ; 
 Ixxiii. 20) and is therefore absolutely obligatory. 
 
 1 It is called 6L£s; augmentation, purification, (from \^S=>x to increase, 
 augment ; to be, to become pure), because the portion a man gives of his 
 property in alms is considered to purify and sanctify that property and 
 cause it to increase by drawing down a blessing on it. This legal tax is 
 to be paid annually by every Muslim subject towards the support of the 
 poor, the carrying on of holy war against infidels, the spread of Islam and 
 the maintenance of Muslim institutions. It is mentioned in eighty-two 
 passages of the Qur'dn in close connection with prayer. Voluntary alms 
 (dili) are also meritorious acts strongly recommended in the Qur'an and 
 the Hadith (Sura ii. 274-275) ; but are left to the free choice of every believer. 
 The term dJiXo is occasionally also used to designate the obligatory almy, 
 
ALMS. 157 
 
 but SL^^ is the proper technical term for the latter and is never used to 
 designate voluntary alms-giving. Muhammad used to say: "He who 
 pays the ZakAt of his property, evil will be removed from him. Make 
 your wealth sure and heal your sick by giving alms." 
 
 The Zakat is incumbent on every Muslim who is free (AjX), «aue 
 (Jfic), adult (^yij), provided he possesses, in full, property the amount 
 or value of such estate or effects as is termed in the law the Nis&b (s-*^), 
 (^^^) and that he has been in possession of the same for a full year. 
 ( J^ cdLU ; A»^; f*'L,\ ^ ^yij ^ Jac i\^^\ ^\^\ lyu Ibn 'Abidin ii. 4) 
 
 The Nisdb is the amount, or value of property, wnich is subject to this 
 tax. A smaller amount than the fixed Nisdb is not subject to the pay- 
 ment of the tax. 
 
 The Zak&t of various kinds of property is to be paid on the following 
 conditions : 
 
 (1) Animals ^^^e^^ ftL^j : of those the Zakat is due on the following 
 five conditions : 
 
 (a) they must come under the term cattle ( Jt^), such as camels, 
 oxen, sheep, horses, which are not kept as articles of merchandize. Mules, 
 donkeys, etc., are not subject to this tax. 
 
 (b) they must be cattle kept out at pasture (&4JC). Animals fattened 
 at homo (Ai^Ut^*) are not subject to tax. 
 
 (c) they must have been in the possession of the owner for a whole 
 year (SyJ\f^ J^ o^ JU^ ^ li^^'i fy^^)- 
 
 {d) they must have been the absolute and full properly and under 
 the full control of the owner (uy^^^ *eVLj^ JU*^). 
 
 (e) the quantity or number of the property must amount to what is 
 called the nis&b: 
 
 The Nis4b of camels (Jf)^) is five, that is, no Zakit is due on less than 
 
 five camels, on 5 to 9 camels the tax due is one sheep of the second year, or 
 a goat of the third year. (yu^\ ^^ ^^^^ (^^\ (^ IcJ^) ; for lU to 11 
 camels the tax is two sheep ; from 15 to 19, three sheep ; from 20 to 24, 
 four sheep ; for any number from 25 to 35, the Zak&t due is a yearling 
 female camel (^\^^ *a^) ; from 36 to 45, a two-year old female 
 camel ((jj»*J aji»\) ; 'ro™ 46 to 60, a three-year old female camel (Afe.) ; 
 from 61 to 75, a four-ycar old female camel (AcJu>.) ; f rom 75 to 90, two two- 
 year old female camels ((^yt^^^) ', ^^om 91 to 120, two three-year old female 
 
158 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 (^^UL.) ; from 120 to 133, three three-year old female camels ; from 133 
 camels upwards a three-year old female camel ((^»J o-^). 
 
 No ZakAt is due on oxen, cows, buffaloes (j^\ ft^^j), till they reach 
 the number of thirty. From 30 to 40 cattle a one-year calf (jf^) is due ; 
 then up to 40 a two-year old female calf (AjuJ) ; when the number 
 exceeds 40 the Zakat is to be calculated according to this rule. 
 
 No Zakat is due on sheep, goats (,»IaS^ ^^^j) ^^^ ^^^^ *^^^^ ^^ ' ^^°^ ^^ 
 to 120, a two-year old sheep is due ; from 120 to 200, two goats or sheep ; 
 above this one for every hundred. Thus the Zakat on sheep and goats is 
 about 1 per cent. (Kashf i. 258). 
 
 (2) Zakit of the fruits of the field is the tenth (^y^wAjti^ ^^-^j); of 
 wheat, barley (^^*e.), dates, (^), raisins (s-trf;) honey (J— c) the 
 Zak&t due is the tenth (^-1*1^) ; but only when these amount to 800 
 e^ (e^j weight of two katil) ; nothing is due on smaller quantities 
 or on fruit before they are ripe and dry. The delivery takes place when 
 they are quite ripe and dry (tAjaasJJ\ jjo,) Land watered by means of 
 buckets or machinery pays only half of the tenth. 
 
 (&JUy ^ ^^fiii yV^(^\ Kashf i. 262.) 
 
 (3) Money, gold, and silver (^Jk5lJ\ ^^^j) - ^^ Zakdt is due on silver 
 (&Ii) till it amounts to 200 dirhem by the weight of Mecca, and of gold 
 till it amounts to 20 Mithqal (JUjU), which is the Nisab of silver and 
 
 gold respectively. On 200 dirhems of silver the Zakat due is five dirhems 
 or about the fourth of the tenth of the value. Of gold the Nisdb is 20 
 Mithqils ; when it has reached this amount, half a Mithqdl is due, and for 
 every additional four Mithqals the tax due is two Qirdt ^UwJ). On 
 objects made of silver or gold, such as cups, rings, bracelets, necklaces, 
 etc., the same taxes are due, but only if they have been in the full posses- 
 sion of the owner for a whole year. 
 
 (4) Merchandize (S^^^^ '^^;) • Articles of merchandize should be ap- 
 praised ; they are subject to the same tax as gold and silver (2J per cent.) 
 if they exceed 200 dirhems in value. The year (J^) commences with the 
 possession of the capital with which the merchandize has been purchased ; 
 if the capital did not amount to the taxable sum, then the tax is to be 
 paid from the time when the merchandize has been bought. 
 
 (5) Minerals and buried treasures, (^jU.42\. \L£5^\ '^-^j) • ^^ ^ person 
 find a deposit of buried treasure, one-fifth is due upon what consists of 
 gold and silver, nothing is due on precious stones. There are differences 
 on the subject between the Imdms of the various Schools, but they are of 
 little importance. 
 
ALMS. 169 
 
 (6) Alms of the feast of Fitr (^\ iijtc -^\ SlSsj) : The distributing 
 of alms at the feast of Fitr (and of the fast of Ramadin) on the first day 
 of Shaww&l (J^yftt) is obligatory on every Muslim. These alms consist 
 of a measure, or half a measure or wheat or barley (^to), or raisins or 
 dates, taken from the best of what is used for food. The head of the 
 family is bound to give these alms not only for his own person, but also 
 for his wife, his children, his JIuslim slaves or any other person depend- 
 ent on him for their support. Muhammad commanded his people to distri- 
 bute these alms to the poor early on the day of the feast, before going to 
 assemble for prayer, saying : " Relieve the poor from going about (begging) 
 on this day." Ibn 'Abb4s says : •• God commanded the giving of these 
 alms as a purification of the person, who has fasted, from any forbidden 
 act he may have committed, or any evil words ho may have used ; if ho 
 distributes them before the prayer of the feast, they are accepted as Zak&t ; 
 if he does so after the prayer service, whatever he gives is only common 
 alms (dil^) not Zak4t (Kashf i. 2G4-2G5). As to the manner of giving 
 the Zak4t &L^J\ S^/-^ <Vefte'^ ^^'^ points are to be considered : 
 
 (1) The intention ; the giver must intend the payment of the obligatory 
 Zak&t. 
 
 (5) The speedy delivery of the Zak&t when due, that is after the year. 
 
 (3) One kind must not be changed for another. 
 
 (4) The Zakii of one place must not be delivered in another place. 
 
 (6) Zak&t is to be distributed among the various classes of people who 
 are entitled to the same, namely, the following eight classes (Sura ix. GO) 
 (1) the poor (^^^), who possesses nothing and are unable to acquire any. 
 thing; the (2) needy (^^^.m^^^), whose income does not cover their 
 expenses; (3) the collector of the Zak4t (^yuUS^) including messengers, 
 scribes ; (4) chiefs and influential men who have embraced Isl&m, to whom 
 gifts (subsidies) are given in order to keep them steadfast and encourage 
 others to embrace Isl&m {f*%J^\ ^ f^^ J^f»3^) ; (5) the slave who 
 
 works to buy his liberty (v^l^»M) ; (G) those who have got into debt 
 without being guilty of fraud ; (7) those who fight for IsUm (i\/i\); (8) the 
 wayfarer according to his want. The giver of the alms has to ascertain 
 how many of these classes there exist in his place and to distribute them 
 among the same. (GhazAli i. 132 and 138-139.) 
 
 The qualifications for the recipients of the alms are (1) that they 
 understand that the support they receive is to make their minds free from 
 
160 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Fasting. — The third foundation of Islam is Fasting 
 (*Z^ _ (•U-c) which consists of total abstinence from 
 food, drink and cohabitation from sunrise to sunset. 
 
 Bathing, smoking, taking snuff, smelling a flower are 
 equally forbidden during fast time. 
 
 Muhammad used to say : " By God the odour of the 
 mouth of him who fasts is more acceptable to God than 
 the odour of musk." 
 
 With regard to the degree of obligation, a fast may 
 be divided into (1) obligatory Kamadan ; (2) meritorious, 
 but not in the same degree, (3) supererogatory, such as 
 fasting certain days in the month. 
 
 There are various kinds of fasts : 
 
 (1) Obligatory, Kamadan fast (^JCJS^\\ A>yc - ^J^^^j ^y^)- 
 
 (2) Atoning, redeeming fast (p'wiaJl (>^^)^ a fast observed 
 at another time instead of one which has been omitted. 
 
 (•5) Expiatory fast (j$.li^! ^yc), by way of expiation 
 for some sin committed. 
 
 worldly cares and enable them wholly to give themselves to the worship 
 of God ; (2) that they thank the giver and invoke blessings upon him ; (3) 
 that they only accept such gifts as they know are lawfully acquired ( JiJb.) ; 
 (4) that they take no more than they are lawfully entitled to : the debtor 
 what suffices to pay his debt, the poor and needy ought not to ask for more 
 than the support of one year ; (5) that they ascertain from the giver of the 
 Zakat the amount he has to dispose of, in order not to ask for an undue 
 proportion. 
 
 Muhammad allowed rich people to pay their Zakat for two years in ad- 
 vance, if they liked to do so. At first he ordered his people to give alms 
 only to Muslims, but later on he allowed them to give to people of all 
 religions. Muhammad used to give presents to those whose hearts he saw 
 favourably inclined to Islam. 
 
FASTING. 161 
 
 (4) Vowed fast ( .JJJl (♦r^)' ^ ^^^^ vowed to be observed 
 under certain circumstances. 
 
 (5) Supererogatory fast ( JiiJl Ayc)> including all kinds 
 of voluntary fasts. 
 
 The Fast of Ramadan is absolutely obligatory on every 
 individual Muslim. It rests on a direct command of the 
 Qur'an : ** believers ! A fast is prescribed to you, as it 
 was prescribed to those before you that ye may fear God 
 for certain days." (Siira ii. 179-184.)^ 
 
 1 Ramad&n, is the ninth month of tho ^luslim year. In the month 
 of Kamad&n the Qur'&n is believed to have been sent down by God, where- 
 fore it is held to be sacred. This fast of thirty days (not the nights) is 
 obligatory on every Muslim, male and female, who has reached tho age of 
 puberty. Very young children, idiots, the sick and infirm and aged, preg- 
 nant women or women who are nursing their children, are exempted 
 from observing this fast. 
 
 The fast of Ramadin begins as soon as the appearance of the now moon 
 of the month of Ramadin has been seen by two trustworthy witnesses. 
 When the weather is overclouded and prevents the new moon of Ramaddn 
 from being distinctly seen, the testimony of one witness is sufficient ; but 
 when the beginning of tho fast rests on the testimony of one witness 
 only, the fast must be continued and cannot be broken till the appearance 
 of the new moon of the following month (Shawwal) is affirmed by two 
 trustworthy witnesses. One is not sufficient in this case. 
 
 Things to be observed with regard to the fast of Ramaddn are : 
 
 (1) Watching for the beginning of Ramaddn ((^jU^; ^ jj\ &-ti\/*), 
 
 (2) The proposal. The believer must propose to himself to observe the 
 fast ; and must reiterate this proposal every night for the fast of the next 
 day.... 
 
 (3) Total abstinence from food and drink ^\ a^ ^\^\ ^^ ^Lw#3U 
 (^y^\. Bleeding, cupping does not invalidate the fast, nor what enters 
 
 the mouth involuntarily or out of forgetfulness (C»-«^). 
 
 (4) Abstinence from sexual intercourse during the day time 
 (^U%S\ ^^ tiJlw*!)^) except it be out of forgetfulness. At night 
 cohabitation is permitted, and the fast is not thereby broken. 
 
 (5) Abstinence from pollution («Jl^\4 e\juju*^\ ^^ i^L^a^V) 
 
 (6) Abstinence from vomiting (e^^ ti^y^^ ^ *^Lw«S^), unless it is 
 involuntarily. Spittle may be swallowed. 
 
 21 
 
162 THE BELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The Sunna (^^ijl) to be observed during the fast of 
 Ramadan in imitation of the Prophet are the following: 
 (1) delaying as long as possible the Suhur ( ,^*w.ll .J^d-U)- 
 The Suhiir is the meal taken at the time of the Sahar 
 (fst^)^ that is, a little before day-break, (2) taking a date 
 or drinking a little water before prayer, (3) giving up the 
 use of the siwak from noon to sunset, (4) giving alms, 
 (5) reading the Qur'an, 
 
 Voluntary fast (cjiLiil A^^y Besides the thirty days 
 fast of Ramadan, there are certain days of the month and 
 the week, which it is considered most praiseworthy and 
 meritorious to observe as days of voluntary fasting.^ 
 
 If the fast is omitted or broken it must be made good by one of the 
 our following acts (d«>j\i jlUS^ j*j^y Ghazdli ii. 145-146) :— 
 
 (1) a redeeming fast (cLiaJ^ -.ye, from ^^^, to perform, to redeem, to 
 make reparation for). A Muslim who has not observed the fast for some 
 valid reason or otherwise ( .Ar j^Jo A ;j^) is bound to make up for it 
 by observing the fast omitted at some 'other time. He may do so either 
 on consecutive or on separate days most convenient to him. A woman 
 who omits her fast, on account of physical occasions, has to make good the 
 omission some other time. The Companions, if on a journey they did 
 not fast, were not required to make this redeeming fast. 
 
 (2) Expiatory fast (^a.lii^aJ^ (•t*')» ^^ incumbent on him who has 
 transgressed the command of abstinence from sexual intercourse. It 
 consists in setting free a slave or, if he be not able to do that, in fasting 
 two consecutive months, or feeding sixty poor persons. 
 
 (3) Fasting the remainder of the day (j\^\ ^ c£JL>*/«^) is incumbent 
 on him who has committed the sin of eating or drinking on a fast day. 
 
 (4) Ransom (&i>iS). A woman with child, mothers giving suck, who 
 do not observe the fast on account of their being afraid to do harm to 
 their children, are to give a ransom of a measure of wheat to a poor person 
 for every neglected fast day, besides observing the ' redeeming fast'. .. 
 
 1 (1) Annual : the fast of 'Arafa ; the fast of 'Ashiira' on the 10th of 
 Muharram, and the first ten days of the month of Zu'1-Hijja and Mu- 
 harram, and all the holy mouths. -. . 
 
FASTING. 163 
 
 The vowed fast ( . JJJl j»^)- When the believer has 
 vowed a fast to God, he must strictly observe it. The 
 neglect of it requires a redeeming fast; and, if it was 
 vowed with an oath, the neglect requires an expiatory 
 fast of sixty days. 
 
 Fasts may not be observed on the so-called forbidden 
 days, viz.f the first day of the festival of Fitr and the four 
 days of the festival of Adhd. 
 
 Muhammad used to say : " Fasting is one-half of 
 patience, and patience is one-half of faith." Muhammad 
 used to fast two days in the month, and he commanded 
 his people to do so also, until the fast of Eamadan was 
 revealed. Most of them disliked it and considered it a 
 burden. Everyone who disliked fasting, used to feed 
 sixty poor people ; but when the verse * Whosoever is 
 present in the month of Bamaddn, let him fast was re- 
 vealed, the Prophet commanded all who were able, to 
 keep it." He said : " God has said : ' fasting belongs to 
 me, and I will reward it.' " 
 
 At first, sexual intercourse was prohibited also at night ; 
 but when Muhammad found that people transgressed the 
 command, he allowed it, and the verse : ** It is allowed to 
 you to go into your wives " was revealed. Muhammad 
 recommended his people to eat immediately after sunset, 
 before performing their prayers ; he also advised them to 
 eat the meal called Suhiir a little before day-break, as 
 it would strengthen them for the fast of the day, and 
 afterwards to say the morning prayer. He used to say, 
 
 (2) Monthly fasts : the privileged days for fasting are the first day and 
 the middle days, i.e., 13th, 14th, 15th, which are called the white, 
 bright days (^jd^^ (*^^^) ^"^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ °^ ^ month. 
 
 (3) Weekly fasts : the best days of the week for fasting are Monday, 
 Thursday and Friday. 
 
164 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 " The handles of Islam and the pillars on which it is built 
 up are these, — Confession that there is no God but God, 
 the appointed prayer and the fast of Kamadan — he who 
 forsakes one of them becomes an infidel, whom to deprive 
 of his wealth and his life is lawful." 
 
 It is the duty of devout Muslims to seclude themselves 
 in the mosque during the month of Kamadan and abstain 
 from all worldly business, devoting this time to reading 
 and meditating on the Qur'an, the Hadith and other reli- 
 gious literature. Muhammad used thus to spend the last 
 ten days of Kamadan and to exhort his people to follow 
 his example. This seclusion is called I'tikaf ^ (uJl^^Icl) 
 Women also may spend I'tikaf , not however in a mosque, 
 but in a room in their houses (l^'juij iXcvi***^) l^ 4— a^Axi*)- 
 
 The Hajj. The pilgrimage (^c^l) to the Ka'ba, the holy 
 house at Mecca (j»LJ] ^-::-^a11)' is the fifth foundation 
 on which Islam is built up.* The performance of this 
 
 1 There are three kinds of I'tik&f : (1) the I'tikdf of Ramadin, which is a 
 Sunna duty ; (2) the I'tikdf a believer vows to observe at a certain time 
 which is Wajib, (3) the I'tikdf observed at any other time, which is con- 
 sidered mustahabb. 
 
 The seclusion a man vows may be consecutive and is preferable in 
 RamadS,n, or it may be separate. If he has vowed a consecutive I'tikdf, 
 he must not leave the mosque during the days of the same, except for the 
 most necessary natural wants, or for performing his ablutions. He eats 
 and sleeps in the mosque. 
 
 (Siira ii. 183 ; Ghazili i. 146). 
 
 The great fast day of 'Ashura ^jy6«^, observed by Muhammad and many 
 of his followers, is no doubt borrowed from the Jews who kept a fast on 
 the 10th of the month of Tisri (Leviticus xvii. 29.) See Sale on the 
 subject ; also Dictionary of Islam, 534. 
 
 2 The object of this pilgrimage is the Ka'ba, a square primitive stone 
 building at Mecca, which Muslims believe to have been built by Abraham, 
 
THE HAJJ. 106 
 
 pilgrimage, once at least in his life, is incumbent on 
 every Muslim, male and female, who is possibly able to 
 do it. (Luu* ayJl c'ixL,) ^^) This duty rests on a special 
 command of the Qur'an. Siiras xxii. 28 ; ii. 153, 192 ; ill. 
 90 ; V. 2. 
 
 and to which the pagan Arabs had from ancient times performed pilgrim- 
 ages as to their national sanctuary, on which occasion they performed 
 the very same rites and ceremonies now observed by the Muslim pil- 
 grims. The so-called black stone (o»m}K\ «^^\), built up in one of the 
 corners of this temple, forms an object of special veneration to the pilgrim. 
 The Ka'ba has been adopted as the central sanctuary of the whole 
 Muslim world. 
 
 The conditions (Z^\ m^j^ ty*) under which a Muslim is bound to per- 
 form the pilgrimage are these : (1) full age ; (2) Islim ; (3) sound reason ; 
 (4) f redom, a slave is not to perform it ; (5) ability, that is, he must be in 
 good health, and possess the means to defray his expenses and, at the 
 same time, to provide for the family he leaves behind ; the roads must be 
 safe. A woman must be accompanied by her husband or some near 
 relation. 
 
 The time during which the pilgrimage may be undertaken arc the 
 months of Shawwal, Zu'1-Qa'da and the first nine days of Zu'1-Hijja, for 
 a pilgrimage undertaken at any other time is not the Hajj (the great pil- 
 grimage) but is called • Umra (8;^), or minor pilgrimage or visitation, 
 in which all the rites and ceremonies of the Hajj, except the offering of 
 the sacrifices, are observed. 
 
 The Muslim before setting out on his pilgrimage must (1) repent of his 
 sins, restore what he has unjustly taken (^UuJ^ Oj), pay his debts, pay 
 the allowances up to his return (Afi«), return pledges (^J^), provide the 
 means for his journey, give alms to the poor, sick, etc., (2) choose a suitable 
 companion, a pious and charitable man ; (3) before starting say a prayer 
 of two rak'as and read suitable verses of the Qur'4n ; (4) on arrival at the 
 door of his house say: ''In the name of God, in Him I trust;" (5) on 
 mounting the animal say : " In the name of God, etc. ; " (G) perform the 
 greater part of the journey at night, and not to dismount till the day has 
 become hot; (7) not linger behind the caravan, at night one pilgrim 
 watches while the other sleeps ; (8) on ascending to say : " God is great ! " 
 on descending : " Praise be to God." For a detailed account see Ghazdli 
 i. 153-154 who treats of these subjects under the heads. 
 
166 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 ^i _ jU\ v>V> Jc J^ J^ - w>^;J\ ^i - ^^yl\ ^ - A^^^^ ^J 
 
 The Miqdt («yVfi*/») are the starting places. On each of the various 
 roads leading to Mecca, there are, at the distance of about five or six miles 
 from the city, stages called Miqdt, or starting places, where the pilgrims 
 collect and from whence they start in a body on their further journey to 
 Mecca, after having assumed the Ihrdm (^Ua^\) the pilgrim's garb. Mu- 
 hammad appointed five such places of meeting. 
 
 (1) For pilgrims coming from Madina a place called Al Haifa (AilaJU, 
 about six miles from Mecca ; (2) for those coming from Syria, Jukhfa 
 (Ai^) ; (3) for those from Irak, Zat 'Irk (jyi «yU) ; (4) for those com- 
 ing from Yemen, Yalamlam (^JUli) ; (5) for those from Nejd, a place called 
 Qarnu'l-Mandzil (JjU^J^ (^/) ; (Ibn «Abidln ii. 165). 
 
 When the pilgrim has reached his respective Miq&t, he has to observe 
 the following five customs («»5j^o'\) : (1) he bathes and cleans his whole 
 body, proposing to himself to do it for the sake of the pilgrimage, he pares 
 his nails, combs his beard ; and (2) he divests himself of his clothes and 
 assumes the pilgrim's sacred robe, consisting of two seamless wrappers, one 
 being wrapped round the waist and the other thrown loosely over the 
 shoulder, the head being uncovered. Sandals may be worn, but not shoes 
 or boots. After he has assumed the pilgrim's garb, he must not shave any 
 part of his body, nor pare his nails, nor wear any other garment than the 
 Ihr4m. He now enters upon a state or time, in which what before was 
 allowable or lawful to him is forbidden. 
 
 The pilgrim having now entered upon the Hajj, faces Mecca and makes 
 the Niyya, that is, he proposes to himself to perform the pilgrimage, 
 either Hajj or 'Umra as the case may be. It is laudable if he recites 
 the talbia, i*-!?, (from ^Ij to declare one's readiness) : " Here I am for 
 Thy service, God, I am ready." (^si-jJ ^^\ ceJlJ). 
 
 It is laudable now to say the petition : ** God, I purpose to perform 
 
 the Hajj ; make it easy to me God, I offer to Thee my flesh and my 
 
 hair and my blood 1 have vowed to abstain from women and perfume 
 
 and clothes out of desire to please Thee ! " 
 
 Then he repeats the talbia, every time he ascends a hill, or descends 
 into a valley. 
 
 Things prohibited to the Muslim (S-»jJU -j^\ ui^^^yaa*/*), as long as he 
 wears the pilgrim's garb, are : (1) wearing a shirt, drawers, shoes, turban 
 (d^U«J\ ^ «-iiJ^ ^ J>^\x^^ ^ U^^) 'y (^) perfume («--^), ^^^ atonement 
 for having used perfume is a sheep (SU. ^^ Lj^^) ; (3) shaving, paring 
 nails, the atonement for trangression is a sheep ; (4) sexual intercourse, 
 the atonement for transgression is a cow or seven sheep ; (5) things leading 
 
THE BAJJ. 167 
 
 to sexual intercourse such as kissing and self-pollution, the expiation is a 
 sheep ; (6) killing game. The expiation for transgressing is cattle of the 
 value of the animal killed (Ghazili i. 153). 
 
 The customs to be observed from the entrance into Mecca to the Tawaf, 
 or the going round the Ka'ba, (cJ^^LJ^ J^ l£=o* J^j s-*^^^) are as 
 follows : 
 
 (1) At a place called Zu-Tuwa (^^^^J), the pilgrim washes (bathes) 
 himself. Before the entrance into Mecca the pilgrim has to bathe nine 
 times. 
 
 (2) On approaching Mecca (1^=^ g^U. yfc^ ^^^\ J^^) he says : ♦' O 
 God this is Thy sanctuary and the pl.ace of security ; preserve my flesh 
 and blood. . . .from hell-fire." 
 
 (3) It is desirable that he should imitate the Prophet by entering 
 Mecca from the side of Al-Abtah (^iJ^) and leaving it by Al-Kuda 
 
 (4) When ho enters Mecca and obtains sight of the Ka'ba, he says : 
 *• There is no God but God ! God is great ! " 
 
 (5) On entering the holy mosque (f»\j^\ .v» ♦3\), he does so by the 
 
 gate of the Beni Sheiba (i-^ ^ v^lj) saying: •' In the name of God, 
 by God, from God " on approaching the Ka'ba he says : " Praise be to God, 
 peace on his servants." 
 
 (6) After this he approaches the Black Stone and touches it with his 
 right hand and kisses it saying : " My pledge I have delivered, my vow I 
 have fulfilled, bear thou witness that I have done it." 
 
 (5\i^^W ^J J^\ - AStfi ^ <j*^ ^ ^'A ^JSi^^ ^^). When it is not 
 possible for him, on account of the throng, to touch the black stone 
 with his hand, it suffices to touch it with a stick and to kiss the end 
 which has come in contact with the stone (Ghazili i. 155). After this he 
 performs the circumambulation, during which the following is to be ob- 
 served : " He must be careful to be in a state of outward and legal purity. 
 Ho then takes up part of the Ihrdm under his right arm and throws 
 it over his left shoulder (»^^^\ J-i ^-^), "making" one end hang 
 down on his back and the other on the chest, thus he repeats the talbia and 
 appropriate petitions. This is called the Taw&f of the arrival. When he 
 has thus arranged his pilgrim's garb (^LkbS\ ^ ^^ U\), he stands so 
 as to have the Ka'ba on his left, at a distance of about three steps, and the 
 black stone in front and then passes before it with his whole body 
 (ii^ ^^4^ ^^^\ ^t:^^ j2i):' 
 
 Before the black stone he says: " In the name of God, God is great " 
 .... and then goes round the sanctuary, beginning on the right and 
 
168 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 leaving it on the left .... after this he reaches the door of the sanctuary, 
 when he says certain petitions, and praises God till he reaches the Ruknu'l 
 'Ardqi (^\;*J\ 0-%J\), and after it the Mizdb (^^^), then the Ruknu'l 
 ShAmi (<^liiJ^ (:^^^), ^^^^ *^® Ruknu'l Yamani (^^UJ\ (:)-^j), 
 reciting at each of these places the appointed ejaculations and petitions. 
 He has now performed one turn or procession OoU») round the Ka'ba. 
 In the same manner, and repeating the same petitions, etc., he encompasses 
 the Ka'ba seven times (Ul6.\ &jt*«.). 
 
 The first three processions he performs at a quick step ; the last four 
 times at the usual walking pace. It is desirable that every time he 
 passes before the black stone, he should touch it either with his hand or 
 with a stick and kiss it. It is also desirable that he kiss the Ruknu'l 
 Yamini. 
 
 After having thus encompassed the Ka'ba seven times, the pilgrim 
 approaches the Ka'ba between the black stone and the door called the 
 Multazim (^yU,!\) and presses his body against the wall, placing his 
 right cheek upon it and stretching out his arms and hands upon it and 
 saying : " God, O Lord of the ancient house ! Save my neck from hell- 
 fire." This is considered a place where prayers are answered. 
 
 The pilgrim now performs a prayer of two rak'as behind the Makdm 
 Ibrhim4 in the first of which he recites Sura ii. 119, and in the second 
 the Suratu'l-Ikhlas, 112. These are the two rak'as of the Tawaf 
 («J^^\ \xx^A ; he then closes his processions by once more touching 
 
 and kissing the stone. C')/*^^ ^ ^^ (:>*? cs**^^) 
 
 After having performed the seven processions round the Ka'ba, the 
 pilgrim issues from the temple gate, called the gate of Safa, and ascends the 
 hill of Safa a little so that he can see the Ka'ba; here turning his face 
 towards it he repeats praises and petitions ; then he walks alternately at 
 a slow and quick pace till he reaches the top of the hill Marwa. Between 
 these two hills he walks backward and forward, sometimes slowly, some- 
 times quickly, seven times repeating each time the same petitions. . . (Siira 
 ii. 153). Women are dispensed from observing this custom. This is 
 called the i\y^\ * ^\ (^ the walking between Safa and Marwa. This 
 custom is said to be observed in remembrance of Abraham when he 
 searched for water for his son Ishmael and ran backwards and forwards 
 in great trouble of mind. 
 
 When the pilgrim has performed these rites he is at liberty to leave the 
 sanctuary and return to his house in the town. He must, however, 
 continue to wear the Ihrdm and keep his mind in the same state of 
 devotion and reverence. He may not as a duty but as an act of merit, 
 repeat the processions round the Ka'ba up to the 7th of Zu'1-Hijja. 
 
THE HAJJ. 1G9 
 
 On the 7th of Zu'1-Hijja, three days before the feast of the sacrifice 
 (^_2^3\ juc), immediately after the noon prayer, the Im&m, standing 
 near the Ka'ba, informs the pilgrims of the approach of the feast and 
 preaches a sermon in which he exhorts them to prepare themselves for the 
 solemn rites to be obser\'ed and instructs them how to observe them. On 
 
 the following day, the 8th, which is called ij^^^ ^y , the day of watering, 
 (so called because the pilgrims give drink to their camels, as a preparation 
 for standing on 'Arafit, where there is no water), immediately after morn- 
 ing prayer, the pilgrims proceed to Mina where they spend the night. It 
 is laudable to walk on foot, reciting the appropriate petitions. The next 
 morning, the 9th, after having spent the night at Min4 and performed 
 morning prayer, the pilgrims proceed on their way to mount 'Arafdt. On 
 arriving there they pitch their tents in the plain of 'Arafat near the 
 mosque. After the requisite ablutions they repair to the mosque 
 where the Imim, after the decline of the sun, ascends the pulpit 
 and after the Mu'azzin has called to prayer preaches a sermon, consisti- 
 ing of two parts ; after this he performs, with the congregation, the noon 
 and afternoon prayers together. The pilgrims then take their stand on 
 * Araf&t, in any place of the hill, but not in the valley. While standing 
 there one behind the other, they must not cease to pronounce words 
 
 of praise and prayer and repentance J^l^^ ^ ^^ ^\ ^ .\,.»».73\ ^\^\) ; 
 
 (XiyJ^ y »\aj1\ y - \i^\ y they must not leave *Araf4t till after sunset, so as 
 to have spent there part of the day and the night (Ibn 'Abidln ii. 187), 
 Leaving 'Arafat after sunset the pilgrims proceed to a place called 
 Muzdalifa repeating petitions and praises. Arrived there it is desirable 
 that they perform their ablutions in honour of the same. There the 
 Imam and the assembled pilgrims perform sunset and night prayers 
 together with one Az^n and two Iq&ma at the time of the ' Ishd and spend 
 the night at Muzdalifa. 
 
 After midnight they prepare themselves to start and provide themselves 
 with little stones or pebbles (seventy may suffice). 
 
 Very early after morning prayer on the 10th of the month, the proces- 
 sion begins to move towards Min4. On reaching the further end of Muz. 
 dalffa, they stop awhile and recite the appropriate petitions for this holy 
 place (<*^t^^ ,ft» tM) ; then, leaving it before the sun rises, they press on 
 
 till they reach the WAdi Muhassir (jZ.^U ^»>^^) which they traverse in 
 speed. When the sun of the great day of the sacrifice has risen, the 
 pilgrims raise their voices in praise and prayer till they have reached 
 Min4 and the three heaps or pillars of pebbles not far from each 
 other. The last one is called the Jumratu'l-'Aqaba (£^^ V^)> ^^^'^^ 
 
 22 
 
170 THE BELIGION OF ISLAm. 
 
 as 'the great devil,' (-«.^aJ\ ^Ua*— iJ\); the middle one is • Jamratu'l- 
 Wasita (^Je^^\y^ and the first one Jumratu'1-Aula (^J^3\). The first 
 two heaps or pillars are on this occasion passed without taking any 
 notice of them ; but on reaching the Jamratu'l-'Aqaba, each pilgrim 
 throws the seven stones of the 'Aqaba. This is done thus : " When the 
 sun has risen about the length of a spear above the horizon, the pilgrim 
 seizes one after the other of the seven pebbles between the thumb 
 and the forefinger of the right hand and throws them at the pillar, 
 
 saying, every time he throws a pebble: In the name of God I do 
 
 this in obedience to the Most Merciful and in spite of the devil." The 
 object is to confound the devils who are supposed to be there. This 
 ceremony is called the throwing of stones ( v«-^^ c5^j)- 
 
 The pilgrim having thus performed the rite of throwing stones returns 
 to Mini and there offers the sacrifice (i,jjss-aJ\ H^) °^ ^^^ Feast of the 
 Sacrifice. The victim may be a sheep, or a goat, or a cow, or a camel, 
 according to the means of the pilgrim. It is a meritorious act for the 
 pilgrim to slaughter the sacrifice with his own hand. This he does in the 
 following manner : placing the head of the victim towards the Ka'ba, its 
 forelegs being tied together, he stands on his right side and plunges the 
 knife into its throat with great force crying with a loud voice : " In the 
 
 name of God, God is great " Part of the flesh of the sacrifice ought 
 
 to be roasted and eaten by him who offers it, and the remainder distri- 
 buted among the poor. The sacrifice offered on this occasion is called 
 A**-6 (pl« ^W^) a word not used in the Qur'in, but in Traditions. It is 
 derived from ^_J^A the advanced morning, (about 10 a.m.), because this is 
 the time when this sacrifice is to be offered. 
 
 Besides this obligatory sacrifice of the pilgrim, there are other voluntary 
 sacrifices and gifts, presents, offerings called ^^JUto (singular &>a£i) , con- 
 sisting of animals (camels, oxen, sheep) which a Muslim, who cannot per- 
 form the pilgrimage, sends as offerings to the sacred temple. These offer- 
 ings are branded and sent off with strings, necklaces (jJiJOs) round their 
 necks, (Siira v. 2, 96, 98) in sign of their being set aside as offerings to the 
 sanctuary, so that they may not be interfered with {see Ibn 'Abidin ii. 
 269. ^j^\ s^^). The sacrifice (camel) of thanksgiving is to be thus desig- 
 nated, but not the sacrifice of obligation (djU^JU jUa.S\ -j J^\ (:)>^). 
 Such offerings are often presented as voluntary gifts by pilgrims besides 
 the obligatory sacrifice and are dealt with like the obligatory sacrifices, 
 except that their being presented at 'Arafdt is not strictly required. 
 Muhammad on his first pilgrimage slaughtered sixty-three camels. 
 
 The pilgrim now gets his head shaved, during which operation he 
 repeats the appropriate petitions: for the bald it suffices to pass the 
 
THE *UMRA. 171 
 
 This lesser pilgrimage called the 'Urnra can be per- 
 formed at any time except the 8th, 9th, or 10th of Zu'l- 
 Hijja, these being the days fixed for the Hajj, the great 
 pilgrimage. It can be performed before or after the great 
 pilgrimage, jointly with or separately from the same. It 
 is not of the same importance or meritoriousness, nor a 
 
 razor over his head, for women to cut off a bit of hair. He has now ful- 
 filled the greater part of his duties as a pilgrim and is restored to the 
 
 first degree of his former freedom (jj^^ Jx-M). All things which had 
 hitherto been illicit to him in his capacity of a pilgrim are now again licit 
 to him, except sexual intercourse with women and hunting. He now 
 returns to Mecca and encompasses the Ka'ba seven times in the same 
 manner as the first time. This is called the Procession of visiting 
 (ftjltJ^ «_i\ JU) in distinction from the first, which is the procession of the 
 arrival. This procession properly concludes the pilgrimage and the pil- 
 grim may now put off the Ihram. 
 
 He has, however, two more duties to perform during the three days of 
 the 11th, 12th and 13th which are called the days of tashriq (^32..^^ f*^^)> 
 days of exposing to the sun, drying the flesh, because now the pilgrim 
 prepares provisions for the return journey by cutting slices from the 
 flesh of the victims offered on sacrifice and drying them in the sun. The 
 duties involved are spending the night at Min& and repeating the act 
 of throwing stones. The night thus spent at Mini is called the Night of 
 Best (J&\ SX^). On the second day of the feast he performs his ablutions 
 for the act of throwing the stones (^fi J--^^) and then repairs to the 
 first pillar which is near 'ArafAt, and throws at it seven stones, then to the 
 second pillar and then to the third pillar, where he again throws stones 
 with the same petitions as before. 
 
 These duties fulfilled, he returns to Mecca and performs the procession 
 of farewell (^W J^ ^^j^) ^° go^^g round seven times with the same peti- 
 tions as formerly, then he performs a prayer of two rak'as behind the 
 Makim Ibrahim ; he also drinks of the holy well of Zamzam (f^y*)) and goes 
 again to the place of the Ka'ba called Multazim pressing his body against 
 it and reciting the appropriate petitions. Betiring backwards and 
 steadily keeping his eyes fixed on the Holy House till it is out of sight, he 
 makes his exit, and the Hajj with its obligatory and praiseworthy rites 
 and ceremonies is completed. (For more details, and the proper petitions 
 9ee Qhazali i. 160.) 
 
172 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 duty of the same obligation as the Hajj ; but still it is a 
 Sunna duty in imitation of the Prophet's example and in 
 obedience to his exhortation : *' Join the 'Umra with the 
 Hajj, for truly the joining of both brings a blessing on 
 your days and your possessions, and wipes out your sins 
 and purifies you." ^ 
 
 1 S^\ - 6-*jJVj fijsJ\^ he performed the 'Umra. He who desires to 
 perform the 'Umra washes himself and puts on the pilgrim's garb and 
 begins the pilgrimage from one of the appointed stations ; he proposes to per- 
 form the *Umra and recites the talbia, then goes to the mosque of 'Ayesha, 
 and then says a prayer of two rak'as and the appointed petitions. He 
 then returns to Mecca and encompasses the.Ka'ba seven times and runs 
 between Safa and ^Marwa. He then has his head shaved and the *Umra 
 is completed. 
 
 It consists of the same rites and ceremonies as the Hajj, with this 
 exception that there is no sacrifice required. Residents at Mecca should 
 perform the *Umra frequently. These are the four kinds of pilgrimages : 
 
 (1) The joined pilgrimage ((^\j* g^), which requires the putting on 
 of the Ihrim once for both. 
 
 (2) The pilgrimage of enjoyment ^«i*jj^ Pf^)f which consists of first 
 performing the 'Umra, then, after having taken off the pilgrim's garb, 
 putting it on again at the proper time and performing the great Hajj. 
 
 (3) The great Hajj alone (^Vj S\ji\). 
 
 (4) The 'Umra alone (S^b ^\ji\). 
 
 There are punishments of various degrees, according to the gravity 
 of the sin or negligence committed by the pilgrim. He has to offer a 
 sacrifice, or fast, or give alms (iix^^\ ^^^\ ^j^\ yUj s-*«s*) ^^^ having 
 been in an unclean state, while encompassing the Ka'ba, for having had 
 sexual intercourse with his wife or slave after standing on 'Arafdt. A 
 smaller expiation is inflicted for the use of perfume, covering the head 
 and so on. 
 
 If a pilgrim is prevented by an enemy, or illness (or, if a woman, 
 by the death of a near relation who was her protector during the pilgrim- 
 age,) he is at liberty to give up his pilgrimage and to defer it to the 
 following year. 
 
 A Muslim who is not able to perform the pilgrimage personally may do 
 50 by proxy. This kind of pilgrimage is legal, and the merits of it are 
 placed to the account of him in whose favour it is undertaken, even if 
 
JIHAD. 173 
 
 JiiLAD. — The fighting against unbelievers _ uj^J^ - »ji«* 
 i)l|<sjll with the object of either winning them over to 
 Isldm, or subduing and exterminating them in case they 
 refuse to become Muslims, and the causing Islam to spread 
 and triumph over all religions is considered a sacred duty 
 of the Muslim nation. It is not a duty incumbent on 
 every individual Muslim, but on the nation as a whole. 
 This is meant by calling it a general duty and not an 
 individual duty. It rests on a direct command of the 
 Qur'an. (Suras ix. 5, 6, 29 ; iv, 76-79 ; ii. 214, 215, 186 ; 
 viii. 39.42.)» 
 
 it be a dead person. It is an acknowledged doctrine of Islim that the 
 merit and reward of every kind of worship and good actions may be 
 acquired for another person. He who performs the pilgrimage by proxy 
 does not derive any merit for himself. 
 
 After the completion of the Hajj, it is considered most desirable and 
 meritorious to visit Madina. Muhammad said : " He who visits me after 
 my death is as if he had visited me during my life-time." The visitor 
 performs a prayer of two rak'as near the pulpit, after which he visits 
 the tomb of the Prophet (Uij^^ j^\) with the appropriate salutations. 
 
 On returning home it is a laudable custom for the pilgrim, whenever 
 he ascends a hill, to say three takbirs, and when he comes in sight of his 
 place of residence to say : " God let me live in it in peace and grant 
 me my portion," then to apprise his family of his arrival and to go first 
 to the mosque and there perform a prayer of two rak'as. 
 
 Muhammad said: "Man does nothing, on the Day of the Sacrifice 
 more pleasing to God than the shedding of blood, the blood which flows 
 on the earth is accepted of God." 
 
 1 A learned Muslim doctor gives the following definition of Jih^d : '* It 
 is the calling on unbelievers to receive the true religion and fighting 
 
 those who do not receive it." (&M2 ^ ^^ JUi ^ ,j^\ ^jj\ ^J\ \aj1\ 
 Ibn 'Abidin iii. 235-308 ; Bukhiri ii. 110-108.) Muhammad used to say : 
 'Paradise is under the shade of the swords." t_j»ru.^^ J^ cs.'s^ &1^\ 
 " War is permanently established until the day of judgment." " One 
 day of fighting is of greater value with God than fasting a whole month." 
 
 j%k» ^V^ fj^ j^ iB^ Jt><— ^^ i*^ t>Q* " He who dies without having ever 
 
174 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 proposed to himself to engage in holy war dies the death of a heathen." 
 dJjfcW ^^ ^^ ^ W^ lli» *^I^. ^; «yU ^^. Fighting is a &>\Jl^ ^y , 
 but should the infidels invade a Muslim territory, and the Imdm under 
 such circumstance issue a general proclamation, then it becomes the duty 
 of every Muslim, man and woman, to fight the invaders, i.e., it then 
 becomes a uy^ (■©**. 
 
 At the beginning of his career Muhammad propagated the religion of 
 Isl&m by means of teaching, preaching and argumentation, and never had 
 recourse to force or compulsion. In several of the early Meccan Suras he 
 declared that he was sent only to preach and admonish. At Madina, when 
 at first he wished to win the Jews over to his side, he said that he had no 
 authority to compel any person to embrace Isldm. There was to be " no 
 compulsion in religion " (^^^^\ ^ t\j^\ S Sdra ii. 237; see Sell's His- 
 torical Development of the Qur'dn, S. P. C. K., on this verse, p. 89, 206). 
 He exhorted his followers also to bear patiently those injuries which were 
 offered to them on account of their faith (Siiras xxxiv. 2 ; xxxv. 22 ; ii. 113 ; 
 xvii. 105 ; xxv. 58 ; xxxiii. 44 ; xv. 94 ; iii. 19 ; Ixxxviii. 22) ; but no sooner 
 was he, after the space of about twelve years' peaceful work, on his 
 flight to Madina, enabled, by the assistance of his adherents (j^\) in that 
 city to make head against his enemies, than he gave out th,at God had 
 allowed him and his followers to defend themselves against the infidels, 
 and, at length, pretended that he had Divine leave even to attack them 
 and destroy idolatry and set up the true Faith by the sword. The pas- 
 sages of the Qur'dn sanctioning the use of the sword are considered by 
 Muslim divines as abrogating (^^) those passages which recommend 
 peaceful means and which are then called abrogated (j;4.«<ji/»). 
 
 This progress from peaceful means to compulsion is thus stated by Ibn 
 •Abfdin in iii. 237-238. 
 
 ^xc\i - ^y^\^ ^Jl^W \jy.l. ^ ^V^ ,\Jy. Jy JUSb j^'^\ ^^ ^^ 
 
 " Know thou that the command of fighting was revealed by degrees, for 
 the Prophet was at first commanded to deliver his message, then to 
 discuss and dispute and endeavour to convince the unbelievers by argu- 
 ments, then the believers were permitted to fight, then they were com- 
 manded to fight at first at any time, except the sacred months, then 
 absolutely, without any exception." So it remains to this day. The 
 condition of fighting the unbelievers when they begin war and the pro- 
 hibition of fighting during the sacred months are annulled (^y,.^^^) by 
 
JIHAD. 175 
 
 War is to be carried on with three classes of people.' 
 When a Muslim ruler conquers a country inhabited by 
 
 non-Muslims, the inhabitants are to be offered three 
 
 alternatives.* 
 
 the general and unconditional command : ** Fight the unhelievers wher- 
 ever you find them," (Sura ix. 5). This is called the ver5?e of the sword. 
 Muhammad himself gave the example to his followers. Ibnu'l Athir says : 
 
 _C- 
 
 •• The number of the battles («w\j)^ singular S^j fought under the orders 
 of the Prophet is twenty-seven ; that of the smaller warlike expeditions (^\'yl 
 singular Atr*) ^^ forty-six." He himself fought in nine battles, the others 
 were commanded by some of his Companions. 
 
 1 With all idolaters and infidels, who refuse to submit to the ^luslim 
 rale by either embracing Islim or paying tribute. 
 
 With those who are under Muslim dominion, but rebel and refuse to 
 continue paying the tribute. 
 
 With such as rebel against the Imim, even though they are Muslims, 
 and with all who begin war. 
 
 It is the duty of the Im&m to send an expedition, at least once or twice 
 ft year, to the land of warfare (y^j^\j\^^ to fight the unbelievers. If 
 he neglects to do so, he commits a sin, except when he knows that they 
 are not strong enough to subdue the enemy. 
 
 • The reception of IsUm, in which case they become secure as to 
 their persons, families and possessions and enjoy all the privileges of 
 Muslims, whose brethren they have become. 
 
 If they do not embrace Isllon, they have to pay the tribute, or 
 
 poll-tax (^^^), by which they obtain protection and become Zimmis 
 
 (^y•<i)f that is, subjects, allowed to profess their own religion, provided 
 
 it be not gross idolatry. It is the duty of the Imim to explain to those 
 who have to pay the poll-tax the amount to be paid and the time at which 
 payment is required. This capitation-tax is of two kinds : (1) that which 
 is established voluntarily and by composition, when people make peace 
 with Muslims before war takes place ; and (2) that which the Imdm im- 
 poses after conquest on every person, according to his means. 
 
 If they will neither embrace Isl&m nor pay the poll-tax ; then the 
 women and children will be made captives and so become slaves, while the 
 men will be slain, or otherwise disposed of at the pleasure of the Imim. 
 
176 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Muslims ought to call upon non-Muslims to embrace 
 Islam before they attack them. If they do embrace 
 
 The capitation-tax is called Jizza (L^ from ^v^, to satisfy, to com- 
 pensate), because it is acompensation for the life of the unbeliever. It is 
 a kind of tax (5^^) and may be called capitation-tax (;j-U\ C^j«^). I* is 
 also called by some captivity-tax (d^^\ from iJ^ to lead into capitivity), 
 as it was first applied to the Zimmis who were by order of the Kbalif 
 •Umar carried away from Arabia into captivity. Muhammad had spared 
 the lives of the Christians of Nijr&n, on condition of their delivering annu- 
 ally two thousand cloaks, and 'Umar spared other Christians on condition 
 of their paying double the taxes required of Muslims. The taxation takes 
 place at the beginning and the payment at the end of the year, or at the 
 end of every month or two months. This poll-tax is taken from " people 
 of the book " (^Ix.^), that is, Jews, Samaritans and Christians of all 
 denominations and from the Magi and idolaters on condition that they 
 are not from Arabia. Idolaters from Arabia and apostates must choose 
 between Isl&m and the sword. Women, children, the blind, crippled and 
 monks are exempt from paying the tax. 
 
 The capitation-tax must be delivered by the person who owes it him- 
 self ; it cannot be sent by another person ; but the person who owes it 
 must himself hand it over, stand while the Muslim, who receives it, sits 
 and strikes him on the neck, saying : ♦' Give it, 0, thou enemy of God" 
 (Ibn 'Abidin iii, 294). The Zimmis who are under the protection of 
 Muslims are not allowed to build either churches or synagogues, or con- 
 vents, or burying places, or any other place of worship ; their churches in 
 Arabia must be pulled down, and they themselves must not be allowed 
 to reside in any of the towns or villages of Arabia, for the Prophet de- 
 clared that the existence of two different religions cannot be allowed in 
 Arabia (v»yJ^ A*^ ^^h f^\jj^ ^■♦-s^ ^) (Ibn 'Abidln iii. 295-297). A 
 church when destroyed, or in ruins, cannot be built up again. 
 
 The Zimmi must distinguish himself from the Muslim by wearing 
 different clothes *' lest he receive the marks of honour and respect due to 
 the Muslim only." He is to be kept in a state of subjection and abject 
 humiliation. He must not ride on saddles like Muslims. When the 
 Muslim stands, he may not sit. No Muslim ought to show him respect 
 and honour. If he meets him in the street he must make him go aside. 
 They must not live in large numbers in the midst of Muslims, and, if they 
 possess houses of their own, they must be forced to sell them to Muslims. 
 Their houses must be lower than those of Muslims. A Zimmi loses hia 
 
DARU*L HARB. 177 
 
 Islam, it is not necessary to go to war with them, because 
 that which was the design of the war is then obtained 
 without war.* 
 
 Daru'l Harb, Daru'l Islam. — The world, according 
 to the doctrine of Islam is divided into great divisions : ^ 
 
 right of protection (mV^\), if his country becomes a land of warfare or if 
 he does not pay the poll-tax. If he should insult the Prophet ho is to 
 be killed. 
 
 * If a Muslim attacks unbelievers without first inviting them to embrace 
 Islim he is an offender, but still if he do attack them before so inviting 
 them, and slays them and take their property, neither fine, expiation nor 
 atonement are due by him, because that which protects them, viz., Isldm, 
 does not exist in them, nor are they under protection by place (living in 
 a country of IslAm). It is laudable to invite people to Isl4m, when a call 
 has already reached them, but it is not obligatory, as it is recorded of 
 the Prophet that he plundered and despoiled the tribe of Al-Mustalik by 
 surprise, and he also agreed with Usama to make a predatory attack on 
 Kubna at an early hour and to sot it on fire, and these attacks " were not 
 preceded by a call." 
 
 Some doctors, however, say that such a call and invitation to un- 
 believers were required in the beginning of Isl&m when it was not generally 
 known, but that at the present time, when Islim has spread far and wide, 
 and is well known, the Im4m has full liberty either to call unbelievers to 
 accept Isl&m, or to attack them without any previous call. (Ibn 'Abidfn 
 iii. 241-242). 
 
 When unbelievers resist, then it is the duty of the Muslims, with God's 
 assistance, to attack them with all manner of warlike engines, and they 
 must also set fire to their habitations, even at the risk of burning them, 
 their wives and their children, and inundate them with water, and tear 
 up their plantations and break down their grain, because by these moans 
 they will bo weakened. . . These means are, therefore, all sanctioned by 
 the law uXU ^ ^;W^^ C**^ ) f**^ ) v*/^. (^^^ 'Abidin iii. 242). 
 
 « The Land of Warfare (v»^\ ^U) is any country belonging to infidels, 
 which has not yet been subdued by Islam, or " a country in which peace 
 has not yet been proclaimed between Muslims and unbelievers." 
 
 The Land of Isldm (^JL^SK^j) is one governed according to the laws 
 of IsUm. It again becomes a Land of Warfare under the following cir- 
 cumstances : (1) when the country is governed according to the laws of 
 unbelievers instead of the laws of Islim (ciJyLl\ Ja^ ^l^a^.^ eW^) ; 
 (2) when the country in question becomes joined to a Land of Warfare 
 
 23 
 
178 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Plunder (juxj^Ai). — This, taken from the enemy by 
 force during the war, is distributed among the combat- 
 ants. The tribute received from unbelievers is paid over 
 to the general treasury for the benefit of the Muslim 
 nation at large.^ 
 
 and no other Muslim country lies between them ; (3) when no more 
 protection ((^t»^) remains for either Muslim or Zimmi, though they had, 
 at first, enjoyed protection when the country was conquered by Muslims, 
 The Land of Warfare becomes a Land of Isldm when the laws of IsUm. 
 are promulgated in it and it is governed in accordance with the same, so 
 that the Friday prayers and Muslim festivals are observed. 
 
 It is not allowed to disfigure people by cutting off their ears and noses. 
 Though it is related that the Prophet disfigured the 'Unihi C/^^jJU 
 such actions are abrogated by subsequent prohibitions. Muslims should 
 not slay women or children, or aged bed-ridden and blind persons, or 
 monks in their cells devoting themselves exclusively to the service of the 
 church. It is allowed in war to cut of[ the head of the unbeliever and 
 carry it about, and to dig up the graves of infidels in search of objects 
 of value. 
 
 If the Muslim, in fighting, meet his father in the host of the infidels he 
 must not begin fighting him. Anyhow he must not slay him ; but hold 
 him in view till some other come and slay him "for thus the end is 
 answered without the son's slaying his father, which would be a sin." If 
 a free Muslim, man or woman, has granted pardon to an unbeliever or 
 a company of them, the promise must be respected by INIuslims. The 
 infidel who asks for pardon is to be spared. 
 
 If the Imd,m consider it desirable in the interest of Isldm to make peace 
 with any particular tribe or people, he is allowed to do so. He may either 
 accept a ransom from them or pay them a sum of money to obtain peace, 
 if he feels that he is not strong enough to overcome them. If after such 
 an agreement he should, however, perceive that it is more advantageous to 
 break it, he may lawfully renew the war ; due notice must, however, be 
 given. In case a country submits to Muslim rule peacefully, the land re- 
 mains the property of its original inhabitants, on condition of their paying 
 the land-tax (^\j^) for the same. 
 
 1 If the Im4m conquers a country by force of arms, he is at liberty to 
 leave the land in the possession of the original proprietors, on condition 
 that they pay the land-tax besides the capitation tax, or he may divide it 
 among the Muslims. Muslims who become proprietors of the same, have 
 to pay the tenth and nothing else. With regard to movable property, it 
 
CAPTIVES. 179 
 
 . Captives. — Unbelievers taken in war, except idolaters 
 of Arabia and apostates who must be killed, who do not 
 embrace Islam may either be killed, or made captives, 
 
 ( ^1 plural i<.'u-*l?) or be granted their liberty on condi- 
 tion of their becoming Zimmis, according to the decision 
 of the Imam.* 
 
 is not lawful for the Im&m to leave it in the possession of the infidels, but 
 he must bring it away with the army and divide it among the soldiers. 
 
 Four-fifths of the spoil belong to the troops, and one-fifth must be 
 divided into three equal portions (1) for the relief of orphans, (2) feeding 
 the poor,- (3) the entertainment of travellers; this latter class includes the 
 poorer members of the Prophet's family of the Bani H4shim. Captives 
 form part of the plunder. All cattle and baggage which cannot be carried 
 away upon a retieat must be destroyed. For the proper distribution of 
 the booty, the Im^m ought to appoint competent men, who, on t^e 
 army's entering the territory of the enemy, make a list of the combatants, 
 distinguishing foot-soldiers from horsemen. He who goes to war on foot 
 receives one portion, the horseman receives two. Women, children, slaves, 
 non-Muslims may receive gifts (not portions) from the booty. The Imim 
 may also promise the Muslim warriors additional rewards, in order to 
 encourage them to fight bravely. 
 
 On the first considerable success of Muhammad in war, the dispute which 
 happened among his followers in relation to the dividing of the spoil 
 rendered it necessary for him to make some regulation concerning it. 
 A divine commission was produced authorising him to distribute the spoil 
 among the soldiers, at his own discretion, reserving the fifth part for 
 the uses above mentioned. " They will question thee about the spoils, 
 
 (JUtfS^) say : ' the spoils are God's and the Apostle's ' and know 
 
 ye that when ye have taken any booty, a fifth part belongeth to God and 
 the Apostle and the near of kin and to the orphans and to the poor and 
 to the wayfarer." (Sdra viii. 1.) 
 
 Muhammad was entitled to a portion of the spoil like other members 
 of the expedition ; but he enjoyed the privilege of choosing and appro- 
 priating to himself, before the general distribution, as part of his portion, 
 any object he desired to possess. This is called £jlo. Thus he took 
 possession of a valuable sword called Zu'l-fiqdr and Saffa, the beautiful 
 girl, from the spoil taken from the Jewish tribe of Khafbar. isi'oAh.Z 
 
 (&-JLJ iJLcf, (^{^ ^\ yto). 
 
 I It is not lawful to release infidel captives in exchange for the re- 
 lease of Muslim captives from the infidels (^W) nor to release them 
 
180 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Protection, Security (J^J\y — This is granted to in- 
 fidels in the lands of the MusHms as well as to Muslims 
 in unconquered lands and must be scrupulously observed. 
 Protection given to a non-Muslim to enter and reside in a 
 Muslim place is not to be extended over a year, lest he 
 become a spy (^Xc . ^^^*mU.)- If he desires to remain 
 longer, he must become a Zimmi, and pay the capitation 
 tax. 
 
 Beitu'l-mal. — This is the name given to the public 
 treasury and is the place where the fifth of the spoils and 
 booty, the capitation tax levied on Zimmis, presents 
 received in return for protection, land taxes, the produce 
 of mines and treasure-trove, property for which there is 
 no owner and the Zakat are deposited.^ 
 
 Apostasy ^. — This is the forsaking of Islam by express- 
 ing such disbelief with the tongue, after one has been a 
 believer. 
 
 gratuitously. Some, however, consider it lawful. Cattle and implements 
 of war must be destroyed. Women and children of infidels who cannot be 
 carried away must be left in a desert place, where they find neither water 
 nor food so that they may die of hunger and thirst, because it is not 
 lawful to kill them. The bodies of Muslim women, who die in the land 
 of warfare and cannot be buried in a safe place, must be buried so that 
 they may not be exposed to ill usage by the enemy. 
 
 1 From this property various expenses such as salaries, allowances, sub- 
 sidies, expenses for the public good are defrayed. The salaries of Imdms 
 and Mu'azzins and other persons appointed in connection with Mosques, 
 of learned professors teaching the Qur'dn and Traditions, of Qd,dis, soldiers, 
 and those who defend the boundaries also come from it. It defrays the 
 expenses of building bridges and mosques and of making ponds. 
 
 Lying is allowed in war. He who slays an enemy, takes his weapons 
 and no fifth is due on the same. 
 
 2 Some say that the mere forsaking of the faith, without giving expres- 
 sion to unbelief (^JlSd)^ constitutes apostasy, but the majority of the men 
 of the Hanafi School are of opinion that it is the forsaking of Isldm 
 
APOSTASY. 181 
 
 inwardly, together with the confession of one's unbelief that constitutes 
 apostasy. 
 
 A Muslim who apostasizes is to be brought before the Imdm and called 
 upon to give up his unbelief and return^to IsUm. He is imprisoned for 
 three days and invited every day to recant ; if he asks for a further delay, 
 he is to be granted the same ; but if after that delay, he does not recant, 
 he is to be killed. A female apostate is not subject to capital punishment, 
 but must be kept in confinement till she recants. Some doctors say she 
 is to be imprisoned and beaten every day till she recants or dies. The 
 person who thus kills her, is not guilty. If either the husband or the 
 wife apostasizc, a divorce takes place ipso facto, no sentence of divorce is 
 necessary. A boy under age who apostasiszs is not to be put to death, 
 but to be imprisoned until he comes to full age (seven or eight years) ; 
 if he continues in his unbelief he must be put to death. An insane per- 
 son, a drunkard, or one forced is not held responsible for apostasy. If a 
 person is so compelled by force to apostasize, his wife is not divorced, nor 
 are his lands forfeited. 
 
 It is a controverted question whether, in the case of an apostate, (Ju>y«_) 
 who repents and returns to IsUm, his repentance and confession of faith 
 are sufficient, or whether besides this he must abjure the religion he had 
 adopted. Some affirm, others deny the sufficiency of the confession and 
 
 return to Islim (^3^ ^ Jd-u «^ yj« ^ «Uj j ^^ \j^ ^yc^ Ui or^^ 
 
 Ibn 'Abidln iii. 313). If the declaration of apostasy can possibly be 
 explained in a different way, this must be done so as to clear the person 
 from infidelity. 
 
 An unbeliever who insults (*^^) one of the prophets is to be killed ; if 
 he insults or curses God ( JU» &U^ v^ f^\) and repents, the punishment 
 must be remitted, for, in the case of transgression of man, the punishment 
 is necessary, but in a transgression against God, the punishment can be 
 remitted, for " God is forgiving and merciful." According to the Sunni 
 doctrine, he who insults or curses the two first Kh&lifs, Abli Bakr and 
 •Umar, becomes an infidel; if he considers 'Ali superior to those he is 
 tax innovator, a heretic (^jls^). 
 
 The sorcerer (^LJ^), that is, one who practises sorcery or considers 
 
 it lawful, is an infidel and deserves death. The repentance of the Zindiq 
 (^JJ; hypocrite), as well as the sorcerer, if he repents before he is seized, 
 
 is accepted and the punishment is remitted ; but if he repents, after he is 
 seized, his repentance is of no avail, and the sentence of death must be 
 carried out. Whether the apostate who returns to Isl&m will lose or 
 keep his former good works is a controverted question, some affirming 
 others denying it. 
 
182 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Kebellion ( juuaII - JiUjJl). — A KebeP is a person who 
 withdraws from obedience to the rightful Imam, or rises 
 against him without sufficient cause. If rebels have 
 sufficient cause to refuse allegiance to the Imam and dis- 
 obey his orders, they are not rebels. In this case, Mus- 
 lims not implicated in the matter must abstain from 
 assisting either party. 
 
 Things Lawful and Unlawful. — It is the duty of 
 Muslims to exhort and assist people in doing good, and 
 to dissuade and, whenever possible, to prevent them from 
 doing evil. This is not the duty of every individual, 
 but it is sufficient if some of the nation perform it. 
 The two parts of this duty : exhorting to good works and 
 dissuading from evil are included in the technical term 
 Hisba (^JL***&-). He who performs the duty is called the 
 Muhtasib (L.^Awacsj;5)). On all the questions concerning 
 the duties of a Muhtasib, the curious will find a detailed 
 description in Ghazali's Ihyd. Before the exhortation one 
 must be sure that the person to be reproved has commit- 
 ted or intends to commit an unlawful action, and that he 
 is likely to accept and act according to the advice. If it 
 appears that the person will not listen, then the exhortation 
 
 'AH says: "A Jewess insulted the Prophet,, where upon a man strangled 
 her till she died. Muhammad declared that nothing was due for her 
 blood" (Ve-j JW\). 
 
 1 There are three classes of rebels thus described (1) highway robbers 
 (^>^n ^^— 0^y^)j (^) I'ebels who disobey or rise against the rightful 
 Im4m without sufficient cause, (3) the Khawirij who reject the rightful 
 Imam, whom they consider an infidel, and who hold it to be lawful to 
 shed the blood of the orthodox Muslims, to plunder their property and to 
 make their women and children captives. These are not to be considered 
 infidels, as they build their false opinions on verses of the Qur'dn which 
 they misinterpret. These rebels must first be made aware of their error ; 
 if they refuse to be persuaded, they must- be brought to allegiance by 
 the force of arms. 
 
MARRIAGE. 183 
 
 is not a duty. If the duty can be exercised, it must be 
 done gradually, first gentle reproof, then admonition, and 
 then strong measures. 
 
 Transactions (cl^IcUxJI). — Thus far in the considera- 
 tion of Fiqh, we have dealt with the laws and regulations 
 concerning worship and religious duties (csjbUc), such as 
 Prayer, Almsgiving, Fasting and matters more distinctly 
 religious. We now proceed to the second part, technically 
 called culJjucJl or transactions, which treats of the laws 
 and regulations by which the private relations of Muslims 
 among themselves and with unbelievers are ordered. 
 
 This part comprises 
 
 (1) Contracts (vsjbUi) and agreements to which the 
 mutual consent of the contracting parties is required such 
 as marriage, buying and selling, etc. 
 
 (2) Orders (cj'x'Jbl). treating of all matters depending 
 on the will of a single person such as divorce, slavery, vow, 
 etc. 
 
 (3) General laws and regulations (^1^>.I), treating of 
 various general laws and regulations which relate to the 
 civil concerns of Muslims, chiefly such as concern inherit- 
 ance, testimony and the power of the Qadi. 
 
 Marriage (--l£=i3 ) — Marriage^ is enjoined upon every 
 Muslim and celibacy (h^i^) is discouraged. Muhammad 
 is reported to have said on the subject : " When the servant 
 of God marries, he perfects half his religion," and also: 
 ** Marriage is my custom ; he who dislikes it does not 
 belong to me." " Marry and multiply, so that I may be 
 glorified by my nation over other nations." Consequently 
 
 » Ibn 'Abidln says : •♦ There is no other devotional servioe instituted 
 and practised on earth from the time of Adam, and which will continue 
 in Paradise except marriage aiid faith.. Marriage is considered a kind of 
 
184 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 in Islam even the members of the ascetic Orders are 
 generally married. 
 
 Marriage is defined by Muslim jurists to be " a contract 
 by which the husband obtains possession of the wife, and 
 is allowed to enjoy her, if there be no legal impediment 
 preventing the same." ^ The husband has power over the 
 wife, but not the wife over her husband. 
 
 The validity of the contract depends on the consent 
 of the parties, that is, the assertion and declaration of the 
 husband, and the acceptance by the wife, or her repre- 
 sentatives. The Qur'an says : " Marry what seems good 
 to you of women, by twos or threes, or fours, or what your 
 right hand possesses " {i.e., slaves). (Sura iv. 3.) 
 
 There are three kinds of marriage : 
 
 (1) Legal permanent marriage (^b -.l£ni)- 
 
 (2) Temporary marriage (ixA.cJl -.l£nJ), now illicit 
 according to the Sunni law, but not so with the Shi'ahs. 
 
 (3) Marriage with a slave (Lc^] ^-l^i)- 
 
 devotional service, as it is the means of increasing the number of JNIus- 
 lims, and of keeping the believer in a state of chastity. If a man feels, 
 inclined to marry, it is his duty to do so, and if he fears that he will 
 be tempted to fornication, it is obligatory on him to marry. 
 
 1 Liberty is allowed a woman who has reached the age of puberty to 
 marry, or to refuse to marry a particular man, independent of the wishes 
 of her guardian, who has no power to dispose of her in marriage, without 
 her consent or against her will. If she has been promised in marriage 
 during her infancy by her guardian, she has the right, on reaching her 
 majority, to ratify or dissolve such a promise. When a woman, adult and 
 sane, chooses to be married through an agent, she empowers him, in 
 the presence of competent witnesses, to convey her consent to the bride- 
 groom. The expression of consent on the part of the woman may also 
 be given in an indirect way, without words. If a virgin is silent, or 
 smiles or laughs, it is taken as her consent. 
 
 In the selection of a wife, the Muslim is advised to look for the follow- 
 ing qualifications in her (1) piety (^j «yU Wt« o^^=^" 0^)> (^) 8°°^ 
 
MARRIAGE. 185 
 
 As regards the validity of the marriage,' the Muslim is 
 permitted to marry four free women (^LajJ) ^^ *-j.1), and 
 
 to have as many slaves as concubines * (hy^ pi. of;!^***) as 
 he may like (p^^V ^ ^Ll'woj ufj^MoIl aJ Sura iv. 3). 
 
 The legal disabilities to marriage (^. ws>a1I u->U*«]) are 
 
 (1) consanguinity (s-^**J - ibly) j (2) affinity (Li'u^) i.e., 
 mother-in-law, step-grand-mother, daughter-in-law; (3) 
 fosterage (cU>.)i a man cannot marry his foster mother, 
 his foster sister ; (4) a man may not marry his wife's sister 
 (^-ciAiJi-|»;U>'«Jl,^ 5-x)^l)3 (5) a man married to a free 
 
 character (jjU^^ c^), (^) ^auty (6^'^\ ^j^--*.), (4) a small dowry 
 ( j^\ liuin.), (5) power to bear children (\oy^ ^^^dS f^\), (6) that 
 
 she be a virgin (\j^ (^^ 0^), (7) a good family, (Cj^, ^^^ ^^\) 
 (8) that she be not a near relation (i^ysJ^ ij^^aJ^ ^^ (:))^^ ^ O^)- ^ ^^^^ 
 woman is preferable to a bond woman. (For further details see Ghazdli 
 and Dictionary of IsUm 674). 
 
 I The conditions of the validity of the marriage are sound reason, 
 puberty, freedom, that there be no degree of affinity which prevents 
 marriage, and the declaration, on the part of the husband, and the accept- 
 ance on the part of the woman. 
 
 Ghaz&li (ii. 22) says on the subject : " There are four conditions which 
 must be considered in the contract of marriage : (1) the consent of the 
 
 guardian (^^UlJU ^^^^ ^ ^^ ^ ^yi\ (j3\). (2) the consent of the 
 
 woman (\j^ ^\ ^W ^ va.^\^ ^^ i\j4^\ <>ti>;), (3) the presence of 
 
 two trustworthy witnesses (dJ^jknJ^ iSj^^ t>»J^^ ^W jy^), (^) declar- 
 ation and acceptance (J*-i« sjWj^)» pronounced in duo form by two 
 men (not females) authorized thereto. According to the Hanafi school 
 there is no necessity for the intervention of the guardian. 
 
 * Only slaves can become concubines. These may be either captives, 
 taken in war or purchased by money, or descendants of slaves. Even 
 married women, if taken in war, are, according to the injunctions of the 
 Qur'an (Siira iv. 28), at the disposal of the Muslim conqueror, 
 
 24 
 
186 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 woman may not add to her by marriage a female slave 
 'ijs^ ^iz ^1 JU^t>) j (6) a man may not marry the wife 
 
 or Muladda of another man, before the expiration of the 
 woman's *idda (iji^), i.e., her period of probation ; (7) a 
 Muslim may not marry an idolater or Majusiyya ^£=)-.A^)3 
 (^LZJb ^ _ Ia-^^css^ ^^ ^^y liiarry a Jewess, a Christian 
 or a Sabean woman ; (8) a man may not marry his own 
 slave, or a woman her bondsman t£ri*Lc^ ^;^^^ J^) 
 (^^jix5JC)i;i^^U)J. (9) If a man pronounces three divorces 
 
 upon his wife who is free, or two upon a slave, she is not 
 lawful to him till she has been regularly married to 
 another man called the Muhallil JJks>;^,«.e., one who makes 
 marriage lawful. He, having duly consummated the 
 marriage, afterwards divorces her or dies, and when 
 her *idda from him is accomplished, she can remarry 
 her former husband. (Sura iv. 26, 27 ; See Ghazah ii. 
 22). A woman who has been divorced by the form called 
 li*an (^jlxi) can never be married to her former husband 
 again.^ 
 
 1 After a man has made the choice of a female for marriage, the law 
 allows him to see her first. He, accompanied by some friends, goes 
 to the house of the agent and there settles the amount of the dowry 
 which is paid at an early day. This is called the *' writing of the con- 
 tract." The Muslim law appoints no specific religious ceremony or rites 
 to be observed on the occasion of marriage. Mutual consent in the pre- 
 sence of witnesses is sufficient to make the marriage valid. On the 
 day appointed for the marriage, the bridegroom, accompanied by some 
 friends, goes to the place agreed upon. They are received by the guardian, 
 or agent and some friends. Two trustworthy witnesses must h3 present. 
 All persons present then recite the F4tiha, and the bridegroom delivers, 
 the dowry. The bridegroom and the agent of the bride sit upon the ground 
 face to face and grasp each other's right hand, raising the thumbs and 
 pressing them against each other. Having placed a handkerchief over 
 
MAREIAGE. 187 
 
 . A temporary marriage is called mut*a (diM ^l^nS). 
 This is a marriage in which the time for which it is con- 
 tracted is mentioned. This kind of marriage was allowed 
 by Muhammad for some time, but afterwards he prohibited 
 and abolished it. The Shi'ahs, however, still consider 
 such a temporary marriage perfectly legal, and establish 
 the legality of it not only from Traditions but also from 
 declarations of the Qur'an (Siira iv. 29 ; see Dictionary of 
 Isldm, 424). 
 
 The Guardian is called al-Wali (^^1 from ^y to be 
 near, to be intimate, patron, helper). The guardianship 
 may be established by relationship (father, mother), or 
 possession (of male or female slave by the master), or 
 friendship. According to the Hanifa School a free woman, 
 of age, and of a sound mind, whether virgin or married 
 before (l^*^^) jS=o), is entitled to give her consent and 
 to contract a marriage without the intervention of the 
 guardian.^ 
 
 thoir hands, a Faqih generally pronounces a kind of Khutba or sermon, 
 consisting of a few words of exhortation and prayer with quotations 
 from the Qur'in and Traditions, on the excellence and advantages of 
 marriage. He then requests the guardian or agent of the bride to say : 
 " I marry to thee my daughter for a dowry of such and such an amount." 
 The bridegroom thereon says : •♦ I accept from thee her marriage with 
 myself and take her unto my care and engage myself to afford her protec- 
 tion, and ye who are present bear witness of this." Before the persons 
 assembled on this occasion disperse, they settle when the " night of the 
 entering" (aU-jJ^ J3LJ) is to take place, that is, when the bride is to be 
 brought to the house of the bridegroom. (For a description of the rejoic- 
 ings and the customs observed between the time of the contract of the 
 marriage and the bride's being conducted in procession to the house of the 
 husband, see Dictionary of Isldm 323-327.) 
 
 > This mediation is, however, considered more becoming to female 
 modesty. In case of young persons and slaves, the guardian is absolutely 
 required (^J^3J ^ y^^^^ ) jt^ C^^** V* O^^^)* -'According to Sh&fi'l the 
 
188 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 There must be a certain degree of equality (ii^U^s) 
 between husband and wife as regards family, social and 
 financial condition, freedom and religion. This sufficiency 
 is required, however, more on the husband's than on the 
 wife's side. It is the duty of the guardian to see to this 
 (i'Juyiii \%f^ UJ^. ^ u'* J^')' ^ person from a town 
 may marry one from a village ( jj^/c^U ^^£3 ^^p^)- 
 
 The dowry is also called jlcV-s - iif J.^ . ^i . It^z -^ar • 
 This is the money due by the husband to the wife for the 
 right of cohabitation with her.^ It is a sum settled by 
 mutual agreement. It may be specially mentioned, or it 
 may not be mentioned and left to a subsequent agree- 
 ment. 
 
 Marriage by exchange ( ,U^I ^l<^t) is that when a 
 man marries the sister or daughter of another, and in 
 return gives his sister or daughter, and does this in order 
 
 guardian is required in all cases. According to the Shi'ah law a woman 
 who is " adult and discreet " requires no guardian to make marriage 
 valid. 
 
 Ibn 'Abidin (ii. 318) mentions that marrying a woman " for the day- 
 time only " (cybj^^) is legal, on condition that the man mention to 
 the woman that he will stay with her only in the day-time, while he 
 will spend the night with another wife. 
 
 1 Dower is generally divided into two parts, termed jiiU, or prompt, 
 which is paid on entering into the contract, and J^^, or deferred, which 
 is paid upon dissolution of the contract, or on the demand of the wife. In 
 case of divorce, if the husband has consummated the marriage with the 
 wife, or has only met her alone and seen her, without consummating the 
 
 marriage (which meeting is called fiyki^, retired, solitary place), she is 
 entitled to her full dowry. If the husband divorce her before the consum- 
 mation of the marriage, and without his having seen her in a solitary 
 place, she is only entitled to half of the dowry. 
 
MARRIAGE. 189 
 
 to avoid paying the dower. It is considered by some 
 authorities blamable, though not absolutely unlawful ; they 
 considered the right of cohabitation (^^) to be the dowry 
 given by both contracting parties. The majority consider 
 such a marriage illegal, since the Prophet has clearly 
 prohibited it. An adulteress may only marry an adulterer 
 or polytheist ; this is according to the Qur'an : 
 
 Marriage of a slave (jj^»J) ^,1^,)) is governed by cer- 
 tain rules. An unbeliever who is taken in the enemy's 
 land (v—^^^^lj) is called a jj3j, not cJ^xs^* After he is 
 removed to a Muslim country he becomes cJ^^^i conse- 
 quently every cJ^Loi^ is a jjj,., but not every jXi^y is a 
 cJJLc^- a jfJ^f.is a slave, who belongs to his master 
 in part or as a whole (\m ^1 ll£=)- A slave, the whole 
 of whom belongs to his master, is called ^_tUr ^i'j. The 
 marriage of a slave, male or female^ whether he or she is 
 V_^ >l4r^ lol or ^J jJ^ jjsJc, can only take place with the 
 permission of the master ; and no dowry is given before 
 the slave consummates the marriage. 
 
 The duties of the husband to his wife and the duties 
 of the wife to her husband are described by the term 
 ' J^UJ] <-j)jT (Siira ii. 320). The husband ought to be 
 careful to maintain a middle course in dealing with his 
 wife in twelve points.* 
 
 I (1) The marriage feast (JU^^^) ; (2) kindness, (^j^\ ^^y^-ew) ; (3) play- 
 fulness (ijjs^Ji^-i-xJu-j^) ; (4) policy, maintaining his dignity (i-l^-.) ; 
 (5) jealousy, not to be carried away by it (E^\ ^^ J\x;cS\) ; (6) pecu- 
 niary allowance (^&m) he must give her a sufficiency ; (7) teaching (^»-l«*) ; 
 (8) equally dividing (a.» 8^\), i.e., granting every wife her due; (gU«^ 
 
 // 
 
19Q THE BELIGION OF ISLAm. 
 
 The customs to be observed on the birth of a child are 
 as follows : — (1) excessive joy should not be shown on the 
 birth of a boy, nor great sadness at that of a girl ; (2) to 
 recite the call to prayer into the child's ear ; (3) to give the 
 child a good name ; (4) to offer two sheep for a male and 
 one sheep for a female child on the seventh day, when 
 the hair is shaved off the child's head for the first time. 
 Muhammad used to say : " Shed blood on his account, 
 
 and remove evil from it." {^'Si\ <xJic l^^^l ^ Uj ly j&l) j 
 (5) to rub its palate with a date or some sweet thing. 
 
 Abortion (J^<x^i \3\kJ\ a-^^) is unlawful under cer- 
 tain conditions. When the child is formed in the womb, 
 and the spirit has been breathed into it, and has given it 
 life, which takes place about one hundred and twenty 
 days after the conception, it is generally considered that 
 it is unlawful to bring about an abortion. Whether it 
 can be done lawfully before this takes place, is a contro- 
 verted question. Some hold it to be blamable (x. <^,.) 3 
 but the majority are in favour of its being licit, if there 
 be good reasons for it, and the husband gives his consent. 
 
 Siira ii. 224) ; and not to prefer one to the other ; (9) chastisement 
 {^y^\ s-^*>^>) inflicted by the husband by abstaining from spending the 
 night with a wife in case of her disobedience ; (10) observing the proper 
 rules in cohabitation (gUasJ^ v*^*^^) ; and (11) in childbirth (IS%^ ; and 
 (12) in divorce {^p^). (For detailed explanations see Ghazd,li and Dic- 
 tionary of Isl&m 674). Ghazili says : " Marriage is a kind of slavery, for 
 the wife becomes the slave ((J-Jj) of her husband, and it is her duty 
 absolutely to obey him in every thing he requires of her, except in what 
 is contrary to the laws of Isldm," 
 
 " If the wife be disobedient and obstinate, the husband has the right to 
 punish her and to force her to obey him, but he must proceed gradually : 
 exhort, admonish, threaten, abstain from intercourse with her for three 
 days ( JL3 ^%o J^ &LJ ^^ ^^^s** ^ u^^/i^ W^ ^T**^)) '^^^^ ^^^ ^° ^^ *° 
 let her feel the pain, but be careful not to wound her in the face or make 
 her blood flow abundantly, or break a bone." (Sura iv. 38). 
 
DIVORCE. 191 
 
 Divorce. — Divorce,^ in Law, means a release from the 
 marriage tie in the manner commanded in Law, i.e., by 
 the use of certain expressions, conveying either an im- 
 mediate and irrevocable, or a conditional and revocable 
 divorce, which can be made definitive later on. 
 
 1 The Muslim law of divorce is founded upon express injunctions con- 
 tained in the Qur'4n as well as in the Traditions. The teaching of 
 the Qur'4n upon the subject is contained in Suras ii. 226-233 ; Ixv. 1-7. 
 Divorce, though allowed, is considered blamable (t^), and, if possible, to 
 be avoided ( JW 6ii\ ^J\ ^\^\^\ JJ^\ j^WJ^). 
 
 Divorce may be pronounced to take effect immediately and irrevocably 
 (^j^fVlJ^ ^5^^) or at some future time (JUi\ ^ji) which is the revo- 
 cable divorce (^Jlut'^\ j!^\). It may be given verbally or in writing. 
 
 The words by which a divorce is given to a wife are of two kinds, 
 either (1) express, clear, as when the husband says : ♦' Thou art divorced " 
 («£X^ &4SIL> sa^\) or (2) metaphorical, as when he says : " Thou art 
 free ; put on thy veil, arise and seek for a mate, etc., etc." 
 
 The express divorce may bo revocable or it may be irrevocable. It is 
 of the first kind, if the husband use no expression pointing to his intend- 
 ing a definitively separating divorce or does not pronounce the divorce 
 three times. The figurative divorce is given by such expressions also as : 
 ♦'go out, go away, stand up, etc " (i^j^\ - ,^S\ - ^^^), Whether 
 such a divorce is revocable or irrevocable depends on the intention of the 
 husband, ♦• for by no metaphorical language is divorce effected, except 
 it be intended." 
 
 Divorce is either divorce according to the Sunna (fi^\ j^ . J-ju j^), 
 or heterodox, heretical divorce (^aJ^ jp^U\) which, though lawful, 
 is not considered religious. 
 
 The best mode (^j»,^}S^ ^^M\) is when the husband once expressly and 
 clearly pronounces to his enjoyed (\^ J^jt^J^), but unpregnant wife, the 
 
 sentence : ♦' Thou art divorced " when she is in a state of purity (%el^), 
 during which he has had no carnal connection with her, and then leaves 
 her to complete the prescribed period of probation of three months (6JjJ^). 
 Until the oxpiratiou of this time of probation, the divorce is revocable ; 
 
19a THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 but after the period is elapsed it is irrevocable, and, if the husband wishes 
 to take back his wife, they must go through the ceremony of marriage 
 again. To divorce a wife when she has her courses, or in the time of 
 • purity ', in which the husband has had intercourse with her is heterodox 
 and unlawful (^\^ i^-^) (Ghazali ii. 32). 
 
 The good divorce (^^^14^^ vi*^^) ^^ when the husband repudiates his 
 enjoyed wife by three sentences, either express or metaphorical, not pro- 
 nounced at one and the same time, but giving one sentence in each period 
 of purity (\^ ijL^ S ^\ d>!^' ^^ ^'^\ ^jio). 
 
 c 
 
 The heterodox, irregular form of divorce (^aJ^ J^^), i^ when the 
 husband repudiates his wife by three sentences of divorce, pronouncing 
 them either at one and the same time, or separately during one and the 
 same period of her purity. In this case the husband cannot under any 
 circumstances take back his wife again, until she has been regularly 
 married to another husband, enjoyed by him and then divorced. This 
 intermediate husband, who makes the marriage of the former husband to 
 his irrevocably divorced wife legal again, is.called the Muhallil ( JlLas.4i^, 
 who makes a thing otherwise unlawful, legal). This arrangement rests 
 on a direct command of the Qur'd,n (Sura ii. 230). The Muslim doctors 
 are very particular in explaining that it is not sufficient for the Muhallil 
 to contract the marriage with the divorced wife, but that he must neces- 
 sarily consummate it, and that, in certain cases, the birth of a child of 
 this marriage is required, in proof of the marriage having actually taken 
 place. Should the woman desire to return to her first husband, she may 
 make it a condition that the Muhallil should divorce her, after the con- 
 summation of her marriage, and if he refuses to do so, the Q^di may 
 compel him (Ghaz^li ii. 32). A husband may divorce his wife without 
 any misbehaviour on her part and without assigning any cause, and his 
 divorce is effective, if he be of sound understanding, of mature age and 
 free to choose. The divorce by a boy or a lunatic, would not be effective. 
 If the husband pronounce divorce in a state of drunkenness from drinking 
 fermented liquor, or from taking opium or hashish, or if he pronounces 
 it in jest or by a mere slip of the tongue, still the divorce takes place. 
 
 There are also other reasons which sanction divorce, if required, viz. : 
 
 (1) C4-, Jubb, i.e., if the husband has by any cause been deprived of 
 his organ of generation, (from s!-=^ to cut off). A man suffering from 
 such a defect is called (v->^^.as^). 
 
 (2) &Ic, Impotence, in either husband or wife. A year of probation 
 may be granted in these cases by the Q4di. 
 
 (3) Inequality of race or tribe. A woman cannot be compelled to 
 remain the wife of a husband who belongs to an inferior tribe. 
 
DIVORCE. 193 
 
 (4) Insufficient dower. If the stipulated dowry is refused when de- 
 manded, divorce can take place — {See Dictionary of IslAm, 88). 
 
 In addition to the above modes of divorce, there are several other 
 modes of effecting a separation between husband and wife. These are : 
 
 (1) Khula (^li. - ijis- from ^I*., to remove, to put away, send away) 
 is a divorce obtained by the wife at her request, on the offer of a compensa- 
 tion to her husband. The validity of this divorce rests on the demand (by 
 her) and acceptance (by him) of the fixed compensation (,j6»*J^ jLi s.^V^^). 
 The words used are: (^jijJU.,) " Release me for such and such a sum." 
 Answer : («£JU«ld.), ».e., " I have released thee for such and such a sum." 
 This mode of divorce is also sanctioned by the Qur'dn (Sura ii. 229). The 
 woman so divorced is not entitled to the payment of her dower. (Bukh&ri 
 
 . 226. Dictionary of I8l4m, 274). The compensation must be fixed. 
 
 (2) Mutual discharge, or Mub4r&' (SijC^\), is a divorce effected by a 
 mutual release (^^^l^^ ^^ *^^^^)i ^^^ releasing the other of the rights 
 and duties of marriage, by the wife saying (jUj^j Utl\ ^jU ^y?;Vj) " Release 
 me for a thousand dinars". The husband replies:. "I release thee for a 
 thousand dinars " (^Uj|J <J^^ ^J^ ut\>\jl}), or the husband asks to be 
 released from the marriage tic, and the wife agrees to it. 
 
 (8) Zih^r (\^) is a divorce effected by the husband likening his wife 
 to the back (jf^) or any other part or member of the body of any of his 
 kinswomen within the prohibited degree, e.g., he may say to his wife : 
 "Thou art to me like the back of my mother" (^^\ yj^^ ^jlc ^s^\). 
 The intention of the husband decides whether divorce takes place or 
 not ; if ho intended divorce, his wife is not lawful to him until he have 
 made expiation (fijOL^) by freeing a slave, or fasting two months, or 
 feeding sixty poor men. This rests on the command of the Qur'&n : " To 
 those who put away their wives by saying : ♦ Be thou to mo as my 
 mother's back.' " (Sura Iviii. 2-4.) 
 
 (4) Swearing, vowing Abstinence (o)'^^), is a form of separation in 
 
 which the husband declares with an oath that he will not have carnal 
 intercourse with his wife for a period not less than four months, in the 
 case of a free woman, and two months in the case of a slave. This also 
 rests on the injunction of the Qur'&n (Sura ii. 226). At the end of the 
 specified time he offers the usual expiation due for an oath, and either 
 returns to his wife or divorces her. 
 
 (5) Mutual cursing. Imprecation ((^jUI), is a form of divorce which 
 takes place under the following circumstances : *♦ If a man accuses his wife 
 of adultery, and does not prove it by four witnesses, he must swear before 
 
 25 
 
194 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 God four times that he is the teller of the truth "and then adds : " If I am 
 a liar God curse me." The wife then also says four times : " I swear 
 before God that my husband lies " and then adds : " May God's anger be 
 upon me if this man be a teller of the truth. " 
 
 - \^u^j U*i (^^UJ\ ^^ ^J^ AlJU ^\ - (^JV£a!^ ^^ 6j\ «IJU j^\ 
 
 After this, a divorce takes place ipso facto. This form of divorce also 
 rests on the Qur'dn (Siira xxiv. G-10). Such a woman may, according to the 
 Hanafi doctrine, marry again ; according to the opinion of the Shi'ahs she 
 is prevented from contracting a marriage again. 
 
 Besides these, there are other modes of divorce to be mentioned : such 
 as: 
 
 (1) When the husband authorizes his wife either by clear words, or in 
 some other way to divorce herself or charges some other person to do it. 
 This may be done either by authorization, or by appointing an agent or by 
 writing a letter. The words are : " Divorce thyself ", or " the matter is in 
 thy hands," (c£L*A> ^^^ - (^^^^^\ - vjsJju* ^^y\) to which the wife 
 
 - a " - 
 
 replie " I have divorced myself, I have chosen " 
 
 (2) Conditional Divorce (^jJbuJ^) is when the husband says to his wife 
 " If thou goest out of the house, thou art divorced." 
 
 (3) Divorce of the sick ^^ji>^\ v3^)- ^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ divorce his 
 wife, even though he be on his death-bed. 
 
 The *Idda period of probation (SJ^aJU designates the number of days a 
 divorced woman has to wait before she is allowed to marry again. It is a 
 time of probation during which it may be ascertained whether she is 
 pregnant or not, and lasts for three months. After this time, if it is as- 
 certained that she is not with child, she is at liberty to contract another 
 marriage ; but if not, she has to wait till she have given birth to her child. 
 After divorce, the * Idda is, as before mentioned, three months ; after the 
 death of her husband, four months and ten days. The observation of 
 these periods of probation is enjoined in the Qur'an. (Siiras Ixv. 2-4 ; ii. 
 232). During this time of probation, the wife lives in the lodging assigned 
 to her by her husband and has to obey him. She may not leave the 
 house, nor undertake anything without his permission. 
 
 Restitution (daus^J^) designates the receiving back of a wife who has 
 been divorced by a revocable divorce. A man may do this if the period of 
 her *Idda has not expired. Should he, however, allow the time of her 
 probation fully to elapse, he may not take her back unless by means of the 
 Muhallil. In case of the legal restitution, the husband says to his wife ; 
 
DIVOKCE. 195 
 
 " I take thee back." A woman divorced by a reversible divorce must adorn 
 herself for her husband during her time of probation. It is not so with a 
 woman who has been definitely divorced or whose husband is dead. A 
 woman definitively divorced must on no account allow her husband to 
 have carnal intercourse with her, and if he insists, she must offer him a 
 compensation or flee from him ; buc if this is of no avail, she may kill 
 him, if possible not openly, but by giving him poison (so that she may not 
 be found out). No punishment must in this case be inflicted on her. If 
 she kills him with a weapon, she has to pay blood-money. Some theo- 
 logians hold that killing the husband under such circumstances is not 
 allowed. The woman must not, under any circumstances, commit suicide. 
 
 Maintenance (dMii\) implies all those things which are necessary to 
 the support of life such as food, clothes, and lodging. There are three 
 causes of providing maintenance established by Law : (1) Marriage, (2) 
 Relationship, (3) Possession, property (of a slave. i»5\» &ii^\ s-»W-»^) 
 (veU^ • ii\ji • ^^^\ 1q this place we have to deal with the maintenance 
 of the wife. The husband is held to give the necessary support to his 
 divorced wife during her 'Idda or until her delivery, if she is pregnant. 
 The support given must bo in accordance with the means of the husband 
 and the condition of the wife. It may bo paid day by day, week by week, 
 or month by month, and the woman has the right to ask for the appoint- 
 ment of a surety who will guarantee the payment. No such support is 
 due to a wife who has brought on her divorce by her misconduct, or to a 
 woman who has lost her husband by death, whether she be pregnant or 
 not. Her lodging, however, is to be provided. 
 
 As regards the suckling of a child the mother, when divorced, is not 
 obliged to do so except she desire it, and be appointed to do so for the same 
 wages which the husband would have to pay to a nurse. If the father 
 should be too poor to pay the nurse's wages she is obliged to give suck to 
 the child. The father has to pay three maintenances (1) for suckling, (2) 
 for the guardianship of the mother, (3) sundry expenses for the child. 
 The longest time of fosterage fixed by the Qur'dn (Siira ii. 233) is two 
 
 years (^^f)^i^ ^^^Xl). This may by agreement be shortened. (Sura 
 Ixv. 6.) 
 
 The acknowledgment of the father is a sufficient proof of the legitimacy 
 of the child. Should there bo any doubt, the birth of the child rest on the 
 testimony of the mid- wife and other trustworthy witnesses. The follow- 
 ing are considered legitimate children : (1) children of legitimate wives ; 
 (2) children born by a slave to her own master, without her being a law- 
 ful wife. Such children inherit like the children of legitimate wives, (3) 
 the children of a woman with whom a man has had carnal intercourse by 
 mistake, thinking her to bo his wife or slave. The child born of the wife, 
 
196 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Slavery.— Slavery (j^ _ k'^y^^) existed in Arabia be- 
 fore the rise of Islam. Muhammad did not abolish it, but 
 adopted it as part of his system, kept slaves himself, and 
 laid down certain laws and regulations, and made slavery 
 a permanent institution of Islam. ^ 
 
 before the legitimate marriage has been contracted, is considered illegiti- 
 mate, and cannot inherit. 
 
 The guardianship of the child (AiUe^) is the right of the mother, 
 even if divorced, unless she be an apostate, or wicked or unworthy to be 
 trusted. According to the Hanafi School she has the custody of her 
 daughter, until she has reached the age of puberty. The custody of male 
 children is limited to the seventh year. The mother loses her right of 
 guardianship when she marries a stranger. 
 
 A widow has to observe mourning (*>^jka.) for her dead husband for the 
 
 period of four months and ten days. During this time she must abstain 
 from wearing any kind of jewelry or ornaments and from using perfumery 
 and paint. Except for her husband a married woman may not observe 
 mourning longer than three days, and the husband may force her to abstain 
 from it, for he has a right to claim that she adorns herself. A definitely 
 divorced woman may not wear her ornaments (some say the revocably 
 divorced wife also), " lest by so doing she tempt her husband to have illicit 
 intercourse with her." 
 
 Polygamy is undoubtedly an institution sanctioned by IsUm and can- 
 not, as some liberal-minded Muslims pretend, be abolished and declared 
 illegal. It is declared legal by Muhammad's example, who took to him- 
 self eleven wives, besides concubines. 
 
 1 A slave is ^jJI^ - x^c - ssJyU/* : a female slave is ^\ . The condi- 
 tion of slavery is j^ - L^^^j^, the term generally used in the Qur'an. 
 Any student, thoroughly conversant with what the Qur'an and Traditions 
 teach on the subject of slavery, will agree that it is incorrect to say that 
 Muhammad disapproved of the institution and considered it as temporary 
 in its nature and that it would ultimately disappear. The orthodox 
 ^Muslim may be forced to liberate his slaves ; but he can never be forced to 
 acknowledge the system of slavery as wrong and unlawful, as it is an in- 
 stitution sanctioned by the Prophet and legislated for by him, and which, 
 therefore, stands and falls with the Qur'an and the religion of Isldm. 
 War with unbelievers is enjoined as a permanent duty of Muslims till 
 
SLA.VERY. 197 
 
 there be no other religion on earth but Isl4m. The captives made in 
 these wars, therefore, yield a constant supply of slaves, male and female. 
 They are the absolute property of the owner, with whom he can deal as 
 he likes. 
 
 Muslims are permitted to cohabit with any of their female slaves made 
 captives in war (Sdras iv. 3, 29 ; xxxiii. 49), even if they are married 
 women whose husbands are still alive. They are enjoined to show kind- 
 ness to slaves (Stira iv. 40). 
 
 With regard to enslaving captives in war, the Im&m may either kill the 
 males or enslave them, or release them by making them Zimmis. The 
 idolators of Arabia and apostates are, however, to be killed without choice. 
 If captives embrace Islim they become slaves, but must not be killed. If 
 infidels become Muslims on the field of battle, before their capture, they 
 are free men ; but after they are caught they become slaves. Slave traiHc 
 is allowed, and the slave, being the property of his master, may, like 
 other property, be sold and bought. 
 
 It is, however, unlawful for a Muslim to enslave, (1) his mother (2) the 
 ascendants on the mother's side, (3) the father, (4) the ascendants on tbo 
 father's side, (5) the sons, (6) the ascendants of the sons, (7) the sisters 
 (8) the aunts on the mother's side, (9) the uncles on the mother's side, 
 <10) the daughters of brothers, (11) the daughters of sisters, (12) the 
 descendants of the father, (13) all persons related by the nurse (£cUJ^). 
 Infidels possessing Muslim slaves may not keep them, but must sell them 
 to Muslims at the current price. The children of a female slave arc also 
 the property of her master, except those children which she has of him, 
 and whom he acknowledges as his who are free. If a female slave is the 
 property of several masters, her children are also joint properly of these 
 masters, except special agreements have been made. If of a married 
 couple one is free, the other a slave, the children born to them arc free 
 and are given over to the free one, except the master has, on marrying 
 them, made it a condition that the children of this marriage should be 
 his own property. 
 
 The liberation of a slave can be effected in five ways : — 
 
 (1) Manumission (<3J* - jUc\ - jtj^) designates the act by which 
 the owner of a slave gives up his right to the same and gives him, of his 
 own free-will, immediate and unconditional freedom (aS^ Jt*^^ i>\jL\ 
 (j^^S^ ^^ tiJyU^J^ jt^ 6^^ A'=>y,»>» ^^ This act is binding, when it 
 proceeds from a person who is free, sane, of age, and the actual owner of 
 the slave in question. If such a person say to his slave : " Thou art free, 
 I set thee free," and such like expressions, the slave becomes free, whether 
 the owner mean emancipation or not. If the liberated female slave be 
 \vith child, her child is also free on her account. 
 
198 THE BELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 The infidels, who are at war with Muslims become slaves as soon as 
 they are made captives and come into possession of the Muslims ; but not 
 till they have been removed to a land of Islam do they become Mamliik 
 (ciJJU-*). Part of a slave may also be liberated (sjurs (ja*j (J-*^^) J o^ 
 his paying the remainder of his price he becomes quite free. A slave who 
 is the joint property of several masters, if one of them liberate his part, 
 the others may do the same with their part, or demand the payment of 
 their portion from the slave. The liberation of a slave who is a believer, 
 is considered a most meritorious act. In certain cases, the liberation of a 
 slave is obligatory, in expiation of certain sins, e.g., for breaking the fast of 
 KamadAn, swearing and not keeping an oath. 
 
 (2) Liberation of a slave by means of a writing (ijllSs) designates the 
 liberation of a slave by means of a bond of freedom, granted to a slave 
 (male or female) in return for a sum of money agreed upon to be paid 
 within a specified time. The owner declares that he has given M. N. 
 such a writ, on condition of his paying such and such a sum. The slave 
 having obtained such a writ is called a s-^^^^, until the ransom is 
 fully paid. During the interval between the promise of freedom and the 
 payment of the money the Mukatab enjoys a certain freedom ; but is 
 placed under certain restrictions, e.g., he is free to move from place to 
 place ; but he cannot marry or make a pilgrimage without the permission 
 of his master. As soon as he pays the total sum agreed upon, he 
 receives his full liberty. Only a Muslim can be liberated in this way. A 
 ^Mukatab cannot be sold or given away as a present or pawned, and, if he 
 is unable to pay the sum due, it is to be paid from the public treasury. 
 Liberation on condition of the slave's agreeing to the proposal of his 
 master of giving an equivalent ( J«i Jlc ^y^s. - dJUr^ ^ ^yi&) is some- 
 what similar to this mode, but differs from it in several points. Here 
 the master proposes to his slave to liberate him on his giving an equi- 
 valent, money or work, for a certain time. If the slave agrees to the 
 master's proposal, he obtains his liberty at once, before he has fulfilled 
 the conditions, for in this case, his liberation does not depend on his ful- 
 filling (oU\), but on his accepting the condition. The Muk&tab obtains 
 his liberty only on his having fulfilled the condition. 
 
 (3) The liberation of a slave after his master's death is by an arrange- 
 ment called tadbir ( woJo) This tadbfr is a declaration made by a master 
 to a slave (male or female) that he or she shall be free at his death. This the 
 master does by saying : ' Thou art a mudabbar (;> J^), or " thou art free 
 at my death" (j-»U. sk> ^ c>JU. The slave may then claim his liberty 
 at the death of his master. In case of a female slave, the children she 
 has born in the interval are also free. This declaration may be made 
 cither in writing or bcfpre two witnesses. The owner of the slave is at 
 
OATHS. . 199 
 
 Oaths. — Acknowledgment ( .Ijjj^l) is a legal term for 
 the avowal of the right of another person upon one's self 
 
 liberty to take back his promise and thus annul the arrangement at any 
 time. A mudabbar may neither be sold, nor given away as a present nor 
 pawned, but he may be hired out, and the female slave may bo enjoyed 
 by her master, or married by force, against her will. If a man, whose 
 sole property consists in slaves, liberates all his slaves by tadbir and his 
 heirs object to this arrangement, the third only of every slave is liberated 
 and the remaining two-thirds are to be paid by them. 
 
 (4) Liberation by Istil&d (oJJ^e^u-^). When a man has a child born to 
 him of a female slave, and claims and acknowledges the child as his own, 
 this acknowledgment becomes ipso facto the cause of the freedom of the 
 female. This freedom is not gained till after his death, because she is then 
 included in the portion which the child inherits. The woman becomes 
 "a mother of offspring" (jJ. A)\ the child is free from its birth, and 
 the right of the master of the ** Umm Walad " becomes restricted, as he 
 may neither sell her nor give her in marriage to another man. It is the 
 duty of the father to acknowledge (j^^JUi ^^ o^W^) *^® child, when born, 
 or even before its birth before witnesses, lest at his death it may be 
 considered a slave. He declares : ^^ \^^ ^^ U^ ^Ua.. 
 
 (5) Liberation of a slave as an act of expiation (SjUk^). Liberation 
 of a slave may also take place as an act of expiation for certain sins and 
 transgressions. 
 
 A female slave, captive, bought, or otherwise acquired by a Muslim, 
 must not be touched by him till ho h;is ascertained whether she is preg- 
 nant or not. For this purpose the master of the female slave takes her to 
 his abode and abstains from intercourse with her for the space of a month, 
 in the case of an old woman or a girl under age. (JL«f\ • ^jt^) ^^® who 
 
 does not observe this time of probation (o^^.{Ju*\ from ^^^ to be clear, free) 
 conunits a sin (f^\). This pr6bation is called e\-.5jt..iJ\ Ajt;^^ \j-t^. 
 A female slave having a child cannot be sold separately from her child, 
 till the child has reached the age of seven years ; but some doctors are 
 of opinion that the child can be sold away as soon as it has been weaned 
 at the proper time. 
 
 Muhammad ordered his followers to treat slaves kindly (Xashf ii. 1G8, 
 169, 284.) Slavery is in the eyes of every ^Muslim a divinely sanctioned 
 institution, and, as such, cannot be declared illegal or abolished ; it stands 
 and falls with Isltoi, 
 
200 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 in sales, contracts, etc., such as that he owes M. N. a sum 
 of money, a number of camels, or that he has received an 
 object in deposit (Jc»jjj), or as a loan. He who acknow- 
 ledges is the ^ i the person to whom one acknowledges 
 is the jd stU 3 the object of avowal is the <)o ^ . Such an 
 avowal ought to be clear (^.^), not ambiguous {f^)^ 
 otherwise it is of no value before the Qadi. Making a sign 
 with the head (^^Ub ^'wc>^!) is not considered a sufficient 
 avowal.* 
 
 1 The teaching of the Qur'in on the subject of oaths (i^^^j^^ pi. /^Ui?) 
 
 is to be found in Sura ii. 225 : " God will not punish you for a mistake in 
 your oaths," and Suras v. 91 ; xvi. 93, 96. Muhammad used to say " Who- 
 soever swears to a thing and says : ' if it please God,' and then acts contrary 
 to his oath, it is no sin."...Ibn *Abidin gives the following definition of an 
 oath : " It is a solemn assertion made by him who swears that he will do 
 or leave a thing." The oath necessarily requires the mention of one of the 
 names or attributes of God, mentioned in the Qur'An. To swear by the 
 Prophet, the Qur'An, the Ka'ba or an attribute or name of God, not men- 
 tioned in the Qur'in, is not an oath. The letters to be prefixed to the 
 
 name of God, in order to express an oath are ^ v^ «y, e.g., ilJt^ - alj^ . ilJly 
 
 Wallihi, Bill&hi,Talldhi; for brevity's sake this letter may be omitted. 
 An affirmative oath necessarily requires the title of confirmation : 
 (Xj.^UJ\ s^f.) which is or ^^, e.g., ^x£s '^^H i^\^ "by God I shall 
 do so." 
 The false oath is of three kinds : 
 
 (1) The grievous oath {^^^^\ i^*:^\ from ^J>^^ to plurlge, because 
 it plunges the swearer deeply into sin) is a false oath sworn with inten- 
 tion (Uux> v»»^^^ (.J^)' "^ person swears he has not done a certain thing, 
 while he knows he has done it. A Muslim thus intentionally swearing a 
 false oath commits a great sin and must repent. No expiation is required 
 in this case, as the sin is considered so grievous that only true repentance 
 can wipe it out. 
 
THE QADI. 201 
 
 The Vow (^aAII pi- ^j Jill) is a solemn declaration by 
 which a person promises to perform a certain act such as 
 fasting, or giving of alms, or offering a certain sacrifice, it 
 may be of a camel, lamb, or sheep. It must be lawful, 
 and something in addition to what is incumbent on him. 
 No foolish or unlawful vows are to be redeemed, and 
 expiation is to be made for not redeeming them. A legal 
 vow not redeemed by a person before his death is to be 
 fulfilled in his stead by some one else. Muhammad said : 
 
 A conditional vow (jfliuc .ii) is to be redeemed when 
 the condition is found, e.g., a man vows to do a thing if he 
 is healed from a disease. Ignorant people often make vows 
 that they will offer money, oil, etc., to Saints (Auliyya), but 
 such vows are foolish and unlawful (j»l.^ • d^^^.)- 
 
 The Qadi. — Authority and power in Muslim lands be- 
 long to the Sultan (Imdm). He appoints the Qadi or 
 judge, whose office and duty it is to examine law-suits, 
 
 (2) The inconsiderate oath (yklJ^ C:>**4) ^^ *" ®**^ ^y which a man 
 affirms what is false, but still "believes ithat he is saying the truth 
 (GsjU ijiii QoL^ «-AU. ^^\'). It is hoped that God will forgive this sin. 
 
 (3) The oath concerning the future («y'\ Jc jJulj^ ^^y^!^^J con- 
 cerns an incident or transaction which is to come. A man swears that he 
 will do or not do such a thing ; if he fails in this, expiation is incumbent 
 on him by which his transgression is wiped out, even if it be not combined 
 
 Si . 
 
 with repentance, ^y ^^ !aSi «^,u». q^\ S^UL^ i*i ^ «y^ Jlc Misu^ ^^j-j^^t 
 
 (\jbj^Ji ^ ^ \^to» AjyJ\ J^y r^ Ci^ ) r**^^ ^^" 'Abidln iii. 50-53). The 
 expiation for a false oath is the freeing of a slave, or fasting or feeding 
 ten poor persons, as at one time. It would lead too far to mention all the 
 expressions, conditions, mental reservations (Aj^y), dissimulations which 
 according to the teaching of the ^luslim doctors, make a solemn assertion 
 not a legal oath. Muhammad says : " He who in swearing adds to his 
 oath : ' If it please God,' can never swear a false oath." 
 
 26 
 
202 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 brought before his court and to give a decision according 
 to the law (c .^Ij. He is competent to give a decision 
 on all matters treated of in Fiqh. The word ^'i means 
 
 to decree, to command. The term ^'^i, in law, desig- 
 nates the decision, or decree of the judge in law-suits, and 
 his making thereby an end to quarrels and strife.^ 
 
 1 The six chief points (^L^s^T) to be considered are (1) (^^^al j or 
 sentence of the judge, which is given either in words (^^) such as : "I 
 decide, give sentence" (o»f^^ - c:-->-ii - cs.^y\), or in acts (J«i) 
 i.e.y the carrying out the sentence at once (^.<7ri^\ iJLJ). (2) The object 
 of judicial decision (&j j»^£a^y«) , which may be a thing concerning God 
 exclusively ((j6^.4J\ JU> &ij\ ^) c.{7., adultery, drunkenness, or such as 
 concerns man exclusively (^jda*^^ 6^\ ,3*-), or such as concern God and 
 man ; but God in a special manner ( JU* £^\ ^s^ M *-r^ ) (j^&sjJ^ i*i U) 
 e.g., calumny, theft, or such as concerns both God and man also, but 
 chiefly man, e.g., retaliation, chastisement (j>yo - [j>^). (3) The person 
 in whose favour the sentence is pronounced is <jj ^»^afis^\ ; the com- 
 plainant plaintiff is ^^^cjcj^ ; the law-suit is ^^y^oJ^ ; the defendant is 
 ^JLc ^^IIJ^. (4) The person against whom the sentence is given is 
 &Jlc f>^^D.^^\. (5) The judge (^^^\.aJ^) is either the Imdm, or the Qddi, 
 or the Arbitrator (a:=^^~»3\). (C) The way in which the judge forms his 
 judgment and gives sentence differs according to the object of litigation. 
 It is either by proof, or confession, or the oath, or clear and undoubtful 
 evidence. 
 
 The persons qualified to exercise the office of Judge are Muslims, whose 
 testimony is accepted in the court of law (Sol^JiJ^ Ja^ \^\). An un- 
 believer may not be made judge in Muslim affairs (^ iJ yV.^^ <^^) ; 
 but he may give a decision in matters concerning non-Muslims. 
 
 A Muslim appointed Qadi by the proper authority may exercise the 
 duties of his office, though he be a wicked man (la«,li ^ \it,\:^ ^A^ (a\ .). 
 As to the Mufti, (^^^:;64J\), the majority are of opinion that a wicked 
 person cannot exercise this office, and that his decision cannot be relied 
 upon (6^y:i ^^^Ic jl^jcjo 5 _ 6cbJU^\ J«»^i~v> S). The Mufti is a learned 
 
INHERITANCE. 203 
 
 Inheritance (^ip - cSjI^juJI ^U)— The term ^U 
 is an abbreviation of ^^•l.oil Ac or the science of the por- 
 tions, ordered, appointed for the heirs by divine command 
 in the Qur'an. The heir is t*.?.!^) (pi. «oJj), the heritage 
 is djUj^l i property left, or heritage is i^sy the portion 
 which each of the heirs receives is ^^^ (pi. ^[^ ^.f^^)* 
 The verses of the Qar'an upon which the law of inherit- 
 ance is founded are called the c^; ,\^\ clj'jI. They are 
 Sura iv. 8-18.* 
 
 Jurist who gives decisions or legal opinions in difficult questions of law. 
 
 If the Q&di has obtained his office by means of bribery his decisions are 
 
 void, as he is not to bo considered a lawful Q&di. If the Q&di accepts 
 
 bribes (^^jAJj^) in giving sentence, the opinions concerning the validity 
 
 of the same are divided. If the Q4di at the time of his appointment 
 
 is a pious man and then becomes wicked, the Sultdn may depose him. 
 
 c . 
 The right and duty of the imprisonment (;j->) of offenders is believed 
 
 to be laid down in the Qur'dn (Sdra v. 37) and the Sunna. The prisoner 
 is not allowed to have a comfortable bed, nor may friends keep him com- 
 pany. His wife may not share the prison with him. It is not lawful to 
 imprison a person on mere suspicion (&^) (Dictionary of Tsl&m 205). 
 
 1 The property of the deceased Muslim is applicable, in the first place, 
 to the payment of the funeral expenses ; secondly, to the discharge of his 
 debts; thirdly, to the payment of legacies as far as the third of the 
 residue. The remaining two-thirds, with so much of the third as is not 
 absorbed by legacies, are the patrimony of the heirs. A Muslim is, there- 
 fore, disabled from disposing of more than a-third of his property by will. 
 
 The residue of the estate, after the payment of funeral expenses, debts 
 and legacies, descends to the heirs (A»;J) and among these, the first are 
 persons for whom the law has provided specific shares or portions and 
 who are, therefore, called sharers ((jA^;iJ\ ^^»J). After the sharers have 
 been satisfied, any residue remaining is divided among the distant rela- 
 tions (i^). 
 
 During his life-time a Muslim has absolute power over his property, and 
 may dispose of it as he likes. He must, however, deliver the property to 
 the donee in his life-time. As regards testamentary dispositions in the 
 
204 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Evidence, Witness, Testimony (iit)'^^). — Evidence is 
 the statement of the truth for the confirmation of the 
 truth in the office of the Qadi with the special formula : 
 sl*,\ " I testify." It is the duty of every Muslim to 
 bear testimony when the same is demanded of him 
 (^^lyi^ U'jl S^csj:>)' as it is enjoined in the Qur'an 
 (Suraii. 28'2). 
 
 making of donations, endowments, and legacies, the amount so left is 
 limited to one-third of the property. The law of inheritance, is acknow- 
 ledged to be an exceedingly difficult branch of study (Ibn Khaldun. i. 376). 
 
 One-half («__a-3i) is due to the husband when there are no descend- 
 ants, the sister when there are no other heirs, the daughter when she is 
 the only child. 
 
 One-fourth (^>^^) is due to the husband surviving with children, the 
 husband and wife when there are no descendants. 
 
 One-eighth ((j^\) is due to the wife surviving with children. 
 
 One-third (^iJiiJ^) is due to the wife during the life-time of her father- 
 in-law, when the husband has left neither children nor other relatives 
 entitled to inherit. 
 
 Two-thirds ((^^J are due to two or more daughters when there are 
 no sons. 
 
 One-sixth (^JuJ\) is due to the father and the mother of their child, 
 when the latter has left descendants. (For details see Dictionary of 
 Islam, 200-213). 
 
 The hindrances (^^^^ 5*^r*) "^^^^^ prevent a person from sharing in 
 the inheritance which are many, are : — 
 
 (1) Infidelity. An infidel cannot inherit from a Muslim, but a Muslim 
 can inherit from an infidel. 
 
 (2) Murder ( J^) . A man who has wilfully killed another cannot in- 
 herit from him. Man-slaughter does not, however, exclude from inheriting. 
 
 (8) Slavery (v3j\ A slave cannot inherit from a free man, nor a free 
 man from a slave. 
 
 (4) Li'an (mUJ), imprecation, separation between husband and wife, 
 prevents mutual inheritance. 
 
 (5) Flight, disappearance (&1 
 
USUEPATION. 205 
 
 Persons, in order to be able to give evidence, which can 
 be legally accepted, must have the qualifications of full 
 age, sound reason, faith, good reputation, absence of sus- 
 picion, and partial knowledge of the subject concerning 
 which evidence is required. They may be eye-witnesses 
 (J^l jjb'ui). or witnesses from hearsay (ey jjt'wi).^ 
 
 Usurpation or Taking by Force (v.^..v^) — This is 
 the taking of the property of another, which is valuable, 
 without the consent of the proprietor. Usurpation is also 
 exacting service from the slave of another, or putting 
 
 I In cases inducing bodily punishment, witnesses are at liberty either to 
 give or withhold their testimony. The concealment of vice is preferable, 
 because the Prophet said to a person who had borne testimony : " Verily 
 it would have been better for you if thou hadst concealed it." In the ctise 
 of theft it is a duty to testify that a certain person took such property, 
 in order to preserve the right of the proprietor ; but the word taken 
 (^\) ought to bo used instead of stolen (j^), »» order to conceal the 
 crime ( J...'.U ^^;). 
 
 The evidence required in case of whoredom (Uj) is that of four men 
 (Sura xxiv. 4). The testimony of a woman is not admitted in such a case. 
 
 The evidence required in other criminal cases is that of two men : that 
 of women is not admitted. 
 
 In all other cases the evidence required is that of two men or of one 
 man and two women. 
 
 The ImAm Sh4fi'i rejects the evidence of woman, except in certain cases 
 guch as childbirth and female defects, on account of the deficiency of 
 woman's understanding. If two Christians testify that a certain Chris- 
 tian woman has embraced Isl&m, their testimony is valid, and she is 
 forced to become a ^luslim (^JuS^ ^J^ 1^), The testimony of ^luslim 
 heretics is valid. 
 
 As regards retraction of evidence, if witnesses retract their testimony, 
 prior to the Q&di's having passed sentence, by saying : " I retract what I 
 have testified" (e^ u:^Jk^ Uc k****..), or similar expressions, it becomes 
 void ; if sentence has been already given, it does not become void by such 
 a retraction f^^^t^^J^ ^—4 3). The retraction of the evidence, in order 
 to be valid, must be made in the presence of the Qddi. 
 
206 THE KELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 a burden upon the quadruped of another person. The 
 person willingly doing so (^^^Ull), transgresses, and is 
 
 responsible to the person injured (<)cJL< l--?.^xxJI) for com- 
 pensation for the thing usurped or injured (» >j^x^!l). 
 
 But if he has done so unwillingly, thinking the object 
 usurped his own, he is not an offender in law, but is still 
 liable for a compensation. As soon as a Muslim sees an 
 object, slave, animals, house, etc., which has been wrong- 
 fully appropriated, he is to restore it to its rightful pro- 
 prietor, for it is unlawful. 
 
 Pre-emption (jcxa^). — This is the right of preference 
 which a partner or co-sharer (cJ^^ -i) in the possession 
 
 of a certain object such as a house, or landed property, 
 enjoys when that object is being sold, or his taking 
 possession of it for the same price, if it has already been 
 sold to a third party. The person who desires to make 
 use of this right is the advocate (x^a.^) i he must make 
 his claim as soon as he hears of the sale, or if he be 
 present, before it is concluded ; otherwise he loses his 
 
 right ^ acjJijs Vi Uj ^c.ll^l ^J.z ^x^ kx'a.^] cJi^J I'tadl) 
 
 Oj^ Ji^^l c;;— ^. u^ ^^i^r^ The right does not apply to 
 movable but only immovable property ( .lax). Only Mus- 
 lims enjoy this right. 
 
 Lost Property, Troves (lajfiLaiiaal).— This comprises: 
 (1) a found child, a foundling, which the person who finds 
 it must take up, and restore it to the parent. If these 
 cannot be found, he must bring it up, but the expenses 
 are paid from the public treasury ; (2) property found and 
 taken up for the purpose of preserving it in the manner 
 of a trust. 
 
SLAYING OF ANIMALS. 207 
 
 A trove under ten dirhams must be advertised for some 
 days ; if it exceed ten dirhams in value, it must be kept at 
 the disposition of its rightful owner for the space of a year. 
 
 The capture of a runaway slave is considered a praise- 
 worthy act, and the captor is entitled to a reward of forty 
 dirhams. The Qadi imprisons the fugitive slave till his 
 owner claims him and proves him to be his property ; if 
 no owner claims him for a long time, the Qddi sells him 
 and keeps the money realized by the sale at the disposal 
 of the owner. 
 
 If a person who is lost or has disappeared had been 
 married, the Qadi appoints an agent. His wife cannot 
 marry again for four years, and he cannot be legally 
 declared dead till the period expires, when he would have 
 reached the age of ninety ; then only can his property be 
 divided among the heirs. 
 
 Slaying of Animals ( v j). — It is said that slaying of 
 
 animals in Law means the act of slaying an animal agree- 
 ably to the prescribed forms, without which the flesh is 
 not lawful for the food of man (Bukhari iii. 253 et seqq.) 
 It is of two kinds: (1) by choice (^^^lAAi^l), or (2) by 
 necessity ( ^.l-la^l). The former is slaughtering animals 
 ** in the name of God " with the knife, the latter is slaugh- 
 tering* effected by a wound, as in shooting birds or animals, 
 in which case the words : *' Bismillahi, Allah Akbar ! " 
 must be said at the time of the discharge of the arrow from 
 the bow or the shot from the gun. The Muslim may 
 eat with Jews and Christians, as long as the food is of 
 lawful kind (Siira v. 7) . 
 
 I The proper mode of slaughtering is to draw the knife across the throat 
 and the windpipe. The carotid arteries and the gullet must bo cut through, 
 while the words '* In the name of God, God is great" are repeated. The 
 proper slaughtering is considered to be effected by the shedding of blood. 
 
208 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 - CI c r 
 
 Food and Drink (Lj^) ^ ^^«lol). — Muhammad used 
 to say on this subject : " What God has declared lawful 
 in His book is lawful, and what He has declared unlawful 
 in His book is unlawful, or what He has been silent about 
 is unlawful " (Siira ii. 167). All kind of fish is allowed for 
 food, except those which have no scales, and resemble 
 snakes. Oysters and tortoises are also unlawful. The 
 Shafi'ites consider them lawful. Quadrupeds such as 
 camels, cattle, and sheep are lawful. The horse and the 
 donkey are considered as j$.^£=i^ disliked. Dogs, swine, 
 cats, mice, and dead animals may not be eaten. Birds of 
 prey are unlawful ; but pigeons and sparrows are lawful. 
 Intoxicating drinks are forbidden. For the customs to be 
 observed on eating (J.^!il c-jljT) see Ghazaliii. 2, 225, 
 Fermented liquor (ayo.i.) is unlawful; unfermented liquor 
 ( J.J.XJ) is lawful. If a man is in danger of dying of hunger, 
 any unlawful food becomes licit for him. 
 
 Waste Land. — It is the law that all land is either culti- 
 vated land ( .^l^), or waste land (^^!>- - «-r^K=^)- ^^1 
 
 ^^W^y^^ ^i^j^^\^ (•^^n &.i^j^ ^ L^\^ ^Ufi\ i^t:i ^'^ ^ tSjW^^^ t^'^^) 
 (\^^>^ iJtM ^j\ ^ah Ji. ^ It is absolutely necessary that the person who 
 slays should be a Muslim or a Kitabi, i.e., a Jew or Christian'not a heathen 
 or Majian, or an apostate (i,^^^^). The term applied to the sacrifice slaugh- 
 tered on the day of the great festival(^,telj^ ^y, _ ^^^^^J ^\i\) is i,j^^\. 
 It is so called because it is slaughtered at the time called ^-^-e or the 
 time of the day when the sun has risen high on the horizon (Bukhari 
 viii. 285). A Muslim is allowed to hunt (cW^ J^^), with arrows or 
 weapons of iron, as spears, or better still with trained animals, with dogs 
 or panthers or hawks or falcons. The sign of a dog's training is his 
 catching game three times without eating it. A hawk is considered 
 trained, when she attends to the call of her master. If .the dog eats any 
 part of the game, it is unlawful. Hunting is not allowed on the pilgrim- 
 age, nor within the limits of the sacred cities of Mecca or Madina. 
 
SALE. 209 
 
 waste land which is not cultivated, either from want of 
 water or some other cause, and is at a distance from a 
 town or village, may be taken possession of for the object 
 of reclaiming and cultivating it, if the Imam gives per- 
 mission to do so. 
 
 Regulations concerning the right to water are that a 
 man may in his turn, use the water of a river, a rivulet, 
 or a canal for the purposes of irrigation, giving water 
 to animals, etc., {see Dictionary of Islam, 540, 665). 
 Ol^jJI^ lz\jj^\ Uiu. J^'woJb a^JuSi\ Ly ^^ e-J^!l. 
 Sale. — A sale in law signifies an exchange of property 
 for property, with the mutual consent of the parties 
 {^yA^ x^^ ^L ^^i ^^--i. Jclj'jct). The points to be 
 observed are (I) ( J'-cJl) the property, which can be taken 
 possession of, and preserved, treasured up to the time 
 when it is wanted, i^'^ 31 J^=i^^ . ^1 juli Jjixxj U JUIl) 
 (A^UJ' c:^5^ ie., objects, money, but not rights and 
 debts which cannot form the objects of sale ; (2) the seller 
 (^jJi)i (;^) the buyer (^^yl^')j (4) the object of sale 
 (wXA^l)i (5) the equivalent price (^^1). The objects of 
 sale may be divided into (1) things which, if they perish, 
 can be replaced by an equal quantity of something of the 
 same kind. They are called IJU ; and (2) into things 
 equal in value and quantity, called ^-c^. When some- 
 thing is sold the object and the price must be mutually 
 delivered at once. Ofifer and acceptance (<-->'^J and J^aJ) 
 are necessary. The contracting parties must have the 
 qualifications of full age, sound reason and full liberty. 
 For the full possession of the object of sale there must 
 be delivery and reception (^^w and >^>LJ)- The object 
 of sale must be lawful (— Uj5»), the description and speci- 
 fication of the object of sale must be clear (u-i.^^), the 
 27 
 
210 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Statement of price, definite (^K,i), and- the possibility of 
 realizing a gain, by such a sale or purchase, must be 
 evident. Treasuring up wheat, barley, in order to raise 
 the price, is unlawful.^ 
 
 1 At the sale of domestic animals and slaves, the purchaser has the right 
 to annul the agreement for three days. This privilege is called the 
 Option ( jL^^). A female slave cannot be delivered to the purchaser be- 
 fore she has had her menstruation. Should this not appear, a time of 
 probation of forty days must be observed, in order to ascertain whether 
 she is pregnant or not. If the purchaser is doubtful, he may himself 
 subject her to this probation, but may not have any carnal intercourse 
 with her during the forty days, otherwise he is subject to the punishment 
 of atonement. If a Muslim purchases a female slave, who is pregnant, 
 it is best for him not to cohabit with her till she has been delivered of her 
 child ; otherwise the child she bears will be considered as his own and 
 entitled to inherit, and its mother will become (j31f»U the " mother of off- 
 spring." Male or female slaves may be bought by partners who equally 
 share the right of their services. If one of the partners cohabit with such 
 a female slave and she brings forth a child, he has to take her over as his 
 property and to pay his co-partners their share of the value of the slave. 
 It is unlawful to sell young infidel slaves to non-j\Iuslims, as their con- 
 version to Isl&m may be hoped for. The Qur'dn prescribes the presence 
 and testimony of witnesses on the occasion of sales (Sura ii. 282). 
 
 Such an agreement of sale can only be dissolved with the mutual con- 
 sent of the contracting parties. It can, however, be dissolved under the 
 following circumstances, when there is : 
 
 (1) Option of place (^^l^.»3^ jW^)> ^lien the contracting parties have 
 
 not yet left the place of agreement. 
 
 (2) Option of previous condition (LyiJ\jLs£.), when the option of dis- 
 solving the contracts within a specified time has previously been agreed to. 
 
 (3) Option of fraud ((^j-JkJ^ ,Li>), when the purchaser discovers that 
 the seller has deceived him. 
 
 (4) Option of delay (^UJ^ ;W^)> ^^^^^^ ^^^ object of sale has not been 
 delivered by the seller, or the price paid by the purchaser at the proper 
 time. 
 
 (5) Option of appearance (A*.J\ jW^), ^^ ^^^ object of sale, on being 
 delivered, has a different appearance, or different qualities from what it 
 had at the time of the sale. 
 
USURY. 211 
 
 Usury (L .) is unlawful (fjcy ^£. JU- J^ Xc.^ l^Wy 
 The profit (J-iii) or excess, which is considered usury ^ is 
 
 (6) Option of defect (s-^^ ;^)» ^^^^^^ defects arc discovered which 
 were not evident at the time of the sale. When of two slaves purchased 
 one dies l)cforc their delivery, the purchaser has the choice of either 
 amiulling the agreement, or of letting it stand, in which case, however, 
 ho has to pay the price of both slaves. 
 
 Cancelling (a)U\) is the term for the dissolution of the sale. If one 
 
 of the contracting parties wishes to annul a sale, he says : " Release me " 
 and the other says ; " I have released thee." f^^\^ }\ . ^\V 
 
 There are many different kinds of sale. Of these the following may bo 
 mentioned : 
 
 (1) Selling for a profit (j;^^^\), when the seller distinctly states 
 that he purchased it for so much, and sells it for so much. 
 
 (2) Selling at the original price (igJyJ^ - J^^ Ai^ Jjiei). 
 
 (3) Sale of things for things, or barter (AiJUu). 
 
 (4) Sarf (wi^), a special kind of sale or exchange, a change of money, 
 or of silver for gold (;^«^^; Je^^^ (•J^c ^f-^ ;). 
 
 (5) Sale by advance (fX^), when the price is immediately advanced for 
 goods to be delivered at a future fixed time. 
 
 (6) Loan (jtJt), a transaction in which a man borrows certain things, 
 money or other things, and engages himself to return an equal quantity 
 of things of the same kind without any definite understanding as to the 
 time of the repayment. 
 
 (Aju J^ ^^ j^ ju ^j jic j^ u*r^ ^ u^y^^) 
 
 (7) oVijT ^, is an operation by which a person delivers, as a kind of 
 pledge or mortgage, to another pei*son certain movable or immovable 
 objects, valued at a certain specified price, on condition that, if he returns 
 the sum lent at the assigned term, the pledge is returned to him ; if not, 
 it remains the property of the lender, on condition, however, of his paying 
 the borrower the difference l>etween the value of the pledge and the sum 
 lent to him. This operation is also called the pledge to be returned 
 
 (jUi3^ ijJtj) ; or sale of trust, deposit (AiUlJ\ ^). 
 
212 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 that demanded by one of the parties in a sale of homo- 
 geneous articles, estimated by weight or measurement, as 
 an obligatory condition, without his giving any equivalent 
 for it in return. For example, the sale of two loads of 
 barley in exchange for one load of wheat does not con- 
 stitute usury, since the articles are not homogeneous, and 
 the sale of ten yards of cloth for five yards of cloth is not 
 usury, since they are not estimable by weight or measure- 
 ment of capacity (^j. ^) JI^s)- The Qur'an strongly for- 
 bids usury (Sura ii. 276 ; see Dictionary of Islam, 656). 
 Sale may be either fully valid, (Mp ^i) or, it may be 
 
 suspended, (^y.^ ^j,i) or invalid (j^^U *_X) 
 
 Debt, Advance (^id _ J.>^ _ lJI^)- — Debts are of two 
 
 kinds : (1) money or other articles of value delivered to 
 a person, on condition that he pay back after a specified 
 time articles of the same value or quantity, without any 
 compensation or interest ; (2) u-Ai.^w - A^, ie,, an advance 
 
 of money or articles of a certain value delivered to a 
 person, on condition that after a specified time he give 
 in return for the same certain specified articles, implying 
 a certain profit in addition to what had been advanced 
 to him. The lender is called ,>J,LcJl • the borrower 
 
 u^f 
 
 IS 
 
 ^ JijUw.#aJ'* 
 
 known as 
 
 Loan (L .U )• — This is an agreement by which the owner 
 of a certain object delivers the same over to a person to 
 make use of and profit by it, without any payment or 
 compensation, on condition of his returning it in good con- 
 dition when it is claimed back (tiUj^ ^J'JUll ciXjlI^S ^.^^')- 
 The person who makes the loan is the .Iajc^ i he who 
 
 receives the loan is the .xtl*^] 3 the object loaned is 
 
KENT. 213 
 
 Deposit (ZxjJ* _ ^\Si}y — This is an agreement by which 
 a thing is entrusted to the care of another with the 
 injunction to carefully preserve it in good condition 
 
 The object deposited is called htiii^ ; the proprietor of 
 the deposit is cJ^i the person entrusted with the de- 
 
 posit is the tjjju*;^ . cJ^:i • ^JL^l 
 
 When the deposit is seriously damaged or destroyed, the 
 trustee is only held responsible for it, in case of exces- 
 sive negligence (L.^ii), or transgression of the authority 
 given him by the depositor (^^iio) 
 
 Hire, Leasi:. Kim ak, W ages (s.ld^l). — This is an 
 agreement by which the owner of a certain object gives it 
 over to a person for a specified time, to use and profit by 
 it, or by which a person promises to render certain ser- 
 vices to another, for which the person who makes use of 
 the hired object, or to whom services are rendered, makes 
 a certain payment ((^*x; j-AJ cJ^Ui' iiW^il)- The hirer is 
 jj^^ i the renter, tenant, lessee is .^^Iju*^ j the servant or 
 hireling is ^j^) -, the rent or wages is s^l- 
 
 r.\ 1 ; T M : 1 ; s If 1 1' (i£o^). — This is an agreement by which 
 two or more persons unite in one concern, or business. 
 
 The partners put together capital with the object of shar- 
 ing in the profit, in proportion to the capital contributed. 
 The jurists also mention various kinds of partnership* 
 
 I CI) O^^^ 1^^ social contract ; (2) JUx\; J\-^i\ ii^yt, partner- 
 ship of people of thchiimo profession, sharing Liu; {)H)lil ol Llieir joint work; 
 (3) 6»v« ^'^j^ a person of reputation and credit iibbuciating with a pcrhou 
 
214 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Commission, Co-partnership (^ .1^) — is an agreement 
 by which a person delivers a capital or stock to another, 
 who is to traffic with the same, and the profit is to be 
 divided according to agreement. The partner who gives 
 the capital is the J'^1 iZ^j or JUJI Lj^:>.U i the one 
 
 who traffics with it is the k^j\^^ . Jj^ or manager. 
 
 (^ 
 
 Farming out Land (h:j]yc . i^l^ _ itliU;^).— Land 
 may be given into the charge oi another, on condition 
 that a tixed proportion of its produce is transferred 
 to the owner. He who farms out is the ^j^,] ^^2wU> j 
 
 the farmer is the c ,h : the land farmed out is ^£j\^<- 
 The owner of the land has, however, to pay the land-tax 
 
 Watering a Garden (jiUU^). — The owner of a garden, 
 vineyard, or plantation, containing fruit trees, may deliver 
 over the same to a person for a specified time to care for 
 it, on condition that the produce be divided between 
 them, in the proportion of one-half, one- third or the like, 
 as may be stipulated. 
 
 Kacing and Shooting (Ll<j • ^a^)- — The free consent 
 of those who take part in the competition and fix the 
 rewards is necessary. Horses, camels, elephants, donkeys, 
 and mules may be used in these competitions. 
 
 x\gency, Attorneyship (^'.£s.). — This is an agreement 
 by which a person appoints another person to be his agent 
 
 of no credit, with the object of equally sharing the profit of an under- 
 taking; (4) &-c.\jt/» ISsjbt when each partner promises to divide the pro- 
 fit of his particular undertaking with his partners. 
 
BAIL. 215 
 
 in the conducting of business, sale, collecting debts, or in 
 executing certain orders in his stead, and as his substitute. 
 The agent is a JuxJ^j 3 the person appointing him is the 
 j£3»^l 3 an agent with limited authority is a ^jc[i. Jj^£=^ j 
 with general authority a jlL.<) Jj^^ - j*'^ iXi^^y 
 
 c- 
 
 Pledging, Pawning (^j). — This designates the deten- 
 tion of a thing as a sign and surety of a claim or a debt. 
 The Qur'in says : " Let pledges be taken " (Siira ii. 188). 
 The person who gives the pledge is ^IJJI ; the receiver 
 of the pledge, or pawn is ^^^j^W » the object pawned is 
 
 (^.*xl'.£3 sj^ \%^^xxxJ\ ^^.xjj jf^o ^ p^Ji, ^^^,,^ ^^1) 
 
 Suretyship, SEcrRixv, Bail.— (^^^'^0.0) These arc in 
 Muslim law of three different kinds. 
 
 (1) y;'-c-i by which a person becoming a surety (^U) 
 and promises to pay the creditor the debt of a third 
 person, in case the latter should not pay it himself at 
 the specified time. The surety is ^^Ul i the debtor is 
 sxe ^^-OL-^/cJl f the creditor is sAc joj-c^aJI* 
 
 (2) jjJIj:*. is an agreement by which a debt is removed 
 from the original debtor to another person, who thereby be- 
 comes alone responsible to the creditor for the payment of 
 the debt. The drawing of bills of exchange (x^xk^, ^^>5y) 
 is said to be blamable. 
 
 (3) ^'ji£d is an agreement by which a person becomes 
 surety for the payment of debts or for the property or for 
 the debtor. There are two kinds of such kafala, that is, 
 (1) security for the person, engagement to find and pro- 
 duce the debtor, should he abscond or flee ,;wa>. ^U£d 
 
216 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 and j^^ajill Z[a.^ j (2) security for property or the pay- 
 ment of the debt is JLJl ^li£= - J'^lb JciU^s- 
 
 (u^^ y^ iJ'"^^ 3^ U^^^. '' *^^ person who is surety is Jaa^l^ 
 the person for whom one is surety is <xir J^a^-o.11 3 
 the object of security is jo J^a£sxxl1- 
 
 Donation, Gift {llh) — This is an agreement by which 
 a person gives property of his own to another person to 
 become his sole and entire property, without compensa- 
 tion {^^£^ h)' The donor is ^^^6yl > the receiver of the 
 gift is i ^^•a^l 3 the gift is ^^a. The donation must be 
 made in the presence of witnesses. The retractation 
 of a gift (ju^il J 9^^}^) is not unlawful, but a blamable 
 action which is to be avoided. 
 
 Will, Bequests (iZa^ . 'oU.) — These are means by 
 
 which the testator (^at^^I) leaves to a legatee (jd ^^yo\\) 
 monev or property, to be delivered up after his death. The 
 person appointed to carry out the will is called the ^-^j 
 or executor. Guardianship (JJl -^^.^^) naturally belongs 
 
 to the father or grandfather of the deceased. When there 
 is neither a guardian, nor executor appointed by will, a 
 Qayyam {mj^) is appointed by law to act as guardian. 
 
 The will should be executed in writing and is to be 
 certified by two male witnesses, or by one male and 
 two females. Bequests are lawful and valid to the ex- 
 tent of one-third of the testator's property. A will may 
 be altered by the testator. 
 
 Proximity, Kin, Friendship (^^.)- — This designates 
 in Law a peculiar relationship, voluntarily established. 
 
ENDOWMENTS. 217 
 
 and which confers the right of inheritance on one or both 
 parties connected. It is of two kinds : 
 
 (1) ii'jLn!) ^S^ or relationship between a master and a 
 manumitted slave, in which the former inherits any pro- 
 perty the latter may acquire after his emancipation. 
 
 (2) ijjl^^l pi^ or relation arising out of mutual friend- 
 ship, especially between a Muslim and a convert to Islam. 
 
 c 
 
 Compulsion («I-£d1). — This designates an unlawful ac- 
 tion which a Muslim commits under unjust compulsion. 
 There is the absolute compulsion (i'J), when he is forced 
 to commit such an unlawful act by him who has power 
 over his life, and the relative compulsion (^^li), when 
 the danger of resisting is less imminent. 
 
 Endowment, Religious Foundation («-^j) — Endow- 
 ment, or Wakf, designates appropriation or dedication 
 of property to charitable and pious uses and to the service 
 of God. The object of such an endowment must be of a 
 perpetual nature, and such property or land cannot be sold 
 or transferred or pawned (^^ j^ ^Ujt 'i^ vl)l^. ^^ cUoj ^)» 
 The person who dedicates such a thing must expressly 
 declare it by such words as : ** I dedicate it as alms for 
 ever for the benefit of the poor, or for the cause of God." 
 The person who dedicates is u-ii^l i the object dedicated 
 is uJHj , uJy^ ; the person or object for whose benefit 
 the endowment is made is jiAc uJy^^- 
 
 Such an endowment may be made for the benefit of 
 particular persons, e.g.^ children, or for the public in 
 general. It must be separated from private property, and 
 it must be expressly declared to be perpetual in character. 
 
 A female slave who is made *'Wakf" can only be 
 married to a slave, so that she and her offspring may 
 remain slaves and be a profit to their owner. 
 28 
 
218 THE EELmiON OF ISLAM. 
 
 Compromise or Eeconciliation {l^y — This is an 
 understanding come to with the object of terminating a 
 litigation (Ic^.fl^] *-Laj^ cl^JJl njji Sir yb JJl). The 
 mediator is 1.,a<JI3 the claimant is Jl^^j jthe respondent 
 is <xl J'w^^l 3 the object of litigation is ^^ J'waxxll • 
 
 Muhammad said : '' Eeconciliation is more meritorious 
 than prayer and fasting." In order to bring about a 
 reconciliation between husband and wife it is said to 
 be lawful to tell an untruth (Sura iv. 127-128). 
 
 Exclusion (-j. .'c^). — This designates an arrangement 
 by which the heirs-at-law exclude a person who has a 
 share in the inheritance, by giving him an object, or 
 money which he accepts as his share. 
 
 Bankruptcy (^^^1)- — In Law this designates the state 
 of a person who is not only unable to pay his debts, but 
 lacks the necessary means for supplying his own press- 
 ing wants. The bankrupt person is ^^IslJ). When the 
 Qadi has duly ascertained that the property of the 
 bankrupt is not sufficient to pay his debts, he declares 
 him insolvent, and places his property under seques- 
 tration. The Qadi then distributes it to the debtors, and 
 after that the bankrupt person has no more obligations 
 to his debtors and has full liberty of action. 
 
 Inhibition, Interdiction, Sequestration (.:^). — 
 These are terms which designate an order to prevent a 
 person from disposing of his property.* 
 
 1 The causes of inhibition are three : infancy, insanity and servitude 
 {(A^ - 3) ■ J**) ^^^ ^^^^ °^ ^ child, who has not reached the stage of 
 puberty, are not legal, unless they are sanctioned by his guardian. A boy 
 or girl are of age if the signs of puberty appear on them, otherwise 
 fifteen years is admitted as the age of puberty of both ; some allow 
 
PUNISHMENT. 219 
 
 We now come to the third part of Fiqh which deals 
 with punishments. 
 
 Punishment (cL^Uyic) — Punishments inflicted accord- 
 ing to the MusHm law for various crimes and oflences, are : 
 (1) Jo- (pi. J.Jo-) that is punishments for certain crimes, 
 fixed by the law of the Qur an or Traditions ; (2) ^ ;«; or 
 chastisement for offences, not fixed by the law, but left 
 
 to the option and discretion of the Imam ; (3) ^LaS or 
 Eetaliation. 
 
 LyU is from ^..^jiiJ to follow, because the punishment 
 
 follows the transgression, a*. (^1 j.jo-) in its primitive 
 sense means prevention, hindrance, impediment, limit, 
 boundary.* In Law it means the punishment appointed 
 by the Law of the Qur'dn or the Traditions for certain 
 crimes and transgressions. The Hadud are the limits, 
 which man is not to transgress, and for the transgression 
 of which he will be punished. No intercession ought to 
 be made, and is of no avail when once the case has come 
 before the Qadi. Before this time intercession may be 
 made and the punishment be cancelled. The guilt, 
 however, remains, and it is only repentance which can 
 remove it. 
 
 Some are of opinion that the punishment removes the 
 guilt. If a man commits a sin such as drunkenness, or 
 
 twelve for the boy and nine for the girl. ^^JU is a legal term to dc»igiiate 
 a licensed or privileged slave who has received remission of the inhibition 
 which prevented his buying and selling. 
 
 1 The transgressions which are punished by Hadd punishments arc : 
 (1) adultery, (2) fornication, (3) false accusation of a married person of adul- 
 tery, (4) apostasy, (5) drinking wine, (G) theft, (7) highway robbery. 
 
220 THE BELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 adultery which deserves the punishment of Hadd, and 
 repents of it sincerely before it is reported to the Qadi, it 
 is praiseworthy not to inform the Qadi of it for the 
 "concealing of such acts is a laudable thing." 
 
 As regards the crimes which are to be punished by the infliction of the 
 Hadd, it is laid down as follows : 
 
 (1) Adultery. — Only that kind of adultery is punishable which an adult 
 IMuslim of sound reason commits of his own free will with a woman, who 
 is not his own, in the land of Isldm, (Daru'l Islam), In the land of the 
 enemy (Daru'l Harb) it is not punishable by Hadd. Adultery is to be 
 proved either by the confession of the transgressor or by witnesses. If by 
 witnesses, it is necessary that four witnesses testify at one and the same 
 time before the Qd,di that they have seen N. N. commit adultery, with 
 N. N. and explain how and when and where and with whom. To prove 
 adultery by confession it is necessary that, on being asked four times, 
 the person persists in his confession and no one contradicts his state- 
 ment. Should he, before the punishment is inflicted, retract his con- 
 fession by saying : '* By God I have not pleaded guilty," he is to be 
 considered innocent, and must be released immediately ; the same applies 
 to other crimes also, such as theft and drunkenness. It is considered 
 desirable to suggest to a man accused of adultery that he should say 
 that he has done it by mistake, or that he has only kissed or touched the 
 woman in which case he escapes punishment. If he should pretend that the 
 woman with whom he had illicit intercourse is his wife, even if this be 
 not true (and no proof is required of him), or if he buys or marries her 
 afterwards, he is not to be punished. A married man (0^^ from /^.^ac^ 
 to be fortified, protected, viz., by marriage from unlawful intercourse), 
 who commits adultery is to be stoned in a public place till he dies ; the 
 married woman (aj;*^^^^) is to be stoned, standing in a hole dug in the 
 earth, up to the waist. The witnesses on whose evidence the adulterer is 
 stoned must begin to throw stones at him, then the Qddi and the people 
 standing there in rows, also cast stones. After death, the burial takes 
 place as in the case of other Muslims. An unmarried man (/AA&i\ «jis) 
 who commits adultery is not stoned, but punished by the infliction of 
 one hundred stripes (SjX^ i*U), if he be free ; fifty, if he is a slave. 
 
 (2) Fornication. — Four witnesses are required to prove fornication 
 (Sura xxiv. 2-5). In the beginning of Isldm women found guilty of 
 fornication or adultery were to be imprisoned till they died (Siira iv. 19). 
 The man must sufEer the punishment standing upright, the woman sitting. 
 
DRUNKENNESS. 221 
 
 Drunkenness (e-jyiJI). — The drinking of wine under 
 which all sorts of strong and inebriating liquors are com- 
 prehended, is strictly forbidden in the Qur'an (Suras ii. 
 210 ; V. 92, 93). The drinking of wine (^^1 ^j^), if it be 
 
 but a single drop, and drunkenness ( ^^ ) are both unlaw- 
 ful. In the beginning of Islam, wine was not prohibited ; 
 the Companions used to take it. If a Muslim drinks wine 
 and two witnesses testify to his having done so, stating 
 
 If there are any doubts, they must be mentioned and the transgressor 
 allowed the benefit of them. ^luhammad himself said : *' Endeavour to 
 prevent the execution of punishments by suggesting doubts whenever you 
 can do so." For unnatural crimes with beasts (L^^^ *IL.) the punish- 
 ment, whether of a man or a woman, is not • hadd,' but jvjo and is left to 
 the judgment of the Q4di. The beast is to be killed and burned. 
 
 For pederasty (yo 'd>.) the punishment is also u)«>, which is left to 
 the judgment of the Q&di. 
 
 J c 
 
 Onanism (aU.».w!>\). — This is considered unlawful. Some doctors say 
 
 it may bo excused under certain circumstances and may even become a 
 duty, if practised in order to escape from the sin of fornication. 
 
 Sodomy (l»\^). — This is to be punished. The question whether it will 
 
 bo allowed and practised in Paradise is one which has been seriously 
 discussed by learned dogmatists, some affirming, others denying it. 
 Certain dogmatists maintain that he who practises it, being of opinion 
 that it is not unlawful, does not thereby become an infidel. Unnatural 
 intercourse of women with each other (^-c h M ) is to bo punished by 
 one hundred stripes. 
 
 (3) False accusation of a married person of adultery or fornication 
 (vJjJlJ\). — When this is made against a virtuous married man or woman, 
 and cannot be proved by four trustworthy witnesses, he who thus brings a 
 false charge receives eighty lashes (Sura xxiv. 4). To accuse married 
 people of adultery is considered one of the great sins ; to accuse un- 
 married persons of this sin is considered as only one of the little sins. 
 This sin, not being considered as grievous as adultery, fornication, 
 drunkenness, the stripes are not to be applied to the naked body. The 
 culprit is allowed to keep on his underclothing. 
 
222 THE BELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 how and when and where, or if his breath smell of wine, 
 or if he confesses, or is found in a state of intoxication, his 
 punishment is eighty stripes, if a free man ; forty, if a slave. 
 The proof of a man's being drunk is his being unable to 
 distinguish between heaven and earth, a man and a woman, 
 or if he be confused in his speech. The use of opium and 
 
 hashish is unlawful (^j^il ^ Ln^s.^ Jull J^sl l<j^y 
 
 Theft (icif^). — Theft, according to Muslim law, is the 
 taking away of the property of another in a secret way 
 (Lla^) at a time when such property was in safe custody 
 
 (j :v i). Secresy is necessary to constitute theft, for 
 public robbery or open plunder is not theft. Custody ( J^) 
 is of two kinds : (1) place, i.e., house or shop ; and (2) by 
 personal guard, i,e., by means of a personal watch over 
 the property. If a Muslim adult of sound understanding 
 steals out of undoubted custody ten dirhems or property 
 to the value of ten dirhems, his punishment is the cutting 
 off of his hand (j,j,i] ^J-i" Sura v. 42). The punishment is 
 the same for a free man and a slave.^ 
 
 1 The theft must be proved by the testimony of two reliable witnesses, 
 \vho are to explain the manner, time and place of the theft. The thief 
 must be held in conJBnemeut on suspicion till the witnesses are fully 
 examined. If the owner of the stolen property should declare, even after 
 the thief 's confession and the pronouncing of the sentence by the Q4di, 
 that he had given the stolen property to him, the thief is set at liberty. 
 It is desirable to exhort him not to make any confession. If a party 
 commit a theft, and each receive ten dirhems, the hand of each is 
 to be cut off. For less than ten dirhems, or objects which were not m 
 custody, the punishment is not inflicted. If thieves make a hole in the 
 wall, and one of them inside put objects through this hole into the hands 
 of others who are outside, this cannot be considered theft, nor can a man 
 be punished for theft if, after having made a hole in the wall, he enters 
 the room and places the object he intends to take into the hole, then 
 comes out and carries them away from outside. 
 
- - ROBBERY. 223 
 
 Highway Robbery^ (^.j^^ ^Jas)- — This is considered 
 a very heinous ofifence, the punishment of which has 
 been thus fixed by the Qur'an (Sura v. 37) : " Tlie recom- 
 pense of those who war against God and His apostle, and 
 go about to enact violence in the earth, is that they be 
 slain or crucified or have their alternate hands and feet 
 cut ofif, or be banished from the land." * 
 
 Chastisement, Tazir (y>>)- — This designates in Mus- 
 lim law the infliction of a punishment for an offence, for 
 which no special punishment has been fixed in the Qur'an 
 
 I Highway robbers are of four kinds : (1) those who are seized before they 
 have robbed or murdered any person or put any person in fear : their 
 punishment is to be imprisoned till they repent or die ; (2) those who 
 have robbed, but have not murdered: these have their right hand and 
 loft foot struck off ; (3) those who have committed murder but have not 
 robbed : these are punished with death ; (4) those who have committed 
 both robbery and murder ; their punishment may be of six different kinds 
 at the option of the Im&m. He may cut off hand and foot, or have them 
 then put to death by the sword, or crucified, or kill them at once. The 
 same punishment is inflicted on freemen and slaves, men and women 
 (Dictionary of IsUm, 174). 
 
 * The right hand is to be cutoff at the joint of the wrist, and the stump 
 afterwards cauterized (^m,,^? ^ bM-^ ^^ j;l-J^ (;j->4^ cf^)' ^^^ *^^ 
 second theft, the left foot is cut off, and for any theft beyond that ho 
 mast suffer imprisonment, till he show signs of sincere repentance. 
 Besides suffering the punishment, the thief has to restore the stolen 
 object. (Dictionary of Islim, 284). 
 
 If the man accused of theft maintains — no proof is required of him— 
 that the stolen object is his property, or that he has received and 
 accepted it as a present (XfJfc), or mentions a circumstance, which makes 
 it doubtful whether the punishment ought to be inflicted, the sentence 
 (2^) cannot be carried out. 
 
 The punishment cannot be carried out if a man steals from the 
 public treasury, because everything there is the common property of all 
 Muslims in which the thief as a member of the community has a share. 
 
224 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 or the Traditions and which may, at the option of the 
 Imam, be punished in some other way.^ 
 
 Crimes, Offences, and Transgressions ci;IjU»-. — 
 These designate in Law certain acts committed to the 
 detriment of either property or life or members of the 
 body. In acts detrimental to property are included high- 
 way robbery, theft, etc., and in acts detrimental to life and 
 members of the body murder, manslaughter, injuring or 
 destroying members of the body sach as hand or eyes.' 
 
 1 .yt - w> J\ means to censure, to reprimand, to chastise. If the punish- 
 ment decreed by the Im4m is to consist in stripes, it may be three to 
 thirty-nine stripes Jju-j ; which may bo severe, as they are limited. 
 
 The Qur'an allows husbands to chastise their wives for the purpose of 
 correction and amendment (Siira iv. 38), 
 
 Chastisement is inflicted on a person who abuses a Muslim by calling 
 him a fornicator, an infidel, a thief, a Jew, a Christian, etc. 
 
 If the Im&m inflict either the Hadd punishment or merely Tazir on 
 a person and the same should die in consequence of such punishment, 
 his blood is lost (jli), *.^m H is not to be avenged ; and nothing in the shape 
 of a fine is due upon it (^jjfc £* dS c£\l^ JytA IL ^) ; it is homicide by 
 
 misadventure. It is different from the case of a husband who inflicts 
 chastisement on his wife, and in so doing kills her. A husband who 
 beats his wife cruelly is chastised for it. 
 
 If a woman apostatises from IsUra in order to be separated from her 
 husband, she is forced to return to Isldm, and receives seventy-five stripes 
 and may not marry another husband. 
 
 Various kinds and degrees of punishments and fines are inflicted for 
 these offences, viz., (1) Retaliation, Revenge, (^p\^ , Sj) ; (2) Price of 
 
 blood (&i^); (3) Expiation (g^U^) ; (4) Loss of inheritance (**:»j^^^U^); 
 - a " 
 
 2 Acts detrimental to life are : 
 
 (1) Wilful murder (jui^ JsX - ^x^ ^ - ,j>Jul\ ^), — Every act of 
 wilful murder of a person whose blood is under continual protection. 
 Muslim or Zimmi, subjects the person who commits the crime to the 
 fine of Qisds ^^^laS^j which consists in doing to the person who has 
 committed the crime the very same thing he has done to another 
 ( J*i U JjU JcUJ^ J«b ^^), i.e., shedding of blood for shedding of blood, 
 
. HOMICIDE. 225 
 
 hand for hand, tooth for tooth. The murderer deserves hell, (Sura iv. 
 94-95) and his punishment is the jus talionis according to Sura ii. 173, 
 "A free man to be slain for a free man, a slave for a slave, a woman for a 
 woman." A father however is not to be slain for the murder of his child, 
 but the child is to be slain for the murder of his parent. A master is 
 not to be slain for his slave. Retaliation is to be executed by the next of 
 kin with some metal weapon or sharp instrument, capable of inflicting 
 a mortal wound. The heir, or the next of kin to the murdered person, is 
 at liberty to forgive or to compound the offence. 
 
 (2) Manslaughter (x^jS\ &-i» J^), which is similar to wilful murder 
 (^L^\ &^ and x^\ ^Ls.). Killing with a rod or stick is only manslaughter, 
 as a rod and stick are not mortal weapons. The fine for manslaughter 
 is expiation and blood money, and the manslayer is excluded from in- 
 heriting the property of the slain (aIbLu ijj . 5jU£a5^ . ^JS^ ^««fy*). 
 
 (3) Homicide by misadventure (^Li^\ Asi) 
 
 (4) Homicide similar to the above (iL^^ Jii ^^U), for example, if a 
 man in his sleep falls upon another and kills him. 
 
 (5) Homicide by intermediate cause (sr<«<>>w J^) ^'9'* when a man 
 digs a ditch and sets up a stone and another falls into the ditch and the 
 stone kills him. 
 
 The punishment of retaliation is inflicted for the murder of every 
 person whose blood is perpetually (not temporarily only) protected, that 
 is, the Muslim and the fully protected Zimmi ; not the temporarily pro- 
 tected, or the enemy, on condition of the slayer being a fully responsible 
 person and there being no doubt ; but if a thief enters a house, and the 
 owner of the house runs after him and kills him, he is not subject to 
 retaliation, nor is he who kills an outlaw a robber, a drunkard, subject 
 to it either. If a person deserving death takes refuge in a sanctuary, 
 he is not to be killed there ; but no food is to be supplied to him, and 
 when he comes out of the sanctuary he is to be killed. 
 
 Retaliation for acts of less vital importance y.JLJ\ ^^j U-J oyjJ\ is 
 to be observed as much as circumstances allow that is, hand for hand, 
 foot for foot. If a member which is to be cut off in retaliation be defec- 
 tive, a compensation {yJ»M may be accepted. 
 
 Retaliation may be commuted for a sum of money (&j»<3 pi. v&>V.o). The 
 term jitA used commonly for the fine inflicted for injury or destruction 
 of part of the body, is sometimes also used as synonymous to djo. Where 
 compensation is offered, it is desirable to accept it. The sum paid for the 
 murdered person is a matter to be settled between the parties. The fine 
 
 29 
 
226 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 due for manslaughter consists of one hundred female camels, to be de- 
 livered in the course of three years, or ten thousand dirhems (silver) or 
 one thousand dinars (gold). If camels are required it is called ' the heavy 
 fine' AkLu3\d>jkJ^. 
 
 The Expiation (LU^xJ\) due for manslaughter and homicide is the 
 liberation of a believing slave by which it differs from expiation due in 
 other cases : if the slayer be unable to do this, he may fast two consecu- 
 tive months. The price of blood for a woman is half of that due for 
 a man. 
 
 Swearing an oath with regard to a murdered person is done when the 
 body of a dead man, on whom wounds are seen which indicate his having 
 been killed, is found, and his near relatives suspect the people of the place 
 of having killed him and they deny it. Then fifty of them have to swear 
 an oath by God that they have neither killed him, nor have any know- 
 ledge concerning the person who killed him. If the prosecutor has strong 
 proofs that the people of the place have killed him, or know the murderer, 
 he has to swear an oath to that effect. If the corpse be found between 
 two villages, the nearest is responsible. 
 
 The legal term used to designate the price of blood is S\Sju». It is so 
 called because it is intended to prevent the shedding of blood. The term 
 l\i\st designates the assembly of the relatives or, in certain cases, the 
 corporation or guild who are responsible for the payment of the price of 
 blood or any other fines, 
 
 ( JsaJ^ ^j.Ju^ ^£.^^^ djo J.^ f^^Ac^ ^-r^s^i - oV*^^ J*^ ^ dliUJ^) 
 Compensation may be given for inflicting wounds on the head and 
 face. These wounds may be of different kinds : mere scratches or such 
 as cause the blood to come in drops but not to flow ; or, a scratch which 
 causes the blood to flow freely ; or a cut through the skin merely ; or a 
 woimd which lays bare the bone ; or a fracture of the skull ; or a fracture 
 which causes the removal of part of the skull ; or a wound extending 
 to the brain. No retaliation is due for such wounds, but various fines are 
 inflicted. A Muslim is not to be killed for an unbeliever. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE SECTS OF ISLAM. 
 
 Muhammad predicted that his followers would be 
 divided into numerous religious sects. According to a 
 tradition recorded by 'Abdu'llah Ibn 'Umar, he said : 
 •* Verily it will happen to my people even as it did to the 
 children of Israel. The children of Israel were divided 
 into seventy-two sects, and my people will be divided 
 into seventy- three." 
 
 The Muslims, at the time of Muhammad's death, are 
 said to have been all one in matters of belief and practice. 
 There existed no differences between them, excluding 
 those who were hypocrites professing IsUm outwardly 
 and opposing it secretly. Afterwards differences arose 
 between the true followers of the Prophet ; but only on 
 subjects of minor importance which did not affect the 
 faith or salvation. On these unimportant matters every 
 one was at liberty to adopt what opinion seemed prefer- 
 able to him. 
 
 Towards the end of the period of the Companions 
 of the Prophet, serious differences on more weighty sub- 
 jects began to arise, especially when Ma'badu'l Jahani, 
 Ghulanu'd Dimishqe and Yunasu'l Aswari rose and op- 
 posed the doctrine of Predestination, and from that 
 time a variety of additional conflicting opinion was set 
 
228 THE EELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 up and discussed, and differences multixDlied, till at last 
 the Muslim nation became divided into seventy-three 
 sects. (Sharastani i. 4). The chief subjects on which 
 these sects differed from the orthodox school and among 
 themselves are the following : 
 
 (1) The Attributes of God and His unity L'i] iij^cUll 
 
 On these points, differences of opinion existed between 
 the Ash*ariyya, the Mujassima and the Mu'tazila. 
 
 (2) Predestination and God's Justice (Jj^^* jSslW) 
 
 Differences of opinion on these points existed between 
 the Qadariyya, the Nejjariyya, the Zabariyya, the Ash- 
 *ariyya and the Karramiyya. 
 
 (3) God's Promises and Threats sz^) jcaIIa)] iJiXcUl] 
 
 (4) Kevelation, Eeason, the Apostleship and the Imam- 
 ate J^!iLAS a^ iuLjil^ ^L^.1)^ JiUl'^ ^/c***!' i;«j|.il iJja:U)) 
 *^.a*ll^ «— aklJlj J^-*^^^ ^W^ ^:fJ^*J^'^ ^ J^>**ci>Jki I Jil***^ ^Jlc 
 
 Shahrastani i. 4. . L<[Ji] laJL^ ^ jijujdl 3 
 Ibn Ahmadu'l Iji (j<AOjil)' the author of Sharhu'l 
 
 Mawaqif, divides the Muslim sects into eight classes : 
 (1) The Mu'tazila, (2) the Shi'ah, (3) the Khawarij, 
 
 (4) the Murjia, (5) the Nijjariyya, (6) the Zabariyya, (7) 
 
 the Mushabbiha, (8) the Najia (the saved). 
 
THE MU'TAZILA. 229 
 
 1. The Mu'tazila (^Jxxk^)) were the followers of Wasil 
 
 bin *Ata' (p^^ ^^ J^)j)> who was born at Madina a.h. 80. 
 The circumstances of his becoming the founder of this 
 sect are thus related : " Hasanu'l-Basri, a famous divine, 
 was one day seated in a mosque at Basra when a discus- 
 sion arose on the question whether a believer who com- 
 mitted a mortal sin became thereby an unbeliever. The 
 Khawarij affirmed that it was so, while the orthodox 
 denied it. On being asked to give a decision on this 
 question, Hasanu'l-Basri began to revolve the matter in 
 his mind, but before he had time to give an answer, Wasil, 
 one of his followers, rose up and said : * I maintain that 
 a Muslim who has committed a mortal sin should be 
 regarded neither as a believer nor an unbeliever, but as 
 occupying a middle station between the two.' ^^£=i5^ J^) 
 
 (^^jlil^JujJI He then retired to another part of the Mosque 
 
 where he was joined by a number of his friends to whom 
 he explained his opinion on the subject. Thereupon 
 Hasanu'l-Basri said : * Wasil has now separated from us ' 
 (J^l^ 'Jb JjicI) and they were then called Mu'tazila, 
 or Separatists and Seceders. They were emphatically 
 the liberal party, and the freethinkers or rationalists of 
 IsI4m (Shahrastani i. 29). They are also known as the 
 Qadariyya (ijt .jjill), because they ascribed the actions of 
 men to their own power {^^j^yi ^1 jU*)) Jaol ^*j'juj^) 
 
 and denied their being decreed by God (^jj .cXiill ^^j^x:) i 
 and also as the Men of justice and of the Unity of God 
 
 (ja>-yill^ JjoJl i--)Uw^')' ^^ ^^®y ^i^Jii^d the existence 
 of eternal attributes in God they were also called the 
 
 'deprivers,' the Mu'attila (idLxxJl Shahrastani i. 29-31; 
 
230 THE RELIGION OF ISLIm. 
 
 Sale, 113). The Mu'atazila are sub-divided into twenty 
 sub-divisions, holding the general opinions of the sect 
 but separating on various points. The curious vv^ill find 
 a list of these various sects together with a description 
 of their peculiar tenets in Shahrastani, Mawaqif 620 
 ct seqq, and a summary of the same in Sale's Prelimi- 
 nary Discourse. 
 
 1. The Shi'ah Sect hckJuW — This name comes from 
 ^l^ from *-A^^ to follow, to conform with, to obey, and 
 
 means party, partisans, followers, because they are the 
 followers of 'Ali, the cousin of Muhammad, and husband 
 of his only daughter Fatima. He is considered to be the 
 lawful Khalif and Imam after Muhammad. It is also 
 held that the Imamate belonged by divine declaration 
 and the command of the prophet (^Xo^ ^ Lsi) to him and 
 his descendants. (Ibn Khaldun i. 164 et seqq). The 
 Shi'ahs are divided into twenty-two divisions, each de- 
 claring the others to be infidels. The chief sub-divisions 
 are : (1) the Ghalia (^Allill) that is i$)U!l or zealots, fana- 
 tics (from 2li to exceed the bounds, to over do, exagge- 
 rate) ; (2^ the Zaidiyya and (3) the Imamiyya. The 
 Ghalia exceeded all bounds in their veneration for their 
 Imams and raised them above created beings and attri- 
 buted divine properties to some of them. Sometimes they 
 made them like God, and sometimes made God like man 
 
 (Ibn Khaldun i. 165). _ J^lJ'j 
 
 " These ideas, says Shahrastani, they borrowed partly 
 
 from those who believe in metempsychosis (^JwcJill), and 
 
 partly from Jews and from Christians. The Persians 
 and many of the Muslims of India are Shi'ahs. 
 
THE KHAWARIJ. 231 
 
 For a list of the Shi'ah sects and their special tenets 
 see Shahrastani i. 13*2 et seqq. Mawaqif 624 et seqq. 
 
 3. The Khawarij (^;'^1)- — They are termed the 
 
 rebels, revolters. Every one who rebels against the Imam, 
 lawfully appointed by the Muslim nation, is called a 
 Khawarij, whether it be in the days of the * Companions ' 
 against the first Khalifs, the ' rightly directed Imims', 
 (^^juiUI JLcjjfl) or at a later period. 
 
 The first who were called Khawarij were 12,000 men 
 who revolted from *Ali, after they had fought under him 
 at the battle of Siftin, and took offence at his submitting 
 the decision of his right to the Khalifate to the arbitra- 
 tion of men. when in their opinion it ought to have been 
 submitted to the judgment of God. There are twenty, 
 more or less important, sub-divisions of this sect. (Shah- 
 rastani i. 85 ; Mawaqif 629-631 ; Dictionary of Islam 270.) 
 
 4. The MurjIa, H».^1 or jud.y?>— The word ^U.^1 has 
 two meanings : (1) ^i-Ull to delay, put off, postpone ; (2) to 
 cause to hope, to give occasion to hope. Some, therefore, 
 
 say that this sect is called 'JJ^J> from jU^.I to postpone, 
 defer, delay, because the subordinate works to intention, 
 i.e.f esteem works to be inferior to intention (JuJi) and 
 profession of the faith (j'Jujc^I ^^ ^ ^ill ^c Jl<wJ1 ^j;^i»-^j»)i 
 others again say that they are so called because they hold 
 that the judgment of the believer who has committed 
 mortal sin will be deferred till the resurrection ; others 
 again think that they are so called from Msi^ . (to hope), 
 because they allow hope by asserting that "disobedience 
 joined with faith hurteth not " (juum^ J^^^ «-^ /^. ^) 
 Shahrastdnl i. 103 ; Mawdqif 631 ; Sale 122 ; Dictionary of 
 IslAm 421). This sect is divided into five sub-divisions. 
 
282 THE RELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 5. The Nijjariyya io^l^l.— These are the followers 
 of Muhammad-binu'l-Husainn'n-Nejjar. The greater part 
 the Mu'tazila adhered to his doctrine. They were sub- 
 divided into three divisions (Shahrastani i. 61). 
 
 6. The Jabariyya (L ji^I). — This word comes from 
 
 ^j^ to compel, to force, and is so called because they 
 
 hold that God compels man to act as he does, and are 
 consequently the firm opponents of the Qadariyya who 
 
 hold the doctrine of free-will (ijl !) ja*il J*i SS^\ ^acsjI')- 
 There are various divisions of this sect : such as the pure 
 Jabariyya (i^'^1 h;^-?^^) ^^^ middle, moderate Jabariyya 
 (^^\ hjj^\) (Shahrastani i. 59 ; Sale 121, 122). 
 
 7. The Mushabbiha (ic^^lxxll, or Assimilators). — They 
 allowed a resemblance between God and his creatures, 
 supposing Him to be a body (^v*si-), composed of members, 
 
 and capable of motion. There are various sub-divisions 
 of this sect. 
 
 The abovementioned are what the orthodox call the 
 erring sects (2'wi!) Jf^^) and of which Muhammad is re- 
 ported to have said : " they are all in hell " ( .Uil ^ M^^)- 
 
 These all hav.e ceased to exist as distinct sects, except 
 the Shi'ah. 
 
 8. The Ash'ariyya Asha'ira (L^-i!il - iLcUl). — 
 They are the followers of Abu'-l-Hasan 'Ali Ibn Ism'ail al 
 Ash'ari (^^^^1 Jj.«.c^I ^i] ^.c ^j;***cs>1^^j1). The men of 
 the orthodox school, the people of the Tradition and 
 Sunna are included in them. They are called the " Sects 
 which will be saved," (IaswIaII ^jk\\)y and it is reported 
 that they are the men of whom Muhammad said ; " They 
 
ST^TFilSM. 233 
 
 are the men who are of my and of my Companions' reli- 
 gion " (^Uy^l ^ juJlc lil U Ic ^^^ jJI ^). They hold none 
 of the * heresies * (cJ^/) of the other sects.* 
 
 SuFiiSM uJj^i — From the earliest days of Islam 
 there has existed among the Muslims a kind of mysticism 
 called uJjjloit)], Siifiism. Those who adopted the princi- 
 ples of this system were called Siifis 'iyc (pi. XXi^) 
 
 or i^^JjJo (pi. JujpoLo). There are various opinions as 
 to the derivation of this word. Some say it is derived 
 from cJ^, wool, because the people adhering to this 
 system are said to have worn the humble dress of wool 
 (Ibn Khaldiin i. 390). This opinion is rejected by others, 
 because they say that they were not the only people 
 who used to wear wool (x-ijkb 1j:aU^ J ^^) > others 
 derive it from pU^ purity or, from aoijiia wisdom. 
 Siifiism in the days of the early Muslims consisted in 
 spending one's time in pious exercises, entirely de- 
 voting oneself to the service of God, renouncing the 
 pomp and vanities of the world, fleeing pleasures 
 and amusements, despising riches and honours and re- 
 tiring from the society of men in order to spend one's 
 life in seclusion and acts of devotion. Many of the 
 Companions of the Prophet and early Muslims used to 
 lead such a life of abstinence. Siifiism as it has deve- 
 loped in the course of time is, according to learned 
 Orientalists, mainly borrowed from Indian philoso- 
 phers of the Vedanta School. Its chief doctrines are 
 that the souls of men differ in degree, but not in kind 
 from the Divine Spirit, of which they are emanations, 
 
 I MawAqif 633-G34 ; Shahrastdni i. 65-67 ; Sale 117 ; Dictionary of 
 Isl&m, 24. ShahrasUni in his Book of the Religious and Philosophical 
 Sects ( JW 4 Ji^) gives a somewhat different list of these various sects. 
 
234 THE EELIGION OF ISLAm. 
 
 and to which they will ultimately return ; that the 
 Spirit of God is in all He has made, and it in Him ; 
 that He alone is perfect love, and beauty, and that 
 hence love to Him is the only real thing and all be- 
 sides is mere illusion ; that this present life is one of 
 separation from the Beloved ; that the beauties of na- 
 ture, music and art revive in man the divine idea and 
 recall his affections from wandering from God to other 
 objects. They, therefore, taught that man must cherish 
 these sublime affections, and by abstraction concen- 
 trate his thoughts on God and so approximate to His 
 essence, and thus reach the highest state of bliss — ab- 
 sorption into the Eternal. They hold that the true 
 end and object of human life is to lose all conscious- 
 ness of individual existence — to sink in the Ocean; of 
 Divine Life "as a breaking bubble is merged into the 
 stream, on the surface of which it has for a moment 
 risen." 
 
 Bayazidu'l-Bastami said he was a sea without bottom, 
 without beginning and without end, that he was the 
 throne of God, that he was Abraham, Moses, Jesus. 
 He also said: "I am the true God, praise me." To- 
 wards the close of the second century of the Hijra, 
 al Hallaj (^^iUJl)' one of the chiefs of Siifiism taught 
 at Baghdad thus : ** I am the truth, there is nought in 
 Paradise but God. I am He whom I love, and He 
 whom is love is I ; we are two souls dwelling in one 
 body." This roused the opposition of the orthodox by 
 whom al Hallaj was condemned as worthy of death. 
 By order of the Khalif he was flogged, tortured and 
 finally beheaded ; but Sufiism grew in spite of bitter 
 persecution.* 
 
 1 See Tholuck's Suffsmus, Brown's Darwishes, Palmers', Oriental Mys- 
 ticism, 'Abdu-r-Razz4q's Dictionary of the technical terms of the Sufis, 
 
THE WAHHABBIS. 235 
 
 The Sufis are divided into innumerable sects which 
 find expression in the numerous Orders of Dar wishes. 
 Though they differ in name, customs, dress, meditations 
 and recitations (j^j ) ; yet they all agree in the prin- 
 cipal tenets, especially those which inculcate the ab- 
 solute necessity of blind submission to the Murshid 
 (jJi^l), the leader, or instructor or guide. 
 
 Some of the chief Orders of Darwishes are : 
 
 The Bastdmiyya founded by Bayazid Bastami a.h. 
 261 ; the Qadiriyya founded by *Abdu'-l-Qadir Jilani at 
 Baghdad a.h. 561 ; the Rufd'iyya founded by Sayyid 
 Ahmad Rufi'i at Baghdad a.h. 576 ; the Shazaliyya 
 founded by Ab'u-1-Hasan (Mecca) a.h. 665 ; the MauU- 
 wiyya founded by Jalalu'd-din Eiimi a.h. 672; the 
 Bedawiyya founded by Abu'-l-Jitan Ahmad a.h. 675.* 
 
 The Wahhabis, jJ^'i^l —The founder of this sect was 
 Muhammad Ibn 'Abdu'l-Wahhdb (v_j'i^l joc) who was 
 bom at Ayenah in Nejd (A.u. 1691). After having 
 received careful instruction in the doctrines of Islam 
 according to the Hanbali rite and after visiting Mecca, 
 Basra and Baghdad, he resided with his father at Hor- 
 omelah, but after his father's death he returned to 
 his native village Ayfnah, where he assumed the posi- 
 tion of a religious teacher. He was convinced by 
 what he had observed on his journeys of the laxities 
 and superstitions of the Muslims that they had widely 
 departed from the strict principles of Islam, and that 
 a return to the primitive teaching of their religion was 
 required. The use of omens and augurals, the vene- 
 ration of sacred shrines and the tombs of saints, the 
 
 published by Dr. Sprenger in Calcutta, 1846. Dictionary of Isldm, 608. 
 Sell's Faith of IsUm, 2nd Edition, 106 et seqq. 
 
 1 See a very full account in Sell's Essays on IslAm, chapter on Religious 
 Orders of Isldm. 
 
236 THE EBLIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 use of intoxicating drugs, the wearing of silk and satin 
 and all sorts of luxury which had found favour in the 
 Muslim world were all opposed to the principles of 
 true religion, and Islam must be purged of these idola- 
 trous practices ; 'Abdu'l-Wahhab then determined to 
 become the reformer of this corrupt Islam and to 
 restore it to its early purity in conformity with the 
 teachings of the Qur'an, the example of the Prophet 
 and the practice of the Companions and early Muslims. 
 His teaching met with the acceptance of many, but 
 it also raised the enmity of others, especially the ruler 
 of the district, and compelled him to flee to Deraiah, 
 where he obtained the protection of Muhammad ibn 
 Sa*ud, a chief of considerable influence, who himself 
 embraced Wahhabism, and who, by marrying the 
 daughter of Muhammad ibn Wahhab, still further 
 united the interests of his own family with that of 
 the reformer and became the founder of the Wahhabi 
 dynasty, which to this day rules at Eyadh. 'Abdu'-l- 
 *Aziz, the son of this marriage, after his father's death 
 A.D. 1765, led the Wahhabi army to victory and pushed 
 his conquests to the remotest corners of Arabia, de- 
 stroying on his way the shrines of saints and every- 
 thing he considered unlawful. In 1803 he was murder- 
 ed by a Persian fanatic, but his eldest son, Sa'ud, be- 
 came the great champion of the reformed doctrines. He 
 conquered Karbala, the famous place of pilgrimage of 
 the Shi^ahs, as well as Mecca, and at both places de- 
 stroyed every vestige of idolatry. For nine years the 
 Wahhabi rule existed at Mecca and Madina, but after 
 this period they were driven out by the Turkish forces. 
 Upon the death of Sa'ud (a.d. 1814) 'Abdu'lUh became 
 the leader of the Faithful, but met with a series of re- 
 verses, and at last was taken prisoner by Ibrahim Pasha. 
 He was sent to Constantinople and there executed in 
 
THE DRUZES. 237 
 
 the public square of St. Sophia, a.d. 1818. Turki, the 
 son of 'Abdu'lldh, fled to Kyadh, where he was assas- 
 sinated. Faizul succeeded his father in a.d. 1830, and 
 established the Wahhabi rule in Eastern Arabia, mak- 
 ing Riadh the capital of his kingdom. Faizul died in 
 A.D. 1866 and was succeeded by his son 'Abdu'llah. 
 The Wahhabis speak of themselves as the Unita- 
 rians (^jii^j^) and call all other Muslims polytheists 
 
 c 
 
 (^^j^') They also reject the decisions of the four 
 orthodox Schools and the Ijma*, after the death of the 
 Companions of the Prophet.* 
 
 The Druzes UjJ^\ — The Druzes are a sect which 
 arose about the beginning of the eleventh century in 
 the mountains of Syria. The founder of the religious 
 system of this sect was the fanatical and cruel Khalif 
 al Hakim bi-amr-illih of the FAtimite dynasty in Egypt. 
 He affirmed that he was the representative of God 
 and the latest of His manifestations and incarnations. 
 In 407 A.H. (a.d. 1029) this was publicly announced 
 at Cairo, and his chief helpers were two Persians : 
 Hamza and Darazi, from the latter of whom the sect 
 derives its name. The new revelation was, however, 
 unfavourably received by the people and Darizi nar- 
 rowly escaped being killed by the mob. Retiring to 
 the fastnesses of Mount Lebanon, he there began to 
 spread the new faith. The chief tenets of this sect 
 are: Belief in one God; that God has shown Himself 
 at different epochs under a human form ; that the last 
 manifestation and incarnation of the Divinity was in 
 
 1 For details on these sects and their peculiar tenets see Burkhard's 
 Bedouins and VVahh&bis ; Bridge's Brief History of the Wahh&bis ; Pal- 
 grave's Central and Eastern Arabia, Dictionary of IsWm, G59 et seqq ; 
 Sell's Faith of Islim, 162-164. 
 
238 THE BELIGION OF ISLAM. 
 
 Hakim bi-amr-illah ; that the latter disappeared in 
 411 A.H. to try the faith of his disciples, but that in a 
 short time he will appear again in full glory to set up 
 his kingdom and triumph over all his enemies.* 
 
 The BabIs. — Alhough the Babis are not a Muslim 
 sect, yet they have arisen on Muslim ground, and their 
 opinions are closely connected with the Shi'ahs concern- 
 ing the Imam ate and they share the mystical mode of 
 thought of the Siifis. Thousands of Shi'ahs in Persia 
 have joined the movement and suffered cruel persecu- 
 tions in consequence. It may, therefore, be useful to 
 offer a few observations on their origin, development and 
 their peculiar opinions. 
 
 'Abdu'-l-Kasim (Al Mahdi) the twelfth Imam disap- 
 peared in the year 329 a.h., but for a period of sixty- 
 nine years he is said to have held intercourse with his 
 followers through a successive number of men, who were 
 called ' Doors ' (^'o) or mediums of communication. 
 
 Abii'l Hasan, the last of these Doors, refused to ap- 
 point a successor, saying that '* God hath a purpose 
 which He will accomplish." Many centuries passed by, 
 and it was not until the beginning of the present one 
 that this curious theory of intermediaries between the 
 concealed Imam and the faithful again took a definite 
 shape. 
 
 Shaikh Ahmed (a.d. 1753—1826) the founder of the 
 Shaikhi sect was a devout ascetic. He had a profound 
 belief in 'Ali and was devoted to the memory of the true 
 Imams, whom he looked upon as creative forces, argu- 
 ing from the words: " God the best of creators" (Sura 
 xxiii. 14) that, if He be the best. He cannot be the only 
 
 1 For full details refer to DeSacy's Expose de la Religion des Druzes, 
 Wartabet's Researches into the Religions of Syria and Sell's Essays on 
 IsUm, chapter, " The Khalif Hdkfm and the Druzes." 
 
THE BABis. 239 
 
 one. The special point of his teaching was that God is 
 immanent in the universe which proceeds from Him and 
 that all the elect of God, the Imams and just persons, 
 are personifications of the divine attributes. 
 
 Shaikh Ahmad was succeeded by Haji Seyyed Kazim 
 (a.d. 1843) who left no successor. After fastings, vigils 
 and prayers for guidance, the Shaikhis began to con- 
 sider what was to be done in the matter of a spiritual 
 director. Mulla Husain proceeded to Shiraz and there 
 met with Mirzi *Ali Muhammad who produced before 
 him the sign of his call to the divine mission. After 
 a long and severe struggle Mulld Husain became con- 
 vinced that he had found in the young and ardent 
 enthusiast before him the ' True One,' the ' Illumi- 
 nated One ' and that he was worthy to be their Murshid. 
 Mfrzi 'AH Muhammad was born at Shirdz (1820 a.d.) 
 After having studied, meditated, and led an austere life 
 till he was about twenty-four years of age, he an- 
 nounced himself as a duly authorized teacher and 
 guide and assumed the title of the Bib, declaring that 
 whosoever wished to approach God must do it through 
 him. From being the Bab and mediator, he, after a 
 time, proceeded to pretend that he was the Point or 
 originator of the Truth, a divine appearance, a powerful 
 manifestation. Notwithstanding the opposition of a 
 number of Mullds, crowds of people, among whom 
 there were learned men also, followed him and became 
 his disciples. Later on an examination took place, 
 after which he was kept in confinement. The most 
 zealous at the time was Quratu'l *Ayn, a most beau- 
 tiful, intelligent and eloquent woman, who travelled 
 about everywhere and made converts to Babism. In 
 1848 Nasru'd-dfn, the Shah of Persia, severely per- 
 secuted the Bdbfs and put the Bdb himself to death. 
 A Persian author says of the Bdb : " He spoke with 
 
240 THE RELIGION OF ISLAm. 
 
 much earnestness on the necessity of religious and 
 
 social reform in Persia we neither consider him an 
 
 adventurer nor a fanatic, but an eminently moral man, 
 a dreamer, brought up in the school of the Shaikhis and 
 possessing some touch of Christianity. We regard him 
 also as a man troubled by the direct influence of some of 
 his devoted and ambitious disciples." In 1852 an attempt 
 was made by some Babis to assassinate the Shah, and 
 the consequence was bitter persecution of the sect. The 
 most awful persecutions, however, gave only fresh vigour 
 and vitality to the movement. It is said that half a 
 million of Persians are Babis, others consider their num- 
 ber nearer to one million. " They are to be found in 
 every walk of life, from the ministers and nobles of 
 the Court to the scavenger or groom." 
 
 After the death of the Bab, Mirza Yahya and his 
 half-brother Beha-ullah became the leaders of the two 
 sects, into which the Babis are now divided : the Ezelis 
 and the Behais. There seems to be no doubt that the 
 Bab nominated (1849) the former, whom he named Subh- 
 i-Ezel (Morning of Eternity), as his successor and for 
 a short time he really held the undisputed position as 
 head of the Bdbi community. 
 
 The Persian government, at last, prevailed on the 
 Turkish authorities (1863-1864) to deport the two heads 
 of the Babi sect to Constantinople. The influence of 
 Beha gradually increased, till he at last claimed to be 
 the person to whom the Bab had referred as "Him 
 whom God shall manifest." The two leaders were 
 ultimately separated : Beha and his followers were 
 exiled to Akka ; Mirza was sent to Famgusta in Cyprus. 
 
 The Babi doctrines are to be found in the writings 
 of the Bab called the Beyan. Many of the dogmas are 
 very mystical, but the following is a brief summary : 
 God is eternal and unapproachable. All things come 
 
THE bAbis. 241 
 
 from Him and exist by Him. Man cannot approach 
 him, except through some appointed medium. So, dis- 
 tinct from God, there is a * Primal Will ' who became 
 incarnate in the prophets. The Bab came to perfect 
 the Law of Christ. Some say that he is Christ re- 
 turned again on earth. The Primal Will, which spoke 
 in Adam, Noah, Moses, David,- Jesus, and Muhammad, 
 now speaks through the Bdb, and * Him whom God shall 
 manifest,* and after him through others, for there is no 
 cessation of the divine manifestation. The Jews were 
 told to expect the Messiah, but they rejected him ; 
 the Christians were to expect Muhammad, but they 
 did not accept him ; the Muhammadans are taught to 
 look out for the Imam Mahdi ; now he has come 
 in the Bib, they persecute him. Bdbism is now a 
 dispensation which has superseded Islam. The great 
 Teacher is one ; but he manifests himself in different 
 dispensations, according to the needs and the capacity 
 of those to whom the dispensation comes. 
 
 A good many changes were introduced in the Mus- 
 lim ceremonies. Prayers are said three times a day, 
 instead of five, the worshipper does not turn towards 
 Mecca as his Qibla, the fast of Kamaddn is not kept; 
 the traffic in slaves is forbidden, the holy war is abo- 
 lished and fiiendly intercourse with all sects is enjoined. 
 Bdbism is thus a revolt against orthodox Isldm.^ 
 
 » Sell's Essays on Isldm, pp. 46-98. See also New History of the Bdb 
 by E. G. Browne, p. 299 et seqq. 
 
LOAN DEPT. 
 
 u loci- riate stamped below, or 
 
 LD 2lA-40m-4;63 
 (D6471slO)4<6B 
 
 General library 
 UnivSsity of California 
 
 Berkeley 
 
BP 
 
 K"^ 
 
 VNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY